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<>■■ ■.:^-
An introduction to
the geology of Cape Colony
Arthur William Rogers, R. Broom
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AN INTEODUCTION
TO THE
GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
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AN INTRODUCTION
GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
A. W. ROGERS, M.A., P.G.S.
DIKECTOR OP THE GEOrX)OICAL SURVEY OP CAPE COLONY
WITH A CHAPTER
ON THE
FOSSIL REPTILES OF THE KABBOO FORMATION
BY
PROF. R. BROOM, M.D., B.Sc, C.M.Z.S.
OF VICTORIA OOLLBGB, 8TSLLBNBO0CH
WITH ILLUSTRATIONS AND COLOURED MAP
LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.
39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON
NEW YORK AND BOMBAY
1905
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...c
GCCI.OCiCAI.SCiEiNCES
L!::AAivY
NOV r6' 1984
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PREFACE.
A GENERAL account of the Geology of Cape
Colony has long been wanted. The best descrip-
tion yet published is that of the late Professor
A. H. Green, '* A Contribution to the Geology
and Physical Geography of the Cape Colony,"
which appeared in the Quarterlp Journal qf the
Geological Society of London for 1888. This
essay is not so difficult to obtain as many other
papers published in English or foreign journals,
but in some respects it is now known to be in-
accurate, and it is of course very incomplete.
In 1895 the Cape Government appointed the
Geological Commission for the purpose of or-
ganising a Geological Survey of the Colony.
The Survey thus established commenced work
in 1896, and though its work is still very far
from being complete, even as regards the filling
up of the inadequate maps that are at present
the only available ones for the purpose, yet
sufficient information has been collected to
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vi PREFACE
decide many disputed points concerning the
fundamental structure of the country, and to
enable one to bring the observations of earlier
writers on areas that have not been systemat-
ically surveyed into harmony with the results
obtained. When, therefore, the publishers, on
the initiative of Dr. Muir, the Superintendent-
General of Education, asked me to undertake
the compilation of a geological description of
the Colony I agreed to do so, with the consent
of the Geological Commission. This work is the
first of a series designed by Dr. Muir to promote
the study of Natural Science in South Africa.
The chief object of this book is to help
students and other people in the Colony to un-
dersUnd the structure of their country and to
pursue the subject for themselves. I have, how-
ever, taken it for granted that the reader has
an elementary knowledge of Geology. There
are so many excellent introductory text-books
on the principles of the science that it would
have been superfluous for me to attempt to
combine with this description of Cape Geology
what has been well done by others.
The following description is necessarily in-
complete, for large areas in the Colony, including
the whole of the country north of the Orange
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PREFACE vii
River and immense tracts in the north-western,
midland, and eastern districts have not yet been
surveyed, and nothing more than the broad
outlines of their Geology is known. I have
naturally devoted most space to those parts of
the Colony that are best known geologically.
The earliest comprehensive geological map
of the Colony is that of A. G. Bain (1856),
who was a self-trained observer of great ability.
His map is at once a proof of his grasp of the
structure of the country and a most remarkable
work for one man to have accomplished. Other
men who were closely concerned in laying the
foundations of Cape Geology were Dr. W. G.
Atherstone, A. Wyley, G. W. Stow, and E. J.
Dunn. A full account of the development of
opinion on the more important geological features
has been written by Dr. G. S. Corstorphine, under
whose direction the Survey was carried on during
the first six and a half years of its existence ;
it will be found in the Annual Report of the
Commission for 1897.
In an appendix I have given the titles and
dates of papers referred to in the footnotes and
made use of in preparing this book. The
numbers in brackets after authors* names in the
footnotes refer to the year of publication, but in
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vui PREFACE
the case of the Anaual Reports of the Geological
Commission the number indicates the year on
the work of which the Report was written, for
the Annual Reports have not appeared regularly.
I especially wish to draw attention to the pub-
lication of descriptions and figures of Cape fossils
in the Annals qf the South African Museum,
The plants of the Karroo and Uitenhage for-
mations, and many of the Bokkeveld fossils have
already been dealt with.
There can be few countries whose geological
structure has had such an obviously direct in-
fluence upon the form of the present surface as
is the case in this Colony. The thick soils and
rich vegetation, which in more humid climates
may be the chief compensation for the lack of
facility for the study of Physical Geology, rarely
seriously interfere with geological investigation
in Cape Colony, though there are parts of oiu*
country that may be compared with any in the
world in respect of beauty due to vegetation
and form combined. Physical geography can
be made a very good means of education, and
there are few towns or villages in the Colony
where a teacher with a knowledge of the subject
cannot find striking examples of many important
principles within reach of an afternoon's walk.
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PREFACE ix
Encouragement given to pupils to form collec-
tions from the neighbourhood is at once the
means of their instruction and pleasure, and
discoveries of both scientific and practical value
may also be the result.
It may be well to point out here that a geo-
logical specimen loses at least the greater part
of its value and interest in the absence of a
record of the locality whence it came, and also
that when a large fossil, e.g., a reptilian skeleton
in the Karroo formation, is found, it is better
to leave it in the rock till some one who under-
stands such things can get it out than to carry
away part of it. The partial removal of skeletons
has been the cause of great confusion in certain
cases, even to the extent of being the cause of
two or more generic names for diflFerent parts
of one species. Should there be no suitable pro-
vision for the preservation of fossils in a local
museum they should be sent to the public
collections, such as the South African Museum,
Cape Town, where they will be made good use
of. Any available information concerning fossils
or rocks can be obtained there. ^
^ It may not be out of place to mention that boxes or other parcels
of fossils and other natural history specimens addressed to the
Directors of the Public Museums are carried free on the Cape Govern-
ment railways.
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X PREFACE
I have much pleasure in thanking Professor
Broom of Stellenbosch for assistance regarding
the names of the reptilian fossils, and for his
chapter on the reptiles of the Karroo formation ;
Mr. F. L. Kitchin, of H. M. Geological Survey,
has kindly given me the correct names of the
Uitenhage and Pondoland marine fossils and
notes on their relationship to foreign Cretaceous
faunas ; and lastly my best thanks are due to
my colleague, Mr. E. H. L. Schwarz, who has
made many and valuable suggestions during the
preparation of this work, and who gave me the
photographs reproduced on Plates vi., xix. and
XX., and the notes on the Geology of the Ros-
mead-Port Elizabeth and Willowmore lines. So
much of the field work upon which this account
chiefly depends has been done by Mr. Schwarz,
and so intimately have we been associated in the
Geological Survey of the Colony during the past
eight years, that the credit of any advance upon
previous views on Cape Geology is very largely
due to him. There can be few questions which
have suggested themselves during the progress
of the Survey that we have not discussed to-
gether, usually in the field, and without in the
least desiring to make him responsible for views
that in the nature of the case are doubtful, and
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PREFACE XI
which are certain to be modified, if not altogether
rejected, when fuller knowledge is obtained, I
wish to acknowledge my great debt to him.
ARTHUK W. ROGERS.
Capk Town, 29th March, 1904.
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Note on the Map.
The accompanying map has been compiled from
various sources. The south and west, from the
Olifant's River to Knysna, inland as far as the
Roggeveld-Nieuweveld escarpment, the Prieska
district, and the Transkei have been taken
from the field maps of the Geological Sur-
vey. The rest of the map is based upon the
previously published maps of A. G. Bain, G. W.
Stow, and E J. Dunn. The portions of Natal
and the Transvaal included within this map are
taken from C. L. Griesbach and G. A. F.
MolengraaflF. The Orange River Colony is filled
in according to E. J. Dunn, with modifications
due to the work of A C. Seward and T. N.
Leslie on the fossil plants of Vereeniging, etc.,
and to information that has reached the compiler
from other sources.
The dolerite intrusions are only very imrtially
represented, as the details of their distribution
north and east of the Nieuweveld - Roggeveld
escarpment are unknown ; they extend farther
north than the limit of this map.
xii
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CONTENTS.
CHAP. PAOB
I. Ihtboduction 1
II. The Pbe-Cape Rocks op thb South and West of the
CJOLONY 82
III. The Pbb-Gapb Rocks of the Nobth and Nobth-Wbst. 63
IV. The Cape System 98
V. The Kabboo System 146
VI. Reptimis op the Kaeiboo Fobmation . .228
VII. The Intbusive Dolebites and Alued Rocks 245
VIII. The Gbetacbous System 281
IX. VoiiCANic Pipes Younoeb than the Stobmbbrq
Volcanoes 331
X. Recent ob SupebficiaIi Deposits 351
XI. The GeoiiOqical Histoby of the Colony .393
XII. Notes on the Geology of Some of the Railway Lines 425
Appendix: List of Books and Papers Refebbbd to in
the Body of the Wobk 445
xiii
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
FL4TB PAOl
Geological Map Frontispiece
Fia. 1. Section drawn about N. 10° E. from Mossel Bay to
the Orange River 14
Fig. 2. Section through the Bokkeveld Mountain es-
carpment to Galvinia 20
Fio. 8. Diagram to show the three regions in Gape Colony
and adjacent territory 27
Fia. 4. Section from the Pondoland coast to Lusikisiki . 28
Fio. 6. Section through the Worcester Fault ... 29
I. Waai Kloof. Worcester 85
Fio. 6. Section through the Gango and Zwartebergen, eleven
miles east of Prince Albert Village ... 60
Fig. 7. Section through the Gango from Potgieter*s Poort
to the Zwartebergen 50
Fig. 8. Section from the Van Bhyn^s Dorp flats to the
plateau above Loeries Fontein .... 61
Fig. 9. Section across the Prieska Division .... 69
Fig. 10. Section through Ezel Rand 77
Fig. 11. Section from Piquetberg to the Karroo ... 97
n. Matsiekamma from the N.W ^ . 98
Fig. 12. Section through the Warm Bokkeveld and S.W.
comer of the Karroo 100
Fio. 18. Section through the Langebergen in the neighbour-
hood of OudeboBch beacon showing the nature of
the folding 108
b
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XVI LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PLATE PAGE
III. Contorted and overfolded quartzites of the Table Mountain
series . 105
Fio. 14. Fossils from the Bokkeveld beds . . 124. 125
lY. View in the Gold Bokkeveld showing succession from the
Table Mountain sandstone of Schurfteberg to the
Witteberg beds of Tafel Berg 127
V. Blink Berg in the Cold Bokkeveld 128
VI. An anticline in the Wftteberg beds at Tyger Fontein in
Prince Albert 141
VII. Dwyka conglomerate 149
VIII. Roches moutonn^es exposed by the removal of the Dwyka
conglomerate from the 'Keis quartzites at Jackal's
Water, Prieska 156
IX. Near view of one of the glaciated surfaces at Jackal's
Water, Prieska 167
X. Escarpment of the Dwyka conglomerate near Ibiquas
Biver, Calvinia 161
XI. Dwyka conglomerate with a band of boulders, Witteberg's
Biver, Laingsbuig 167
FiQ. 15. Plants from the Ecca beds 187
Fio. 16. Section from the Wittebergen to the Klein Bogge-
veld, from the folded belt to the Karroo basin . . 194
Fia. 17. Plants from the Stromberg series (Molteno beds) 201
XII. A spur of the Drakensbergen near N'quatsha's Nek . . 209
Fig. 18. Skeleton of Pcureiasaurtis aerridens (Owen), restored 232
Fig. 19. Skeleton of Oudanodon trigoniceps (Broom), restored 287
Fig. 20. A. — Skull of a Therocephalian, Lycosuchus van-
derrieti. B.— Skull of a Theriodont, Cynognathus
platyceps. G. — Skull of a Mammal, Dasyurus
maculatus 241
XIII. A dolerite sheet at Paalhuis under the Nieuweveld es-
carpment 248
XIV. The falls of the Tsitsa River in East Griqualand . . 249
Fig. 21. Map of Kentani showing the distribution of
dolerite sheets and " gap " dykes 259
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xvil
PLATB PAOB
XV. Dyke of gianophyre (light-coloured) traversing a thick
sheet of dolerite near mouth of Eobonqaha Biver,
Eentani 261
XVI. Ck>lamnar structure in Dwyka conglomerate produced hy
the overlying sheet of dolerite 277
XYII. Surface formed by a dolerite sheet in the Fraserburg
Division, near the road between Fraserburg and
Williston 279
Fio. 22. Plant from the Uitenhage series (Wood beds) . 288
Fig. 2S. Plant from the Uitenhage series (Wood beds) . 289
Fig. 24. Plant from the Uitenhage series (Wood beds) . 290
Fig. 25. Fossils from the Uitenhage series (Sunday's Biver
beds) 291
XVIII. Cretaceous limestones on the coast 820
Fig. 26. Fo^ils from the Umzamba beds . . . .824
Fig. 27. Sections of the rock-shafts, mines of the Kimberley
area 841
XIX. High-level gravels lying unconformably upon inclined
beds of Uitenhage age (Enon type), Paarde Kloof, near
Tover Water Poort, Uniondale 854
XX. Gravel- and quartzite-capped terrace and outlier of the
same; north side of the Kouga mountains, near
Uniondale 858
XXI. False-bedded limestone near Struys Point, Bredasdorp . 875
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CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTION.
The backbone of the Cape Colony is the watershed
between the rivers that drain into the Atlantic and those
which flow south and east into the Indian Ocean. The
watershed lies in a general east-north-east direction
from the neighbourhood of Ceres and Tulbagh, where
two systems of mountains converge, the Cederbergen
and those parallel to them on the west, with a north
and south trend, and the Langebergen and parallel
ranges on the south, with an east and west trend (see
Fig. 3). The watershed is formed by the Klein Rog-
geveld, Nieuweveld, Winterbergen, Stormbergen and
Drakensbergen, and as a whole it is the highest belt
of ground in the country, although certain peaks in the
southern and western mountains rise to a greater height
than many parts of the watershed. From this main
water-parting the surface slopes gradually northward to
the Orange River, by which the greater part of the area
north of the watershed is drained. Towards the west
coast the country which feeds the rivers running directly
to the Atlantic south of the Orange River is consider-
ably broken ; the two escarpments of the Roggeveld and
the Bokkeveld Mountain, which eventually become one
feature aboufc eighty miles north of Calvinia, bring the
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2 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
level of the surface from some 5,000 feet down to 500
feet above the sea. South of the Bokkeveld Mountain
(an important escarpment west of Calvinia which must
not be confused with the mountains of the Cold Bokke-
veld in Ceres) the Cederberg chain commences, and
forms, together with its subsidiary parallel ranges, a
broad belt of mountainous country rising to the height
of 6,000 feet between the Karroo and the coastal district.
The southern drainage slope is also very different in
the west and east. In the west there is a sharp drop
immediately south of the watershed, and the Great
Karroo lies between it and the Zwartebergen, which
rise to a height of over 7,000 feet above the sea, and
some 5,000 feet above the Karroo. The Zwartebergen,
Langebergen, and the minor ranges parallel to them,
run nearly east and west, together forming a wide tract
of mountainous country which stretches from Tulbagh
to the Indian Ocean east of Grahamstown. This belt
is traversed by the rivers flowing from the Karroo,
generally in deep, steep-sided valleys, which become
gorges in the mountain ranges. There are many longi-
tudinal valleys in this region much more open and less
steeply graded than those of the transverse rivers into
which their waters flow. The country between the
Zwartebergen and Langebergen, occupied by longitu-
dinal valleys, lies somewhat lower on the average than
the Great Karroo. South of the Langebergen the
surface slopes towards the coast, but it is deeply cut
into by rivers, and diversified by mountains such as
Aasvogel Berg, Pot Berg, and the mountains of Caledon
and Bredasdorp.
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INTRODUCTION 3
In the eastern part of the Colony, beyond the Gualana
River where the southern mountainous region is cut
through by the coast, the descent from the watershed to
the coast is more uniform than in the west; it is un-
broken by mountain ranges, but is more of the nature
of a succession of terraces than a gradual slope. There
is no area in the east corresponding to the Great Karroo
of the west and midlands ; the rain borne by the south-
east winds waters the Eastern Province from the coast
to the watershed, but the Great Karroo is deprived of
this source of water by the mountains on its southern
border.
The geological structure of the Colony is in its main
outlines fairly simple ; the country may be looked upon
as a shallow basin filled in with nearly horizontally
lying rocks, those of the Great Karroo system. The
character of the edge of the basin is very different in
the north and south, and the basin form is due rather
to movements in the earth's crust, which took place
after the deposition of the rocks now filling the basin,
than to the original shape of the surface on which the
rocks were laid down.
Before describing further the structure of the Colony,
it will be convenient to give a general account of the
various groups of rocks that build it up. The classi-
fication of these rocks, which will be used in this book,
is as follows : —
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4 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
Recent and sub-reoent depositfl :— Sand dunes and consolidated
dunes, calcareous tufa ; alluvial
deposits and gravels of low
and high levels ; laterite and
surface quartzite.
Cretaceous series of Pondoland.
Cretaceous system -
Karroo system
Cape system
Pre-Cape rocks
^%^^>\^^%^>^%/s^s»
Uitenhage series
Stomiberg series
Beaufort series
Ecca series
.Dwyka series
Therio-
I Witteberg series.
•| Bokkeveld series.
( Table Mountain series.
r Sunday River beds.
J Wood beds.
iEnon conglomerate.
(Volcanic beds.
Cave sandstone.
Red beds.
Molteno beds.
/'Beds containing
J donts.
I Dicynodon beds.
iPareiasaurus beds,
r Shales and sandstones.
i Laingsburg beds,
(shales and sandstones.
/ Upper shales.
J Conglomerates.
( Lower shales.
(Unconformity in north.)
r In south and west:— In north and north-west :
Ibiquas series.
Cango serie&
? ^^^^^^^^^^ ?
Malmesbury series.
Matsdp series.
Volcanic rocks of Beer
Vley, etc. ?
Griqua Town series.
Campbell Rand series.
'Keis series.
Namaqualand schists.
Unconformable bases are indicated thus :
The Pre-Cape rocks include a great variety of sedi-
ments, of which the original characters have in most
cases been greatly changed by the pressure exerted
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INTRODUCTION 5
during the earth movements that took place before the
deposition of the rocks forming the Cape system; the
movements subsequent to the Cape system probably
affected the Pre-Cape rocks in the south and west of
the Colony only. The intrusion of the great masses of
igneous material, mostly of an acid type, previously to
the formation of the Cape system, brought about con-
siderable alteration in the Pre-Cape rocks in the south,
west, and north of the Colony. The subdivisions of
Pre-Cape rocks and their igneous intrusions will be
described in the next chapter, and further details are
not necessary at this stage. It is sufficient to note that
the ages of these rocks — for we shall find that they
include several independent formations separated by
great unconformities — are unknown, except that they
are older than the Cape system. As yet, no organic
remains have been described from the Pre-Cape rocks,
and it is therefore impossible to correlate them with the
rocks of foreign countries. The Pre-Cape rocks occur
in the south-west and north of the Colony, and form
vast tracts of country in the north-west (Namaqualand,
etc.) and to the north of the Orange River.
The Cape system is composed of sandstones, quart-
zites, shales and mudstones, arranged in three series.
The lowest or Table Mountain series is chiefly sand-
stone, with occasional pebbles of white quartz ; beds of
conglomerate are rarely seen ; two thick bands of shaly
material are usually met with, one near the top and one
near the bottom of the series. The approximate maxi-
mum thickness of the series is 6,000 feet. The group
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6 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
forms the great coastal ranges of the Colony, and takes
its name from Table Mountain behind Cape Town.
The second group in the Cape system is the Bokkeveld
series ; it comprises shales and thin sandstones inter-
bedded with thick layers of more or less argillaceous
sandstones, which are arranged in a definite order
recognisable over wide areas. The maximum thickness
of the Bokkeveld series is about 2,500 feet. Towards
the lower part of the series considerable numbers of
fossils occur ; they are marine forms, and some of them
are identical with or closely related to species which are
found in Devonian rocks of America and Europe. They
afford the earliest evidence we have for the chronological
comparison of the geological history of the Colony with
that of other countries. The Bokkeveld series occupies
wide areas in the south of the Colony, and takes its
name from the Warm and Cold Bokkevelds in Ceres,
where it is typically developed. Wherever the base of
the series is seen the junction with the underlying Table
Mountain series is a conformable one.
The Witteberg series, a group of shales, thin sand-
stones and quartzites, about 2,500 feet thick, is the
highest division of the Cape system. It contains, so
far as is known, very few fossils, and these are of veget-
able origin. The series takes its name from the Witte-
bergen, south of Matjes Fontein, in the south of the
Karroo, and forms several long and high ranges of foot
hills north of the Zwartebergen. It lies conformably
upon the Bokkeveld series.
The Cape system rests unconformably upon the older
rocks wherever the junction between them has been
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INTRODUCTION 7
observed. Between Karroo Poort in the west and the
Gualana Biver in the east, the lowest beds of the Karroo
formation rest conformably upon the highest of the
Cape system. To the north of Karroo Poort, however,
the Dwyka series is found to lie upon lower and lower
members of the Cape system as it is followed north-
wards to the end of the Bokkeveld Mountain, where it
rests directly upon the Pre-Cape rocks. Near the mouth
of the Gualana Biver the Cape system disappears be-
neath the sea, and where it reappears in Pondoland the
two upper members are missing, and the Table Moun-
tain series is unconformably overlain by the Dwyka
conglomerate.
The Karroo system forms by far the greater part of
the surface of Cape Colony ; from the 33rd parallel of
latitude northwards to the Orange Kiver, with the ex-
ception of the country west of the Prieska division,
the rocks belonging to this system form practically the
whole surface of the country. Outliers of the Karroo
system, including at least the two lower series, have
been found south of the main area occupied by it ; they
are insignificant in extent, but they are important on
account of the evidence they afford of the former
southward extension of the Karroo rocks. By far the
most interesting outlier is that between Worcester
and Bobertson, where the Dwyka and Ecca have been
faulted down against the Malmesbury (Pre-Cape) beds.
The Dwyka series forms the base of the system, and
occurs as a continuous band round the area occupied by
the higher beds. The series consists of a varying but
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8 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
usually considerable thickness of conglomerate, which
is both overlain and underlain by shales in the south of
the Colony ; in the west and north, where the Dwyka
rests unconformably upon the older rocks, the lower
group of . shales is absent. The maximum thickness of
the series is over 2,000 feet. The conglomerate is of
very great interest on account of its glacial origin.
The Dwyka series is overlain conformably by the
Ecca, a group of shales and sandstones containing
plant remains belonging to several genera found in
many other parts of the world, and these fossils form
the second important bench mark for comparing the
rocks of the Colony with those of other countries. The
thickness of the Ecca beds is about 2,000 feet in the
west of the Karroo, and some 2,600 in the south-west
and south.
The Beaufort series, distinguished by containing the
remains of several forms of reptiles, succeeds the Ecca
without any break in the western Karroo, in fact it is
often difficult to draw the line between the two series.
Shales, mudstones and sandstones, to the thickness of
at least 3,000 feet, compose the Beaufort series, which
is so named from. its occurrence in Beaufort West and
Fort Beaufort
The boundary between the Beaufort and the overlying
Stormberg series has never yet been closely defined.
The Stormberg beds contain a number of plants and
reptiles distinct from those in the underlying rocks, by
means of which they can be readily identified. The
lower part of the series consists of shales and sand-
stones with seams of coal. At the top of the ordinary
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INTRODUCTION 9
sedimentaxy rocks in the Stormberg group there is in
places a peculiar set of beds called the Cave sandstone,
with which are associated the lowest of the volcanic
rocks of the Stormbergen and Drakensbergen. The
thickness of the Stormberg beds, excluding the volcanic
rocks, is perhaps about 3,000 feet, and the volcanic beds
in some localities must be 4,000 feet thick. The upper-
most portion of the series has been removed by denuda-
tion, and the volcanic beds now form the highest points
of the surface of the Colony, the peaks of the Drakens-
berg in East Griqualand. So far as is known at present
the Stormberg series only occurs in the higher parts of
the country east of Steynsburg; outside our limit it
forms the greater part of Basutoland.
- One of the chief characteristics of the country occupied
by the rocks of the Karroo system is the abundance of
dolerite intrusions which are met with in all parts of
the system from the Dwyka to the Stormberg series.
It is not unlikely that these intrusions belong to one
period of igneous activity, which commenced during the
deposition of the Stormberg series, and that they were
closely connected in origin with the volcanic outbursts
that took place towards the close of the Stormberg period.
The rocks belonging to the Cretaceous system in the
Colony are divided into two groups, which occur in
widely separated localities and in different manners,
but the evidence of the fossils is sufficient to prove that
one group is considerably older than the other, although
both present close affinities to the Cretaceous rocks of
other parts of the world.
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10 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
The older, or Uitenhage, series forms several dis-
connected areas between Worcester in the west, and
Alexandria in the east of the Colony. The lowest
part of the series is almost always a conglomerate, usu-
ally overlain by shales and sandstones containing the
remains of fresh- water and land animals and plants;
in the eastern districts the beds of fresh-water origin
are in turn overlain by clays, shales and timestones
with marine fossils, related to forms found in the Lower
Cretaceous and Upper Jurassic of foreign countries.
The more important areas of the Uitenhage formation
are in the divisions of Uitenhage, Knysna, Oudtshoorn
and Riversdale. The Uitenhage beds Everywhere lie
unconformably upon the older rocks, from the Pre-Cape
to the Ecca. The unconformity is always very pro-
nounced, and proves that the older beds had been
intensely folded and had been exposed to denudation
for a long period before the Uitenhage beds were
deposited. The maximum thickness of the series is
probably not less than 2,000 feet, but the top of it is
nowhere seen.
The chief outcrop of the Pondoland Cretaceous series
occupies a narrow strip of country, about ten miles long
and half a mile wide, on the Pondoland coast. It is
faulted down against the Table Mountain series. The
rocks are sandy clays and shelly limestones remarkably
rich in fossils, many of which are related to, or identical
with, species that are found in the Cretaceous rocks of
Southern India. A similarly situated strip of conglom-
erate and sandstones is found near the mouth of the
Bmbotyi River, and very probably belongs to the saniQ
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INTRODUCTION 11
series, but palaeontological evidence to prove this point
has not yet been found. The Embotyi rock is of great
interest on account of the boulders of Karroo dolerite
imbedded in it.
The Becent deposits of suificient importance to be
mentioned here are the sand dunes, and the limestone
resulting from tKeir consohdation by the deposition of
carbonate of Ume from solution between their com-
ponent grains; these rocks are found on many parts
of the coast ; the quartzitic sandstones and conglomer-
ates, produced by the cementation of sands and gravels
of alluvial origin, found over wide areas between Mal-
mesbury in the west and the Transkei in the east ; and
certain rocks related to laterite. These are all found
lying unconformably upon the older rocks in their
neighbourhood, generally in thin layers, but in places
the limestone derived from dune sand may reach a
thickness of 500 feet. So far as the fossils in these
rocks have been determined they all belong to species
still living in South Africa.
It has already been stated that the structure of the
Colony may be likened to a shallow basin occupied by
the Karroo formation. The basin extends much farther
than the limits of the Colony, for its northern edge
traverses the Transvaal in a north-easterly direction,
and practically the whole of the Orange Eiver Colony,
Basutoland, and part of Natal, lie within it. On the
south-east the edge of the basin is cut into by the
Indian Ocean between the Gualana and St. John's
Bivers,
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12 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
For the purpose of a more detailed description, the
Colony may be divided into three regions : (1) that of
the Pre-Cape rocks of the north and west ; (2) the belt
of folded rocks belonging to the Cape and Karroo
systems, extending from near Van Bhyn's Dorp to the
neighbourhood of the Peninsula, then turning east-
wards and finally disappearing beneath the sea near
the Gualana River; (3) the region of the plains and
plateaux of the interior of the Colony, the area lying
within the basin, part of whose edge is fonued by the
first two regions. This division of the Colony, while
convenient for descriptive purposes, brings out strongly
the contrast between the northern and southern edges
of our basin.
(1) The region of the Pre-Cape rocks in the north
and west of the Colony is largely composed of granite
and foliated rocks of igneous origin; the sedimentary
beds invaded by these, together with more recent beds
of Pre-Cape age, form, however, great areas in the north
and in the south-west.
The nature of the rocks and the structure of the
country are less known than those of either of the two
other regions, especially in the case of the vast semi-
desert country lying west of Prieska. In Prieska, and
the country north of the Orange Eiver in that neigh-
bourhood the folds into which the rocks have been
thrown have a marked effect upon the surface features ;
the Doornbergen, for instance, are a range of hills
trending north-west along the strike of the rocks com-
posing them, and the Ezel Band, lying almost at
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INTRODUCTION 13
right angles to the Doornbergen, is found to consist of
sedimentary rocks with a corresponding north-easterly
strike. The same appears to be the case with the Kaap
plateau, the Langebergen, and other ranges in Griqua-
land West described by Stow.^ Some of these features
are of very great antiquity, older than the Dwyka con-
glomerate, which rests in the valleys between the hills.
These ranges do not reach a great height above the
surrounding low ground, and are different in this respect
from the mountains of much later origin that diversify
the second and third regions. Stow ^ noticed the re-
markably rounded form of many of these hill ranges,
and attributed them to glacial action, but to glaciation
of a much more recent date than can now be admitted ;
for since these rounded surfaces have been found passing
under the glacial conglomerate at the base of the Karroo
formation, we must conclude, in the absence of evidence
of recent glaciation, that all the characteristic glacial
features observed on the ancient surface were produced
during the Dwyka period. The main surface features
of the Pre-Cape rocks of Prieska are thus probably due
to denudation during Dwyka and Pre-Dwyka times;
they have been buried under an unknown thickness of
rocks belonging to the Karroo formation, and have been
gradually exposed again by the removal of these over-
lying beds. The north end of the section in Fig. 1
illustrates the relationship of the Karroo formation to
the underlying rocks of Prieska.
The strike of the Pre-Cape rocks in Griqualand West
and the trend of the hills carved out of them is north-
» Stow (73). «J6id., p. 666.
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14
GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
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INTRODUCTION 15
easterly, while the same rocks in Prieska have usually
a north-west strike. In the south of the Colony the
strike of the Pre-Cape rocks has an intimate connection
with the trend of the folds which involved the Cape for-
mation and the lower members of the Karroo system,
the result of earth movements that did not afiFect the
northern area.
West of the Prieska district lie Eenhardt and Little
Namaqualand, including the very dry and sandy area
called Bushmanland. Beyond stating that there are
great tracts of granite and gneiss, the disintegration of
which gives rise to the sand covering large parts of
Bushmanland, there is little to be said about that
country at present owing to lack of knowledge. In
Little Namaqualand there is much granite and gneiss
continuous with the similar rocks of Bushmanland, and
the Namaqualand schists, partly metamorphic rocks of
igneous origin. The country is hilly with much sand
in the valleys, and the river courses are ill defined, as is
usually the case in the dry districts in the north of the
Colony. Some outliers of quartzites are stated by Mr.
Dunn to belong to the Witteberg series, otherwise there
seem to be no rocks later than those of Pre-Cape age in
the north-west, outside the limit of the Karroo forma-
tion which bounds the region on the south and east.
South of Namaqualand the coast country lying west
of the escarpment in the north, and the folded ranges
further south that bound the coastal plains on their
inland side, falls within the first region, which reaches
the shores of False Bay. The southern part of this
area is studded with large and small outliers of the
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16 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
Table Mountain series, which must formerly have
covered the whole of it, at least as far north as the
31st parallel. The greater part of the area consists of
slaty rocks with high dips striking some degrees west
of north, more or less parallel with the ranges of folded
rocks forming the eastern boundary of the region south
of the Doom Biver. Several large masses of granitic
rocks intrusive in the slates form important ranges of
hills; the chief one is that which extends from St.
Helena Bay southwards to Mamre, a distance of some
seventy miles; other hills of granite are the Paarl
Mountain, and the Paarde Berg-Malmesbury range.
These granite hills, and the smaller ones carved out of
Malmesbury beds, owe their preservation more to the
weather-resisting qualities of the rocks which form
them than to their structure, though the parallelism
of the trend of the ranges with the general strike of
the rocks shows that the structure of the area has de-
termined its leading features. It is difficult to discover
how far the present surface features are due to denuda-
tion effected since the removal of the covering of Table
Mountain sandstone, but the occurrence of large hills
of Pre-Cape rocks near areas of that sandstone, such as
the Lion's Bump near Cape Town, and the slate hills
at the south-east end of Biebeek's Kasteel, point to the
protection afforded these slate hills by former extensions
of the sandstones of the Lion's Head and Biebeek Kast-
eel now removed by denudation. In the Prieska district
we find that the main surface inequalities of the Pre-
Cape rocks are older than the Karroo formation that
once covered them, but a corresponding relation be-
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INTRODUCTION 17
tween the surface features of the Pre-Cape rocks in the
south-west and the overlying Table Mountain series
has not been made out, in fact the evidence so far as it
goes, e.g. the approximately plain surface of granite and
slate under the northern boundary of the Peninsula
outlier, points to the present surface features in the
Cape, Malmesbury and Stellenbosch Divisions being
due to denudation since the removal of the bulk of the
Table Mountain series.
The southern part of the region is, in marked contrast
to the northern portion, a well-populated, fertile land,
in which good crops are raised annually and the wine
and fruit-growing industries are second to none in the
Colony. In the north, except in the as yet small areas
watered by artificial irrigation, but little in the way of
agriculture is attempted, and cattle and sheep are the
mainstay of the farmers.
(2) The second region is the folded belt which runs
in a southerly direction from Van Rhyn*s Dorp to the
neighbourhood of the Peninsula, there turns eastwards,
and is continued as far as the mouth of the Gualana
River, where it is cut oflf by the sea. This area is
chiefly composed of the three members of the Cape
system, the lowest of which, the Table Mountain series,
forms the mountain ranges of the Cederbergen, Draken-
steins, Langebergen and Zwartebergen, to mention only
some of the more important ones, which are such strik-
ing features in the south of the Colony. In addition to
the Cape formation, the lower parts of the Karroo system,
the Dwyka and Ecca series are involved in the folding.
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18 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
and this fact has great significance in that it proves that
the folding took place chiefly after the deposition of the
Ecca series. The later limit of the period during which
the folds were produced is fixed by the presence of con-
siderable areas of comparatively undisturbed beds be-
longing to the Uitenhage series lying upon the upturned
edges of the folded rocks belonging to all ages from Pre-
Cape to Ecca.
The folded belt is flanked on the outside by the Pre-
Cape region in which these earth movements produced
but little effect, and on the inner side by the almost
horizontal strata of the Karroo. The Cape Peninsula
and the districts north of it where the Table Mountain
sandstone lies nearly flat are on the outer side of the
folded belt in the Pre-Cape region.
At its broadest part the folded belt is about 100 miles
wide, from the southern part of the Karroo to Cape
Agulhas, and its length along the bend is some 600
miles. The most marked character of the region is
the presence of many mountain ranges, which are
mostly formed by great anticlinal or arch-like ridges
of the folded strata. A glance at the map will show
that the general tren'd of these mountains is roughly
parallel to the coast; on the western side the Ceder-
bergen, Witzenbergen, Cold Bokkeveld Mountains, and
other minor ranges, run a little west of north ; while
on the south, where the Langebergen, Zwartebergen,
and other ranges of less importance, lie nearly east and
west, the coast line makes a corresponding change in
direction, but towards the east the coast cuts diagonally
across the folded belt. In the districts between Ceres
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INTRODUCTION • 19
and Bredasdorp there is an intermingling of the east
and north trending folds, forming an area where the
forces that produced these folds have given rise to a
clearly marked diagonal set with a north-easterly course ;
the chief ranges due to these north-easterly folds are
the great mass extending somewhat irregularly from
Cape HangkUp to the mountains south of Worcester,
the Hex Biver Mountains, and the south-west continua-
tion of the Babylon's Tower range south of Caledon.
The mountain ranges with a north-east trend are tra-
versed by a weaker system of north-west folds, and are
thereby broken up to a certain extent, especially by the
synclines or trough-like folds of Houwhoek and Villiers-
dorp. The intricate effects of the contest between the
two sets of forces, that which produced the Cederberg
(north and south) system of folds, and that which pro-
duced the Zwartberg (east and west) system, so far as
the Caledon and Bredasdorp districts are concerned,
have been described in some detail in a survey publica-
tion.^
There is some evidence in favour of the view that the
Cederberg system of folds began to be formed rather
earlier than the Zwartberg, but probably each reached
its greatest development at about the same period, at
some time between the deposition of the Ecca and that
of the Uitenhage series.
The folding is most intense in the east and west
trending portion of the rocks involved. Northwards
from the country between Tulbagh and Karroo Poort
1 Oeol. Comm., 1898, p. 42, etc.
2*
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o 5fc^
a ^
20 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
the anticlines or arches, into which the rocks have been
bent, are less sharp and less numerous than to the
„• east of the same neighbourhood.
^ The anticlines of the Cederberg
g system gradually flatten out
0 northwards, so that on the lati-
1 tude of Van Khyn's Dorp village
^ hardly a trace of the folds is to
.2 c be met with in the rocks which
'B •g«'§ are so greatly disturbed farther
I g-s south (see Fig. 2). At the same
II I time the rocks belonging to the
If ^^^ Cape formation gradually thin
3 g. out in such a way that the base
®5 of the Karroo formation, the
•J -2 g Dwyka series, is found to lie
I ^ g >• upon lower and lower members
^ is of the Cape system, and finally
1 :§ .f -3 ^ upon rocks of Pre-Cape age, as it
3 > ^ I . is traced northwards from Karroo
" x * i Poort. We shall see later that
^ $ o? ^^^^ great transgression, or un-
g> o »i conformable overlap, is of funda-
I £ ^(S mental importance in enabhng us
g "^ <=^«^ to form an idea of the geological
§ history of the Colony, but at
I present it will be sufficient to say
that at least the chief cause of the
£ thinning out of the Cape system
is the denudation which took place before and during
the deposition of the Dwyka series.
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WTftObUCTiON ^1
It has been stated that the folded belt disappears
under the sea near the Gualana Biver, and it would be
interesting to find out what becomes of it farther east.
It is, of course, impossible to discover the exact state of
affairs, but a comparison of the structure of the seaboard
of Pondoland with that of the Van Khyn's Dorp end of
the folded belt will give us a clue to it.
In Pondoland some of the rocks which form the
folded belt in the south of the Colony reappear on the
coast near the St. John's River, but are very different
in certain respects from their condition west of the
Gualana River. They are found to be very slightly
folded ; the great anticlines of the south and west have
no counterpart there, and the greater part of the Cape
formation is altogether absent. The rocks emerge from
the ocean with a northerly trend, instead of the east
and west strike which they have in the south. At St.
John's there is a great block of Table Mountain sand-
stone, surrounded on all sides by beds belonging to the
Karroo formation faulted down against it, but further
north-east towards Natal the Dwyka rests unconform-
ably upon the Table Mountain series (see Fig. 4) ; the
accounts^ of the geology of Natal show that the same
condition obtains there, and also that the Table Moun-
tain sandstone (Palaeozoic sandstone of Anderson) be-
comes thinner as it is followed northwards, and finally
disappears, so that the Dwyka series rests directly upon
rocks of Pre-Cape age. The relation of the Dwyka
conglomerate to the Table Mountain sandstone in
' Griesbach (71), p. 59 and map ; Anderson (01).
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22 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
Pondoland is thus just like that of the same two series
in the Bokkeveld Mountain north-east of Van Rhyn's
Dorp.
If we imagine the country between Karroo Poort and
the latitude of Van Rhyn*s Dorp to be removed from
observation, we have a nearly similar condition of things
on each side of the folded belt, extending from Karroo
Poort to the Gualana River, but the relatively raised
block of the Gates of St. John's has no analogue in the
west. The gradual flattening out of the folds north-
wards of Karroo Poort has no obvious counterpart in
the east of the Colony, simply because the area in which
a similar change takes place is under the sea. There is
no reasonable doubt that on the sea floor between the
Gualana River and St. John's, first the Witteberg and
then the Bokkeveld beds disappear, owing to Pre-Dwyka
denudation, and that the Dwyka series rests upon lower
and lower members of the Cape system, so that in
Pondoland it lies directly upon the Table Mountain
series, just as it does north of the latitude of Van
Rhyn's Dorp. It is very probable that, as in the west,
the folds become less marked and practically die out
altogether in the same area that shows the thinning out
of the Cape system, so in the east, the two changes go
on together. The comparison of the structure of the
northward termination of the folded belt in the west
and east of South Africa shows that this end of the
continent is built upon a more symmetrical plan than
might have been suspected from a mere inspection of
the geological map.
The folded belt includes the more thickly populated
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INTRODUCTION 23
districts of the Colony outside the Native Territories.
Nearly all the various kinds of farming practised in
South Africa can be found within this region. The
most fertile and valuable land is that situated along the
larger rivers flowing through from the Karroo, enriched
by the silt brought down by them. The poorest soil is
found on the sandstone mountains and near the coast,
where the natural vegetation is of the kind known as
'* sour veld ". In a region so diversified in climate and
rocks as the folded belt, there are naturally many
varieties of soil, and we shall have an opportunity of
noticing some of these in later chapters.
(3) The limit between the folded belt and the third
division of the Colony, the region of the plains and
plateaux of the interior, cannot be precisely defined,
as the folds die out gradually as one traverses them
towards the interior ; the rocks become practically flat
at a distance of some twenty miles from the great anti-
cline of the Zwartebergen on the south of the Karroo ;
on the west of the Karroo the distance between the
Cederberg anticline and the nearly flat beds to the east
is much less. Near the Nieuweveld and Koggeveld
escarpments there are several small flexures, usually
more or less parallel to the axes of the Zwartberg folds,
but they have slight effect on the surface features, and
do not detract from the plateau character of the country
they traverse.
The wide plains of the Great Karroo, and the even
more extensive plateaux of the country north of it
(often called the Upper Karroo), with sharply defined
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24 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
steep-sided bills standing on them, are amongst the
chief characteristics of the third region. Eastward
of the Great Karroo, approximately bounded by a line
drawn between Aberdeen and Jansenville, the structure
of the country is essentially the same as that of the
western part of the region, but owing to a more general
distribution of rain, due to the absence of the coastal
ranges which prevent the moisture-laden south-east
winds carrying rain to the interior in the west, the
eastern portion of the region is better covered with
vegetation than the western; the thicker covering of
vegetation in the east, which becomes more marked as
one approaches the coast, softens the features of the
surface, the hill slopes are more rounded and less
abrupt, and the distinction between harder and softer
rocks is less obvious than in the Karroo.
The sedimentary rocks of the third region lie nearly
horizontally, but a careful examination shows that they
usually dip at a very low angle towards the central part
of the basin. Thus in the western Karroo and Rogge-
veld the beds dip east, to the north of the main water-
shed the dip is usually south or a little east of south,
and to the south of it the beds are inclined slightly to
the north or west of north. These sedimentary rocks
belong exclusively to the Karroo system, but with them
are found intrusive igneous rocks, dykes, sheets and
great masses, probably lenticular in shape, of dolerite.
The dolerite intrusions are of sufficient importance to
have a chapter devoted to them, and at present only
the chief facts relating to their distribution will be
mentioned. From the western border of Calvinia east-
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INTRODUCTION i25
wards to the Indian Ocean, and from the Nieuweveld
escarpment northwards to the Orange River, and even
far beyond the river^ the sedimentary rocks are traversed
by sheets and other masses of dolerite to such an extent
that it is hardly an exaggeration to say that within the
area of some 70,000 square miles one cannot get out
of sight of the dolerite hills. This area is but a part,
perhaps not much more than half, of the whole range
of the dolerite intrusions in South Africa. Though the
dolerite is so widely distributed, and varies somewhat
in composition and structure, it has an individuality of
its own, and can be distinguished from similar rocks
in the Colony belonging to earlier periods of igneous
activity. It is a remarkable fact that intrusions of
this dolerite are extremely rare in the folded belt, and
also in those parts of the Karroo basin on the margin
of that region. In the Bokkeveld Mountain west of
Calvinia, where the Table Mountain series lies almost
horizontally, and in the Brandewyn valley (Clanwilliam),
where the Cape formation is but slightly folded, dykes
of dolerite of the Karroo type occur. In Pondoland
also, where the Table Mountain sandstone lies nearly
undisturbed, the dolerite has invaded it. Throughout
the folded belt south of the Karroo not a single intrusion
of this nature has been found.
The dolerite intrusions have a very important effect
on the surface features of the country, owing to their
being less easily weathered than most of the sedimentary
rocks associated with them. The steep escarpments of
the Nieuweveld and Roggeveld owe their abrupt faces
to this rock, for the more easily weathered sedimentary
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i26 GKOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
rocks form steep slopes at the bottom of vertical cliffs of
the dolerite or sedimentary rocks hardened by contact
with it. In the Komsberg, which lies between the
Roggeveld and Nieuweveld, there is no dolerite, and
although a somewhat similar rdle to that of the dolerite
is played by some hard bands of coarse sandstone, the
escarpment is less precipitous than either of the other
escarpments.
The well-known table-shaped hills scattered broadcast
over the interior of the Colony owe their form to a pro-
tecting cap of hard rock, either sheets of dolerite or beds
of sandstone ; the finest examples of such hills are found
fiunongst those capped by dolerite. Tafel Berg and
Spitzkop, two outliers of the Western Nieuweveld, which
rise some 3,000 feet above the Gouph and are visible
from the railway between Prince Albert Eoad and
Beaufort West, are magnificent hills of this type, and
are capped by a dolerite sheet 400 feet thick. Other
instances, of smaller size but quite as striking, are the
hills called Theebus and Kafifeebus, near the railway
between Steynsburg and Bosmead.
A great part of this region is covered with small
bushes, but the eastern portion is a grass country.
The Great Karroo, Koggeveld and Nieuweveld are
chiefly sheep veld, but the flat land along the rivers is
extremely fertile when brought under irrigation. To
the north of the main watershed very large areas of
alluvial deposits along the rivers, such as the Zak and
Bhenoster, await cultivation. Owing to the cold winter
climate of the higher parts of the Eoggeveld and Nieu-
weveld the farmers there have to take their flocks to
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ilJTIiODUOTION
21
the Great Karroo during the colder months, and a
MH JC "^ '^ " ^ "^ 'O •*
similar practice is the custom with the Cold Bokkeveld
farmers. The Great Karroo is thus chiefly inhabited
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28 • GKOLOGY of CAtE COLONY
during the winter, during the other months the popula-
^ tion is very scanty.
GO
i S
> 5
P
in gi
0 The limits of the three regions
S are shown in the annexed figure
.2 .. (Fig. 3), in which the dotted line
J© w
'i' g off the south-east coast indicates
the probable position of the out-
crop connecting the Cape system
of the south (including the small
strip of the Karroo formation
involved in the southern folds)
and the Table Mountain sand-
i| stone of Pondoland.
►5o The heavy lines in the figure
^ *^ indicate the positions of the main
anticlines of the Zwartberg and
Cederberg systems, and the vary-
»3 ing thickness of the Hues corre-
t sponds with the varying intensity
8 I ^ o^ ^^^ folds, so far as our infor-
1 III mation allows.
*§ i I J '^'^^s figure, examined in the
I gf-^ light of the sections in Figs. 1, 2,
■I "^ Jrl ^^^ 6 brings out clearly the diflfer-
i hII ^^^® ^^ ^^^ nature of the northern
*2 r4(Nco and southern edges of the basin
*f in which the greater part of
^ the Karroo formation lies. The
'^ northern edge is in part an original
g feature, no doubt lying farther
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INTRODUCTION
29
south at the present time
of the greatest northward
extension of the water in
which the Karroo forma-
tion was deposited ; but, as
we shall see when we de-
scribe in detail the lower
part of the Karroo system,
the present position of the
northern edge, although
due immediately to the pro-
gress of denudation, must
lie approximately along a
former course of the Karroo
shore at a certain period of
its existence. The southern
edge of the basin, on the
other hand, is entirely due
to the exposure of the Pre-
Karroo rocks by denudation
in a folded area. That the
Karroo rocks formerly ex-
tended far to the south of
the Karroo is proved by the
occurrence of outliers of the
two lowest series in the
district between Worcester
and Ashton, where they are
faulted down against the
Malmesbury beds on the
north, but lie conformably
than it did at the period
.2 .2
1 1
S-B S 8! o
r-( c4 00 ^' »ei
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30 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
upon the Witteberg series along their southern boundary.
The discovery of the true character ^ of the Worcester
outlier (see Fig. 5) is perhaps the most important addi-
tion to our knowledge of the structure of the Colony
made during recent years, for it greatly strengthened
the evidence for the conformity of the Dwyka series
with the uppermost series of the Cape system, and at
the same time afforded a clue to the structure of the
Langebergen, which has been found to solve many of the
difficulties met with in that range and also in the Zwarte-
bergen. There is no direct evidence as to the position
of the southern limit of the area in which the Karroo
formation was deposited.
The great crumpling of the earth's crust in the south
of the Colony was so violent at many places that the
rocks are inverted and the older lie above the newer ;
that is particularly noticeable along both the Zwarte-
bergen and Langebergen, and is illustrated in Figs. 1
and 6. The overfolding seems usually to be towards
the north, in other words, the folds are bent over north-
wards, so that the dip of the strata is towards the south.
The country whose southern termination is the third
region in our description seems to have served as an
immovable block against which the rocks were crumpled
on the south, and south-west, and possibly south-east
sides. These great movements of the crust, more im-
portant to the present structure of the Colony than any
others that have affected the southern end of the con-
tinent, seem to have been limited to that region. There
^ E. H. L. Schwarz, Oed, Comm. for 1896, pp. 27-28.
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INTRODUCTION 31
appear to have been no great movements of the same
age in the country lying north of the Cape Colony ; the
disturbances met with in the rocks which Dr. Molen-
graaff calls the Cape formation ^ in the Transvaal are
clearly older, for they do not aflfect the Dwyka and Ecca
beds. A similar reason must be given for regarding the
plications of the Pre-Cape rocks of Prieska and Griqua-
land West as of greater age than those belonging to the
Zwartberg and Cederberg systems of folding.
There are several other structural features of import-
ance which will be better understood by the reader
after a closer acquaintance with the character and dis-
tribution of the various formations has been made, and
they will be especially referred to in the chapter dealing
with the history of the development of the Colony.
i/.e., the Black Reef, Dolomites, Pretoria beds and Waterberg
sandstones.
[Since this was written Dr. Molengraaf! has named this group the
Transvaal formation to distinguish it from the later Cape system.]
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CHAPTEK II.
THE PRE-OAPE ROCKS OF THE SOUTH AND WEST OF
THE COLONY.
The various groups of rocks included under this heading
have one character in common, they are older than the
Cape formation. In the case of three of the groups,
Ibiquas, Cango and Malmesbury, their Pre-Cape age
is obvious from the fact that they are found directly
beneath the Table Mountain series ; but in the case of
the northern groups, which are found in a region where
the Cape formation was either not deposited or has
since been removed by denudation, their age has to be
arrived at by reasonings based upon the structural
features of the country, for no help in correlating these
formations is given by fossils.
The Malmesbury Series.
In the south-western districts sedimentary rocks are
in many places met with immediately below the Table
Mountain series. These rocks were evidently intensely
disturbed, invaded by granite and other igneous rocks,
and long exposed to denudation before the deposition
of the Table Mountain sandstone. In the immediate
neighbourhood of Cape Town the Table Mountain
82
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PRE-CAPE ROCKS OF THE SOUTH AND WEST 33
sandstone, which forms all the higher parts of the
Peninsula, lies nearly horizontally, and below it are
seen slaty rocks dipping at very high angles, with a
general north-north-west strike, accompanied by a large
intrusion of granite. The slaty rocks are found to
extend northwards from the foot of Table Mountain
at least as far as Van Rhyn's Dorp, occupying the
greater part of the divisions of Malmesbury, Piquet-
berg, Paarl, Stellenbosch and Somerset West. This
large area of Malmesbury beds is separated by the
range traversed by Bain's Kloof, and called the Limiet
Berg, Eland's Kloof and Vogel Valley Mountains in
different parts of its length, from a rather narrow strip
of similar rocks occupying the long depression between
Winter Hoek, north of Tulbagh, and Worcester ; near
the latter town the strip of Malmesbury beds becomes
thinner, and extends south-eastwards as far as Swellen-
dam as a narrow band overlain to the north or north-
east by. the Table Mountain series, but cut off on the
south or south-west by a fault (the Worcester fault)
which has a down-throw of some 10,000 feet near the
town of Worcester (see Fig. 5). InUers of similar
rocks have been found at French Hoek, Eland's Kloof
(near Villiersdorp), in the Zondag's Kloof east of Stan-
ford (Caledon division), and between Elim and Bredas-
dorp. Each of these inliers is surrounded by the
sandstones of the Table Mountain series. Bocks that
can best be placed with the Malmesbury beds occur
also in Mossel Bay, George and Port Elizabeth.
The most abundant rock in the series is a sandy
clay-slate with imperfectly developed cleavage. Small
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34 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
flakes of white or yellowish mica are frequently sufli-
ciently abundant to give the rock a micaceous appear-
ance when broken along the cleavage planes. This
mica is easily distinguished from the reddish-brown
mica BO strongly developed in the clay-slate taken from
the immediate neighbourhood of the intrusive masses
of granite, and generally only visible under the micro-
scope. In certain localities, such as the hills north-east
of Moorreesburg and the Tygerberg group, the propor-
tion of quartz grains increases so greatly that the rocks
may be called impure quartzites, and in other places
fairly pure quartzites occur, but they are not often met
with. Crystalline limestone or marble forms thick
bands in the Malmesbury series near Van Khyn's Dorp,
Piquetberg, Vogel Valley (south of Porterville JRoad
Station), at Bakoven's Hoogte between Ashton and
Swellendam, in Dassies Hoek near Bobertson, and in
small quantity north of Worcester. Many other varieties
of rock are met with near the contact with the granite,
but these will be mentioned later. Ottrelite- or chlori-
toid-schists are found in rather thin bands near the
junction of the slates, which have evidently been in-
tensely compressed, with the unconformably overlying
Table Mountain series in Waai Kloof, near Worcester
(Plate I.), and north of the village of Swellendam. In
both cases thick quartz-schists occur on one side of the
ottrelite-schist, but no granite or other intrusive rock is
found in the immediate neighbourhood, and as ottrelite-
schist has not been seen near any of the granite areas
in the Colony, these are probably two further examples
of the production of ottrelite by pressure metamorphism
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PRE-CAPE ROCKS OF THE SOUTH AND WEST 35
d
2-
.2 8
II
o
s
eJ
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36 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
without the concurrence of the influence of igneous
rocks.^ .^^
Conglomerates are rarely met with in the Malmesbury
beds. Some conglorne^tes with quartz pebbles have
been described from the neighbourhood of Saron and
Honig Berg in the Tulbagh and Piquetberg divisions,^
but it is uncertain whether they really belong to this
series. Mr. Schwarz isays of the Honig Berg outcrop :
"There are conglomerates between the Table Moun-
tain sandstone and the slates (Malmesbury beds),
apparently conformabfe to the former and unconform-
able to the latter, but the exposure is too small to say
whether these relation^ hold good in reality ". He
remarks also that the conglomerates resemble those
of Oudtshoorn ; it is not unlikely that these beds will
eventually prove to belong to the Cango series.
The true succession within the Malmesbury series
has not been made out. They are nearly always found
dipping at very high angles, and as they cover a large
area, in places over thirty miles wid^ across the strike,
it is certain that they must be intensely folded, and
therefore repeated by folding, so that a much smaller
thickness of rock is present than would seem to be the
case. The country occupied by these beds is rather
flat and has a regular rainfall, and the ground is well
covered with soil and vegetation ; in consequence out-
crops are not very abundant, and years of detailed work
will probably be required before the true structure of
1 Examples of such an occurrence of ottrelite-sohist in the Tranayaal
are given hy Gotz (85), p. 158.
' E. H. L. Schwarz, Geol. Comm. for 1898, pp. 27, 28.
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PftE-CAtE ftOCKS O^ THfi SOttTH AND WEST 3?
the Pre-Cape rocks between the Peninsula and Piquet-
berg can be ascertained.
Veins of quartz are abundant in the Malmesbury beds,
and at places they have been prospected for gold, with-
out gratifying results.
The general strike of the rocks classed in this series
is to the west of north in the western part of the Colony,
approximately parallel to the trend of the Cederbergen
and the other ranges in the west, which were formed
chiefly after the deposition of the Ecca series ; but in
the south, between Worcester and Swellendam, in
Bredasdorp, Mossel Bay, and George, the strike of the
Malmesbury beds is on the whole nearly east and west,
roughly parallel to the great southern mountain ranges.
This change of strike in the Malmesbury beds may per-
haps to a very small extent be due to the forces which
produced the folds in the overlying rocks ; but as the
dip of the lower beds is generally far higher than the
dips observed in the unconformably overlying rocks, it
is impossible to thus account fully for the change in
the direction of strike of the Malmesbury beds as they
are followed eastwards. It is certain that these rocks
were folded almost as much as we now see them before
the deposition of the Cape formation, and the general
parallelism between the two systems of folds, older and
younger than the Cape formation, points to the repeti-
tion of the folding along the same lines at a great
interval of time.
The Malmesbury beds have been invaded by igneous
rocks of both acid and basic compositions. The acid
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38 GEOLOGY OP CAPE COLONY
series, granite, gneiss, and allied rocks, is by far the
more important. The masses of granite and gneiss are
elongated in form, and lie with their longer axes parallel
to the strike of the sedimentary rocks. They form the
highest ground in the Pre-Cape area, with the exception
of the outliers of Table Mountain sandstone. The largest
granite area is that which stretches from St. Helena
Bay south-south-east to Klein Dassen Berg, a distance
of seventy miles, and the highest points reached by the
granite are Kapoc Berg and Contre Berg, both over
1,500 feet above the sea. Saldanha Bay is a deep inlet
in this mass of granite. On the western edge of the
granite, along the shore near Paternoster, Danger, and
Saldanha Bays, large inclusions of slate are frequently
seen in the igneous rock, indicating the proximity of the
Malmesbury beds ; the edge of the intrusion is probably
not far to the west of the present coast line.
Many varieties of granitic rock are found in this great
area. The most abundant perhaps is a two mica (i.e.
with both black and white mica) granite with orthoclase
as the chief felspar. Tourmaline is often present in the
rock near Darling. Every gradation between a normal
granite and a gneiss, in which the foliation structure
can be seen in even a small fragment, can be found ;
the massive granite is seen in the interior of the area
and the foliated rock near the periphery, but this rule
is not without many exceptions. There is no general
difference in mineralogical composition between the
granite and gneiss; the structural characters which
separate the gneiss from the granite seem to have been
given to the rock during its consolidation, for the gneiss
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PRE-CAPE ROCKS OF THE SOUTH AND WEST 39
does not show evidence of a great amount of crushing
or rearrangement of its component minerals after it
solidified. The foUation planes lie in the same direction
as the strike and cleavage of the sedimentary rocks in
the neighbourhood ; a similar direction is at places
observed in the arrangement of the large porphyritic
crystals of orthoclase that are occasionally found in
great numbers in the massive granite, which shows no
other parallel structure. There is no evidence of a
difference in age between the granite and gneiss, and
the gradual coming in of the gneissose structure as the
area is traversed in various directions points to the
whole mass being the product of one period of igneous
activity.
Large and small veins or dyke-like bodies of micro-
granite and quartz-porphyry with a micro-granitic base
are found towards the edge of the area in many places.
Near Hoetjes Bay the quartz-porphyries are especially
abundant. Near DarUng a mass of quartz-porphyry
has a well-developed parallel structure, and may be
considered to bear the same relation to the massive
quartz-porphyry as the gneiss does to the granite.
In the hills to the south and west of Darling there
are some remarkable rocks associated with the granite
and gneiss. Colourless augite, plagioclase, and sphene
are add^d to the usual constituents of the granite, and
the mica is practically absent; the structure is that
known as granuhtic, the various minerals occurring in
grains of a more uniform size than is the case with
granite. These rocks often show a parallel structure
but have not the foliated or schistose planes seen in the
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40 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
gneiss. The nature and origin of the granulites of
Darling are as yet unexplained, as is also their exact
relationship to the surrounding granite and gneiss.
A few miles east of the southern end of the great
mass of granitic rock just described is the irregularly
shaped area of granite on which the town of Malmesbury
is built. At the south end of this mass is the rugged
mountain called Paarde Berg. The granite area is
about twenty miles long and six wide, and hes in the
direction of strike of the Malmesbury beds. The rock
is much less varied in this area than in the larger mass
to the west, and is mainly a rather coarse biotite-granite
with porphyritic orthoclase, but fine grained granite
composed of the same minerals, and coarse pegmatites
are not infrequent. There seems to be no gneiss in
this area.
South-east of Paarde Berg is the Paarl Mountain
with the well-known group of smooth, naked granite
crags on the summit. The most abundant rock in the
Paarl Mountain is a biotite-granite. Dykes of quartz-
porphyry in continuity with the main mass of granite
traverse the surrounding slates along their strike. No
gneiss has been observed in this mass.
On the east side of the Berg River between Welling-
ton and Paarl is a long, narrow area of granite overlain
by the sandstones (Table Mountain series) of the Klein
Drakensteins. Both this granite and the Paarl Moun-
tain rock have a more northerly direction than the other
intrusions, and a corresponding chajige of strike is
noticed in the Malmesbury beds of the neighbourhood.
South of the Paarl and Drakenstein granite areas is
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PRE-CAPE ROCKS OF THE SOUTH AND WEST 41
the somewhat irregularly shaped mass of Pniel and
Stellenbosch, with which are nearly connected those of
French Hoek on the east, and of the Bottelary and
Helderberg to the west. Gneiss enters largely into the
constitution of those bodies of granitic rock, and, as in
the case of the great intrusion on the Saldanha Bay
coast, there is no evidence here that the intrusion, of
the foliated rock was of later or earlier date than the
massive granite. In places, such as certain peurts of
the mountain slopes on the left bank of the Jonker's
Hoek stream, the gneiss has been crushed along planes
parallel with the direction of the dominant structural
lines in the neigbourhood, the cleavage and strike of
the slates, and the foliation planes of the gneiss ; the
crushing occasionally resulted in the production of a
rock more like a gritty schist than a gneiss, but this
extreme stage is connected with the uncrushed rock
through breccias of diflferent degrees of coarseness.
The breccias were evidently formed in their present
position by the breaking up of the gneiss, so that large
and small subangular fragments of gneiss, and of its
larger component minerals, are embedded in a fine-
grained matrix. The fine-grained schistose rock is a
true mylonite.^
The granites of the Paarl and Stellenbosch districts
contain a fair amount of microcline, a variety of felspar
which is rare in the Saldanha Bay and Darling area,
'Mylonite is the name giving by Professor Lapworth to cnished
rocks with a parallel structure, in which all traces of the original
structure of the parent rock may have disappeared (Lapworth, Intro-
ductory Text-book of Geology, p. 107).
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42 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
although it seems to be the chief felspathic constituent
of the granites in the northern and north-western parts
of the Colony. On the south-west edge of the Bottelary
granite cassiterite or tin-stone occurs in a gneissose
muscovite granite together with tourmaline ; wolframite
has been found in the same neighbourhood.
Near Somerset West there are two masses of granite ;
the smaller one, Schaapen Berg, just east of the village,
contains some interesting varieties of rock. The main
mass of the intrusion is a biotite-granite with little mus-
covite, but the muscovite is very abundant in certain
places and the felspar decreases in amount, and may
disappear completely, so that the rock becomes a greisen,
or quartz-muscovite rock. In other parts tourmaline is
extremely abundant, sometimes giving rise to schorl
rock, composed of tourmaline and quartz only. At
other places andalusite, showing a beautiful pink tint
under the microscope, forms a large part of a rock com-
posed of quartz, tourmaline, muscovite, andalusite, and
apatite.
The granite underlsring a great part of the sandstone
of Table Mountain and the other mountains of the
Peninsula has been described by many previous writers.
Professor E. Cohen ^ of Greifswald has described in de-
tail the granite and the altered clay-slate near it, from
the immediate neighbourhood of Cape Town ; he was
the first to record pinite, an alteration product of cor-
dierite, in the biotite-granite there.
The contact of the granite and clay-slate at Sea
1 Cohen (74),
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PRE-CAPE ROCKS OF THE SOUTH AND WEST 43
Point and in the Platte Elip ravine have long attracted
considerable attention. Playfair,^ the enthusiastic dis-
ciple of James Hutton,'^ edited a description of the two
localities written by Basil Hall in 1813. Playfair drew
fresh support for Hutton*s theory of the relationship
of granite to the surrounding sedimentary rocks from
Hall's letters and sketches. Clarke Abel * a few years
later wrote a very accurate account of the same spots,
and his conclusions are sounder than those of Hall, who
regarded the elevation of the sandstones of the Peninsula
as due to the rising up of the granite.
On the beach at Sea Point the junction of the two
rocks is an extremely interesting one. The slates have
been thoroughly permeated by the fluid granite, and
have a shredded structure with granite lying between
the slightly bent shreds of slate. Large orthoclase
crystals, in every way similar to those in the porphyritic
granite, have been formed in the lenticular areas be-
tween the laminae of slata'
Small areas of granite intrusive in the Malmesbury
beds are known in the south of Caledon, in the Hemel
en Aarde and Zondag's Kloof valleys, and again in the
western part of Bredasdorp.
1 Playfair (18).
^ Hutton, the leader of the old school of Vulcanists who insisted on
the igneous origin of such rocks as granite and basalt, in opposition to
the Neptunists, headed by Werner, who regarded these rocks as pre-
cipitates from the primeeval ocean, rendered an even greater service to
Geology by searching for explanations of geological phenomena in the
everyday events on shore and land. His teachings in this respect had
evidently been somewhat lost on Dr. Abel, who remarks that the Lion's
Head must have been violently torn from Table Mountain.
'Clarke Abel (18).
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44 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
In the narrow strip of Malmesbury beds north of
the Worcester fault there are at least three granitic
intrusions, all of which have been considerably affected
by earth movements since their intrusion, and to some
extent probably by movements during their consolida-
tion. There is an abundance of phyllite-gneiss, a rock
looking very like a highly micaceous clay-slate with
"eyes " and thin strings of obviously igneous material,
composed of quartz, orthoclase and mica. The ortho-
clase crystals often form the "eyes" with little other
granite material in the same lenticular area. The
largest mass of granite forms the high ridge just west
of Robertson.
The last granite area in the south of the Colony
that must be mentioned is that of George, a mass
very variable in composition, at least thirty miles long
from east to west, and from, four to eight miles wide.
It contains both muscovite- and biotite-granites with
tourmaline and fluor; gneissose rocks also occur in
the district.
The granite has in every case produced considerable
mineralogical changes in the surrounding rocks. The
result varies considerably in amount and nature, de-
pending chiefly upon the character of the rock invaded.
Highly quartzitic rocks are the least affected, and the
alteration seems to increase with the clay content of
the original slate. Up to the present time no metamor-
phosed calcareous rocks (except the marbles or crystal-
lised limestones) have been noticed in the southern part
of the Colony. The clay-slates become highly micaceous
near the granite ; sometimes, as in several places east of
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PRE-CAPE ROCKS OF THE SOUTH AND WEST 45
the Darling granite and in the George district, they be-
come typical mica-schists, rocks which glisten owing to
the innumerable flakes of pale mica arranged parallel
to one another, the other important constituent is
quartz. At Zwart Eiver Bridge, in George, a magni-
ficent section of chiastolite-schist, a rock composed of
chiastolite, mica, and quartz, can be seen ; the crystals
of chiastolite are often over two inches long. The
chiastolite-schist is found within a few yards of a
remarkably coarse two-mica granite, which also con-
tains tourmaline.
Near the Cape Town, the Paarl, Stellenbosch and
Somerset West granites the clay-slates become spotted
at about 300 yards from the contact; and the spots
are found in thin sections of the rock to be clear areas
amidst the general mass rendered brownish in colour
by the development of minute flakes of red-brown mica.
The clear spots are composed of very minute crystalline
grains of a mineral which has not been determined.
Minute grains of felspar, recognisable by their twinning,
have been developed in the spotted rocks, but they are
not abundant.
At several places in the south-western districts igne-
ous rocks of more basic composition than granite occur
as dykes in the Malmesbury beds and in the granite.
The dolerite dykes near Cape Town have been described
in detail by Cohen ^ ; they consist of augite, plagioclase
and mfcignetite. These rocks differ in some respects
jErom the average type of dolerite met with in the great
} Gohen (74), p. 10, etc., in the separate copies.
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46 GEOLOGY OP CAPE COLONY
central basin of the Colony, the third of the three
regions into which we divided the country. Although
some of the Karroo dolerites contain no olivine, that
mineral is very often present in them, and the rocks
generally have an ophitic structure. In the dolerites
of the Peninsula and Somerset West there is no olivine,
but the felspar is rarely enclosed by the augite, in other
words, they are seldom ophitic in structure. These differ-
ences are rather slight, especially when it is remembered
that they are based upon a comparison between about a
dozen representatives of the southern dykes and over
a hundred of the Karroo dolerites, taken from an im-
mense area. The analyses published by Cohen of one
of the Cape Town dykes and of thirteen of the Karroo
rocks, show that the former is very similar in compo-
sition to the latter. The Karroo dolerite is generally
less altered than the southern dykes.
The differences between the two sets of dolerites is
so slight, in fact, that they might well be considered
to belong to one and the same group of intrusions.
The age of the southern dykes is certainly younger
than that of the granite and Malmesbury beds ; as they
have not been observed traversing the Table Mountain
series they are generally looked upon as older than
that rock, but it is possible, on the supposition that
they belong to the same series as the Karroo dolerites,
that they were not able to break through the horizon-
tally overlying sandstones after reaching the limit of
the granite or slate. The junction of a dolerite dyke
and the sandstone has not yet been clearly seen, nor
have pebbles of dolerite been found in the sandstone, so
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PRE-CAPE ROCKS OF THE SOUTH AND WEST 47
the question of the relative ages of the two rocks is still
an open one.^
Some interesting rocks, which may be called dio-
rites and quartz-diorites, form rather limited dyke-like
masses in the granites of the Malmesbury district. At
Klein Paarde Berg there is a broad dyke about a mile
long, composed of hornblende, felspar, mica, quartz,
magnetite, apatite and zircon. It is a holocrystalline
rock, and the hornblende often encloses the felspar
crystals, so as to give the rock a partly ophitic struc-
ture ; some large crystals of mica (biotite) behave in
the same way. Most of the felspar belongs to the
oligoclasie series of the plagioclases, but there are
patches of a very much altered felspar, strongly con-
trasted to the clear crystals of plagioclase, which are
very probably orthoclase. Quartz is present in consid-
erable quantity, filling up the spaces between the other
minerals. The rock is little altered as a whole, but
some of the mica is replaced by chlorite, and some
epidote, derived from the alteration of other consti-
tuents, is present. Another variety of diorite in this
neighbourhood contains the same minerals as the one
just described, but monoclinic pyroxene, with the char-
acteristic diallage structure, is present in considerable
quantity, forming in thin sections ophitic plates enclos-
ing felspar. The pyroxene sometimes forms complicated
^ Since this was written it has come to the notice of the writer that
Mr. T. Stewart, M.I.G.E., exhibited a piece of dolerite from a dyke in
the sandstone of Table Mountain at a meeting of the S. A. Phil. Soc.
in 1896. Lately two such dykes have been mapped by the survey in
the T. M. S. of the Peninsula ; compare with the dykes in the same
rock of the Bokkeveld Mountain and Pondoland.
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48 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
intergrowths with the hornblende and also occurs in the
centre of large hornblende crystals ; in such cases one
set of prism cleavages is common to both minerals.
In the gneiss of Klein Dassen Berg there is a dioritic
dyke intruded parallel with the foliation planes of the
gneiss. The rock of this dyke is rather different from
the Klein Paarde Berg rock, in that the constituent
minerals, plagioclase, hornblende, and quartz form
nearly equal -sized grains, and none of them have
any proper crystal faces ; the structure is typically
granulitic. At Yzer Fontein Point is a large mass of
hornblendic rock, coarsely crystalline, with a banded
structure ; some thick layers are formed entirely of
green hornblende, and others, usually thinner, have a
fair proportion of plagioclase in them. These dioritic
rocks seem to be confined to the Malmesbury district.
In the George granite there are some dykes of horn-
blende - schist, composed of long and rather fibrous
crystals of green hornblende, arranged parallel to one
another, with a smaller quantity of quartz and plagio-
clase grains between them, and a still smaller amount of
epidote. This rock is evidently a highly altered basic dyke,
but there is as yet little evidence of its original nature.
The Cango Series.
In the Cango district, the country near the northern
boundary of Oudtshoorn on the southern flank of the
Zwartebergen, there is a group of sedimentary rocks
older than the Table Mountain sandstone, and therefore
usually classed with the Malmesbury beds. There are,
however, so many peculiarities in the Cango rocks
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PRE-CAPE ROCKS OF THE SOUTH AND WEST 49
which separate them from the bulk of the Pre-Cape
rocks of the Malmesbury and other divisions in the
south-west of the Colony, that it is advisable to dis-
tinguish them by some other name ; the term Cango
conglomerate^ has already been used for a prominent
band of rock in the series, and it will be convenient to
call the whole group the Cango series.
The series forms a lenticular area about seventy miles
in length from east to west, from near Amalienstein
(Ladismith) to some few miles east of Meiring's Poort,
and at the most about nine miles wide. The Table
Mountain series bounds the area on the north, and the
southern limit is formed by the conglomerates of the
Uitenhage series between Meiring's Poort and Calitzdorp,
a distance of fifty miles ; west of Calitzdorp the sand-
stones of the Table Mountain series overlie the Cango
beds along their southern limit, and farther west again
the sandstone is faulted down against them, the fault
being so formed that its throw increases and brings the
Bokkeveld beds into contact with the Cango; some
miles east of Meiring*s Poort, also, the Bokkeveld beds
are faulted down against the Pre-Cape rocks, and there
can be no doubt that this fault, exactly comparable to
the Worcester fault, is continued westwards under the
covering of Uitenhage beds at least as far as Cahtzdorp,
and is probably continuous with that already mentioned
west of the village (see Figs. 6 and 7).
Along almost the whole length of the northern
boundary the Table Mountain series dips at a high angle
' Oeol C<mm, (98), pp. 7, 68. etc.
4
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50
GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
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PRE-CAPE ROCKS OP THE SOUTH AND WEST 51
southwards below the Cango beds, and the latter dip at
approximately the same angle in a southerly direction.
At the south end of the Gamka Poort, where there is
one of the very few clean cut sections of the junction of
the two formations, there appears to be a conformable
passage between the two. At other spots, however,
such as the south end of Meiring's Poort, the Table
Mountain series dips steeply to the north, and lies
unconformably upon the older beds which dip at a still
higher angle to the south; the contact of different
members of the Cango beds with the base of the Table
Mountain series at various points corroborates the evi-
dence of the Meiring's Poort section, so there is* no
doubt that the junction is an unconformable one. It
is very probable that the Table Mountain sandstone
was deposited upon the then nearly horizontal Cango
beds, which had suffered some denudation, so that the
base of the former group rested upon different horizons
of the latter series at different localities. During the
great earth movements that produced the Zwartebergen
the two series were together folded and inverted, so that
at places the older beds appear to overlie the younger
conformably.
The Cango beds usually have high southerly dips, but
in the neighbourhood of Kruis River, west of the road
up the Zwartberg Pass, the strike is north-east. The
top or bottom of a fold is occasionally seen; this in-
dicates that the series is thrown into isoclinal folds, and
that the observed great thickness of southerly dipping
beds is really due to the repeated folding of a much
smaller thickness of rocks. The true succession of the
4*
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52 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
members of the series is rather uncertain, and the
bottom has not been found.
The series consists of conglomerates, quartz-felspar
grits, quartzites, slates and limestones, in all a very
considerable thickness of rock, not under 10,000 feet.
These are accompanied by intrusive rocks of the nature
of diabase or altered dolerite (see Fig. 7). The con-
glomerates lie next to the Table Mountain sandstone
in the western part of the area ; in the central portion
the limestone lies in a similar position, elsewhere slates
or quartzites are in contact with the sandstone. At
the Gamka Poort thick bands of conglomerate are in
contact with the Table Mountain series.' There are
several varieties of conglomerate in the Cango beds,
differing chiefly in the nature of their contained pebbles
and in the amount of shearing they have undergone.
In the west, on the hills north of the Ladismith Boad
near Vaartwell, the conglomerate has been sheared to
such an extent that the original forms of the pebbles
(slaty rocks and vein-quartz) are no longer recognisable,
and in many cases the exact limit between pebble and
matrix is indefinite. Farther east the conglomerates
are more normal in character, but the efifects of shearing
are still very evident. In Schoeman's Poort, where
excellent sections through the conglomerate are exposed
by the roadside, large pebbles or boulders of granite and
diabase are seen in it. The occurrence of these is in-
teresting, as it proves the Cango beds to be later in
age than some rocks — possibly the Malmesbury beds —
which were invaded by granite and diabase before they
furnished sediments for the building up of the Cango
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PRE-CAPE ROCKS OF THE SOUTH AND WEST 53
beds. So far as is known at present there is no uncon-
formity at the base of the conglomerates of which there
are at least two bands, and although in the Grobbelaar's
Valley, and other places farther west, slates are seen on
either side of the steeply inclined conglomerate, it is
even difficult to decide which is the top and which the
bottom of that rock. It may be that the bottom is
nowhere seen, and the slates on either flank of the
conglomerate overlie the latter.
A remarkable group of beds, formed chiefly of various
sized fragments of quartz and felspar, extends for a
considerable distance along the strike of the Cango
series, half a mile north of the conglomerate between
Grobbelaar's Eiver and Matj'e's Eiver. The felspar
occurs in fragments of such size and form that in
places the rock has the appearance of a porphyritic
granite. When examined under the microscope in
thin sections the quartz and felspar are seen to be
broken crystals, although the crystalline form of the
quartz is occasionally seen. The felspar is mostly
microcline, but albite is frequently, and orthoclase
occasionally, met with. These minerals are enclosed
in a ground mass chiefly composed of small grains of
quartz and minute flakes of sericite, a pale micaceous
mineral; small flakes of brown mica are sometimes
found taking the place of the sericite. The mica forms
a thin casing round the large grains of quartz and
felspar, and the two latter minerals are often seen
almost in contact with a very thin film of sericite be-
tween them. The sericite occurs in this rock in the
same manner as in many gneisses and conglomerates
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54 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
that have been subjected to great pressures in the
earth's crust. In some localities the rock shows a
distinct schistosity, and in thin* sections the large
quartz fragments are seen to be elongated in the plane
of schistosity, and have patches of interlocking grains
of quartz at their two ends, as if the material had been
removed from the sides of the fragments and deposited
at the ends. The minute sericite flakes lie in one direc-
tion, along the planes of schistosity. The quartz-felspar
rock of the Gango is very like the so-called porphyroids,
and appears to have been a sedimentary rock composed
chiefly of fragments of quartz and felspar, in which
the micaceous minerals have been developed by pres-
sure. In places bedding planes are distinctly seen, and
varieties intermediate between the porpbyroid and ordi-
nary grits with few felspar fragments have been found
between the main band of porpbyroid and the southern
slope of the Zwartebergen. In the valley from which
the Cango caves are entered three beds of conglomerate,
a quartz-felspar grit with rounded boulders and pebbles
of granite, mica schist, quartzite, crystalline limestone,
and vein quartz, are seen in the stream bed below the
caves. The transitional varieties and the conglomerates
certainly support the conclusion that the porpbyroid of
the Cango is a sedimentary rock, but whether it was
formed by debris derived from a granitic region, or
whether it is of the nature of a volcanic tuff is not
clear; the abundance of microcline in the porpbyroid
and the absence of lavas from the district favour the
former supposition.
There are many bands of limestone in the Cango
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PRE-CAPE ROCKS OF THE SOUTH AND WEST 56
beds, sometimes of great thickness ; they are lenticular
in fonn, but to what extent this is due to folding has
not been determined. The chief limestone band is that
which is in contact with the sandstones of the Zwarte-
bergen near the south end of the Zwartberg Pass. It
extends for some fifteen miles eastwards, and in it are
the famous Cango Caves.^ The cave, at least that part
known in 1897, is nearly 750 yards long, and is probably
of still greater extent. The explored portion of this
cave lies in a nearly straight Une. There can be no
doubt that the cave has been formed by the solution of
the limestone, aided by the breaking away of the roof
and sides and the removal of the debris by running
water. The cave has not been suflBciently explored to
explain its formation fully, and the level of the floor at
various points is not known. The floor itself is at least
partly made of debris cemented with calcareous tufa
and stalagmite. The walls and roof of the cave, in
those parts which have not been disfigured by the
smoke of candles, are very beautiful, ovnng to the
number, form, and brilliance of the stalactites attached
to them. Other caves, the entrance to which is often
on the face of cU£f8 along the sides of the valleys, await
exploration in the Cango district. The band of lime-
stone in which the great cave is situated is about 1,800
feet thick, but when traced to the east or west it gradu-
ally becomes thinner. The limestone in the Cango beds
is crystalline and dark grey in colour and usually con-
* For a description of tVic cave see G. S. C. Corstorphine, Ann. Hep,
(9G), p. 34 ; a plan of the cave by H. M. Luttman Jolinson accompanies
the description.
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56 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
tains some magnesium carbonate, but in some localities
it is sufficiently pure to yield good lime. Occasionally
oolitic beds are met with, and when examined under the
microscope these are found to contain organic remains,
although no determinable shell has been seen. These
are the only traces of fossils hitherto found in the Cango
series.
Slates and fine quartzitic grits form a great part
of the series. The slates are irregularly cleaved, and
no rock of use for roofing has been found amongst
them.
The intrusive rocks in the Cango district are nearly
all altered to such an extent that the original minerals
composing them have been replaced by others. At
present the chief components are the fibrous variety of
hornblende called uralite, green hornblende, augite,
epidote, chlorite, felspar, quartz, calcite, sericite, magne-
tite, apatite, and brown mica. The greater number of
the dykes were originally dolerites without olivine, made
up principally of augite and felspar; some contained
much hornblende which still remains in the rock.
The augite has been mostly altered to urahte, but
kernels of the former mineral are still left within the
patches of fibrous hornblende. The rock has often an
ophitic structure, the felspar crystals lying partly or
wholly within the patches of fibrous hornblende de-
rived from augite. The calcite is sometimes sufficiently
abundant in the rock to cause it to effervesce like an
impure limestone when a drop of dilute acid is put on
it. The calcite is often seen to partly replace the large
crystals of felspar, but most of it occurs in the ground
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PRE-CAPE ROCKS OF THE SOUTH AND WEST 57
mass of the rock. It is to be looked upon as one pro-
duct of decomposition of the lime-soda felspar which
once formed a large part of the rock. Epidote is often
a very abundant constituent, and is probably derived
from the lime-soda felspar. Little of the original felspar
remains, although the outlines of that which has been
altered to other minerals can usually be found in thin
sections, and in the case of porphyritic crystals the
pseudomorphs are easily seen by the naked eye.
Dykes of these altered rocks are fairly numerous in
all parts of the Cango district ; they are usually only a
few feet in width, but are traceable for considerable
distances. In the valley of the Nels Eiver in the
eastern Cango there are fifteen dykes in the slates
within a distance of two miles, all traversing the rocks
parallel with or at a small angle to their strike. In
the valley of the river which leaves the Cango through
Coetzee's Poort three dykes are seen, the northernmost
one is six feet thick, the second over 100 feet, and the
southernmost is of much greater size and makes an out-
crop nearly a mile in width. This great intrusive mass
has been traced for twelve miles along the southern
edge of the Cango between Coetzee's and Potgieter's
Poorts, forming rather prominent deep red hills (see
Fig. 7). It is a pecuHar type of rock, with much horn-
blende forming ophitic plates enclosing the felspar, the
hornblende is colourless and seems to have been formed
from augite. The Gamka Eiver, above the Ladismith
Eoad, crosses a dyke of peculiar diabase, in which the
rather long crystals of felspar form radiating star-shaped
bundles. Beyond a marked hardening of the slates or
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68 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
grits in contact with the thicker dykes, there is Uttle
alteration in the sedimentary rocks near them.
It has already been said that some rocks resembling
parts of the Cango beds occur in the neighbourhood of
Saron and Honig Berg, perhaps overlying the Malmes-
bury beds unconformably. There is no evidence in
the Cango bearing directly upon the correlation of the
distant outcrops, as no beds which can be determined
as belonging to the Malmesbury series have been found
in the district. The presence of granite boulders in the
Cango conglomerates may indicate the later age of those
conglomerates as compared with the granite intrusions
of the so-called Malmesbury beds of the southern part
of the Colony, George, and Mossel Bay. The quartz-
felspar grits may have had a similar origin. In the
absence of more reliable evidence this is of some worth.*
There are some points of resemblance to the Cango beds
in the Ibiquas series north-east of Van Ehyn's Dorp to
be noticed hereafter. At present it is useless to attempt
to compare the ages of the Cango beds and the sedi-
mentary rocks of Prieska and Griqualand West. All
that can be said is that they are both older than the
Cape formation.
The Ibiquas Series.
In the west of Calvinia and east of Van Ehyn's
Dorp there is an area of conglomerates, grits, slates,
and sandstones lying unconformably below the Table
Mountain series of the Bokkeveld Mountain, and so
* See CorstorphiDe, GeoL Convn. (98), p. 12.
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PRE-CAPE ROCKS OF THE SOUTH AND WEST 59
distinct from the Malmesbury beds of the west and
south of Van Ehyn's Dorp, upon which they appear
to rest unconformably, that they have been placed in
a separate group under the name Ibiquas beds.^ These
beds occupy the greater part of the valley of the Doom
River behind the Stink Fontein Poort, where they can
be well seen. The beds are considerably folded, but on
the whole they dip eastwards, so that the base of the
series Ues on the western side of the area. The lower
part of the series consists of conglomerates and grits,
evidently derived from a granitic area, as granite and
quartz-porphyry pebbles are conspicuous amongst the
contents of the conglomerates, and the grits contain
much quartz and felspar; sometimes these two min-
erals are so abundant as to make the rock an arkose.
There is thus a resemblance in these rocks to the
quartz-felspar grits of the Cango, but the porphyroids
of the Cango are as yet unknown in the Ibiquas series.
The Ibiquas beds, like the Cango, have not (so far as
is known) been invaded by granite, but only contain
fragments of that rock in the conglomerates. The
Cango beds are not known to rest unconformably
upon the Malmesbury series, but there is at least strong
presumptive evidence that the Ibiquas lie discordantly
upon the latter in Van Ehyn's Dorp. In each case
there is a weaker discordance with the overlying Table
Mountain series than exists at the junction between
the latter and the Malmesbury beds. These points of
similarity between the far separated Ibiquas and Cango
' Oeol Comvh (00), p. 25, etc.,
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60 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
series suggest that they may belong to one and the
same group of rocks, but until fossils are found in them
the question cannot be settled.
Above the conglomerates and grits of the lower part
of the series lie slates, sandy shales and sandstones,
which rarely show distinct cleavage planes, such as are
almost always seen in similar rocks in the Malmesbury
beds. The shales and sandstones are met with on the
steep escarpment of the Bokkeveld Mountain, and in
the Doom Eiver Valley. They are rather like the
shales and sandstones of the Bokkeveld beds, but the
thick groups of sandstone beds, so characteristic of the
latter, are not found in the Ibiquas series.
Bipple markings are extremely well preserved in
many of the sandstones throughout the series, and point
to the deposition of the beds in shallow water. Large
tracks and castings of some worm-like animal are
occasionally abundant, but these are the only fossils
known from the series. The nature of the rocks seems
very favourable for the preservation of organic remains,
and they are more likely to yield recognisable fossils
than any other Pre-Cape rocks in the south and west
of the Colony. They are unfortunately situated in a
district which is thinly populated and difficult to get
at. The thickness of the Ibiquas beds must be very
considerable ; on the face of the Bokkeveld escarpment
over 1,500 feet of these beds are exposed, but the base is
some distance from the foot of the escarpment, and the
highest beds visible lie about fifteen miles to the east,
where they are covered by the Dwyka conglomerate.
Although the beds are partly repeated by folding be-
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south folds. CO
PRECAPE ROCKS OF THE SOUTH AND WEST 61
tween the western and eastern boundaries, their whole
thickness must be several thou-
sands of feet. ^ S
The northern limit of the beds S
is a fault, along which they have «
been let down against the granite J
and gneiss of Bushmanland. The ^ g
fault is seen on Ezel Kop Vlakte « -:
and Klomp Boomen, two farms fl "I "S
west and south-west of Loeries fe g j-S
2 "•£ •
Fontein, but its western course 'c .3 * «
has not been traced. The throw S ^ J «
of this fault is not known. As the §J ^»o«>*
Ibiquas beds nowhere show any *g
signs of contact metamorphism ^^^
due to the proximity of the granite ^^
underground, and as they contain ^^ ^
large quantities of material derived ^ -S S
from a granitic region probably *"^ |
not far away from the neighbour- ^'-^ J
hood, the Bushmanland granite -^> 1 1
may be safely regarded as the g .^3^
older rock. The fohation planes g Jg|
in the gneiss of the Langebergen « ^*c^«
and the south end of Bushman- g
land have a nearly east and west ^
strike, and would seem to belong §
to a much older period than the
movements which gave the Ibiquas
beds their prevalent north and ^ 6
GQ
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62 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
The only intrusive rocks hitherto foiind in the Ibiquas
beds are dykes of dolerite, evidently belonging to the
same group of intrusions that form the sheets and dykes
in the country occupied by the Karroo formation to the
east and^outh-east.
The section in Fig. 8 illustrates the structure of the
Ibiquas beds in the Doom. Eiver Valley. The line of
section is so chosen that it runs across the fault on
Klomp Boomen, and also through the Dwyka con-
glomerate resting upon the Table Mountain sandstone
of the Bokkeveld Mountain on the south-west, and
upon the granite on the north-east of the Doom Biver
Valley ; but if the section had been drawn along a line
a few miles to the south of that chosen, the conglomer-
ate would lie upon the Ibiquas beds.
Up to the present time the Ibiquas beds have not been
found in the Malmesbury Division, but lately a group of
comparatively unaltered shales and reddish sandstones
has been noticed lying unconformably below the Table
Mountain sandstone at two places on the Verloren
Vley Biver in Piquetberg. The outcrops are on the
farm Witte Drift within a few yards of the highly
altered sericitic slates belonging to the Malmesbury
beds. Although the actual contact of the shales and
sandstones with the slates is obscured by alluvial de-
posits there is little room for doubt that the former rest
unconformably upon the latter. These shales and sand-
stones may be regarded as part of the Ibiquas group,
although there is no evidence from fossils to rely upon.
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CHAPTEE III.
THE PRE-bAPE ROCKS OP THE NORTH AND NORTH-WEST.
Turning now from the southern and western districts
to those lying north of the central basin of the Colony
we find that no parallelism can at present be instituted
between the rocks of the two areas, and the intervening
country, composed probably to a great extent of granite
and gneiss, is scarcely known from a geological point of
view. The country lying between the Langebergen in
the south end of Bashmanland and the Kaaing Bult,
between Eenhardt and Prieska, including Bushmanland
and the Kenhardt Division, has been traversed by Wyley
and Dunn, but very slight accounts could be expected
from rapid journeys through it, and they leave the con-
nection between the better known rocks in Prieska and
in Calvinia and Van Bhyn's Dorp quite unexplained.
The geology of West Griqualand was described by the
late G. W. Stow,^ and in the map published vnth his
paper the extension of some of the various rock groups
south of the Orange Eiver in the Prieska Division is
roughly indicated. When the geological survey of the
Prieska country was made in 1899 ^ Stow's classification
was found to hold good, so the vp,rious names used by
» Stow (73).
^ Qeol, Comm.t (99) ; the whole division has not yet been mapped.
63
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64 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
him for the West Griqualand groups of rock were ap-
plied to the Prieska beds. There are several important
points, however, which are not yet clear, and a vast
amount of work still awaits the geological explorer in
those regions. Stow's paper, one of the most important
contributions to Colonial geology yet published, has suf-
fered from a want of arrangement of the large array of
facts contained in it, but it should be read by all who are
interested in the north of the Colony.
Prieska and Griqualand West have an additional
interest from the circumstance that some of the rock
groups which occur there are very probably continuous
with the formations overlying the Witwatersrand beds
of the Transvaal (Cape system of Dr. Molengraaff). This
part of the subject will be returned to after the structure
of the country and the formations have been described.
Granite and gneiss form most of the lower lying part
of Griqualand West and Prieska, rarely rising far above
the generally sandy ground in hills or **tors" as the
granitic rocks in Bushmanland and in the south-western
districts do. The higher ground is composed of sedi-
mentary rocks greatly altered from their original condi-
tion both by pressure and by the intrusion of the granitic
rocks. The chief hill ranges are : (1) the Campbell Band,
or Eaap Plateau, trending south-west through Griqua-
land West, and having no continuation in Prieska ;
(2) the Asbestos Mountains, parallel to the Campbell
Band on the western side, turning through almost a
right angle where cut through by the Orange Eiver
and continued in Prieska by the Doombergen trending
south-east ; (3) the ranges of Mats^p and the Lange-
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PRECAPE ROCKS: NORTH AND NORTH-WEST 65
bergen, with a south-south-west trend continued south
of the rivers in Ezel Rand ; and (4) the Schurfteberg
trending south on the north bank of the river, and con-
tinued at first in a similar direction but farther south
by the Brakbosch Poort range trending south-east,
parallel to the Doornbergen, in Prieska. There are
many smaller groups of hills parallel to the larger ranges
and rising to moderate heights above the granitic plains
which surround them.
It was stated in the introductory chapter that the hill
ranges are parallel with the strike of the rocks compos-
ing them ; the change in direction of the strike of the
rocks indicated by the bending of the hill ranges near
the Orange Biver is a fact of the greatest importance in
the structure of that part of the Colony.
The sedimentary rocks of these districts are divided
up into the following groups from above downwards : —
4. Mats&p series.
3. Griqua Town series.
2. Campbell Band series.
1. 'Keis series.
The 'Keis Series.
The oldest rocks in Prieska are the quartzites and
mica-schists of the 'Keis series, which fonn a long range
or rather group of ranges of hills stretching from the
Schurfteberg on the north of the river to Jonker Water,
ninety miles to the south-south-east, where they dis-
appear under the Dwyka conglomerate. Inliers still
farther south prove that they extend a few miles beyond
the end of the main mass, but how far they stretch
beneath the covering of the Karroo formation is un-
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66 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
known. The dip of these rocks at the north end of the
district is at high angles to the north-west, but on Ezel
Klauw the dip changes to west and north-west, on
Kaboom to west, and farther south still, from Brul Pan
to Jonker Water the dip is west-south-west.
The quartzites are remarkably uniform in character,
and have not been found to pass into conglomerate
beds ; they are light in colour and contain small flakes
of mica. By the increase in the amount of mica there
is a gradual passage into mica-schists very rich in mica.
The more micaceous the mica-schist is the more readily
it disintegrates, and it is difficult to obtain fresh speci-
mens of the highly micaceous rock, even from the bottom
of wells from 40 to 70 feet deep. This is a remarkable
fact in such a dry country as Prieska, where those pro-
cesses of disintegration which depend upon the presence
of moisture are very much reduced. As a consequence
of their friable nature the mica-schists occur chiefly in
the valleys ; they have in fact determined the positions
of the minor valleys in the country occupied by the
*Keis series. The floors of the valleys are almost always
deeply covered with sand derived from the rocks in the
neighbourhood.
It has been found impossible to distinguish between
the planes of bedding and those of schistosity in the
mica-schist, and the same is the case with some of the
quartzites belonging to the *Keis series.
At Klein Modderfontein, on the north-east side of the
outcrops of the 'Keis series, a rock similar to the highly
micaceous schist, with the important addition of im-
mense numbers of crystals of almandine garnet, occurs,
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PRE-CAPE ROCKS : NORTH AND NORTH-WEST 67
interbedded with the nsual quartzites of the deries. In
parts of the garnet rock the mica disappears and the
garnets are embedded in quartz; often stained with
green copper compounds.
Along the greater part of theit course the 'Keis beds
are flanked on either side by granite or gneiss, and areas
of these rocks also occur in the heart of the series at
Kaboom, Brakbosch Poort, and probably other places.
At Boschiesman's Berg and Van Wyk*s Pan tongue-
shaped masses of gneiss project into the series from the
great granitic area. These tracts of igneous rock are
elongated in the direction of the strike of the *Keis beds,
and the foUation and planes of schistosity of the two
rocks are parallel. On Grenaat's Eop there is an inlier
of *Keis beds surrounded by the Dwyka conglomerate,
and a comparatively narrow dyke of granite traverses
the inlier in a direction at right angles to the strike of
the latter. The Grenaat's Kop dyke is the only clear
case of intrusion of the granite in the 'Keis series seen
in the district. In other parts the contact of the igneous
and sedimentary rocks has not been seen, owing to the
thick covering of sand, and it would be possible to
account for many of the facts observed on the supposi-
tion that the *Keis series was deposited upon a floor of
granite and that at some subsequent period the rocks
were intensely folded, so that on the one hand ridges of
gneissose granite were formed projecting into the quartz-
ites and schists, and on the other steeply folded synclines
of the sediments went down into the granite.
At many places in the granitic areas both east and
west of the ridges of *Keis hills there are isolated len-
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68 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
ticular patches of highly metamorphosed rocks, mica-
schists, and banded hornstone-like rocks with much
epidote and quartz in them, bearing evidence of having
been of sedimentary origin, as well as quartzites. These
detached outcrops were probably once connected with
the main area of the 'Keis beds. There are other
masses of altered sedimentary rocks situated in the
granite areas more Uke beds in the Griqua Town and
Campbell Band series, and it will be more convenient to
give a further account of the relation of the granite and
gneiss to the *Keis series after these have been described.
Stow^ described the occurrence of some ** ancient
schistose " rocks lying unconformably below the Camp-
bell Band series west of Campbell Town; they are
quartzitic rocks with calcareous matter added by in-
filtration from the overlying beds. These older rocks
are also marked on his map as being found north of
Jonker Water in Prieska, but the outcrops at the latter
place undoubtedly belong to the 'Keis beds. The
** ancient schistose " rocks near Campbell Town seem,
from Stow's account, to be similar to parts of the 'Keis
series also, so it is not unlikely that there is direct evi-
dence of the unconformable succession of the Campbell
Band to the 'Keis beds in West Griqualand. In Prieska
no evidence on this point has been obtained, as the
Campbell Band beds hitherto recognised there are only
found at some considerable distance from the older
series.
A bed of limestone, presumably interbedded with the
quartzites and mica-schists, has been found on the farm
1 Stow (78), p. 619, and PI. XXXIX., Fig. 4.
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PRE-CAPE ROCKS : NORTH AND NORTH-WEST 69
LJ
Kaboom in the 'Keis hills on the
western boundary of Prieska, a
point of resemblance to the ^
Campbell Rand beds. ^
The thickness of the 'Keis beds ^
is not known, but it is probably S
several thousands of feet. -S ^
^ I §
The Campbell Rand Series. "Ill
1 ...^
The Campbell Rand series | ^il
forms the Kaap Plateau, or »> 2 1 ^
Campbell Rand, in West Gri- . ^.^^
qualand, a wide area on the :|
eastern side of the Asbestos «
Mountains with a steep escarp- S
ment towards the east ; similarly -i »
in Prieska they occur on the ^ I
eastern side of the Doornbergen, g j
although chiefly as inliers sur- 'p ^
rounded by the Dwyka con- ^ ^ i
glomerate. To the north of the S y
Orange River as well as to the ^ Ij M
south they appear again on the ^ «|| §
western side of the bent range 2 ^&'^&
of the Asbestos Mountains and ^ rnc^w^
o
Doornbergen. The Campbell '|
Rand beds dip under the Griqua ^
Town series of which the bent °|
range is composed, thus form- g
ing a wide syncline or trough ^
(see Fig. 9). CO
o
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70 GEOLO<^Y OF CAPE COLONY
The Campbell Band beds consist of quartzites, mica-
ceous schistS) limestones and cherts. The true base of
the series has not been recognised in Prieska, but it is
almost invariably the case that the limestones are un-
derlain by a considerable amount of quartzite, varying
from 200'to 2,000 feet in thickness. At Zeekoe Baard
in Prieska the quartzites are apparently conformably
underlain^ by green slates, which have not been seen
elsewhere in the series. The lowest beds of the series
in the Eaap Plateau are limestones and quartzites, but
there does not seem to be such a definite group of quart-
zites at or near the base in that district as there is in
Prieska.
The quartzites in Prieska are of very much the same
nature as those belonging to the 'Keis beds, but mica-
schists are much less extensively developed than in the
latter series.
The limestones are dark coloured and thoroughly
crystalline, usually weathering with a peculiarly rough
brown surface, a character that has led to the rock
being known as 01iphant*s Klip from its resemblance
to an elephant*s skin. The limestone often contarinsf
a certain percentage of magnesium carbonate, and is
therefore a dolomitic limestone.
On the. right bank of the Orange River, opposite Buis
Valley, there are some fine vertical clifiFs of the lime-
stones rising straight out of the water for some distance
along the river ; the face of the cliflf is indented as if by
shallow caves, but there seem to be no caves of any
noteworthy extent as there are in the Cango limestones
and in the dolomitic limestones of the Transvaal, al-
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PRE-CAPE ROCKS : NORTH AND N0RTH-WE8T 71
though the latter very probably belong to the same
series as the Prieska rock.
Thin layers of chert, often somewhat irregular and
nodular, are very abundant in the limestones. Although
several specimens have been carefully examined under
the microscope for traces of organisms that have been
found in rocks of this nature in many parts of the world,
nothing obviously of organic origin has yet been seen
in them. The chert is a very hard rock which breaks
into pieces with sharp, splintery edges. The hardness
of the chert made it a suitable one for the natives to
use as rough cutting and scraping tools, but it seems to
have been less used for such purposes than the jasper
of the succeeding group of rocks. The beds and nodules
of chert stand out from the general surface of the lime-
stones in which they lie, owing to the more rapid
solution of the limestone, and give rise in places to re-
markably jagged and uneven surfaces.
No fossils have been recorded from the Campbell Band
beds ; but of late years one has heard so many rumours
and statements to the effect that they have been seen
in more than one locality in West Griqualand, that the
discovery of some recognisable forms may be confidently
expected. Any such find will be of very great interest,
for without fossils the age of the old rocks in the north
can never be satisfactorily determined.
On the farm called Alicedale in Prieska, there is a
band of crystalline limestone about fifty feet thick
associated with mica-schist, quartzite, and magnetic
quartzite, the latter is like some of the rocks belonging
to the Griqua Town series ; the beds dip vertically and
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72 (lEOLOOY OF CAPE COLONY
form a lenticular area surrounded by granite. The
mica-schist contains coarse veins of pegmatitic granite
with large plates of white mica. The limestone has a
band of schistose rock in it with crystals of almandine
garnet as much as two inches in diameter. The garnet
seems to be a product of metamorphism due to the
proximity of the granite. Whether the mica-schist
belongs to the Umestone and quartzitic group of the
Campbell Eand group is not certain.
The limestone of Zeekoe Baard contains thin beds of
red jasper, like some of the jaspers of the Griqua Town
series, but the occurrence of jasper interbedded with
the limestone strata seems to be more frequent to the
north of the river than in the Prieska Division.
The maximum thickness of the Campbell Rand series
is about 7,000 feet in Prieska, but towards the south-
eastern part of the Doornbergen it disappears or gets
very thin, a fact of which the true explanation has not
been ascertained.
Some rather large masses of galena are met with near
the base of the Campbell Rand beds on the western
flank of the Doornbergen near their northern end.
Curious veins of white quartz and pink orthoclase are
found in the limestones at Zeekoe Baard.
The relationship of the Campbell Rand group to the
overlying Griqua Town series is best seen between
Nauga and Buis Valley, where they have undergone
less disturbance than farther to the south-east. The
structure of this part of the Doornbergen is broadly a
double syncline, and is represented in Fig. 9. The
limestones dip under the Griqua Town beds on Kalk
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PRE-OAPE ROCKS: NORTH AND NORTH WEST 73
Fontein, reappear in a narrow anticline on that farm,
and pass under the higher beds again to the east, and
rise to fomi the banks of the Orange Eiver on Buis
Valley. To the south-east, along the south-western
flank of the hills, the beds are frequently overturned,
so that the Griqua Town beds dip at high angles under
the limestones, and these in their turn under the quart-
zites of the base of the Campbell Band group.
The Griqua Town Series.
The Griqua Town series forms the rugged hilly
country that stretches sixty-five miles south-eastwards
from the Orange Biver at Kameel Puts to Doornberg's
Fontein, generally known as the Doornbergen. To the
north of the river the series passes north-eastwards in
the Asbestos Mountains, and extends far into Bechuana-
land, probably reaching the borders of the Transvaal,
but nothing definite is yet known of that part of the
country.
The series consists of peculiarly heavy green slaty
rocks with quartzites and jaspers containing large
quantities of magnetite. Much of the rock is banded,
the thin layers having slightly different colours of which
deep red, bright red, brown and black are the most
usual. The black layers are almost entirely composed
of minute crystals and grains of magnetite, with a little
quartz between the grains; every intermediate stage
between almost pure magnetite and pure quartzite can
be found ; the quartzites with least magnetite in them
are met with near the base of the series. The Doorn-
bergen, as a whole, contain so much magnetite that a
magnetic compass is pf very little use in their neigh-
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?4 GEOLOGY OF OAPE COLONY
bourhood. The jaspers are very fine grained rocks
which break with a smooth conchoidal fracture. They
are made up of extremely minute crystaUine particles
of quartz, and are coloured by oxides of. iron of various
degrees of hydration. The crystalline structure is due
to changes that have taken place since the formation
of the sediments. The jaspers often contain much
magnetite in small grains and crystals. In the lower
part of the series near Prieska Poort some highly ferru-
ginous rocks with oolitic structure are interbedded with
the more usual type of rock. The oolitic beds were
probably ferruginous hmestones that have been altered
to their present condition. The magnetic quartzites
and jaspers were probably highly ferruginous rocks
when deposited; the thin layers of various composi-
tions continue for considerable distances without ap-
preciable variation, and are inexplicable on the assump-
tion that the iron was brought into its present position
by infiltration.
The Griqua Town beds are the home of the blue
crocidolite (a fibrous amphibole related to riebeckite),
which is used for various purposes under the name of
asbestos ; ^ the alteration product due to the oxidation
and slight enrichment by quartz of the amphibole
fibres is called griqualandite. There are many stages
in the process ; sometimes the crocidolite is partly
replaced by quartz before any oxidation takes place,
and a hard blue mineral results, in other cases the
1 Trae asbestos is another variety of amphibole ; another mineral,
chrysotile, found in veins in serpentine, is often called asbestos, and is
used for similar purposes.
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PRE-CAPE ROCKS: NORTH AND NORTH-WEST f5
oxidation, made obvious by the yellow-brown colour of
the fibres, is in advance of the silicification. The
ultimate product is a very hard mineral which takes
a fine polish, and has a dehcate fibrous structure pre-
served in it giving rise to the beautiful chatoyant lustre
characteristic of the mineral. The unaltered crocidoUte
is found in blue-green, heavy, slaty rocks, which are
much softer than the jaspers. Thin vein-like layers
of crocidolite parallel to the bedding planes are found
in the slates, usually in places where the slates are
bent, and the layers are thickest in the crests and
troughs of the folds, often disappearing altogether when
followed along the limbs. The fibres stand perpendi-
cular to the surfaces of the layers. The griqualandite
occurs only in the jasper slates ; these facts point to the
simultaneous conversion of the heavy slates into jasper
rocks, and of the crocidolite into griqualandite.
The surface of some of the beds in the series bear
well-preserved ripple markings, which are crossed by a
sharply defined set of ridges and troughs due to sub-
sequent movements in the rocks.
The Griqua Town beds are often very much folded ;
in the Doornbergen they occupy the bottom of a trough-
shaped fold running north-west, which is partly over-
turned, so that on the south-west flank of the range
they dip south-west towards the granitic area between
that range and the ridge of 'Keis hills on the western
border of the division of Prieska. There are many
isolated patches of highly magnetic quartzites and white
quartzites, which rise above the general surface of the
granite and gneiss. One such mass is twenty miles
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76 GEOLOGY OP CAPE COLONY
long; it stretches from Zwart Kop Pan to Jackals
Water. Whether it belongs to the Griqua Town or
Campbell Band group is uncertain, but it and the other
similarly situated lenticular masses may be looked upon
as pieces of the same rocks that form the Doornbergen,
separated from the main area by denudation in an in-
tensely folded district, that is further complicated by the
intrusion of the granitic rocks, as well as other igneous
materials which we shall speak of later.
The thickness of the Griqua Town series is not
known, but it must be considerable, although the ap-
parent thickness in Prieska is certainly much increased
by folding. The top of the group has not yet been
found.
The Mats.<p Series.
The Mats&p series forms the Ezel Band in Prieska,
and the Langebergen and Matsip hills to the north of
the Orange Biver. It is composed of quartzites and
coarse grits with conglomerates at the base. The con-
glomerates contain many pebbles of jasper and magnetic
rocks probably derived from the Griqua Town beds.
The grits usually have a peculiarly mottled colour.
The quartzites and grits are distinguishable in even
small pieces from both the Campbell Band and *Keis
quartzites. In the Ezel Band the beds dip towards the
north-north-west at fairly high angles, and are at least
3,000 feet thick. In the Langebergen they are more
folded than in the Ezel Band, but parts of the rock in
the latter range also show evidence of having been
subjected to great pressure and movements ; some of
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PRE-CAPE ROCKS: NORTH AND NORTH-WEST 77
C
the conglomerates, for instance, have
distinction between pebbles
and matrix owing to the
shearing that has taken place
in them.
The Matsap beds of Ezel
Band seem to be in contact
with four distinct groups of
rock, the 'Keis beds and
granite on the north-west of
the extreme north-eastern end
of the hills, the limestones of
the Campbell Band for about
a mile on the south-east flank,
and the great amygdaloidal
melaphyre group throughout
the rest of their boundary
(see Fig. 10).
In West Griqualand, Stow^
held the opinion that the
Matsap beds were succeeded
by, and probably were older
than, the schistose rocks of
*Keis, but from the evidence
in Prieska it seems more
likely that the 'Keis rocks are
the oldest sedimentary beds
in the district, and also that
the Matsdp beds are faulted
down against the 'Keis series.
J Stow (74), p. 663.
almost lost the
S
1 II
(? la
I
£
I
d
6
M
P4
I
I
CL,
B
2^1
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78 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
Much remains to be done before the sedimentary rocks
of Prieska and West Griqualand can be properly under-
stood.
There is a parallelism between the Campbell Band,
Griqua Town, and Mats4p series and the Transvaal
rocks which Dr. Molengraaff considered to belong to
the Cape system,^ an opinion he has lately ^ seen reason
to modify in view of the probably greater age of the
Griqualand and Prieska beds. It has already been
mentioned that the Campbell Rand and Griqua Town
beds probably extend to the Transvaal border. Prom
Dr. MolengraaflTs description of the Black Beef, Dolo-
mitic and Pretoria series, it seems very probable that
they are the same beds as those called the Campbell
Band and Griqua Town beds by Stow. Dr. Molen-
graaffs account of the Waterberg sandstones in the
Palala plateau agrees rather closely with those of the
Mats4p beds in Prieska ^ and West Griqualand, except
that the Waterberg sandstones are thought to succeed
the Pretoria beds conformably, although usually sepa-
rated from them by the great laccolitic intrusion of the
Boschveld red granite and its local modifications, the
** newer granite'* of the Transvaal, an intrusion that
has no exact analogue in Prieska.
The beds in the two countries may be tabulated
thus : —
Cape Colony. Transvaal.
Mats4p series .... Waterberg sandstones.
Griqua Town series - - - Pretoria beds.
n«w.,.K^ii T>««^ o^-^«- ' limestones, Dolomite series.
Campbell Band series ^q^^^^teites, Black Reef series.
^ Molengraaf! (01). ^ ^Xgiengraaf! (08).
3 Molengraaff (01); Oeol Camm. (99), p. 82; Stow (73), p. 632.
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PRE-CAPE ROCKS : NORTH AND NORTH-WEST 79
It will be noticed that the 'Eeis series finds no place
in this comparison, but if that group really lies uncon-
formably below the quartzites and limestones of the
Campbell Band, a not improbable view, the Transvaal
representative of the group must be looked for in the
** Primary formation '* of Dr. Molengraafif. If, on the
other hand, the schistose rocks lying unconformably
below the Campbell Band series in West Griqualand
prove to be distinct from the *Keis beds, the latter may
have to be regarded as part of the Campbell Band
group, though there seems to be but sUght evidence
in favour of that view at present.
The intrusive igneous rocks of Prieska are of great
interest and of varied character, but only a short account
of them can be attempted here. By far the most im-
portant are the granite and gneiss of the district between
the Doornbergen and the western hills of the division,
and the similar rocks of the Eaaing Bult to the west
of the latter hills. It has already been stated that the
foliation planes of the gneiss are in general parallel to
the strike of the sedimentary rocks in its neighbourhood.
It is probable that the granite and gneiss, the extreme
types of each of which are connected by many inter-
mediate steps, were intruded amongst the *Keis, Camp-
bell Band, and Griqua Town beds during the production
of the greater part of the folds into which these rocks
were thrown. The acid igneous rotks as a rule do not
show sufficient evidence of having been violently folded
after their consolidation to permit the idea being held
that they were subjected to the same degree of pres-
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80 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
sure that affected the sedimentary rocks. At the same
time their component minerals frequently show optical
anomalies due to pressure; it is not unlikely that the
intrusion and solidification of the granite and gneiss
occupied a long period, and that we see in the gneiss
the earlier and consequently most altered products of
the acid magma. Occasionally the gneissose rocks have
structures that were produced by pressure and move-
ments after their consolidation, such as areas of quartz
and felspar mosaic surrounding the larger felspar and
quartz grains, and the development of thin layers of
very minute white mica flakes at the contact of some
of the other constituent minerals. Whether any part of
the granite is of much later date than the bulk of the
intrusions is not yet settled. Some of the very fresh
looking granites on the farm Schalk's Puts might
certainly be considered younger than the gneiss, but
there are so many intermediate varieties that the evi-
dence of a considerable difference in age between the
extreme types must be clearly made out before that
opinion can be accepted.
The chief constituents of the acid intrusions are
quartz; orthoclase, microcline, albite, and an inter-
growth of orthoclase or microcline and a plagioclase
felspar; black and white mica, the latter sometimes
(e.g. Grenaat's Kop and Alicedale) in crystals up to ten
inches in width, but too frequently bent by the move-
ments which the rock has undergone since its solidifica-
tion ; hornblende is not often met with ; apatite and
iron ores are not abundant ; garnets occur, especially in
certain gneisses, and in the rocks with the same con-
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PRECAPE ROCKS : NORTH AND NORTH-WfiST 81
stituents as the granite but with granulitic structure.
Tourmaline seems to be absent from the Prieska
granites.
Pegmatite or graphic granite, chiefly composed of an
intergrowth of microcline and quartz, forms a large
mass in the neighbourhood of Saft Sit Pan. Quartz-
porphyries are rather restricted in their occurrence;
they have been found only within the granite areas,
and are not known to traverse the surrounding rocks
in the manner of the quartz-porphyries near Paarl
Berg.
The granulites of Prieska are abundant and vary
greatly in composition. They are fine-grained rocks,
usually showing distinct banding on large weathered
surfaces, but the banding is often unobservable on a
freshly broken surface. They are usually dark in
colour, but the more acid or siliceous types are light
coloured. In general appearance they look rather like
even-grained quartzites. It is only under the micro-
scope that the distinctive features of the granulites are
seen. The most striking character is the uniformity
in size of the grains of the various minerals composing
the rocks; another important feature is the almost
complete absence of crystalline faces in the minerals,
which seem to have separated out in a different manner
from that usual in igneous rocks; enclosures of one
mineral by another are abundant, but the enclosed
mineral is irregularly shaped, usually with a rounded
outline. Garnet, which is an important constituent of
most of the Prieska granulites, is the only mineral
which sometimes shows crystal faces, and it very often.
6
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82 GEOLOGY OF GAPE COLONY
contains small grains of more than one of the other
minerals composing the rock. All the minerals in the
granulites are remarkably fresh and free from altera-
tion products. The rocks may be broadly divided into
three groups : (1) Granulites made up of the same
minerals as the granite and gneiss, viz., quartz, felspar
(orthoclase and plagioclase), garnet, and biotite. This
seems to be a less abundant rock than those belonging
to the two other classes to be mentioned, but on account
of its being rather closely related to much of the gneiss,
into which it passes by the coming in of a pronounced
foliation and the increase in size of some of the felspars,
it is easy to overlook small outcrops in the gneiss areas.
(2) Hornblende-granulites, composed of quartz, ortho-
clase, albite, hornblende, biotite, magnetite, garnet, and
sphene. The hornblende is a pale bluish-green variety,
different from the hornblende of most of the hornblende
schists. Garnet is a less abundant mineral constituent
than in the next group. (3) Pyroxene-epidote-granulites,
composed of plagioclase, augite, epidote, garnet, magne-
tite, sphene, and frequently hornblende. The pyroxene
is a pale green or bluish-green monoclinic variety, diop-
side, and is slightly pleochroic. The abundance of epi-
dote, which often forms a large part of the rock, is very
remarkable.
The granulites form elongated outcrops in the granite
and gneiss, with the longer axes of the areas parallel to
the fohation planes of the gneiss ; they have not been
found as intrusions in the sedimentary rocks. The
nature of their contact with the gneiss has not been
made out, as the line of junction of the two rocks is
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PRE-CAPE ROCKS: NORTH AND NORTH-WEST 83
almost invariably concealed under the red sandy soil
that the granite and gneiss give rise to. The composi-
tion of the pyroxene-granulites must be very different
from that of any of the gneissose or schistose rocks
yet found in Prieska, and it is therefore impossible to
consider them as local modifications of any of the
latter, as the biotite-granulites may be with regard to
the gneiss. The amount of lime and alumina in the
pyroxene-granuUtes must be greater than is usual in
igneous rocks containing the same varieties of plagio-
clase. The granulites give one the impression of being
intrusive, but the question of their origin is quite un-
settled.
The homblende-granulites are connected by inter-
mediate varieties with some of the hornblende-schists,
which form dykes in- both the granitic and sedimentary
rocks of Prieska. Two main varieties of the horn-
blende-schist occur, one contains blue-green hornblende,
felspars, and much garnet and quartz ; and the other is
made of actinolite, with a very little felspar and quartz.
The hornblende-schist dykes in the sedimentary beds
are probably highly altered igneous rocks; the blue-
green hornblende is at places so abundant that the
rock consists of Uttle else.
The blue amphibole called glaucophane forms an
important constituent of some of the schistose rocks;
the other minerals in the glaucophane - schists are
epidote, quartz, orthoclase and microperthite.
There are several varieties of much altered rocks
that originally consisted of augite and felspar, but
which are now usually a mass of minute fibres of
6*
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84 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
hornblende, and small grains of epidote, calcite, quartz
and felspar, although the remnants of the original
augite which- formed ophitic plates can be seen in
some specimens; the outlines of the former crjrstals
of felspar can often be dimly seen under the micro-
scope. Up to the present time those rocks have not
been traced into the typical hornblende-schist, but
from the close resemblance of specimens gathered in
one and the same district to the different stages in
the Scourie dyke described by Mr. Teall,^ in which
the alteration of an augite-plagioclase rock ihto horn-
blende-schist, very Hke several of the Prieska schists,
was proved, it is to be expected that the whole series
of changes will be found in one rock-mass in Prieska.
These altered augite-plagioclase rocks (dolerites) are
always distinguishable in the field from the similar
CDcks with or without olivine belongiQg to the dolerite
intrusions of late Karroo age which occur in Prieska
both in the Karroo formation and in the rocks oldfer
than the Dwyka conglomerate. Th^ Pre-Karroo dol-
erites are dull-looking and greenish in colour owing to
the alteration of their constituents, but the later ones
are bluish-black, and when freshly broken the felspar
cleavage faces, even within a tenth of an inch of the
weathered surface, are bright and unaltered.
There are some dyke rocks at Zwart Kop Pan and
Zeekoe Baard that are made up largely of olivine and
augite with some basic plagioclase ; the olivine is partly
changed into serpentine. These rocks, which have
» British Petrography, p. 197, etc.
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PRE-CAPE ROCKS: NORTH AND NORTH-WEST 85
rather too much felspar in them to be called augite-
picrite, but may be named olivine-gabbro, have no
apparent connection with either the older or newer
dolerites, and their age is unknown, but the fresh
condition of their minerals points to their being later
than the Pre-Karrbo dolerites and schists.
Two large masses of serpentine have been found in
Prieska, one at Zwart Kop on Blink Fontein, and the
other at Zoet Vley. They are almost entirely composed
of serpentine with the addition of a small quantity of
opaque iron ore. and calcite or magnesite. The ser-
pentine does not coiitain unaltered grains of any mineral
that it could have been derived from, and the arrange-
ment of the fibres is not like that in serpentines derived
from olivine, but frequently seems to be due to the de-
velopment of fibres parallel to the prism cleavages of a
pyroxene, as the fibres often form, a square net-work.
The serpentine contains veins of chrysotile, a white or
pale-green fibrous variety of serpentine which can be
used for some of the purposes to which asbestos is put.
The serpentine forms dykes or sheets in magnetic
quartzites and jaspers probably belonging to the Griqua
Town series. The Blink Fontein magnetic rocks are
an outlier in the middle of the granite, but those of
^oet Vley occur as an inlier in the Dwyka conglomerate
south of the Doombergen.
Volcanic Eocks.
In the general description of the Prieska and Hope
Town districts, published by the Geological Commission
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86 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
in 1900, mention is made of two groups of amygdaloidal
rocks, one of which was called the Beer Vley series ;
the other, the Zeekoe Baard amygdaloid, on account
of its complicated field relationships, was regarded as
intrusive. Since that report was written the rocks have
been partially examined under the microscope, and there
is reason to modify some of the conclusions based on
the field evidence alone.
The Beer Vley group consists of amygdaloidal lavas
of an andesitic type, with pseudomorphs of chlorite
after hornblende and pyroxene; and more acid lavas,
rhyolites with crystals of quartz and felspar lying in a
devitrified matrix which has perlitic cracks in it. The
amygdales in the Beer Vley rocks are filled with chal-
cedony and chlorite, rarely with calcite. Some agglom-
erates, evidently composed of fragments of andesites
and more acid lavas, have been found interbedded with
the lavas. Beyond the fact that these volcanic rocks are
older than the Dwyka conglomerate nothing is known
as to their age, for they have only been found as inliers
in the Dwyka area at Beer Vley, Bidouw Kuil, Jorsten's
Berg, and Brak Pan. They are apparently much less
altered than the Zeekoe Baard amygdaloids; but the
latter, being of a more basic type than the Beer Vley
group, contained more minerals that are easily changed.
The Zeekoe Baard amygdaloids are compact dark
blue and green rocks with amygdales of calcite, chalce-
dony, and chlorite, or a mixture of two or more of these
minerals. They occupy a large area in Prieska, and
also in Griqualand West. In Prieska they surround
the south-west end of Ezel Rand (see Fig. 10), and
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PRE-CAPE ROCKS : NORTH AND NORTH-WEST 87
form a wide area between the granite and gneiss on the
west, and the sedimentary rocks of the Doombergen on
the north-east; they also occur as a long strip in the
granite area west of Prieska's Poort.
These rocks vary considerably in mineralogical com-
position. They are usually very much altered, and in
specimens from some of the outcrops hardly any of the
original constituents can be recognised; chlorite, epi-
dote, calcite, and quartz make up nearly the whole of
the rock in many cases, and all these minerals are pro-
bably alteration products. In no case has the original
dark constituent of the rock been observed, although
either hornblende or augite was certainly an important
constituent of parts of the rock. At Blink Fontein the
rock is less altered than usual, and is there composed
of crystals of plagioclase, some of which is andesine, set
in a very fine-grained ground mass of probably quartz
and felspar, some chlorite and opaque iron oxides are
also present. This rock is evidently a less basic one
than the amygdaloid at other localities, such as Zeekoe
Baard, where it has been largely altered to epidote and
calcite. At only one place, near the south-west end of
Ezel Band, has a breccia or agglomerate been seen
which might belong to this volcanic group, but there is
some doubt as to the true relationship of the breccia to
the volcanic group and the Matsap beds.
There is a similarity between the Zeekoe Baard amyg-
daloid and the amygdaloidal rocks in the Transvaal that
are now known to be older than the Black Reef series.
In the Prieska district, however, there is a difficulty
in supposing that the amygdaloids are older than the
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88 GEOLOGY OP CAPE COLONY
Campbell Band quartzites; for although they lie at
the base of that series in several places, yet they are in
contact with both higher and lower beds at other locali-
ties, and it is more in accordance with the observed facts
to regard the amygdaloids as having been poured out at
the surface subsequently to the folding and denudation
of the Campbell Band and Griqua Town series, but
previously to the deposition of the Mats&p group.
It is possible that the Prieska amygdaloids may be
found to belong to the same group as the Boschveld
volcanic rocks of the Transvaal.^
The reasons for classing the 'Keis, Campbell Band,
Griqua Town and MatsAp beds as Pre-Cape rocks must
now be explained. We have seen that the Matsd>p beds
are represented by a mere renmant in the Prieska Divi-
sion ; that they were much folded before the deposition
of the Dwyka conglomerate is proved by the fact that
the Dwyka and overlying beds lie horizontally and
undisturbed in the same district. The conglomerate
lies in the ancient valleys of the Doornbergen, which
have to a large extent been re-excavated, so that only
outliers of the conglomerate are left as witnesses that
the whole range was carved out of solid rock in Pre-
Dwyka and Dwyka times. In neighbouring localities
the conglomerate rests upon the Griqua Town, Camp-
bell Band and 'Eeis beds, as well as upon the granites
and gneiss, proving that the whole thickness of the
sedimentary rocks was removed from certain areas
before the conglomerate was formed. The conglo-
1 Molengraaff (01), p. 62.
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PRE-CAPE ROCKS: NORTH AND NORTH-WEST 89
merate has not yet been found lying upon the MatsAp
beds, but fragments of these occur in it, and there can
be no doiibt that the greater part of the rocks belonging
to the Matsap series formerly present in Prieska were
removed by denudation before the deposition of the
conglomerate. Taking the thickness of the Mats&p
beds as 3,000 feet, and that of the Campbell Band and
Griqua Town series together as 5,000 feet, and omitting
the 'Keis altogether as being possibly of the same age
as the Campbell Band group, we have a total of 8,000
feet of rock removed from certain parts of the district
before the conglomerate was laid down in the same
area. It must be remembered that this thickness is
a low estimate, and that the whole of the volcanic
group is omitted from the argument on account of
the uncertainty as to its age.
In this district, therefore, before the Dwyka conglo-
merate was deposited, the Campbell Band, Griqua
Town and Matsap beds were greatly folded and the
greater part of them was removed altogether. All this
must have occupied a very long time in a geological
sense. In the south of the Colony, as was explained
in the Introduction, and as will be described in more
detail in later chapters, there was a continuous deposi-
tion of sediments (the Cape formation) about 10,000
feet thick, before the conglomerate was laid down* con-
formably on them. It is obvious that at any rate the
upper part of the 8,000 feet of sediments that were
removed in the north in Pre-Dwyka times could not
have been fonned during the deposition of the beds
immediately preceding the Dwyka series in the south ;
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90 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
for the folding and denudation of the northern rocks
must have taken place during that period or earlier.
It is, of course, difficult to base an argument as to the
contemporaneity or otherwise of the beds in the two
areas on a comparison of the rate of deposition in the
one and that of denudation in the other ; but it is clear
that the folding and removal by denudation of the
8,000 feet of sediments in Prieska must have occupied
a considerable part of the time during which the 10,000
feet of the Cape formation were formed in the south
and west of the Colony. When it is remembered also
that 8,000 feet is a small estimate, for the upper parts
of both the Griqua Town and Matsap series are un-
known, it must be admitted that there is strong reason
to regard the Matsip beds as of pre-Cape age, and still
more so the Griqua Town series and the underlying
rocks.
Namaqualand Schists.
Under this name Mr. Dunn includes the schistose
rocks that cover wide areas in the Namaqualand Division ;
amongst them are hornblende-schists, epidote-schists
and others that are igneous rocks greatly altered from
their original condition ; but there are also sedimentary
rocks, such as conglomerates, quartzites, limestones and
mica schists. Very little is known of these beds.
Near the Orange River there are some quartzites that
Mr. Dunn regarded as Witteberg beds ; ^ they lie flat
and unconformably upon the Namaqualand schists.
' Geological sketch-map of South Africa (87).
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PRE-CAPE ROCKS : NORTH AND NORTH-WEST 91
From the accounts ^ of German South- West Africa it
seems very likely that those quartzites are the same as
those of the Huib and Han-ami plateaux, which are
overlain by limestones, and are perhaps the western
representatives of the Campbell Rand group.
Granite, Gneiss, etc., of the North-West.
A great part of the north-west is occupied by acid,
igneous rocks. Fromthe west coast, north of the Bitter
Biver, these rocks extend across Little Namaqualand
and Bushmanland into Prieska, where they are probably
continuous with the gneiss and granite previously de-
scribed. The geology of this great tract of country is
only known in its barest outlines. The igneous rocks
are probably intrusive in the Namaqualand schists.
Their southern boundary in Van Rhyn's Dorp and
Calvinia is the line of fault along which the Ibiquas
beds are thrown down against them. To the east the
boundary is formed by the Dwyka conglomerate.
Amongst the southern Bushmanland granites and
gneisses there are rocks of peculiar types ; some well-
foliated gneiss at the base of the Langeberg in Calvinia
consists chiefly of quartz, plagioclase, enstatite, horn-
blende and biotite ; it occurs in bands enclosed in gneiss
of a more normal character. Garnetiferous granite and
gneiss are abundant in that area. The general strike of
the foliation planes is somewhat to the north of east.
The copper ores of Namaqualand are chiefly found in
a rock rich in hypersthene ; it is called a greenstone by
* Von Heichenbach (9(5), p. 117, etc,
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92 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
Wyley * and a dioritic rock by Schenck,^ and appears to
form bands in the gneiss. The ores were regarded by
Wyley as long ago as 1866 as constituents of the igneous
rock concentrated in certain parts of its mass, a view
that has again been stated by Schenck. The principal
ore is the purple bornite, but the less valuable copper
pyrites, chalcopyrite, is abundant in some of the mines,
and many other copper-bearing minerals are present in
smaller quantities.
* Wyley (56), p. 6 ; and (67), p. 30, etc.
3Schenok(01), pp. 64, 65.
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CHAPTER IV.
THE CAPE SYSTEM.
The rocks belonging to the Cape system have only been
found in the southern and eastern parts of South Africa ;
from Van Rhyn's Dorp in the west, round the coastal
districts to the Gualana Biver, and again northwards
from the St. John's River into Natal the Cape system
plays an important part in the structure of the country.
The true succession of these rocks was made out in
part by A. G. Bain, but the numerous folds they have
been thrown into in the west together with some litho-
logical resemblances between parts of the two upper
series were responsible for the mistake he made in limit-
ing the occurrence of the Witteberg series (the ** Car-
boniferous" group of Bain) to the eastern province.
Moreover it is evident from the gap left in his map
between the Kammanassie and Cockscomb Mountains
that Bain never had the opportunity of connecting the
west and east satisfactorily. This was partly accom-
plished by Wyley and Dunn ; but meanwhile a serious
error had been introduced by certain observers ^ taking
the Bokkeveld beds to be lower in stratigraphical posi-
tion than the Table Mountain sandstone, a mistake that
^ Rubidge (58), p. 195, etc. ; Hochstetter (66), p. 31, etc. ; Cohen
(87), p. 202, etc.
98
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94 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
led to the identification of the Bokkeveld and Malmes-
bury beds on the one hand and of the Table Mountain
and Witteberg series on the other. This unfortunate
confusion which is not met with in the maps or writings
of men who had a considerable personal knowledge of
the rocks concerned, such as Bain, Wyley and Dunn,
did much to obscure the structure of the Colony. The
work of the survey has clearly demonstrated the cor-
rectness of Bain's view of the superposition of the
Bokkeveld on the Table Mountain series, and the ex-
tension of the Witteberg series over wide areas in the
south-west, which were indeed made plain by Wyley ^
and Dunn.^ The three members of the Cape system
have now been so frequently traversed and mapped
between the Cederbergen and Uitenhage by the geolo-
gists of the Geological Commission^ that there can
no longer be any doubt as to their relationships to one
another.
The Table Mountain Series.
This group of rocks forms the most conspicuous
features in Cape Colony. Table Mountain itself, rising
3,553 feet above the sea, is visible long before the ship
that brings the new-comer to South Africa reaches
Table Bay, and on the mountain several characteristics
of the series can be seen. The Peninsula mountains,
however, are merely small outliers of the main portion
of the Table Mountain beds in the Colony.
» Wyley (69). « Dunn, (72, 76, 87).
2 Geol. Comm. (96-99). For a more detailed account of the history
of the question see Corstorphine, Geol. Comm. (97), p. 31, etc.
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THE CAPE SYSTEM 96
A description of the distribution of the series will
serve also as a description of the main tectonic or struc-
tural features of the southern part of the Colony. The
broad outhne of the structure has been given in the
Introduction, but as nearly every important anticline in
the south is marked on the surface by a ridge of Table
Mountain sandstone a more detailed account vdll not be
out of place here. The position of the main anticlines
mentioned below will be found in Fig. 3, and in the map
at the commencement of the volume.
On the seaward side of the folded belt of sedimentary
rocks forming the second of the three regions into which
the Colony is divided in the Introduction for the purpose
of a general description, the Table Mountain sandstone
becomes less steeply folded over large areas than any-
where within the belt itself. On the west, in the coastal
plains of Clanwilliam and Piquetberg, the sandstone lies
at low angles ; by its removal the underlying Malmes-
bury beds and granite have been laid bare in the divisions
of Van Ehyn's Dorp, Piquetberg, Malmesbury, Cape,
Paarl and Stellenbosch, and the outliers of the Penin-
sula mountains, Biebeek's Kasteel and Simon's Berg
bear testimony to its former extension over that part of
the Pre-Cape region of the south-west as a gently undu-
lating mass.
A long outlier, faulted down on the north-east side,
forms Joosten Berg in the south of the Malmesbury
division ; Klapmuts Hill, on the same line of strike, is a
similar faulted outlier north-west of Simon's Berg.
To the east of the Peninsula the present coast line
passes somewhat irregularly through the marginal part
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96 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
of the folded belt, for although the Table Mountain
sandstone is more folded than in the Peninsula or
Piquetberg, yet the plications are fewer and much less
abrupt than farther inland. The shore at Cape Hangklip,
Hermanns, Danger Point and Agulhas, as well as at
many intermediate points, is cut out of the slightly bent
sandstones. East of Agulhas the coast trends to the
north of east and cuts across the folded belt slanting-
wise, and the sandstones of Capes St. Blaize, St. Francis
and Becife are highly inclined, for they lie well within
the folded belt. There is no direct evidence of the
nature of the rocks under the sea floor, but it is prob-
able that the Table Mountain sandstone is continued in
a slightly bent condition some distance towards the edge
of the Agulhas bank. The condition of the sandstone
off the south-east coast, if it exist there, is of course
quite unknown, but from the close analogy between the
structure of Pondoland and Natal, and that of Van
Ehyn's Dorp, we may suppose that the Table Mountain
series formerly extended in a slightly bent condition
right round the outer side of the folded belt.
In the west the first (see Fig. 11) pronounced folds
met with form the sandstone mountains on the left side
of the Olifant's Eiver valley, where the sandstone is
thrown into gentle anticlines trending north-north-west.
The valley of the Olifant's Eiver, from its source west
of the village of Ceres to a point below Clanwilliam,
occupies a syncline in which remnants of the Bokkeveld
beds are still preserved at three places. South of the
Pikenier's Kloof the western limb of the anticline west
of the river has mostly been removed by denudation, and
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THE CAPE SYSTEM 97
the sandstones of the Olifant's ^
Eiver, Twenty Four Eivers
and Eoode Zand Mountains, *
and of the mountains still q
farther south along the same s ^
line, called the Drakensteins, a .S .•
and of those between French g
Hoek and Hangklip, form a 5
long rugged escarpment, I St
deeply embayed at French
I
^si
'*»o»t^
s
Hoek and Jonker's Hoek by ^ ^Jl^
the head waters of the Berg I '^l*! I
and Eerste Eivers. | ^ «
Northwards from Clan- |
William the Table Mountain |
sandstone is very slightly |
folded, but dips at a low angle g
eastwards, and its western rf
edge is a fine escarpment, g. g
called the Nardouw Berg, § W
o ^
Gift Berg, the Matsiekamma 5 -2
(Plate n.) Kobe, and Bokke- ^ t jg
veld Mountains in different S |§s.g
parts as it is followed to the |, I'lg *
north (see Figs. 2 and 8). ^ sl^l
The escarpment is cut far •§ a '^l
back by the Troe Troe Eiver, § ^- <hco'
and a part of Kobe Mountain »
is converted into an outher by I
two sets of streams running ^.
on the one hand into the &
Olifant's Eiver direct, and on iJ
7
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98 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
i ^
i^
s «
go
O.S
?§
O OS
O «M
o
o o
as
.H S
^ O OS
eB
Ml
OB ^ O
M-an
III
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THE CAPE SYSTEM 99
the other into the Oorlog's Eloof Biver that lies in a deep
precipitous valley about six miles behind the escarpment.
The Table Mountain series comes to an end with the Bok-
keveld Mountain, although the escarpment is continued
some miles farther in the same line by the Ibiquas beds.
The sandstone is only some three feet thick at its termina-
tion, but gradually increases in thickness southwards,
so that at about thirty miles south of its northern limit
possibly the whole 5,000 feet, the average thickness of
the Table Mountain series, may be present. East of
the Olifant's Biver lies the great anticline of the Ceder-
bergen, which trends nearly north-west in its northern
portion, but turns nearly north and south at the Trigo-
nometrical Station (6,336 feet above the sea) ; in the
same neighbourhood the syncline of the Cold Bokkeveld
separates the main anticUne from that of the Schurfte-
berg ^ of which the axis diverges in a south-south-east
direction and is inclined southwards, so that the anticline
disappears near the Houd den Bek*s Biver. The main
Cederberg anticline is continued in the Cold Bokkeveld
Mountains and the southern Schurftebergen. From
the Schurftebergen the antichne passes round the warm
Bokkeveld into the Hex Biver Bange, closely backed by
the Olifant's Biver syncHne, so that the Table Mountain
series in the block of mountains traversed by Mitchell's
Pass is bent into an S-shaped fold (see Fig. 12). This
fold becomes wider in the Hex Biver Mountains, the
^ There are two ranges called Sohurftebergen (Bough Mountains) in
that part of the Colony. The one here referred to is the more northern
range ; the other flanks the Warm Bokkeveld on the west and is the
direct continuation of the Gederherg anticline.
7»
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100 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
northern anticline forms the eastern part of that range,
- and the syncline is occupied
2 I by the Bokkeveld beds of
I the Hex River Valley. This
S S-shaped structure is re-
-1 peated in the Keerom and
I Kwardouw Bergen, the anti-
I cline on the north forming
rf the Wagenboom Berg and
g I 8 the sjmcline the Bokkeveld
^ I'Sg area of the Coo and the
S 5'^s Keizie. The southern limb
"SS ^/^^^ of the syncline, rather a
§ eS "^ closely folded belt than a
a ^,"2 simple limb, forms the com-
I ^ q- mencement of the Lange-
^ 'S'^ bergen to which we shall
sl ^ revert presently.
Is si South of the Winterhoek
(§1 i|c (Tulbagh) mass, which is
B pI'o the southern limit of the
^ |«| western anticlines of the
1 I^S Olif ant's Eiver area, the
-g, rHG^co valleys of the Klein Berg
J and Breede Eivers have been
g lowered through the Table
o Mountain series, and are
^ now formed by the Pre-Cape
2 rocks, separating the two
^ g great mountainous ridges of
CO the Eoode Zand-Drakens-
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THE CAPE SYSTEM 101
tein, and the Witzenberg - Mostert's Hoek Ranges.
The former or western one is a simple ridge in its
northern part, lying on the Malmesbury beds which
are exposed on either side, but south of Slang Hoek
its character changes; it widens out considerably, the
strike of the sandstones changes and turns eastward
and the dip becomes northerly ; the Bokkeveld beds are
first met with near Dasbosch River, where the strike
of the Table Mountain series again turns through an
angle greater than a right angle, and runs south-west
to the Bier River Mountains near Villiers Dorp, where
a narrow south-west syncline, in which the Bokkeveld
beds still remain, separates the mass from the easterly
trending range of the Donkerhoek, Boschveld, and
Zonder Einde Mountains.
The great block of mountainous country between
Rawsonville and Cape Hangklip contains two irregularly
shaped depressed areas, in which lie the Bokkeveld beds
of the upper part of the Zonder Einde River, and those
of the Houwhoek and Palmiet River district. The
Groenland and Houwhoek Mountains have a north-
west trend, and separate the two depressions. The
country between Rawsonville and Cape Hangklip was,
as it were, the hottest part of the battle-field where the
north-south and east-west fold-producing forces met,
and the resulting ridges and depressions trend north-
west or north-east. The Boschveld, Groenland, and
Houwhoek Mountains are the chief ridges of the north-
west group, and the Zonder Einde and Houwhoek-
Palmiet River Bokkeveld areas the corresponding
depressions. The nprth-east group of ridges are th^
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102 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
Dwars Berg-Bier Eiver, and the Donkerhoek-Paarde
Berg ranges, while the corresponding synclines are those
of the Villiersdorp and Bot Eiver Valleys. The north-
east folds extend eastwards as far as Lady Grey
(Bobertson) and as far north as the extremity of the
Hex Eiver Eange.
The Zonder Einde Eange, complicated by the north-
east folds of the Lady Grey area, is an irregular anticline,
and the beds in the northern limb dip down and come up
against the Malmesbury beds along the great Worcester
fault ; to the south of the range the Zwartberg, better
known as the Caledon Mountain, is the only conspicuous
anticline that lies in the wide, sjmclinal area between it
and the less disturbed Table Mountain sandstone ranges
that stretch Irom Babylon's Tower to Bredasdorp.
The Worcester fault, with a maximum throw of more
than 10,000 feet extends at least seventy miles towards
the east, and plays the part of the southern limb of the
complex anticline of the Langebergen. The Lange-
bergen anticlines, although the mountains are known
by other names, such as the Attaquas, Outiniquas, Long
Kloof, Zitzikamma, and Kareedouws Mountains in their
eastern portions, reach the sea over 300 miles from their
conmaencement at Hex Eiver. At many parts of the
Langebergen the beds are overturned, so that the sand-
stones are overlain by older rocks on the south side,
and underlain by newer beds on the north flank. The
structure of the range is shown in the sections Figs. 1
and 13.
To the north of the western part of the Langebergen
the Table Mountain series disappears under the Bokke-
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THE CAPE SYSTEM
103
veld and later beds of the country
called the Ladismith or Small Karroo,
a wide synclinal basin broken by the
Warm Water Berg and Touw's Berg,
east and west anticlines, which are
rather steeply pitched at both ends,
so that the shape of the Table
Mountain sandstone areas is el-
liptical.
To the west of the Ladismith Kar-
roo lies the Touw Vlakte, with four
small anticlinal ridges of sandstone,
similar to Touw's Berg and Warm
Water Berg except in size. The east
end of the Ladismith Karroo is closed
in by a series of three roughly parallel
and pitching anticlines of Table
Mountain sandstone, forming the
Paarde Berg, Roode Berg and the
Pogha Hills, which together make an
irregularly shaped connecting ridge
between the Zwartebergen and Lan-
gebergen, although the connection
with the former range is incomplete
owing to the presence of the Amalien-
stein fault.
The Zwartebergen commence in
Anysberg (highest point, 5,322 feet),
which is a westerly pitching anticline
of regular form on the north of the
Ladismith Karroo. The sandstones
y^bich pass under that country reap-
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104 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
pear in Anysberg, and are continued in the Zwartberg
range 160 miles before the axis of the fold gradually
sinks below the Bokkeveld beds near the Zuurberg
Poort. About twenty miles west of Ladismith village,
the Amalienstein fault is first met with, throwing down
the Bokkeveld beds on the south against the Table
Mountain series ; the throw increases eastwards, so
that near Amalienstein the Bokkeveld beds are in
contact with the Cango series. This fault is in many
respects like the Worcester fault, and replaces the
southern limb of the Zwartberg anticline for a con-
^iderable distance — over sixty miles.
The Zwartberg anticline has at least as complex a
structure as that of the Langebergen, and is also over-
folded in many places (sefe Plate III.), especially be-
tween Prince Albert and Klaarstroom ; the overfolding
affects both the north and south flanks. On the north
the later rocks, from the Bokkeveld to the Dwyka,
dip south towards the mountains near Prince Albert
(see Fig. 6), and, as was described in the account of the
Cango series, the Table Mountain sandstone dips in
places below the latter. Where the Gamka Eiver
traverses the mountains there is a synclinal fold bring-
ing in the Bokkeveld beds in the middle of the range,
thus dividing it into two distinct anticlinal ridges for
some ten miles. The highest point on the range is the
peak near Seven Weeks' Poort, 7,627 feet ; the curious
tower-shaped peak called Tover Kop is some 400 feet
lower. Near Klaarstroom the Zwartebergen decrease
considerably in width on account of the northern por-
tion of the range separating from the southern an4
plunging below the gokkeyeld beds,
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THE CAPE SYSTEM 105
Plate III. — Contorted and overfolded quartzites of the Table
Mountain series. A clifi about 400 feet high in Meiring's Poort
|Zwartebergen), seen froQi the w^st,
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106 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
Between the Zwartebergen and the Outiniquas Ues
the great ridge called the Eammanassie Mountain, a
bow-shaped anticline of sandstone with the concavity
towards the north ; the east and west ends of the axis
pitch in those directions. Between the Eammanassie
and the Outiniquas there is a much-folded ridge of
sandstone that diverges from the main range near the
Montagu Pass, and extends eastwards to form the
Eouga Mountains.
The Table Mountain and Bokkeveld series, of which
the country between Willowmore and Enysna chiefly
consists, have been intensely folded in this region, and
the mountain ridges are formed by very sharp isoclines
of sandstone.
East of the Willowmore and Uniondale divisions little
is yet known of the distribution of the various formations,
but it is probable that the Baviaan's Eloof and Eouga
Banges are continued under other names to near the
mouth of the Gamtoos Biver. Farther east and north-
east of the Gamtoos Biver there are several large anti-
clinal ridges of Table Mountain sandstone, but their
exact limits and characters are not known ; the Eland's
Berg and Great Winterhoek Mountains are the chief
ones. It is probable that the Cape Becife sandstones
are the most easterly part of the Table Mountain series
on the coast in the folded belt, and the next appearance
of this group near the coast is at St. John's, where it
forms the great massive walls on either side of the
river, called the Gates of St. John's. This block of
rock, cut into two by the river, is separated by faults
fjron; the sqrroynding beds^ which belong to the Dwj^ka
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THE CAPE SYSTEM 107
and Ecca series. The St. John's sandstone lies hori-
zontally. A few miles north-east of St. John's the
Table Mountain sandstone is again met with lying
horizontally, overlain to the north-west by the Dwyka
conglomerate, and on the south-east bounded by the
ocean or separated by a fault from a narrow strip of
younger rocks (Ecca and Cretaceous) between it and
the sea. The difference in level between the sandstone
on the coast and that forming the plateau behind the
coast is due to the cutting back of the lower terrace by
the sea at no very remote period, and certainly not to
folds or faults bringing the sandstone down near the
coast.
The Table Mountain series is remarkably constant
in lithological characters throughout its extent. The
maximum thickness is about 5,000 feet, and of this more
than 4,000 feet are sandstones or quartzites. The dif-
ference between a sandstone and a quartzite is that the
component grains are more loosely held together in
the former than in the latter, in which the cementing
material is quartz. When a sandstone is broken, the
fresh face is rough and dull, owing to the fracture
passing round or between the grains of sand which
form the rock ; a quartzite, on the other hand, has a
smoother and brighter face because the fracture passes
through the component grains, which are closely joined
together by the siliceous cement. It is sometimes found
that a large block of sandstone long exposed to the
weather becomes a quartzite near the outer surface,
owing to the deposition of silica between the grains.
Oo the other hand, some quart ^ite^ becoipe loose ancl
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108 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
crumbly outside on account of the removal of the
cement.
The whitish-grey colour of so much of the sandstone
belonging to this series is due to weathering. At a
distance of one or two feet from the outside the rock
is usually blue, owing to a small quantity of iron in
the state of ferrous compounds. The reddish-brown
layer so often seen on the broken surface of a large
block of sandstone is produced by the oxidation of the
ferrous compounds and the formation of a brown
hydrated sesquioxide. This is slowly removed from
the outer surface, so that a narrow band of light grey
or white rock lies betv/een the brown band and the
exterior. The red stains so often seen on the sand-
stones are deposits of this red oxide of iron.
The sandstone has generally a very rough surface,
frequently hollowed out so that it is covered with small
and large projections, between which are shallow de-
pressions that hold water for some time after rain.
Particles of sand collect in these and give the depression
a smoother surface than it otherwise would have had,
by being moved about in it by strong winds. The
gradual lateral growth of the hollows on steeply in-
clined surfaces of sandstone may eventually give rise
to a perforation, or small arch, by meeting a joint plane
or a second depression formed on another surface of
the rock.
The sandstone is very much jointed ; and as the
processes of weathering naturally go on more easily
along joint planes than elsewhere, for the loosened
grains are i^oon reipoved by the jrain or wind, th^
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THE CAPE SYSTEM 109
large exposed sarfaces of sandstone are usually divided
up by two or more sets of deep cracks, to which
another group is added if the beds are so steeply
inclined that the bedding planes make a high angle
with the ground. Where these cracks become deeply
eroded and are set at close intervals the ground is
extraordinarily rough and difl&cult to traverse. The
moderate effects of weathering along joints are familiar
to every one who has been to the top of Table Mountain,
where there are many curiously shaped knobs and
pinnacles due to this cause combined with the unequal
weathering of the surface. On the eastern slope of the
Cederbergen, below Sneeuw Kop, on which a beacon
of the geodetic survey stands, the surface of the hill is
extremely cut up by these eroded joints. There are
two main sets of joints on that slope, roughly parallel
and at right angles to the strike of the beds, and a
third group is sometimes developed. Weathering and
erosion have gone on to such an extent that the
mountain side is covered with an intricate mass of
vertical walls and pinnacles of rock from five to forty
feet high. Although such a fine development of joint
weathering is not often met with, similar features are
common on all the folded mountains made of the Table
Mountain beds.
A very frequent characteristic of the sandstones of
this group is the occurrence of round pebbles of white
quartz up to three inches in diameter. They usually
occur singly, more rarely in thin layers a few feet long
and about an inch thick. The pebbles themselves are
rarely more than an inch in diameter. It is rather difl&cult
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110 GEOLOGY OP CAPE COLONY
to explain the frequence of isolated pebbles in the
sandstone without recourse to some agency that lifted
pebbles from the shore and dropped them in deeper
waters. There are several means by which this may
be done; in warm latitudes, seaweed torn from the
shore and drifted out to sea must often carry out pebbles
and bits of rock ; but in cold climates floating ice is a
more powerful and usual agency, and may have been
the cause of the presence of the pebbles in the Table
Mountain sandstone.^
Conglomerates are remarkably scarce in this group,
especially when it is remembered that the sandstones
are frequently coarse-grained rocks. Hitherto thick
conglomerates have only been noticed in the west of
the area occupied by the group, at Pikenier's Kloof
(Grey's Pass), Baboon Point, and a few other localities
in that district; one of the most conspicuous con-
stituents of the Baboon Point conglomerate is red jasper,
a rock that may have come from the Griqua Town
series. The majority of the pebbles are quartzitic rocks
of different varieties. Granites and quartz-porphyries
have been found in the small outliers of Klapmuts Hill
and Joostenberg, as well as at Baboon Point, but they
are not abundant. Fragments of slate, strange as it
may seem, considering the nature of the underlying
rocks, are rare in the sandstones and conglomerates.
In the Peninsula and Stellenbosch areas the base of
^ This was suggested to me bj Mr. Dunn in a letter written after
reading an account of the glacial conglomerate in this series on the
Pakhuis Pass. He had not previously put forward this explanation on
account of the lack of other evidence of glacial action in those times.
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THE CAPE SYSTEM 111
the Table Mountain series is usually a red micaceous
gritty shafe. On the north face of Table Mountain this
is the first rock met with at the junction with the
granite or Malmesbury beds. In many parts of the
Langebergen there is a thick band of shaly beds near
the base of the series, but the lowest beds are usually
quartzites (see Plate I). On the Montagu Pass the
shales near the bottom of the series are exposed in
the road cutting, and are found to be a crumpled silky
phyllite or schist, in which the silky appearance is due
to the development of minute flakes of a micaceous
mineral.
In the western mountains a second shale band is
found about 1,000 feet below the top of the series.
The shales are usually hidden by debris from the sand-
stone cliffs above them, and it is only on road cuttings
and tracks across its outcrop that the rocks forming
the shale band can be well seen. The shales are
exposed on the Mitchell's Pass Eoad, where they are
deeply weathered into a- red micaceous clay. On the
Pakhuis Pass the shale band is exposed along a distance
of three and a half miles at the top and on either side ;
the rock is here a greenish-brown mudstone, a typical
shale in places but generally too thickly bedded to be
called a shala The most interesting point about the
Pakhuis section is the occurrence of pebbles up to five
inches in diameter scattered irregularly through the
shale and mudstone, without any tendency to form beds
of conglomerate. Several of the pebbles have been
found to be flattened on one or more sides and deeply
striated in the manner characteristic of pebbles that
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112 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
have come from a glaciated region. The flattening and
striation are produced by thfe rubbing of the pebble, held
by the ice at the bottom of the glacier, upon the floor,
rocky or fragmental, over which the glacier moves.
The floor and the fragments lying upon it become
striated also, and may furnish striated pebbles to beds
being deposited off the glaciated land. There is no
other agency known by which the tjrpical striated
pebbles and boulders are given their peculiar features.
The erosion caused by wind-borne sand produces quite
different effects, which can be seen in several districts
of the Colony. The frequent sliding of debris from
a hillside over a smooth rock face may smooth and
scratch the rock, but does not make flattened and
striated pebbles. The slickensides on rock on either
side of a fault plane may sometimes be mistaken for
a glaciated floor, and the evidence for regarding any
given striated surface as due to glaciation must be clear
and free from suspicion in this respect; but rock
movements cannot give rise to the flattened and well-
scratched pebbles that are embedded in a fine-grained
mudstone at moderate distances from one another.
There are several conglomerates in Cape Colony that
have suffered great deformation by earth movements,
such as those of the Matsap and Cango series, but
their contained pebbles and boulders, although often
pulled out of shape and fractured, have never been
found to have the characteristics of glaciated pebbles.
In the conglomerates at the base of the Uitenhage
series, which have at places been considerably disturbed,
there are found fractured and indented pebbles, due
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THE CAPE SYSTEM 113
to the crushing, or gradual deformation, of one upon
another,^ but much searching has failed to discover one
that could be mistaken for a glaciated fragment.
The occurrence of flattened and striated pebbles
scattered at intervals through a fine-grained laminated
rock is very strong evidence that glacial conditions
prevailed on the land whence the pebbles came, and
that these pebbles were carried away from the land
by floating ice and dropped by the melting of the ice
on to the mud being deposited at the bottom of the
water.
The junction of the shale band on Pakhuis with the
underlying sandstones is not seen, but there is no reason
to suppose that there is an unconformity at its base.^
The materials of which the pebbles are made include
granite, amygdaloidal lavas, quartzites, grits, jasper and
vein-quartz. The vein-quartz pebbles are often smooth
and almost spherical in shape, like the isolated quartz
pebbles in the sandstones and qpartzites both above
and below the shale band.
The sandstones and quartzites are usually false
bedded, and in any natural section of a considerable
height examples of false bedding can be found.
No traces of fossils have yet been found in the Table
Mountain series, although some of the shales appear to
be favourable rocks for the preservation of organic re-
mains. It must be remembered, too, that these rocks,
1 SchwMZ (03), p. 398 and PL V., Fig. 1.
^ Fuller descriptions of this interesting evidence of glacial action in
the Table Mountain series have been published in Awn. Rep, Geol.
Comm. (00), p. 79, and Rogers (03).
8
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114 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
as well as several other formations in the Colony, have
not been properly searched for fossils. Any one who
thinks of the amount of work done in the north of
Devonshire, for example, by two generations of geo-
logists before the Morte slates were found to be fos-
siliferous, will not be surprised at the apparent absence
of organic remains from some of the colonial beds.
The question of the conditions under which the Table
Mountain series was deposited has not yet been satis-
factorily solved. The rocks are, with the exception of
the shale bands, essentially coarse-grained deposits, yet
this character is maintained over very wide areas ; from
the Peninsula to Algoa Bay, nearly 430 miles in a
straight line, and from Cape Point to the north end of
the Bokkeveld Mountain, a distance of over 225 miles,
the same coarse sandstone with isolated quartz pebbles
is met with ; in Pondoland again, 290 miles from Algoa
Bay, the sandstone is of identical character with that
of the western area, and maintains its character, at
least, as far as the Natal border. North of Agulhas
the Table Mountain sandstone is seen at intervals for
about 100 miles. It is clear, then, that the coarse
sandstones that make up the bulk of the series were
deposited over an area of at least 43,000 square miles,
probably over more than 90,000 square miles, and even
then the Pondoland outcrops have been left out of ac-
count owing to the uncertainty of the nature of the
rock between these and Algoa Bay.
During the denudation of the land that furnished this
great bulk of sand, mostly quartz sand, an equal or
greater amount of finer-grained material, muddy matter.
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THE CAPE SYSTEM 116
must have been produced, but of these fine-grained sedi-
ments the only traces in Cape Colony are the shale
bands interbedded with the sandstones. The shales
belong to definite horizons, or, in other words, were de-
posited during a certain part of the period instead of the
coarse sand which lies above and below them, but
within the area of observation the coarse deposits do
not pass laterally into the fine-grained ones. In any
wide area of deposition such as that with which we are
dealing, it is usual to find a considerable change in the
nature of the material deposited, except in the case of
oceanic deposits, the organic oozes and red clays which
are formed far from land and under circumstances that
vary but slightly over immense regions. The sandstones
with which we are dealing, however, must have been
formed near land, possibly to some extent on the land.
The absence of fossils throughout the series is a signi-
ficant fact, although much weight must not be laid upon
it until the shales have been better searched than they
have been up to the present time.
In some desert regions great thicknesses of sandy
material are accumulated over large areas by the wind
and occasional heavy rains carrying down the debris of
the surrounding mountains and hills into plains that
have become waterless through change of climate. The
rivers that once drained the plains and took away the
sand and mud from the hills, cease to run, and the
occasional heavy downpours are not sufficient to supply
the rivers regularly, but tend to choke up the former
channels and to distribute the gravel, sand and mud
more evenly over the low ground on which temporary
8*
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116 GEOLOGY OP CAPE COLONY
lakes are formed during heavy rain. In desert deposits
many of the phenomena produced by ordinary deposition
under water are noticed, such as false bedding and the
alternation of fine and coarse beds, but there are also
certain features that are not usually found in ordinary
deposits, such as intercalations of layers of soluble salts
deposited on the evaporation of the water containing
them, the very rounded, almost spherical, form of many
of the sand grains, the scarcity of fossils and the absence
of marine forms amongst those that do occur, and the
presence of sand-etched stones.^
It cannot be said that the Table Mountain series con-
tains much evidence of having been formed under desert
conditions, although the fact of there being such a great
thickness of unfossiliferous sandstone points in that
direction.
If the Table Mountain sandstone is regarded as an
ordinary coarse deposit formed in either a fresh water
basin or the sea, the land from which the material was
washed cannot have lain far from the present outcrops
of the rock. The only evidence of the closer proximity
to land of one part of the sandstone than another is the
greater development of conglomerates on the west, in
the Piquetberg Division and the Olifant's River Moun-
tains, than elsewhere. There is no such evidence known
from the Bokkeveld Mountain, or along the Zwarte-
bergen, or the south coast. At present, then, we must
1 The subject of desert conditions in relation to the formation of de-
posits is one that has by no means been exhausted by geologists. It is
only in recent years that much attention has been paid to it. The best
source of information is Professor Walther's book Das Gesciz der WiLsten-
bildungen, Berlin, 1900, which is also very well illustrated.
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THE CAPE SYSTEM ll7
conclttde that while the nature of the rock renders it
probable that the Table Mountain series, so far as ex^
posed in the Colony, was formed not far from land, and
that consequently the land lay more or less parallel to
the present distribution of the series, the only definite
clue to the position of any part of that land is to be
found in the conglomerates of the west.
The Table Mountain series furnishes good rough
building stone in many places, such as the Cape
Peninsula, Hottentot's Holland, and Green Eiver (Nieu-
woudtville), where it has not been greatly disturbed by
earth-movements. Owing to the quantity of unsuitable
stone that has to be removed in quarrying the best beds
of rock, it is not used so much as one might expect from
the wide distribution of the sandstone. The stone is not
easily worked, and is mostly used for foundations. In
Cape Town the Huguenot Memorial is partly mcbde of
Table Mountain sandstone ; and the new Harbour Board
offices are built of the sandstone from a quarry at
Grabouw beyond Sir Lowry's Pass. The sandstone
from the latter place is more regularly laminated than
is usually the case, and good-sized blocks can be ob-
tained without much difficulty.
Irregular pockets and fissures in the sandstone are
sometimes filled with pyrolusite, an ore of manganese,
but the mineral has not been successfully worked yet.
The fissures are usually along fault planes. Some old
workings can be seen at the head of Du Toit's Kloof
near the Paarl.
Gold has been found in small quantities at many
places in the Table Mountain series, but except at Mill-
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118 GEOLOGY OP CAtE COLONY
wood (Knysna), it has never attracted much attention.
The gold hitherto obtained at Millwood is alluvial, pro-
bably derived originally from veins in the Outiniquas
Mountains and the country south of them. There is
still some doubt as to whether the bed rock at Millwood
belongs to the Table Mountain series or to an older
group. If the latter proves to be the case, the Millwood
beds may belong to the same group that the galena and
blende occur in at Maitland Mines, Port Elizabeth.
The Table Mountain series yields a poor, sandy soil,
which in spots continually kept damp is black, owing to
the presence of organic matter. Vegetation is abundant
where the rainfall is heavy ; a heavier rainfall is re-
corded on or near the mountains of the south and west
than on the low ground on the coast side or on the
inland flank. The most characteristic plants seen on
this formation belong to the orders Proteacea, Ericacea
and Restionacea, respectively the sugar-bush tribe, heaths
and flowering rushes. The change in the character of
the vegetation on passing from the Table Mountain
series to another formation is usually very sharply
defined. From the Bokkeveld Mountains right round
the great sandstone mountains of the folded belt, the
same, or similar shrubs and flowers are found. A most
striking contrast to any one who is even slightly ac-
quainted with the vegetation of the western mountains
is seen on passing from the Karroo formation in Pondo-
land to the strip of country near the coast fonned by
the Table Mountain sandstone ; leaving the monotonous
grass veld of the interior of Pondoland one meets with
the same flowers and. small shrubs that are abundantly
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THE CAPE SYSTEM 119
found on the western mountains. It is difficult to under-
stand how such a distant outlier can be clothed with
the same vegetation as the main area by a process of
colonisation and selection by the soil; probably the
plants of the Pondoland coastal plateau arrived there
when the sandstone was still connected with the western
ranges by the more or less rectangular strip, correspond-
ing to the bent ranges round the Warm Bokkeveld, that
may still exist ofF the south-east coast between the
Gualana and St. John's Bivers.
Owing to difficulty of access by road and the general
poverty of the soil, there are few farms under cultivation
on the sandstone areas. The mountain veld is mostly
used for grazing. Very rarely one finds a farm, such as
Mou ton's Valley on Piquetberg, where many kinds of
fruit are grown, wine and tobacco made, and fine plan-
tations of oaks laid out on ground that was no better
originally than that on himdreds of other mountain
farms which are merely grazing veld.
From the old accounts of the Colony it is clear that
the mountains of the south were once fairly well covered
with forest, now represented by a few isolated patches,
as at Groot Vader's Bosch near Swellendam. In the
neighbourhood of the Peninsula and Stellenbosch, the
oldest settlements in the Colony, the too free cutting
down of the timber has been the cause of the almost
complete disappearance of the indigenous forest, but
farther north and east the chief cause of destruction
has been the veld fires lighted for the purpose of
allowing young grass and bush to spring up afresh for
cattle to graze upon. There can be no doubt that the
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120 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
hindrance of the forest growth is a great evil, except
perhaps to the farmers whose cattle graze on some of
the mountains. There is a well-supported belief that
forest-clad hills receive a heavier rainfall than the same
hills deprived of their trees ; but the destruction of forest
and bush has a much wider effect than this. Living
vegetation and the accumulation of dead twigs and
leaves hinder the rapid dispersal of rain water and bind
the sandy soil, thus causing a more gradual delivery of
the water into the streams, and at the same time allow-
ing a greater proportion of it to sink into the ground
than is the case in a deforested region. The rivers fed
by the mountain streams, therefore, rise less suddenly
and maintain their supply of water for a longer period ;
and the springs which get their water from the moun-
tains are stronger and more constant.
The Cape Government is doing something in the
direction of reforesting some of their mountains, but
these efforts could be multiplied many times with very
great advantage to future generations, even without
taking into account the value of the timber, a consider-
able asset in a few years after a plantation is made.
The only real difficulty in the way of maintaining exten-
sive plantations is the reckless burning of the mountain
veld, but in that matter a strong current of opinion
seems to be setting in the right direction amongst
farmers, especially in the Eastern Province, and if
that opinion grows and becomes general throughout
the districts concerned, there will be very httle danger
from fire.
The Knysna forest is chiefly on Table Mountain
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THE CAPE SYSTEM- 121
sandstone, and far to the north-east the St. John s and
Egossa forests are on the same formation. Elsewhere
the forests are mere remnants preserved in steep kloofs,
and they do not spread over large parts of the moun-
tain sides.
The Bokkeveld Sebies.
The Bokkeveld series is everywhere found lying
directly upon the Table Mountain series, with similar
strike and dip, and there are no signs of unconformity
between the two. In some localities, such as the small
sandstone anticlines in the Warm Bokkeveld and the
anticlinal ridge of Jan Niemand's Bosch near Houwhoek,
water seems to have percolated freely at the junction of
the two formations, the position of which is marked by
a layer of crystalline quartz. There are few places
where a clean-cut section of the junction can be seen,
for the soft beds of the bottom of the Bokkeveld group
have generally been worn away by small streams, the
beds of which are choked up by debris from the sand-
stones when the strata are at all steeply inchned.
Where the beds lie nearly flat, as they do north of the
Doom Kiver in the Western Karroo, the junction is
hidden under the soil. The best section hitherto found
is that on the left bank of the Gamka Eiver immediately
above its great Poort through the Zwartebergen, and
there "the end of the white sandstones and the be-
ginning of the blue-black shales of the Bokkeveld is so
sudden and exact that one can place a knife between
them and say confidently that on one side are the rocks
of the Table Mountain series and on the other those of
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122 GEOLOGY OP CAPE COLONY
the Bokkeveld *'} Other clean-cut sections through the
junction may be seen lower down the Gamka (Gouritz)
Eiver in the Pogha Hills and near the new road to
Cloete's Pass and at the north end of Meiring's Poort,
The Bokkeveld beds are well exposed in the Cold and
Warm Bokkevelds, in the Hex River Valley especially
between De Dooms and Elein Straat stations, and
along the northern flank of the Zwartebergen. They
occupy wide areas in the Ladismith Karroo and south
of the Langebergen; but south of the Zwartebergen
they have been greatly changed by the movements
which gave rise to those mountains, and are much
cleaved. They have only been found within the folded
belt south and west of the Karroo. No outliers have
been met with in the Pre-Cape region of the west and
north, and in Pondoland they have been removed by
denudation, if they were ever deposited there. There
can be little doubt that they once overlay the sandstone
of Table Mountain, although the nearest outcrop is at
Grabouw, east of Hottentot's Holland, about thirty-six
miles in a straight line from Table Mountain.
Where typically developed the Bokkeveld beds consist
of shales and sandstone arranged in a definite order,
although the details vary from one locality to another.
The lowest division consists of shales and thin sand-
stones about 300 feet thick and contains many fossils,
amongst which trilobites belonging to the genera Phacops
and HomdUmotus ; brachiopods of the genera Leptoccelia,
Spirifer, Chonetes and Orthothetes ; Orthoceras, Bellerophon,
^Schwarz, Oeoh Comm. (98), p. 36. A detailed measured action
through the Bokkeveld beds will be found in that Report.
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THE CAtE SVf^TEM 123
Nttculites and crinoids. The shales often contain
spherical or elliptical nodules, which are partly filled
with red or yellow ochre, sometimes used for making
paints with the addition of oil. Another variety of
nodule found in the shales is dark coloured inside, and
often contains rather well-preserved fossils.
Some beds of the lowest shale group are coloured
black by the amount of carbonaceous matter in them,
and in places where the rocks have been intensely
crushed these beds are represented by graphitic slate
or schist, as on the north of the Pot Berg anticline
near Port Beaufort and near Bredasdorp.
This subdivision usually forms a slope below a cliff
or very steep rocky ground formed by the second
division, the first or fossiliferous sandstone. The
fossiliferous sandstone is a dark-blue rock weathering
deep red outside; at some places the sandstone con-
tains many fossils, especially Spirifer and Leptocalia^ but
at other localities the sandstone is not nearly so fos-
siliferous. The beds of red-weathering sandstone are
separated by blue shales very like those below and
above this subdivision. The thickness of the fossil-
iferous sandstone reaches 150 feet. This rock can be
seen north of the village of Ceres especially on the
road up the Gydo Pass, where many fossils have been
obtained from it. It is very often seen as an escarp-
ment, the steep face of which is directed towards the
Table Mountain sandstone. Such an escarpment oc-
curs for a long distance, over fifty miles, on the east
side of the Cederbergen, where, owing to the steep but
constant dip of the beds south of Wupperthal, the
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124 GEOLOGY OF CAPfi COLONY
Ic
la 16
5
Fig. 14.— Fossils from the Bokkeveld beds.
,?' J Hotnaionoiiis hersckcli^ head. Half uatural size.
Ir. „ „ body and tail.
2. Phacops africanua. Half natural size.
3. ,, caffer. Natural size.
4. Proctus malacui. Natural size.
5. Leptocctlia flaJbellUes. Two-thirds natural size.
6. Orihothetes iullivani. Two-thirds natural size.
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THE CAPE SYSTEM
125
11 12
7. Ckonctex falklandiciis. Two-thinls natural size.
8. Spirifcr orlAgntfi. Half natural size.
9. Nuculites branneri. Natural size.
10. Glo88il€8 aff. depressus. Half natural size.
11 Actiiwpteria an. boydi. x One and a half.
12. BelUrophon saUeru Natural size.
1 and 2 from Salter, 3 and 4 from Lake, 5-12 from Keed.
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126 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
whole of the Bokkeveld series is exposed within a
short distance. In the view shown in Plate IV., taken
on the west side of the Schurfteberg (north) anticline
(Cold Bokkeveld), looking south, the escarpment of the
fossiliferous sandstone is seen on the right of the road
as a low ridge, and also on the horizon. The top of
the Table Mountain series is seen on the left of the
picture as a long slope with one slight protuberance ;
the lowest part of the ridge, at a spot above which
some more distant hills appear, is formed by the low-
est shales of the Bokkeveld, that also occupy the flat
valley in which the road lies; the higher groups of
sandstone beds in the Bokkeveld series make ridges
on the horizon, but the fourth sandstone is very slightly
marked ; the high mountain on the right is the outlier
of Witteberg beds named Tafel Berg. Plate V., taken
at Eiet Eiver in the Cold Bokkeveld, illustrates the
succession on the east side of the Cederberg anticline ;
in the foreground is the Table Mountain sandstone
dipping east under the Bokkeveld of the high hills
(Blink Berg) in the middle of the picture, which are
capped by the Witteberg beds. The top of these hills
is about 2,000 feet above the bottom of the valley.
The four groups of sandstone in the Bokkeveld series
appear as kranzes on the face of Blink Berg, and the
three lower ones are well seen on the sky-line. The
position of the shales below the fossiliferous sandstone
is almost invariably marked by a valley along which
a road runs. This is the case along the Cederbergen
and Cold Bokkeveld Mountains, in the Hex Kiver
Valley, in the country north of the Zwartebergen, and
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THE CAPE SYSTEM
127
f-s
pi
fig's
S^'
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128 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
-Si
CO
*a D
ax:
S a
> 2
o $
ll
n a
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THE CAPE SYBTEM 129
in much of the country between the Hex Eiver Valley
and the Gouritz Eiver Poort. The fossils in the sand-
stone are usually in the form of impressions left by the
removal of the calcareous shells. The shells themselves
are rarely seen in the rock taken from near the surface
of an outcrop, but when the rock from a distance of some
feet from a weathered surface is obtained, the calcite
shells are often seen in it. The sandstone itself is
slightly calcareous, but beds of limestone are of very
rare occurrence. ^
Above the fossiliferous sandstone is the second group
of shales containing fossils, from 100 to 300 feet thick.
In the Cold Bokkeveld area the second group of shales
is distinguished by the presence of star-fish, but many
of the species that occur in the lower group are
found here also. Above them is the second sandstone,
which weathers into light-coloured outcrops, differing
strongly in this respect from the first or fossiliferous
sandstone ; it contains few fossils ; Spirifer is occasion-
ally abundant. The second sandstone is a thick group
with many shale beds, and in the Gamka Poort section
reaches a thickness of 400 feet.
The third group of shales is about 350 feet thick,
the beds are often micaceous, and have thin quartzites
interbedded with them ; they usually contain few fossils,
NuciUites occurs in them at the Gamka Poort. Near
the Tunnel Siding on the Hex Eiver hne this group
^A bed of limestone was found in the Bokkeveld series in the
ezcayatioi of a tunnel in the Hex River Valley. See Prosser (79),
p. 49. lb the Clanwilliam district a nodular lump of limestone
crowded with rolled up Trilobites (Phacops and Homalonotus) has
been found above the fossiliferous sandstone at Fredericks Dal.
9
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130 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
of shales yielded Lingular NucuUtes, crinoid stems, a
trilobite and Conidaria, and also some badly preserved
plant stems resembling Lepidodendrotk The third sand-
stone group (100 feet) with the shales above (300 feet),
as well as the fourth sandstone (100 feet) and the over-
lying shales (600 feet), have not been found to contain
fossils other than badly preserved plant remains. These
are not so well defined as the lower groups, and both
the shales and sandstones are often very micaceous.
The fourth shale group is taken as the uppermost of
the Bokkeveld series, and the beds in it often closely
resemble those belonging to the Witteberg. The di-
vision between these two series is an arbitrary one, and
cannot be laid down with certainty in the absence of a
clearly exposed succession from below. In the country
north of the Zwartebergen, in the Cold Bokkeveld, and
in the Hex River-Ladismith Karroo district, there is
not much diflSculty in fixing upon a boundary which
is probably at one and the same horizon throughout ;
but south of the Langebergen the task is an impossible
one, and the limits of the Witteberg beds there as laid
down upon the map must be considered as only roughly
correct.
Along the northern slope of the Langebergen the
Bokkeveld beds are very much cleaved; the cleavage
planes have a constant and high inclination to the
south, while the dip of the beds is very variable in
amount, and in direction is either nearly north or south,"
the strike of the beds being nearly east and west, par-
allel to the cleavage. There is usually no difl&culty in
distinguishing between the bedding planes and cleavage
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THE CAPE SYSTEM 131
in this district, for the sandy portions of the rock resist
the weather better than the finer grained beds, and
stand out more or less prominently on the hill sides.
South of the Langebergen, however, especially east and
south of the Eobertson Division, the distinction between
the two sets of divisional planes is much less marked,
partly owing to the strong development of the cleavage,
but partly on account of the more uniformly fine-grained
nature of the rocks. Few fossils have been found in
the Bokkeveld beds south of the Langebergen, probably
because those contained in the slates are so much dis-
torted by pressure that they are not easily recognisable.
In the small synclines of these beds, folded in amongst
the Table Mountain series in the Knysna Division,
several genera have been obtained ; on the Keurboom*s
River Orthoceras, Phacops, OrbictUoidea, Leptoccelia, Cho-
netes, Spirifer, Nuculites, Bellerophon, Tentaculites and
crinoids have been found. Farther west a few charac-
teristic species have been obtained from the Bredasdorp,
Caledon and Worcester Divisions, but they are usually
greatly distorted.
The distinctly finer grained nature of the Bokkeveld
beds south of the Langebergen than to the north of
those mountains points to the position of the shore-line
of the sea in which they were deposited having crossed
South Africa in a general east and west direction to the
north of the area now occupied by them. It is not
possible to determine the position more closely, for the
northern limit of the beds is only seen in the west of
Calvinia, and is there an eroded surface of great age;
the denudation which swept away the in-shore portion
9*
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132 GEOLOGY OP CAPE COLONY
of the Bokkeveld beds took place in the Pre-Dwyka
times, and the greater part of the northern limit is
still buried beneath the Karroo formation between the
Oorlog*s Kloof Kiver west of Calvinia and the sub-
merged south-eastern portion of the folded belt off the
south-east coast.
The marijie fossils that occur in the lower half of the
Bokkeveld series afford sufficient evidence that the rocks
in which they are imbedded were deposited under the
sea; and the frequent occurrence of false-bedding in
the sandstones throughout the series points to deposition
in shallow water. The bottom of the sea must have
been slowly sinking to allow such an accumulation of
shallow water sediments, although some of the shales
may have been formed in deeper water. In the upper
part of the Bokkeveld series no marine forms have been
noticed ; a few indistinct plants are the only fossils that
have been found in them. It is difficult to explain the
absence of marine animals if the conditions under which
these rocks were formed remained the same as before ;
and the absence of marine fossils from the succeeding
2,500 feet of the Witteberg sandstones and shales war-
rants the supposition that the conditions which prevailed
in the area now called Cape Colony during early Bokke-
veld times changed from marine to fluviatile or lacus-
trine after the deposition of the third shale group, and
remained so throughout the later Bokkeveld and the
whole of the Witteberg periods.
The following are the chief fossils from the Bokkeveld
beds hitherto described : —
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THE CAPE SYSTEM
133
gl
i|
i|
1
WOEM TUBB—
Serpulites sica, Salter ....
Cbinoids—
Opkiocrinus stangeri^ Salter
Lamellibranchb—
Palcnoneilo antiqtuiy Sharpe
„ subaniiqua. Heed
„ rudis, Sharpe
„ aflf. canstricta, Conrad
*
„ cL/ecunda, Hall
*
fjeda inamata, Sharpe - . - -
Grammysia corrugata^ Sharpe -
Anodontopsis ? rvdisy Sharpe -
Orthonotaj Af[. undulata, Conrad
♦
SanguinolUes, sp.
GUmiies, aff. depres8U», Hall
♦
Cardiomorphaf sp.
Prcecardiiim? sp.
Nuculites abbreviatus, Sharpe -
„ africanus, Salter
„ bmnneriy Clarke
*
„ capemis. Reed - - - -
Byssopteria? sp. - - - - -
AcUnoptenUy aff. boydi, Conrad
*
1 ♦
Modiomorpha bdint, Sharpe
>,, aff. pimentaiia., Hartt and
Bathbun-
♦
„ aff. sellowi; Clarke
♦
GA8TBEOPOD&—
Pleurotovmrta, aff. kayseri, Ubrich -
*
Bellerophon qmdrilohatm^ Salter - - '
„ aff. monjaniamis, Hartt and '
Rathbun - - 1
*
„ {Bucaniella\a&.tril6balm,^oYr. i '
♦
^, „ cf. reiJifd, Clarke - . 1 *
„ (Pledonohut), aff. salteriy Clarke
*
Loxonema, sp.
TentaculUes crotalinus, Salter -
*
„ baini, Reed - - - -
1
LtUorina i baini, Sharpe - - - -
1
Theca {Hyolithes) sukeqiialu, Salter -
Conularia africaiM, Sharpe
♦
„ quichua, Steinmann-Doderlein -
*
„ cf. undulatay Conrad
*
^, cf. acvia, Roemer
*
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13*
GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
2I
l|
!§§
1
B&ACHIOPODfr—
Lingula, aff. densa, Hall - - - -
*
Orbiadotdea baint, Morr. and Sharpe
*
♦
Stropheodonta, of. condnnA, Morr. and
i-
Strophonellay sp. - - - - -
Orthothetes sulKvaniy Morr. and Sharpe
?
*
?
Chonetes falklandicusy Morr. and Sharpe -
^■:
*
„ cf. coronattis, Conrad -
:;:
„ cf. arcei^ Ulrich - - - -
„ aff. settger. Hall - - - -
*
Orthis, sp.
Rhynchonellu, sp.
RensseUBridy sp. a, Reed - - - -
sp. ft Reed . - . -
sp-?^
Trigeria aavdryi, Oehlert
Cryptomlla haini, Morr. and Sharpe -
*
Spirifer orbignyt, Morr. and Sharpe -
*
„ pedraanus, Hartt - - - -
i^'
„ cereg^ Reed
„ a, Reed
„ ft Reed
Trofndoleptus carincUtLS^ Conrad
♦
♦
AmbocoBlva umhmaJta^ Conn^l -
^•:
Retzia adrieni^ de Vern - - - .
*
RhynchospirOf cf. silveti, Ulrioh
'o
Leptoco^lia flabellitesy Conrad - - -
'A'
*
*
VituUna pustulosa, ^all - - - -
*
III
Teilobitbb—
Phacops pupillusy Lake - - - .
„ arbateusy Lake . - - -
„ cristd-gcUliy Woodward
„ africanusy Salter - - - -
„ ocellusy Lake - - . .
„ impresfusy Lake - - - -
„ (OrypkcBiis) caffevy Salter
Dalmanites lunatuSy Lake
ProeUis mulacuBy Lake - - - -
Typhlonigcus bainty Salter
HomaUmoUis herscheliy Murch. -
„ quemusy Lake
„ coUmuSy Lake
Obfhalofods—
OrthoceraSy two species - - . -
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THE CAPE SYSTEM 135
The fossils ^ common to the Bokkeveld beds and the
Devonian strata of the Falkland Islands, South and
North America and Europe are marked with an asterisk
under the columns referring to those countries. In the
case of the many species which have close aflSnity to
foreign forms (aflf.) or are closely comparable to them
(cf.), the asterisk refers to the locality of the allied
species; many of these may be determined with
certainty in the future. The fauna as a whole is
more nearly related to that of the Devonian rocks of
other countries than to any other, although there seems
to be no evidence to correlate the Cape fossiliferous beds
with any one part of the Devonian system as developed
in Europe or North America. Of the Brachiopods,
Mr. Reed writes, "they have a completely Devonian
stamp ; and there are none which suggest the presence
of Silurian or Carboniferous beds '\^ Imperfect though
the list of fossils given above is, it shows that the
Bokkeveld fauna is much more closely related to the
American Devonian fauna than to that of Europe, and
more closely to the South American than to the North,
in spite of the fact that the rocks of South America and
the Falkland Islands are less well known than those of
North America and Europe.
The country occupied by the Bokkeveld beds north of
the Langebergen and in the Worcester and Robertson
Divisions south of that range is characterised by strongly
^ For descriptions and figures of the fossils the student must refer to
the appendices to Bain (54) hy Salter and Sharpe, Woodward (78), and
Reed (04). Before long the Trilobites, Lamellibranchs, Gasteropoda,
Pteropods and some Gephalopods will be described and figured in the
i^nnalq of the South ^frici^n ^{useum, ^ Reed, op* ciL^ p, 186,
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136 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
marked escarpments and valleys, so that from the top
of a prominent hill in a suitable position the he of the
rocks can be made out over a very wide area. The
most accessible of such hills are the Brand Vley Moun-
tain near Worcester, Gydo Berg north of Ceres, the
high hill near Triangle, in the Hex Eiver Valley, and
the top of the hill east of the north entrance to Seven
Weeks* Poort. The last-named spot is one of the finest
points of vantage in the Colony for the purpose of seeing
the structure of a wide area. The folds into which the
rocks have been thrown north of the Zwartebergen are
distinctly seen, the outcrop of the four groups of sand-
stone in the Bokkeveld series make independent escarp-
ments or ledges on large ridges, and where repeated by
folding the structure is seen clearly. The gradual dying
out of the folds northwards in the Karroo is displayed
as if the country were a geological model, and the out-
crops of each formation are at once recognised. The sand-
stones and quartzites of the Bokkeveld and Witteberg
series stand up prominently between the shale bands that
have determined the positions of the minor valleys, the
soft, easily eroded shales having offered an easier path
for the rivers than the more resistant sandstones. The
view is limited on the north by the great dolerite-crowned
escarpment of the Nieuweveld, seventy miles distant.
South of the Langebergen the structure of the country
is not at all obvious until it has been made out in detail,
for the Bokkeveld beds have been cut to a level with
the outliers of the Uitenhage series ; and although this
plain has since been dissected by rivers, the Bokkeveld
and Witteberg slates, on accoijnt of their uniform char-
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THE CAPE SYSTEM 137
acter, have had little effect in determining the positions
of the valleys, so that the longitudinal valleys so con-
spicuous north of the mountains are not nearly so well
developed to the south.
The Bokkeveld beds do not furnish any stone or
minerals of much economic value. The sandstones are
used for making walls round kraals and camps, and to
a small extent for house-building on farms. Their
colour is too dark and patchy, and as a rule they are
too fissile and difl&cult to work to be used when any
other building materials are obtainable.
The country occupied by this series is generally well
populated, for the soil is rich. The shales break down
into good soil, so' the positions of the thicker bands of
shale are usually marked by lands and gardens, often
with a dip slope of the Table Mountain sandstone on
the one hand and an escarpment of the Bokkeveld
sandstones on the other.
Springs are more numerous along the junction of the
Table Mountain sandstone and the Bokkeveld beds than
elsewhere in the neighbourhood, and although many of
the springs yield '*kruit water," i.e., water with the
smell of sulphuretted hydrogen, due to the mutual de-
composition of pyrites and the organic matter in the
shales in the presence of moisture, they are very valuable
sources of water. This pecuUarity of the water is the
cause of so many farms being called ** Stink Fontein,"
a name that recurs again and again on the Bokkeveld
areas as well as on other rocks, such as the Dwyka and
Ecca beds, the water from which has frequently the
sanje characteristic.
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138 GEOLOGY OF OAPE COLONY
The Wittbbbrg Series.
The Witteberg series consists of sandstones, quart-
zites, and shales. The sandstones and quartzites are in
thicker groups than those of the Bokkeveld beds, and
occasionally contain thin beds of white quartz pebbles,
and also isolated pebbles of the same material. The
resemblance between the Witteberg quartzites and the
Table Mountain beds was the cause of much confusion
in the early days of Cape Geology, but it is more apparent
than real. The Witteberg quartzites, as a whole, have
a more reddish and yellow tint and are more micaceous
than the Table Mountain rock, and they are much less
massive, shale bands being of comparatively frequent
occurrence. The shales are green, dark grey and blue
in colour, and they are often very micaceous and sandy,
frequently being more properly called thin, irregularly
bedded micaceous sandstones than shales. In the
Eastern Province there are black carbonaceous shales,
which are different from any beds in this series that
have been found in the west. The Witteberg beds have
so far yielded no remains of animals, and only rather
poor specimens of plants which have not been satis-
factorily determined for want of good material.
The following genera of plants have been mentioned *
as having been found in the Witteberg beds : —
1 This list except the last genus is taken from Feistmantel (89), pp.
25 and 26, where references to the original authorities may be found.
I have omitted those said to occur at Tulbagh, for a mistake has evi-
cfently been made in the Iqcality, or i\ is insufficiently 4®^Q^t •
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THE CAPE SYSTEM 139
Selaginites Port Alfred.
Lepidodendron Grahamstown, Swellendam and Riversdale,
Lepidostrobus Port Alfred.
HcUonica „
Knorria Swellendam.
Sigillaria Port Alfred.
Stigrnaria „
CyclosHgma Many places in the west of the Colony.
Little value can be set upon the determinations in the
above list, but it is of interest to note that all the genera
occur in the carboniferous rocks of Europe, and the
Cyclostigma is very like a fossil described by Feistmantel
from the Goonoo Goonoo beds (Devonian or Carbonifer-
ous) of New South Wales.
By far the most abundant fossil, if it be one, is
Spirophyton, but Mr. Seward,^ who has examined some
of the specimens collected by the Cape Survey, is of
opinion that these markings are not of organic origin.
Spirophyton is found as an impression extending
spirally through several inches of rock, with the curved
striations radiating from a central depression to a pe-
ripheral groove. It is difficult to understand how such
a well-defined structure with a sharply marked limit
passing spirally through several layers of sediment can
be produced by mechanical means, such as the swirling
of water through a hole in the sand. No carbonised
remains of vegetable matter have been found adhering
to the surface of the Spirophyton impressions, but the
same is the case with the undoubted plant impressions
from the Witteberg and Bokkeveld beds in the west of
the Colony. There is a great area of Witteberg beds in
1 Seward (08).
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140 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
the east that has hardly yet been examined for fossils,
and as one of the varieties of plant impressions is there
found preserved with some coaly matter adhering to the
specimens some fresh evidence of the natmre of Spiro-
phyton may be expected in the future.
Whether a true fossil or not, Spirophyton has been
found of great service in enabling the Witteberg beds to
be recognised, as it is doubtful whether it occurs in the
uppermost Bokkeveld beds, and it has never been found
in the Dwyka or later rocks. It is met with in hard
quartzites and in shales, the best specimens are those
from the quartzites ; the markings are better preserved
in quartzite than in the micaceous and sandy shales,
although they are more abundant in the latter.
The Witteberg beds have a maximum thickness of
about 2,500 feet. They form several important ranges
of mountains on the southern border of the Karroo, and
their name is taken from the Wittebergen, south of
Matjes Fontein. In the west and south of the Colony the
mountains composed of the Witteberg beds are remark-
ably bare and barren-looking (see Plate VI.). They are
less well supplied with rain than the Table Mountain
sandstone ranges, for the latter are generally higher and
therefore receive a heavier rainfall. The high percen-
tage of quartz sand in the Witteberg beds causes the
soils derived from them to be poor and thin. The forma-
tion is first met with in the west of the Colony, north
of Eland's Vley (Calvinia and Clanwilliam), where the
long line of hills called the Zwart Euggens commences.
The northern boundary is a denuded one, and, as is the
case with the Bokkeveld boundary a little farther to the
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THE CAPE SYSTEM 141
a
•c
0^
§
PE4
00
s?
5
a
s
I
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142 GEOLOGY OP CAPE COLONY
north, is of great antiquity, being chiefly older than the
Dwyka series. Following the Witteberg beds south-
wards they become thicker owing to the coming in of
higher and higher beds below the Dwyka. Some out-
liers, somewhat table-shaped mountains, are found at
Bidouw, Gerustheid, and in the angle between the Bosch
and Doom Rivers in the north-east of Clanwilliam and
south-west of Calvinia. The Zwart Ruggens are a long
dip slope of the quartzites on the east of the Cederberg
and Cold Bokkeveld anticlines. When seen from the
Karroo the Zwart Ruggens appear to consist entirely of
whitish quartzites, for the numerous shale bands are
more easily weathered away and can only be seen when
one enters a ravine or gorge, such as the Tra-Tra or
Winkelhaak*s (Doom) River valleys, which drain the
Cold Bokkeveld The Zwart Ruggens merge into the
Bonteberg Range at Karroo Poort, when the strike of the
rocks changes from south to east. The axis of the
Bonteberg anticline is inclined eastwards, so that the
Dwyka series sends a tongue west-south-west towards
Pienaar's Kloof north of Touw's River Station. The
Witteberg beds are continued across Pienaar's Kloof
into the Voetpad Berg, and also round the south of the
Quarrie Kloof Dwyka outlier into the Wittebergen. In
the southern part of the Worcester Division the Witte-
berg beds form a V-shaped area ; the two arms of the
V meet on the south and are cut oflf by the Worcester
fault to the north, but the western junction is buried
beneath the conglomerates of the Uitenhage series ; the
apex of the V is at Roode Berg near the road between
Villiersdorp and Worcester. In Robertson the Witte-
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THE CAPE SYSTEM 143
berg beds form an area aboat twenty-four miles in length,
south of the fault ; and they also occur in Swellendam
and Biversdale. To the north-east of Montague they
form two synclines connected at the eastern end ; Klein
Berg 18 part of the southern syncline, and the hills near
Dobbel Aars Kloof belong to the northern one.
Between the Bonteberg and Matjes Kop these beds
cover a considerable area, over forty miles long and
twenty wide in places, being thrown into many small
folds, and in four of the synclines or troughs outliers of
the Dwyka series occur; the Nauga and Coega (or
Kouga) hills are in this area. The axis of the main
anticline of the Wittebergen disappears eastwards south
of Laingsburgy where a long syncline of the Dwyka
aeries lies south of the eastern part of the range. The
Witteberg beds pass round the western end of the Dwyka
syncline into Eland's Berg, which disappears eastwards
in a similar manner to the Wittebergen, but the beds
pass round another westerly rising Dwyka syncline into
the long range of foot hills north of the Zwartebergen,
and extend far to the east, certainly as far as Willow-
more; they reappear from under a syncline of the
Dwyka series in the Groot Biver and Klein Winterhoek
ranges to the north. East of the Klein Winterhoek
Mountains the Witteberg beds form the Zuurbergen,
the hills near Commadagga, Botha's hill and the hills
south of Grahamstown, and much of the country be-
tween Grahamstown and the coast.
The Witteberg country in the Eastern Province is
much better covered with vegetation than that in the
west, chiefly on account of the greater rainfall, but pos-
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144 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
sibly the eastern rocks are somewhat more argillaceous
and less quartzitic than the western, and therefore give
rise to better soils. Whether the Witteberg series as a
whole becomes finer grained towards the east is still
uncertain, for it has not been closely examined in that
part of the country.
In the south of the Colony east of Eobertson the
Witteberg beds are distinctly less quartzose and coarse
grained than to the north of the Langebergen ; a similar
change takes place in them to that noted in the case of
the Bokkeveld series, as they are followed southwards.
It has been stated previously that the absence of marine
fossils, or rather the remains of animals that are evi-
dently related to forms which only live in the sea, from
the Witteberg beds must be regarded as evidence that
these sediments were not laid down under the sea, but
they may have been formed in fresh water. The settle-
ment of this question must always be a difficult task,
and the rocks must be known in much greater detail
than they are at present before it can be accomplished.
False bedding and rippled surfaces are frequently seen
in these rocks, which were certainly laid down in shallow
water not far from the land.
There can be httle doubt that the Witteberg beds
once extended over the whole of the southern and
western portion of the Colony. The position of the
coastline of the land from which the sediments were
derived is as problematical as the position of the
Bokkeveld coast line. From the fact that the coarse
sediments are found in the northern exposures, it
must be concluded that the land lay in that direction,
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THE CAPE SYSTEM 145
and it probably lay rather farther south than the
Bokkeveld shore.
The Witteberg beds have no econonaic importance.
Many years ago a nugget of gold was found in these
rocks at Kragga Poort, near Constable, but nothing
further has been found there. The presence of black
coaly shales in the Witteberg series on the Kowie River
led to prospecting for coal some forty years ago, but
without success. A great part of the country occupied
by this series is very rugged, owing to the quartzite
bands standing out prominently from the general surface.
The white quartzites often give rise to great bare stony
dip slopes, such as those on the eastern side of the
Zwart Euggens west of the Karroo and in the mountains
south of Matjes Fontein.
10
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CHAPTEE V.
THE KABROO SYSTEM.
The beds belonging to the Karroo system cover the
greater part of the Colony ; from a line between Karroo
Poort and the Gualana Eiver mouth northwards to the
Orange Eiver east of Prieska these are practically the
only rocks exposed at the surface, with the exception of
the intrusive dolerites. Somewhat monotonous from
the repeated occurrence of sandstones, shales, and mud-
stones, in all thousands of feet thick, and from the fact
that they generally lie at so low an angle that in the
absence of considerable changes of level in the surface
a comparatively thin group of beds occupies a very
wide area, nevertheless they are of great interest from
some points of view. Perhaps their chief interest con-
sists in the reptilian remains preserved in them, and in
the similarity of their fossil plants to those found in the
Gondwana system of India, in certain Australian rocks,
and in beds in some other parts of the world.
There is at present no very satisfactory classification
of the formation, but when its fossils have been more
extensively collected with due record of localities, the
present subdivision will be strengthened or sufficient
grounds brought forward for a somewhat different one.
At present the system is subdivided as follows, in
descending order : —
146
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THE KARROO SYSTEM
147
Karroo
System'
{Volcanic gi'oup
Cave sandstone
Red beds
Molteno beds
f Upper -
\ Middle
I Lower -
{U{)perbedB -
Laingsburg beds
Lower beds -
{Upper shales
Conglomerate
Lower shales
Approximate mazimnm thickness.
4,000
- 800
- 1,400
. 2,000
Beaufort
Ecca
series
Dwyka
series
- 600
- 1,000
- 700
I 2,2
,000
,600
18,100
The maximum thickness of the Karroo formation is
not less than some 14,000 feet, excluding the volcanic
beds, although it is of course not certain that the full
thickness is now, or ever was, developed in any one
locahty. This great bulk of sedimentary rocks nowhere
contains evidence of marine conditions having prevailed
during its deposition; on the contrary, nearly all the
fossils known from the Karroo beds were undoubtedly
either land or fresh-water forms. The accumulation
of so great a thickness of fresh-water beds is a very
interesting fact, and we shall return to the subject after
describing the various groups of rock in the system.
The Dwyka Series.
Everywhere round the borders of the central basin
a conglomerate with very peculiar characters crops out.
It is usually a blue or greenish rock, compact and fine
grained, made up of small particles of sand, which under
the microscope are seen to be chiefly composed of quartz
and microline, with a smaller quantity of other felspars,
10*
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148 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
epidote, garnet, calcite and other minerals imbedded in
mud, using that term for an argillaceous material too
fine grained to be more definitely named. This sandy
mud contains a vast number of boulders and pebbles of a
great variety of rocks, amongst which are conglomerates,
quartzites, sandstones, shales, slates, marbles, jaspers,
granites, gneisses, diabases, amygdaloidal lavas and
serpentines.
These boulders are, as a rule, scattered irregularly
through the conglomerate without any arrangement in
beds. Plate VII., a photograph of the conglomerate
exposed in a ravine near Prieska, gives a good idea of
the manner in which the pebbles and boulders occur.
Not only is the great variety in the boulders remark-
able, but the shape of a large proportion of them is
peculiar. When a rock is broken up by natural causes
the fragments are at first angular, their shape and size
depending upon the nature of the rock and other con-
ditions ; when these angular fragments are rolled along
by a stream, or thrown and dragged about on a shore,
the comers are worn off, and the boulders become
rounded or oval in shape according to the original
form of the pieces of rock. Whilst there are many
boulders of this description in the Dwyka conglomer-
ate, there are others distinctly flattened on one or more
sides, with scratches of various depths on the flattened
surfaces and to a smaller extent on the other parts.
The striations in some cases run in one direction only
across a flattened surface, but generally two or more
groups of striations can be detected, or again, isolated,
strongly marked and somewhat curved scratches may
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THE KAllllOO SYSTEM
I4d
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ISO (4b:ology op cape colony
be found alone or with the other striations. In all
respects these boulders and pebbles are similar in form
and in the nature of their striations to the scratched
boulders that are found in the moraines of modern
glaciers and the ancient boulder clays and moraines
of Northern Europe and America, countries that are
no longer so extensively covered with ice and snow
as they used to be.
If the striated boulders in the Dwyka conglomerate
belonged to a less remote geological period no doubt
would be cast upon the glacial origin of their pecuhari-
ties; but as the rock is of Carboniferous or Permian
age, an epoch so far back in the earth's history that
none of the species then inhabiting the world has sur-
vived to the present day, when whole classes of animals
and plants now flourishing in every quarter of the globe,
such as birds, mammals and flowering plants, were still
merely future possibilities, and when not one of the
great mountain chains of our present day continents
had come into existence, people have been very reluc-
tant to accept this explanation. There is a deep-seated
prejudice against the idea that glacial conditions could
have prevailed so long ago in countries that now enjoy
temperate and subtropical climates. This feeling is
perhaps no longer so strong as it was in the sixties of
last century, when ice-action was first brought forward
in explanation of certain features in the Talchir conglo-
merates at the base of the Indian Gondwana system, ^
and when Sutherland^ showed that the conglomerate
1 H. F. and W. T. Blanford and W. Theobald, Mem, 6. S, hidia,
vol. i., 1869, pp. 33-90. * Sutherland (68), p. 17, etc.
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THE KARROO SYSTEM 151
at the base of the coal-bearing rocks of Natal, which he
stated was the same as Bain's ''claystone-porphyry*' in
Cape Colony, was mainly of glacial origin. ' A paper by
Professor Edgeworth David on the evidences of glacial
action in Auetralia in Permo-carboniferous time seems
to have brought many European geologists to believe
that such climatic conditions prevailed at so early a
period.* The evidence does not merely depend upon
the presence of flattened and striated boulders, but the
general nature of much of the conglomerate and the
form of the floor beneath it in certain areas confirm
the glacial theory.
An ordinary conglomerate is more or less bedded,
the larger boulders he together with a small quantity
of sand between them, and the pebbles likewise are
roughly arranged according to size with a larger propor-
tion of sand. The inclusions often touch one another ;
they are not scattered at vnde intervals through the
fine-grained matrix of the rock. Such conglomerates
can be seen in many parts of the Colony. The Table
Mountain series in the Olifant's Biver Mountains,
at Baboon Point, and at other places on the west
coast contain thick beds of conglomerate with normal
characters. The Uitenhage beds in the south-western
districts contain numerous instances, and at the base of
the series in the Uitenhage Division there is a strongly
developed conglomerate of the usual type. Amongst
* I have omitted all reference to the earlier views as to the origin of
the conglomerate. A full historical account of this matter will be
found in Gorstorphine, Oeol. Comm, (99), pp. 5-20.
^Q,J.G. 5., 1896, p. 289.
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152 GEOLOGY OP CAPE COLONY
the recent deposits of the southern and western parts
of the Colony, both river-formed and beach conglom-
erates are not infrequent. In all of these rocks one
looks in vain for the characteristic flattening and stria-
tions found so abundantly in the Dwyka boulders,
and for the occurrence of large isolated blocks in a
flne-grained matrix. The reason is that currents or
waves that have suificient power to move large blocks
of stone sweep away the pebbles and sand from the
same neighbourhood, so that the large stones come
to lie together, while the smaller fragments come to
rest in quieter water. When a large block is entirely
surrounded by stratified mud or sand, it has been
dropped there by some floating body, and of such bodies
ice is by far the most important. Practically the only
exception to this is the falling of blocks from volcanic
explosions into ash or sand, but volcanic agencies had
no part in the formation of the Dwyka conglomerate.
Drifting trees and masses of vegetation can be called in
to account for the presence of isolated blocks of rock in
fine-grained beds from which other evidence of glacial
action is absent, especially if fossil wood occurs in the
same beds ; but such means are out of the question
when we have to deal with the repeated occurrence
of large blocks in unfossiliferous beds covering wide
stretches of country.
Every detailed account of icebergs met with in the
Arctic and Antarctic Seas mentions blocks of rock as
well as small fragments, sand and mud, contained in
the ice and lying upon its surface. The ice that forms
along a shore encloses a quantity of pebbles and mud,
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THE KARROO SYSTEM 163
and receives additiouB of both ice and rock-debris
from the land side ; when this breaks up and part of
it drifts away, the load is carried off and dropped by
the melting of the ice. By means, then, of icebergs
and drifting floes, it is probable that the boulders and
pebbles, as well as some of the matrix of the conglom-
erate in the south of the Colony reached their present
positions.
It is uncertain to what extent the conglomerate in
the north is a true morainal deposit, that is, one formed
on land or in very shallow water at the end or bottom
of glaciers or ice sheets. The internal character of a
moraine may not be very different from that of a sandy
clay, into which boulders have been dropped from float-
ing ice, and it is difficult to decide which is which in
the absence of well-developed bedding planes ; even in
morainal areas the sediments deposited in temporary
lakes give rise to bedded sands and shales that may be
again covered up by tjrpical boulder clay. In the case
of recently glaciated regions the original surface forms
of many of the deposits can be traced, and lithological
changes can often be followed up and assigned to their
proper place in the history of the area; but when we
have to deal with the results of a glacial period of late
Carboniferous age, which have probably been buried
under thousands of feet of later sediments, and which
are only visible owing to the removal by denudation of
these superincumbent rocks, a full explanation of the
meaning of each change cannot be expected. In Prieska,
the district in which the northern conglomerate has been
most fully examined, exposures are by no means plentiful.
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154 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
and the diflBcnlty of arriving at a just conclusion as to
its mode of formation is increased by the uncertainty of
its thickness at various points, owing to the removal
of the overlying beds; otherwise the horizontahty of
the rocks would make the district a peculiarly favourable
one for observations.
With the progress of the geological work in the north
much evidence will be collected as to the nature of the
conglomerate at different locaUties, so that it may be
possible to delineate areas of true moraines, of glacial
lakes, and possibly of conglomerates remade from the
moraines as they became submerged during the advance
of the water northwards.
It is quite justifiable to regard those portions of the
conglomerate resting upon a striated floor as a terminal
moraine formed during the retreat of the ice, or perhaps
at an earlier period, that is, as a ground moraine. A
considerable portion of the northern conglomerate must
be included under this head, but it is uncertain whether
the whole of the conglomerate in that region was formed
under quite the same conditions.
To the north of latitude 33° the conglomerate rests
unconformably upon the underlying rocks, but it is by
no means everywhere that one can find a glaciated floor
below it. In the divisions of Hope Town and Prieska
excellent examples of rounded and striated hillocks
{roches moutonn^es) have been found immediately below
the conglomerate. Over thirty years ago Dr. Sutherland
described somewhat similar appearances in Natal ; ^
1 Sutherland (68), p. 17.
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THE KARROO SYSTEM 155
afterwards Mr. Dunn^ discovered a fine striated floor
below the conglomerate at the confluence of the Orange
and Vaal Kivers ; in later years Dr. Molengraaflf ^ found
a similar floor below the conglomerate in Eastern Trans-
vaal, and the Cape Survey * came across the magnificent
roches moutonn^es of Prieska and Hope Town.
At Jackal's Water in Prieska the conglomerate lies
upon the hard quartzites of the *Keis series, which crop
out in the form of rounded and polished surfaces covered
on their northern slopes with nearly parallel groves and
scratches of various lengths, lying in a north-north-east
to south -south-west direction. The southern ends of the
hillocks are steeper, rough and unstriated. yhese two
sets of surfaces correspond exactly with the **tail and
crag," or ** stoss- and lee-sides *' of the roches moutonn^es
that are met with in every region where ice has passed
over hard rocks. The ice, either in the form of a glacier
or a more extensive sheet, in moving over the surface
ground down the underlying rock with the aid of the
sand and stones contained in it ; the side of a projecting
mass of rock exposed to the greatest grinding, naturally
that facing the point from which the ice moved, had its
surface smoothed, scratched, and polished. Plates VIII.
and IX. are views of the quartzite roches moutonndes of
Jackal's Water; the second view shows the nature of
the surface; the lines traversing the surface from the
lower edge of the picture to the right side are due to
bedding planes; other cracks are those formed along
1 Dunn (86), p. 8. «Molengraaff (98), p. 103 ; and (01), pp. 71-74.
'Rogers and Sohwarz (00), pp. 118-120; and Qeol. Comm. (99), pp.
96,96.
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156 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
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THE KARROO SYSTEM
157
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158 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
joints; the fine strise making a sharp angle with the
bedding planes are glacial scratches.
At Vilet's Kuil, in Hope Town, the hard lavas of the
Beer Vley volcanic group play a similar rdle to that of
the quartzites of JackaFs Water, and the scratches are
directed about 10° east of south, the lee-side being on
the south. In both of these cases the surface of the
older rock retains the roche moutonn4e form for a distance
of some 200 feet from the outcrop of the Dwyka con-
glomerate. Beyond this limit the rocks have lost their
glaciated surfaces owing to weathering since the removal
of the overlying conglomerate by denudation. The
ground y)ccupied by the conglomerate round the roches
moutonn^es, seen in the foreground of the view in Plate
VIII., is covered with the characteristically striated
boulders; many of these lie upon the surface of the
older rocks, exposed in the immediate neighbourhood,
having been left there on the removal of the matrix of
the conglomerate.
The hard quartzites of the 'Keis series, and the almost
equally hard lava of the Beer Vley group, are well
fitted to retain the glacial markings for long periods.
The reason why such phenomena are not more gener-
ally seen in Prieska is partly that many of the rocks
Ijring below the conglomerate disintegrate rather readily,
and are consequently not well adapted for preserving
their old glaciated surfacea A great part of the bound-
ary between the conglomerate and older rocks passes
over coarse granite and gneiss, which break up rapidly
under the influence of great differences in temperature,
a marked character of the climate in that region. Other
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THE KARROO SYSTEM 159
parts of the conglomerate boundary are hidden under
sand and other surface accumulations. In addition to
these hindrances to the observation of the surface that
immediately underUes the conglomerate in the north, it
must be remembered that but a very small part of the
country has been closely examined, and that the whole
tract between the Kaaing Bult and Loeries Fontein, a
distance of at least 200 miles along the Dwyka outcrop,
has not been touched.
The discovery of glaciated surfaces at the junction of
the Orange and Vaal Elvers, in the Eastern Transvaal,
in Natal, and in Prieska and Hope Town, in all over
a very wide area, is suflBcient to make one expect to
find such surfaces below the conglomerate wherever it
rests unconformably upon the older rocks. The con-
glomerate is unconformable north of Karroo Poort. Be-
tween Karroo Poort and the Bosch Eiver in the Tanqua
Karroo it rests upon the Witteberg beds ; at two or
three spots only along this part of the boundary, sixty
miles in length, has the actual contact been seen, and
although the surface of the Witteberg quartzites is
striated at those places, there are so many slickensided
surfaces in the same rocks, produced by the bending,
and consequent slipping of one layer over another, after
the Dwyka conglomerate was formed, that in the absence
of favourable exposures it is impossible to be certain of
the glacial origin of the scratches immediately below the
conglomerate. The thin-bedded quartzites are ill suited
for retaining the striae, if they were ever present. Also
at the time when the conglomerate was formed the
Witteberg beds had only recently been deposited, and
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160 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
must have been very much softer and less coherent than
now after they have been buried under a great load of
other rocks, subjected to earth movements, and again
exposed to our view.
Between Bosch Biver and Matjes Fontein on the
Oorlog's Eloof Biver, a distance of fifty miles, the con-
glomerate rests upon the Bokkeveld series, gradually
coming to lie upon lower and lower beds belonging to
that group, till at Matjes Fontein only the lowest band
of fossiliferous shales remains between the conglomerate
and the Table Mountain sandstone. From the Oorlog's
Kloof Biver, where the conglomerate and sandstone
crop out within a few yards of one another in the river
bed, to the escarpment on the south side of the Doom
Biver (Calvinia) Valley, the conglomerate rests directly
upon the Table Mountain series, which decreases in
thickness from perhaps 5,000 feet to two or three in
the interval ; north and east of Uithoek the sandstone
no longer intervenes between the conglomerate and the
Pre-Cape rocks. The conglomerate there lies upon the
Ibiquas series as far north as the fault separating the
latter from Bushmanland granite and gneiss. North of
the fault the conglomerate rests upon the granite (see
Plate X.), and is not in the least affected by the great
dislocation, which was therefore in its present state in
Dwyka times.
The only place along the western outcrop of the
Dwyka conglomerate where actual evidence of the move-
ment of ice over a floor of any kind has been seen is at
Eland's Vley, near the confluence of the Tanqua and
Doom (Clanwilliam) Bivers. On either side of the
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THE KARROO SYSTEM 161
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a
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I
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162 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
Doom Eiver there is exposed a ■* striated pavement/'
not of the underlying rock, but of the conglomerate
itself, which passes under a further thickness of con-
glomerate. The ** pavement " is a flat surface of con-
glomerate in which there are numerous boulders up to
three feet in diameter ; these are pressed down flush
with the general surface of the pavement, and are finely
striated in one direction, which is nearly due east ; these
boulders may also have another set of their striae which
run in dififerent directions, but they have been mostly
obliterated by the agency that produced those men-
tioned. The matrix of the conglomerate is a tough
blue sandy mudstone, and is traversed by numerous
furrows which run parallel to the dominant strisB on
the boulders. There can be little doubt that this sur-
face,^ which is from fifty to eighty feet above the base of
the conglomerate, was caused by ice moving across it
from west to east. The conglomerate was at the time a
stiff, sandy mud containing many pebbles and boulders,
which, when at or near the surface, were forced down
flush with the latter, and striated and polished by the
sand and stones set in the bottom of the ice, that also
made the furrows in the mud. After this mass of ice
had disappeared, sandy mud with boulders and pebbles,
precisely hke the conglomerate below, was deposited
upon the striated pavement. Many instances of such
surfaces have been found in recently glaciated regions ;
they are produced wherever a glacier or large sheet of
ice moves over a floor of boulder clay or till.
Where the Dwyka conglomerate first appears on the
coast of Pondoland near St. John's it is faulted down
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THE KARROO SYSTEM 163
against the great block of Table Mountain beds that
forms the mountain through which the St. John^s Eiver
flows just before entering the sea. To the north-east of
St. John's, along the western flank of the high plateau
of Table Mountain sandstone that borders the coast,
the conglomerate rests directly upon the sandstone, as
is also the case in Natal ; no part of the Bokkeveld or
Witteberg series has been left in those regions between
the two formations, which stand in the same relation to
one another as in Calvinia, north of the Oorlog's Kloof
Eiver. The conglomerate in Pondoland has precisely
the same general appearance as in Calvinia and the
western Karroo ; the colour and nature of the matrix
are the same, and in both districts there are large and
small inclusions of many varieties of rock, considerable
numbers of which are flattened and striated on one or
more sides.
The boulders in the Pondoland outcrops are, as usual,
derived from many kinds of granite, gneiss, diabase and
other igneous rocks, as well as sandstones, quartzites
and other sedimentaries ; but the jaspers and banded
magnetic rocks from the Griqua Town beds, which
form a small but interesting part of the boulders in the
west and south, have not been noticed there.
A considerable part of the conglomerate is unbedded ; \
not only are the pebbles and boulders scattered at ran-
dom throughout the rock, but the matrix is without
lamination planes. But in any district where the con-
glomerate is well exposed over large areas, traces of
bedding can be found in the matrix, and it is sometimes
so well laminated that it can be called a shale. In
11 ♦
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164 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
Prieska shaly portions of the rock are found quite close
to outcrops in which no lamination can be seen. Within
a short distance of the spot at which the photograph
reproduced in Plate VII. was taken, there is a patch of
shale without any pebbles in it, and in other parts of the
district the matrix of the conglomerate is well laminated.
In the western and southern Karroo shaly conglomerate
is often met with, the pebbles and boulders in it being
precisely of the same nature as those in the unbedded
conglomerate, and they occur in the same way. These
shales must have been deposited in quiet water and the
boulders dropped to the bottom from floating ice.
In the Tanqua Karroo a fairly constant band of very
large boulders stretches for many miles north and south
of Eland's Vley. It is about fifteen feet thick and some
of the boulders are from three to four feet in diameter,
but most of them are less than half this size ; many are
well striated. The rocks above and below the boulder
bed differ from it only in the smaller proportion of inclu-
sions distributed through them. Another definite boulder
bed has been found in the valley of the Witteberg's Eiver
south of Laingsburg, and is shown on Plate XI. The
largest block seen in the photograph is ten feet across.
Throughout the area in which there is an unconformity
below the Dwyka series, the conglomerate lies directly
upon the older rocks, except perhaps where small patches
of shale occur, such as the one mentioned from Prieska,
which may be at the base of the series. In the south
of the Karroo, where the Dwyka series lies conformably
upon the Witteberg beds, there is always a certain thick-
ness of greenish shales between the conglomerate and
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THE KARROO SYRTEM 165
tbe Witteberg quartzites. These shales pass gradually
upwards into the conglomerate, which contains only
small pebbles near its base in the southern region. Al-
though they are undoubtedly passage beds between
the two formations, i.e., they represent the period of
transition from the conditions under which the Witte-
berg series was formed, to the colder conditions that
prevailed later, they are placed for convenience with
the conglomerate, and are called the Lower Dwyka
shales. They consist of shales and thin quartzitic
sandstones, and are in all from 600 to 700 feet thick,
measured from the uppermost thick quartzite of the
Witteberg group to the lowest bed that is distinctly
conglomeratic. Some of the strata are very hke the
shales of the Witteberg, and others, especially near
the top, are of the same nature as the matrix of the
conglomerate. The Lower Dwyka shales are well
exposed at many places on the north flank of the
hills formed by the Witteberg series along the southern
edge of the Karroo. They can be well seen south of
Matjes Fontein, in the Witteberg's Eiver south of
Laingsburg, at the north end of the Buffers Eiver
Poort (Leeuw Kloof Poort), and just south of Prince
Albert village where the road to the Zwartberg Pass
enters the narrow kloof, to mention some of the more
accessible localities in the Karroo. East of Prince
Albert this horizon has not yet been described, but
at Grahamstown, both to the north and south of the
town, similar shales 650 feet thick intervene between
the Witteberg quartzites and the Dwyka conglomerate,
lying conformably to both. There can be little doubt.
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166 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
therefore, that the Lower shales are a definite group of
beds present at the base of the Dwyka series wherever
it lies conformably upon the Witteberg beds.
In the Witteberg's Eiver the Lower shales have been
found to contain impressions of stems resembling the
Phyllotheca stems of the Ecca beds; these are the
only known fossils from the Lower shales.
It is unfortunate that the strip of country immediately
north of Karroo Poort occupied by these shales is so ob-
scured by gravels and sand that the exact manner of
their disappearance has not been determined. On the
view of their relationships adopted here the break in
the succession should commence at the bottom of the
shales.
The Dwyka conglomerate in the south of the Colony
is in some respects very diflferent in appearance from
that in the north, owing to the earth movements that
have affected the former region. Throughout the
southern outcrops the conglomerate is a hard blue rock
from which the pebbles do not readily break out. When
the rock is struck with a hammer the fracture is more
likely to pass through a pebble than round it. There is
a rough cleavage developed in the matrix, parallel to
the strike of the beds, but at various angles to their dip.
This causes the conglomerate to weather into lenticular
slabs, very characteristic of the rock in the southern
parts of the Colony. The slab or tombstone-structure,
as the late Professor Green called it, is shown on Plate
XI., a view of the steeply dipping conglomerate cut
through by the Witteberg's River south of Laingsburg.
The appearance resembles more closely that known as
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THE KARROO SYSTEM 167
Plate. XI. — Dwyka conglomerate with a band of boulders, Witteberg's
River, Laingsburg. The largest boulder (near the base of the cliff) is
10 feet in diameter. The almost horizontal lines are joints ; the inclined
planes (dipping south, from left to right) are due to cleavage.
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168 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
"pillow-structure" in many basic lavas of PalsBozoic
age in Britain than the normal results of cleavage In
the Karroo outside Karroo Poort, where the Dwyka
conglomerate has been affected by the pressures that
produced the east and west folds (Zwartberg folds),
and those that gave rise to the north and south folds
(Cederberg folds), the rock has the rough cleavage
developed in two directions, and weathers out in pillars,
usually tapering upwards. The development of the
slab-structure becomes weaker as the conglomerate is
followed northwards from Karroo Poort into the region
where the folding did not take place, and in Calvinia
the rock is of the same nature as in Prieska, a sandy
mudstone or shale, according to whether lamination is
absent or present. The northern rock breaks up readily,
and the pebbles can easily be removed from the matrix.
A curious feature in both the northern and southern
conglomerates, but more highly developed in the latter,
is the regular and close jointing of the enclosed pebbles
and boulders. A pebble, four inches long, may be trav-
ersed by two or three dozen joints parallel to one
another, and quite independent of the original divisional
planes, such as those of bedding or foliation, in the
pebble. In the north and north-west, where the con-
glomerate lies nearly horizontally, the joints are also
horizontal, but occasionally vertical ones can be found.
In the south the joints, which are parallel in all the
pebbles at any one spot, lie more or less parallel with
the strike, but not with the bedding planes in the
conglomerate. Occasionally one or more of the sections
into which the pebbles are divided have shifted rela-
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THE KARROO SYSTEM 169
tively to those above and below. The matrix of the
conglomerate shows no signs of the continuation of the
joints through it. The jointing has been explained, on
the supposition that there are faint divisions in the
matrix, due to the long-continued action of a moderate
pressure and solution deforming the constituent grains
along the directions of the supposed planes in the
matrix, so that the pebble eventually broke along these
planes of deformation.*
At several places in the south and west of the Karroo
beds and lenticular patches of white quartzite occur in
the conglomerate. Near Matjes Fontein several large
lenticles of quartzite lie on the same horizon. They
are roughly bedded, and the bedding planes have a
similar dip to that of the conglomerate in the immedi-
ate neighbourhood. In the Ceres Karroo near Beukes
Fontein, there are also several quartzite lenticles like
those at Matjes Fontein, but the quartzite is rather yel-
lower, and at its periphery it contains boulders. The
base of the conglomerate on the left bank of the Doom
River at Eland's Vley is very quartzitic in places, doubt-
less owing to the large amount of quartz sand derived
locally from the Witteberg beds. Boulders of several
kinds of rock, diabase, granite, etc., as well as quartzites
that may have come from the Witteberg beds, are
imbedded in the conglomerate there. The lenticular
patches must have had a different origin, for they are
considerably above the base of the conglomerate, and
they occur where the Lower Dwyka shales intervene
1 Schwarz (08), p. 899, otc. On Plate V., Fig. 2, accompanying this
paper a photograph of one of the jointed pehhles is reproduced.
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170 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
between the conglomerate and the Witteberg group.
They are surrounded by blue rock of the normal type,
and probably represent local patches of sand, but an
entirely satisfactory explanation of them has not yet
been found.
Some patches of the conglomerate contain more car-
bonate of lime than others, and weather out from the
rest of the rock in the form of spheroidal and lens-shaped
lumps, that occasionally pass into masses large enough
to be called lenticular beds. In the western Karroo
there are many such calcareous beds. The spherical
lumps are usually from six to ten inches in diameter ;
they seem to be particularly abundant near Laingsburg
and in the Tanqua Karroo, but they have been found in
many other districts. The carbonate of Hme in these
concretions has probably reached its present position by
a slow process of concentration from the surrounding
rock. The matrix of the conglomerate always contains
a certain amount of calcite in the form of mud, sand
and small limestone pebbles.
The sources of the many varieties of rocks forming
boulders in the conglomerate are only partially known.
The brown, red, yellow and black banded jaspers and
magnetic quartzites are identical in character with rocks
belonging to the Griqua Town series in Prieska and
Griqualand West. There are two kinds of amygda-
loidal lavas widely distributed throughout the conglom-
erate in the Colony, a more basic variety like those at
Zeekoe Baard, and a more acid rock closely resembling
the Beer Vley lavas. Both these types are probably
widely distributed in Griqualand West, so that it is im-
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THE KARROO SYSTEM 171
possible to determine the precise source of the boulders.
The cherty crystalline limestones of the Campbell Eand
beds have furnished many fragments to the conglomer-
ate in the western Karroo, although they are by no/
means confined to that region ; the Campbell Bandl
marbles probably supplied most of the calcareous mudl
so abundant in the matrix. The microline granites and«
gneisses, of which many varieties occur in the con-
glomerate, may be matched by rocks from several known
outcrops in Prieska, and similar rocks seem to be abun-
dant north of the Orange Eiver. The Matsip beds
(purple quart zites, grits and conglomerates), are well
represented in the western and southern Karroo, and so
are the 'Keis quartzites and mica schists. Serpentines,
found in the conglomerate west of Calvinia, are as yet
only known in place in the north and north-west of the
Colony. There are large numbers of white quartzite
and brown sandstone boulders in the conglomerate, but
their origin is uncertain ; they may have come from the v
Table Mountain and Bokkeveld series north of the un-
conformity, but no Bokkeveld fossils have yet been
found in the conglomerate. Many altered doleritic
rocks from the southern conglomerate can be matched
from outcrops in Prieska. Several well-marked va-
rieties of acid porphyritic and felsitic rocks are met
with in the conglomerate, but their source is not yet
known.
The bulk of the formations that have supplied the
boulders of recognisable origin occur only in the north
of the Colony, and have not been met with in the south,
although the latter is by far the better known area.
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172 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
The microline granites are the only rocks amongst the
Dwyka boulders that resemble at all closely some of the
southern Pre-Cape rocks, and even they are still more
like the northern granites. There can be no doubt
that the main source of the boulders lay to the north,
a conclusion that is in full accord with the observed
direction of the strisB on the Jackal's Water and Vilet's
Kuil roches moutonndes, as well as on the striated floor
described by Mr. Dunn at the junction of the Orange
and Vaal Eivers. It is also in agreement with the
general relationship of the conglomerate to the under-
lying rocks, for the boulders came from the north
where the unconformity is ; there is no clear evidence
that any of them had a southern origin, and so far as is
known the conglomerate was laid down conformably
to the Cape formation throughout the south of the
Colony.
The conglomerate is about 1,000 feet thick in the
south of the Karroo, but diminishes in thickness north-
wards. Where it lies nearly horizontally, as in Prieska,
Kenhardt and Calvinia, it covers wide stretches of
country, but is of varying thickness, and never more
than some 500 feet, if so much. At Kimberley it is
represented by a few feet of rock passed through by
the shafts outside the diamond pipes.
No fossils have yet been found in the Dwyka
conglomerate within the Colony, but outside our area,
at Vereeniging, the remains of many varieties of plants
occur at a short distance above the conglomerate, and
some fragments of plants as well as layers of coal are
found in the shaly rocks interbedded with boulder beds
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THE KARROO SYSTEM 173
that Mr. Dunn ^ has shown to be representatives of the
Dwyka conglomerate.
Lying above the conglomerate in the south and west
there are some 500 to 600 feet of shales, sandstones and
cherts, called the Upper Dwyka shales, into which the
conglomerate passes conformably by the gradual dimi-
nution of the number of boulders. The lowest beds
are bluish or greenish sandy shales, overlain by thin
sandstones, which are in their turn succeeded by a
group of black shales weathering white on exposure
to the air. The black shales are overlain by fine-
grained green beds, with thin beds of limestone and
ferruginous rocks, and several layers of chert, grey or
black when freshly broken, but with a thin white
crust on exposed surfaces. The uppermost of the
chert beds, usually from eight to twelve inches thick,
is taken as the top of the Dwyka series.
The black shales contain a certain amount of carbonate
of lime, often gathered together in the form of nodules,
and iron pyrites. These two minerals, and the car-
bonaceous matter that gives the black colour to the
shales, decompose under the influence of the air, form-
ing gypsum (sulphate of lime) and iron oxides, and
leave the shales bleached white. These white rocks
make very conspicuous features on the southern and
western borders of the Karroo, where the vegetation
is not suflSciently abundant to hide the colour of the
bare hillsides. Thus the black shales near the top of
the Dwyka series are known as the ** white band ".
» Dunn (00), p. 67.
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174 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
The dark colour of these shales has led to their being
prospected for coal at many places, but although the
percentage of carbonaceous matter rises to 7 J per cent,
nothing that can fairly be called coal has been found in
them in Cape Colony.
Although the Upper Dwyka shales as a whole appear
to change in character in the north of the Colony, espe-
cially by the absence of the ferruginous beds and the
chert, the black shales persist in the north of Calvinia,
Prieska and Hope Town, and probably across the inter-
vening country. They exist at Kimberley, where they
form part of the rocks called the ** Kimberley shales,"
and are probably directly continuous with the coal-
bearing rocks of Vereeniging that overlie and are inter-
bedded with the boulder beds there. Mr. Dunn in 1886 ^
came to the conclusion that these shales, which he
showed would certainly be found to extend under the
whole of the Karroo, contain coal in some parts of that
area ; in 1899 when he found that the Vereeniging coal -^
lay on about the same horizon, ue., close above the
Dwyka conglomerate, he naturally considered his case for
the existence of sub-Karroo coal greatly strengthened.
Vereeniging, and the other localities, such as Kroonstadt,
where coal of inferior quality to that of Vereeniging is
said to have been struck, lie far to the north-east of the
black shale outcrops south of the Orange Eiver, and
nearer the old land on which the plants grew that went
to form the coal, if indeed the plants did not live in the
immediate neighbourhood of the present coal beds. The
» Dunn (86). '^ Dunn (00).
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THE KARROO SYSTEM 175
fact remains that so far as the black shales have been
investigated, they contain smaller quantities of organic
matter as they are followed south-west, and there is no
reason to suppose that the horizon which has been
proved to be without coal at many places south and
west of the Karroo basin, as well as along the Hope
Town-Calvinia edge, should contain valuable deposits
under De Aar or any other spot within the basin where
it is hidden from view beneath hundreds or thousands
of feet of other beds. The places where the Upper
Dwyka shales have been closely examined throughout
their whole thickness and have been found to be without
coal are the following, taken in order round the Karroo
basin from Kimberley : Kimberley, Hope Town, the
south of Prieska, Loeries Fontein, several spots west of
Calvinia, Blaauw Kranz on the Calvinia transport road,
the Tanqua Valley, outside Karroo Poort, Laingsburg,
Prince Albert, north of Botha*s Hill, Grahamstown, and
again in Pondoland.
It should be remarked also, as will be more fully
shown on a subsequent page, that the present position
of the shale outcrop in the Prieska-Kimberley region is
by no means coincident with the original limit of the
group, for an outlier which has been disconnected from
the main area of the beds by denudation exists far to the
north-west in the Kalahari Desert.
In the banks of the Camdini Eiver near Loeries Fon-
tein the black shales are very well exposed, and they
are traversed by dykes of dolerite, which has brought
about the formation of graphite in minute scales,, filling
cracks in the immediate vicinity of the igneous rock.
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176 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
The only recorded and determinable fossil from the
Upper Dwyka shales in the Colony is Mesosaurus,^ a
small reptile of which only a few specimens have been
found. The first specimen came from an unknown local-
ity in Griqualand West, and was described by Gervais ^
under the name of Mesosaunos tenuidens ; others were
subsequently found in the black shales close above the
Dwyka conglomerate in the Kimberley Mine, although
these were too imperfect to be named with certainty.
Another specimen of the genus has been found in the
Upper Dwyka shales west of Calvinia ; and in a very
similar rock in southern Bushmanland a fine tail and
hind part of the body was discovered a few years ago.
All these specimens are impressions left in shale by the
removal of the animal's bones.
The occurrence of Gangarnopteris cyclopieroides var.
attentuita Feistm. and Noeggerathiopsis hislopi Feistm.
near Kimberley has been recorded,^ but it is not certain
whether these plants came from the Dwyka series or
the Ecca.
In the south of the Colony the only organic remains
yet met with in the Upper Dwyka shales are indeter-
minable markings that are probably of vegetable origin.
The distribution of the Dwyka series can be seen
at a glance on the geological map of the Colony. It
forms a continuous band round the south and west
of the Karroo, then turns eastwards and passes through
^ Another genus, Ditrochosaurus, has been described, but its distinc-
tion from Mesosau us may be due to an accidental feature in the single
specimen known.
2 Gervais (79). » MouUe (85) ; Feistmantel (89).
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THE KARROO SYSTEM 177
Calvinia, Kenhardt, Prieska and Hope Town, where
it is crossed by the Orange Eiver, and is continued
past Kimberley into the Orange Eiver Colony and the
Transvaal. North-east of that part of the coast where
the sea has breached the edge of the Karroo basin
the conglomerate appears again in Pondoland, and is
continued through Natal to the Eastern Transvaal.
Throughout this immense area the conglomerate is
probably everywhere present at the base of the Karroo
formation, and it has a persistent, though varying dip
towards the interior, so that it forms a basin. West-
wards from the Gualana Eiver as far as Karroo Poort,
and thence to the Tanqua Eiver, the beds often dip at
high angles beneath the Karroo, but farther north and
east they lie horizontally, or dip at a very low angle
towards the south or east. This basin whose edge is
defined by the conglomerate is due to folding, but the
gentle inclination of the extreme northern portion may
be an original feature ; the southern portion has been
thrown into its present form by folding, and no evidence
of the original southern limit is known.
The outliers of the Dwyka series in the folded belt
south of the Karroo are few in number. The chief
one is that which forms a semicircular area between
Worcester and Lange Vley near Eobertson. It, to-
gether vdth a considerable thickness of Ecca beds, is
faulted down against the Malmesbury beds and granite
exposed under the Langebergen. The rocks are of
precisely the same general character as those along
the south of the Karroo, but the black shales have
been converted into graphitic slates, which have been
12
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178 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
unsuccessfully prospected for graphite. In the Wor-
cester district as in the Karroo the conglomerate rests
upon the Lower shales, and these again lie conformably
upon the Witteberg beds. The Worcester outlier is
about forty miles distant from the nearest part of the
main Dwyka area in the Karroo, and is particularly
interesting because it shows no sign of a change in the
nature of the beds or in the relationship between them
and the older rocks. These facts, together with the
uniform character of the conglomerate and its mode
of occurrence, at least as far east as Orahamstown,
warrant the assumption that the area of deposit of the
Dwyka series was not limited in a southerly direction
within the boundaries of the Colony.
An outher of the Dwyka beds has been found at the
head of the Winkelhaak's Eiver in the Cold Bokkeveld.
In the country south of the Karroo there are six other
outliers. The largest is that of Quarrie Kloof between
Touw's Eiver and Constable stations, and four others
lie to the south-east of it ; the sixth is in Dobbel Aar's
Kloof, about thirty miles from the Quarrie Kloof outlier.
All these patches of Dwyka are boat-shaped synclines
preserved from denudation by the fact that they lie
in rather deep folds. The rocks composing them do
not require special description, for in all respects they
resemble the southern Karroo outcrops.
In the Eastern Province the outcrops of the Dwyka
series are repeated by folding, as shown on the map at
the commencement of the volume, but their distribution
is not yet known in detail. In the Albany Division the
conglomerate, with the Lower Dwyka shales, occupies
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THE KARROO SYSTEM 179
the valley in which Grahamstown is situated, and is
well exposed at many places near the town. The series
there lies in a syncline ; the Witteberg beds dip under
it both to the north (south flank of Botha's Hill) and to
the south; it is also well seen north of Botha's Hill
near the road to Fort Brown, on the north of the
Botha's Hill anticline.
During the past year Dr. Nobbs of the Cape
Agricultural Department visited the Kalahari Desert
north of Upington and brought back some specimens
of the formation underlying the desert sands near
Eenzamheid and the Noro Kei Pan. Those from
the former place are spheroidal masses ^ of Dwyka
conglomerate, just like the calcareous concretionary
masses that occur in thousands in the conglomerate
of the western Karroo ; and from the Noro Kei Pan
came pieces of silicified wood resembling that found
in the Ecca beds in many parts of the Colony. These
discoveries and Dr. Nobb's statement that grey shales
containing the fossil wood are met with in wells near
Noro Kei Pan, undoubtedly prove the existence of an
outlier of the lower part of the Karroo formation in
the Kalahari, more than 100 miles farther north-west
than was formerly thought to be the case.
Towards the north the conglomerate has been found
M Vryburg.
The Ecca Series.
Lying conformably upon the Upper Dwyka shales
throughout the southern and western Karroo are the
12*
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180 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
shales and sandstones called the Ecca beds, a name
given them by Atherstone from their occurrence in
the Ecca Pass in Albany.-
The strata immediately above the uppermost chert
bed of the Dwyka in the south and west are usually
thin flaky shales, and green shales are found above
them, together with thin beds of mottled grey and
green sandstone. Some of the shales near the base
of the series break up into long roughly prismatic
fragments after the manner of the starch of commerce.
In the neighbourhood of Patata's Eiver south of the
Klein Eoggeveld hard sandy beds lie immediately above
the Dwyka series. The thickness of the lower portion
of the Ecca beds in the south and west, in which the
shales predominate, is from 1,000 to 1,200 feet, and they
are succeeded by some 1,200 feet of strata in which
sandstones are the chief feature. These, called the
Laingsburg beds from their occurrence near the town
of that name, are hard, dark-coloured, fine-grained
sandstones and hard shales; they contain GlossopteriSy
Schizoneura, Phyllotheca and silicified wood. On the
weathered surface the sandstones are usually yellow-
ish, but some of the finer-grained beds break up into
rounded fragments with a thin red crust. The Laings-
burg beds have been traced through the country on the
south and west of the Klein Roggeveld, where they
form very hilly ground, as far as the left side of the
Tanqua Valley; but they become much thinner in
that neighbourhood, and apparently disappear, being
perhaps represented by shales farther north. The sand-
stones in the Laingsburg beds often contain spherical
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THE KARROO SYSTEM 181
nodules of harder material, which stand out prominently
on weathered surfaces.
The uppermost portion of the Ecca beds in the
southern and western Karroo varies considerably in
the proportions of sandstones and shales in different
localities. The sandstones are frequently mottled grey
and blue. On the Kraai River, near Tuin Plaats,
Glossopteris, Gangamopteris and Schizoneura occur in hard
shales belonging to these beds.
In the Boggeveld and Hantam region the sandstones
that are so conspicuous in the country farther south are
but slightly developed, and the whole of the Ecca series
becomes an essentially argillaceous group, with only
thin beds of sandstone intercalated with the shales;
the thickness of the series diminishes in the same
direction, and is probably somewhat over 2,000 feet
near Calvinia village. The rocks are well exposed on
the Hantam Mountains and on the Roggeveld escarp-
ment, of which the former were once a part, having
been detached from the main mass by the erosion due
to the Oorlog*s Kloof River.
Little is known about the Ecca beds between the
Hantam and Prieska where they are probably repre-
sented by shales and thin sandstones. They cover
wide areas in Hope Town, Britstown, and other
districts both to the south and north of the Orange
River.
The beds that are called Kimberley shales ^ and Olive
shales 2 in that region probably belong in part to the
1 Green (88). « Stow (74).
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182 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
Ecca group, but the demarcation of the latter from
the Upper Dwyka shales is not so distinct as in the
south of the Colony, and the Kimberley shales are not
yet known in detail. Glossopterisy Gangamopteris and
Noeggerothiopsis have been described from them, and
they also contain silicified wood, resembhng that from
the Laingsburg beds and other parts of the Ecca series.
In describing the geology of the Colony I have tried
to refrain from going into details concerning particular
views that have been discredited by the fuller knowledge
of the country gained during the past decade, but in
the case of the late Professor Green's ideas as to the
relationship of the Kimberley shales and the Ecca beds
a departure must be made from this practice. Green's
paper ^ is perhaps the most widely known description of
the geology of the Colony, and no other work on the
subject approaches it in completeness or lucidity of
style in spite of its short length. Its author spent
some four months only in the Colony, and much of that
time was occupied in an examination of the coal beds of
the Stormberg, so that misconceptions regarding the
wider questions are hardly to be wondered at. On
pages 262-264 he argues that the Kimberley shales are
a group of beds lying between the Karroo beds (the
Beaufort series of the classification here employed) and
the Ecca, and that they lie conformably below the
Beaufort beds and unconformably upon the Ecca. In
the first place he doubts Dunn's correlation of the
conglomerate below the Kimberley shales with the
» Q. J. G. S., 1888.
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THE KARROO SYSTEM 183
Dwyka conglomerate of the south; but there can no
longer be any doubt on this point, the confirmation
of which he admitted would greatly strengthen Dunn's
classification of the Kimberley shales with the Ecca
beds of the south. The presence of Mesosaurus in the
Upper Dwyka shales of Calvinia which are directly
continuous with the shales below the Ecca beds in the
south, and the presence of Gangamopteris and Glossopteris
in the Ecca beds of the Tanqua Valley and of Worcester
certainly support the view adopted by Dunn, for these
three genera occur in the Kimberley shales. In tracing
the Ecca beds from the Prince Albert and Laingsburg
districts through the Karroo to Calvinia, a work that
has only recently been completed by the geological
survey, it became obvious that the sandstones charac-
teristic of the series in the south give place to shales
north of the Tanqua Valley. It is true, on the other
hand, that there are sandstones of considerable thick-
ness in the Upper Dwyka shales along the Gamdini
River west of Loeries Fontein somewhat below the
horizon of the black shales that weather white; the
sandstones of Hope Town mentioned by Green on page
263 of his paper, and regarded by him as evidence of
the occurrence of the typical Ecca beds below the
Kimberley shales, almost certainly belong to the upper
division of the Dwyka series. The country between
Blaney and Kei Boad, and the tract between Beaufort
West and the Nieuweveld escarpment, which from
their general characters led Green to see in them a
confirmation of his view that the Kimberley shales lay
between the Beaufort beds and the Ecca, are certainly
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184 (JEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
composed of the strata called Karroo beds by him and
now included in the Beaufort series. They lie well
above the true Ecca beds, and are separated by thou-
sands of feet of strata from the Dwyka conglomerate,
for the Ecca beds themselves lie conformably below
them and upon the Dwyka series.
The Kimberley shales must be regarded as the equi-
valents of the Upper Dwyka shales and part of the Ecca
beds of the south and west, but whether they represent
the whole or only a portion of the Ecca group remains
to be ascertained, for the stratigraphical details of the
country between the Prieska and Hope Town Divisions
and the Nieuweveld have not been worked out.
In Pondoland the Umsikaba beds occur just above the
black shales of the Dwyka series. They are of consider-
able but unknown thickness, and differ in character from
the typical Ecca beds of the west, they consist more of
clays and mudstones than of shales and sandstones.
Near their base, as seen on the road to Lusikisiki from
St. John's and near the Embotyi mouth, they are better
laminated than higher up in the group ; the surfaces of
the laminae are frequently spotted with circular rusty
markings about the size of a shilling, perhaps due to
the decomposition of iron pyrites distributed more or
less uniformly through them. Above these shales come
the clays and mudstones, occasionally sandy, dark blue
in colour. On the south of the St. John's fault, along
which the Dwyka and Ecca beds are let down against
the Table Mountain sandstone, the Umsikaba beds are
harder and more like the Ecca of the west than in other
parts of Pondoland. At Cape Hermes some thin shales
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THE KARROO SYSTEM 185
contain obscure plant remains reminding one of the
Schizoneura stems of the west. The Umsikaba beds are
found from Libode to Bizana, but have not been fol-
lowed south-west of Libode.
The junction with the overlying Idutywa beds is ap-
parently a conformable one, but ill defined, as the passage
is very gradual. The Idutywa beds consist of rather
loose sandstones weathering to a light yellow colour,
interbedded with blue and purple shales. They perhaps
correspond to the upper part of the Ecca or the lower
portion of the Beaufort series, possibly both. No fossils
have yet been found in them.
In the Worcester District the Ecca beds are faulted
down against the Pre-Cape rocks between a point some
four miles west of the town of Worcester and the Goree
Eiver, and again near Eobertson. The beds are green
and brown argillaceous sandstones and shales and mud-
stones, sometimes coloured green and red. From the
sandstones and mudstones exposed in a small quarry
near Worcester station specimens of Gangamopteris,
GlossopteriSy and Cardiocdrpus have been found ; the last-
named genus is not known elsewhere in the Colony
although it occurs at Vereeniging; Schizoneura occurs
in a quarry west of Worcester.
The Hst of fossils from the Ecca beds in the Colony is
very short, but it is augmented if we go beyond our
boundary to Vereeniging, where Mr. Leslie has made
large collections which have been described by Mr.
Seward ^ The following is a list of the plants known
from these beds up to the present time : —
1 Seward (03), pp. 78-101.
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186 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
Cape Colony. Vereeniging.
Schizoiieura. Schizoneura.
Phylloilieca. Phyllotheca,
Cardiocarpus, Cardiocarpus.
Glo98opteru browniana, Brongn. (Jontt*'8.
Gangamopteris cyclopteroides var. Glossopteris brownuma^ Brongn.
attenuataj Feistm. Gangamopteris cyclopteroides,
Noeggeratkioptis hislopiy FeLstm. Feistm.
Sphenopteris,
Psygmophyllum kidstani, Sew.
Sigillaria brurdi, Brongn.
Bothrodendron ledii^ Sew.
Noeggerathiopm hislopi^ Bunb.
This assemblage of plants has a close relationship to
the flora of the lower part of the Gondwana system in
India, from the Talchir to the Damuda beds.^ The
genera Glossopteris, Gangamopteris, Noeggerathiopsis, Schizo-
netvra, Phyllotheca, and Sphenopteris are common to the
two groups of beds ; the Glossopteris flora, as it is called,
is also found in the Lower Coal Measures and the New-
castle or Upper Coal Measures of New South Wales,'-^
the Bacchus Marsh sandstones of Victoria,^ the Bowen
River formation of Queensland,* the Lower coal bearing
rocks of Tasmania, in Brazil and in the Argentine Be-
pubUc (Bajo de VeUs beds)^. In Queensland ^ marine
beds with numerous fossils of Permo-carboniferous type
have been found interbedded with those containing the
Glossopteris flora, and in Bussia a few characteristic
1 ManiuU of the Geology of India, 2nd edition, Oldham.
'Feistmantel (90). 'Jack and Etheridge (92).
* Jack and Etheridge (92), p. 70.
''Kurtz, Bevista del Museo de la Plata, vi., p. 117. In English in
Records, G. 8. /., xxviii., p. 111.
<> Jack and Etheridge (92), p. 70.
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THE KARROO SYSTEM 187
members of the flora are associated with beds containing
marine Permian forms,^ but these Bussian beds also con-
Olosfopteru br<ncniana^ var. iitdica. Half natural size.
OlosaopUris browniaHa, var. indica A portion of a leaf, magnified.
Oangamopteris cyclopieroidet. Natural size.
Fig. 16. — Plants from the Ecca beds (from Sewaid).
tain Pareiasaurus and Dicynodon, and are, therefore, more
nearly related to the Beaufort series than the Ecca.
1 Amalitzky (00).
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188 GEOLOCiY OF CAPE COLONY
Glossopteris itself has a very great' tiroe range, probably
from the Carboniferous to Upper Cretaceous,^ but it is
the most characteristic genus in the flora named after
it; it is usually confined to the lower portion of the
long range of beds referred to above.
The mingling of the northern carboniferous genera,
SigUlaria, Psygmophyllum and Bothrodendron with the
Glossopteris flora at Vereeniging ^ is of considerable in-
terest on account of the almost complete absence of
the northern forms in Iniiia and Australia, although in
Brazil the northern and southern genera are again found
together. It has been suggested that the cold climate
of the south at that time, as evidenced by the glacial
conglomerates in Africa, India and Australia at or near
the base of the strata containing the GlossojHeris flora,
will explain the absence of the northern carboniferous
plants ; but it must be remembered that there is no
reason, so far as South Africa is concerned, to believe
that the cold climate was of longer duration than the
time represented by the Dwyka series, for no conglomer-
ates or isolated blocks of stone have been found in the
Ecca or Beaufort beds of Cape Colony ; both Glossopteris
and Schizoneura extend upwards into the Beaufort series,
and the latter genus occurs in the Stormberg group.
The thickness of the strata above the Dwyka series from
the Ecca to Stormberg inclusive is about 12,000 feet,
and throughout this great mass of rocks no evidence of
glaciation has been seen, so that the northern flora could
* Id desert sandstone of Queensland, Jack and Etheridge (92), p. 528.
"Seward, Address to Boi. Sect. Brit. Ass. (03), pp. 8-13 ; Ann. S. A.
Museum (03), pp. 99-101,
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THE KARROO SYSTEM 189
hardly have been kept out by the severity of the dimate.
Moreover, the Siyillarla and other northern genera have
only been found at Vereeniging, where they are closely
associated with glacial boulder beds, and they appear to
be absent from the southern Ecca beds.
The Beaufoet Series.
In the western districts there is a gradual passage up-
wards from the Ecca beds, and those that succeed them
contain the remains of Pareiasauriis and other reptiles.
The Beaufort beds get their name from their occur-
rence in Beaufort West and the Fort Beaufort Division.
They consist of sandstones, shales and mudstones. The
sandstones are of two kinds, a rather loose-grained rock
that forms thick bands of strata in the Nieuweveld area,
often giving rise to plateaux and smaller terraces on the
slopes of the Nieuweveld, and a finer-grained rock that
is in thinner beds and often weathers with a red crust.
The first variety is called ** defining sandstone," ^ and
the second ** intermediate sandstone," on account of
the usual relative positions of the two rocks in the
plateau caps and in the slope between the terraces
respectively. This difference in position is due to the
weather-resisting qualities of the rocks ; the thick sand-
stones last longest, and therefore cap the larger terraces,
while the intermediate sandstones make smaller ledges
on the mountain sides, and shales and mudstones lie
between them. The sandstones are often false-bedded,
and may have their surfaces ripple-marked. The shales
' Schwarz, Geol Camni. (96), p. 15.
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190 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
and mudstones are usually dark-blue or greenish in
colour, but thin beds of purple and red shale are not
infrequent.
In the more argillaceous beds of the Beaufort series
there are concretionary nodules and lenticular layers of
blue-black limestone often containing small veins and
pipe-like rods of chalcedony, white or pink in colour.
The rods are occasionally branched, and seem to be due
to the silicification of small roots. Both the limestone
and chalcedony are often found permeating the large
fossil bones of Pareiasaurus^ or other reptiles, and are
certainly closely connected in their origin with the
presence of organic matter, just as is the case with the
flints in the chalk of Europe. Very rarely small bivalve
shells have been found inside the limestone nodules in
the Beaufort beds. In many of the flat areas in the
Karroo, where a considerable thickness of shale or mud-
stone has been weathered away, the ground is strewn
with large numbers of the nodules. On the outside they
have a peculiarly roughened surface, from which the
veins and other forms of chalcedony stand out promin-
ently. The nodules can be seen near any of the railway
stations between Groot Fontein and Beaufort West ;
they are like the Ecca nodules, but the latter do not
contain chalcedony. Both the nodules and the thin
lenticular beds have been formed by the concentration
of the carbonate of lime, distributed generally through
the sediments, since the latter were laid down. Beds
of clay-pellet conglomerate are frequently met with at
the base of the sandstone bands in this series, and less
frequently in the Ecca beds. The clay-pellet conglomer-
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THE KABROO SYSTEM 191
ate is a rock with a shale or mudstone matrix containing
numerous rounded or flattened lumps of mud rather dif-
ferent in colour from the matrix, but otherwise of much
the same nature. At places the matrix is more sandy
than usual, and the mud-pellets are in consequence more
conspicuous, for they weather away more readily than
the rest of the rock. The lumps of mud were derived
from previously deposited sediment, and were rolled
along by the current till they came to rest where they
are found. In many rivers which vary in level, either
daily on account of the tide, or at irregular periods owing
to varying rainfall, mud-pellets may be seen on the
muddy or sandy bottom exposed at times of low water.
The tidal lagoons of the Eastern Province rivers, and the
lower part of the Olifant's Kiver (Van Rhyn's Dorp),
are good places for the observation of mud-pellets due to
daily changes of water-level, and the Orange River, near
Prieska, has many sandy stretches along its banks ex-
posed during dry seasons and covered with mud-pellets
brought down by the last flood. There is no doubt that
mud flats, exposed at the surface of a shallow lake or
sea, would furnish lumps of mud to the small waves
washing their margins, and it is probable that the
clay-pellet conglomerates in the Karroo formation were
formed in this way. Possibly the deposited silt could
become tenacious enough to resist complete disintegra-
tion without being exposed to the air, and yielded the
pellets to currents that were stronger than usual sweep-
ing through the shallower parts of the basin.
Local unconformities affecting the beds over small
areas, sometimes only a few yards wide^ are very abund-
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192 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
ant in the Beaufort and Ecca beds. The lower lying
strata are cut off by the upper to the depth of, perhaps,
four or five feet, usually less, and the higher beds thicken
out to occupy the depression made in the lower. These
hollows are usually in shales or mudstone, and the
rocks filling the hollows are sandstones or clay-pellet
conglomerates. The frequency of these examples of
** contemporaneous erosion and deposit'' point to the
deposition of the strata in quite shallow water which
from time to time received sudden accessions from rain
floods, or possibly also had strong streams developed in
it by a constant wind.
The clay-pellet conglomerates in the Beaufort series
frequently contain rolled pieces of bone. Pebbles of
rock are very rare both in the conglomerates and the
other strata, and the few that have been found do not
reach a length of two inches.
Coal has been found in thin layers in the Beaufort
beds. Behind the Komsberg escarpment on the farm
Lange Kuil a nine inch seam of bright coal occurs, but
it is unsuitable for burning under ordinary conditions,
as it crumbles immediately one attempts to make a fire
with it owing to its large content of water. This coal
has a small percentage of ash, 6*8 per cent. It occurs
in beds containing large fragments of bone, probably of
Pareiasaurus. Vague reports are sometimes forthcoming
of coal near the base of the Nieuweveld, in the highest
part of the Gouph, and also in the Pareiasaurus beds
further south. Nothing has yet come of these reports,
although the country is one that is very easy to prospect
in owing to the extensive exposures of the rocks. High
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THE KARROO SYSTEM 193
up in the Nieuweveld escarpment at Leeuw Eiver
Poort, and also in the Canideboo, there are some
remarkable vertical cracks filled with bright bitumin-
ous coal.^ The Leeuw Kiver Poort fissure is over
300 feet deep, and varies in width from twelve feet
downwards. The fissure does not maintain a straight
course, but at places runs horizontally or at a low
angle. It passes through a few thin horizontal seams
in a band of sandstone, but the thickest seam is about
an inch thick. The coal is remarkably free from
ash, an analysis giving only '8 per cent. The fissure
seems to have been produced during the intrusion of
the dolerite sheets which occur on the Nieuweveld,
and the bituminous coal was probably partly squeezed
and partly distilled into it at the same time. Although
slickensided surfaces in the coal near the edges of the
crack prove a slight movement to have taken place after
its formation, there is no appreciable vertical displace-
ment of the rock outside the fissure. The coal at Buflfel's
Kloof, Camdeboo, occurs in a similar manner, and no
seam worth working has been met with there. Thus
although there is coal in the Beaufort beds it has not
yet been found in sufficient quantity to work. The re-
ports of coal at Tamboer's and Ongeluk*s Fonteins in the
Gouph, and at Lett's Kraal at Graaff Beinet are based
upon the occurrence of carbonised wood in fragments.
The base of the Beaufort beds is the lowest stratum
containing the remains of Pareiasaurus or other reptiles
given in the hst below. Where these are absent, as in
> Dunn (79) ; Schwarz, QeoL Comm. (97), p. 24 ; and for a similar
occurrence in East Griqualand, Qeol, Comm. (08), p. 16.
13
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194 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
the western part of the Koggeveld, the Klein Eoggeveld,
and, BO far as we know, in the country north of Fraserburg
and Victoria West, some other means have to be devised
for separating this series from the Ecca. In the Moor-
denaar's Karroo and Klein Roggeveld a bed of red
weathering sandstone has been taken as the base, and
in the Roggeveld (Fish River Valley) a thick band of
sandstone different from any that occurs in the Ecca
beds in the same district. The line as laid down on
Fig. 16.— Section from the Wittebergen to the Klein Roggeveld,
from the folded belt to the Karroo basin. Distance about 13 miles.
Vertical scale ^ in. to 1,000 feet.
1. Witteberg series.
3. Ecca series.
4. Beaufort series.
the map accompanying this volume is of little real
significance except in the Great Karroo, where the
boundary is fixed on palsBontological grounds. The
northern portion of the boundary is practically unknown.
In the Eastern Province A. H. Green described an un-
conformity which may be at the base of the Beaufort
beds near Aberdeen,* but there is nothing known in the
west corresponding to this unconformity. On a rapid
traverse through the Gouph or southern Karroo the re-
markable change of dip which takes place at the south
» Green (88), p, 26; (88), p. 261,
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THE KARROO SYSTEM 195
of the Klein Roggeveld (see Fig. 16) and along the same
line farther east may be mistaken for an unconformity,
but the appearance is due to the sudden cessation of the
folds north of the Zwartebergen. Pinchin^ records a
marked unconformity north of Port Elizabeth at about
the same horizon as that described by Green, but farther
east in the Transkei it has not been seen. The true
significance of these observations must remain uncertain
till the Eastern Province has been connected with the
Western by means of systematic mapping.
The Beaufort series can be divided into three groups
characterised by various reptilian genera, but at present
the classification is not very satisfactory, especially
towards the upper Umit. No lithological characters
distinguishing the three groups have been made out.
The chief fossils and some of the localities from which
they have been obtained are the following : — *^
Localities.
f Theriodontia ' —
CyHognathiiSj Seeley - - Lady Frere.
GomphognathitSf Seeley - Burghersdorp.
MicrogomphodoHy Seeley - Aliwal North and Burgheradorp.
Diademodon, Seeley - - Aliwal North and Burghersdorp.
Stegocephalia —
Rhytidodeus, Ow. - - Beersheba, Orange River Colony.
Batrachos^fA^hv^ Br. - - Aliwal North.
Anomodontia—
^ Dicynodon kUifrons, Br. - Burghersdorp and Aliwal North.
> Pinchin (74), pi. iv.
^ I have to thank Professor R. Broom for correcting this list and for
giving me the clckssification of the reptiles. The localities as a rule
refer to Divisions and not villages.
'For references to the literature of the Reptiles see Owen, Seeley,
Huxley, Broom, Lydekker, in the Appendix.
* See note at end of chapter.
13*
I
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196
GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
r Therocephalia —
^'Elurosauriuf, Ow.
CytwdracOy Ow.
Lycosaurusy Ow.
Cyrwnichmy Ow.
Cynochampsaf Ow.
Tiyristichii^y Ow.
.Lyco8iu:hm, Br.
IdidostLchtis, Br.
IctidosauruSf Br.
Scymiiosaurus, Br.
Scylacosaurus, Br.
ScaloposauruSf Ow.
Gorgonops, Ow.
Anomodontia —
Dicynodo7i, Ow.
Oudenodoriy Ow.
"^ KistecephaluSj Ow. -
Endotkiodon^ Ow.
Theriognatiitis, Ow. -
Esoterodon, Seeley. -
Cryptocynodon, Seeley.
Pristerodon, Huxley -
OputhwUnodoTij Br. -
LystrosaicruSy Cope -
(= Fiychognath^iSj Ow.)
Theriodontia—
Galemurtis, Ow.
Procolophonia —
Procolophon, Ow.
Lacertilia —
Paliguana, Br. -
Bhynchocephalia —
Satirostemon, Huxley
Stegooephalia —
Micropholis, Huxley
^^ Bothriceps, Huxley -
Beaufort West.
Sneeuw Berg, Fort Beaufort
Kriga Berg, Fort Beaufort.
Sneeuw Berg.
Rhenoster Bei-g.
Sneeuw Berg.
Aberdeen and Etist London.
Pearston.
Beaufort West.
Beaufort West ?
Beaufort West?
Sneeuw Berg.
Fort Beaufort.
jBeaufort West, Fort Beaufort,
\Graaff Reinet, Cradock.
j Beaufort West, Fort Beaufort,
iEast London, Sneeuw Berg,
( Graafif Reinet.
Sneeuw Berg.
Beaufort West.
Sneeuw Berg.
Molteno Pass, Beaufort West.
Nieuweveld.
East London.
Pearston and Beaufort West.
Cradock, Bethulie, Sneeuw Berg.
Rhenoster Berg.
Tarka, Middelburg.
Queens Town.
Sneeuw Berg.
Rhenoster Berg.
Orange River Colony.
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THE KARROO SYSTEM
197
■^' ( Fish—
::;
Atherstonia, S. -Woodward
Colesberg and Fraserburg.
1
Palceonuciis, Agassiz
Lamellibranchfi —
Sneeuw Berg.
l>
Palasomutela, Amalitzky -
Graafif Reinet, Bedford.
«s \
Palaanodonta, Amalitzky
GraaffReinet.
^
Plants—
Schtzo7i€ura
Sutherland, Beaufort West,
^
Bethulie, Oradock, Pearston, etc.
I Glossopteris
'Pareiasauria —
Parnamnrus, Ow. -
Beaufort West, Fort Beaufort,
Prince Albert.
^
Therocephalia—
1
Tapinocqfhalu3, Ow. -
Gouph.
1-
Tttatumt4'hu8, Ow.
Gouph.
Delphifwgnathm, Seeley -
Prince Albert.
2
PrtgteroynathuSj Seeley
Gouph.
1
Plants—
Hi
Schizoneura
Beaufort West, Fort Beaufort,
Sutherland.
Glossopteris
Beaufort West, Fort Beaufort,
Sutherland.
The distribution of these three divisions is only
known in its barest outhnes. The Lower Beaufort
beds form the western part of the Roggeveld Plateau,
the whole of the Klein Roggeveld, the northern part
of the Moordenaar*s Karroo and Gouph, and they
probably stretch from Aberdeen past Somerset East,
Bedford, Fort Beaufort to the coast south-west of
East London, and are perhaps represented in the
Transkei by the Idutywa beds.
The Middle Beaufort beds form the higher portions
of the Nieuweveld, the Sneeuwbergen, the country
north of the Sneeuwbergen as far as Colesberg and
Bethulie, and southwards to East London, where they
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198 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
range into the Transkei and are in part represented
by the Idutywa beds. Of the Hmit between the Middle
and Lower Divisions between the Nieuweveld and the
Orange Eiver nothing is known.
The Upper Beaufort beds crop out below the coal-
bearing Molteno beds of the Stormberg series both to
the north and south of the Stormberg region, but the
details of their distribution are unknown.
The foreign equivalents of the Beaufort series can be
given approximately only. In the Panchet beds of the
Indian Gondwana system Dicynodon and Ptychosiagum,
two Cape genera, have been found, and with them
are plants belonging to the Glossopteris flora, especially
Glossopteris and Schizoneura ; in the Panchet beds there
are also some genera, of which Thinnfeldia is the most
important, that in the Colony are found only in the
Stormberg group. In New South Wales the Newcastle
beds may represent the Beaufort as well as the Ecca
beds. Perhaps the most interesting comparison can be
drawn between the Beaufort fauna and flora and those
of the Permian formation of Bussia. Palaomutela and
Palaanodonta are two genera of probably fresh water
mollusca that are common to the Bussian and South
African beds; of the first-named genus four species
from the Karroo beds were determined by Amalitzky
to be identical with Bussian forms, viz. : P. trigonalis, P.
semilunata, P. murchisoni, and P. plana, while seven other
species are very closely allied to others from Bussia;
of Palaanodonta two species are common to the two
formations, P. okemis and subcastor^. Amalitzky has
» Amalitzky (95), pp. 337-61.
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THE KARROO SY8TEM 199
recently ^ found Pareiasaurus and Dicynodon in lenticular
beds within the Permian strata on the Dwina River
that also contain Glossopteris and Gangamopteris. Both
above and below the horizon on which these character-
istic Karroo genera occur there are limestones contain-
ing marine species of Permian age, belonging to a
stage widely developed on the continent of Europe
and known as the Zechstein. These discoveries go
far towards settling the age of the Beaufort beds
relatively to the European rocks.
The Stormbebg Series.
In the north-east of the Colony and in Basutoland
there is a great area of shales and sandstones capped by
volcanic rocks and broadly distinguished from the under-
lying Beaufort beds by the presence of a different group
of fossil plants. Instead of the Glossopteris, which is so
widely distributed through the lower rocks, the genera
Thinnfeldia and Tceniopteris now appear. The name
Stormberg beds was applied to these upper rocks by
Wyley ^ and Huxley,* and it has been used by all later
writers. The series is divided up into the following
groups : —
Maximum Thickness.
Volcanic beds - 4,000 feet.
Gave sandstone - - 800 feet
Red beds - - - 1,400 feet
Molteno beds - - 2,000 feet
Stormberg series
» Amalitzky (00). « Wyley (69), p. 61.
^Huxley (67), p. 5.
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200 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
The Molteno Beds.
The Molteno beds form the lower slopes of the Strom-
bergen and Drakensbergen and the country along the
foot of the range. The exact position of their base has
never been defined, but, as in the case of the Ecca-
Beaufort junction in the west, it seems to be a gradual
passage. Glossopteris has not yet been found in the
Stormberg region, although both to the south and
north the genus occurs in shaly beds on a lower horizon.
Similarly Thinnfeldia, Taniopteris, and Stenopterts are not
known from the Beaufort beds. Whether a detailed ex-
amination of the passage beds will show a clearly defined
junction or an intermingling of the two sets of plants
remains to be seen.
The beds consist of shales, mudstones and sandstones.
The shales and mudstones are very hke those of the
Beaufort and Ecca beds, but they do not contain the
calcareous concretions so abundant in the lower groups.
They are usually grey or greenish in colour, sometimes
bluish purple, and in places contain abundant plant re-
mains. The localities from which most of the fossil
plants hitherto discovered in these beds were obtained
are Indwe, Molteno, Cyphergat, Maclear, the Kenigha
Biver, in Mount Fletcher and the Matatiele slopes of
the Drakensberg, but as the fossils appear to be more
numerous in the Molteno beds than in any of the lower
beds, it is probable that they will be found to be widely
distributed on both sides of the Drakensberg-Storm-
berg ridge. The sandstones of the Molteno beds are
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THE KARROO SYSTEM 201
Fig. 17.— Plants from the Stonnberg series (Molteno beds)
(from Seward).
1. Thinnfeldia odontoptcroidcs. Half natural size.
2. Steiwpieris elongata. Half natural size.
3. Baiera stormberyeiisis. Half natural size.
4. Tceniopteris camUhersi. Natural size.
6. Callipteridium stormbergcntte. Natural size.
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202 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
unlike any that occur in the lower groups of the Karroo
system. In general appearance and in the character of
the surface to which they give rise they resemble the
Table Mountain sandstone more closely than any other
in the Colony, but they are coarser in grain and looser
in texture than that rock, and do not form such thick
masses. In some localities the quartz grains are coated
with a later deposit of quartz with more or less perfect
crystalline faces which reflect light well and give to
much of the rock a glittering appearance in sunlight.
Felspar grains are abundant in these sandstones, as they
are throughout the sandy beds in the Karroo formation,
but the looser texture of the Molteno sandstones has
allowed the felspar to weather considerably, and the dull
white grains of weathered felspar are always conspicuous
constituents of the sandstone. Bounded or spherical
nodules, hollowed out in the centre when the hard outer
shell has been broken through, are quite a characteristic
feature of the Molteno sandstones. The hard shell is
due to the addition of hydrated iron oxides to the cement-
ing material usually present. The nodules are formed
by the oxidation of pyrites and the deposition of some
of the resulting iron compounds in a spherical zone
about the lump of decomposed pyrites.
The finer-grained varieties of sandstone are good
building stone, easily worked and of a yellow or cream
colour. Fencing poles are split from the large sandstone
slabs by driving in wedges along straight lines across
the slab and breaking it along the rows of holes. Posts
up to six feet in length are thus obtained.
The sandstones do not contain so many fossil plants
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THE KARROO SYSTEM 203
as the shales, and the fossils are less Well preserved than
in the latter.
Thin beds of conglomerate occur in connection with
the sandstones in the Molteno area, usnally with red
ferruginous nodules that give the rock a characteristic
appearance on the outcrop. This rock is found a short
distance above coal seams in several parts of the district
and is an aid in the search for coal.
Coal is found in the Molteno beds from the Storm-
bergen along the lower slopes of the Drakensbergen in
East Griqualand as far as the Natal border, and also on
the northern slope of the watershed, although it is only
in the Stormberg-Indwe region that any serious work
has been done on the seams. The whole area has not
been surveyed yet, but the work already done in various
parts is summarised here.
There seem to be two horizons on which workable
coal has been found ; the lower extends from Sterkstroom
eastwards to Indwe, beyond Indwe towards Engcobo
the coal has been followed but not worked to any extent ;
the upper is that to which the Molteno seams belong,
and is on a horizon some hundreds of feet higher than
the Indwe coal; its extent is not well known beyond
the neighbourhood of Molteno, but it may be represented
by some thin coal seams seen in the Cala pass some 300
feet above the Indwe coal. In the Indwe district ^ the
base of the Molteno beds is taken at the bottom of a
band of bright-coloured felspathic sandstone, which lies
upon red, purple, and green shales and mudstones be-
» Du Toit, Qeol, C(mm. (08).
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204 GEOLOGY OP CAPE COLONY
longing to the Beaufort series. The typical Stormberg
plants have not been found in these argillaceous beds,
which contain bones that have not yet been collected or
described from the Indwe district, though it is not im-
probable that some of the reptiles from the Albert
Division belong to this horizon.
Above the felspathic sandstones lie sandy shales and
thin sandstones with a total thickness of some 700
feet, containing Thinnfeldia^ Stenopteris, CcUlipteridium,
Taniopteris and Schizoneura. Towards the top of this
group of argillaceous rocks come the Indwe coal seams.
The coal seams are rarely over twelve inches in thick-
ness, but at places several occur together, so that in a
band of rock composed of coal and shale, six feet thick in
all, about four feet of the whole may be coal, which has
of course to be picked out from the accompanying shale
before it is removed from the collieries. The number of
the seams varies within short distances owing to the
sandstone, which usually forms the ** roof," cutting across
one or more of the coal beds, a state of things that was
brought about by the erosion of the coal shortly after its
deposition, and which is paralleled by thousands of cases
of ** contemporaneous erosion and deposit " throughout
the Ecca, Beaufort and Stonnberg series. The coal is
usually laminated and contains very thin layers of silt ; it
is a coal that was formed at perhaps a considerable dis-
tance from the spot where the plants that furnished the
vegetable matter grew, for there is no trace of a land
surface on which the coal plants grew, and the alterna-
tion of thin layers of coal and silt evidently point to the
vegetable matter having been deposited over the floor of
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THE KARROO SYSTEM
205
the lake in the same manner as the silt. It is this silt
that accounts for the high percentage of ash or incom-
bustible matter in the Stormberg coals. ^
The abundant intrusions of dolerite in the form of
dykes and sheets, especially the latter, have an injurious
influence on the coal. The distance through which this
influence makes itself felt varies ; the chief effect is the
driving off of the more volatile constituents, and it
culminates in the coking of the coal, which is rendered
valueless.
The insertion of a few analyses of the coals, taken
from the official Reports referred to on a previous page,
may be of use in indicating the class of coal to which
the Colonial seams belong.
Molteno
(mean).
(Jyphergat.
Indwe.
Sterk-
stroom.
1826
51-38
30-36
Matatiele.
Gala.
Moisture
Volatile Hy-
drocarbons -
Fixed Carbon
Ash
Sulphur -
Total -
113
10-31
60-89
28-80
•76
i 28-24
5007
21-69
12-54
6303
24-42
j 1-37
124-68
47-63
25-10
1-33
1-50
9-50
68-51
19-70
•79
101-89
10000
99-99
100-00
100-01
10000
From the results of numerous experiments it has been
concluded that the ratios 1 to 1*5 and 1 to 183 represent
the weights of Welsh and Stormberg coals required to
be burnt in order to do a given amount of work.'^ A
^ For detailed information about the coals of this region, see Dunn
(78), North (78). Green (83), Galloway (89).
■Galloway (89).
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206
GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
rock allied to torbanite (oil shale), occurs below a coal
seam in Matatiele ^ dtid in other parts of South Africa ;
the following analyses, together with that of the rock
from Torbane Hill in Scotland, will show the nature of
the substance : —
Natal. Upoer
Umzimkulu.
Matatiele.
Basntoland.
Torbaoe HilL
Moisture -
Volatile Hydro-
oarbons -
Sulphur
Coke -
Ash - - -
Total
1-58
16-30
12-07
70-05
1-32
1816
•89
32-37
47-26
I 34-00
16-66
49-34
70-10
10-30
19-60
10000
100-00
10000
100 00
The Eed Beds.
The Molteno beds pass upwards conformably into a
group of strata that is distinguished from them by its
prevailing red colour. The name was first used by Mr.
Dunn who described the group in the Stormberg area.^
The Eed beds have been found to extend through East
Griqualand, though with varying thickness. PalsBonto-
logically they are separable from the Molteno group by
almost entirely negative characters, for the comparatively
rich flora known from the latter has no representatives
in the higher strata so far as our present knowledge
goes. Some reptilian bones, as yet undescribed, have
1 Schwarz, Oeol Comm. (08), pp. 21, 22.
'Dunn (78). Other sources of information oonceming this and
the succeeding group are : Schwckrz, Oeol. Comm, (02) ; Du Toit, Geol.
Comm. (08).
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THE KARROO SYSTEM 207
been found in them, but silicified wood is the only other
fossil known from these rocks.
Red-coloured strata are by no means confined to this
subdivision of the Stormberg series ; similarly coloured
rocks are found both in the Molteno beds and the Cave
sandstone. The Red beds cannot be regarded as of
more than local importance, and it is often difficult to
decide where the boundary lines between the three
groups should be drawn.
The most characteristic rocks of the Red beds are
purple and red mudstones and shales, but red sand-
stones and thick beds of yellow and white felspathic
sandstones are also present. The thick "glittering"
sandstones of the Molteno beds do not occur in this
group. Bands of blue or green mudstones are not un-
conmion. Conglomerates, though rare, are not entirely
absent ; the pebbles are of white quartz and quartzite.
Mr. Dunn records 600 feet of Red beds in the Storm-
berg area. In Elliot they reach a maximum of 1,400
feet, and in Matatiele they dwindle down to 200 feet. It
is obvious that in the case of a group of rocks which
cannot be very closely defined, different observers are
likely to include different strata under one head, but
in spite of this there is certainly a thinning out of the
Red beds and of the overlying Cave sandstone towards
the north-east on the East Griqualand side of the
Drakensberg.
The Cave Sandstone.
The Red beds pass upwards into the Cave sandstone,
as a rule without any sharp line of demarcation. The
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208 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
Cave sandstone is an extraordinarily massive rock with
bedding planes feebly developed. The sandstone is
largely made up of quartz grains; grains of felspar
(mostly microcline) are fairly abundant, and tourma-
line, zircon, white mica and hornblende are also
present. Generally the rock is white or grey in colour
on exposed surfaces, but on a fresh fracture it has a
reddish tint. Bands of red sandstone occur in this
formation, and are in no way different from the sand-
stones of the Bed beds.
In the Stormberg area the Cave sandstone is about
150 feet thick, in Elliot 800 feet, and in Matatiele it
decreases again to a maximum of 130 feet. At certain
places, as in the north-west of Elliot and in the northern
part of Matatiele, the Gave sandstone is not present ; it
thins out owing to denudation which took place just
before the volcanic outbursts, so that the lavas of the
volcanic group rest directly upon the Bed beds.
Fossils are very rare in this rock, the only finds re-
corded from the Colony being fragments of reptilian
bones. In the Orange Biver Colony, however, fish
(Cleithrolepis and Semionotus) have been described from
the Cave sandstone of the Smithfield district.^
The Cave sandstone gives rise to very remarkable
features on the slopes of the mountains and on the top
of several spurs projecting from the main ridge. It
tends to weather into huge pillars and irregularly shaped
masses, often with the lower portion hollowed out to
form a shallow cave, a characteristic that gave the rock
its name. Such rock-shelters were frequented by bush-
1 See Dote at end of chapter.
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THE KARROO SYSTEM 209
aa O
|l
o o
^ ®
*" o
a 2
"" a
CO g
08
''I
I
^1
2 2
o «
CO
0«O
2;2
14
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210 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
. men, whose fonner presence is indicated by agate chips,
: fragments of^ostrich shells and coarse pottery, and espe-
- cially by more or less realistic sketches of men and
animals done in red and black colours upon the pale
surface of the rock.
Above the village of Elliot the hard yellow sandstone
forms buttresses and pillars over 300 feet high. The
outcrop of the Cave sandstone can easily be distinguished
at a distance of many miles by its colour and broken
appearance. There is no rock in the country that pro-
duces such peculiar features as the Cave sandstone
where typically developed (see Plate XII.).
The Volcanic Group.
Before the close, of the period represented by the
Stormberg sedimentary rocks volcanic activity com-
menced in the north-eastern part of the Colony. From
the neighbourhood of Molteno the volcanic rocks stretch
far to the north-east through Basutoland and along the
Natal boundary perhaps as far as the Transvaal; but
very little information is as. yet available on this ques-
tion, and it refers to only a small proportion of the
whole volcanic district.^
The volcanic rocks form the highest parts of the
country in which they occur. The crest of the Drak-
ensbergen is carved out of them for a great distance,
and the high ridges in Basutoland that are admirably
1 The following papers are the chief sources of information on this
volcanic group : Cohen (76) ; Dunn (78) ; Churchill, (Natal) (98) ; Schwarz
(08) ; Schwarz, Geol. Comm. (02) ; Du Toit, GeoL Comm. (03).
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THE KARROO SYSTEM 211
displayed from many points on the Matatiele border are
evidently of the same nature.
On the Colonial border the volcanic rocks rarely
reach 3,000 feet in thickness, but in the ridge of the
Malutis (Basutoland) north of N*quatsha's Nek there
must be quite 4,000 feet of them, and Mr. Churchill
measured a vertical thickness of 4,500 feet on the Mont
aux Sources.
By far the greater part of the group is formed by
lava streams. Bedded agglomerates and tuffs are quite
subordinate features in those districts that have been
examined.
In the district of Elliot near the Tembu Pass there is
an interesting section showing the following succession
of beds from above downwards : — ^
5 Bedded lavas 350 feet.
4 Purple and stratified ash - - - 80 „
3 Cave sandstone 30 „
2 Bedded lavas 50 „
1 Cave sandstone 700 „
The lavas (No. 2) are very vesicular at the base
but become doleritic a few feet from the junction
with the underlying sandstone. The sandstones No. 3
pass into the volcanic ash lying above them. The
lower lavas probably came from a vent exposed on
the farm Mountain Cliff, and they have been traced
over a mile between the two parts of the Cave sand-
stone The ash beds No. 4 have been traced to a
large vent on the farm TuUoch near the Barkly Pass ;
towards the east they thin out, and the lavas No. 5
1 Du Toit, Geol. Comm. (03).
14*
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212 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COIX)NY
rest directly upon the Gave sandstone which is no longer
divided into two portions by the lower group of lavas.
Other thin lenticular beds of ash have been found
interbedded with the Cave sandstone in the Elliot
Division. During his recent investigation of that area
Mr. du Toit came to the conclusion that the earliest
volcanic eruptions there took place under water, and
that the intercalations of ash beds with the Gave sand-
stone represent breaks in the continuous deposition
of the latter, during which its usual characters were
masked by the abundance of volcanic debris.
In the western part of the Elliot volcanic area, under
the Xalanga Peak, Mr. du Toit found that the lowest
lavas rest upon the Cave sandstone for a certain distance
and then pass downwards at a slight angle over an
apparently eroded surface of that rock till they rest
directly upon the Bed beda To the north-east of this
locality the same geologist found a band of red sand-
stones and shale rather under 50 feet thick, intercalated
between the two lower groups of lavas for a distance
of some ten miles round the head waters of the Qokama
River. The lava below the red sandstone band Ues
upon the Red beds. Mr. du Toit considers that this
part of the country was disturbed by local earth move-
ments at the commencement of the volcanic epoch, and
that the lower portion of the Cave sandstone was
removed by erosion over a certain area during the
deposition of the upper portion of the same rock in
other parts of the district. A band of Cave sandstone
fifty feet thick occurs above the second group of lavas
between the Washbank and Xalanga Peaks.
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THE KARROO SYSTEM 213
In the Stormberg area, as described by Mr. Dunn in
the report referred to on a previous page, the proportion
of ash beds to lavas is somewhat greater than in EUiot,
and some of these beds were formed under water before
the close of the Cave sandstone stage.
From the most westerly point from which the volcanic
group has been described as far as the north-east of
Elliot, with the exception of the western part of Elhot
mentioned above, the Cave sandstone lies between it
and the lower groups of the Stormberg series. In the
north-eastern part of Matatiele the volcanic group again
rests directly upon the Bed beds over a distance of some
four miles. From the evidence gathered during his sur-
vey of Matatiele Mr. Schwarz came to the conclusion
that the Cave sandstone itself was partly volcanic in
origin, for he obtained fragments of lava from that rock
at Zureka, and the Cave sandstone appeared identical
in general character and in the nature of its component
minerals with the rock filling some of the volcanic vents
in the same district.
In the Matatiele Division the development of true
ash beds between the lava flows is very restricted. On
the crest of the mountain behind the farm Eyrie there
are two bands of sandstone and shale, forty and twenty
feet thick respectively, intercalated between thick flows
of lava. The section through the upper part of the
mountain at this locality is, in downward order: —
Lavas 130 feet.
Sandstones and shales (red) - - - 20
Lavas - - - - ^ - - 70
Shale 40
Lavas 630
Cave sandstone 100
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214 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
The red sandstones consist of fragments of altered
glass and other rocks of volcanic origin mixed with
grains of quartz, microcline and zircon, probably derived
from the same source as the materials composing the
Cave sandstone. Such beds as these can be regarded
as partly of ordinary detrital origin and partly volcanic,
although it is of course difficult in the absence of
large lumps of lava (bombs) to be certain whether the
volcanic material in the rock came directly from a vent
or whether it reached its present position through the
ordinary agents of denudation. They undoubtedly were
deposited under water, and thus support the evidence
already quoted to that eflfect.
So far as we have information about the volcanic
group in Natal tuflfs are of very rare occurrence there.
The lavas * are basaltic in composition and vary very
much in outward appearance according to their struc-
ture. The glassy varieties are amygdaloidal and usually
much altered, a circumstance that makes them less
conspicuous than the doleritic lavas (see Plate XII.),
for they weather more rapidly and give rise to debris-
covered slopes on the mountain sides rather than to
krantzes. The mineral components are similar in all
the varieties, though the proportions in which they
are present diflfer. The felspar is labradorite or an
allied variety as is the case in the dolerite intrusions ;
most of the augite is colourless and resembles that
of the intrusive dolerites ; olivine is often present either
fresh or more or less changed to serpentine ; these
* For descriptions of the various varieties, see Schwarz, Geol. Comm.
(02), pp. 66-96.
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THE KARROO SYSTEM 215
three minerals are the most important constituents;
magnetite is always, and apatite often present in the
lavas, and occasionally a green augite. Serpentine,
epidote and calcite are the usual alteration products.
Glass is found in several varieties of the lavas. Mr.
Schwarz lays stress upon the absence of brown mica
and original hornblende from the Matatiele lavas, for
these two minerals are frequently present in the intru-
sive dolerites, though usually in small quantities. On
this ground he regards the volcanic rocks as belonging
to a distinct phase of igneous activity from the dolerites
so abundant throughout the central and eastern parts
of the Colony.
The differences between the varieties of lava depend
upon the amount of glass present and the relations
of the augite and felspar to each other. The glassy
lavas are basalts with a greater or less amount of glass
and microcrystalline base in which lie more or less well-
formed crystals of olivine, felspar and augite. The
doleritic lavas may have a very small quantity of residual
glass, the felspar is either in fair-sized porphyritic
crystals, between which small felspar and augite crystals
lie, or in smaller crystals often enclosed by ophitic
masses of augite. The last-mentioned type of rock
is very similar in structure to the dolerite of the thick
sheets and dykes elsewhere in the Colony, and the other
variety of doleritic lava is like the dolerite of the smaller
sized intrusions, with the exception of the presence of
brown mica and hornblende.
The amygdaloidal varieties of lava are almost entirely
basalts. The steam holes have in places never been filled
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216 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
in BO that weathered out to the rocks they are scoriace-
ous. The minerals filling these cavities are calcite, chalce-
dony, or zeolites, amongst which heulandite, thomsonite,
stilbite, and perhaps scolecite, have been recognised ; a
green layer of chlorite or delessite sometimes lines the
cavities which have been filled in with one of the above-
mentioned minerals. The amygdales may be more or
less spherical in shape or irregular. In certain lavas
there are pipe-like amygdales, four or five inches long
and often branching upwards. They are found in zones
near the base of the flows, separated from the under-
lying rock by a few inches of compact or vesicular lava
in which the steam holes are of the usual type, and
they are approximately perpendicular to the floor.
In the Stormberg district, Elliot and Matatiele, the
only parts of this volcanic region that have been closely
surveyed, numerous necks of agglomerate and lava have
been described.
Mr. Dunn describes Telemachus Kop near Molteno
as a crater filled with an agglomerate of many varieties
of lava and sedimentary rocks, the latter being highly
altered by heat. It is certain that the crater form of
this and the few other volcanic pipes which show it is
due entirely to erosion and weathering long subsequent
to the period of activity. He mentions in his report,
or places on his maps of that region, five pipes near
Molteno and Jamestown. There are sixteen volcanic
necks exposed in the Elliot Division. They are at
various distances up to about four miles from the main
ridge of the Drakensberg, and are differently situated
with regard to the surrounding beds according to their
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THE KARROO SYSTEM 217
distance from the main ridge. The necks farthest from
the ridge are in the Bed beds, and those nearer to it are
surrounded by the Cave sandstone or the lower lavas.
They vary in size from fifteen yards in diameter to an
area one and a half mile long by a quarter wide (the
Tulloch volcano). In some cases lava streams have
been traced to a certain vent, but generally denudation
has proceeded so far that the original connections have
long since been destroyed, and there is consequently
little evidence to indicate from which vents the great
sheets of lavas, piled up to a thickness of over 2,000 feet
in the Washbank peak, came.
Some of the small necks are plugged with dolerite
lava, but as a rule the pipes are now filled with a bluish
tuff or agglomerate containing fragments of sedimentary
rocks and lavas ; these tuflb weather white and some-
times look like outliers of the Cave sandstone from a
distance. A large neck near the top of the Gat Berg
is entirely plugged with dolerite. It is often found
that the necks are partly filled by lava and partly by
agglomerate.
Dykes of dolerite have traversed some of the Elliot
necks, and they occasionally traverse the lava flows.
In this area no great fissures through which the lavas
may have reached the surface have yet been found,
but a survey of the whole breadth of the volcanic band
may reveal their presence.
In Matatiele Mr. Schwarz found at least nineteen dis-
tinct vents, of which only one lies on the crest of the
Drakensberg ; the others are all within seven miles of
the highest ridge on the East Griqualand side of it.
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218 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
Whether the volcanoes are confined to the high ridges
of volcanic rocks, or whether they are spread broadcast
over Basutoland is not yet known.
The largest of the Matatiele pipes is on the farm
York, it is about a mile in diameter, and it has been
cut in two by a tributary of the Mabele Kiver. The
vent is filled partly with amygdaloidal and doleritic
lavas, and partly with agglomerate. The dolerite was
the first rock to flow from the pipe, and it is still con-
nected with a colunmar flow of dolerite that lies upon
the Cave sandstone. The doleritic rock was succeeded
by amygdaloidal lavas, part of which are still preserved
in the lava flows, 4,000 ft. thick, near Ongeluk*s Nek.
Near the volcano the lava contains large masses of sand-
stone and shale baked and converted into porcellanite by
the heat of the lava. There are some baked shales that
Mr. Schwarz regards as having been formed in tempor-
ary lakes or streams on the volcano itself, and subse-
quently hardened by fresh flows of lava. Brown, gritty
soil is preserved between some of the lava streams that
issued from this vent, indicating that the volcano, even
if it started its activity below the water level, piled up
its lava sufficiently to form a land surface. The ag-
glomerate is dark blue in colour, and includes large
numbers of fragments of lavas and sedimentary rocks ;
this material is probably the result of the final explosive
outburst of the volcano. Evidence of the long duration
of the activity of this vent is given by the old valleys
carved out of some of the lava flows and filled in by
later ones.
The smallest volcanic neck in this district is only
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THE KARROO SYSTEM 219
four yards across, but most of the others are over 100
yards in diameter. The majority are filled with ag-
glomerate, of which the matrix is largely composed of
quartz grains derived from a sedimentary rock or a
granitic one, as both orthoclase and microcline are abun-
dant; these are felspars which do not occur in the
Drakensberg lavas. Zircon, rutile, hornblende, tourma-
line, muscovite and garnet, all minerals that are foreign to
the lavas, are also present. With these minerals occur
others, plagioclase especially, that are important con-
stituents of the lavas, of which both large and small
fragments are frequently embedded in the agglomerates.
Pieces of charred wood have been found in some of the
agglomerates ; they are the remains of trees that grew
on the slopes of the volcanoes during periods of quies-
cence ; on a renewal of activity, fragments of these trees
fell into the crater, and were imbedded in the breccias
composed of comminuted volcanic and sedimentary rocks.
Taking into consideration the great thickness of lavas
in this portion of the Drakensberg, the absence of more
normal agglomerates from the necks is certainly remark-
able, and gives the vents a character somewhat similar
to that of the pecuhar pipes of Kimberley, Sutherland
and other districts in the Colony, which will be described
in a later chapter. Some of the pipes of the Kimberley
type, however, contain melilite-basalt, a rock which is
entirely unrepresented in the explored parts of the Storm-
berg volcanic series ; and the age of the Kimberley type
of vent is probably much later than that of the Storm-
berg volcanoes. None of these later pipes is known to
have given exit to lavas which flowed at the surface.
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220 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
Mr. Schwarz came to the conclusion that a consider-
able thickness of the lavas in Matatiele did not issue
from the volcanoes, but came from fissures which are
now filled with dolerite and are dykes traversing both
the sedimentary rocks and the lower lavas. The largest
of these dykes is about fifteen miles long and a mile wide
at its broadest part. It runs parallel with the main ridge
of the Drakensberg from Deer Park to George Moshesh's
country, and on its southern side the amygdaloidal lavas
cut through by it are turned upwards in a similar manner
to the upturning of sedimentcuy beds round the walls of
a volcanic neck. Along the northern wall of this dyke
the lavas are much disturbed and crushed. These are
features which have not been noticed in the usual doler-
ite dykes in the Colony ; in the latter the molten rock
seems to have risen quietly without having to exert a
force capable of crushing or disturbing the rocks forming
their walls. The fonnation of the dolerite-filled fissure
on the Drakensberg ridge was evidently accompanied by
explosive action, and through it may have been poured a
large part of the lava which now builds up the higher
portion of the ridge and a great bulk of rock that has
disappeared under the ceaseless attack of the weather.
In no part of the Stormberg volcanic series have there
been found great piles of lava and ashes arranged more
or less symmetrically about a centre as are the lava
streams and tuflfs of such volcanoes as Vesuvius and
TeneriflFe, or the great flows of the Hawaian Islands ;
but allowance must be made for the changes wrought
by denudation during the very long period, represented
in other countries by the Jurassic, Cretaceous, Tertiary
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THE KARROO SYRTEM 221
and Quartemary deposits, formations that are but scan-
tily developed in South Africa.
The absence of necks of agglomerate or other material
from the Transkei beyond a narrow zone lying within
a few miles of the mountain crest is certainly signifi-
cant ; it points to the existence of a line of weakness
more or less coincident with the position of the present
ridge of the Drakensberg, along which at least the chief
volcanic activity prevailed. Whether this was also the
case throughout the region, and whether the lines of
vents or fissures of eruption are marked by the im-
portant spurs of the Drakensbergen in Basutoland
which Mr. J. Orpen ^ found to be made of volcanic
rocks, can only be ascertained from an examination of
Basutoland.
It is quite possible that some of the larger necks men-
tioned on previous pages are the passages through which
great quantities of materials were ejected, and that these
formed volcanic cones of large size now completely swept
away. A general fact which bears on this question,
however, is that the great conical volcanoes of the
present day consist chiefly of fragmental tuffs which
thin out quickly in all directions, though they may
cover very wide areas. So far as our information goes
the Drakensberg volcanoes were not of this type, for
there are but few beds of tuff, and the agglomerates in
the necks are largely composed of non-volcanic detritus,
a state of things that would hardly obtain were the
Drakensberg group strictly comparable with modem
^ The first map of the volcanio region, that attached to Professor
Cohen's paper (76), was based upon information collected by Mr. Orpen.
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222 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
lava and ash volcanoes, or those of Carboniferous and
Devonian age in the British Islands.
It is difficult to ascertain why a region so rich in lavas
is so poor in ordinary tuffs ; many of the former rocks
were highly vesicular, and therefore contained an abund-
ance of water, an important factor in determining the
explosive character of volcanic activity ; it is also diffi-
cult to understand why so many of the necks should be
largely filled with material derived from sedimentary or
deep-seated igneous rocks which are very different in
nature from the ejected lavas.
The part played by this volcanic episode in the geo-
logical history of the country can be more conveniently
dealt with in another chapter (chapter xi.), where its
relation to previous and subsequent events will be
explained.
The following is a list of the fossils hitherto discovered
in the Stormberg beds : —
PlaHts—
Schizonetira hrasgerif Sew.
Strobilit^s.
Thinnfeldia odontopteroideSj Morr.
„ rhotnboi/ialiSf Ett.
Clfidophlebis.
(Jidli^eridium stomihergense, Sew.
Tceniopteris camUherd, Ten. -Woods.
GhiropterU cuneata, Carr.
„ zeiMerif Sew.
Baiera storrtihergeriMS^ Sew.
„ schencki, Feistm.
Plicenicopsis eUmgcduSy Morr.
Stenopteru elongaia, Carr.
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THE KARROO SYSTEM 223
Fishi—
Oeratodus kannemeyeri, Seeley.
„ ciipefisisy S.- Woodward.
Dictyopyge / draperi, S.-Woodward.
Semionotiis capensUj S.-Woodward.
Gleiihrolepis extoni, S.-Woodward.
Reptiles " —
Tritylodon longosvusy Ow. (also thought to be a mammal).
Euskelesaurus, Hux. |
MassospondyluSy Ow. > Dinosaurs.
Orosaurusy Hux. {OrinosauruSj Lyd.) I
In his discussion of the relations of the Stormberg
plants with those of foreign rocks, Mr. Seward ^ came
to the conclusion that they are allied to the Khsetic
flora of other parts of the world. This flora had a more
general distribution than the earlier one characterised
by Glossopteris and Gangamopteris in the southern hemi-
sphere, and by Lephdodendron, Sigillaria, and Gordaites in
the northern, for it has been found in Europe, Asia,
Australia, North and South America and South Africa.
Several of the most striking genera in the Stormberg
flora, however, are by no means confined to this series,
but occur in either newer or older beds. In the Cape
Colony, for instance, species of TaniopieHSy Sphenopteris
and Cladophlebis have been found in the Uitenhage
series, and Schizoneura in the Beaufort and Ecca beds.
In India the Upper Gondwana beds have yielded many
forms that occur in the Stormberg beds. The Panchet
beds contain Thinnfeldia odontopteroides and Schizoneura
gondwanensisy to which some Cape specimens are very
> See note at end of chapter. «Owen (76), (84) ; Huxley (07).
'Seward (03).
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224 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
similar. The Panchet fossils, however, are, on the
whole, more nearly allied to those from the Beaufort
series, as in addition to Glossopteris, Dicynodon and Piy-
chosiagwn have been obtained from them. The Kajmahal
beds contain plants allied to those of the Stormberg
series and also to the Uitenhage flora. The Kota Maleri
beds contain a species of Geratodus like C. capensis from
the Stormberg beds of Smithfield, and also Massospondylus.
In Australia the genera Sphenopteris, Thinnfeldia, and
TcBfiiopteris are known from the Hawkesbury-Wiana-
matta beds of New South Wales, from the lower ** Trias-
Jura " (Burrum) and Ipswich formations of Queensland,
and from the Upper Coal-bearing series of Tasmania.
The Hawkesbury series also contains Cleithrolepis, Die-
tyopygBy and Atherstonia, the two former being Stormberg
and the latter a Beaufort species.
Any attempt to draw close parallels between these
distant strata is foredoomed to failure ; but the results
of a comparison on broad lines are sufficiently striking,
and hold out the prospect of a more detailed correlation
in the future when the fossils are better known. The
greater part of the correlation of the African, Indian
and Australian rocks rests upon the plants which seem
to be far less satisfactory than the remains of invertebrates
which furnish the means of correlating so many forma-
tions in distant parts of the world. The reason for this
is twofold ; in the first place fossil plants are too often
badly preserved and at the same time the variation
amongst individuals of one species is great, so that their
determination allows wide latitude of opinion; in the
second place the number of species that can be used
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ItlE KARROO SYSTEM 225
for the purpose is comparatively small. In time these
difficulties will be partly overcome, but meanwhile any
evidence from better preserved and more highly organised
forms of hfe, such as fish and reptiles, deserves more
credit than that from the plants. Unfortunately fish
and reptiles are decidedly rare in the formations that
may have been contemporaneous with our Karroo system,
though the recent discoveries in Russia referred to in
connection with the Beaufort series lead one to expect
much more help from the reptiles than we now have.
Many species and even genera of reptiles are founded
on very fragmentary remains, and too much weight
cannot be put on determinations founded on pieces of the
skeleton in the absence of the skulls.
The question of the general bearing of the Karroo
rocks upon the geological history of the country will be
dealt with in chapter xi.
We may notice here that there is no indication of the
sea having invaded the Karroo region during the period
of deposition of these rocks. None of the numerous
Carboniferous, Permian, or Triassic marine shells known •
from Europe and Asia have been met with in South
Africa. At the same time we must note that there are
no deposits of rock salt, gypsimi, or other soluble sub-
stances which characterise formations deposited in an
area where evaporation provides the only escape for the
water collected in its hollows. Such beds of soluble
salts are well known in the red Permian and Triassic
rocks of Europe, and they were formed in a desert
country in which the rivers flowed into inland basins
without an outflow to the sea. Similar beds of salts
15
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W^ GEOLrtGV OP CAPE COLONY
are now formed in desert regions. If the Karroo basitl
had been entirely cut off from the ocean, as Lake Tchad,
the Caspian and Aral are now, we should find evidence
of it in the deposits laid down at the time.
Prom the Ecca beds to the Stormberg there are
false bedded rocks, ripple markings, on the surfaces
of numerous strata, both shales and sandstones, and
local unconformities caused by the scouring away of
the floor by currents which deposited other detritus in
the hollow so formed. These all point to the prevalence
of shallow water in the Karroo basin throughout the
period. When these facts are taken into consideration
with the great thickness of the sediments concerned
they afford clear proof that a great part of the Colony
was slowly depressed during a very long period ex-
tending from the Carboniferous to the Jurassic.
The chief rocks of economic value in the Karroo sys-
tem are the coal seams of the Molteno group, which
have been mentioned on a previous page.
Good building stone is obtained from the Beaufort
beds near Beaufort West, Fort Beaufort, Graaff Beinet
and Queenstown. In general the Beaufort and Ecca
sandstones are too dark in colour and too irregular in
development to be used otherwise than locally, but the
Queenstown stone has a more than local demand owing
to its better colour, good working qualities, and a favour-
able position with regard to railway transport.
In the Stormberg series there are many places where
freestone of good colour has been obtained, but the
existing quarries are far from the railway.
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THE KARROO SYSTEM 227
Many of the public buildings in East Griqualand are
built of sandstones from the Molteno beds.
When more quarries have been opened up for the
purpose of supplying the up-country villages with stone
there will doubtless be many sources of valuable stone
discovered ; at the present time fair samples of most
rocks that might be of great use are practically im-
possible to obtain.
The calcareous concretions containing clayey matter
in the Ecca and Beaufort beds should be of value in
cement making, but at present nothing is being done
with this limestone. The expense of fuel at places
where the limestone is sufficiently abundant to work
accounts for its not being used in this way.
Water is almost everywhere found in moderate quan-
tities by boring into the Karroo formation, though the
rocks are rarely permeable to any extent. The water
obtained comes from the joints which cut through the
strata and allow them to hold water within a few hun-
dred feet of the surface. The largest supplies appear to
be obtained behind dykes of dolerite, which act as sub-
terranean dams in holding back the water derived from
a higher level.
[Since this chapter was written the progress of the survey has made
it certain that CleithrolepiSy Semionotus, and Ceratodus come from the
uppermost part of the Beaufort series; Hartalcsaurus, a Dinosaur,
occurs in the Gave sandstone, and Notochatnpsa, a crocodile of Jurassic
type, has been found in the Red beds and Gave sandstone by Mr. du
Toit, who has also obtained phyllocarids and wings of orthopterous
insects from shales in the Gave sandstone. Nov., 1904.]
16*
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CHAPTEE VI.
REPTILES OF THE KARROO FORMATION.
By R. ^boom, M.D.
Few groups of fossil reptiles are raore worthy of careful
study than those found in the Karroo beds of South
Africa. The continental conditions which prevailed at
the time were favourable to the existence of large num-
bers and many varieties of land animals, and the lake
deposits which were then being formed were well suited
for the excellent preservation of their remains. Not only
are the fossil reptiles numerous and well preserved but
they are forms of the very greatest interest.
The eariiest land vertebrates appear to have arisen in
Carboniferous times, in rocks of which period we find
the remains of a great variety of Labyrinthodonts, but
no undoubted remains of reptiles. The Labyrinthodonts
were peculiarly specialised Amphibians, characterised
among other things by having the head hinged to the
back bone by two condyles as in the frog, and not by a
single knob as in most reptiles and birds. They sur-
vived till the close of the Triassic period, and a number
of very interesting forms have been met with in the
upper Karroo beds of South Africa.
In the age succeeding the Carboniferous — the Permian
— true reptiles first made their appearance, and in the
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REPTILES OF THE KARROO FORMATION 229
rocks of North America and Europe have been found
the remains of a large number of primitive reptiles,
some showing affinities with the existing Tuatara lizard
of New Zealand and others resembling more the ancestral
Labyrinthodonts.
In South Africa, as we have a continuous series of
beds, probably from the Carboniferous to the Upper
Triassic period, we have a much better opportunity of
studying the succession of the early reptilian types than
is met with in any other part of the world. Some of
the American and European types are unlike any that
have as yet been found in South Africa, but on the
whole the best general idea of the early reptiles can be
obtained by the study of the South African forms.
Some conception of the extent of the reptilian fauna
of the Permian and Triassic beds of South Africa may
be gathered from the fact that at present at least fifty-
three genera are known and a hundred species. Much
difference of opinion has been expressed with regard to
the classification of these forms, but as our knowledge
has advanced most of the difficulties have been removed,
and it is now found that the very large majority of the
species can be conveniently arranged in five distinct,
though more or less connected, orders. Of these orders
the two lower show marked affinities with the Laby-
rinthodonts, and the highest is surprisingly closely
related to the lower mammals. The study of these five
orders thus not only gives us a very good idea of the
Permian and Triassic reptilian fauna, but enables us to
see the steps by which the mammals have been derived
from their amphibian e^ncestorq.
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230 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
Procolophonia.
The first order to be considered has been formed for
the reception of a single genus, Procolophon. At least
two well-marked species are known, both lizard-like
reptiles about twelve to fifteen inches in length. In
general proportions and in many points of structure
Procolophon bears a marked resemblance to the existing
New Zealand hzard Sphenodon; it diflfers, however, in
having a much more primitive condition of back of the
skull and of the shoulder girdle and pelvis.
The palate resembles that of Sphenodon but diflfers in
having no teeth on the palatines, and in having a large
number on the pterygoids and prevomers. The Pro-
colophon diflfers from the large majority of reptiles in
having the posterior part of the skull roofed with bone,
and in this respect it agrees with the Labyrinthodonts.
The vertebrae are of a very primitive type, retaining
the passage for the persistent notochord.
The shoulder girdle has on e3,ch side a well-developed
scapula, coracoid and precoracoid, supported by a pair
of large clavicles and a very large median interclavicle.
The limbs bear considerable resemblance to those of
lizards, there being in each foot 2, 3, 4, 5, and 3 joints
in the five toes respectively instead of 2, 3, 3, 3, and 3
as in mammals.
Abdominal ribs, such as are found in Sphenodon, the
crocodiles, and many primitive reptiles, are present.
The pelvis has the anterior elements— the pubes and
ischia, broad and flat as in the Labyrinthodonts.
Though no other members of this order are known
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REPTILES OF THE KARROO FORMATION 231
either in South Africa or elsewhere there occur in
Europe and America one or two genera {e.g., Scleroscmrus,
Pariotichus, etc.), which seem to be intermediate between
it and the next order.
Pareiasauria.
This order was formed for the reception of a genus of
very large fossil reptiles, Pareiasuvrus, of which in South
Africa there are four or five species known. In North
Russia a species is known of even larger dimensions
than the South African, and in Central Europe a small
allied form with horns. In Scotland another small
allied form, also homed, has been found ; and in America
there are numerous genera possibly belonging to this
order but not very nearly related to Pareiasaurus.
Pareiasa/wrus was a very heavily built animal about
eight or ten feet in length and standing about four feet
high. It resembles Procolophon in one or two respects,
but on the whole is considerably more highly organised.
The skull is very massive, and the surface bones are
pitted somewhat after the manner seen in the Labyrin-
thodonts. In fact even in the arrangement of the bones
of the upper surface of the skull the resemblance to the
earlier tjrpes is very marked. The palate, however, diflFers
entirely from that of the Labyrinthodont and agrees in
type with that in Procolophon and Sphenodon.
The shoulder girdle resembles that of Procolophon in
having well-developed scapulae, coracoids and precora-
coids, but differs in having a large acromion process for
the attachment of the collar bone, and in retaining the
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232 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
U
I
CO
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REPTILES OF THE KARROO FORMATION 233
LabjrriDthodont supraclavicle or cleitbrom — a splint
bone whicb protects the front of the scapula.
The pelvis bears some little resemblance to the mam-
malian typa
No abdominal ribs have as yet been found in Pareia-
scmruSf and it is highly probable that none existed.
The number of joints in the toes is not yet known for
certain. One toe undoubtedly has four joints ; possibly
the numbers are 2, 3, 3, 4, 3 respectively, thus belonging
to a type intermediate between Procolophon and the
Anomodonts, etc.
Therocephalia.
Contemporaneously with Pareiasaurus there existed a
large series of other reptiles somewhat allied but belong-
ing to a different order. Whereas Pareiasaurus was a
clumsy slow-moving animal, with uniform teeth only
suited for cropping herbage, the other types are for
the most part slightly built animals and having teeth
differentiated, as in mammals, into incisors, canines
and molars. Considerable confusion has hitherto been
caused by these early carnivorous types having been
placed with the Theriodonts to which they are not
very nearly related.
The skull bears considerable resemblance to that of
mammals, differing mainly in the structure of the palate
and of the lower jaw and its hinge. Each premaxillary
bone usually carries five pointed incisors, and in the
maxillary there are usually two canines, sometimes
three, and a series of small pointed molars. The molars
vary in nujnber from one to eleven, The palate is di,
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234 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
slight modification of that found in Procolophon and
Pareiasait^iis, the internal nasal opening being by the
side of the canines, and there is no trace of a secondary
palate. On the pterygoid bones there are usually a
series of small teeth.
Of the lower jaw the dentary bone only forms a little
more than the anterior half, the posterior part being
fornaed by three other large elements as in most rep-
tiles. A well-developed quadrate bone is present for
the articulation of the jaw. There is a single occipital
condyle.
The limb bones differ from those of Pareidsaurus
mainly in being long and slender. There is in the
shoulder girdle no acromion process.
The best known South African Therocephalians are
j^lt4ro8awnis^ IctidosuchtiSf Lycosuchus and Titanosuchus
animals varying in size from a cat to a horse. A very
much larger form, Tapinocejphalus, is met with. It was
an animal probably as large as a rhinoceros, but it
is unfortunately very imperfectly known and possibly
belongs to the Pareiasauria,
In Bussia a number of Therocephalians have been
found, the best known being Deuterosaunis and Rhopah-
don. Recently very perfect skeletons of a large form,
Nostronzewia, have been found in North Russia.
Anomodontia (or Dicynodontia).
The Anomodontia include a large series of fossil
forms, characterised among other things by having,
like the Edentata among mammals, no teeth in the
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REPTILES OF THE KARROO FORMATION 236
front of the jaw. In giBneral structure they are inter-
mediate between the Therocephalians and the Therio-
donts, but they also show some affinities with the
Pareiasaurians. In size they vary from animals ad
small as a rat to huge heavily built forms somewhat
larger than a wild boar.
The skull resembles considerably that of the Thero-
cephalians and the Theriodonts, and is mainly remark-
able for the enormous development of the squamosal
bone and the large size of the quadrate. The palate
resembles much more closely that of the Theriodonts
than the type met with in the earlier forms.
The shoulder girdle resembles very closely that of
Pareiasa/uruSf there being usually present a distinct
cleithruuL An ossified sternum or breast bone is prob-
ably invariably present.
The bones of the fore limb also resemble those of
Pareidsatirus, the humerus having always a huge deltoid
ridge. The front foot very closely resembles that of
mammals, the toes having 2, 3, 3, 3, 3 joints respec-
tively.
The pelvis and the bones of the hind limb are
strikingly mammal-like.
The best known Anomodont genus is Dicynodony of
which over twenty species have been discovered, some
smaUer than a cat, others possibly nearly as large as
Pareiascmrus. The jaws in front formed a horny beak
as in the tortoise, but in addition there were two power-
ful tusks, between which the lower jaw worked. There
were no other teeth. In the larger species the head is
usually proportionally very large. In Dicynodon leoniceps
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236 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
the head is narrow; in Dicynodon tigriceps it is very
broad.
Oudenodon is closely allied to Dicynodon, but differs in
having no tusks. A considerable number of species are
known varying from less than a foot to probably about
six feet in length.
Lystrosav/ms (^ Ptyohognathus) is an aquatic form of
Anomodont. The limbs are very short and ill-adapted
for progression on land. The head, though agreeing
fairly closely with Dicynodon as regards its essential
structure, is remarkably distorted. The beak is long
and the back part of the head very short, while the
occiput and snout lie in almost parallel planes. The
eye and the nose are close together and near the top
of the head. The pecuhar shape of the skull would
enable Lystrosav/rus to lie near the surface of the water
with only the eye and nose exposed.
Endothiodon may be taken as the type of a number of
genera, closely allied to Dicynodon and Oudenodon, but
differing in having a number of teeth on the maxillary
bone and in the lower jaw. Some of the genera are less
than a foot in length and have remarkably specialised
teeth, while Endothiodon bathystoma, the largest form
known, was between three and four feet in length. In
this large form the maxiUary and lower jaw teeth are
arranged in three series. The head is of enormous size,
with a large parietal crest and a very wide occiput. The
vertebrae are short, the ribs well developed and the limb
bones very similar to those of Dicynodon. The Endo-
thiodonts form a connecting link between the Thero-
cephalian^ and the Anon^odonts, such as Dicynodon
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REPTILE?; OF THE KARROO FORMATION 237
^ sli
s t S o
2 §o •
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238 GEOLOGY OP CAPE COLONY
and Oudenodony but they are very much more nearly
related to the latter.
Theriodontia.
The Theriodonts are medium-sized reptiles remark-
able for the strikingly close resemblances which they
bear to mammals. Only a few genera are known at
present, but fortunately most of the important points of
structure have been revealed. The best known genera
are Cynognathus, GomphognathuSy Microgomphodon and
GcUesawrus. The Theriodonts are the carnivora of the
upper ,Earroo rocks as the Therocephalians are of the
lower.
The Theriodont skull resembles considerably that of
both the Anomodonts and the Therocephalians, and
also bears a close affinity to that of the lower mam-
mals. The most remarkable features of the skull are
the presence of two occipital condyles and the develop-
ment of a secondary palate. The lower jaw is formed
almost entirely by the dentary bone, the other bones
being of small size. The quadrate is quite rudimentary.
The dentition is almost typically mammahan, and not
only are the teeth divided into incisors, canines and
molars, but the molars are specialised in different genera
into carnivorous and insectivorous tjrpes. The palate is
formed as in mammals by secondary plates from the
maxillary and palatine bones, the internal nares being
carried as far back as in most mammals. The pterygoid
bones are of large size as in the Anomodonts and
Therocephalians and unlike those of mammals.
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REPTILES OF THE KARROO FORMATION 239
The vertebrsB are remarkable for having peculiar flat
overlapping ribs in the lumbar region.
In the shoulder girdle the scapula, coracoid and pre-
coracoid resemble much more those elements in the
Anomodonts than in the TherocephaUans.
The pelvis is much more manmialian in type than
that of the earlier forms.
Cynognathus^ the best known genus, is a large wolf-like
reptile. The head is about sixteen inches in length and
the whole animal probably measured about six feet.
The molar teeth have cusps very similar to those seen
in many carnivorous mammals.
Gomphognathus, though very similar to Cynognathus in
general structure, differs in having a broad and flat
head and in having the molar teeth with flattened
crowns. It probably measures about four feet.
Microgomphodon is a small form with flattened molars.
It is about the size of a meerkat.
GcUesaurus is a small carnivorous type, of which only
the skull is known. The head is more depressed than
in Gynognathtis,
Kblations of the Theriodonts TO Mammals.
The study of the fossil reptiles of South Africa has
not only revealed some very remarkable types of animal
life, but has practically resulted in the solution of one
of the most vexed problems of biology — the Origin of
Mammals.
In Procolophon we have a type which, though distinctly
more closely allied to the ancestors of the lizards, is
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240 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
probably not very unlike that which formed the com-
mon ancestor of the Pa/reiascmrianSf the mammal-like
reptiles and the mammals.
Pareiaaaurus, though possibly in one or two respects
more primitive than Procolophon, is on the whole dis-
tinctly specialised along the line which gives rise to the
mammals. The shoulder-girdle and pelvis are strikingly
like those of the lower mammals. The well-developed
acromion process which forms so marked a feature of
the shoulder-blade of mammals appears in Pareiascntrus
for the first time.
The Therocephalians in some respects resemble
mammals fairly closely. The general arrangement of
the face bones and those of the upper surface of the
skull generally is surprisingly manamal-like, and the
teeth are divided into incisors, canines and molars al-
most exactly as in the higher forms.
The Anomodonts though somewhat out of the direct
line of mammalian descent, are even more nearly related
to the mammals than are the Therocephalians. We
here see the secondary palate in its early imperfect con-
dition. Most of the bones of the skeleton are so like
those of the Monotremes that Owen many years ago
suggested the possibility of the ancestors of the Mono-
tremes being found among the Anomodonts.
The Theriodonts are most probably descended from
Therocephalian ancestors, but they have so far advanced
along the mammalian line that they are more closely
allied to their mammalian descendants than to the
Therocephalians. In the structure of their teeth, palate
and limb bones they may be said to be almost mammals.
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REPTILES OF THE KARROO FORMATION 241
B
Fig. 20. — A. Skullof aTherocephalian, Lyoosuchtis ratiderrieti ; length
of skull about 9} inches. B. Skull of a Theriodont, Cynognathus platyceps ;
length of skull about 9 inches. G. Skull of a Mammal, Dasyurus rmtcu-
laius ; length of skull about 4 inches.
Aog., Angular; Art, Articular; Dent, Dentary ; Fr. , Frontal; Ju., Jugal ;
L., Lacrvmal ; Mx., Maxilla; Na., Nasal; Pa., Parietal; Pnix., Pre-niaxilla ;
P.O., Pofltorbital; Pr. F., Pre-firontel ; Qu., Quadrate ; S. Aug., Surangular :
Sq., Squamosal.
In no existing mammal are the nostrils separated by bone as in tlie Theriodouts,
but in the early stages of development of the egg-laying mammals of Australia
the pre-mazillaries aie foond with ascending median processes very similar to
those of fossil forms.
16
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242 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
To whatever point in the structure of the Theriodonts
we turn we find the mammalian condition foreshadowed
in a most remarkable manner. The two points in which
the mammalian skull differs most markedly from the
reptilian are (1) the simple nature of the lower jaw,
and (2) the presence of two occipital condyles. Both
of these peculiarities are explained by the Theriodont
condition. The Theriodont jaw differs from that of the
Therocephalian and all other reptiles in being formed
almost entirely by the dentary, which almost reaches
the articulation. The articular is small and to a great
extent overlapped by the dentary. The angular, sur-
angular and splenial are small rudimentary splint bones.
The quadrate on which the articular hinges is a small
bone which lies on the front of the downward process
of the squamosal. In the mammal the lower jaw is
formed entirely by the dentary ; and the quadrate has
disappeared as a distinct ossified element, so that the
dentary hinges on the squajnosal. It will thus be seen
that the mammal differs from the Theriodont only in
its having lost those elements which already are rudi-
mentary in the Theriodont. The quadrate appears to be
completely lost in many mammals, e.g., Monotremes, but
it is probably represented by the interarticular cartilage
in the large majority of forms. The articular element
of the jaw is possibly represented by the cartilage found
in the condyle during development ; and a small splint
bone in the jaw of the very young Omithorhynchua
probably represents the angular.
The occipital condyle in the Theriodont is merely a
modification of that found in the Anomodonts. In those
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REPTILES OP THE KARROO FORMATION 243
a large single condyle occurs formed by the two exoc-
cipitals and the median basioccipital. In the Therio-
donts the basioccipital takes less part in the formation
of the condyle than the two lateral elements, and hence
the condyle appears to be doable. In some of the lower
mammals a condyle essentially similar in structure
occurs, the basioccipital forming part of the joint, but
in most of the higher forms the basioccipital takes
little or no part, and thus what was originally a
single condyle formed by three elements becomes a
double x^ondyle formed by the two lateral elements
alone.
Though the above view of the origin of mammals
seems to have on its side the very strongest palaeonto-
logical evidence, various other theories have been pro-
posed. Many would derive the mammals directly from
Batrachian ancestors through a long line, of which we
know nothing, originating in Devonian times. The
quadrate bone of the Batrachians and Beptiles they
consider becomes one of the auditory ossicles in the
mammal. By others the mammaUan tympanic bone
is regarded as the homologue of the reptilian quadrate.
Neither of these views has the slightest support from
palaeontology.
Other Eeptilian Types.
While the large majority of South African fossil
reptiles belong to the phylum which terminates in the
mammals there are a few other interesting forms.
A small lizard-like form caUed Sav/rostemon is believed
to be allied to the New Zealand lizard, Sph&nodon^ but
16*
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244 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
it may be a true lizard. Another form known only by
the skull, Paligtuina, has the quadrate bone free and must
thus be classed with the Lacertilia,
ProterosuchtLs is a moderate-sized reptile with a long
narrow pointed skull. Though having affinities with
Sphenodon, it also shows a number of resemblances to
the Primitive Crocodiles and Dinosaurs, and it would
seem to belong to a group which included the common
ancestors of Crocodiles, Dinosaurs, Pterosaurs and Birds.
A few Dinosaurs are known, which resemble fairly
closely the Triassic Dinosaurs of Europe and America.
[Since the above was written evidence has been obtained which
renders it probable that Saurosternon belongs to the Procolophonia.
The most important recent discovery among the Karroo Reptiles
has been that of small crocodiles in the upper Stormberg beds. They
belong to a genus which has been named Notochampsa, Though only
about two feet in length t^ey are fairly closely allied to certain crocodiles
found in the lower Jurassic beds of Europe. Unlike modem crocodiles
they have fairly long legs, and were no doubt able to run swiftly.]
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CHAPTEE VII.
THE INTRUSIVE DOLERITES AND ALLIED ROCKS.
The dark-coloured, heavy rock, blue-black when freshly
broken, and red-brown, black or yellow on weathered
surfaces, that occupies such great tracts of country
north of a Hue drawn between Sutherland and East
London is generally known by the name of ironstone,
or yzer-klip to the people who live near it. It probably
got the name from the property it has of ringing like
a piece of metal when struck. This rock is composed
chiefly of four minerals, plagioclase felspar, augite,
olivine and magnetite, in the order of their relative
abundance and commencing with the most abundant
mineral. There are other constituents, some of which
can be found in every piece of the rock examined ; but
they are of less importance than those just mentioned,
and will be spoken of later.
The mineral composition shows that the rock belongs
to the basic group of igneous rocks, and the few chemical
analyses that have been made of it show that it has a
similar composition to that of dolerites known from
other countries. In this book, as in the Eeports of the
Geological Commission, the name dolerite is used in the
245
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246 GEOLOGY OF CAfE COLONY
sense adopted by Allport,^ and Teall,^ including rocks
composed chiefly of plagioclase and augite. They may
or may not contain some glass between the usual con-
stituents. The composition varies considerably through-
out the country, but in very many localities rocks with
obviously different compositions can be seen to belong
to one and the same mass. The chief change in con^-
position is in the amount of silica, which has the effect
of altering the proportion of some of the minerals
present ; as a general rule the more silica there is the
less olivine and augite is seen in the specimen. If
strict attention be paid to the mineral and chemical
composition of the rocks, those belonging to the great
group we are now describing must be given several
names. Few of these can be determined without a
minute examination of the specimens. The intrusions
as a whole can conveniently be called dolerites.
According to the shape of an intrusive mass of
igneous rock and its relationship to the surrounding
rock it is called a dyke, sheet or sill, laccolite, or a boss
or batholite.
Dykes are masses of rock filling vertical, or steeply
inclined fissures. They may traverse sedimentary or
» g. J, G, 5., XXX., p. 629.
* British Petrography^ ch. vii. These rocks generally corrcftpoDd to
the diabase of Rosenbusch and Zirkel, although many examples would
belong to the basalt and dolerite of these authors if the question of
geological age were left out of account. It may be well to mention
for the benefit of those who have no acquaintance with petrography
that the naming of igneous rocks is still in a state of confusion or
something very like it, and that very many names should not be used
without reference to the author whose usage is followed.
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INTRUSIVE DOLERlTES AND ALLIED ROCKS 247
igneous rocks. The width of a dyke does not as a rule
vary greatly, so that when the dyke-rock is more re-
sistant than the enclosing beds it has the appearance
of a wall. Dolerite dykes are abundant in the Colony,
an example of these being shown in Fig. 11.
A sheet or sill is a similar body to a dyke, but it lies
approximately parallel to the bedding planes of the sedi-
mentary rocks it penetrates. Sheets of dolerite are more
abundant in the Colony than any other form of intru-
sion ; they are shown in Figs. 1, 2 and 4, and Plates
XIII. and XrV. ; they are often connected with dykes
that in some cases may be regarded as the channels
through which the rock composing the sheets flowed.
A laccolite is of the nature of a sheet that is very thick
in proportion to its extent and thins out on every side,
forming a thick lenticular mass. A laccolite, moreover,
often raises the overlying sedimentary beds into a dome
corresponding to its own contour. Certain of the large
masses of dolerite in the east of the Colony are perhaps
laccolites, but the arching up of the overlying beds has
not been observed.
A boss o^batholite is a large deep-seated mass of more
or less irregular form and of unknown depth, but no
examples of this type of intrusion are found amongst our
dolerites. Several of the granite masses in the Pre-
Cape rocks belong to this type of intrusion.
It will have been noticed that no mention has
been made of lava in connection with the dolerite. The
masses here described all consolidated at some distance
below the surface of the earth, and can be seen only by
the removal of the overlying rocks by denudation. A
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24ft
GEOLOGY OP CAf E COLONY
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INTRUSIVE t>OLEIllTES AND ALLIED ROCKS 249
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250 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
lava is an igneous rock which has flowed from a vent
or a fissure over the surface, and though of very varying
natiire it may have the same chemical and mineral com-
position as dolerite. Ancient lava flows that have been
deeply buried under sedimentary rocks and are now
exposed at the surface by denudation have some charac-
ters in common with sheets or sills ; in the case of very
ancient sheets of igneous rock lying parallel to the bed-
ding of slates or other sedimentary rocks, it is often very
difficult or even impossible to decide whether the rock
was a lava flow or an intrusive sheet. With rocks that
have not undergone much alteration since their forma-
tion there is not this difficulty, for lavas are usually
rough and slaggy at both their upper and lower surfaces,
and the sediment deposited upon them is not hardened
at the contact as are the beds above an intrusive sheet.
The only serious difficulty in distinguishing between
lavas and sills of slightly altered rocks is met vnth in
the case of sills intruded amongst lavas of similar
composition. Examples of this are to be found in the
volcanic group of the Stormberg series, and there is
some doubt as to their true nature. Amongst the
hundreds of dolerite sheets that have been examined in
the rocks, older than the Stormberg volcanic group, none
has been found to have the characters of a lava flow, but
there is often conclusive evidence in the hardening of the
overlying rock and in the sheet breaking through to a
slightly higher or lower horizon that the rock is intru-
sive, i.e., that it was injected into its present position in
a molten state after the surrounding sedimentary rocks
were deposited.
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lKT&tJ8lVE DOLEWTfiS AKD ALLltJt) ROCKS 251
It was stated in the Introduction that the dolerite
intrusions are practically limited to that part of the
Colony which was not seriously aflfected by the earth
movements that took place subsequently to the deposi-
tion of the Ecca beds. In the west of the Ceres Karroo
a nearly straight dyke about thirteen miles long and
100 feet wide runs north and south through Beukes
Fontein, traversing the Dwyka conglomerate where that
rock dips somewhat steeply to the east. This dyke dies
out at each end and gives off no sheets. In the valley
of the Brandewyn's River there are two dykes travers-
ing the Bokkeveld and Table Mountain series in an
area where these beds are slightly folded, and in the
neighbourhood of Groen River and the Bokkeveld
Mountain escarpment there are also two dykes breaking
through beds belonging to the Cape formation, but the
beds have there been only very slightly disturbed. No
dolerite intrusions have been met with in the great
folded belt between the Clanwilliam Mountains and the
Gualana River. We have to go to Pondoland \ where
the Table Mountain sandstone lies almost horizontally
before we again come across dolerite in the Cape forma-
tion ; it occurs there as a dyke in the sandstone of the
Egossa forest.
A considerable number of dolerite dykes penetrate
the Ibiquas series in the west of Calvinia, but it is in
the rocks belonging to the Karroo formation that the
intrusions attain their greatest development.
' Since this was written Mr. du Toit of the Geological Survey has
found two dolerite dykes penetrating the Table Mountain sandstone of
the Cape Peninsula, which lies outside the folded belt.
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252 GEOLOGY Of CAPE COLONY
In the Tanqua Valley east of Eland's Vley there are
several dykes with a north-westerly trend, and some of
them are connected with small sheets, but the main
area of the dolerite intrusions commences on the north
of the Tanqua.
In the Dwyka series between the Langebergen (Cal-
vinia) and the Tanqua Valley there is a very extensive
sheet which stretches with a few breaks in the northern
part of the outcrop for rather over 100 miles, and it is
at places 800 feet thick. This sheet and indeed all
those in the western part of the country tend to rise
towards the south-east, and they traverse higher and
higher beds in the same direction. The lowest sheet
first appears near the base of the Dwyka conglomerate
north of the Oorlog's Kloof Eiver, but at the south-
east extremity on Potkly's Berg East it is in the
lower part of the Ecca beds, having passed diagonally
through a thickness of about 1,000 feet in the course of
some sixty miles. In looking at such a sheet at any
one part of its outcrop it appears to have been injected
parallel to the bedding planes of the enclosing rock, and
it is only by the examination of a very long outcrop
that the fact of its breaking across the bedding can be
determined ; clearly cut sections are difficult to obtain
except on vertical cliflfs, and these are not abundant in
the case of this sheet. The sheet is crossed by the main
road from Ceres to Calvinia at Bosch Kloof, where it
forms an outcrop about six miles wide. It forms a
considerable part of the upper slopes of the escarpment
called Eland's Berg ; the hill is capped by the Upper
shales of the Dwyka series which in turn are overlain
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INTRUSIVE DOLERITES AND ALLIED ROOKS 253
by a smaller sheet of dolerite, an outlier of an offshoot
from the lower ona Outliers of the lowest sheet cap
the Guap Mountain and Elip Bug Eop ; the latter is a
very conspicuous conical mountain formed of Dwyka
conglomerate standing on the watershed between the
Wolf and Oorlog's Kloof Kivers. The offshoot from
the lowest sheet in Galvinia is probably connected with
the latter near the Drie Fontein Mountain, but the out-
crops are apparently separated ; it runs along the foot
of the Boggeveld escarpment as far as the Bhenoster
Biver, a distance of fifty miles; but near its point of
departure from the lowest sheet there is a second off-
shoot at a higher level traceable for over fifty miles on
the escarpment as far as Sneeuw Krantz (Boven Plaats)
on the Boggeveld. A fourth sheet is connected with
the third at Boode Fontein on the edge of the Boggeveld,
and in addition to forming the edge of the escarpment
for man^ miles south of Boode Fontein, it covers a wide
extent of country to the north round Kreits Berg (Zand
Eop), Boep-my-niet, and Hantam, in addition to a great
tract to the east. The Boggeveld sheets below the
fourth or highest one in this area do not extend into
the Sutherland and Beaufort divisions. It is not certain
as yet whether the fourth sheet, the one that crowns
the Boggeveld at Boode Fontein, is connected on the
surface with those north-east of Sutherland. The latter
are the continuation of a sheet that forms the summit
of the western Nieuweveld, whence it gradually drops
to the level of the northern part of the Gouph. This
great sheet, traced between points 100 miles apart, is
connected at the eastern end, where it is cut through
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254 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
by the Koekeinoer's Eiver, with a steeply inclined
sheet or dyke at a lower horizon, which has itself
been found to extend over sixty miles to the west
with a continuous outcrop. This inclined sill, which
is called the Eoode Hoogte sheet, dips at about 30° to
the north, and is as much as 400 feet thick in places.
Like tha overlying sill, the Roode Hoogte sheet rises
towards the Boggeveld; it makes a rapid ascent west
of Banks Gaten on the extreme western limit of the
Beaufort West Division. The dolerite krantz runs up
the left bank of the head-waters of the Dwyka Eiver,
which for the first six miles of its course has a most
remarkable canon-like valley. A tributary has cut
ofif a big out-lying portion of the sheet in AUeman's
Hoek, and to the west of that locality the dolerite
strikes across the plateau behind Komsberg, passes a
few miles to the north of Saltpetre Kop and disap-
pears near Jackal's Fontein on the Sutherland main
road.
East of Tafel Berg, that fine flat-topped mountain
with such gracefully shaped slopes below the krantz
(400 feet) of columnar dolerite, and which can be seen,
together with its neighbour, Spitzkop, from the railway
beyond Prince Albert Eoad, the Nieuweveld summits
are formed by outliers of sheets that occupy wide
stretches of country behind the escarpment. Some of
these sheets appear as continuous outcrops, usually
in the fprm of krantzes or cliffs from 100 to 400 feet
high for about twenty miles along the edge of the
escarpment, the highest point of which is the peak
called Bulthouder's Bank, 6,270 feet above the sea and
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INTRUSIVE DOLERITES AND ALLIED ROCKS 255
3,500 above the town, of Beaufort West that hes about
seven miles to the south-east.^
From one of the prominent peaks near the edge of
the escarpment, such as the Tafel Berg just mentioned,
or Javander Kop near Steenkamp's Poort, a magnifi-
cent view lies before one. To the north range upon
range of rough dolerite kopjes, occasionally merging
into more important hills, stand upon the plateau that
ends abruptly in the Nieuweveld escarpment; almost
at one's feet is the edge of the escarpment, with a dol-
erite krantz at the top, and often one or more on the
precipitous slope of some 3,000 feet from the summit
to the level of the Karroo at the bottom ; to the south
stretches the Great Karroo with its low ranges of flat-
topped kopjes of shale and thin sandstones, shut in
on the horizon by the blue slopes and peaks of the
Zwartebergen. The dolerite outcrops do not extend
farther than eighteen miles south of the Nieuweveld
escarpment, rarely so far.
The Eoode Hoogte sheet, which is inclined northwards
at a moderate angle, fronts the Great Karroo for nearly
fifty miles, and forms the southernmost of the dolerites
for a distance of over seventy miles. It may have ex-
tended some way farther south than its present outcrops,
but as there are no other dykes to the south, that is, no
channel whence further sheets could have been supplied,
and as there are no outhers of dolerite in that direction,
^A detailed description and map of the sheets and dykes of the
eastern Nieuweveld will he found in GeoL Comm. (96), pp. 15-26 ; of the
Roggeveld in Qtol. Comm. (00), pp. 50-52 and (03). A map accompanies
the latter Report and that of 1896.
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256 GEOLOGY OP CAPE COLONY
we must regard the present outcrop of the Eoode
Hoogte sheet as near the former southern limit of the
intrusions.
In the area between the town of Beaufort West and
the west end of the Nietiweveld escarpment there are
several thick dykes with a northerly inclination ; one
of them runs through the town, and behind it the two
town dams have been made by blocking up the exit
of streams; this, the Beaufort dyke, has been traced
over more than thirty miles and gives rise to a thick
sheet at Stoltz Hoek. On the road to Fraserburg up
Thee Kloof there is a thick dyke very well exposed
for hundreds of feet on the steep sides of the valley;
two thin dykes lie parallel to it. The exact posi-
tion of the dykes and sheets of the southern edge
of the dolerite country is not known east of Beaufort
West, but they run between Aberdeen and GraafiF
Reinet, thence through the country just south of Bed-
ford and Fort Beaufort to a point south-west of East
London where they disappear under the sea. North-
east of East London they appear in great force in the
Komgha Division and throughout the whole of the
Transkei, Pondoland and Griqualand East, and they
are continued right through Natal.
The position of the southern limit of the dolerite
intrusions is shown approximately in the small map
in Fig. 3. North of this line the dolerites are very
widely spread. In the western part of the country,
in the drainage basin of the Zak, Hartog's Kloof and
Onger's Rivers the dolerite forms the innumerable
kopjes and ridges mentioned in the description of the
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INTRUSIVE DOLERITES AND ALLIED ROCKS 257
view from one of the Nieuweveld peaks. The most
important ranges of dolerite hills in this part of the
country are the Earree Bergen, Slang Bergen, Tulbagh
Mountains, Eat Eop hills and the hills south of Wil-
liston (Amandelboom). Farther to the east, from the
Fraserburg boundary to the Stormberg, the conical
mountains with flat tops of dolerite or with pinnacles,
renmants of former table-shaped summits, are very
frequently met with.
There are some very considerable ranges of mountains
that run more or less parallel to the main watershed in
the Eastern Province and divide the country south of
that watershed into two parts, a northern (Middelburg,
Cradock, Tarka, Queenstown), drained by the main
branch of the Great Fish Biver and the Eei ; and a
southern (Graaff Beinet, Somerset East, Bedford, Eing
William's Town, etc.), drained by the Sunday's Biver,
tributaries of the Great Fish and Eei, Eeiskamma
and Buffalo Bivers. These mountains branch from
the main watershed at the Compass Berg (8,500 feet),
which is the highest point in the Colony, except some
of the peaks of the East Griqualand boundary ; they
are called the Sneeuwbergen, Tandjes Berg, Bank
Berg, Winterbergen and Amatolas in different parts
of their course. They all appear to owe their existence
to the presence of thick sheets of dolerite that have
protected the sedimentary rocks from destruction. The
distribution of these sheets and their relations as parts
of a great system of intrusions have not been worked
out, but there can be no doubt that they connect the
well-known intrusions of Beaufort West and Calvinia
17
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258 GEOLOGY OP CAPE COLONY
with those of Eentani ^ and the Native Territories
generally.
To the east of King William's Town in the country
within forty or fifty miles of the coast the dolerites have
much less effect upon the topography of the land than in
the western districts, or rather it would be more correct
to say that the effects are less obvious, for we no longer
find the outcrops marked by krantzes or definite ranges
of kopjes. The reason of this is that the country is
covered with grass or bush, and the soil accumulates on
the slopes as well as on the flat ground instead of being
rapidly removed from the slopes to lower levels by rain,
as is the case in the £arroo, the high country north of
the main watershed, and in the higher parts of Griqua-
land East.
There is perhaps more rapid variation in thickness in
the Kentani sheets than in those of the Nieuweveld and
Roggeveld. The Kentani Division is the only compact
tract of country consisting largely of dolerite that has
been mapped geologically in the east of the Colony, and
a short description of it, illustrated by the accompany-
ing plan (Fig. 21), will serve as a typical example of the
manner in which the intrusions occur in those part&
The district is bounded by the Gcua and Kei Bivers on
the south-west, the Kogha on the north-east, the shore
on the south-east, and the main road to Umtata on the
north-west.
The sedimentary rocks are shales and sandstones con-
taining Oudenodon and belonging to the Beaufort series.
^ A large scale map of the Kentani intrusions has been published in
Oeol Camm, (01).
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INTRUSIVE DOLERITES AND ALLIED ROCKS 259
They dip at very low angles to the north-west, and are
not folded to an appreciable extent.
The lowest sills are found on the coast where there
are two called the Kobonqaba and the Mazeppa Bay
sheets respectively from the localities where they are
Fio. 2 ' . — Map of K«ntani showing the distribution of dolerite sheets
and "gap" dykes. The area left blank between the Kei and Kogha
rivers is made of sandstones and shales of the Karroo formation. Scale
1 in. to 10*6 miles. The vertical scale of the section is niuch exagger-
ated, ^ in. to 1,000 feet. The name Manubi is written across the Manubi
sheet. The tnuling station of that name is to the east.
well exposed. The Kobonqaba sheet extends nine miles
along the coast and about two and a half miles inland at
its broadest part up the Kobonqaba Valley, where it dis-
appears underground. Its greatest observable thickness
is 300 feet, near the Wheeli Eiver, but the bottom is
nowhere seen. The patch of sedimentary rock on the
17*
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260 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
coast, north-east of the Nxagha Biver, is part of the
overlying beds faulted down on the north side against
the dolerite. An interesting feature in this sill is the
occurrence of dykes of a much more siliceous type of
rock than the dolerite they traverse. On Plate XV. is
shown a thin dyke of light colour traversing the sheet on
the shore near the Eobonqaba mouth. The sheet itself
is a rather coarse-grained olivine-dolerite, with well-
developed ophitic structure, that is, the augite occurs in
rather large, irregularly shaped masses into which well-
formed crystals of plagioclase felspar project, or they
may be entirely enclosed by the augite ; a small quantity
of green hornblende is intergrown with the augite and
red biotite, magnetite and apatite are present in fair
quantities ; the olivine is partly converted into serpen-
tine. A very small amount of quartz is also present.
This rock is very like that forming many of the Trans-
kei and Pondoland sills, and contains more hornblende
than is usually seen in the dolerites of the western dis-
tricts, although the same mineral is not entirely absent
in the latter. The light-coloured dyke has no olivine or
augite in it and very little hornblende, which is at places
intergrown with orthoclase felspar ; red mica is abun-
dant ; the plagioclase forms zoned crystals, i.e., crystals
whose composition changes regularly from the kernel to
the outside, thus having corresponding changes in the
optical character of the succeeding layers in each crystal
that are easily detected under the microscope. In addi-
tion to the plagioclase felspar there is much orthoclase in
the rock, intergrown with quartz to form micropegmatite.
Orthoclase is practically absent from the olivine-dolerites,
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INTRUSIVE DOLERITES AND ALLIED ROCKS 261
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262 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
and quartz is of very rare occurrence. Apatite, magnetite
and zircon are found in the acid rocks, as well as in the
dolerites.
A rock similar to the acid dyke near the Kobonqaba
mouth is seen a little farther to the north-east in the
same sheet, and on the left bank of the Nxagha Biver,
about one and a half miles from its mouth, there is a
large dyke of the same nature, but with large plates of
titan if erous magnetite, which appear as long needles in
a cross-section.
Although these acid rocks, which may be called
granophyres (Eosenbusch) on account of the abund-
ance of micropegmatitic intergrowths of quartz and
orthoclase, are so different from the typical olivine-
dolerites, there is strong reason to believe that they
were the latest intrusions from the same source that
produced the dolerites at a slightly earlier period. Many
of the minerals in the acid rock are identical with those
in the dolerites, in fact there are no minerals peculiar to
the former, it is chiefly the large proportion of quartz
and potash felspar and a corresponding decrease in the
augite and lime-soda felspars in the granophyre that
distinguish it from the basic rock.
The Mazeppa Bay sheet is exposed along a mile of
the coast and has been followed as a thin sheet round
the basin of the Kleena River and across the Manubi
Eiver, about four miles round the lower part of the
Manubi Forest. The Mazeppa Bay sheet may be con-
nected with some irregular outcrops of dolerite on the
shore between the. Manubi and. Kleena Rivers. The
upper surface of one of these masses of dolerite is seen
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INTRUSIVE DOLERITES AND ALLIED ROCKS 263
to cut off a bed of sandstone obliquely through a vertical
thickness of about 4 feet, and then to pass beneath the
succeeding bed. There are several large dykes striking
inland from the coast between the Kogha and Kobon-
qaba Eivers, probably connected with one of the inland
sheets.
A thin sheet winds round the divide between the
Istamfoona and Umfane Bivers, perhaps an outlying
portion of the Eobonqaba sheet.
The Manubi sheet crops out on the right bank of the
Eogha, at the junction of the Eabakazi stream, where
it is 500 feet thick ; it thins out rapidly to the west, and
is represented by thin outliers north and south of the
Kabakazi Valley. Near the Manubi trading station the
outcrop turns south-west along the top of the escarp-
ment on which the forest is situated, and extends some
seven miles to a point beyond the Gqunqi station ; north
of Gqunqi it is cut into by the stream to a depth of 300
feet, yet the lower surface is not exposed ; it thins out
in this direction very rapidly and disappears.
Near Gqunqi there is a short dyke-like mass of grano-
phjrric rock, rather like the acid dykes in the Eobonqaba
sheet ; it traverses both the sedimentary rocks and the
Manubi sheet ; the granophyre dyke is a mile long from
north to south and several hundred yards wide.
The upper half of the Kologha Valley lies in an ex-
tensive sheet, of which only a part is exposed in the
Kentani Division, for it is continued across the Kei in
the Eomgha Division. The main part of the sheet
extends eastwards from the Kei below the junction of
the Gcua. The cliffs and slopes on the left bank of the
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264 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
Kei for a distance of four miles rise some 1,200 feet
above the river, and two-thirds of the vertical height are
composed of the dolerite of the Kologha sheet. On
Inver Gcua the sheet dips northwards across the sedi-
mentary rocks ; eastwards from this neighbourhood it
gives off two thin sheets whose outcrops wind round the
north side of the Inver Gcua ridge, and the lower one is
continued round the Kombolo and Umnyama Eivers.
Another oflf-shoot leaves the main sheet at Eiverstone,
and winds round the Kentani escarpment to join the
main sheet again south of Kentani ; east of this point
the Upper sheet separates again and pursues an inde-
pendent course as far as the bend of the Eobonqaba
Eiver at the Columba Mission Station, where it again
joins the lower part of the sheet. The lower or main
portion of the sheet forms an area of some twenty-five
square miles between the Kei and Kologha, and is con-
tinued to the north as far as Cat's Pass, where it is cut
through by the southern of the gap-dykes which will be
mentioned presently. The outcrop has a complicated
form owing to the outliers of the overlying shales and
sandstones at Nquise, Nxaxo and other places, and
the large inliers of the same rocks under the Kentani
escarpment. The thickness of this sheet varies greatly ;
on the Kei it is as much as 900 feet thick near Mimosa
Dale, where both the top and bottom are seen in the
cliflfs. On the Kobonqaba Eiver below Nyntugha it is
at least 500 feet thick, but about five miles to the north-
east, east of Nquise, it thins out completely.
A sheet about 100 feet thick, and apparently uncon-
nected wdth any other sheet, underlies the village of
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INTRUSIVE DOLERITES AND ALLIED ROCKS 265
Kentani and the hill of that name about five miles north
of the village ; the outcrop appears at the edge of the
Kentani escarpment and extends some five miles west-
wards on the southern face, and about eight miles north-
east round the headwaters of the tributaries of the
Eobonqaba.
Near Gentuli and Nqundwyu stations there are two
sheets, one is low down near the Kogha Biver, and the
outcrop of the other winds round the slopes about 500
feet higher up. Both these sills are continued in Wil-
lowvale, over the left bank of the Kogha.
The last and uppermost sill that needs to be mentioned
is the N'Hlambe sheet, which covers a considerable
extent of ground in the north-western comer of the
Division ; it is cut through by the Gcua Biver, but is
continued far into Butterworth on the east side of that
river, and also into Idutywa and Willowvale to the
north and north-east. The greatest thickness seen is
about 500 feet, near the Gcua, but it is considerably
thinner south of Hughes' beacon. This sheet is cut
through by the northern gap-dyke between Tutugha
and Gobogobo.
The east and west dykes that traverse the Kentani
Division are very remarkable ones; they extend from
the Kogha mouth to the Gcua Biver, and can be fol-
lowed across the Kei into Cathcart. From a certain
point on the road between the Kei Bridge and Toleni,
not far from the Eaglets Nest, a fine view can be ob-
tained along the valleys weathered out along the course
of the dykes ; on the west a long line of valleys with
low cols between each pair can be seen on either side of
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266 GEOLOGY OP CAPE COLONY
the Eei, and to the east a similar line of valleys stretches
for many miles between slightly higher ground. The
dykes are made of a rather coarse rock composed of
augite, hornblende, red mica, plagioclase, orthoclase (in
micropegmatite), and quartz, with ilmenite, apatite and
zircon as accessory constituents. The rock can be called
an augite-mica-diorite. The coarse diorite weathers more
readily than either the sedimentary rocks or the dolerite
through which it passes, consequently the minor streams
in its neighbourhood have worked their ways along it
rather than through the more resistant rocks, with the
result that a series of valleys with low cols between
each pair have been formed. These are called "gap-
valleys'*^ from the local name of "Transkei Gap"
given to the whole series of valleys by the early sur-
veyors and residents in the Transkei.
From several spots in the district, such as the N'Debe
nek, Gobogobo, Cat's Pass and Lusizi the curious feature
can be well seen, and it gives one the impression that a
great gouge has been driven along the surface of the
plateau and a strip removed. The width of the dykes
is at the most about 400 feet.
There are two of these gap-dykes in Kentani, lying
parallel and about a mile apart, but they cross, or
join and separate again, in the N'Debe Valley. The
northern dyke is not continuous on the surface between
the Gentuli Eiver and Cat's Pass, but the separate
parts are very probably connected underground. The
longest valley along the southern dyke is that of the
1 The gap-valleys of the Transkei have been described in detail in
the Trms, S, A. Phil. Soc.y Rogers and Schwarz (02).
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INTRUSIVE DOLERITES AND ALLIED ROCKS 267
Eabakazi and the lower part of the Eogha, in all about
ten miles long.
The intrusion of these dykes was certainly later than
that of the dolerites, for they cut through the latter.
In its nature and composition the rock forming them is
intermediate between the ordinary olivine dolerite and
the granophyres mentioned in connection with the
Eobonqaba sheet. None of the minerals or structures
in the diorites are entirely foreign to the dolerites, and
the diorites contain much less quartz and micropeg-
matite than the granophyres. Olivine is the only
constituent of the dolerites that is absent from the
diorites and granophyres.
The gap-dykes must be regarded as a late product of
the same molten rock magma that supplied the dolerites ;
the more basic portion, represented by the dolerites,
was got rid of, and a part of the more siliceous residual
matter was extruded after the dolerite sheets had solid-
ified; in many places the gap rocks cut through the
dolerite as well as the sedimentary rocks, and have
solidified as the augite-mica-diorite in the gap-dykes.
A large mass of very acid rock later than the dolerite
sheets forms a considerable part of Gonubie Hill in
Komgha, it is a microgranite consisting of quartz,
orthoclase, and black and white mica. Near Eomgha,
on the main road to the Draaibosch outspan, there is
a large quarry opened up in a thick sheet of dolerite
through which run two veins of a granitic rock. The
veins are eight inches wide at the most and can be
followed downwards as far as the depth of the quarry
allows. They are sharply defined and were evidently
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268 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
injected after the dolerite became solid. Under the
microscope they are seen to consist of a mixture of
quartz and orthoclase with a granophyric (micropeg-
matitic) structure, in which lie aggregates of chlorite,
pseudomorphs after biotite.
In the west of the Colony the dolerites frequently
contain patches of a granophyric intergrowth of quartz
and orthoclase ; in many cases these are not in the form
of dykes or veins, but occur as constituents of the ophitic
dolerites without olivine. In Calvinia and Sutherland
some large masses of granophyric rock have been found
which are probably of the same nature as the dykes and
veins in the Transkei.
In Pondoland and East Griqualand there are some
very large masses of dolerite much thicker in proportion
to their area than any of the sheets hitherto mentioned.
The Tsala hills near Lusikisiki are small examples of
these masses, and larger ones are N'tabankulu, Insiswa,
Mount AyliflF, Mount Currey and the Ingeli Mountain.
These seem to be thick lenticular or cake-shaped bodies
of rock, but their structure is not known in detail. The
sedimentary rocks near them do not appear to be dis-
turbed, but it is evident that the intrusion of a mass
about 1,000 feet thick, such as the Insiswa dolerite, and
of no very great horizontal extent, perhaps five miles by
two, could not have taken place without the displace-
ment of a corresponding volume of sedimentary rock, a
disturbance that should leave its effects upon the dip of
the beds for some distance from the igneous rock. The
only alternative to the displacement of the surrounding
rock is the absorption of it by the liquid dolerite, but this
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INTRUSIVE DOLERITES AND ALLIED ROCKS 269
is a quite untenable supposition on any but a very small
scale, which would not explain the phenomena. The
dolerites are so uniform throughout the Colony, and
inclusions that might be looked upon as remnants of the
dissolved sedimentary rocks are so rare, that the molten
rock cannot have dissolved the beds it displaces to any
considerable extent.
In the higher parts of the Eastern Province thick
dykes of dolerite sometimes form more or less circular
outcrops. Mr. Dunn found several of these annular
dykes hundreds of feet in width enclosing tracts of
country some miles in diameter between Windvogel
Berg and Queenstown. Mr. Schwarz describes a horse-
shoe shaped dyke in Matatiele, and Mr. du Toit found
a somewhat irregularly shaped closed dyke round Cala ;
the latter dyke coincides in position with a ring-shaped
fault, the rock inside the ring has been lifted up re-
latively to that outside. A similar feature exists at
Indwe.
As a whole the dolerites are of remarkably uniform
composition. The constituent that is most variable in
amount is olivine. In addition to the plagioclase, augite,
olivine and iron ores that form the bulk of the dolerite,
biotite is almost always present, sometimes in consider-
able quantity, and original hornblende is not seldom met
with either independently or in close connection with
the augite. The structure varies in one and the same .
sheet ; the bulk of a thick sheet has an ophitic structure,
that is the plagioclase crystals are to a greater or less
extent enclosed by the augite, but near the edge of the
sheet the augite is granular or forms rather imperfect
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270 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
crystals. In thin dykes and sheets the structure is
distinctly porphyritic, crystals of olivine, angite and
plagioclase lie in a fine-grained matrix of augite grains
and very small plagioclase crystals, often with a con-
siderable amount of brown glass. Occasionally" an
almost pure glass, tachylite, is found at the contact
of a sheet or dyke with the surrounding rocks or in the
form of thin dykes traversing the dolerite or the sedi-
mentary rocks. Tachylite is a black substance with a
glassy appearance ; it looks not unlike bright bitu-
minous coal, for which it has often been mistaken in
this country. The greater specific gravity and hardness
of the tachylite, however, distinguish it at once from
coal. Porphyritic crystals of augite and plagioclase
may occur in the tachylite, and the glass is sometimes
converted into an opaque stony material along joints.
Both the tachylite and the glassy dykes and sheets owe
their peculiarities to rapid cooling. The thick sheets of
dolerite naturally took a longer time in cooling than
the smaller bodies of molten rock, and consequently the
minerals were able to develop more thoroughly in them
than in the latter, so the rock as we see it now is
coarsely crystalline in the one case and finely crystaUine
or glassy in the other. The fact that the well-formed
crystals of olivine that are often abundsknt in the coarse
dolerites and absent from the fine-grained and glassy
dykes points to the fact that the molten rock which
forms the latter has been squeezed out of a partly con-
solidated dolerite in which the large olivine crystals
were retained by the partly formed plagioclase and
augite.
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INTRUSIVE DOLERITES AND ALLIED ROCKS 271
The questions of the origin of the dolerite intrusions
and of the means whereby they were able to force their
way between and through the sedimentary rocks are at
present beyond our knowledge. The dolerites are quite
different in nature from the great intrusions of granite
and gneiss that invaded the Pre-Cape rocks, the sources
of which were presumably exhausted before the deposi-
tion of the Table Mountain sandstone. The close con-
nection of the dolerites in East Griqualand with the vol-
canic group at the top of the Stormberg series, in spite of
the absence of brown mica and hornblende from the lavas
and dykes of Matatiele ^ seems to indicate a common
origin of the two groups of rock ; the one consolidated
below ground and the other at the surface. Some of the
dolerites were certainly intruded after the formation of
the Stormberg volcanic and sedimentary rocks, for quite
typical members of the intrusions traverse those beds ;
it is not assuming too much to suppose that the whole
of the dolerite sheets and dykes of the Karroo region
belong to one period of igneous activity, so that the
later limit to their age is fixed by the occurrence of
boulders derived from thick sheets in the Embotyi con-
glomerate of the Pondoland coast, probably of Upper
Cretaceous age. The Uitenhage conglomerates have
hitherto been found only at a considerable distance from
dolerite outcrops, so the absence of boulders of that
rock from those conglomerates throws no light on the
matter. At present it is uncertain whether the intru-
sions ceased with the volcanic activity of the latter part
1 Schwarz, Oeal, Comrn. (02), p. 66.
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272 GEOLOGY OP CAPE COIX)NY
of the Stormberg period or whether they continued after
that period, bat the evidence proves that some great
intrusions took place after the Stormberg sedimentaries
were deposited and before the formation of the Embotyi
conglomerates.
During the Stormberg period there must have been an
enormous mass of basic rock material lying at an un-
known depth beneath the surface of the South African
area ready to burst its bonds and rise towards the sur*
face when favourable conditions prevailed. What those
conditions were is at present a subject for speculation
rather than for statement. It may be noted in passing
that the mountain building in the south and south-west
had probably then reached or passed its maximum, and
that the great forces exerted in that process cannot bui^
have influenced the fluid or potentially fluid rock magma.
The remarkable freedom from disturbance of the sedi-
mentary beds near even the larger sheets and dykes
gives one the impression that the igneous rock made its
way along channels that were ready to receive it rather
than forced a passage through resisting rock. The im-
mense areas over which some of the sheets extend with-
out very great variation in thickness — the lowest sheet
in Calvinia, for instance, certainly extends over an area
of 3,000 square miles and probably a third more ^— prove
that the rock must have been in a very fluid condition,
and that the enclosing sedimentary beds offered but httle
resistance to its progress.
It is difficult to form a satisfactory estimate of the
1 0$ol Comm. (00), p. 60.
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INTRUSIVE DOLERITES AND ALLIED ROCKS 273
thickness of the rock overlying any particular sheet at
the time of its intrusion, but a minimum estimate can
be made in the case of the lowest Calvinia sheet, which
lies near the top of the Dwyka series in the middle por-
tion of its outcrop. It was certainly injected at a time
when the Roggeveld escarpment was not in existence
and the rocks now exposed on that escarpment stretched
far to the west of their present position. These beds are
over 2,000 feet thick, and to this must be added the un-
known thickness of the Beaufort and possibly higher
beds that have been removed by denudation since that
part of the country was exposed to the air. Where the
uppermost sedimentary rocks of the Karroo formation
are still preserved, as in the Stormberg region, the diffi-
culty of estimating the thickness of the cover at the time
of the intrusion is little less than in the country further
west, on account of the uncertainty as to the original
thickness of the volcanic group and of the exact
period of the intrusion during or after the volcanic
outburst.
The position of the greatest total thickness of dolerite
is at present unknown. At places on the Nieuweveld ^
escarpment there is as much as 800 feet of dolerite in a
total of about 3,000 feet of rock exposed in an almost
vertical section, and similar proportions of dolerite to
sedimentary rock have been noticed on the Roggeveld
cliffs. In a deep bore hole at De Aar over 400 feet of
dolerite were traversed within 1,600 feet from the surface ;
in the Transkei an even greater proportion of igneous to
sedimentary rocks is present in the steep banks of thQ
Kei and some other rivers, but the total depth of these
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274 aEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
sections is rarely over 1,000 feet. The inclination of the
sheets exposed south of the main watershed of the
Colony is, on the whole, towards the watershed, but a
similar relation has not been made out in the case of
the northern sheets, which are not well enough known
to allow of a general statement being made as to their
behaviour.
The emergence of the Karroo formation from the
central portion of the basin probably took place about
the close of the Stormberg period or a little earlier ;
this emergence seems to have given rise to the east-
north-east watershed that is now the main water-parting
in the Colony. The intrusion of the dolerite sheets may
have added to the height of the surface by arching it
upwards, but to what extent cannot yet be decided.
At the contact of the dolerite sheets and dykes with
the sedimentary rocks there is generally a noticeable
hardening of the latter through a distance varying with
the thickness or width of the intrusion.
In the case of sandstones the contact rock is hard and
splintery like a quartzite, but, excepting epidote, new min-
erals seem rarely to be formed ; the rock becomes harder
by the cementing together of the constituent grains by
quartz. The epidote gives the green colour to the con-
tents of the small cavities found rather abundantly in
argillaceous sandstones and mudstones which are trav-
ersed by dolerite. Epidote is a silicate of alumina and
lime, and is only formed in those sandstones that were
originally calcareous. The presence of the amygdale-like
bodies of epidote and quartz in the impure argillaceous
rocks near dolerite is very characteristic, and has been
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INTRUSIVE DOLERITES AND ALLIED ROCKS 275
noted in many districts between Galvinia and the Natal
border. Cavities with remarkably smooth surfaces, iden-
tical in appearance with the steam-holes in lavas, were
formed probably by the conversion of the water held in
the then soft sediments into steam, and these spaces
were subsequently partially filled by the epidote and
other minerals formed by heated water vapour acting
on the constituents of the surrounding sediments. The
calcareous concretions in the shales are sometimes con-
verted into epidote, but the lime-silicate wollastonite has
not been noticed in the zone of altered rocks near the
dolerite. Shales and mudstones are often changed into
hornstone, a hard almost glassy-looking rock, which
breaks with a conchoid al fracture ; the typical hornstone
is only a few inches thick, and passes gradually into the
usual type of rock within about two feet of the dolerite.
The hardening effect of the dolerite often extends much
farther than any other change in character. A very
marked example of this is shown in Plate XVI., a view
of the junction of a thick dolerite sheet with the Dwyka
conglomerate on the farm Dwas Douw in the Doom
Eiver Valley, Galvinia. The rough-looking rock in
the upper part of the cliflf is the dolerite, and the well-
defined columnar rock, forming a vertical krantz fifteen
feet high, is the conglomerate. The lower end of the
columnar layer is sharply marked, and below it the
conglomerate is the usual sandy mudstone containing
numerous boulders of many varieties of rocks. The
photograph was taken at too great a distance from the
krantz to allow the boulders exposed on the joint faces
to be seen. The joints that divide the conglomerate into
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276 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
such regular columns traverse boulders and matrix alike,
without deviation.
The larger intrusive sheets of dolerite frequently show
a rough columnar structure. Many examples of this
can be seen in the sheets which crown the Nieuweveld
escarpment in Beaufort West. The sill at the top of
Tafel Berg, in Beaufort West, is divided up into columns
over 300 feet in length, and from ten to thirty feet in
diameter, but they do not traverse the whole thickness
of the sill (400 feet).
The country occupied by the dolerite sheets is, as a
rule, more fertile than that formed by the sedimentary
rocks alone, for the dolerite contains valuable food
materials for plants which are set free during the slow
decomposition of the rock by the action of the weather
and the damp soil. It is only in the eastern portion of
the Colony that full advantage can be taken of the valu-
able soils derived from the dolerite, for large areas of
that rock are there covered with fairly deep soil, and
unweathered lumps of dolerite are rarely met with in
the soil itself. In the arid central and western districts
the soil cannot accumulate rapidly enough to clothe the
unweathered rock, for it is not held together sufficiently
by grass and other plants to prevent its being washed
away by the occasional heavy rains. In the place of the
extensive, rich grass-covered plateaux of the east, we
find extremely rocky ground sparsely dotted over with
small bushes, and yielding grass only for short periods
after rain. On Plate XVII. is reproduced a photograph of
typical dolerite country behind the Nieuweveld escarp-
ment. The innimierable blocks of stone are pieces of
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INTRUSIVE nOLERlTES AND ALLIED ROCKS 277
Plate XVI. — Columnar structure in Dwyka conglomerate produced
by the overlving sheet of dolerite. The slope below the columnar rock '
is unaltered conglomerate. The columns are 15 feet high. Dwaa
Douw, Calvinia.
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i278 GEOLOGY OF OAtE COLONY
dolerite with a very thin crust of weathered rock ; the
blocks are mostly subangular at this spot, but they are
often well rounded owing to the strong tendency to
spheroidal weathering that is characteristic of the doler-
ite. Thousands of square miles in the Upper Karroo
are covered with boulders like the foreground in Plate
XVII., and the ground is exceedingly troublesome to
traverse, either on foot or on horseback, unless one rides
a horse born and bred in its neighbourhood.
The colour of the dolerite hills is usually dull red, but
extraordinarily vivid crimson and yellow patches are
often met with which are due to a hchen growing on
the weathered crust of the rock. In certain localities,
particularly the krantzes of the dolerite-capped hills in
the southern part of the Upper Karroo, the dolerite
assumes a blood-red tint when the sun is near the
horizon, but this gives place to a duller colour when
the sun stands higher.
The most exposed surfaces of large dolerite boulders
in the drier regions become coated with a very thin
film of deep brown or black material which has often
a well-polished appearance. This thin coat seems to be
chiefly composed of hydrated oxides of iron derived from
the rock immediately beneath it. Dolerite is not the
only rock that becomes covered with this dark and shiny
film in the dry parts of the Colony. The harder and
fine grained portions of the Karroo sandstones behave
in the same way, and beyond the limit of the Karroo
basin the hard Pre-Cape rocks, both of sedimentary
and igneous origin, are often seen to be blackened and
polished after long exposure. The implements fash-
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INTRUSIVE DOLERITES AND ALLIED ROCKS 279
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280 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
ioned from the jaspery rocks of the Griqua Town
beds by Bushmen or Hottentots, which may now be
picked up on the surface in Prieska and to the north
of the Orange Eiver, usually have their upper surfaces
covered with a polished film. It is not known how
long a freshly broken rock must be exposed to the sun
and air before assuming this character.
The dolerites do not seem to contain any minerals
of sufficient value to attract the attention of miners.
Copper pyrites is present in small quantities at some
localities, and galena fills some very narrow veins in
the Eoggeveld sheets, but neither of these has been
found in considerable quantity. Dolerite is very dur-
able, but it is difficult to work and unsuitable in colour
for most building purposes. It is excellent stone for
road metal, but its very toughness seems to prevent
its general use, for it is difficult to break up. Where
roads can be made with the help of heavy rollers it
is a very good stone to use.
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CHAPTER VIII.
THE CRETACEOUS SYSTEM.
The Cretaceous rocks in the Colony are divided into
two main groups, the Uitenhage series and the Pondo-
land Cretaceous series. The two groups have not been
found in the same district ; their relative age is deter-
mined on the evidence of fossils alone. They both
consist of rocks formed near a shore line, and at the
base of each group there is a considerable thickness of
coarse conglomerate. The Uitenhage beds cover rather
wide areas in the folded belt between the Karroo and
the coast, resting unconformably upon rocks of all ages
between the Pre-Cape and the Ecca beds. The Pondo-
land series, on the other hand, occupies two narrow
strips on the coast, faulted down against older rocks.
The south-western strip is seen to rest unconformably
upon beds that probably belong to the Ecca series.
Kocks of the same age as the Pondoland beds are found
in Natal and Zululand.
The Uitenhage Series.
In the typical area, the valleys of the rivers flowing
into Algoa Bay, this series has been subdivided into the
following groups : — ^
1 This classification is substantially that of the late Dr. W. G.
Atherstone.
281
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282 GEOLOGY OP CAPE COLONY
Sunday's River beds - ClayB, ahales and sandy limestoneB with
marine fossils.
Wood beds - - Yellow sands, shales and limestones with
a few marine shells and numerous*
plants.
Enon beds - - - Sandstones, marls and conglomerates.
The Enon beds are found at the base of the series
throughout the district, but the thickness and nature of
the rock differ very much within rather short .distances.
In the upper part of the Zwartkops River the Enon
beds attain a very considerable thickness, as is also the
case near Enon ; but near Blue Cliflf Station the con-
glomerate lying between the sandy and argillaceous
rocks of the Uitenhage series, and the surface of the
older rocks below, the Bokkeveld beds in this case, is at
most only a few feet thick, and at places it is entirely
absent.
The Enon beds are here taken to include the Zwart-
kops sandstone and variegated marls of Atherstone's
classification,^ for the conglomerates are so intimately
connected with rocks agreeing with Atherstone's de-
scription of these two subdivisions that it is convenient
to group the three together. There is indeed much
reason to believe that the three subdivisions of the
Uitenhage series are to be regarded more as three kinds
of deposit formed under different circumstances, but
at about the same time, than as successive groups of
deposits. In any one spot, such for example as Wolve
Kraal on the Sunday's River, the marine Sunday's
River beds may be underlain by the Wood beds and
^ Atherstone (57).
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tfifi CRETACEOUS SYSTEM 283
those again by fehe Enon, but there is evidence that
even in the Uitenhage area rocks like the Enon beds
were formed during the deposition of some of the Sun-
day's Eiver beds. On the hill west of the native loca-
tion at Uitenhage there is a small thickness of grey
shale and limestone, containing marine fossils, inter-
bedded with red sands and gravels belonging to the
Enon type, although to the east of Uitenhage these
marine strata are not found interbedded with con-
glomerates or sands of the Enon type. The sands
and pebble beds west of the native location at Uiten-
hage lie against a rather steeply inclined slope
of sandstone and quartzite belonging to the Table
Mountain series, evidently the shore during a certain
stage of the deposition of these rocks. The sands and
conglomerates are the deposits formed near the shore,
or in most cases probably in steep-sided inlets, drowned
valleys in fact, which bordered the sea in which the
Sunday's River beds were laid down. The marine beds
intercalated with the red beds near the location repre-
sent a period of extension or encroachment of the sea
on the land-locked inlet in which the red beds were
formed.
In the Uitenhage district, then, we find that the
Enon beds cannot be regarded as merely the earlier
deposits of the Uitenhage period. As far as our know-
ledge goes they certainly were the earliest of these
deposits, but their formation continued during the lay-
ing down of the marine clays and limestones of the
Sunday's Eiver beds along the shores of the sea in
which the latter were deposited. In the country farther
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284 GEOLOGY OP CAPE COLONY
west there is corroborative evidence of this, as we shall
see later.
Fragments of wood with a charred appearance, very
different from the petrified wood in the Wood beds,
occur frequently in the Enon beds, and up to the
present time these are almost the only organic remains
known from the typical Enon beds in the Uitenhage
area.
At Enon, which is situated in a kloof under the
Zuurbergen, the conglomerate forms high hills which
are curiously carved into crags and caves by the action
of the weather on the conglomerate, harder in some
places than others. The pebbles, usually about three
inches in length and well rounded, were evidently
chiefly derived from the Zuurberg quartzites (of Witte-
berg age). The matrix in which the pebbles lie is
reddish and sandy.
In the upper part of the Zwartkops Valley the
conglomerates are very thick, over 1,000 feet, and the
same is the case at Hankey in the Gamtoo's Valley.
They are overlain as a whole by the beds called Zwart-
kops sandstone and variegated marls by Atherstone,
but conglomerate bands are not infrequent in these
higher beds. On the right bank of the Zwartkops
Kiver below Uitenhage the red clays are worked for
brick and tile making. The thickness of conglomerate
below these clays and sands is very slight to the south
of Uitenhage, where the Humansdorp Eoad leaves the
Zwartkops Valley, but the clays and sands contain thin
beds of conglomerate. In the clay pits belonging to the
Port Elizabeth Brick and Tile Company near Despatch
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THE CRETACEOUS SYSTEM 285
Station some bones have recently been found, but they
have not been determined.^
In the Bezuidenhout's River Valley from a short
distance above Blue Cliff Station to a point some
four miles above the railway bridge, the rocks lying
below the Wood beds are well exposed at intervals
along the river banks. They are reddish yellow sands,
red clays and thin sandstones, with occasional pebble
beds. Conglomerates Uke those of Enon are entirely
absent from this valley. Near the fortieth milestone
on the railway between Uitenhage and Blue Cliff,
greenish sandstones very like some that occur in the
Bezuidenhout's Valley, lie against slates belonging to
the Bokkeveld series, without the intervention of any
conglomerate.
The Wood beds are found overlying the Enon in the
northern part of the area, and are especially well seen
between Blue Cliff Station and the Witte River below
Enon. The valley of the Bezuidenhout's River below
Blue Cliff hes entirely in the Wood beds, and both
above and below its confluence with the Sunday's
River the rocks are well exposed in the bed of the
latter river. The total thickness of the Wood beds in
this locality may be as much as 1,000 feet. They
consist of various sediments, sands, clays, hard lime-
stones and sandstones, and well-laminated shales.
The base of the Wood beds in this valley is taken
to be a loose yellow sandstone, seen in a cliff section
' Since the above was written Dr. R. Broom has seen these bones,
and he informs me that they belong to Dinosaurians, reptiles that
were previously unknown from the Uitenhage formation.
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286 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
above Blue Cliflf Station. Farther down the valley
many large pieces of tree-trunks^ one of which is
twenty-five feet in length, are preserved in a clayey
sandstone. These are probably the trunks of conifers,
but no leaves or other parts of the trees have been
found with them. Some of the wood evidently lay for
some time in the water, for the shells of a small boring
mollusc, Gastrochcma dominiccUis, are found in it in con-
siderable numbers. The only other animal remains
discovered in these sandstones are oyster shells, and
some fragile fragments of large bones, too imperfect
to be named. In some hard limestone bands inter-
calated with the upper part of the sandstones there
are numbers of shells of Psammobia atherstonei. Curi-
ously twisted stems, which may have belonged to a
cycad, occur in the upper part of the sandstones, as
well as stems of Benstedtia.
The chief interest of the Wood beds lies in the well-
preserved leaves and other parts of plants that are
preserved in the bluish-grey sandy mudstones, clays,
and thin limestones between Paltje's Kraal (on Bezui-
denhout's Eiver) and the lower portion of the Witte
River, including the bed of the Sunday's Eiver near
the Dunbrody Mission Station.^ Some of these beds
are crowded with the broad fronds of Zamites, a cycad
of which several species have been found ; they are
accompanied by other cycads, conifers and ferns.^
^ Dunbrody is the Geelhoutboom of the Divisional maps, a name
which is used by Atherstone, Tate and other writers.
3 All the plants mentioned in this chapter are named according to
Mr. Seward's determinations published in the Annals of the South
African Muaeum^ vol. iv., part 1, 1903. See also Tate (67).
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THE CRETACEOUS SYSTEM 287
The following is a list of the plants hitherto found in
these beds : —
Ferns —
Onychiopsis manJtdlij Brongn.
dadofhUhis hrowniana^ Dunk.
„ dentictUata, Brongn., forma atherstonei (found also
at Herbertadale).
Sphenopteris fittoniy Sew.
„ sp.
Taniopterisj sp. (found also at Herbertadale).
Oycads —
Zamites reda^ Tate.
,, morrim, Tate.
,, africanOy Tate.
„ rvhidgeit Tate.
Cfycadokpis jenhinsiana, Tate.
Benttedtia, sp.
Carpolithes, sp.
Conifers —
Aravmrites rogersi, Sew.
TaxUes, sp.
Brachyphyllumf sp.
Gonites, sp.
Coniferous wood.
The lowest fossiliferous beds seen on the Witte Eiver
contain Onychiopsis mantelli, but the beds containing
coniferous wood and reptilian bones in the Bezuiden-
hout's Eiver are probably lower than these. A section
taken in an approximately north-east direction along
the Bezuidenhout's and Witte Eivers from one side of
the Uitenhage deposits to the other is by no means
similar towards each end, owing to the much greater
development of the conglomerates along the Zuurbergen.
The plant bearing beds pass upwards into bluish
rocks containing marine fossils, but the whole of the
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288 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
passage beds is not exposed along the Sunday's Biver ;
the lowest marine fossils above the Dunbrody plant beds
are Ostreay Psammobia atherstoneiy Turbo bainiy ActcBonina
atherstonei, Pecten, and OastrochcBna dominicalis in the fossil
wood.
ZamiUi recta. Two-thirds natural size.
FiQ. 22.— Plant from the Uitenhage series (Wood beds) (from Seward).
The Uitenhage beds in the Sunday's Eiver Valley and
adjoining country form a wide synclinal trough lying
nearly north-west, but its axis sinks to the south-east,
so that higher and higher beds are met with in that
direction. There is also undoubtedly a greater develop-
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THE CRETACEOUS SYSTEM 289
ment of the marine beds (Sunday's River beds) as com-
pared with the conglomerates and sands (Enon and
Wood beds) in the same direction, so that the sinking
of the synclinal axis towards the south-east appears to
OnychiopsU manteUi, Half natural size,
Fia. 23. — Plant from the Uitenhage series (Wood beds) (from Seward).
be greater than it really is, for the distribution of the
different subdivisions of the series is the chief evidence
of the nature of the fold into which the rocks have
been thrown. The dips are generally low, on the left
.(or north-east) side of the Sunday's River they are
19
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2Q0 ghology o^ cape colony
inclined towards the south-west, and on the right towards
the north-east.
The typical marine Sunday's Eiver beds are exposed
in the cliflfs on the banks of that river below Wolve
Kraal, in the Zwartkops Valley below Uitenhage, near
the Coega Eiver, and at some other places such as the
Grass Kidge east of the town of Uitenhage, the Bethels-
dorp Salt Pan and the Government Salt Pan.^
The whole area has not yet been worked out, and
Cladophlehis bromniami. Half natural size.
Fig. 24. — Plant from the Uitenhage series (Wood beds) (from Seward).
very little is known of the distribution of the fossils in
various parts of the marine beds. The lowest marine
beds visible near the Zwartkops Eiver are clays with
badly preserved shells of Nnculay Pecten, Dentalium and
other marine moUusca ; these beds are exposed in a
clay-pit near the north end of the Eawson Bridge, the
bridge over the Zwartkops Eiver. Stow mentioned some
* This locality, which is described by Atherstone (57) and Stow
(71), is the pan now worked by the Port Elizabeth Salt Company,
situated high above the Zwartkops Biver to the north of the escarpment
on the left bank between Cuyler Manor and Red House.
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THE CRETACEOUS SYSTEM 291
clay beds near the Salt Vlei, Port Elizabeth, containing
Zamites and other plants associated with marine shells ;
these rocks probably belong to the upper part of the
Wood beds, like those at Dunbrody, and may be older
'6
Fio. 25. — Fossils from the Uitenhage series (Sunday's River beds).
1. Aitarte herzogi
2. Trigonia verUricosa. \ All natural size.
3. Pkoladomya dominiealis. )
than the lowest marine clays in the Zwartkops Valley.
The bulk of the marine beds consist of clays, sandy
shales, inconstant sandstones, and limestones usually
bluish-grey when freshly exposed, but weathering with
■ 19*
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292 GEOLCK^Y OF CAPE COLONY
yellow and brown coloured surfaces. The limestones
are often crowded with shells, and some layers in the
shales are composed almost entirely of the shells of
Exogyra imbricata, and others consist largely of Trigonia
ventricosa shells. Parts of the skeleton of a reptile re-
lated to Plesiosaurus have been obtained from the clifiCs
above Picnic Bush.
In the Sunday's Eiver Valley below Addo Station
higher marine beds seem to be exposed than are seen
anywhere in the Zwartkops Valley. They have yielded
a large number of fossils, amongst which Crioceras
spinosissimum and Hamites africanus are the most in-
teresting.^
The following is a list of the more important fossils
from the Sunday's River beds, the letters S and Z
placed after the names indicate their occurrence in the
Sunday's River and Zwartkops Valleys respectively : —
Principal Invkrtrbrata from the Uitenhaor (Marine) Beds.
Cephalopods —
JUtculiteSj sp. Z
Belemnites africanus^ Tate S
Orioceras spifumssimum (Hausmann), Neumayr - - S
Hamites africanus^ Tate S
OlcQstephanm {Attieria) atherstoriei, Sharpe, sp. - - S Z
,, „ bainiy Sharpe, 8p. - - - S
*^ Amriumites " ttubanceps, Tate (affinities doubtful) - S
Qasteropods —
AdcBonhia jeiikirmancL, Tate S
,, atherstomiy Sharpe S Z
A laria coro7Uitaj Tate Z
1 See Krauss (51), Tate (67), Holub and Neumayr (82), Bain (56)
(appendix by Sharpe).
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THE CRETACEOUS SYSTEM 293
Gaateropods— cowh'nM^d—
Monodonta hausmanni, Neumayr
Natica athergtofiei, Sharpe Z
Neritopsis ? turbinataf Sharpe S
Patella caperata, Tate S
Trochus baini, Sharpe ^
Turbo aiherdmiei, Sharpe Z
„ batni, Sharpe SZ
Lamellibranohs —
Astarte herzogij Groldfuiis, sp. Z
„ l(»igland8ianay Tate Z
„ pinchiniana, Tate S
Avicala batni, Sharpe - Z
Gardita nuculoides, Tate S
Geromya papyra^cea, Sharpo - - - - - Z
Corbida ? roddanay Tate Z
Ciicullcea joneti, Tate Z
„ kratissij Tate S Z
Cyprina boreh-erdsi, Tate Z
,, mguloattf Sharpe S
Exogyra jonmana, Tate Z
„ imbricata, Krauas S Z
Gastrochcena dominicalisj Sharpe - - - - S
Gervillia dentata, Erausa S
Lima negUcUiy Tate S
„ obliquimma, Tate S
Lithodomus stovnanus, Tate S
Modtola atherstonei, Sharpe Z
„ bainif Sharpe S
,, rubidgei, Tate S
Mytihis jonesi, Tate S
ParaUelodon atherstonei^ Sharpe, sp. - - - - S
Pecten projectuSj Tate S Z
„ rubidgeanm, Tate S
Perna atherstonei, Sharpe SZ
Pholadomya doviinicalis, Sharpe - - - - S
Pinna atJierstonei, Sharpo S Z
Pla^unjypsis imhricaia, Tate S
,, svhjurensisy Tate Z
„ undulata^ Tate S
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294 (JEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
Lamellibranchs — continued —
Pl&iiromya baini, Shorpe, sp. S
„ lutraria, Erauas, sp. - - - - Z
Psammobia atherdoneif Sharpe S
Ptychomya complicata, Tate, sp. - - - - 8
Seehachia hronniy Krauss, sp. Z
Trapezium nivenianum, Tate, sp. - - - - S
Trigonia hertzogij Goldfuss, sp. - - - - S Z
,, tatei, Neumayr, S
,, vauj Sharpe S Z
„ ventricomy Krauss, sp. - - - - Z
,, conocardiiformisj Krauss, sp. - - - S Z
Polyzoan —
Berenicea antipodum, Tate S
Worm tubes —
Serpula (several species) SZ
Echinid—
Cidaris pustulifera^ Tate Z
Coral—
hastrceaj sp. Z
The outliers of the Uitenhage series to the west of
the division of that name do not contain any deposits
similar to the Sunday's Biver beds so far as is known
at present.
In the Gamtoos Biver Valley (Humansdorp) there
are conglomerates and sandstones like those of Enon
and the Zwartkops Biver.
In Knysna there are three basin-like areas of quart-
zites, sandstones, conglomerates and clay, belonging
to the Uitenhage series; the pebbles are mostly of
quartzite derived from the neighbouring hills and
mountains made of the Table Mountain series. They
occupy deep valleys cut out of the Cape formation,
and are themselves cut through by the coast-line.
Near the village of Knysna these beds are over 600
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THE CRETACEOUS SYSTEM 296
feet thick; the boulders in the conglomerate are often
of large size, in places they average a foot in diameter.
Along the Bitou Biver there is a great mass of con-
glomerates and loose sandy beds with pockets of lig-
nite. The conglomeratic beds in the Bitou basin are
peculiar in that the included fragments of rock are
angular instead of being well rounded as is usually the
case with the pebbles in the Uitenhage conglomerates.
The third basin is in the valley of the Pisang Kiver;
the beds in it are less conglomeratic and more sandy
and clayey than those of the other two areas, and some
of the beds are quartzitic owing to the deposition of
silica between the grains of the rock Near Seal Point
casts of Trigonia conocardiiformis have been found in the
sandstones and conglomerates. This is the only marine
fossil yet found in the conglomerates of the Enon type,
but as it is a very characteristic member of the fauna
of the Sunday's Eiver beds its occurrence is of great
interest. It is evident that the water in which the
Pisang Eiver beds were deposited must have been salt,
or at least so near the sea that the shells of the dead
bivalves could be washed back into it by strong tides.
But the absence of marine fossils from the bulk of
the Knysna conglomerates and sandstones can onl^ be
interpreted on the supposition that the rocks were laid
down in water sufficiently far removed from arms of
the sea to be free of marine inhabitants.
The occurrence, which has been already mentioned,
of a bed of marine fossils between the red gravels and
sandstones north-west of Uitenhage, proves that the sea
^t one time invaded the non-marine area, and the
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296 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
Trigonia of the Pisang Biver beds points in the same
direction. The Trigonia of Pisang River proves also
that these rocks were formed at about the same time
as the Sunday's Biver beds; whether the latter ever
spread far to the west of their present limits must
remain an open question, but there can be no doubt
that the conglomerates and sands of the Enon type
were being laid down in the west while the sea occupied
the position of the lower part of the present Sunday's
Biver Valley.
Still farther west, in the divisions of Mossel Bay,
Biversdale, Bobertson, Swellendam and Worcester there
are large areas of conglomerates, sandstones, shales and
mudstones, resembling to some extent the Enon beds
but containing some varieties of sediments not met with
in the Uitenhage Division; and again in the country
between the Langebergen and the Zwartebergen, in the
divisions of Willowmore, Uniondale and Oudtshoom,
there are large areas of similar rocks that in spite of the
absence of fossils must be relegated to the Uitenhage
beds.
All these masses of rock occur in a more or less
similar manner; they occupy basins partly cut out of
the older rocks, but in part due to earth movements
subsequent to the Uitenhage period. They extend far
below the present level of the rivers traversing them,
and are generally elongated in an east and west direc-
tion, roughly parallel to the general strike of the older
rocks.
The Mossel Bay area is perhaps the most interesting
of these patches of Uitenhage beds, for it alone has
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THE CRETACEOIJS SYSTEM 297
yielded fossils that can be compared with those of the
Uitenhage district. It is rather irregular in shape, about
fifty miles long from east to west, and at the most
fifteen miles wide. The northern boundary is formed by
the Langebergen, and the southern in part by the coast
between Mossel Bay and Great Brak Eiver, and, west
of Mossel Bay, by the Bokkeveld and Table Mountain
series. North of Mossel Bay the George granite and
the highly altered Malmesbury beds project far into the
area of Uitenhage beds, dividing its eastern end into
two tongues which join west of the main road to Robin-
son's Pass. The Uitenhage beds thus rest upon granite,
Malmesbury beds. Table Mountain sandstone, Bokkeveld
and Witteberg beds at different places; it has been noticed
that, to a certain extent, the pebbles and boulders, for the
included blocks reach a length of more than eighteen inches
in the conglomerates, came from the rocks that are close
at hand rather than from those forming the mountains.
Thus in the Ruitersbosch Valley there is a large propor-
tion of granite boulders in the conglomerates which are
well exposed round the western end of the George granite.
Near Bottle's Kop, that curiously shaped hill of quartz-
ite and quartz schist (probably belonging to the Table
Mountain series), which is so conspicuous to the north
of the Mossel Bay-George road, the conglomerate con-
tains many fragments of the quartzitic rock. Along
Weyer's Eiver, and generally along the western border
of the conglomerate, pebbles derived from the Bokkeveld
beds are very abundant. At Cape St. Blaize the con-
glomerate is represented only by a very thin layer of
breccia, composed of angular fragments pf the upder^
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298 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
lying Table Mountain sandstone. Along the northern
boundary Table Mountain sandstone pebbles are by far
the most abundant, and this is also the case in the con-
glomerates lying at a considerable distance above the
base of the Uitenhage beds, as at Honig Klip Kloof,
where there are magnificent sections through a coarse,
white conglomerate, composed almost entirely of pebbles
and boulders of Table Mountain sandstone and quartz-
ite ; the Honig Klip Kloof conglomerates are interbedded
with pale, sandy beds, and probably form about a half
of the whole thickness, some 500 feet, exposed along the
valley. The pebbles in the conglomerates are usually
very well rounded ; they must have been rolled about
for a long time and reduced to their present form before
being buried in the sandy or muddy matrix of the rock.
The beds of conglomerate are by no means confined
to the base of the series ; they seem to occur at inter-
vals throughout the whole thickness of rock, and are
separated by beds of shales, sands or mudstones.
The maximum thickness of the Uitenhage beds in
Mossel Bay is rather considerable. They lie compara-
tively undisturbed, for the angles of dip are low ; they
certainly descend below sea level in places, and the bed
of the Gouritz Biver, both just below the gorge through
the Langebergen and to the north of Eoode Hoogte lies
in sandstone and pebble beds of this series ; they form
practically the whole of the hills between Herbertsdale
and the watershed north of the Stink River. The
tops of these hills are mostly formed by some twenty feet
or less of the surface deposits resting unconformably
upon the Uitenhage rocks, but as the average height
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THE CRETACEOUS SYSTEM 299
of the hills is over 1,000 feet the greatest thickness of
the Uitenhage beds is probably rather over that amount.
At a spot about three miles east of the village of
Herbertsdale there are some shales containing plant
remains. Three species have been recognised amongst
them, Cladophlebis denticulata forma atherstonei, which
also occurs at Dunbrody in the Wood beds, Tcmiopteris,
also found at Dunbrody, and Taocites. The shales are
very soft and easily weathered, so that the exposures
are very few. The Herbertsdale outcrop has been
opened up for prospecting purposes owing to the pres-
ence of small fragments of black lignite, which led to
the expectation of a workable deposit of coal. No such
reward met the searchers, but their work furnished the
means of obtaining the three species of plants mentioned
above. In a fairly well watered country like the Mossel
Bay Division soft shales are usually covered up by soil
and vegetation, and in the absence of quarries, pits and
cuttings, it is extremely difficult to get out any fossils
there may be in the rock. Although the Herbertsdale
plants are almost the only ones yet found west of the
Uitenhage district there must be many more awaiting
discovery, and any further specimens will be of very
great interest.
Many casts of parts of stems have been found in the
hard sandstone of Cape St. Blaize, but hitherto none of
them has been determined.
The underlying surface of the Cape formation and
pre-Cape rocks is probably very uneven. In the Lang
Touw Valley below Herbertsdale some sections are
exposed, showing the conglomerates and sands of tb^
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300 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
Uitenhage beds resting against a steep almost cliff-like
face of Bokkeveld beds, the north slope of an old valley
running east and west. The west end of the George
granite is a high ridge reaching a height of perhaps
1,000 feet above the lowest visible portion of the con-
glomerates in the Brandwacht Valley to the south, and
a less though still considerable height above the con-
glomerates between it and the Langebergen.
The sandstones of Cape St. Blaize, lying horizontally
and unconformably upon the Table Mountain series,
which dips steeply southwards, are much harder than
the sandy beds of the Uitenhage series usually are, but
not far to the west along the coast the beds are much
softer, very like the sandy clays that occur north-east of
Heidelberg. The Cape St. Blaize rocks form a narrow
outlier lying east and west and are separated by about
four miles of rough country of Table Mountain sand-
stone from the large area of Uitenhage beds, which are
exposed at sea level near Hartenbosch.
The outlier of Uitenhage beds upon which the village
of Heidelberg is built is about thirty miles long from
east to west, and eight wide at its broadest part near
the west end. It stretches from the west side of the
Slang Kiver in Swellendam to Assegaai Bosch in Kivers-
dale, and both the Duivenhoek*s and Kaffir KuiKs Biver
traverse it without exposing the underlying rocks. The
total thickness of the beds must be considerably over
1,000 feet, for they have a variable and low but on the
whole northerly dip throughout, although owing to
want of outcrops it is impossible at present to state
how far the observed dips are due to subsequent move-
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THE CRETAGEOIIS SY8TEM 301
ments and to what extent they are original features.
The conglomerates and sands may well have accnmu-
lated at moderate angles, and sections along the new
railway between Heidelberg and Eiversdale show masses
of gravel piled up very irregularly and lying between
sand and clays which are themselves false bedded.
Such sections show that the sediments were deposited
in water in which strong and varying currents prevailed.
Much of the Heidelberg outlier, however, is composed
of thin bedded shales and mudstones, which must have
been laid down in quiet water, although thin pebble
beds are frequently found with these fine-grained sedi-
ments. The outlier is certainly basin-shaped, and no
connection has been traced with the Mossel Bay beds
to the east, or with the Swellendam basin to the west.
It is probable that subsequent earth movements have
disconnected these basins of Uitenhage beds, aided of
course by denudation, which has swept away perhaps
the greater parts of the Uitenhage beds originally de-
posited in that part of the Colony.
The Heidelberg beds chiefly consist of conglomerates,
sands, red and grey mudstones, shales and clays ; near
Heidelberg there are some peculiar hard white argilla-
ceous beds, which are quarried for foundation stones,
and with them some pale siliceous shales crowded with
the thin shells of an entomostracan, Estheria cmofnala,
Kupert-Jones, a fossil that is also found at many other
places in the Heidelberg outlier, but hitherto not known
from the Uitenhage district, or from any of the other
outliers of the Uitenhage series. At Heidelberg village
the clays exposed by the excavations for the railway
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302 GEOLOGY OP OAPE COLONY
station contain the EstheHa anomala and another ento-
mostracan genus, probably Cypris ; some badly preserved
lamellibranch shells closely resembling the Psammobia
atherstonei of the Uitenhage district have been found in
the same beds. Some fish scales belonging to a ganoid
genus, some indeterminable plant remains, and a wing
case of a beetle complete the list of fossils from the Heidel-
berg outUer. It is certain, however, that a consider-
able variety of fossils will be found there in the future.
The varied nature of the scanty remains mentioned
above show that many classes of organisms were repre-
sented in the waters in which the Heidelberg beds were
deposited, and only careful searching is required to pro-
duce good specimens. The most favourable localities
for fossil hunting in that district seem to be the Doom
Eiver Valley west of Heidelberg village, the Spiegel
Eiver Valley, and the Klein Vette Biver north-west of
Eiversdale, but in the course of time new exposures will
be opened up along roads, and for various other purposes,
in places where the rock underlying the soil cannot
now be seen. With the two villages of Heidelberg and
Eiversdale to supply people whose curiosity is sufl5-
ciently aroused to make them look about the neigh-
bourhood for fossils there should be a long list of them
before many years have passed.
The beds in which the fossils have been found are
grey or whitish in colour ; the red clays, sands and
marly beds seen to the north of Heidelberg have not
proved fossiliferous. It is generally found that red-
coloured rocks are not fossiliferous. The red colour is
due to the higher state of oxidation of the iron com-
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THE CRETACEOUS SYSTEM 303
pounds than is the case in the green, blue and grey
rocks ; when much organic matter was present during
the deposition of the mud, the red, highly oxidised, iron
compounds were reduced to a less oxidised state, and
these give a bluish-green, or grey colour to the mud.
The amount of organic matter present was of course
closely connected with the number of living organisms
that might leave traces of their existence in the shape
of fossils, hence it is always to be expected that beds
that are uniformly red throughout, and therefore to be
regarded as having been red when formed, should yield
few or no fossils.
On the watershed between the Doom and Klein Doom
Bivers the cuttings for the new railway line to Eivers-
dale revealed the presence of some limestone bands
showing cone-in-cone structure, and a few thin veins of
gypsum. The cone-in-cone limestone breaks up in a
very curious fashion ; the rock appears to be built up of
a number of cone-shaped bodies, closely pressed together,
with their axes perpendicular to the bedding planes.
The gypsum fills narrow cracks and joint planes^ and is
a product of the mutual decomposition of pyrites and
carbonate of lime in the shales.
A very interesting point in the Heidelberg basin is the
occurrence of a mass of mehlite-basalt amongst the
gravels and sands near the northern boundary of the
area on the farm Spiegel Eiver. The rock forms the
top of a low hill on a ridge running south from Amandel
Bosch Rug, and the outcrop is roughly circular in out-
line, with a diameter of not more than 300 feet. The
boundary has not been exposed, so that the contact with
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304 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
the Uitenhage beds is invisible. The presence of the
conglomerates and sands in the steep kloofs on either
side of the ridge, and on the surface both to the north
and south of the melilite-basalt, and the absence of
fragments of the latter from the conglomerates, prove
that the igneous rock is surrounded on those sides by
the conglomerates, and that it was very probably of later
age than they. This evidence would be considered suffi-
cient proof of the intrusive nature of the igneous rocks,
as regards the Uitenhage beds, if similar intrusions were
known elsewhere in those beds, but as this small mass
of igneous rock is the only one known in the Uitenhage
beds, an actual exposure of the contact would be very
welcome. The form of the igneous rock is quite con-
sistent with the supposition that it fills a pipe, a more
or less cylindrical channel passing vertically downwards
hke the channels connecting volcanic vents with the
source of supply below the surface ; and the nature of
the rock itself is not opposed to that idea, for it is a
thoroughly glassy rock composed of crystals of olivine up
to about a tenth of an inch in length, embedded in a
ground-mass of small crystals of melilite, grains of augite,
minute crystals of perofskite and magnetite, and brownish
glass. Melilite-basalt is not a common rock, far less usual
in volcanic districts than the less basic rocks containing
felspar, and when the Spiegel Kiver outcrop was found
it had not been observed elsewhere in the Colony. Quite
recently, however, melihte-basalts have been found in
the Sutherland Division in close connection with pipes
in the Karroo formation containing some of the rocks
and minerals characteristic of the Kimberley diamond
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THE CRETACEOUS SYSTEM 305
pipes. In fact, it seems that the melilite-basalt of
Spiegel Eiver fills a pipe that is similar in nature to
the pipes filled by the " blue ground '' of Kimberley
and other parts of South Africa. This resemblance, so
much strengthened by the occurrence of melilite-basalt
in the Sutherland pipes, will be disoussed in a later
chapter, where the bearing of the Spiegel Eiver rock
upon the age of the Kimberley pipes will be pointed out.
Near the village of Swellendam there is an isolated
basin of Uitenhage beds. Its exact limits are not
known, as it and the surrounding rocks belonging to
the Bokkeveld-Witteberg series are much hidden by
gravels and alluvium of a much later age, but it is about
twelve miles long and five wide, and extends from the
village, the eastern part of which is built on it, to beyond
the BuflFeljagt's Eiver. The rock near the western end
seems to be chiefly composed of conglomerates contain-
ing pebbles derived from the Malmesbury, Table Moun-
tain, Bokkeveld and Witteberg series. At the railway
station a bore-hole put down to the depth of 350 feet did
not reach the bottom of the conglomerate. Near the
lower part of the hole the bore passed through a boulder
of micaceous slate seven feet in diameter. There are but
few exposures of these beds, but the railway cuttings east
of the village show that there are sandy clays interbedded
with the conglomerates.
The Swellendam beds have generally a low, north-
easterly dip, and the basin-shaped area occupied by them
must in part be due to earth movements subsequent to
their formation. The west end of the basin must have
a very steep slope, for the slates forming the basin crop
20
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306 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
out immediately west of the river that runs through the
village at a much higher level than the railway station,
which lies only a few hundred yards across the river,
and where the bore hole did not reach the base of the
conglomerates at 350 feet.
Two outcrops of red sandstone and conglomerate
occur in the bed of the Groot Vader's Bosch Stream
and on the hill just south of it, where the main road
leaves the valley ; these outliers are situated between
the Swellendam and Heidelberg basins and point to the
former connection of the beds iBilling them ; a minute
examination of the district, with particular attention
to all excavations and cuttings that may be made, will
certainly prove the greater extension of the Uitenhage
beds in this area.
In the country south of the Zwartebergen the gravels
and other deposits belonging to a comparatively recent
period often hide the underl)dng rocks, and in some
cases the gravels may be mistaken for the Uitenhage
conglomerates. With the high level gravels there are
often associated compact rocks whose grains are ce-
mented together by silica, carbonate of lime, or fer-
ruginous matter, and when once a person is well
acquainted with these somewhat peculiar rocks he can
readily recognise them in even very small fragments ;
their presence in a gravel at once distinguishes it from
the Uitenhage conglomerates. The high level gravels
themselves can usually be distinguished from the Uiten-
hage beds by the fact that they cover flat hill tops,
often bounded on one or more sides by a low step or
krantz, due to the gravels offering more resistance to
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THE CRETACEOUS SYSTEM 307
the weather than the underlying rock, whether the
latter belong to the Uitenhage beds or the Bokkeveld
or Witteberg series. In the Mossel Bay basin excellent
sections showing the unconformity of the gravels and
surface quartzites to the Uitenhage beds can be seen
in the valley of the Nauga Eiver east of Herbertsdale ;
a fine example of a similar unconformity in the Willow-
more Division is shown on Plate XIX.
West of Swellendam there are two more isolated
basins of Uitenhage beds, one stretches from Eobertson
to Ash ton, and the other from south of Goudini Eoad
Station to beyond Nuy, passing just south of Worcester.
The beds exposed in these basins are red conglomerates,
containing pebbles from all the rock series from the
Malmesbury to the Ecca, which crop out within short
distances of the Uitenhage beds. The latter rest upon
the older rocks both to the south and north of the
Worcester fault, and are apparently unaffected by the
fault, which must consequently have been in the same
state in Uitenhage times as it is to-day. The conglom-
erates are well exposed on the banks of the Kogman's
Kloof Eiver above Ashton Station; on the road to
Waai Kloof from Worcester, and in a railway cutting
just outside Worcester Station.
Between the Langebergen and Zwartebergen a very
considerable tract of country in the divisions of Oudt-
shoorn and Willowmore is occupied by the sandstones
and conglomerates of this series. The longest area
extends from the west or right bank of the Gamka
Eiver below Calitzdorp to near Tover Water Poort, a
distance of over seventy miles, but near Meiring's
20*
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308 GEOLOGY OP GAPE COLONY
Poort the width of the area is very small, under a
mile ; south of Coetzee's Poort the width is over twelve
miles. Along the northern edge of the area the con-
glomerates lie directly upon the Cango series ; but east
of Meiring's Poort they rest upon the Table Mountain
Sandstone along the northern edge, and upon the Table
Mountain and Bokkeveld series on the south. The
Olifant's and Gamka Eivers flow for a considerable
distance in rocks belonging to this series.
The conglomerates between Coetzee's and Potgieter's
Poorts closely resemble those at Enon. They are red
rocks, and weather into curiously rugged crags with
numerous small caves, and at places two caves on
opposite sides of a crag have met, with the result that
the crag has a hole through it. These conglomerates
were deposited against steep banks formed by the older
rocks. The conglomerates as a whole lie at the bottom
of the basin, or rather they crop out on its edge,
and are probably continuous under the sandstones and
shales that occupy a wide area within the basin. Very
probably the conglomerates were in part formed near
the sides of the valley while the finer grained sediments
were being deposited farther away from the hills. Al-
though the conglomerates are chiefly found in the
peripheral portion of the area they are not confined
to it, for near Oudtshoorn thick beds of conglomerate
occur at a much higher level than the sandstones on
which the town is built. The sandstones are seen
between Calitzdorp and Vlakte Plaats, and at the town
of Oudtshoorn, where they are much used for building
purposes. They are rather soft sandstones, not quartzitic,
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THE CRETACEOUS SYSTEM 309
and are usually greenish in colour. The sandstones
and shales contain bits of fossil wood, and near Vlakte
Flaats masses of lignite sufficiently large to be dug out
and used for fuel have been found, but this lignite, as is
the case with similar materials elsewhere in the Uiten-
hage beds, near Herbertsdale and in the Sunday's Kiver
Valley, is not found in layers that are thick and constant
enough to repay systematic working.
No determinable fossils have been found in the Oudt-
shoorn and Willowmore basin.^
The depth to which the Uitenhage beds in this basin
extend below the surface is not known.
Many small outliers of conglomerates and sandstones
belonging to this series occur to the east and south-east
of the Oudtshoorn- Willowmore basin, in the valleys of
the Olifant's and Baviaan's Kloof Eivers.^ The beds
often have considerable dips, and appear to be the rem-
nants of deposits that filled up these valleys before the
present rivers re-excavated them. The original form
of the deposits modified by subsequent earth move-
ments and denudation are jointly responsible for the
small detached basins that are now observable.
There is still very much to be learnt about the nature
and distribution of the Uitenhage beds in the Colony ;
the Uitenhage district itself has yielded but a small part
of its history, although it has attracted more attention
from geologists than any other area in the Colony,
excepting perhaps the Cape Peninsula and the Diamond
* Since this was written Mr. MuUer Rex has sent two Dinosaurian
teeth from the Oudtshoorn sandstone to the S. A. Museum.
' A description of these outliers by Mr. Schwarz will be found in
Geol Comrn, (03).
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310 oeology of cape oolonv
Fields. At present the limits of the marine beds are
not known exactly, nor have any outliers of them been
discovered, although it is very likely that they exist to
the east if not to the west of the Uitenhage area.
At the commencement of the Uitenhage period the
southern parts of what is now Cape Colony must have
been very mountainous. Great valleys with mountains
towering on either side stretched east and west for long
distances, and so far had denudation proceeded that all
the rock series from the Pre-Cape to the Karroo forma-
tion were exposed at the surface. The height of the
mountains above the bottom of the valleys was greater
than it now is ; allowing for earth-movements subse-
quent to the Uitenhage period that have in some cases
at any rate brought about the depression of the valleys,
the amount of rock removed from the mountain ridges
since the beginning of that period must be very con-
siderable, since it includes a large part of the material
now forming the Uitenhage beds as well as that removed
since the close of the period. The rivers, which before
that time were able to carry away the mud, sand and
pebbles delivered to them by the mountain streams,
became unable to cope ^dth their work, and their beds
consequently became choked up with debris, at first as
a rule of a coarse nature including many large boulders
and pebbles together with a large quantity of sand.
These accumulations are the conglomerates that lie
below the fine grained rocks, the Enon beds of the
Uitenhage district and the similar rocks of the outliers
to the west, but it is by no means certain that the red
conglomerates round the Oudtshoorn-Willowmore basin,
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THE CRETACEOUS SY8TEM 311
for example, were formed at precisely the same time as
the Enon conglomerate itself. One possible cause of
this change of conditions, the change by which the area
became one of deposition or accumulation instead of a
region in which the destructive agencies had full sway,
may have been that the level of the land surface as a
whole was reduced with regard to the level of the sea
into which the old rivers flowed. Whether such a down-
ward movement of the land took place uniformly or
whether some parts were depressed more than others is
not easy to determine, although the fact that the marine
beds have not been found west of Knysna seems to point
to an unequal distribution of the change in level. Had
the sinking gone on continuously and equally over the
whole area we should expect a gradual extension of
similar sediments from the sea landwards, i.e., con-
glomerates at the bottom, then fine grained rocks of
fluviatile origin, and, finally, marine beds on the top.
During the uniform and gradual depression of a tract of
country, in the course of which the actual grade or
inclination of the river valleys would not be altered,
those parts of the valleys left above the level of the sea
at any one time would naturally be able to carry on
their work as they did before the downward movement
set in. In the case of the Uitenhage beds, however, the
state of affairs is quite different, no such regular spread-
ing of the deposits from the marine area is noticeable ;
on the contrary the Uitenhage district is the only one
where a series of conglomerates, fluviatile sands and
muds and marine beds has been observed, and even
there the red conglomerates and sands near the native
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312 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
location at Uitenhage are intercalated with by no means
the lowest of the marine beds, showing that a part of
the shore of the sea lay round the end of the mountains
near Uitenhage some time after the earliest marine beds
were formed in the neighbourhood. If the sea ever
reached the western outliers of Oudtshoorn, Heidelberg
and Swellendam, no trace of its presence has yet been
found, and in any case over 1,000 feet of non-marine
sediments were piled up before it did so. These filled
up the old valleys to the extent of at least 1,000 feet,
very probably to a much greater depth, possibly above
the level of the lowest passes over the Langebergen and
Zwartebergen. If the movement which allowed the
sea to gain access to the Uitenhage district can be
shown to have been unequal, so that the lower portions
of some of the east and west valleys were raised, the
formation of the basins* as well as the gathering in them
of such large quantities of conglomerates, sands and
shales will be explained.
There is, however, another possible cause which
would account for the old rivers receiving more debris
than they could carry away, and that is the coming in
of a drier climate than had formerly prevailed.^ Under
such conditions the supply of rock debris would be as
great as, if not greater than, during the preceding
moister period, for the hills would be less protected by
vegetation, and the breaking up of the naked rock by
change of temperature would proceed rapidly. The
* For an excellent account of the rocks formed under desert condi-
tions, such as here spoken of, the student able to read German should
peruse Professor J. Walther's DenudaMon in die WUste.
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THE CRETACEOUS SYSTEM 313
occasional rain storms in such a climate sweep down
vast quantities of gravel and sand, rounding off the
edges of the rock fragments and thus producing pebbles
and boulders of the ordinary shapes. The prevalence
of unfossiliferous red-coloured conglomerates and sands,
especially near the base of the series, in Uitenhage,
Oudtshoorn, Heidelberg, Swellendam, Kobertson and
Worcester, supports this explanation ; and the irregular
piling up of much of the red rocks is evidence in the
same direction.
The grey shales and muds of the Wood beds in the
Uitenhage Division were probably formed in the waters
of a river that had direct communication with the sea,
for the oyster shells, the Gastrochcma in the logs of
wood, and the Pecten, all found in the Wood beds near
Dunbrody, point to the proximity of the sea. The
plant-bearing shales near Herbertsdale, and the grey
shales with Estheria and the other fossils previously
mentioned in the Heidelberg area, have not yielded
any proof that the water in which they were laid down
was in close proximity to the sea. These beds may
have been formed in shallow lakes or lake-like ex-
pansions of the river which still drained the country.
It cannot be held that the valleys were entirely closed,
that they were in a region that had no outlet to the
sea; for in such districts the salts that are contained
in small quantities in all rocks become concentrated
in the water that temporarily or permanently occupies
the lowest levels, and form layers of crystalline rock-
salt, gypsum and other minerals that are interbedded
with the sand and mud carried into the same basins.
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314 GEOLOGY OP CAPE COLONY
No traces of such minerals have been met with in the
Uitenhage beds,^ and their absence is good evidence
against the supposition that the isolated basins of the
Uitenhage outliers were originally entirely without out-
let to the sea.
The description of the outhers on previous pages
shows distinctly enough that the deposits vary con-
siderably from one basin to another, that although
their general nature is very much the same, the order
in which they occur is not in the least identical. The
position of the outliers also shows that they were
formed in separate valleys, in each of which the de-
posits were governed by the local conditions. Whether
during the later part of the period, represented by beds
that have mostly been swept away by denudation, all
the outliers were connected, and sediments were spread
over the whole of the district in which the outhers
occur as well as beyond its limits must be left to the
future to decide. It is quite possible that evidence
sulficient to settle the question will be forthcoming.
Whether this was the case or not, the absence of
transverse valleys in the Langebergen filled with the
Uitenhage beds is specially worthy of note, for it shows
that the Oudtshoorn basin was then quite distinct from
the valleys south of the Langebergen, and that the
rivers which now traverse that range had no existence
in those days. The Uitenhage beds both north and
*The gypsum of the Heidelberg outlier is evidently derived from
the shales by the mutual decomposition of some of their components.
Since the above wa^ written Mr. Schwarz hM found gypsum in some of
the Willowmore outliers ; see Geol. Comm. (03), p. 114.
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THE CllETACteOtS RVSTEM S15
south of the Langebergen extend below the present
level of the Gamka-Gouritz Eiver bed, and the dis-
locations undergone by the Uitenhage beds in those
areas do not seem to be great enough to account for
the complete isolation of the beds on either side of the
mountains ; the sharply defined gorges of the Gouritz
River through the Gamka hills and Langebergen seem
to have been cut since Uitenhage times, for they con-
tain no outlier of the rocks that one would expect to
find had they been of pre-Uitenhage age.
Considering generally our present knowledge of the
Uitenhage beds, it leads to the conclusion that the
depression of the area as a whole, which allowed the
sea to encroach upon the previous land surface in the
Uitenhage district, was not uniform, but that the grade
of some of the valleys was at the same time altered,
and that this may have been accompanied by a drier
climate.
It is, of course, an interesting problem to decide at
what stage in the history of other parts of the world
these events in South Africa took place, and the com-
parison of the Uitenhage fossils, of which hsts have
been given on a previous page, with those found else-
where afford a means of doing so, although more
evidence will be required before the question can be
satisfactorily answered.
The plants have recently been examined by Mr.
Seward,^ who came to the conclusion that they are
related to both Jurassic and Wealden (Lower Cretace-
^ Seward (03), pp. 1-46.
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316 GEOLOGY OP GAPE COLONY
ous) plants of other countries, but that the relationship as
a whole was closer to the Wealden than the Jurassic flora.
Mr. F. L. Kitchin, who has worked at fossils from
allied rocks of India, and who is making an examination
of the Sunday's Eiver fossils, has kindly given me the
following note upon the question of the relationship
of the Uitenhage moUuscan fauna . —
** The marine fauna of the Uitenhage series bears
abundant evidences of its Cretaceous affinities, and the
view, formerly held by some writers, that either a whole
or a part of the marine beds is to be brought into
parallel with the Oolitic rocks of Europe,^ can no longer
be upheld. Sufficiently conclusive is the occurrence of
Hamites, BaciUites, Crioceras, Olcostephani of the division
Astieria, TrigonicB of the section ScabrsB, Ptychomya and
other bivalve genera which made their first appearance
in Lower Cretaceous rocks. Indeed, it is only possible
to follow Neumayr and others ^ in maintaining that this
fauna is of Neocomian age, although ovnng to lack of
detailed agreement with the faunas of similar age in
Europe, a narrower correlation cannot yrith certainty be
estabUshed.
** The occurrence of Olcostephanus (Astieria) atherstonei
and close aUies in the Yalenginian and Hauterivian of
Europe may perhaps give the best indication of the
position occupied by these marine beds.
*' While the cephalopods of the Uitenhage series supply
connecting links to the fauna of the Neocomian with
which we are familiar in Europe, certain conspicuous
forms amongst the bivalves appear, on the other hand, to
1 Bain (66) ; Tate (67). « Neumayr (82). See also Krauss (47).
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THE CRETACEOUS SYSTEM 317
possess no close European allies, but serve to connect the
Uitenhage fauna in unmistakable manner with that of
the marine beds of the Oomia group in Cutch. Peculiar
forms of Trigonia, in particular, play an important r61e
in both cases, lending a similar aspect to the faunas
developed in these geographically remote regions, at the
same time helping to bring these molluscan faunas into
marked contrast with that of the European Neocomian.
The characteristic Uitenhage form, Trigonia ventricosa,
occurs abundantly in the Oomia beds, and is recorded
from strata of like age near Coconada on the east side
of the Indian peninsula and also in the extra-peninsular
district of Hazara.
** On the African continent itself, the only deposits of
Neocomian age which may be safely correlated with
the Uitenhage beds occur in German East Africa, not
distantly remote from the coast-line. Although the
cephaldpods fail us as a basis of comparison, the occur-
rence of Trigonia ventricosa and some other bivalve forms
seems to constitute sufficient grounds for the correlation ;
the same beds in German East Africa, it is interesting
to note, also furnish evidence of their connection with
the Oomia group in Cutch by the presence of a species
of Trigonia which has not yet been found in South Africa.
** The fauna of the Belgrano beds in Patagonia may
also be considered to display affinities to that of the
marine Uitenhage strata, more especially by the occur-
rence of Trigonia subventricosa, Stanton, which closely
resembles the larger form of Trigonia vetitricosa, and
Trigonia heterosculpta, Stanton, which is with little doubt
allied to the South African Trigonia vau**
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318 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
It thus appears that both the flora and fauna of the
Uitenhage beds have distinctly Neocomian characters.
The Cretaceous Eocks of Pondoland.
On the coast of Pondoland the Cretaceous rocks occur
in two narrow strips faulted down against the Table
Mountain series that forms the greater part of the
coastal district.
The Umzamba Group,^
The larger and more interesting of the two, the Um-
zamba group, lies near the Natal boundary, stretching
from a point about three miles south-west of the
Umtamvuna Kiver, which is the limit between the
two Colonies, to near the Umtentu Eiver, a distance
of some twelve miles. The greatest width of the strip
is not more than about 700 yards, for the Table Moun-
tain sandstone crops out in the grass-covered ground at
that distance from the shore along part of the coast,
elsewhere it approaches the beach more closely and at
each end of the Cretaceous outcrops appears on the
shore itself. The actual contact of the Umzamba beds
with the Table Mountain series has not been observed ;
it is everywhere hidden by the sand that forms dunes
behind the beach and often covers up the Cretaceous
rocks. The Umzamba beds lie horizontally, and even
where their outcrops are very close to the nearest out-
crop of Table Mountain sandstone, as on the right bank
of the Umzamba Eiver about 300 yards from the
mouth, they are of the same nature as on the shore,
1 Daily and Garden (56), and Griesbach (71).
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THE CRETACEOUS SYSTEM 319
and do not show any tendency to become conglomeratic,
as would be expected if the junction were an ordinary
one of a beach deposit with a shore. The Table Moun-
tain series forms rather high ground close behind the
Umzamba beds, rising some 300 feet above them within
a short distance. It is very probable that the junction
is a faulted one, like the junction of the Embotyi beds
farther to the south-east.
The Umzamba beds form a line of low cliffs (see
Plate XVIII.) extending about a mile north-eastwards
from the sand-spit on the left bank of the Umzamba
mouth, and they are also exposed at low tide on the
shore between the levels of high and low water, where,
however, they are frequently more or less concealed by
sand. Between the Umzamba and Umtentu Eivers
they are exposed between tide marks only, and do not
crop out at the back of the beach below the sand dunes.
The rocks chiefly consist of shelly limestones and
hard sandy clays containing much carbonate of lime.
These two kinds of rock are interbedded ; the shelly
limestones are thinner than the clayey beds, and at the
same time offer more resistance to the weather and the
sea, so that on the low cliffs they appear as projecting
shelves or ledges separated by the softer beds. The
latter have been deeply worn away by the sea, thus
giving rise to lines of caves, whose floors and roofs are
the hard shelly limestones. The native name of the
cliffs to the north-east of the Umzamba mouth is
Izinhluzabalungu, " houses of the white men," per-
haps in reference to the use of the larger caves by a
shipwrecked crew.
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320 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
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THE CRETACEOUS SYSTEM 321
The shelly limestones are made up of fragments and
perfect specimens of many kinds of shells, mixed with a
comparatively small quantity of quartz sand. They
may well be compared to the coarse shell sand found
upon many parts of the modem South African shore,
with the important point of difference that the shells
found in them are of quite different kinds from those
found on the present beach. Each bed" of shelly lime-
stone can be followed for a certain distance along the
cliff/ then it thins out, and another similar bed at a
slightly higher or lower level takes its place.
The sandy calcareous clays are blue in colour on fresh
unweathered surfaces, and they are so tough that the
fossils contained in them are only with difficulty ex-
tracted from the rock, but the outer inch or two of the
exposed outcrops are altered to a soft brown clay, from
which the fossils are easily obtained by scraping away
the decomposed rock with a knife.
The following section measured on the low cliff near
the Umzamba mouth illustrates the nature of the
succession in these rocks : —
Ft. In.
13 Shelly limestone 0 10
12 Tough sandy day weathering brown - 1 4
11 Shelly limestone 0 6
10 Tough sandy clay 10
9 SheUy limestone 0 4
8 Tough sandy clay 3 6
7 Shelly limestone 0 10
6 Tough sandy clay 3 0
5 Black impure limestone with many shells 0 6
4 Black shale 10
3 Oyster bed 0 2
2 Fine gravelly conglomerate .---03
1 (At base) Conglomerate with pebbles im-
bedded in broken shells ; many fossils ?
13 3
21 """^
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322 GEOLOGY 01^ OaI>E OOLONV
The coarse bed at the base of the section is exposed
on the shore at low water on both sides of the mouth of
the Umzamba, but the extent of the rock laid bare at
low tide varies, much of it being at times buried under
the sand thrown upon the beach by the waves. A
strong spring tide will uncover a wide area of rock that
is usually concealed. This bed contains many interest-
ing fossils. Beptiles are represented by Chelonian bones
of large size ; the characteristic bony plates of the shell
or shield and the shoulder girdle are easily recognised ;
another reptile is represented by large jawbones with
pointed teeth. Sharks' teeth are rather abundant, and
complete the list of vertebrate fossils. The remains of
marine invertebrates are plentifully preserved in this
bed, the Cephalopods are represented by at least five
species of Ammonites, a Nautilus and a Baculites ; Gas-
teropods by Fasciolaria, Avellana, Ghemnitzia and a large
thick-shelled species of one of the Strombidae ; Lamelli-
branchs by three species of Pecten, PectvmouLus africanus,
Protocardium hillanum, Trigonia elegans. Area natalensis,
Cardiwn denticuJatum and Inoceramnis. In this lowest
bed there are many logs of wood, blackened and partly
silicified and often bored into by Teredo, whose shells
are still at the end of the holes made by their former
inhabitants. Many of these fossils are much water-
worn, and their surfaces are in consequence abraded.
The more dehcate shells are rarely or never found in a
perfect condition, and a considerable part of the rock is
made up of fragments of various kinds of shells. These
facts, together with the presence of pebbles of grits,
sandstones and dark -coloured slates, undoubtedly point
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THE CRETACEOUS SYSTEM 323
to the bed having been formed in shallow water, at the
bottom of which the pebbles and shells were rolled about
until they were covered up by the overlying deposit.
The absence of the thin-shelled easily broken fossils,
such as Hemiaster and Cassidultcs, two echinoderms that
are abundant in the overlying fine-grained beds, leads
to the same conclusion.
The shelly limestones also contain the stronger shells
in a perfect state; some of the weak shells, such as
Inoceramus, that break up into small fragments of pe-
culiar shape, can be recognised in these beds, but they
are only found complete or nearly so in the fine-grained
beds. The shelly limestones seem to have been formed
in shallow water, for most of the shells were rolled
about, broken, and had the projecting points rubbed oflF
their outer surfaces before they came to rest and wei-e
buried under the accumulating sediments.
The fine-grained sandy calcareous clays contain strong
and delicate shells in an excellent state of preservation.
These beds were laid down in quieter water than the shelly
limestones, and in consequence the most delicate shells
were buried under the sand and mud without being
broken. Over thirty species of Foraminifera and Ostra-
cods have been found by Mr. Chapman in some small
lumps of the rock that were sent to him for examination.
The lowest bed in the section given on a previous
page is the most persistent of the whole series. The
rest of the rocks are separated into many beds by the
thin lenticular shelly limestones in such a way that
two sections measured about a hundred yards apart
would not show precisely the same arrangement of beds.
21*
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324 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
Fio. 26. — Fossils from the Umzamba beds.
1. Trigonia thepttonei. 5. Cardium denticidaium,
2. „ elegans. 6. Schlcevbachia umbulazi.
3. Neithia quinquecostata. 7. Hemiaster forbeti,
4. Area natcUensis.
From photograph of specimens in the coUectioD of the Qeological Sarvey of Cape Colony,
All natural size.
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THE CRETACEOUS SYSTEM 325
This group of rocks was formed near the shore of a sea
teeming with life ; the sheUy Umestones were deposited
where strong currents prevailed, for a certain period,
over a comparatively small area, which were replaced
by quiet water that allowed the fine-grained sandy
mud to accumulate. The whole thickness of rock at
present exposed is but some thirty feet, and it exhibits
this alternation of fine and coarse sediments throughout.
The same species of mollusca appear to be distributed
through the whole group, but their presence in any one
layer depends upon whether they were strong enough
to resist the destructive action of the sea during the
formation of that bed, for the coarse sediments contain
the strong-shelled species only in recognisable condition,
while the fine-grained beds contain both the thick and
thin shelled species.
The following is a list of the chief species of inverte-
brate fossils from the Umzamba beds : —
Cephalopoda^
Anisoceras rugatumj Forbes.
BactUttes sulcatus^ Baily.
Lytoceras (Gavdryceras) kayei, Forbes, sp.
„ (PBettdophyllites) indra, Forbes, sp.
Fuaosia {Hauericenu) gardenia Baily, sp.
„ (Hauericeras) rembday Forbes, sp.
Schksnba>chia wutoni^ Baily, sp.
„ stangeri, Baily, sp.
„ (Frionocyclus) uvibulazi, Baily, sp.
Gasteropods —
Avellana aiiipla, StoL
Cerithium detectum, Stol.
„ kaffrarium, Griesb.
EuckryaaMs gtganteay StoL
Fasciolaria assimiliSf StoL
„ rigida, Baily, sp.
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GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
Gasteropoda — continued —
NcUica multidriata, Baily.
PoUia pondicherriensisy Forbes, sp.
Pitgnellvs unccUtu, Forbes, sp.
SceUa turbimUa, Forbes, sp.
Solarium pulchellumy Baily.
„ iviebeli, Griesb.
Tritonidea trichinipoUterms^ Forbes, sp.
TurboniUa ? undosa^ Forbes^ sp.
TurriteUa muUiatriala, Reuss.
Dentaliumf sp.
Lamellibranchs —
Area capensis, Griesb.
,, umzambanierms, Baily.
Adarte, sp.
Gardium denticnUttum, Baily.
Corbula, sp.
Cytkerea arcotensisy Forbes, sp.
CncuUoBa natalensisj Baily, sp.
Inoceramtts expanstUf Baily.
Neithia quinqiucosiata, J. Sow., sp.
Nuculaj sp.
Ogtrea, sp.
Pecten amajxmdetm^f Griesb.
Pedunciihii africaniiSy Griesb.
Protocardium hiUanum, J. Sow., sp.
Trigonia elegans, Baily.
„ sliepstoneiy Griesb.
Teredo, sp.
Echinodenns —
Heiniaster forhesif Baily.
Holaster indtcm, Forbes.
Casstdulus, sp.
Mr. F. L. Kitchin, who has in hand the examination of
the invertebrate fossils collected from these beds by the
Cape Geological Survey, has kindly furnished me with
the following note upon the relationship of the fauna to
tha,t of certain beds in India and other countries,
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THE CRETACEOUS SYSTEM 327
" The palaBontological relations of this limited series
of Cretaceous strata are comparatively easy of solation.
When it is realised that a very restricted time-range is
represented, and that there is no evidence of a succession
of contrasted faunas, as was formerly believed to be the
case, it becomes clear that we are only dealing with a
true representative of the Arialoor (Upper Senonian)
stage, so well known from its development in the Tri-
chinopoli and Pondicherri districts of Southern India.
Belationship to the Cretaceous rocks of Southern India
was first indicated by Baily, more clearly emphasised
by Griesbach, and more recently again by Kossmat,
whose writings have thrown such light on the dispersion
of the cephalopods of this age and the significance of
the evidence yielded by these rocks in South Africa and
Southern India. Amongst the more important species
connecting this Cretaceous fauna of Pondoland with the
Indian Arialoor stage are Puzosia gardeni, Puzosia rembda,
Lytoceras kayei, Lytoceras indray Anisoceras rugatum^ Pug-
nellus tmcatuSf PolUa pondicherrienaiSf etc. Other deposits
of Arialoor character in the Pacific region with which
these beds in Pondoland show strong palaeontological
relations, are developed in Japan, Vancouver Island
(and California), and Quiriquina Island (Chili). The
intermingling of essentially Pacific types with other
forms having stronger European aflSnities (e.^., species
of Schkenbachia) led Kossmat to regard these Cretaceous
beds of Pondoland as of special importance in indi-
cating the line of dispersal between the North Atlantic
and the Indo-Pacific regions during Upper Senonian
times,"
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328 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
The Embotyi Group.
Near the month of the Embotyi Eiver, about seven-
teen miles north-east of St. John's, there is a group of
conglomerates and green sandstones stretching about
four miles south-west from Waterfall Bluff. At the
south-western end of the outcrops the beds lie nearly
horizontally, and behind them are shales and sandstones
probably belonging to the Ecca series, which have a
rather high dip to the south-east. The junction of the
two groups has not been seen, but it is very probably an
unconformity. Farther to the north-east the Embotyi
beds dip at moderate angles to the north-east, north and
south, showing that they have been considerably dis-
turbed since their deposition. At the north-eastern end
of the exposures the Embotyi beds rest against a cliff
of Table Mountain sandstone, and the slickensides still
visible on part of the cliff, together with other evidence
in the conglomerate itself, prove that the Embotyi beds
have been faulted down against the older rock. The
line of fault runs westwards from Waterfall Bluff, and
about two miles from the latter separates the Table
Mountain sandstone from the Ecca beds. Waterfall
Bluff is a vertical cliff, some 300 ft. high, whose base is
washed by the sea ; the streams from the country behind
the cliff fall over it, hence its name. The westward pro-
longation of the line of chffs coincides with the foot of
the escarpment on which the Egossa Forest stands.
The finer-grained portions of the beds, which appear on
the shore near the mouth of the Umgwegwane Biver,
are green shales and sandstones containing fragments of
blackened wood, the only organic remains hitherto found
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THE CRETACEOUS SYSTEM 329
in the group. Further search in these rocks is likely to
be rewarded by the discovery of plant remains that can-
not fail to be of great interest, and it is to be hoped that
the search will be made before long.
The conglomerates towards the south-west end of the
outcrops are pebbly rocks with water-worn fragments of
dark grits and mudstones, certainly derived from the un-
derlying Karroo beds. North-east of the Umgwegwane
River the conglomerate becomes extremely coarse, and
bedding planes are often difficult to find. Near the
conical green hill on the Waterfall BluflF side of the
river, and between that hill and the Bluff, immense
blocks of coarse and fine-grained dolerites are found
interbedded in a matrix of smaller boulders of similar
material and of dark grits, mudstones and shales like
those in the conglomerate farther south-west. Some of
the dolerite blocks measure twenty feet in length. This
conglomerate is the most tumultuous looking rock in the
Colony ; magnificent exposures of it can be seen on the
seaward face of the green hill, and near Waterfall Bluff.
The irregular spaces between the boulders are sometimes
filled with radiating bunches of brown calcite. The fine-
grained portion of the rock is greenish and very similar
to the sandstones near the Umgwegwane mouth.
The occurrence of the dolerite boulders in the Em-
botyi rock is of great interest, as it proves that the
dolerites had been injected into the Karroo formation
before the deposition of the conglomerates, and were
exposed at the surface during their accumulation. The
similarity in situation of the Embotyi group to that of
the Umzamba beds, which crop out at a distance of some
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330 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
twenty-four miles to the north-east, and the fact that
they are both faulted down against the Table Mountain
sandstone, thus belonging to an earlier age than the
chief disturbances that have affected this part of the
Colony since the close of the Karroo period, make it pro-
bable that the Embotyi group belong to the same series
as the Umzamba beds. They may be regarded as the
basal portion of the Pondoland Cretaceous rocks, and as
bearing the same relation to the marine Umzamba beds
as the Enon type of the Uitenhage series does to the
Sunday's River beds.
There is nothing to be said concerning the economic
value of the Pondoland Cretaceous series. The Um-
zamba beds make a very pretty bit of coast with its line
of cliffs hollowed out into numbers of caves overhung by
Strelitzia and other plants that are only found in the
eastern parts of the Colony. The Embotyi beds occur in
what is perhaps the most beautiful place in the Colony.
The Egossa Forest forms a fine background, rising some
1,200 feet above the sea ; below it are low hills covered
with tall grass and large bushes and trees, and between
the hills wind the Embotyi, Umgwegwane, and another
river, widening out into broad lagoons just before they
reach the sea. The writer was on that shore one after-
noon when a thunderstorm passed over the forest, while
the sun still lighted up the white breakers of the Indian
Ocean and not a breath of wind disturbed the lagoons,
from which were reflected the subtropical trees and bush
growing on their banks. The scene was certainly the
most beautiful one it has ever been his fortune to look
upon.
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CHAPTEB IX.
VOLCANIC PIPES YOUNGER THAN THE STORMBERG
VOLCANOES.
In many parts of the Colony there are remarkable pipes,
channels through which materials were thrown from the
lower region of the earth's crust to the exterior, and now
filled with substances of different kinds, sometimes clearly
of volcanic nature, but often of such peculiar character
that their volcanic origin is not obvious and can only be
surmised from the manner in which the rocks occur.
The first of these pipes to be discovered was the
Jager's Fontein Mine, in 1870, but those at Du Toit's
Pan, Bult Fontein, Colesberg Kopje (Kimberley Mine),
and De Beers were found soon afterwards.^ These
discoveries were entirely due to the finding of dia-
monds, which had been met with by chance near the
Orange Eiver three years previously. It was, of course,
some time after the diamond mines were opened that
their nature was understood.*-^ The earliest search for
diamonds was carried on in the alluvial deposits or
** Eiver diggings " on the Orange and Vaal Eivers ; the
later or **Dry diggings" in the volcanic pipes, which
^For an interesting and folly illustrated account of the early
discoveries and of the whole history of the diamond mines and their
working see The Diamond Mines of South Africa hy Mr. Gardner
F. WiUiams, 1902.
^ Cohen (72), pp. 857-62. This paper, or letter, contains the first
suggestion of the volcanic nature of the pipes.
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332 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
have been the source of bo great an industry in South
Africa, followed upon the discoveries mentioned above.
Several other pipes are known in West Griqualand, but
not much detailed information about them is available.
South of the Orange Eiver two vents near Hanover are
marked on Mr. Dunn's map (3rd edition, 1887), and
four near Fraserburg ; others exist near Carnarvon,^ but
no accounts of most of these have been published.
Lately nearly thirty vents have been mapped in the
Sutherland Division. One other, the neck on the farm
Spiegel River in Riversdale, is known ; in some respects
this one is of very great interest, as it affords more evi-
dence of the later origin of the whole class of vents than
is obtainable farther north, and it is at one end of
the group in a petrological sense as it is filled with
an igneous rock resembling a well-known but scarce
variety of dyke-rock in foreign countries and in East
Central Africa. The Saltpetre Kop (Sutherland) vents
stand at the other end of the petrological series in
being almost entirely filled with fragments of sedi-
mentary rocks.
There are many intermediate conditions between the
two extreme types to be found amongst the compara-
tively few vents that have hitherto been examined from
a geological point of view, and when a fuller series is
known every gradation will doubtless be recognised.
We shall commence the description of the pipes with
an account of those filled with rocks of the purely
igneous type and proceed in the order of their departure
from this type without regard to their geographical
» Dunn, Geological Sketch Map of Cape Colony (73) ; (74) pp. 54-60.
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VOLCANIC PIPES 333
positions. At the end of the description the reasons
for considering the whole group as belonging to one
period of volcanic activity will be given together with
other points of general interest.
On the farm Spiegel Eiver in the Eiversdale Division
there is a most remarkable mass of melilite-basalt ex-
posed at the top of a hill composed of conglomerates
and sandy beds belonging to the Uitenhage series.
The outcrop is about 300 feet in diameter from east
to west and rather less in the other direction, but the
exact junction with the surrounding rock is diflScult
to find on account of the debris covering the slopes on
which it should be exposed. The grey-black igneous
rock is in places roughly columnar, but the columns
are very feebly developed ; they slant towards the east.
The only feasible explanation of the occurrence is that
the melilite-basalt fills a volcanic neck. The want of
good exposures and the crumbly nature of the con-
glomerates prevent the observation of the dip of these
beds at the contact. The beds are seen at several places
within 200-300 yards of the vent but they present no
points of difference from their nature at a greater
distance from the spot. No other neck or intrusion
has yet been found in the Uitenhage beds, and till
lately no other occurrence of mehlite-basalt had been
observed in South Africa.^ The rock is composed of
' The peculiar rook described by Cohen (Tschermak's Min. u Petr.
Mitth.f Bd. xiv., Heft 2) as a melilite-augite rock is quite different from
any of the rocks mentioned in this chapter. It is composed of melilite
and augite, without any olivine, perofskite or iron ores, and contains
native copper. It came from the Zoutpansberg District, Transvaal.
It has been regarded as a rock altered by use in the hearth of a furnace.
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334 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
a ground mass of glass in which there are minute
crystals of perofskite and magnetite, irregular grains
of augite, inmiense numbers of melilite crystals showing
the usual characters of that mineral, and fairly large
well-formed crystals of olivina It is in a remarkably
fresh state for so basic a rock.^
The vents and semicircular dyke on the Commonage
near Sutherland village are mostly filled with rocks of a
thoroughly igneous character ; tuffs, or rocks made up
of small fragments of various kinds, including lava and
minerals derived from it, are found in three or four of
the seven necks, but with them are the igneous rocks ;
in the case of three of the pipes the igneous rock is
melilite-basalt with more glass and biotite and less
augite and melilite than the Spiegel Biver rock con-
tains; serpentine, calcite and zeolites, the products of
alteration of the other constituents are abundant.^ The
curved dyke is composed of a similar rock. The tuffs
in the vents in which the melilite-basalt occurs are light
blue sandy rocks containing biotite, ilmenite, serpentine
and perofskite in addition to the debris derived from
sedimentary beds. The other vents on the Commonage
are filled with a dark-coloured amygdaloidal basic glass,
and in some cases blocks of sandstone and shale with
smaller fragments of the same rocks are imbedded in a
matrix evidently composed mainly of altered glass of
the nature of the glassy lava in these vents. Serpentine
pseudomorphs after olivine are the only large crystalUne
^ An anaJyais by Mr. Lewis, one of the Gape Government analysts, is
given in Oeol. Comm, (08).
' Description of these rocks will be found in QmoU Comm. (03).
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VOLCANIC PIPES 335
constituents of this lava, and they appear to have come
from another rock» a fine-grained highly altered material
which still adheres to the serpentine pseudomorphs ;
augite and magnetite are the other constituents that
have been recognised, and they are in very minute
grains and crystals. The steam holes in this lava are
filled with calcite, analcite, natrolite and other zeolites,
but silica, which in the form of quartz or chalcedony
is frequently found in the steeun holes of the ancient
Zeekoe Baard lavas and those of the Stormberg series,
has not been found in the Sutherland Commonage
amygdaloids.
At Matjes Fontein, a farm nine miles south-east of
Sutherland, there is a pipe partially filled with melilite-
basalt of rather peculiar characters ^ and partly with a
gritty breccia containing large fragments of granite,
dolerite of the Karroo type, quartzite and other sedi-
mentary rocks, mica, ilmenite and hornblende. The
three latter constituents are identical in nature with the
same minerals in the Silver Dam pipe to be mentioned
presently. The melihte-basalt of this outcrop is com-
posed of olivine, melilite, perofskite, biotite, magnetite,
calcite and serpentinous fibres, probably derived from a
glassy ground mass. Excepting the presence of calcite
and the serpentine fibres the rock is remarkably fresh,
and differs in several respects from the other melilite-
basalts. It shows a marked flow-structure.
In the remaining pipes there is no large body of
igneous rock corresponding to the melilite-basalts and
^ See Geol Carnm, (03) and Rogers and Du Toit (0^.
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336 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
the glassy lava described above. In only one of them,
so far as our information goes, is there a dyke of igneous
rock in the breccia which fills the vent. In the South
African Museum there is a specimen of a fine-grained
rock from the De Beers Mine composed of good crystals
of olivine embedded in a ground mass of perofskite, mag-
netite and calcite, with some indeterminate matter.
This rock forms a narrow dyke in the " blue-ground ".
At Silver Dam, a part of the farm Matjes Eontein in
Sutherland, there is a breccia-filled pipe about 180 feet
in diameter marked on the surface by a shallow pan.
No outcrops of the breccia are visible, but two prospect-
ing shafts allow one to obtain good specimens of the
rocks. The breccia is softer in one part of the pipe
than elsewhere, and consists of a serpentinous matrix
containing fragments and boulders of quartzite, sand-
stone, shale, dolerite of the Karroo type, and rocks with
a granulitic structure ; the last-mentioned rocks are
composed of three varieties of monoclinic pyroxene,
brown hornblende, brown mica, ilmenite, garnet and
some felspar or the alteration products of a basic fel-
spar. The felspar is only present in some varieties of
the granulites, which are evidently related, in the sense
of forming a series of increasing basicity. It is worthy
of remark that oUvine and rhombic pyroxenes are absent
from these rocks, though the former, altered to serpen-
tine, is an abundant constituent in the matrix of the
breccia. The varieties without felspar have a resem-
blance to the eclogite fragments in the blue-ground of
the Griqualand West and other pipes to the north of
the Orange Eiver. The minerals which occur in these
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VOLCANIC PIPES 337
heavy basic rocks are also the most conspicuous frag-
ments in the breccia, and there is no doubt that they
were derived from the same source that the boulders
came from. The less conspicuous constituents of the
breccia, only determinable under the microscope, are
perofskite, serpentine pseudomorphs after olivine, grains
of quartz and argillaceous matter derived from sedi-
mentary rocks and calcite. The harder variety of breccia
contains less serpentine and more sand and clay than
the softer, but all the minerals mentioned above occur
in both kinds.
Saltpetre Kop is a very prominent hill in the Suther-
land Division rising about 1,000 feet above the general
level of the high plateau on which it stands. It is
composed of breccia and tuflF, filling a vent about 1,000
yards long by 600 wide ; the vent traverses the Beaufort
beds which are turned upwards for a considerable dis-
tance on all sides ; the dip of the Beaufort beds is
extremely slight in the surrounding district, but at
points about a mile and a quarter from the neck the
strata have a distinct dip away from it and the inclina-
tion increases as the neck is approached, so that near
the breccia the beds are nearly vertical.^ Bound about
this large neck are nineteen others of smaller size and
forty-six dykes, mostly filled with fine tuflfs or breccias.
In the case of one dyke the rock has been found to be
largely composed of one of the less basic plagioclase
felspars, and is evidently an igneous rock of somewhat
peculiar character, but it has been greatly altered by the
* A fuller description and plans of the Saltpetre Kop area will be
found in Geol C<mm. (03) and Rogers and Du Toit (04).
22
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338 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
substitution of calcite, hydrated ferric oxides, and silica
for some of its original components. The breccias and
tufifs vary greatly, but they all consist mainly of frag-
ments of sedimentary rocks set in a matrix of similar
substances finely comminuted ; but in addition to these
constituents there are pieces of granite, gneiss, mica
schist and Karroo dolerite, and also mica, hornblende
and ilmenite, identical in character with the similar
minerals in the Silver Dam breccia. Parts of the brec-
cias and tuffs are strongly impregnated with carbonates
of lime and magnesia, barium sulphate, hydrated oxides
of iron and silica. This has happened chiefly in the
smaller pipes and in the peripheral portion of the large
vent ; a similar process has caused the hardening of the
shales and sandstones at their contact with the vents
and dykes. The carbonates, sulphates, oxides of iron
and silica were probably carried to their present position
by water ascending the channels of eruption after the
period of violent activity had closed ; their deposition
may be regarded as analogous to the effects of the
** solfataric " stage of recent volcanic areas.
The smaller necks in the Saltpetre Kop area do not
materially affect the regularity of the quft-qu&-versal dip
about the central vent.
In no other vent of the kind we are dealing with in
this chapter is the outward dip or up-turning of the
surrounding strata so strongly marked as in the case of
the central neck of the Saltpetre Kop group. Wherever
the strata in immediate contact with one of the pipes
are exposed, and have been examined with attention,
they have been found to dip away from the contact, as
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VOLCANIC PIPES 339
though the ascent of the materials filling the pipes had
bent the edges of the strata upwards. This has been
noted at some of the Sutherland Commonage vents, at
Balmoral (Batel Eontein), at Matjes Fontein, Schiet
Fontein and at Kimberley. This feature seems to be
peculiar to these vents, for where notice has been taken
of the dip of the strata near the pipes of volcanoes of
the more usual types the strata have been found to be
inclined towards the pipe as though dragged downwards
by the settling in of the contents after the activity of the
volcanoes ceased.^
On the farms De Vrede, Portugal's River, and Blaauw
Blommetjes Keep, in the Sutherland Division there are
breccia-filled pipes and dykes. The Blaauw Blommetjes
Keep pipe gives off a sheet-like extension of the breccia,
which distinctly traverses a thick sheet of dolerite, and
thereby proves that the production of the vent was
posterior to the consolidation of the dolerite, a strong
confirmation of the evidence afforded by the fragments
of coarsely crystalline dolerite found in the breccias of
many of the necks of this class.
At Balmoral (Ratel Fontein), in the Fraserburg Divi-
sion, there is a circular depression in the ground about
300 feet wide and ten to twenty feet deep, surrounded by
the truncated edges of the Beaufort beds dipping away
from the depression. The depression is caused by the
weathering away of a soft breccia which fills a pipe.
^ It is naturally only in long extinct volcanoes that observations on
the dip of the sedimentary strata, below the pile of the volcanic debris
forming the cone or mountain, can be made. Several sections through
such strata are given in Sir A. Qeikie's Ancient Volcanoes of GrecU
Britain,
22*
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340 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
The breccia is a blue muddy rock containing fragments
of sandstone and shale, dolerite, biotite, garnet and
ilmenite. This pipe is remarkably well exposed, and
the nature of the contact and the up-turning of the edges
of the sedimentary rocks through which the pipe passes
can be more satisfactorily seen than at any other locality
yet described.
At Schiet Fontein and other farms near Carnarvon
and near Hanover similar pipes are known ; they have
been briefly described by Mr. Dunn ^ but no details have
yet been published concerning them.
To the north of the Orange Eiver, in the Cape Colony,
the Orange River Colony, and the Transvaal, there are
many of these volcanic pipes. Several of them, includ-
ing those at Kimberley, are surrounded at the surface
by rocks belonging to the lower stages of Karroo forma-
tion, but farther to the north and west, where these
strata have been removed by denudation, the pipes crop
out through the Pre-Cape rocks. At Kimberley the
mines are being worked far below the base of the Karroo
formation, as the accompanying sections * show. The
quartzites, amygdaloidal rocks (*' melaphyres '*) and
quartz-porphyries passed through by the rock shafts,
from which access to the mine (the pipe filled with
blue-ground) is gained by horizontal tunnels, belong to
the Pre-Cape formations ; but the dolerite, or diabase
as it is usually called by French and German writers,
is part of the great intrusions of late Karroo age de-
scribed in chapter vii.
» Dunn (74), pp. 64-60.
' I am indebted to Mr. Gardner F. Williams for these sections.
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VOLCANIC PIPES 341
1 11 III IV V
4,025 4»ooo 3,958 3,975 3,936 ft. above sea
. .4i9QQ ft* above sea
-3iS90 ju
.3,000
.AW
IJSRfL »» ••
Fig. 27. — SectioDs of the rook-shafts, mines of the Kimberley area.
I Kimberley mine. IV. Du Toit's Pan mine.
II De Beer's mine. V. Premier mine.
III. Bnlt Fontein mine.
8. Shales ) Karroo formation.
c. Dwyka conglomerate I **-"**"" .w*iu»wv«.
q. Quartzites I Pre-Caoe rocks
qs. Shales in the quartzites » "® ^ *P® ^**^'^'*-
d. Dolerite of Ejutoo type.
m. Melaphyre {qf. Zeekoe Baard amygdaloid) ) q* p-^.n
p. Quartz-porphyry (</. Beer Vley Volcanic series) [ r^ 1
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342 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
The "blue-ground" or kimberlite (Carvill Lewis) which
fills these pipes is a serpentinous breccia containing
many kinds of minerals. The chief varieties are olivine
or serpentine pseudomorphs after that mineral, biotite,
chrome-diopside, enstatite, smaragdite, garnet, perofskite,
magnetite, ilmenite, chromite, picotite, apatite, epidote,
orthite, tremolite, tourmaline, rutile, and diamond.
Calcite, various zeolites, chalcedony, and talc are also
present, but they must be looked upon as having been
introduced after the volcanic activity ceased, or as alter-
ation products of the other constituents. It is impossible
to be certain which constituents are part of the blue-
ground as distinguished from the fragments contained
in it, but there is reason to regard the olivine, magne-
tite, ilmenite, and perofskite as belonging to a formerly
molten magma which carried up with it, during the
explosion that established the pipes, part of the olivine,
the pyroxenes, garnet, smaragdite, diamond and several
other minerals that were derived from deep-seated
rocks other than the then molten lava. This view was
strongly supported by Professor Bonney,^ who gives con-
vincing evidence in favour of it as regards diamond and
other constituents of an eclogite from the Newlands
Mine. Descriptions of the Newlands Mine show that
the blue-ground occurs in an irregularly shaped pipe
and as dykes and sheet-like extensions in the surround-
ing rocks.^ At the De Beers Mine a hard variety of
blue-ground, called snake-rock, which occurs in the form
of a dyke in the softer blue, extends as a dyke through
1 Geol. Mag. (99), pp 309.2L
'Graichen (03).
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VOLCANIC PIPES 343
the country rock outside the pipe itself, just as at Salt-
petre Kop, Blaauw Blommetjes Keep, and De Vrede
the breccias form dykes in the Beaufort beds. The
shape of the pipes appears to vary at different depths,
but on this and many other points of great interest
concerning the occurrence of the breccias no complete
or detailed information is yet available. The composi-
tion of the breccias is by no means constant in the
different mines or in one and the same pipe. A striking
instance of this fact is the abundance of enstatite in the
rocks from De Beers Mine described by the earlier
writers, while in many specimens from'deeper levels it
is certainly a rare constituent.
In some of the pipes in the Kimberley area large
masses of sedimentary rocks have been found embedded
in the blue-ground ; some of these contain fossils. The
sandstone fragments with Atherstonia, a fish, have prob-
ably come from the Beaufort beds, and some reptilian
remains which have been found in the Premier Mine
may have had a similar origin. These fragments prob-
ably dropped into the pipes from the wall at a higher
level than that at which they were found. The large
logs of charred wood sometimes met with in the blue-
ground may have fallen into the vents from the surface
after the explosions had taken place. Had the logs been
fossilised wood derived from the Karroo strata we should
expect to find them in the same strata as the fossil wood
in those beds, viz., in the form of silicified wood, in
which silica replaces the woody tissue and fills the
cells.
There have been many views held as to the real
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344 GEOLOGY OP CAPE COLONY
nature of the blue-ground,^ but the best supported is
certainly that in which it is regarded as a breccia derived
from an igneous rock of ultra-basic composition. The
late Professor Carvill Lewis * considered that the ** abun-
dance of calcite as a decomposition product, the high
magnesia and low alkali, the presence of biotite, and
more especially of perofskite," indicate the former pre-
sence of nepheline or melilite, and that the rock may
have been a melilite-basalt. The discovery of melilite-
basalt in similar pipes in Sutherland is certainly striking
in view of this opinion. The same author considered
the blue-ground to be a true igneous lava, and not a
mud or ash, but this view is difficult to reconcile^ with
many of the facts, as the editor of his papers points out.
It seems more justifiable to regard the contents of the
Eamberley pipes as breccias derived from the explosive
disintegration of a body of lava of ultra-basic composi-
tion ; another efifect of the explosion was to break up
masses of rock (which may be called eclogite), composed
of pyroxenes, olivine, ilmenite, biotite and garnets, to
mention the more abundant minerals only, and to throw
the minerals thus obtained up the channels opened by
the explosion, mingled with the lava in a solid or plastic
state. Whether the eclogites were originally altogether
distinct from the molten lava, or whether they were an
1 A general summary of these views will be found in chap. xvi. of Mr.
Gardner Williams* book, citM on a previous page.
* The Oenesis and Matrix of the Diatnondy edited after the death of
the author by Professor T. G. Bonney, London, 1897. This contains
the best account of the rocks and minerals of the Kimberley pipes in the
English language. For other references see under Bonney, De Launay,
Story-Maskelyne and Flight, Lacroix and Cohen in the appendix.
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VOLCANIC PIPES 346
early product of the same magma is another matter,
which is difficult to decide with the help of the evi-
dence at present available. The abundance, however, of
perofskite in the blue-ground, and its absence from the
eclogites hitherto described from the pipes, seems to
indicate separate origins for the two rocks.
Another feature of importance is the occurrence of
well-rounded boulders of several of the rocks enclosed by
the blue-ground. Professor Bonney described an eclogite
boulder from the Newlands Mine, and came to the con-
clusion that it had been picked up in that form by the
blue-ground when the explosions took place. At Salt-
petre Kop and other vents in Sutherland, similarly shaped
boulders of hard quartzite, eclogite and granite occur.
At Balmoral a garnet rock and dolerite of the Karroo
type are found in this form. The dolerite boulders could
hardly have been obtained in that shape from a con-
glomerate, as there are no known conglomerates, con-
taining dolerite boulders, of earlier age than the pipes.
It is possible that the quartzite boulders of the Saltpetre
Kop agglomerates were derived from the Dwyka con-
glomerate, but a similar explanation cannot be held to
account for the eclogites. These rocks have not been
observed in the Dwyka conglomerate, and their extra-
ordinary abundance in the Silver Dam breccia, as well
as in some of the northern pipes, is inconsistent with
the paucity of boulders of granite and certain other rocks
in the breccias, for those rocks are very frequently seen
in the Dwyka conglomerate. In addition to this, the
eclogites, or minerals derived from them, are quite
as characteristic of the breccias from the pipes in
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346 GEOLOGY OP CAPE COLONY
regions where the Dwyka conglomerate is but thinly
developed or entirely absent, as in districts where
that conglomerate almost certainly underlies the sur-
face.
From the foregoing descriptions of the breccias and
other rocks filling the pipes and fissures we see that,
though they differ widely, yet there are usually connect-
ing links between them to be noticed. Had the Spiegel
River melilite-basalt been the only example of this type
of rock known in the Colony it would have been ex-
tremely rash to postulate any connection between it
and the contents of the long known Kimberley pipes ;
but the association of the melilite-basalts of Sutherland
Conmionage and Matjes Fontein in the same pipes with
breccias containing some of the characteristic minerals
of kimberlite, and their occurrence close to the Silver
Dam vent, which is filled with an agglomerate still
more like typical kimberlite, render the supposition
much less improbable. In the remarkable agglomerates
of the Saltpetre Kop group of pipes we find that though
the bulk of the rocks are composed of the debris of sedi-
mentary beds, yet there are also numerous fragments of
the biotite, ilmenite and hornblende characteristic of the
Silver Dam breccia. The occurrence of kimberlite in
the form of dykes and sheets, as well as in the pipes, is
analogous to the agglomerate dykes and sheet of Salt-
petre Kop and Blaauw Blommetjes Keep, though such
phenomena are distinctly unusual. It is interesting to
notice that similar dykes of a rock apparently indis-
tinguishable from kimberlite have been found at two
places in North America, at Syracuse (New York) and
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VOLCANIC PIPES 347
in Kentucky.^ In the Cape Colony only one other grit or
detrital dyke has been found. It is a remarkably regular
outcrop of a gritty rock composed of grains of quartz,
felspar, garnet, epidote and other minerals, and it ex-
tends for a long distance through the Witteberg beds
near Elands Vley, west of the Tanqua Karroo. It has a
width of about eight feet and is said by the local fanners
to be clearly traceable for thirty miles across the country.
Its age is unknown, but as it is so unlike any other
geological feature in the country it may be mentioned
here in connection with the phenomena which bear the
nearest analogy to it. The remarkable characters of the
contents of certain pipes, such as those of Silver Dam
and Balmoral, are closely similar to those of Kimberley,
and the fact is sufficient to support the view that these
vents were established by similar means, and at about
the same time.
The age of each vent can only be determined by
observing the strata which it traverses and by finding
rocks of known age in the breccias. It is obvious
that a vent is younger than the beds passed through,
and younger than the rocks contained in it in the
form of fragments or boulders. The usual evidence
of the date of the extrusion of volcanic rocks is entirely
wanting here. The only satisfactory answer to such
a question is the interbedding of tuflfs or lavas with
contemporaneously formed sediments. In the case of
the Stormberg volcanic beds, for instance, they have
^ Descriptions of these rocks and their occurrence and references to
the original papers will be found in Professor Bonney's edition of Garvill
Lewis's papers.
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348 GEOLOGY OP CAPE COLONY
been found intercalated between the ordinary sediments
of the upper division of the Stormberg series, and their
age is thereby satisfactorily settled, though we do not
know how long the volcanic activity prevailed. In the
cases of the Kimberley, Sutherland, Fraserburg and
other similar pipes, excluding the Spiegel Biver neck,
we know that they were formed after the intrusion of
the Karroo dolerites, for they either pass through sheets
of dolerite or contain fragments of that rock evidently
torn from sheets or dykes. The dolerite intrusions as
we saw in the last chapter, probably belong to the
Stormberg period, therefore the pipes were probably
produced later than that period. This is as much as
can definitely be stated with regard to the age of those
vents. If, now, the general resemblance of the Spiegel
Biver mehlite-basalt to the somewhat similar rocks of
Sutherland be considered as evidence of their close
connection in origin, or, in other words, of their belong-
ing to one and the same phase of volcanic activity in
the Colony, as in my opinion it may be, then the earlier
limit of the age of these pipes is advanced from Post-
Stormberg to Uitenhage or Post-Uitenhage times. It
is worth while mentioning the fact that the other known
African rocks containing melilite and having a distinct,
though perhaps not very close, resemblance to the Co-
lonial melilite-basalts occur in East Africa at Doenyo
Ngai, Makinga Hill and Mount Elgon.^ At the present
^ Short descriptions of these rocks are given in Zirkel (94) and
Eosenbusch (96) p. 1,276. 6. T. Prior (03) describes the Mount Eigon
rocks. The others are described by Miigge (86) and Lenk, but I have
not had access to these two papers.
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VOLCANIC PIPES 349
time no^eat importance can be attached to the resem-
blance between rocks so far removed from one another,
especially as the examples in the Colony show no
indications of the surface features consequent on their
eruption, while the East African rocks are of quite
recent date.
We may sum up this account of these peculiar vents
which are distributed widely over South Africa by saying
that at some period after the close of Stormberg times
(probably after the commencement of the Uitenhage
period) great explosions took place which drilled holes
of various sizes through great thicknesses of rock, and
that although some of these holes were filled with
lavas of basic composition, the majority are occupied
by agglomerates, breccias or tuffs. These fragmental
rocks are composed of material derived from the molten
magma which was intimately connected with the imme-
diate cause of the explosions, mingled with other matter
torn from deep-seated rocks or from the strata through
which the pipes were opened.
The occurrence of diamond as a constituent of some
of the breccias has been the cause of a far wider interest
in the pipes than would otherwise have been the case.
For many years the diamond was thought to have been
derived from the crystallisation of the carbon originally
contained in the carbonaceous shales surrounding the
pipes, but the presence of the mineral in the blue-
ground at levels far below the shales, and its occurrence
near Pretoria in kimberlite filling a pipe in the Pretoria
series, which hes below any known carbonaceous rocks,'
iMolengxaa£r(98)p. 123.
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350 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
finally disposed of that theory. The presence of dia-
mond in the form of good crystals in the gametiferous
eclogites^ affords strong support for the view that it crys-
tallised out from solution in an ultra-basic rock-magma,
which sometimes gave rise to eclogites. Whether any
other variety of rock magma enabled the mineral to form
remains to be proved. Hitherto eclogite containing dia-
mond has only been found in breccias of the kimberlite
type, no outcrops of eclogites or other ultra-basic rocks
containing the mineral have yet been found.
1 Bonney (99) pp. 809-821.
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CHAPTEE X.
REGENT OR SUPERFICIAL DEPOSITS.
In many parts of the Colony there are accumulations of
sand, gravel, alluvium, limestones, quartzites, and fer-
ruginous rocks that belong to a comparatively recent
order of things, and in some cases are to-day in process
of formation. There is invariably a marked uncon-
formity between those rocks and the strata upon which
they rest, although it is not always easy to find a suit-
able exposure of the junction.
For the purpose of description the superficial deposits
may be divided up into the following groups, but they
were not so distinct in origin, and, as we shall point
out later, some groups grade into others : —
1. Older gravels, alluvial deposits and quartzites.
2. Newer gravels and alluvial deposits.
3. Laterites.
4. Blown sands.
5. Limestones of the coast belt.
6. Limestones of the interior.
7. Baised beaches.
8. Vley and pan deposits.
1. Throughout the folded region and to the west of
its western portion there are many signs that the
country was to a certain extent reduced to a plain at
351
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352 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
a period when the rivers flowed at levels of some 600 —
1,000 feet above their present beds. In the Ruggens of
Caledon, Swellendam, Bredasdorp, and Mossel Bay, a
great tract of hilly country carved out of rocks chiefly
belonging to the Cape and Uitenhage formations, the
hill-tops reach a more or less common level from 800
to 1,200 feet above the sea. The summits are com-
posed of gravels, alluvium, and quartzites of a peculiar
nature, and are frequently table-shaped. If one looks
over the Ruggens from any prominent point in Swell-
endam or Riversdale th^ conviction that these isolated
patches were once continuous, and that they formed
a gently undulating surface connected with the terrace
that is at places a very conspicuous feature along the
lower slopes of the Langebergen, is immediately borne
in upon one.
The terrace on the mountain-side north of Zuurbraak
is separated by the deep valley of the BuflFeljagt's River
from the gravel-capped plateau south of that place ; the
gravels are coarse and contain many pebbles and boulders
of Table Mountain sandstone that must have come
from the Langebergen, although the ground on which
they lie is now quite cut off from the mountains by the
deep valley. There is no doubt that the terrace and
the plateau were once continuous, and that the pebbles
were brought from the Langebergen by the mountain
streams that now feed the BuflFeljagt's River. In this
case the rocks underlying the plateau are mainly Bokke-
veld slates, but on the west a tongue of the Swellendam
basin Uitenhage beds enters into its composition with-
out altering the character of the plateau, in spite of the
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RECENT OR SUPERFICIAL DEPOSITS 353
fact that the Uitenhage beds are more easily eroded,
than the Bokkeveld.
To the east of the Gouritz Eiver the road from
Herbertsdale to Hagel Kraal lies on a terrace stretch-
ing far to the south of the Langebergen, cut out of
the Table Mountain, Bokkeveld and Uitenhage beds in
different parts. This terrace is considerably cut up by
eastern tributaries of the Gouritz Eiver, but it is not
divided into a terrace and a plateau as is the case with
the old Zuurbraak terrace ; the unity of the whole is
still preserved. The Nouga Eivir has exposed admir-
able sections showing the terrace gravels lying uncon-
formably upon the Uitenhage beds, which there have a
moderate northerly dip.
To the north of the Langebergen both the terraces
and the plateaux are well represented. The former can
be seen from the roads to Oudtshoorn from Mossel
Bay where they leave the mountains at SafiEraan Eiver
(Eobinson Pass) and Doom Eiver (Montagu Pass). The
best example of a plateau in this district is the Tafel
Berg, between the Waterval and Bok Kraal Eivers
south of Buffels Fontein, a wide table-shaped area that
does not deserve the name of Berg. It is covered with
gravels derived from the Langebergen, from which it is
now separated by the Waterval Eiver.
In the Oudtshoorn-Uniondale-Willowmore area there
is a great development of high level gravels (see Plates
XIX. and XX.). The watershed between the Olifant's
and Baviaan*s Kloof Eivers is on one of them. The
present rivers for the most part run in deeply eroded
valleys cut down through the plateau gravels. The
23
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354 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
mountains of that district, the Kouga and Baviaan's
Kloof ranges, rise abruptly from the surface of the old
plateau.^
North of the Zwartebergen the gravel-covered terraces
and plateaux are almost as well developed as they are to
Plate XIX.— High-level gravels lying unconformably upon inclined
beds of Uitenhage age (Enon type), Paarde Kloof, near Tover Water
Poort, Uniondale.
the south of that range. Near Laingsburg the highly
folded Witteberg and Dwyka beds have been cut to a
common level by the Buffers Eiver and its affluents at
a period when the main stream flowed some 200 feet
above its present bed, and the surface of the terrace
is strewn with gravel and alluvium. Similar features
1 See Sohwarz, Qeol, Comm, (03) and Trans. PhU. Soc 8. A, (04).
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RECENT OR SUPERFICIAL DEPOSITS 355
occur along the northern flank of the range at least as
far as Prince Albert, where there are also some fine,
table-shaped and gravel-capped hills lying considerably
to the north of the motintains.
In the neighbourhood of Grahamstown the gravel
and quartzite terraces south of Botha's Hill and the
curious Sugar Loaf Hill nearer the town are parts of a
slightly undulating plain that has been cut into by the
Blaauw Krantz Biver. The underlying rocks belong
to the Witteberg and Dwyka series.
In the country north-east of theGualana Biver, where
the coast is formed by the Karroo formation, there
are extensive plateau-hke terraces bordering the coast,
deeply cut into by the rivers flowing from the Storm-
berg and Drakensberg. At a few spots on the plateau
that lies about 2,000 feet above the sea there are remains
of deposits analogous to the old alluvium and quartzites
of the country to the south-west. Kentani Hill is a
conspicuous example of these. At the present time,
however, little is known of the extent of these rocks.
In the Western Karroo a fairly well developed terrace
is visible along the foot of the Zwart Buggens, the dry
mountain ridge of Witteberg beds that limits the Ceres
and Tanqua Karroos. In the Tanqua Valley a corre-
sponding terrace covered with gravel derived from the
Klein Boggeveld forms a conspicuous feature on the
south side of the valley.
In all these cases the gravels are coarser near the
mountains than farther away from them. Pebbles and
boulders derived from the Table Mountain sandstone
are by far the most conspicuous constituents in the high
23*
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356 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
level gravels of the southern coastal region and in those
of the country between the Langebergen and Zwarte-
bergen. The boulders are sometimes of great size,
four or five feet in diameter, and they have their edges
rounded off ; the smaller fragments are more rounded
and are like the waterworn pebbles to be found in the
modern stream beds. These fragments are embedded
in a matrix that varies very greatly ; in the bulk of
the rock the matrix is a sandy material, but slightly
hardened, from which the pebbles may be easily broken
out ; in other cases the matrix is deeply coloured by
hydrated iron oxide, and the rock is in consequence
reddish brown. Such ferruginous gravels are well de-
veloped near Genadendal in Caledon and at the foot of
the Zwart Euggens in the western Karroo. Near the
village of Napier there is a conspicuous kopje formed
of a dark, highly ferruginous conglomerate, which
probably belongs to the same group of gravels that are
developed to the west of the village, at a consider-
able height above the bed of the Elands Kloof Eiver.
The ferruginous cement has in many cases hardened
the gravel to such an extent that the rock breaks across
pebbles and matrix ahke when struck with a hammer.
There is a gradual passage laterally from these ferru-
ginous gravels to the fine-grained ferruginous rocks that
lie farther from the mountains, and which often con-
tain a few angular or subangular pieces of white vein
quartz derived from the slaty Bokkeveld or Witteberg
beds underlying them. Magnificent examples of these
hardened alluvial deposits are to be found in many parts
of the Euggens, forming rough-looking caps on the
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RECENT Oft SUPERFICIAL DEK)S1TR 357
higher hills, such as Elaas Kaffir's Heuvel near the
road from Swellendam to Bredasdorp.
The ferruginous rock is often directly underlain by
white and yellowish clays, bleached by the slow removal
of the iron they once contained which is now concen-
trated in the overlying rock. In some cases the traces of
cleavage and joint planes are to be seen in the bleached
material, which must then be regarded as a product of
weathering in situ of slates ; but most of the clays ap-
pear to be alluvial deposits formed by the rivers when
they were at a relatively higher level than at present.
The ferruginous material is closely related to the lat-
erites that occur at lower levels in many parts of the
south-west, and which will be described on a later page.
Another very widespread variety of the gravels is due
to the deposition of silica in the matrix subsequently to
the formation of the gravel. All stages between a rather
incoherent conglomerate and an extremely hard rock
from which it is practically impossible to detach the
contained pebbles can readily be found in one and the
same patch of rock. The deposition of silica is most ad-
vanced on the upper surface of the mass, the lowest part
of which is often a loose gravel. By the diminution
in size of the pebbles and their gradual disappearance
as the outcrops are followed away from the mountains
the quartzitic gravels pass into the typical ** surface
quartzite '* so widely distributed throughout the western
and southern parts of the Colony (see PI. XX.).
As a rule the surface quartzites have certain pecu-
liarities that enable one to recognise the smallest chip
without difficulty ; their fracture is smoother, more con-
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358 GEOLCXJY OF CAPE COLONY
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RECENT OR SUPERFICIAL DEPOSITS 359
choidal, and less splintery than that of the quartzites
of the older formations ; small quantities of argillaceous
matter, yellow or grey in colour, are present in the
siliceous matrix enclosing the grains of quartz sand
that are often visible without the aid of a magnifying
glass. The quartzites generally enclose many small
irregularly shaped cavities, which are sometimes lined
with minute crj'stals of quartz, or with the chalcedonic
form of silica. The original quartz grains in the rocks
are at places converted into bipyramidal crystals by the
addition of new quartz in crystalline continuity with
the quartz of the grain. By the mutual interlocking
of the new quartz added to all the sand grains in the
originally sandy portion of the rock, the loose sands
have become intensely hard quartzites in which the
original grains are no longer recognisable without the
use of a microscope and thin sections of the rock, when
the outlines of some of the grains can be seen within
the new growth of quartz ; the quartz deposited round
any one sand grain interlocks closely with that round
the neighbouring grains. Good examples of these
quartzites may be seen in any of the south-western divi-
sions. They often appear above the soil as rounded
polished surfaces, due to the weathering out of the rock
along irregularly disposed vertical joints, which leave a
massive lump of rock in their interstices. On the hill-
top near the road from Swellendam to the bridge over
the Bufifeljagt*s Eiver the quartzite has been quarried
for building purposes ; the bridge piers are made of it.
As a rule, however, the rock is too intractable and too
variable within short distances to be worth quarrying
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360 GEOLOGY OF CAl^E COLONY
although it is certainly a very durable stone. Near
Grahainstown the surface quartzites appear in the
Sugar Loaf Hill and on the terrace to the north of it
mentioned on a previous page. The hard quartzite is
at most ten feet thick, but the underlying soft clayey
material, into which the quartzite passes without any
definite break, is at places as much as forty feet thick.
The top of Kentani Hill, the only conspicuous eleva-
tion above the general surface of the plateau that
stretches northwards from the Kentani escarpment, is
formed by a hard quartzite, vitreous in parts, but usually
with a rough pitted surface. The quartzite, which is
only a few feet thick, passes downwards into variously
coloured clays from thirty to forty feet thick.
A similar siliceous rock from a farm about nine miles
south of Komgha village contains the silicified seeds of
Chara, small spherical bodies vnth ribs passing spirally
round them, and silicified shells of Limnaa. This is the
only surface quartzite in the Colony known to contain
recognisable fossils, but at present nothing is known of
its extent.
On the Cape Flats there are several outcrops of sur-
face quartzite, some of which contain plant remains
that have not been determined. One well-known out-
crop is near the main road to Stellenbosch about ten
miles from Cape Town, and there are several othfers in
its vicinity. The Cape Flats quartzites are usually
whiter and more uniform in grain than the similar rocks
in other parts of the Colony. The white colour is due
to the almost complete absence of clay and ferruginous
colouring matter; the quartzite passes downwards into
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RECENT OR ftUPERFlGlAL DEPOSITS t%l
a sandstone and that again into loose sand, which is
identical with the white sand that occurs under the sur-
face soil over a great part of the Flats.
In the Malmesbury, Piquetberg, Clanwilliam and Van
Ehyn's Dorp Divisions surface quartzites are met with
in many places on the coast side of the Olifant's Eiver
Mountains and the other ranges in connection with
them. The quartzites are underlain by sandy clay or
gravel into which they grade. By an increase in the
amount of ferruginous colouring matter they become
very similar to the laterites, and on the Van Ehyn's
Dorp coast they pass into coarse conglomerates con-
taining the shells of living species of marine forms,
raised beaches which lie from 50 to 100 feet above the
high-water mark. This sunmiary of the distribution
and features of the high level gravels and associated
rocks shows that throughout the southern, western and
south-eastern portions of the Colony there are gravels
and alluvial deposits, altered to some extent by the
deposition of silica and other cementing substances
between the grains, lying high above the levels at which
similar accumulations are being formed at the present
day. The deep channels through which the rivers now
flow, and the consequent cutting up of the former plains
whose existence is evidenced by the numerous flat-topped
hills capped by the deposits laid down before the deep
valleys were eroded, show that the country as a whole
is now at a relatively higher level than it was during
the formation of the plains. The rocks underlying the
remnants of the old plains, now exposed in the river
valleys, are of various natures and in part intensely
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362 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
folded. The more resistant of these, chiefly the Table
Mountain series, still project above the general surface
of the plains in the great anticlinal ridges that have so
frequently come under our notice. The terraces cut
into these ridges show that the great anticlines of
quartzites and sandstone were being attacked, and had
to a slight extent been reduced to the level of the
plains, at the time when the country began to rise
and give renewed downward eroding power to the
rivers. Previously to this period of elevation the
country as a whole must have stood for long ages at
about the same level, unless, indeed, some slight down-
ward movements broke the quietude. The rivers were
thus enabled to erode their valleys laterally after they
had reached their base levels, t.e., when the slope of
their valleys was such that they could carry away all
the debris furnished them but were unable to deepen
their channels.
Towards the close of the period of great lateral erosion
large areas south of the Langebergen, west of the Ceder-
berg group of ranges, and between the Langebergen and
Zwartebergen, were reduced to gently undulating sur-
faces, across which the rivers flowed with many bends in
their courses, and they were bordered by low-lying land
covered with gravel near the mountains and sand or
loam farther away from them. Probably there were
many damp and swampy patches, or even shallow lakes,
such as would be called vleys in this country, on the low
land, and in these places the changes may have com-
menced that resulted in the formation of the surface
quartzites.
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RECENT OR SUPERFICIAL DEPOSITS 363
From an examination of specimens sent to Europe
by Dr. Passarge, Professor Kalkowsky^ came to the con-
clusion that a certain kind of rock, which seems verjr
similar to our surface quartzites, was formed by the
silicification of an aluminous sandy mud deposited in
salt pans in the Kalahari. The addition of the silica is
attributed by him to the action of salts and organic sub-
stances in solution upon the silicious remains of diatoms
and other plants, although the diatoms were not actually
found in the rocks examined. This explanation may
apply to the Cape surface quartzites, for it fits in with
the sporadic occurrence of the rock.
2. The newer gravels and alluvial deposits.
At various levels between the high level deposits just
described and the beds of the present rivers in the
southern, eastern and western parts of the Colony there
are more or less well-marked terraces covered with
gravels and alluvium. Several such terraces can be
seen along the Breede Kiver below Swellendam. It is
often difficult to separate the higher of these from the
high gravel plateaux, and hard ferruginous rocks and
even quartzites may be found on them, but they may
often be distinguished from the plateau gravels by the
finding of pieces of the quartzitic or ferruginous gravels
amongst their pebbles. The Breede Kiver terraces have
gravels containing such pebbles and boulders derived
from the older deposits, originally of a similar nature.
In some parts of the Swellendam, Biversdale and
Mossel Bay Divisions, the gravels met with far from
1 Kalkowsky (01), p. 65, etc.
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364 . GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
the mountainous ground often contain large pebbles
derived from the conglomerates belonging to the Uiten-
hage series. These pebbles were well rounded, and were
probably in much the same condition as they are to-day,
before they reached their present position. The same
is the case in other districts, such as Oudtshoorn, where
the Uitenhage conglomerates occur. The abundance of
these derived pebbles in positions where an explanation
of their presence would be very difficult on the supposi-
tion that they were brought directly from the original
source of the rocks of which they are made, is at places
very striking.
Near the mouths of many of the rivers of the south
and south-east coasts there are sandy deposits which
extend to a considerable depth below the beds of the
rivers. At the Bitou Eiver ^ the green sands containing
many marine shells, including large numbers of Crypto-
don glohosusy which is now comparatively rare in the adja-
cent sea, were pierced to a depth of forty-seven feet below
the river without their base being found. The shells
hitherto found in these sands and in similar deposits in
other places all belong to existing species. At East
London the sandy mud in the estuary of the Buffalo
River has been found to be over 120 feet thick. The
considerable depth below sea level to which these
estuarine deposits extend may point to a subsidence
of the coast, but it is perhaps more likely that the scour
of the river and tide combined are sufficient to account
for the excavation of the estuaries. This certainly
» Schwarz, Qeol. Comm. (99), p. 61.
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RECENT OR SUPERFICIAL DEPOSITS 365
seems to be the case with the short but deep estuary of
the Kaaiman's Kiver, near George, where there is a
rapid fall of the bed below the old road drift.
The alluvium along the great rivers draining the
Great Karroo is often extensive and of considerable
depth. It occurs chiefly behind mountain ridges
through which the rivers have cut their way more
slowly than in the softer ground now occupied by the
alluvial deposits. A very good example is found in the
Olifant's River (Oudtshoom) ; this river rises south of
Antonie's Berg in Willowmore, but it receives very
important tributaries in the Traka, Meiring*s Poort,
Grobbelaar's and Kammanassie Rivers before it joins
the Gamka in the middle of the Roode Berg mass of
Table Mountain sandstone. The junction of these two
rivers makes a great Y-shaped gorge, with vertical walls
some 600 feet high, in the heart of the mountains.
Before entering the gorge the Olifant's River runs for
some eighty miles over flat country, and this tract is
very rich in alluvium, especially the lower part of it
below the town of Oudtshoom. Underlying the allu-
vium there are rocks belonging to the Uitenhage group,
which are soft and easily eroded compared with the
Table Mountain sandstone. The mountains have acted
as a check to the downward cutting of the river, that
has consequently widened its valley behind them and
deposited the alluvium to which the Oudtshoom Division
owes its wealth. These accumulations are gathered from
nearly all the rock systems in the Colony, from the Pre-
Cape rocks of the Cango to the Uitenhage beds of their
immediate vicinity. The Gamka has formed a similar
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366 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
but smaller alluvial tract between Sand Berg (or Paarde
Berg) and the Boode Berg gorge, and others occur lower
down its course.
Another tributary of the Gamka, the Buffel's Eiver,
has cut a wide alluvial plain behind the E^ein Zwartberg,
which it enters at Leeuw Kloof Poort.
Great tracts of alluvium are found along the rivers
which flow northward from the main watershed to the
Orange Biver. The great Fish, Bhenoster, and Zak
Eivers in Sutherland, Fraserburg, and Calvinia, are
especially rich in alluvial deposits derived from the
Beaufort beds and the dolerite north of the watershed.
Where water can be easily brought on to these lands
they are extremely fertile. Tontelbosch Kolk in Cal-
vinia, a farm on the banks of the Bhenoster, is perhaps
the finest grain farm in the Colony. The fall of these
tributaries of the Orange is very slight compared with
that of the rivers south of the main watershed ; their
valleys are more open, and towards their lower ends
tend to disappear in the pans or ** vloers,** the flat
alluvial ground quickly flooded during storms but baked
hard and white a few hours later, that are a character-
istic feature of the arid country south of the great river.
In the western Karroo the rivers draining the Eoggeveld
escarpment receive a sudden check on leaving the Karroo
formation and entering the region of the Witteberg beds,
which are of a harder consistency. In the Bosch Kiver
Valley on Witte Vlakte a well has been sunk 140 feet
through alluvium without reaching solid rock ; this
river has deserted its former channel, now marked by
a very conspicuous poort in the beds west of the Poortje
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RECENT OR SUPERFICIAL DEPOSITS 367
pan, and has turned southwards to enter the Draai
Kraal's Biver several miles from its former point of
junction.
The rivers of the west coast, from the Great Berg to
the Olifant's, have considerable tracts of alluvium along
the lower forty miles or so of their valleys. The Berg
Biver alluvium extends to a depth considerably below
sea level at many spots where wells give information
bearing on the question.
Very little is known of the fossil contents of these
river deposits, many of which are of quite recent origin
and therefore probably contain only the remains of
living or lately extinct animals. The imperfect head of
a gigantic buffalo,^ Bubalibs baini, Seeley, measuring
eight feet six and a half inches between the horn-tips,
although these are broken and therefore shorter than
they were originally, is preserved in the South African
Museum, and seems to be the only known example of
an extinct mammal from the river deposits It came
from the Modder Biver, forty feet below the surface.
3. In many parts of the southern and western coast
districts there are layers of ferruginous rock resting
either immediately upon the slates, granite, or other
rock of the vicinity, or vnth the intervention of a few
feet of sandy clay. The underlying rock is usually con-
siderably weathered, and sometimes bleached by the
loss of its colouring matter, which seems to have been
transferred to the ferruginous layer. The latter varies
very greatly within short distances. It is usually a
» Sooley (01), p. 199.
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368 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
hard lumpy-looking rock, with innumerable small and
irregular channels lined with a red-brown or yellow
material. In places the hydrated sesquioxide of iron,
limonite, is so free from sand and clay that it might be
used as an ore ; but generally there is a large quantity
of clay, sand, and subangular fragments of vein quartz
and other rocks that do not decompose under the in-
fluence of the weather, cemented together by the iron
oxide.
Along the edges of the Cape Flats near the high
ground of the Peninsula and the Tyger Berg the
laterite, or ironstone as it is usually called, is found
a few feet below the surface. Farther inland, in
the Malmesbury, Paarl, Caledon and other Divisions
near the coast, where there is no general covering of
sand as on the Cape Flats, the laterite lies just below
the soil, or is exposed at the surface, over considerable
areas of flat and slightly inclined ground. It is rarely
or never found in its typical form on steep slopes, al-
though even in such situations the subsoil is in plewjes
partly cemented into a fairly hard substance by ferru-
ginous matter, thus making an approach to the laterite
of the lower ground.
The formation of the laterite is due to the concentra-
tion of the iron oxide near the surface in the decomposed
rock or subsoil, occasionally in sandy soil that has been
brought to its present position by water. The nature
of the clay that accompanies the laterite in many places,
especially where it lies upon clay slates, has not yet been
ascertained.
The high-lying lateritic rocks are closely connected
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RECENT OR SUPERFICIAL DEPOSITS 369
with the older gravels and alluvial deposits, and are
now represented by mere remnants, but the low-lying
ones are to-day in process of formation.
Very similar looking laterites appear to have been
derived from rocks of diverse natures, such as granite
and slate; even the Table Mountain sandstone of the
west coast, Clanwilliam and Van Ehyn*s Dorp, is in
places covered with a ferruginous cemented material •
grading on the one hand into the raised beaches of that
coast and on the other into the surface quartzites.
Near Strand Fontein, a few miles south of the Olifant's
Biver mouth, the almost flow-like appearance of the
remains of the dark hmonitic quartzite lying on the
Table Mountain sandstone and filling up the open joints
at various levels from that of the high tide to 200 feet
above it has given rise to the idea amongst the people in
the neighbourhood that it is lava. This somewhat re-
markable variety of the lateritic rocks is certainly due to
the deposition of the hydrated iron oxide, leached out
from the underlying sandstones, between the sand grains
which reached their present position through the agencies
of wind and water.
4. Extensive areas in various parts of the Colony are
covered to a more or less considerable depth by sand.
These deposits of sand may be roughly divided into two
groups ; those formed inland and those near the coast.
The inland sands are chiefly developed in the north-
west; the Namaqualand, Calvinia, Kenhardt and Prieska
Divisions contain large tracts of sand, and the same
is the case with the great dry country formed by the
Colonial portion of the Kalahari Desert. Little is known
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^70 GEOLOGY OF CAPE OOLONV
from a geological point of view of much of this country,
especially of the Kalahari region. The sand occurs in
the form of well-defined ridges in the Kalahari and in
the more arid parts of the country south of the Orange
River.
In Bushmanland (parts of Namaqualand, Calvinia
and Kenhardt) the sand is derived from the minerals
composing the gneissose granite that occupies such
wide areas there. Quartz and felspar are the chief
constituents, and by the breaking up of the granite
under the influence of the great diurnal change of
temperature, one of the climatic features of that region,
the minerals are set free to be carried about by the
wind and rain. The sand is pink owing to the abund-
ance of red felspar, and also to the iron oxide derived
from the ferruginous constituents of the igneous rocks,
biotite, hornblende, hypersthene and magnetite.
In Prieska the granite, gneiss and mica schist areas
are usually covered with deep sand ; the more compact
rocks, the quartzites of the 'Keis group and the Griqua
Town and Campbell Rand beds, disintegrate less rapidly
than the rocks just mentioned, and do not yield so much
sand.
There is much sand in the valley of the Orange River,
where it forms extensive dunes in favourably situated
spots. This sand is blown from the river banks at times
of low water.
In the district between the Olifant's River mouth and
the Berg River, as far inland as Piquetberg and the
Olifant's River Mountains, there is a great quantity of
sand. The country is known locally as the Sand Veld.
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RECENT OR SUPERFICIAL DEPOSITS 371
The underlying rock is chiefly Table Mountain sand-
stone, although the southern part of the area is probably
underlain by the Malmesbury beds. The whole area is
characterised by a remarkable scarcity of running water
and even of definite stream beds, although the southern
part at least has a fairly heavy rainfall ; the northern
portion is much drier, but the absence of stream beds is
due to the rapidity of absorption of the water by the
ground and not to the lack of rain. From the Berg
Eiver to the Olifant's, a distance of some seventy-five
miles in a straight line, there are only five stream beds
to be found ; the Zout, Verloren Vley, Lange Vley, and
Jackal's Bivers and the Zand Leegte. The Zand Leegte
is a very well-marked valley about twenty miles long,
commencing near Eonaqua's Berg and terminating on
the coast at Strand Fontein. The lower part of the
valley is almost a gorge, some 180 feet deep, and at
places only a few yards wide at the bottom, cut out of
the hard Table Mountain sandstone. No water has
been known to flow down this valley during the period
covered by tradition in the district, perhaps 150 years,
although a severe thunderstorm sometimes — about once
in fifteen years — makes a stream of short duration in
its upper part. The valley is being filled in with sand
chiefly brought there by the vdnd. It is decidedly a
striking proof that the district is drier now than it was
at no very remote period, for there is no doubt that the
valley was cut by a stream, and it was made since the
advent of the still-Uving species of mollusca ; for at the
mouth of the gorge a raised beach lies about 100 feet
above sea level, and appears to have stretched across the
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372 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
ravine ; the raised beach contains the shells of moUusca
of the same species as those found on the modem beach
in addition to the water-worn pebbles and boulders that
make it a conspicuous feature on the top of the cliffs.
The evidence afforded by the Zand Leegte will ex-
plain the development of the Sand Veld. The tops of
the sandstone hills still project above the sand, but the
old valleys, that were carved out by rivers before the
climate became as dry as it now is, are almost entirely
filled up by the sand derived mainly from the sandstone
hills and from the mountains built of the same rock to
the east of the Sand Veld. Where exposed to constant
sifting by the wind the sand is white or very light-
coloured, but throughout the greater part of the area it
is reddish. The red colour is certainly due to oxide of
iron, but the source of the iron is not so evident. In
sinking wells it is found that the lower layers of sand
are paler in colour than those near the surface ; it may
be that the rain water, with the aid of organic com-
pounds taken up during its. passage through the soil,
dissolves the iron oxides deep under the surface and
brings them in solution to the top where it leaves them
as thin films round the sand grains on evaporation.
But it is possible that the very fine red dust brought
into that part of the country by the strong east winds
vdll account for the red colour of the surface sand. The
fertility of the Sand Veld is remarkable, considering the
general appearance and nature of the soil, good grain
crops being obtained when average winter rains fall ; it
is probable that the wind-borne dust adds the necessary
constituents to the otherwise extremely poor soil.
The Sand Veld sand passes somewhat abruptly into
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RECENT OR SUPERFICIAL DEPOSITS 373
the dunes that line the west coast. The proximity of
the coast makes itself noticeable by the increase of
calcareous matter in the sand ; the carbonate of lime is
derived from marine shells which are pounded to dust
on the shore and then blown inland.
Patches of sand dunes of greater size than usual are
found south of Saldanha Bay, on the shores of False
Bay whence the sand has invaded the Cape Flats, near
the Bot Biver mouth, at Cape Agulhas, Cape Barracouta
and Cape Kecife. These are calcareous sands composed
of a mixture of broken shells and fragments of minerals,
chiefly quartz. The strong winds and constant supplies
of fresh sand, as well as the facility with which the dune
sand is moved, account for the difficulty of getting vege-
tation to gain and maintain a footing on these sand
areas, which are a source of danger to the farms behind
them.
5. The calcareous sands of the coast belt pass into
limestone by the solution of carbonate of lime from
parts of the mass, and its deposition near the surface
when the water evaporates. In almost any part of the
south-coast dunes a thin hard crust can be found cover-
ing sand which has been protected from the wind for
some time ; it may be less than a quarter of an inch
thick, and is easily broken. By the long-continued de-
position of the carbonate of lime the sand dunes are
converted into hard rock through a distance of many
feet from the surface, and where repeatedly wetted
and dried, as happens when the sea has encroached
upon old dunes, the rock becomes intensely hard and
weathers with a peculiarly jagged surface. At Hoetjes
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374 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
Bay, an inlet of Saldanha Bay, the limestone derived
from hardened dunes has been quarried for building
stone, and furnished the material of which the General
Post Office and South African Museum are mainly
constructed. In the large quarry at Hoetjes Bay the
gradual hardening of the stone from the deepest portion
exposed towards the exterior is well seen. This lime-
stone contains a smaller proportion of quartz sand than
usual, about 12 per cent., but the composition varies
considerably according to the amount of carbonate de-
posited between the original grains of the rock, and
also according to the proportions of broken shell and
particles of non-calcareous minerals in the original sand.
False bedding is a very marked feature in many
sand dunes, being perhaps better developed in wind-
borne accumulations than in sediments deposited under
water. Magnificent examples of this structure can be
seen in several cliflF sections through the hardened dunes
on the south coast between Cape Agulhas and Mossel
Bay, and again to the east of Algoa Bay.^ Plate XXI.
is trojxh a photograph of a cliff near Struys Point on
the Bredasdorp coast.
In addition to the usually fragmentary remains of
marine shells the dune limestones contain many fossils
of animals that lived upon land, and these are in a
much more perfect condition than the former. Snail
shells, especially a large species of Helix that is com-
monly found living near the coast, are abundant in
the limestones of Saldanha Bay and the south coast.
1 Atherstone (58).
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RECENT OR SUPERFICIAL DEPOSITS 375
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376 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
Mammalian remains are frequently found, and they
include species such as the elephant, rhinoceros and
eland, that are no longer living in the neighbourhood.
Hitherto no extinct forms have been discovered in any
of the coast limestones.
In the Bredasdorp Division there is a prominent
range of dune limestone hills stretching from near the
village to Cape Infanta.^ In their western part the hills
lie some twelve miles from the coast, and are separated
from it by a tract of low ground ; near the coast the
country again becomes hilly owing to the modern dunes.
The inland range must be of considerable antiquity, and
it is now being destroyed by the weather and rivers
without receiving any fresh material to compensate for
this loss. These old dunes were formed at a time when
the coast was at a lower level than now, during the
period represented by raised beaches in several parts of
the Colony.
The dune limestones are in places rather easily dis-
integrated, and weather very unequally, hence shallow
caves are of frequent occurrence in them. At Cape
Infanta there is a fairly large cave with a small en-
trance on the cliff; the roof is hung with stalactites,
long tapering tubes of calcite deposited from the water
percolating through the overlying limestone, and the
floor is formed by a mixture of sand and bat-guano.
The origin of the cave was probably due to a stream
that no longer exists. This cavern is perhaps the
largest (some 150 feet .long and 20 feet high in parts)
^ For a more detailed descriptioD of these and allied rocks see Bogers
ftpd Schwarz (97), p. 427, etc.
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RECENT OR SUPERFICIAL DEPOSITS 377
yet found in the dune limestones. Other caves of
considerable depth, such as the Kellers near Danger
Point, have streams of water still flowing through
them.
6. On the coast side of the Langebergen there is
frequently a thin layer of whitish impure limestone
immediately below the soil, and a similar rock covers
wide areas in the western portion of Malmesbury and
Piquetberg. It is possible that some of this represents
dune limestones that have disappeared, or it may be
due to the slow accumulation of shell fragments blown
inland from the coast. The calcareous layer is especially
well developed between the Kaffir Kuils and Gouritz
Eivers in Eiversdale. There is a particular variety of
the hmestone seen in the soil about a foot below the
surface that is now in process of formation. This is a
nodjular rock, rather compact, and it contains numerous
sand grains and other particles derived from the soil.
The calcareous matter collects together in certain spots
and forms irregularly shaped lenticular lumps; neigh-
bouring masses coalesce and produce layers. The bulk
of the clayey material in the soil seems to be pushed
aside by the calcite, but the sand grains remain behind.
This rock is well shown in some of the railway cuttings
berween Heidelberg and Eiversdale. It is similar to
the **Kankar" of India.
The springs that come from the Bokkeveld series
and from the Karroo beds frequently deposit a white
tufaceous limestone which forms irregular layers in
their neighbourhood, filling up the joints of the exposed
rocks and cementing together the particles of soil. The
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378 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
springs are usually weak and in the course of time
block up the channels through which they flow by the
deposition of the tufa. Thus many patches of lime-
stone occur without any sign of water. The farmers
are aware of the connection between the tufaceous
limestone and spring water, and are often successful in
opening up springs by removing the surface and follow-
ing up any traces of water that may appear. It is
quite clear, however, that the process of filling up of
the joints through which the water flows may have
gone on so far that the attempts to release the water
will be unsuccessful; or, again, the water may have
found another exit at a lower level.
The sediments of the Karroo formation contain a fair
proportion of carbonate of lime, and the dolerite which
is so abundant in the form of intrusions in these beds
contains about 10 per cent, of calcium oxide ; this, on
the decomposition of the dolerite, is chiefly converted
into carbonate of lime. From these two sources the
impure limestone that is so widely spread between the
main watershed of the Colony and the Orange Biver
has chiefly been derived. Every heavy rain that carries
the products of decomposition from their place of origin
to the flat ground, and especially to the shallow pans,
brings with it some carbonate of lime which it leaves
behind on evaporation. To this source must be added
the slow creep of water towards the surface by capillary
attraction and the influence of plants.
The thick calcareous tufas that are found in the
Orange River Valley, as in the neigbourhood of Hope
Town, were probably deposited in pans that have been
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RECENT OR SUPERFICIAL DEPOSITS 379
cut through by the Orange River ; but at present very
little is definitely known of the nature and extent of
these old tufas.
7. At many places on the coast there are beaches of
rolled pebbles, sand and shells at various heights above
the present day shore. These deposits frequently rest
upon a more or less extensive shelf cut into the sloping
land behind the shore.
The most northern raised beaches yet found in the
Colony are on the coast between the Olifant's River
mouth and Thorn Bay. The coast is formed by a
range of clififs about 100 feet high, composed of the
Malmesbury beds to the north of Strand Fontein and
of Table Mountain sandstone to the south. South of
the Zand Leegte the cliffs are remarkably fine, and they
are broken into many small inlets and rocky points by
the attacks of the Atlantic waves. The Table Moun-
tain sandstone dips eastwards at about 35 °, and is cut
flat on the top of the cliffs. The old beach deposits lie
on this flat surface, and consist of water-worn boulders
mixed with sand. The beach has been cemented into
a hard conglomerate by the deposition of iron oxides
and siliceous matter in places, and in these conglom-
erates shells or fragments of them are scarcely to be
found ; but in other parts of the beach at the same
level, where this process has not gone so far, shells
belonging to species still living on the west coast are
abundant, and the rock is a loose shelly conglomerate.
Transitions from the latter to the former condition of
the beach are to be found, and as the amount of change
increases the shells decrease in quantity ; they are dis-
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380 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
solved without being accurately replaced by the cement-
ing material.
On the peninsula to the west of the south end of
Saldanha Bay there are shelly limestones with abundant
shells of living marine forms lying from ten to twenty
feet above high water. These limestones pass inland
into the hard dune limestone with land shells. They
are an old beach formed when the land stood somewhat
lower than at present. It is a curious fact that the
dune limestone passes below sea level in Saldanha Bay
and on the south coast ; this rock on careful examination
is always distinguishable from the calcareous beach de-
posits, and its occurrence below sea level in the same
districts as the raised beaches points to a sUght sinking
of the land since the beaches were formed and elevated.
In the Cape Peninsula there are a few patches of
supposed beach deposits at a height of from 50 to 100
feet above the sea. They contain the remains of living
species of moUusca. It is a curious fact that no shell-
bearing sands or other recent marine rocks have been dis-
covered below the Cape Flats, but they certainly should
be there if the correct interpretation has been found for
the deposits just mentioned from the Peninsula.
In the neighbourhood of Hermanns there is a very
well-marked rock shelf between the Klein Eiver Moun-
tains and the coast about fifty feet above the sea. It is
a wave-cut terrace of Table Mountain sandstone, covered
in places with dune limestone. Similar terraces are to
be found near Danger Point, Zout Anys Berg and Pot
Berg. At Cape Infanta there is a raised beach at the
base of the dune-limestone, which there forms high
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RECENT OR SUPERFICIAL DEPOSITS 381
clififs. The beach conglomerate is about 100 feet above
the sea. On the shores of Algoa Bay there is a well-
developed terrace cut through the Uitenhage beds, it
slopes gradually towards the sea from a height of about
400 feet above high tide in its inland portion to 200 feet
where it is concealed under the blown sand of the coast.
The shelf is covered in places with shelly conglomer-
ates containing the remains of mollusca still Uving off
the South African coast. A characteristic shell in this
deposit is a very large PecttmctUm, At lower levels
nearer the sea there are patches of old beaches which
contain shells belonging to living species.^ Many of
these raised beaches contain numerous species of shells,
and the careful collection and determination of these
from the different deposits is certain to yield interesting
results.
Near the mouth of the Buffalo Eiver there is a layer
of earthy clay 200 feet above sea level containing re-
mains of recent shells ; it was regarded by its discoverer,
Mr. McKay, as a marine deposit, and he found a frag-
ment of native pottery in one of the shell layers.^ This
fragment of pottery is the only recorded evidence of
human occupation of the country at the period of these
raised beaches and allied deposits, but before it can be
accepted as good some corroborative facts should be
brought to light elsewhere.
Although the evidence bearing on the question of a
1 The best account of these deposits is still that of Q. W. Stow (71),
pp. 515-22. A list of species found in the low level beaches near Port
Elizabeth has lately been published by J. P. Johnson (08), pp. 9-11.
^ Quoted by Huxley, Scientific Memoirs, vol. iii., p. 300 ; also Geol,
Magazine, 1868, p. 201.
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382 GEOLOCJY OP CAPE COLONY
recent change in level of the whole coast line is so
widely distributed much remains to be done before it
can be fully understood. So far as it goes it is in
accordance with the presence of the river-cut high-level
plains now deeply channelled by the existing streams.
There is good reason to believe that while these plains
were being made the higher raised beaches were also in
process of formation. In the Swellendam Buggens, for
instance, the old gravel and alluvial plateau that slopes
gradually towards the coast and is trenched by tributaries
of the Breede Eiver terminates at the foot of the Bredas-
dorp limestone hills, which we have seen were once
calcareous sand dunes. These are continued into the
limestone that overlies a pebbly beach deposit at Cape
Infanta, now being cut back by the sea. At the time
when the inland plateau was being cut the dunes that
now form the limestone range were being piled up by
the wind, and the coast was indented by a broad bay
between Cape Infanta and Bredasdorp village. The
eastern corner of the bay extended farther seawards
than the present position of Infanta, for the high clififs
made of Table Mountain sandstone in their lower part
and of the beach deposit and limestones in the upper
half must have been undergoing destruction ever since
the raised beach was removed from the reach of the
sea.
In the Algoa Bay region the high-level gravels of the
Zwartkops Heights were probably formed at the same
time as the terraces covered with surface quartzites and
allied deposits near Qrahamstown, and the wide rock
terrace traversed by the main road from Port Elizabeth
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RECENT OR SUPERFICIAL DEPOSITS 383
to Humansdorp. The upward movement of the land
which raised the Zwartkops Heights beach to its present
level also brought about the renewal of the downward
erosive power of the rivers inland, so that they trenched
the gravel and quartzite plateau of Grahamstown.
8. Near their mouths many South African rivers ex-
pand into wide shallow lagoons. The larger rivers,
such as the Berg, Breede, Gouritz, Kei and St. John's,
which maintain open channels to the sea throughout
the year, have comparatively small lagoons or none at all,
although some of them, such as the Berg, give rise to
shallow vleys beyond their banks in times of flood. The
smaller streams whose mouths are more or less regularly
choked up by sand bars terminate in vleys of various
dimensions. The formation of a wide vley in place of a
sharply defined channel is easily understood ; the water
flowing into the lagoon cannot escape quickly, but filters
slowly through the sand bar ; it therefore stands above
the sea level, and owing to its constant movement it
laps against the usually soft sandy banks and gradually
washes them away, depositing the debris in the deeper
portions of the channel. The absence of an open mouth
prevents the tide from assisting to keep the channel
clear. The mud brought down by the river mingles
with the sand blown or washed by rain into the vley
and makes a sandy loam, which tends to form a flat
surface somewhat above sea level, so that should the
mouth become open for a long period the river will flow
through a flat alluvial tract just before entering the sea.
Such may be the origin of the flats at the mouths of the
Zwart Eops and of the Great and Klein Brak Bivers in
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384 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
Mossel Bay. The same feature is seen at the Eowie
mouth, although in this case the channel is maintained
by the walls built for the harbour. The Bot and Klein
Bivers in Caledon and Bredasdorp have large vleys,
which are only open after the winter rains. Many
large lagoons, such as Zoetendal and Salt Biver vleys in
Bredasdorp, have quite small rivers flowing into them,
and are very rarely open to the sea. Zoetendal vley is
fed by two rivers, and near the mouths of one of them
a small stream flows to the sea at certain times by a
longer route than would be afforded by the vley if it
were open to the sea near Northumberland Point. In
the Transkei and Pondoland very many small streams
rarely bring down enough water to break through their
sand bars, and in time they will form corresponding
alluvial tracts with small channels traversing them.
The comparatively recent elevation of the coast that
enabled these rivers to cut deep valleys through the
coastal plateau has not been of sufficient duration to
allow them to silt up their lagoons.
A vley is sometimes formed along the course of a
river just behind a ridge of rock that is with difficulty
cut through by the stream. The softer rock behind the
obstruction allows the river to cut out a wide plain, and
by the unequal distribution of debris over the plain the
bed of the stream may be raised shghtly above the level
of the plain, causing the latter to be flooded at times. A
process of this sort has taken place in the valley of the
Bosch Biver where it approaches the Bokkeveld hills
west of Witte Vlakte. An extensive vley or pan, on the
farm named Poortje,is the result, and the river has found
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RECENT OR SUPERFICIAL DEPOSITS 385
an easier course to the south, where it joins the Draai
KraaFs Biver.
Very extensive vleys, which rarely have any water in
them, are formed along the rivers entering the Orange
Eiver from the south. Not much is known as yei about
these great ** vloers," but they are probably due to the
flooding produced by blown sand obstructing the rivers,
which tend to distribute their silt over wide areas and
thus to level up their valleys, that have a very gradual
fall.
The water that gathers in these river vleys is some-
what brackish from the salts derived from the surface
soil in their drainage basins, but these vleys do not
seem to contain salt deposits of any value as a source
of that commodity.
There is another class of pan, not obviously connected
with the river vleys, whose origin is more diflicult to
account for. There are two subclasses of these; the
flrst consists of the pans near the coast, and the second
of those lying far inland.
The pans on the coast are usually at a low level,
separated from the sea by a belt of sand dunes. There
are several of these on the west coast south of the Oli-
fant's Biver. Bain water collects in them, and owing to
there being sufficient clayey matter or limestone round
them the water does not drain away but evaporates
slowly, leaving a thin crust of salts, mostly composed of
sodium chloride or common salt. Usually the thin
crust is not sufficiently free from sand to be used for
domestic purposes, so shallow trenches are dug in the
floors of the pans during the dry season and a deposit
25
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386 GEOLOGY OP CAPE) COLONY
of salt three or four inches thick is formed in them
after the rains. The salt is probably collected by the
ram water in its course through the surrounding sandy
soil, which receives it gradually from the sea in the
form of spray or attached to the grains of sand blown
from the shore.
On the coast of Bredasdorp there are several produc-
tive pans. Some of them are within a short distance
of pans which contain fresh or nearly fresh water only,
yet no difiCerence in the conditions of the salt and fresh
vleys is observable. This fact is diflBcult to explain on
the supposition that the salt is washed into the pans
from the surrounding soil ; but at no distant period the
low-lying parts of the Bredasdorp coast must have been
under the sea, or at any rate liable to inundations of
salt-water at high tide during storms, and it is possible
that the salt derived from this source is still inexhausted
in spots where, owing to a slightly lower level or to the
presence of more favourable surface deposits, a larger
quantity of the sea water evaporated than elsewhere.
Perhaps the richest pan in the Colony is that on the
Zwartkops heights north of the river of that name. The
pan is surrounded by the shelly beach deposits de-
scribed on page 381, and is underlain by the Sunday's
Eiver beds. An enormous quantity of salt is taken yearly
from this pan, yet it shows no sign of exhaustion. The
salt must come from the rocks close at hand, and as no
beds of rock salt are known to exist in the Sunday's River
beds, or indeed in any other formation in the Colony, it
seems certain that it is derived from the recent beach
deposits.
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RECENT OR SUPERFICIAL DEPOSITS 387
The inland salt pans are mostly found near the Orange
Eiver, where vleys are abundant. A great stretch of
country, extending from the north of Calvinia through
the Divisions of Kenhardt, Fraserburg, Carnarvon,
Prieska, Hope Town and Kimberley, is particularly rich
in more or less circular pans of various sizes, from a few
yards to a few miles in diameter. This tract is some-
times called the Panne-veld, and coincides roughly with
the outcrop of the Dwyka conglomerate, a rock that is
less permeable than either the sandstones and shales
that lie south and east.
The salt in these inland pans must be derived from
the surrounding rocks. There is no evidence that the
interior of the Colony has been under the sea, or indeed
under water of any kind, since the close of the Karroo
period, and that water was probably not salt. There is
very httle information as to the composition of the salt
from these pans, but sulphates (of calcium and magne-
sium) as well as chlorides are present.
In a pan at Khp Fontein's Berg, in Clanwilliam, the
depression, from which common salt is gathered for
domestic purposes, is surrounded by a thick layer of
carbonate and sulphate of lime. The sulphate of lime
(gypsum), occurs in small and large crystals embedded
in a calcareous, sandy mud, and it forms the larger part
of the deposit. The material is well stratified, and the
layers are thin.
The coast pans owe their existence to the barrier of
dune sand blown up from the shore, but an adequate
explanation of the inland pans has not yet been given.
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388 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
The Eecent Deposits and the Human Occupation
OF the Country.
Except in the case of the piece of pottery found in the
high-level marine clay of East London no human remains
have been found in any of the higher raised beaches, or in
the quartzites or other deposits on the higher plateaux.
The surface quartzites indeed furnished the favourite
material of which the aborigines made their rough knives
and other implements with a more or less sharp edge,
proving that this rock was available at an early period
of man's occupation of the country.
By far the greater number of stone implements are
found either upon the surface or at a small depth within
the soil, and specimens that in Europe would be regarded
as of Palaeolithic type, i.e., roughly fashioned without
ground or carefully chipped edges, may well have been
in general use during 'the early years of the European
settlement. Although the use of the round stones with
holes through them as make-weights to digging sticks
amongst the Bushmen is recorded by BurchelP and
other travellers, the use of stone axes or weapons of the
nature of the stone ** celts " found in Europe does not
appear to have been seen.
In the south-western districts from the Peninsula to
the Olifant's Eiver stone implements with a pear-shaped
or oval outline are not infrequently met with. Any
hard close-grained stone was used for their manufac-
ture, but the surface quartzite seems to have been the
•most abundant and suitable stone. Amongst many
1 Burchell, Travels in South Africa, voL ii., p. 29.
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RECENT OR SUPERFICIAL DEPOSITS 389
specimens collected in any place in that area or in the
Karroo a few made of the chert from the Upper Dwyka
shales are nearly always found. In the north of the
Colony the jaspers of the Griqua Town beds and the
cherts of the Campbell Band series seem to have been
most widely used.
In the coast districts the stone implements are often
found lying with the remains of edible marine shells and
fragments of coarse pottery at various heights above the
sea. The abundance of shells in such '* middens " is
liable to make a casual observer think the deposit is a
raised beach. In the Transkei and Pondoland the mak-
ing of these middens by KaflSrs can be seen on most
days, but especially at spring tides. The natives collect
the shells, carry them to a convenient spot close to the
shore, and there remove the edible portions which they
take back to their kraals in baskets or cloths, leaving the
shells behind. In this way astonishingly large piles of
more or less broken shells accumulate in course of time.
In the inland area the implements are chiefly met
with near streams or springs, on flat-topped kopjes in
the Karroo, and near the caves in the mountains. The
presence of small fragments of stones unlike any that
crop out in the immediate neighbourhood is the sign
that more or less well-fashioned cutting or scraping
implements and stones used for rubbing or digging may
be expected.
In the drier parts of the Colony the surface of an
implement that lies uppermost is generally coated with
the thin varnish-like glaze that forms on exposed rocks
under the influence of the weather in such places. It
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390 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
is not known how long a piece of rock must be ex-
posed before it gets this glaze, so its occurrence does
not enable us to settle the minimum age of an imple-
ment.
In all the occurrences above mentioned, with the
exception of Mr. McKay's pottery which must at present
be regarded with some scepticism, there is nothing in
the position of the chipped stones to indicate their great
antiquity. A few years ago, however, Mr. P6ringuey,
the Assistant-Director of the South African Museum,
found a large series of rudely shaped stones in certain
gravels at a considerable height above the present levels
of the valley bottoms in the Stellenbosch district. De-
tails of these finds have not yet been published, but
there is no doubt that the stones were fashioned by human
hands, or that they occurred several feet from the sur-
face in old river gravels that must have been laid down
at a period far removed from the present according to
human reckoning, but less ancient than that of the high
level plateau gravels and quartzites. The implements
vary in size, but they are remarkably large on the aver-
age ; one is as much as fourteen inches long. They are
more or less symmetrically formed, with one end more
pointed than the other. Many of them were evidently
made by chipping water-worn boulders of suitable shape.
They are all made of compact quartzite or hard sand-
stone, probably from the Table Mountain series. This
interesting discovery opens up a wide field for investiga-
tion, and the pursuit of it will assuredly give us some
definite knowledge of the earlier phases of man's occupa-
tion of South Africa.
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RECENT OR SUPERFICIAL DEPOSITS 391
Hot Springs and Their Relation to the Structure
OP THE Country.
Springs from which water issues at temperatures con-
siderably above that of the air ^ are rather numerous in
Cape Colony. Some of these yield water of much the
same composition as ordinary spring water ; the Brand
Vley, Ohf ant's River (Clanwilliam), and Montague
springs are of this kind. The water from the Caledon
springs contains much ferrous carbonate, and the Warm
Water Berg spring water has a smaller quantity of the
same salt in it. Sulphuretted hydrogen is a constituent
of the Malmesbury, Cradock, and Graaflf Reinet mineral
waters.
The majority of these springs rise in Table Mountain
sandstone areas, but their distribution is not connected
obviously with the great dislocations or folds visible
in that formation ; there is no spring situated on or
near the largest strike faults, those of Worcester and
the Cango, nor does one occur in the more intensely
folded portions of the east and west ranges south of the
^ Detailed information on the contents of the water from some of
these springs will be found in Krauss (43), Gumprecht (51), Noble (98),
and Daniell (95), and in prospectuses issued by their present proprietors.
A systematic examination of the waters, not only for their saline con-
stituents but also for the gases containing rare and radio-active sub-
stances would be of great interest. The temperatures of some of the
springs are the following : —
Brand Vley 145 ° P. Malmesbury 88 ^ F.
Caledon 120 " F. Cradock 86 ° F.
Olifant's River (Gudtshoorn) 114 ° F. Koega 79 ° F.
Montague 112** F.
These figures are taken from the papers cited ; Dr. R. Marloth of Cape
Town kindly gave me corroborative information concerning man^ of
^hem.
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392 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
Karroo. The Olifant's River (Clanwilliam) hot-bath is
on the eastern limb of the gentle anticline that forms
the Cardouw Mountain; the hottest spring, that of
Brand Vley, is near the locality where the dip of the
Table Mountain sandstone south of Worcester changes
from north to east ; the Caledon, Warm Water Berg,
Montague, and Olifant's River (Oudtshoorn) springs
issue from the sandstone on the flank or at the end of
anticlines.
The Malmesbury spring flows from a mass of granite,
and those of Cradock, Graaflf Reinet (cold) and Aliwal
North from the nearly horizontal Karroo formation
in the great interior basin. It is remarkable that the
Malmesbury and Karroo mineral springs contain sul-
phuretted hydrogen, while the others do not. This gas,
in small quantities, is given oflf by many of the ordinary
springs in the Karroo, and is probably derived from the
decomposition of pyrites. Whether the gas in the hot
springs has a similar source is of course not known.
The probable reason of the high temperature of the
springs is that the water comes from great depths. So
far as one can judge from the surface geology none of
the springs is in any. way connected with volcanic
action. Many of the older travellers took the dark
slaggy-Iooking deposits of hydrated ferric oxide at Cale-
don for lava, but the dark rock is derived from the
ferrous carbonate in the water by oxidation on contact
with the air. In the western Karroo there are several
cold springs at the foot of the Zwart Ruggens that
leave a similar deposit of limonite, but there is hardly
sufficient iron in the water to make it taste unpleasant.
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CHAPTEE XI.
THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE COLONY.
Even under the most favourable circumstances it is
a difficult task to decipher the records of the past in
such a way as to make clear the evolution of a country
from the earliest times to the present day. By the
'* earliest times ** we mean the period at which the
lowest or oldest of the sedimentary rocks, recognisable
as such, were deposited. All over the globe these
ancient rocks have been found to possess characters
that cannot be looked upon as original, but which must
be regarded as having been produced by metamorphism
due to great pressure, heat, the action of percolating
water, or all three combined.
In the Cape Colony many of the rock groups classed
under the heading " Pre-Cape rocks " have been altered
by these agencies, and no attempt can be made at
present to unravel the history recorded by them. We
have no idea, for instance, where the land lay from
which the sediments were brought to build up the
quartzites, slates and schists of the 'Keis or Malmesbury
series. Since their deposition they have been intensely
folded, invaded by enormous masses of granite, and then
subjected to long periods of denudation. The cases of
the Campbell Band, Griqua Town, and Matsap series
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394 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
are not much better; but we know that some of the
rocks belonging to the two former came to rest again
as pebbles in the Mats&p beds. There is reason to
beheve that the Ibiquas and Cango series derived some
of their materials from the older Malmesbury beds and
from the granite intrusive in the latter.
At the commencement of the Cape period, i.e., about
Lower Devonian times, we may imagine that a great
tract of land lay west and north of the position of the
southern part of the Colony, for the materials comprising
the Table Mountain series become somewhat coarser in
those directions. That land furnished the enormous
amount of sand, almost entirely of quartz grains, that
now is the Table Mountain sandstone. This sandstone,
which is roughly in the form of a broad belt about 500
miles long and 100 wide, was deposited in shallow
water; denudation and earth movements have played
a greater part in defining its present boundaries than
original deposition. During its formation the floor
must have been gradually sinking to allow of the
accumulation of 5,000 feet of sediment which through-
out bears evidence of deposition in shallow water. The
shale bands may possibly indicate deeper water con-
ditions, but not necessarily so ; the striated pebbles in
the Pakhuis shales and mudstone prove that glacial con-
ditions prevailed for a time during that remote period,
and that the ice which floated away from the shore
carried with it these flattened and scratched pebbles,
and dropped them in the mud being deposited at some
distance from the shore. The fact that the series is
thinner near Nieuwoudtville, at the extreme northern
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THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE COLONY 395
end of the area occupied by the overlying Bokkeveld
beds, than farther south, points to the subsidence which
allowed of the accumulation of the sandstones having
gradually proceeded northwards. This means that de-
position began in the south earlier than in the north,
80 that the bottom of the series in the Bokkeveld Moun-
tain area was formed later than the lowest beds in the
Worcester or Ceres Divisions.
We cannot regard the Table Mountain series as a
marine formation, it is probably a fluviatile deposit
laid down near the source of origin of the materials
composing it. The great thickness of sediment, and
the evidence throughout that it was laid down in shallow
water, prove that the area occupied by it underwent
slow but steady depression, which continued for a long
period after the peculiar conditions under which it was
formed came to an end. This depression in the southern
part of the Colony must have gone on till some time
during the deposition of the Karoo formation, perhaps
till late in the Beaufort period ; it was brought to a close
by the earth movements which produced the northern
and western mountain ranges.
The northern limit of the depressed area cannot be
defined, but it probably lay to the north of the thirtieth
parallel.
During the Bokkeveld period the waters of a southern
ocean that lay south and west of the Colony, and which
spread at least as far as the position of the Falkland
Islands and the South American Continent, gained
access to the area where the Table Mountain series
bad been deposited. The presence of plant remains in
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396 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
the Bokkeveld beds, along with the marine shells, shows
that the land on which the plants grew was not far off.
In the account of the Bokkeveld beds in chapter iv.,
the generally noticed increase of sandstone towards the
north and west was explained on the supposition that
the sediments were chiefly derived from land lying north
and west of the districts where the Bokkeveld beds
occur.
Marine conditions prevailed in the southern part of
Africa till the middle of the Bokkeveld period, when
open connection with the sea seems to have been cut
ofif, for the muds, shales and sandstones of the upper
Bokkeveld and the Witteberg series contain no other
than plant remains. The cause and manner of this loss
• of connection with the ocean cannot be explained, as
the evidence which might solve the problem lies below
the waters of the Atlantic. The abundance of sandstones
in the Witteberg beds, with their occasional white quartz
pebbles, often in some respects closely resembling the
Table Mountain sandstone, point to a recurrence of the
conditions under which the latter was formed, though
the frequence of thick shale bands proves that much
of the finer grained sediment came to rest within the
Colonial area in Witteberg times, while in the earlier
period of the Table Mountain sandstone much less of
the clays and silt, which must have been produced
during the destruction of the rocks that furnished all
the sand now forming the Table Mountain sandstone,
remained in the same area.
Plants are the only fossils hitherto discovered in the
Witteberg beds, and they are usually found in frag-
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THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE COLONY 397
raents, bits of stems without leaves or other organs,
and these fragments probably drifted far before becom-
ing waterlogged. In the Eastern Province some beds
are largely made up of compressed coaly-looking stems.
Current bedding and ripple marks are very usual phe-
nomena in the Witteberg series. In the south of the
Colony the Witteberg period was brought to an end by
the deposition of the green shales and mudstones of the
Lower Dwyka beds, and no physical break or uncon-
formity separates the two groups of rock. Deposition
must have gone on continuously in the south of the
Colony while the great change of climate took place
that caused the glaciation of the country to the north
of the Karroo.
While the deposition of sediments of various kinds
went on uninterruptedly in the southern districts from
the period of the Table Mountain series till far on in
that of the Karroo formation, a rising of the floor began
in the country north of the thirty-third parallel at some
time during the Bokkeveld or Witteberg periods ; for
both in the west and east of the Colony north of that
parallel of latitude an unconformity separates the lowest
beds of the Dwyka series from the Cape formation.
This rising of the land relatively to the water level must
have taken place very gradually, as there is no strong
discordance between the newer and older rocks. The
Witteberg and Bokkeveld beds become gradually thinner
and thinner northwards owing to the removal of a greater
thickness of the beds in that direction during Pre-Dwyka
times.
It is clear that in the country immediately north of
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398 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
Karroo Poort, where the only beds usually met with in
the southern districts that are missing are the Lower
Dwyka shales, the exposure of the Witteberg series
must have been of very short duration. Farther north
their exposure to the agencies of denudation began at
an earlier time, so that more and more of the Witteberg
and Bokkeveld rocks were washed away before the
Dwyka conglomerate was laid down upon the remnants.
It is obvious that deposition and denudation on a large
scale cannot go on at the same time in one and the
same district, so that at Matjes Fontein on the Oorlog's
Kloof Kiver, where only the lowest of the Bokkeveld
beds remain between the Dwyka conglomerate and the
Table Mountain sandstone, and where some 2,000 feet
of the Bokkeveld beds, if the series was ever so com-
plete there as farther south, are missing, the removal of
the rest of the group must have taken place during the
formation of the Witteberg beds in the south. We can
be certain, therefore, that the Witteberg beds were
never deposited in the area just north of Matjes Fontein
(Oorlog's Kloof Eiver).
The northward extending depression, which allowed
first the Table Mountain sandstone and then the marine
beds of the Bokkeveld series to be deposited north of the
thirty-third parallel, gave way to the opposite movement
of upheaval at some time during the deposition of the
upper part of the Bokkeveld or lower part of the Witte-
berg group.
It is possible that this change of direction in the
vertical movement of the land was coincident with the
beginning of the change in geographical conditions
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THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE COLONY 399
which eventually brought about the cutting oflf of the
Colonial area from the ocean in the middle of the
Bokkeveld period.
The shore line at the commencement of the Dwyka
period lay in an approximately east and west direction
through the neighbourhood of Karroo Poort, and the
shales and muds which were deposited near it are very
like the more argillaceous sediments of the Witteberg
series ; they contain none of the fossil plants found in
the latter, but a few plants of a similar nature to some
of those found in the Ecca beds have been obtained
from them. This shore line appears to have gradually
crept northwards, but it did not gain much upon the
land area to the north before the conditions set in that
caused a general glaciation of that land.
We have seen in a previous chapter that there can be
no doubt of the fact that South Africa north of the
thirty-third parallel was in part, at least, covered with
snow and ice, and that the Dwyka conglomerate is made
of the mud, sand, pebbles and boulders derived from the
glaciated country.
In the northern parts of the Colony, as well as m the
eastern districts of the Transvaal and western portion
of the Orange Kiver Colony, the Dwyka conglomerate
has to a certain extent the character of a morainal de-
posit. It lies upon a well-striated rock surface, and is
mostly unbedded ; it is a sandy mud or clay with large
blocks and smaller fragments of various kinds of rock
scattered through it. The occasional patches of con-
glomerate with a shaly matrix in the north can well be
looked upon as having been formed in small glacial
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400 GEOLOGY OF OAPE COLONY
lakes within the morainal area, i.e., the area which
belonged to the land rather than to the water.
Evidence of the movement of solid ice over a surface
of earlier deposited conglomerate occurs as far south as
Eland's Vley in the western Karroo. In Natal, 2** N. of
that latitude, the conglomerate rests upon a glaciated
surface of the Table Mountain series. It seems likely
that the conglomerate to the south of Eland's Vley
also rests upon a glaciated surface of the Bokkeveld or
Witteberg beds, but this has not yet been proved.
The Dwyka conglomerate in the south is certainly
much thicker on the average than it is north of the
Karroo, and a gradual diminution in thickness has been
noticed in passing northwards along .the western border
of that country from Karroo Poort to Calvinia. This is
in perfect concord with the fact that the transgression,
or gradual extension of the water area, and consequently
of the shore line, took a northerly direction as shown by
the increasing gap in the succession below the Dwyka
series. There are no representatives of the Lower
Dwyka shales in the north, and a considerable thickness
of the southern conglomerate must have been deposited
before the northern conglomerate began to be laid down.
The few feet of conglomerate at Kimberley, for instance,
were probably formed during the deposition of the
uppermost part of the southern conglomerate.
The conglomerate in the south of the Colony was
probably formed entirely under water ; into the sand
and mud there being deposited the pebbles and boulders,
many of them well scratched, were dropped by the
floating ice that drifted southwards from the shore.
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THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE COLONY 401
No remains of animals or plants have been found in
the Dwyka conglomerate, so the question of the nature
of the water in which it was deposited is unsettled. The
absence of marine shells is certainly presumptive evi-
dence against the water having been a part of the ocean,
for it is well known that a cold climate is by no means
unfavourable to marine life at the present day. Many
genera of molluscs and crustaceans are represented by
unusually large species in arctic and antarctic regions.
In any case the absence of fossils is difficult to explain,
but considering also that only land or fresh water forms
have been found in the beds underlying and overlying
the conglomerate it is more probable that the water in
the Dwyka basin was fresh than salt. The absence
throughout the Karroo formation of deposits of rock
salt, gypsum or other substances that accumulate in
inland basins with no outlet is good evidence that the
basin in which the rocks were formed was kept fresh by
the continual escape of the water.
We may picture to ourselves a great inland water
basin, with one or more outlets to the ocean towards
the south, and covering what is now the southern part
of the Cape Colony, at the commencement of the
Dwyka period. The southern mountain ranges were
not yet in existence, the rocks which afterwards built
them up were lying horizontally below the surface of
the lake. The nearest land lay to the north; the
southern portion of it consisted of the then recently
exposed Witteberg deposits, north of this area there
were belts composed of the Bokkeveld and Table
Mountain series, while still farther north lay a hilly
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402 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
country composed of the Pre-Cape rocks. This country
gradually became snow-clad, and glaciers and perhaps
eventually a sheet of ice, of too great size to be called
a glacier, slowly moved from various directions towards
the lake, carrying with them mud, sand, pebbles and
large blocks, derived from the surrounding land. Most
of these materials reached the bottom of the great lake,
but it is more than likely that parts of the unbedded
conglomerate in Prieska and elsewhere in the northern
districts are the remains of moraines that lay between
the ice and the floor in the lower parts of the land,
or that were piled up in front of the ice. Meanwhile
the floor of the lake sank, so that at least 1,000 feet
of conglomerate accumulated over the southern part
of the Colony ; the water stretched farther and farther
north as time went on, so that at the close of the
glacial period shales were being deposited at least as
far north as the Kalahari Desert.
The thousand feet of mud and stones which must
extend over thousands of square miles under the
southern part of the Karroo, and formerly spread as
far south as Worcester, and very probably farther
than the present southern limit of the continent,
represent the products of denudation of a large tract
of country during a long time. The wide distribution
of the striated blocks and pebbles, which are found
wherever the outcrops are sufficiently good to allow
one to obtain the contained boulders, shows that the
glaciation was no merely local phenomenon, to be
likened to the very limited snow and ice covered areas
within tropical Africa at the present day, but that it
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THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE COLONY 403
was a wide-spread glaciation, extending over a large
part of the continent north of the Karroo area. The
source of the Dwyka boulders has been described in
an earlier chapter, and we found that though the
source of many is at present unknown, yet a suflBcient
number have been recognised as having come from
the Pre-Cape rocks north of the Karroo to show that
the main source of the Dwyka series, so far as the
Colonial area is concerned, lay to the north; the
evidence hitherto noticed of the movement of the ice
in the northern districts is to the same effect, i.e.,
that the ice moved southwards from those districts.
Whether land to the south also contributed ice-borne
debris is unknown, but at least at a certain stage of
the period another source lay to the west, as shown
by the striated pavements in the western Karroo.
The evidence for the glacial origin of the boulder
beds at the base of the Gondwana system, and in the
lower part of the beds containing the Glossopieris flora
in Australia, does not seem to one who has not seen
it himself to be so strong as that for the glacial origin
of the Dwyka conglomerate and the scratched surfaces
below it in the northern parts of Cape Colony, but the
testimony of so many geologists who have seen the
Indian and Australian rocks, and who are agreed that
the striated boulders found in them owe their form
to glacial action and their position to carriage by
ice, cannot easily be set aside. The very fact of the
occurrence of such phenomena at the base of the
beds containing the Glossopieris flora in those far dis-
tant lands, in a precisely analogous position to that
26*
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404 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
of the Dwyka conglomerate in South Africa, is itself
presumptive evidence that all the peculiar character-
istics had a common cause, and no agency save glacial
conditions can be put forward to explain the appear-
ances in the Dwyka series described in a previous
chapter. The explanation of this glaciation is not yet
clear. Penck has examined the supposition of an
altered position of the earth's axis with one pole in
the middle of the Indian Ocean and the other in North-
West Mexico, but the recorded direction of the move-
ment of the ice in South Africa, India and Australia
are not in agreement with such a position of the South
Pole, and there is no evidence of corresponding glacial
conditions in the American Continent; in addition to
this astronomers seem to be agreed that such a change
in position of the axis of rotation (some 66"*) is quite
out of the question, at any rate since the birth of the
moon, which would take us back to a period far more
ancient than the one we are now dealing with.
It is difficult to find a sufficient cause of the glacia-
tion in the supposed existence of a tract of very high
mountainous country to the north of Cape Colony, for
the ice certainly reached the shores of the water in
which the southern conglomerate was laid down, and
unless we have good reason to believe that this water-
level was at a great height above sea-level, which is not
probable, the ice must have passed into the Karroo
water at a level that was not very much above that of
the sea. In addition to the objection to the existence
of very high land north of Cape Colony, the widespread
distribution of the boulder beds in Africa, India and
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THE GEOLOGICAL ttlSTOllV OF THE COLONY 406
Australia, demaDds, as Penck points out in the paper
referred to above, a correspondingly widespread cause,
and the existence of a greatly elevated country of such
extent is at least improbable. Whatever may have been
the cause of the cold climate, the fact of its having pre-
vailed is as certain to the mind of a geologist who has
seen the Dwyka conglomerate, and the underlying
striated floors in the north of the Colony, as the former
presence of man is to the person who picks up potsherds
on a sandhill or sees figures of men and beasts rudely
painted on the wall of a cave.
Although it can hardly be maintained that the fossil
evidence in South Africa, India and AustraUa is as yet
sufficiently strong to prove the contemporaneity of the
boulder beds in the three continents, for that would re-
quire much longer series of fossiliferous strata in those
locahties than have been found, yet so far as the facts
go they undoubtedly give us very good grounds for as-
suming that the boulder beds were formed at about the
same period. There seems to have been in late Palaeo-
zoic times a great mass of land, whose boundaries are
very imperfectly known, but which included part of
Africa to the north of the Colony, a part of Australia,
and a part of India, and which stretched across the
Indian Ocean ; on this land glacial conditions prevailed
during a certain period. The flora and fauna of the
land during and subsequent to the cold period was quite
different to those which spread over the European and
North American areas at the same time, for only a very
few of the typical Karroo and Gondwana forms have
been found in those regions. Some of the products of
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406 GEOLOGY Of OAtfe COLONY
the denudation of this ancient continent — Gondwana-
land — accumulated in great fresh water lakes, of which
the Karroo area of South Africa is one. It is useless
at the present time attempting to fill in the details of
the history of the sediments derived from Gondwana-
land ; to discover, for instance, how many fresh water
basins existed, and to what extent they communicated
with each other and with the ocean. In South Africa
all the fossils yet found in these sediments lived upon
land or were fresh-water forms, no distinctly marine
animals are amongst them. In New South Wales, on
the other hand, a striated boulder bed has been found
in strata containing marine fossils of Upper Carbon-
iferous types. Whether any evidence of an encroach-
ment of the ocean upon the Karroo lake exists in South
Africa remains to be discovered.
On the African portion of Gondwanaland at first
grew Glossopteris and its associates mentioned on a pre-
vious page ; and soon there appeared the remarkable
reptiles, of which Pareiasaurus was one of the earlier and
larger forms. Pareiasaurus and Dicynodon were certainly
vegetable feeders, but carnivorous beasts were by no
means wanting, a glance at the formidable teeth in such
an animal as Titanosuchus is sufficient to convince any
one that their possessors lived upon their fellows and
did not graze on the Glossopteris and other plants that
covered the ground. The bones now found in the
Karroo belonged to bodies that were carried down by
rivers or drifted from the shores of the lake.
The Karroo area, and with it probably the whole of
the folded belt, must have sunk to allow the accumula-
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THE GEOLOGICAL HLSTORY OF THE COLONY 407
tion of the thousands of feet of shallow water deposits
that we see in the Karroo formation. Occasionally
perhaps wide stretches of mud or sand lay exposed for
a time above the water, to be submerged again and
buried under similar sediment. Such flat islands can
now be recognised where the slight unconformities in
the Ecca and Beaufort series mentioned in chapter v.
are found.
The duration of this slow depression was unequal in
different parts of the Colony; it was less along the
southern and south-western area, where the Cape
formation was thickest, than to the north. Probably
while the upper part of the Beaufort series was being
laid down, the folding began that eventually produced
the great southern mountains.. It is not yet known
exactly when this process began, or when it reached
its maximum, but there is little doubt that it was in
progress during the later portion of the Karroo period.
The numberless places along the southern edge of the
Karroo where the lower Karroo beds can be seen rest-
ing conformably upon and involved in the folds that
affect the Witteberg, Bokkeveld and Table Mountain
series as well as the occurrence of the Dwyka and Ecca
beds at Worcester, and the outliers on the northern
edge and in the heart of the folded belt, prove con-
clusively that the main part of the disturbances took
place after the Ecca beds were deposited. The Uiten-
hage beds, lying comparatively undisturbed upon the
contorted strata belonging to the Cape formation, and
in places upon the Pre-Cape rocks, give the clearest
evidence for believing not only that the earth-movements
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408 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
responsible for the mountain chains had done their work
before these beds were formed, but also that a tremen-
dous amount of rock had been removed from the folded
belt before that time. We have seen in earlier chapters
that the Dwyka and Ecca beds belong to the later part
of the Palaeozoic era, to the period for convenience
called Permo-Carboniferous, and that the Uitenhage
beds are of early Cretaceous age. It was during the
interval between those roughly defined periods that the
mountain building in Cape Colony went on. In other
countries this interval is represented by the Triassic
and Jurassic systems, but in South Africa the only beds
that can be referred to either of these are the Beaufort
and Stormberg series, and they belong to the Trias
rather than to the later stage.
The southern folding seems to have been produced
by a thrust from the south towards the north, for the
folds, where not symmetrical, tend to turn over towards
the north. The minor ranges, such as the Caledon
Mountain, Wann Water Berg and Touw's Berg are
symmetrical, both limbs of the anticlines are equally
inclined, and the same is the case with Anysberg, the
western end of the Table Mountain sandstone ridge of
the Zwartebergen ; but in the high ranges, the main
portion of the Zwartebergen and the Langebergen, the
folds lean over northwards, so that both limbs of any
one fold dip southwards. This structure seems to
indicate that the region of the Great Karroo acted as
an immovable block against which the strata of the
folded belt were crumpled and turned over. The over-
thrust faults in the Dwyka series near Laingsburg are
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THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE COLONY 409
also directed towards the north, as though the pressure
had to be reheved by the sUding of blocks of beds over
the fractured edges of the next block to the north. It
is on the south flanks of the most crumpled ranges that
the great strike faults of Worcester and the Cango occur,
and their downthrows are very considerable, reaching
at least 10,000 feet at Worcester. The western folds
are not nearly so intense as the southern, and may have
begun at an earlier date. The easternmost of these
anticlines, that which forms the Cederbergen, is also
the greatest, and it is fairly symmetrical ; no consider-
able folds lie parallel to it on the east; to the west,
however, there are several parallel folds decreasing
rapidly in amplitude towards the coast.
The neighbourhood of Worcester, where the Uitenhage
conglomerates lie upon the Ecca beds and the Pre-Cape
rocks on either side of the great fault, affords a grand
object-lesson in denudation. To the north of the fault
the conglomerates lie directly upon the Malmesbury beds ;
to the south, part of the Ecca, the Dwyka series and
the whole of the Cape formation intervene between the
two. The thickness of the intervening rock is not less
than 10,000 feet. Between the fault and the mountains
to the north of it over 10,000 feet of rock must have
been removed during the interval (Jura-Trias) spoken
of above. Nowhere else in the Colony is the evidence
of this denudation so clear as at Worcester, but with it
before us we can believe that a similar amount of rock
was removed from the Pre-Cape areas of Mossel Bay
and the. Cango, which are now partly overlain by the
Uitenhage conglomerates. It must not be forgotten,
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410 GKOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
however, that the Worcester conglomerates may be
somewhat later in age than the similar rocks at Enon
and Uitenhage, but the difference is certainly small.
When describing the dolerite intrusions of the Karroo
we noticed that they seem to have avoided the folded
belt ; they occur to the north of it and on its extreme
limits, where the intensity of folding is much less
than in the major portion of the belt ; we noticed also
that this peculiarity in the distribution of the dolerite
pointed to the folds having been in existence or in
progress when^ the dolerite was intruded. Now the
dolerite is probably of late Stormberg age, for the
points of resemblance to the dolerites which are found
in the volcanic beds are so numerous, and at the same
time of more importance than the differences between
them, that it seems that both the general mass of
dolerites in the central and eastern parts of the Colony
and the distinctly volcanic rocks belong to one series
and reached their present position at about the same
time, the end of the Stormberg period. The only other
direct evidence of the age of the dolerites at present
known is the occurrence of the rock as boulders in the
Embotyi conglomerates, which we must regard as of
Cretaceous age but probably younger than the Uitenhage
beds. This fixes a later limit to the age of the intrusions.
If the Embotyi beds should eventually prove to be of
Uitenhage age the limit will be correspondingly set back.
But the first argument, concerning the connection of
the dolerites and volcanic beds, certainly supports the
assumption that the intrusions took place at the close
of the Stormberg period, and this helps us to determine
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THE GEOLOGICAL ttLSTORY OF THE COLONY 411
the date of the folding in the southern mountainous
region.
Whether closer hmits can be set to the period of
folding than the Ecca and Uitenhage periods remains
to be found out in the future. It is possible that the
unconformity near Aberdeen, between the Ecca and
Beaufort beds, described by the late Professor A. H.
Green may be more than a local phenomenon, and if
so it may lend material aid to the solution of the ques-
tion, but so far as our knowledge of other parts of the
Colony goes there is no physical break at that horizon.
It may be that all traces of the unconformity which
probably existed within the Karroo formation some-
where to the south of the main Colonial watershed
have been removed by denudation. The uprising of
the folded belt exposed the southern parts of the
Colony to the air and to all the destructive agencies,
such as change of temperature, wind, rain and streams,
that this entailed. There were then formed the great
longitudinal depressions between the Zwartebergen
and Langebergen, and the other more or less east
and west ranges in the south. To this period probably
belongs also the first rough shaping of the western
coastal districts, the removal of the upper parts of
the Cape formation from Malmesbury, Piquetberg and
neighbouring districts, and the Olifant's River Valley
(Clanwilliam). While this was going on the upper
parts of the Karroo formation were being laid down
in the north-east, possibly also far to the north and
north-west of the existing boundary of the Stormberg
series. The time represented by these rocks witnessed
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412 GEOLOGY OF CAtE COLONY
a great change in the inhabitants of the land round the
Karroo lake. Glossopteris and many of its fellow plants
of the earlier period died out and were replaced by
a new vegetation, of which Thinnfeldia, Tcsniopteris,
Baiera and Gallipteridium are the best-kppwn members.
The fauna likewise changed, PareiasaunLs, Dicynodon and
their allies disappeared to make way for more highly
organised reptiles.
Below the Molteno beds there is no direct evidence of
a diminution in size of the water basin in which the
Karoo formation was deposited, but the coarse sandstones
in the Molteno beds and the overlying strata, the coal
seams and the occasional thin conglomerates in the
Molteno beds all point to the proximity of land during
their deposition. It is not yet possible to define the
position of the neighbouring land, but it is probable that
part of it lay to the south-east of the Drakensberg
ridge.*
The present naain watershed of the Colony was prob-
ably produced during the Stormberg period by the rising
of a low tract of country from the Karroo area, trending
in a north-easterly direction. The water which fell on
this land drained off towards the north and south, giving
rise to the chief rivers draining what are now the Great
and Upper Karroos. It is as yet difficult to account for
the appearance of this land, for there is now no sign of
an anticlinal ridge corresponding in direction with the
main watershed. On the other hand, the structure of
that area is that of a very gentle syncline. It is possible
» Schwarz (03).
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THE GEOLOGICAL HLSTORY OF THE COLONY 413
that the synclinal structure was given to the country at
a somewhat later period. The intrusion of the dolerite
sheets, which on the average reach a thickness of per-
haps 1,000 feet over a wide area in the central districts
of the Colony, must have produced some effect at the
surface, and may have been the cause of the emergence
of the watershed.^ The varying position of the base of
the Stormberg volcanic series proves that the Cave sand-
stone was subjected to denudation before the volcanic
outbursts commenced, but there is also evidence in the
interbedding of the two groups of rock that the denuda-
tion was local, and that the Cave sandstone continued
to be formed after the earliest activity of the volca-
noes. The outpouring of the immense thickness of
lava, described in a previous chapter, put a stop to
the deposition of ordinary sediments, and the conditions
under which sandstones, shales and other sediments are
formed seem never to have prevailed again in the
interior of the Colony. The present state of our know-
ledge of the volcanic series is too imperfect to allow a
satisfactory statement of the effects due to the volcanic
episode to be made ; but it may be taken as certain that
one result was to add a great volcanic pile to the north-
eastern end of the newly emerged land.
There seems no escape from the conclusion that denu-
dation has proceeded uninterruptedly from the close of
the Stormberg period (EhsBtic) to the present day in
the interior of the Colony. No deposits of later age,
^ For discussions on the origin of the watershed see Scbwarz, Tha
Volcanoes of Grigualand Ectst (03), and Rogers, The Geological History
of the Gouritz River System (03).
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414 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
other than river gravels, alluvium and sand, have been
found north of the folded belt.
During the Jurassic period the valleys in the folded
belt were greatly enlarged and deepened, so that the
Pre-Cape rocks became exposed in several areas south
of the Zwartebergen, where the chief rivers appear to
have had east and west courses. The rivers running
south from the main Colonial watershed have left no
trace of their passage through the mountain ranges in
pre-Uitenhage times, though the valleys excavated in
the folded belt before the deposition of the Uitenhage
beds were deeper, relatively to the ranges, than the
modern ones in the same districts. The water flowing
southwards from the main watershed probably drained
away to the sea in an easterly direction. This great
period of denudation received a partial check in early
Cretaceous times, so that the longitudinal valleys in the
folded belt became filled with conglomerates, sandstones
and shales, now represented by the outliers of Uitenhage
beds described in chapter viii. The cause of this may
have been twofold, first, the sinking of the land, and,
secondly, the coming in of a drier climate. That the
former cause played an important part is evident from
the fact that the marine Sunday's River beds occupy an
old valley between Port Elizabeth and the Zuurbergen ;
and the second of the two causes is indicated by the
nature of much of the conglomerates and sands, the
Enon type of the Uitenhage beds. It is not improbable
that the Uitenhage beds eventually covered the whole
of the folded belt, with the exception of parts of the
mountain ranges; there is reason to believe that in
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THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE COLONY 415
places the lower passes in those ranges were buried
under the gravels and other rocks of the Uitenhage
series. As we saw in chapter viii., there is no evidence
to show how far west of the Zwartkops Valley the
marine beds extended.
Towards the end of the Uitenhage period we may sup-
pose that a low belt of land stretched north-east through
the middle of the Colony, ending in a great mass of
volcanic rocks, and that to the south of this land there
were ridges of mountainous ground projecting above a
shallow sea, or through gravel and sand deposited by
local streams in a flat country only partially under
water. Whether these sediments, in whatever way
they were formed, spread north of the Zwartebergen
will perhaps never be known, but it is possible that
they did so, and that the streams flowing southwards
from the main watershed eventually delivered their
loads of silt into the same area instead of reaching the
open sea to the south-east. It appears to be probable,
however, that the rivers ran southwards across the
newly deposited Uitenhage beds when the uplift oc-
curred which put an end to the deposition of those beds
in the folded belt.
The course of events north of the watershed, in the
country drained by the Orange River, is much more
diflScult to decipher, and at present too little is known
of the details of its geology to allow one to attempt
the task. The mountain building which produced the
southern and western ranges did not afl^ect the north
of the Colony, and no equivalents of the Uitenhage
beds are known to exist in that region. Probably the
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416 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
Orange River commenced its work at the same time as
the streams flowing south from the main watershed.
At some time after the deposition of the Uitenhage
beds earth-movements took place in their area, and the
effects of these are seen in the inch'nation of the Uiten-
hage strata, and in the faults that traverse them.
These movements had partly the same direction as the
earlier ones that produced the mountains, but there is
no evidence yet discovered that proves the new move-
ments to have always followed the older very closely.
For example, the Worcester fault, and the southern
boundary fault of the Cango district do not appreci-
ably aflfect the Uitenhage beds, though the latter have
slight dips in the neighbourhood of those great disloca-
tions. Along parts of the faults the Uitenhage beds lie
comparatively undisturbed on the old surface on both
sides of the fault without any indication of faulting along
the same line. In Uniondale and Willowmore, on the
contrary, conglomerates of the Enon type have been let
down against the Cape formation along faults that are
parallel with the strike of the folds produced in the latter
formation in Pre-Uitenhage times ; the downthrow is
always to the south, as in the case of the older faults.
The effect of the faulting and folding of the Uitenhage
beds must have been to accentuate former longitudinal
valleys, if they were in existence, or to give rise to
them. The extent to which the dislocations were car-
ried was, however, insuflicient to disarrange the already
established southward courses of the rivers draining
the Karroo. These rivers gradually cut down their val-
leys through the Uitenhage beds, so that they reached
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THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE COLONY 417
the underlying sharply folded Cape formation, a process
that still continues; but, as we shall see, there have
been periods of diminished downward erosion during
which the rivers widened their valleys and cut exten-
sive plains instead of deepening their channels. The
river systems south of the main watershed thus de-
veloped on a country whose structure has no direct
relationship to the origin of the main rivers, and the
deep gorges of the transverse streams, such as the
Gamka and Gouritz, were sawn through by the rivers
cutting their way downwards through soft and hard
rocks alike as they were exposed. It is not improb-
able that the earth-movements of post-Uitenhage age
deepened the depression between the Zwartebergen
and Langebergen, but the movements were greater in
some places than others, and were not sufficiently
regular in direction and extent to deflect the chief
transverse stream into valleys parallel to the mountain
ranges.
In the marine beds of the Uitenhage series we have
the inshore deposits of an ocean that stretched from
India to South Africa, but its general form is very im-
perfectly known. So far as South Africa is concerned
that ocean probably only touched the country and never
spread over what is now the interior of the Colony.
The next inroad of the open sea is recorded in the
Umzamba beds of the south-east coast. The fossils in
these rocks are most closely related to Indian forms,
and indicate that the beds were laid down at a later
stage of the Cretaceous period than the Sunday's Biver
beds. The fact that the Umzamba and the Embotyi
27
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418 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
beds are faulted down against the Table Moantain
series shows that they once extended farther inland
than their remnants are found to-day, but as they are
distinctly in-shore deposits, as opposed to those foriaed
under deep-sea conditions, they probably never stretched
far inland beyond their outcrops in Pondoland. We
have as yet no sign of a passage from the Uitenhage
into the Umzamba series, but negative evidence on
such a point is worthless under the circumstances ; we
cannot, therefore, say whether the ocean retreated and
returned, or whether a conformable group of beds, from
the Uitenhage to the Umzamba series, once existed in
or near the south-east limit of the Colony.
The boundary faults of the Pondoland Cretaceous
rocks were evidently formed in post-Cretaceous times,
and they appear to have no connection with the earth-
movements that affected the Uitenhage beds of the west.
In direction (north-east) they agree more closely with
the line of volcanic vents in the Drakensberg, so far as
the latter is known, than with the nearly east and west,
or east-south-east flexures into which the Uitenhage
beds were thrown. The Pondoland faults are approxi-
mately parallel to the coast, and were probably closely
connected with the formation of that part of the South
African coast line. So far as our information carries us
at present this is the only part of the Colonial coast
defined by faults.
At some time subsequently to the deposition of the
Uitenhage beds volcanic explosions took place at various
spots from Spiegel River in the south to Griqualand
West in the north, and the chief products of this third
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THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE COLONY 419
phase * of volcanic activity in the Colony were melilite-
basalts and peculiar breccias ; the latter include the
blue-ground of the Kimberley and other pipes. These
volcanoes seem to be distributed sporadically without
any relationship to the earlier established structural lines
in the Colony, and they do not appear to have thrown
out any considerable quantity of lavas or ashes.
Eeturning now to the southern rivers, which we
described as cutting down their valleys through the
Uitenhage beds to the underljring rocks, we must en-
deavour to trace the events which have taken place
since they began to cut through the partially buried
mountain ranges. Throughout the southern districts
of the Colony there is abundant evidence bearing on
this portion of its history ; this evidence is given by the
gravel and alluvial terraces lying high above the bed of
the modem rivers. The absence of contoured maps and
a close knowledge of the height of the terraces greatly
increase the difficulties of the problem, and it would be
useless to attempt more than a sketch of the main con-
clusions to be derived from the facts at present known.
The oldest, or highest, well-developed terraces lie over
1,000 feet above the modem river beds, and there may be
still more elevated terraces. When the rivers from the
Karroo flowed at levels about 1,000 feet higher than at
present their downward cutting powers were checked,
and they, together with their tributaries, planed off the
country to a more or less common level, producing a
' The other two gave rise to (1) the Pre-Cape volcanic rocks of
Prieska and Griqualand West, and (2) the Stormberg volcanic rocks.
The former, however, may represent more than one period of activity.
27*
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420 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
slightly undulating plain, from which rose the long
mountain ranges and the smaller anticlines, such as the
Caledon Mountain and Warm Water Berg. The dis-
tinct terraces forming conspicuous features on the slopes
of the Langebergen and Zwartebergen, where the hard
folded quartzites are cut to a nearly flat surface, were
made during this period of lateral erosion. The cause
was widespread, for we find its effects from the Transkei
to the Zwart Ruggens west of the Karroo. An obvious
possible reason for the cutting of these terraces is that
the sea stood higher relatively to the land than is the
case to-day, but whether the rivers had previously cut
their channels down to sea level and so were unable to
further deepen their valleys, or whether the country as
a whole sank and therefore checked the deepening of
the valleys, is not certain. The former is perhaps the
more likely, for no filled-up channels near the coast have
been found, and they might be expected had the valleys
been eroded to a greater depth than could be maintained
under the new conditions. Local plains might well
have been formed behind the larger blocks of mountains,
just as we see wide alluvial flats in the course of the
Buffel's River behind the Leeuw Kloof Poort and the
plain cut by the Olifant's River before entering its gorge
in the Gamka Hills. The terraces on the flanks of the
mountains, with the outlying table-shaped fragments of
the plains that formerly connected them, are so exten-
sively developed, both to the north and south of the
Zwartebergen, that they cannot be explained by a local
cause like that which is sufficient to account for the
alluvial flats of the 01ifant*s River. It is probable
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THE GEOLOGICAL HJaTORY OF THE COLONY 421
that the high-level plateau in the country south of the
Langebergen was formed at the same time as the ter-
races we have been discussing, although it lies at a
lower level, for then, as now, the rivers must have had
a fall towards the coast, and each gorge through the
great ranges was perhaps more steeply graded than the
valley-bottom above or below it.
The rising of the country relatively to the sea-level
renewed the downward cutting powers of the rivers and
restricted the stream erosion within naxrow limits, so
that great parts of the old plains were permanently
abandoned. The change in the drainage system thus
effected was considerable in certain areas ; the water-
shed between the Olifant's and Baviaan's Kloof Rivers
now lies on a high level gravel plateau, and before the
platform was cut the watershed may have been far from
its present position.
At the present time the Dwyka and Gamka traverse
the Zwartebergen together by the Gamka Poort, and at
a point thirty miles below that gorge the Bufifel's River
joins them to form the Gouritz River ; to do this the
Buflfel's River turns sharply to the east, away from
what one would suppose its proper course to have been ;
the depression on the crest of the Langebergen, called
Garcia's Pass, lies directly in the supposed normal
course of the river, so it is not unlikely that its upper
part was captured by a western tributary of the Gouritz.
This must, however, have happened before the high-
level plain was cut, for the summit of Garcia's Pass
lies higher than the terrace on the north flank of the
Langebergen.
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422 GEOLOGY OP CAPE COLONY
There are other terraces at lower levels than those
mentioned above, but to bring all these into order and
to place them in chronological sequence is at present
impossible on account of the lack of detailed information
as to their relative heights an& distribution.
The raised beaches and the limestone formed from
sand dunes now lying at considerable heights above the
shore and at some distance inland, must belong to one
of the periods of plain-cutting ; there is as yet insuffi-
cient evidence to correlate these phenomena definitely,
but it may well be that the higher shore terraces, such
as that covered by the marine gravels of the Zwartkops
Heights, and the old beach underlying the limestone of
Cape Infanta, were removed out of reach of the waves
when the inland plateaux, 1,000 feet above the modem
river beds, were elevated.
The numerous 8-curves of the southern river valleys
with precipitous sides, often several hundred feet high,
are relics of the time when the streams meandered slowly
across nearly flat plains ; on the fall of the streams being
increased by the rise of the land their downward cutting
power was renewed and they deepened the valleys in
which they flowed, so that in many cases the S-bends
were retained and deepened to the extent we now see.
One of the most remarkable of these is the 8-shaped
gorge in the Klein Zwartberg occupied by the Buffel's
River; another has been cut by the Gamka between
the RoodePBerg and the Pogha Hills ; from the Eastern
Province the extremely sinuous and deep valleys of the
Great Fish, Kei and Bashee Bivers are analogous
examples.
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THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE COLONY 423
Hitherto we have only given the evidence for elevation
of the land relatively to the water in connection with
the superficial deposits. There is, however, some in-
dication of recent depression ; the great depths of the
estuarine shelly sands and muds near the mouths of
some of the rivers, especially the Zwartkops and Buffalo
Eivers which are the only ones that have been explored
in this sense, may be due to depression. On the west
coast, Saldanha Bay, an almost land-locked basin in
granite, appears to be a drowned valley. There is no
well-defined valley entering the bay, though the thick
superficial sandy deposits that stretch south-east of the
bay may conceal an old river channel. At many places
in Saldanha Bay the dune limestone containing the re-
mains of land snails passes below sea-level, as is also
the case near Struys Point and the mouth of the Duiven
Hoeks River on the south coast. At Paternoster, north
of Saldanha Bay, a well sunk at a spot about twenty
feet above sea-level revealed the presence of ninety feet
of sandy limestone and sand containing land shells,
tortoise bones, and broken marine shells, evidently an
accumulation formed on the land behind the beach, and
not below tide-level. These facts all point to a recent
depression.
Throughout this account of the changes of level
which have affected the Colony the expressions ** uplift '*
and "depression,** or equivalent terms have been used.
It is, however, one of the obscure problems of geology
to find out whether apparent uplifts and depressions are
due to the movement of the land or to that of the sur-
rounding ocean. Where the strata concerned are bent,
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424 GEOLOGY OP CAPE COLONY
the changes must at least in part be due to the move-
ments of the rocky crust of the earth; but where a
widespread alteration of relative level has taken place,
such as that which caused the abandonment of the high-
level plateaux by the streams which once flowed across
them, the question is not easy to decide. Should it be
found that terraces or raised beaches that were once on
the same level are now at different heights above the
sea, then earth movements must have played a part in
bringing about the change. The evidence to decide
even this detail with regard to the Cape terraces and
beaches has not yet been collected, and it is not such
a simple matter as it may appear. The recent deposits
as a whole are remarkably deficient in organic remains,
though up to the present time they have not been
systematically searched; and it is only possible to de-
termine the contemporaneity of detached portions of
terraces and beaches by a study of their fossils. A
thorough investigation of the facts bearing upon the
past changes in level in the Colony will add much to
the materials for the decision of the problem.
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CHAPTEE XII.
NOTES ON THE GEOLOGY OP SOME OF THE RAILWAY
LINES.
In this chapter it is proposed to point out the chief points
of interest to be seen along the railway lines, or rather
those portions of them about which I have definite
information.
The Western Main Line to the Orange Kiver.
From Cape Town the line passes through the Cape
Flats as far as Durban Boad Station. On either side
of the line blown sands overlying ironstone clays and
sands stretch for several miles. As a result of the
systematic planting pursued by the Government the
drifting sands in this area have been checked, and
wattle thickets cover what used to be one of the
heaviest parts of the country for travellers before the
railway was made. The only outcrops of hard rock
in the Cape Flats are the surface-quartzites, patches
of which lie close to the line about ten miles from
Cape Town. At Durban Koad the line enters a country
which is still flat, but the Malmesbury beds and the
intrusive granite lie close under the surface soil. To
the north-west are the Tyger Berg and the hills near
Durbanville formed of slaty and quartzitic beds be-
425
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426 GROLOGY OP CAl>E COLONY
longing to the Malmesbury group; to the south-east
lie Kafion Kop and Bottelary, composed of granite,
while farther ofiF rise the great Table Mountain sand-
stone mountains of Stellenbosch and Hottentot's Hol-
land. Between Mulder's Vley and Klapmuts the line
traverses a north-westerly fault, on the south-west side
of which outhers of the Table Mountain series have
been let down against the Malmesbury beds and form
Klapmuts Hill and Joosten Berg.
At Paarl the railway turns northwards and runs
parallel to the Klein Drakensteins (Table Mountain
sandstone) and the ranges north of them, down the val-
ley of the Berg Eiver, with the great granite Mountains
of Paarl and Paarde Berg to the west. The isolated
mountain lying about eight miles west of the railway
between Hermon and Porterville Road is Riebeek's
Kasteei, an outlier of the Table Mountain sandstone.
The mountain ridge extending north from the Draken-
steins is part of the western limit of the folded belt.
The Cape formation east of the range is considerably
folded and faulted, but to the west it is but slightly
folded and over large areas it has been removed by
denudation. The country so far described belongs to
the Pre-Cape region. Just beyond Porterville Road
the line crosses the mountains by the New Kloof and
enters the great depression drained by the Klein Berg
and Breede Rivers, and in which lie the agricultural
districts of Tulbagh and Worcester. The watershed
between the two rivers is a scarcely noticable rise near
Ceres Road Station, but to the north the water flows
through the New Kloof, while to the south the Breede
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GEOLOGY OF SOME OF THE RAILWAY LINES 42*?
Eiver, after a long journey through comparatively flat
ground, traverses a high range of Witteberg hills on its
w^ay to the sea at Port Beaufort. East of the New
lOoof the hne runs south to Worcester, where it turns
north-east to traverse the Hex Eiver Mountains; for
some thirty-five miles it lies between two ranges of
mountains, the Witzenbergen and their southern con-
tinuations on the east, and the Drakenstein Slang Hoek
mass on the west. The Table Mountain sandstone of
both these is seen to lie apparently horizontally when
viewed from the railway, and obviously once stretched
across the valley, covering the Mahnesbury beds forming
the low ground. When these mountains are examined
closely, however, the strata are found to dip at various
angles away from the valley, and to present their edges
towards it South of the Breede Biver Station the
sandstone to the south-west of the line takes on a
difiFerent dip, towards the valley instead of away from
it. This becomes more and more marked towards the
corner of the great mountain mass at Brand Vley, and
is one of the phenomena connected with the Worcester
fault. The wide area of gravels along the Breede Eiver
and the Uitenhage conglomerates (Enon t3rpe) to the
east conceal large portions of the underlying Malmes-
bury. Cape and Karroo formations near the fault. The
railway passes over the fault twice, once about four
miles west of Worcester Station and again two miles
north-east of the station. It makes no feature at the
surface, and its presence is only indicated along this
part of its course by outcrops of Ecca beds in contact
with the Malmesbury series. From Worcester some
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428 GKOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
interesting excursions can be made. To the south the
greater part of the succession from the Table Mountain
sandstone to the Ecca beds is well exposed east and
north-east of the mountain between Brand Yley and
Stettin's Berg ; at Waai Kloof, twelve miles east from
the town, the unconformable junction of the Table
Mountain sandstone with the ottrelite schists and
quartzites of the Malmesbury group can be seen ;
while to the north there are numerous exposures of
slates, schists, together with gneiss, and other igneous
rocks of Pre - Cape age. The railway crosses the
second range of mountains by the Hex Kiver Valley,
which is situated just to the east of the bend or angle
formed by the meeting of the north and east trending
ranges. On emerging from the Poort the Hex Kiver
Mountains lie to the north and are admirably displayed
to a traveller by train. The railway is carried up the
left side of the valley, along the V-shaped synclinal
area of Bokkeveld beds. Between De Dooms and
Touw's River some of the richest locaHties for Bokke-
veld fossils are passed, and 'for the greater part of the
way the line is laid on the lower divisions of the Bokke-
veld beds which alone contain marine fossils. The best
localities for searching for fossils are near De Dooms,
the quarries at Tunnel Siding, and Klein Straat. A
short distance beyond Klein Straat a fault with down-
throw to the north is crossed ; it bounds the northern
face of the eastern spur of the Hex River Mountains,
and along it the Witteberg beds are brought down
against the Table Mountain sandstone. Near Klein
Straat an isolated anticline of Table Mountain sand-
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GEOLOGY OF SOME OP THE RAILWAY LINES 429
stone, Baviaan's Berg can be seen to the south ; it rises
from a rather flat country, the Touw's Vlakte, cut out
of Bokkeveld beds. The Witteberg series forms the
high hills to the north and east. Some of the remark-
ably sharp folds in the Witteberg beds can be seen from
the railway three miles on the up side of Touw's Eiver
Station. The prominent bands of rock are quartzites,
and the intervening shales, darker in colour than the
quartzites, have weathered away more rapidly, leaving
the quartzites standing out on the sides of the hills.
Six miles on the down side of Touw's Eiver the line
enters the synclinal outlier of Dwyka conglomerate of
Quarrie Kloof. The Witteberg quartzites dip under
the outlier and form the bare precipitous hills to the
north and south ; the conglomerate crops out near the
railway line in irregular lumpy masses showing the
rough cleavage or slab-structure which is characteristic
of that rock along the south of the Karroo. After
journeying some ten miles on the conglomerate we
cross to the Witteberg beds again, but this formation is
finally left near Pieter Meintjes, where we enter the main
area of the Dwyka series. The dark cliffs to the north
of the line between this station and Matjes Pontein
show the rather feebly developed stratification planes
in the conglomerate, and the kopjes nearer the railway
are good examples of the usual aspect of the conglom-
erate south of the Karroo. The included boulders are
often large enough to be seen from the passing train,
and the slab- structure producing the characteristic pil-
low-form of the exposed surfaces is prominent. About
half a mile south of the line at Matjes Fontein there
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430 GEOLOGY OP CAPE COLONY
are three white quartzite kopjes formed by lenticular
deposits of that rock within the conglomerate. Matjes
Fontein is a good centre for an examination of the
conglomerate. Numerous striated boulders may be ob-
tained from the rock in the hills north of the station,
where good exposures are numberless; the variety of
rocks forming the boulders is also very great in tbis
locality. To the east-north-east of the village the suc-
cession from the conglomerate to the bottom of the
Ecca series is exposed on the steep sides of a high hill.
South of Matjes Fontein and for some twelve miles on
the way to Laingsburg the steep, bare dip-slopes of the
uppermost quartzites of the Witteberg formation bound
the view; at places high up on these mountains (the
Wittebergen) the strata appear to be lying horizontally
upon the steeply dipping beds of the lower slopes, an
appearance due to the sharp bending of the beds and
the removal of the outer part of the bend by denudation ;
on ascending the range from Matjes Fontein its struc-
ture becomes obvious. The line leaves the Dwyka series
about nine miles from Laingsburg and enters the great
area of Ecca beds, the sandstones and shales of which
are exposed in the railway cuttings and on the bare hills
on either side of the hne. Near Laingsburg the most
prominent ranges of hills are formed by the middle por-
tion of the Ecca series, called the Laingsburg beds.
Just before reaching the station the line crosses one of
the rivers which drain the Karroo region, the Buflfers
Kiver from the Moordenaar's Karroo. This river, which
usually has only isolated pools of water in its bed, passes
through the Zwartebergen by means of a great gorge
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GEOLOGY OF SOME OF THE RAILWAY LINES 431
about six miles in length with vertical sides. It is well
worth making a journey from Laingsburg to within the
great poort in order to see it. Laingsburg is a con-
venient place for excursions to the Zwartebergen and
the Dwyka and Ecca beds. A walk from the village up
the Buflfers Eiver towards the Moordenaar's Karroo
illustrates admirably the passage from the folded belt
to the little-disturbed interior basin ; the strata are
thrown into extremely sharp folds and are overthrust
towards the north ^ at places near the village ; farther
up the river, which traverses the beds at right angles
to their strike, the folds die out rapidly and at a distance
of about eight miles the strata lie nearly horizontally,
a condition that is maintained for hundreds of miles
northwards, with the exception of a few small monoclinal
folds south of the Komsberg.
From Laingsburg the train passes along the northern-
most portion of the folded belt for some forty miles, but
before Prince Albert Boad is reached the folds are no
longer seen and the strata everywhere lie at very low
angles. The Great Karroo is entered at Laingsburg ;
the almost bare hills of shale and thin sandstones and
the scanty vegetation, consisting of small bushes which
only look green after good rains, are characteristic of
thousands of square miles from Karroo Foort in the
west to Somerset East, and from the main watershed
^ About one and a half miles from the village on the road to Zout
Kloof there is a clearly exposed section showing the chert band re-
peated three times by overthrust faults, and near by the lower part of
the Upper Dwyka shales are thrust over the higher portion containing
the white band.
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432 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
on the north to the Zwartebergen in the south. The
thorn trees along the river beds are the only green
things usually visible from the train in this area. The
various forms of kopjes due to the action of rain and
wind on thin sandstones and shales dipping at different
angles are well displayed along the line from Laings-
burg to Beaufort West. On the up side of Prince
Albert Boad the ridge, or hog back, type is the usual
one, owing to the inclined position of the strata, but
when we reach the almost horizontal beds, low table-
shaped hills with steep sides are the predominating
forms. The table-shape is due entirely to the weather
acting on horizontal beds, the thin but hard sandstones
check the destructive process and give rise to flat caps
to the hills. These flat-topped hills are very different
in nature from the somewhat similarly shaped hills seen
along the line from Swellendam to Eiversdale ; the
latter are parts of a stream-cut plain isolated by the
renewed activity of the streams owing to the elevation
of the whole country. Southwards from the railway
the great range of the Zwartebergen towers 5,000 feet
above the lower portions of the Karroo. The various
ranges of foothills can be distinguished from certain
points on the line on favourable days. One great gash
in the range several miles east of its highest point
(Seven Weeks' Poort Mountain) marks the passage of
the Gamka, whose two chief feeders are bridged at
Bloed Kiver Siding (Dwyka) and near Fraserburg Boad.
The traveller will rarely have the opportunity of seeing
any water in either of these river beds, and he may be
sceptical as to the power of their temporary streams to
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GEOLOGY OP SOME OP THE RAILWAY LINES 433
cut; such a gap in a mountain range. After heavy rain
the sand and gravel of rivers like these are pushed or
carried forward long distances, and the force of the
current is immense ; then it must be remembered that
the age of this river system is very great, even in a
geological sense, and that the vigour of the streams
has been renewed more than once by elevation of the
country. A smaller but sharply defined gap west of the
Gamka Poort is the Seven Weeks' Poort, close under
the highest point of the range. A third gorge, to the
east of the Gamka Poort, is Meiring's Poort. The
BuflfeFs Eiver Poort is not well seen from the railway
line. To the north the view is closed by the great cliflfs
of the Nieuweveld escarpment, capped by massive and
roughly columnar sheets of intrusive dolerite. The
highest point is Bulthouders Bank, 6,270 feet above
the sea. As Beaufort West (2,860 feet) is approached
the details of the structure of the cliffs become more
and more obvious, and a second thick sheet consider-
ably lower than the uppermost one, can be distinguished.
It caps the high plateau projecting far from the moun-
tain west of the town of Beaufort. In reality there are
three thick sheets near the town, but the highest one
cannot be distinguished from the second till Beaufort
West is left. For many miles along the line beyond
Prince Albert Koad two mountains at the western
end of the Nieuweveld cliflfs are very conspicuous, one
is Tafel Berg, a flat-topped mountain crowned by a
columnar sheet of dolerite 400 feet thick, and rising
3,000 feet from the ground at its base, and the second
is the pointed Spitz Kop, slightly lower than Tafel Berg
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434 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
but capped by a remnant of tbe same sheet. These are
outliers of the sheet at the top of the extreme western
part of the Nieuweveld. Just beyond the Beaufort
Station the hne crosses a thick dolerite dyke inclined
northwards ; it has been cut through to allow the rail-
way to pass ; to the east a corresponding section is
visible at the end of the wall of the town dam. The
Beaufort dyke, as it is called, has been traced for several
miles each side of the town, and on the west it appears
to have supplied the second of the dolerite sheets men-
tioned above.
A few miles south-west of Prince Albert Boad the
line passes over the boundary between the Ecca and
Beaufort beds ; no conspicuous feature marks its posi-
tion, but north of it the remains of Pareiasaurus and
other reptiles are found. The Dicynodon beds are passed
over beyond Beaufort West.
After traversing the wide alluvial flats beyond Beau-
fort the line ascends the main Colonial watershed, which
is crossed near Biesjes Poort. Along this section dolerite
sheets are the most conspicuous features in the country ;
the great variety in the shapes of mountain sides and
kopjes is due to the progress of denudation in a rock
mass of horizontal strata with sheets and dykea of
dolerite. The reddish or deep brown boulders, often
many feet in diameter and covered with a thin varnish
of black oxides of iron on their most exposed surfaces,
are portions of the dolerite separated from their parent
outcrops by the weather.
From the watershed to the Orange Eiver, both on the
Kimberley and Johannesburg lines, the train runs across
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GEOLOGY OF SOME OP THE RAILWAY LIJTES 435
wide flats where outcrops are hardly to be found, with
flat-topped dolerite or sandstone-capped hills in the dis-
tance, then it approaches groups of these hills and winds
its way between them. The geology of this part of the
Colony as far east as Stormberg Junction has not been
examined in detail. The most remarkable features near
the railway in this district are the two flat-topped hills,
Theebus and Coflfeebus, between Bosmead Junction and
Steynsburg ; they owe their form to the presence of
dolerite caps which have protected the softer sedi-
mentary beds below.
From Eosmead the Port Elizabeth line follows the
valley of the Great Fish Biver as far as Commadagga,
a distance of over a hundred miles, lying upon the
Karroo formation all the way. At Commadagga the
Dwyka series is traversed ; the similarity in character
of that rock at Matjes Fontein and in the Eastern
Province can be noticed. The survey of the country
through which this line passes has not yet been made.
One of the points of interest in travelling across the
Karroo formation a second time many miles to the east
of the western main line is the difference in vegeta-
tion connected with the different climates in the two
regions, and the distinction is still more marked when
a comparison is made with the country traversed by the
East London line below Queenstown, where grass veld
predominates over bush. Below Commadagga the Witte-
berg beds are seen on either side of the line as far as
Sand Flats, but near AJicedale, a syncline of the Dwyka,
the western end of the Grahamstown S3mcline is trav-
ersed. At Sand Flats the railway enters the area of
28*
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436 GEOLOGY OP CAPE (COLONY
the Uitenhage beds and remains in it as far as the
Zwartkops bridge, from that place to Port Elizabeth the
low ground near the line is formed of superficial deposits,
chiefly raised beaches. From the bridge over Sunday's
Biver may be seen the light-coloured cliffs of the Sun-
day's Eiver beds containing marine fossils.
The line from Alicedale to Grahamstown and thence
to Port Alfred lies on the Witteberg beds for the greater
part of the distance, but near Grahamstown it traverses
the Dwyka conglomerate for a few miles. In that
neighbourhood a well-preserved terrace, north of the
line, can be seen from the railway. The bridge over the
Blaauw Krantz Eiver, a tributary of the Kowie, is built
just to the north of a rather fine gorge through the
folded Witteberg quartzites ; this gorge is analogous to
the far greater poorts of the Buffers, Gamka and other
rivers in the Zwartebergen and Langebergen, through
which the Great Karroo is drained.
The East London line descends the southern flank
of the main watershed at Bushman's Hoek, and an
excellent view of the almost precipitous face of the
escarpment is obtained from the train. To the east of
this region the Stormberg series is well developed, but
near the railway only the Molteno beds are seen ; the
spoil heaps at the entrance to drives and pits near
Molteno and Cyphergat mark the coal mines. The most
striking features of the Stormberg series, the Cave sand-
stone and volcanic beds, are not seen near this line. The
Karroo formation with its intrusions of dolerite extends
to the coast at East London, but no detailed surveys
have yet been made in that part of the Colony.
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GEOLOGY OF SOME OF THE RAILWAY LINES 437
RosMEAD TO Port Elizabeth and Oudtshoorn via
Klipplaat.^
Leaving Eosmead (4,044 feet), the railway passes
over high veld covered with grass and small bush ;
dolerite sheets cover the tops of the hills, and lines of
kopjes mark the courses of the dolerite dykes. Passing
Middelburg, the line approaches the escarpment of the
Sneeuwberg, and is taken over the edge a little to the
east of the highest point in the range, Compass Berg
(8,500 feet), and indeed the highest in the Colony, with
the exception of some peaks on the Drakensberg. The
escarpment is formed of a sheet of dolerite capping the
Karroo rocks ; it is at the edge of the plain that slopes
to the Orange Eiver, and the edge forms the main
watershed dividing the streams flowing north and south.
Graaflf Eeinet (2,463 feet), lies on the lowest slopes of
the escarpment, the precipitous part of which may be
reckoned at 1,000 feet. After winding down the face of
the cliff, the line is taken along the banks of a stream,
and the sides of the hills ape steep and heavily charged
with dolerite sheets, which give the gorge a wild and
forbidding appearance. The dolerite, both when capping
the hill tops, or exposed on a level with the river, is
coarsely columnar, and gives rise to fantastically shaped
pillars. The prickly pear has taken possession of the
veld, and renders much of it useless. Springs come to
the surface all along the river, and there is ample water
for irrigation, but there is very little soil on which to
use it, as only very narrow patches of alluvium occur ;
1 This section was given me by Mr. E. H. L. Schwarz.
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438 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
nearing Graaff Beinet, however, these patches become
larger and are covered with lucerne lands.
At Graaff Beinet the line leaves the mountains and
the dolerite. On the east of the town are the Tandjes
Bergen, the capping sheet of dolerite looking from a
distance like the teeth of a saw, and on the west is
a fine conical hill, Spander's Kop, with a crown of
sandstone which has been hardened by dolerite and
forms a vertical cHflf all round ; the dolerite now forms
only an inconsiderable heap of boulders on top of the
sandstone ; to the north, however, the full thickness of
the same dolerite sheet can be seen, and the celebrated
Valley of Desolation is cut in it.
Leaving Graaff Beinet, the line rims over a wide
plain formed of a peculiar variety of Karroo sandstone
and shale, the surface of the ground being sandy and
littered with small fragments of silicified wood, chert
and limestone, till Klipplaat is reached. One branch
goes down to Uitenhage and Fort Elizabeth, passing
the Dwyka conglomerate at Mount Stewart, and the
Witteberg beds between there and Barroe, and thence
it descends into the low-lying coast country made up of
the various members of the Uitenhage series, Enon
conglomerate, Wood bed, etc., the older rocks occasion-
ally appearing at the surface.
At Uitenhage the marine beds of the Uitenhage
series occur with many fossils, and the plateau that
reaches the coast is here seen. Leaving Uitenhage
the line follows the Zwartkops Biver; on the left are
cliffs cut in the marine beds and levelled at the top.
Great beach deposits lie on the plateau about here, and
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GEOLOGY OF SOME OF THE RAILWAY LINES 439
nearer the coast the shell beds contain a large species
of Pectunculus, Some distance away in among the
beach deposits on top of the plateau is the celebrated
Zwartkops Salt Pan. On the right there are ridges
of red and variegated marls which are used for tile
making, and away to the west the corresponding clifiFs,
level topped and beach covered, are seen. At their foot
lies the Bethelsdorp Salt Pan.
The other branch of the line leaves Elipplaat to go to
Willowmore and Oudtshoom. The line approaches the
hills at a very acute angle and before reaching them
passes between kopjes made of Ecca (mottled) on the
north and Dwyka conglomerate on the south. The
pillowy and pinnacled features of the latter are well
shown, but the " White band " that lies on the top of
the conglomerate is badly exposed and is only noticeable
from the white chert that occurs in it.
The line then enters the Witteberg hills at Swanepoel's
Poort. The Witteberg quartzites are bent into acute
folds, but the tops of the hills have been cut more or
less level and in places great open grassy flats occur
between them. The folds repeatedly bring the Dwyka
shales and the conglomerate to the level of the Plessis
Biver, along which the embankment is carried, and the
axis of the folds being east and west the valleys are
likewise in that direction. At Waai Kraal there is a
very wide syncline filled with Dwyka conglomerate and
the shales immediately above and below it. The line
then passes through a poort and enters a flat country
covered with deep red soil derived from the weathering
of the Bokk^veld beds. The line steadily rises and
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440 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
approaches the ridges of hills formed of folded Bokke-
veld beds, the sandstones of which look very much like
those of the Witteberg, but the amount of clay-slate
and shale between them is greater. After passing
through a small poort in these hills the train runs
into Willowmore.
From Willowmore there is a long stretch of country
formed of folded Bokkeveld beds and then the line
turns round and makes straight for a narrow slit in
the mountains. These mountains are the eastern end
of the Zwartebergen, and are composed of Table Moun-
tain sandstone ; the tremendous folding and crumpling
observable in the Zwartberg Pass and Meiring's Poort
have died out, though even here the beds stand vert-
ical. The slit is Tover Water's Poort, through which runs
the Traka Eiver. On the south side of the mountains
there is again a tract of Bokkeveld hills to the east, but
to the west the Enon conglomerate occupies a consid-
erable area. On the outcrop of the junction of the
Table Mountain sandstone and the Bokkeveld to the
east there is a hot spring. The line is carried over
the Bokkeveld beds past Uniondale Eoad and past the
bend along the Olifant's Biver. On the Oudtshoom
side of the bend there are high krantzes of red Enon
conglomerate, which rock, however, soon crosses the
river and the overlying white Enon forms the centre
of the valley. To the north are the Zwartebergen with
a very characteristic shelf or old river plateau high up
on the mountain side ; to the south, in the distance, are
the Kammanassie Mountains, also made of the Table
Mountain sandstone, and between them and the line
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GEOLOGY OF SOME OF THE RAILWAY LINES 441
are first, kopjes of the Bokkeveld beds, then red Enon
and then white Enon conglomerate. The same fea-
tures extend past Vlakte Plaats, where the line enters
a tract of Bokkeveld and skirts a peculiar inlier of Table
Mountain sandstone; then it passes by the month of
Meiring's Toort, but between the poort itself and the
line there are high hills of Cango beds cut to a level top
and capped with river gravel. To the south the end
of the Kammanassie Mountains can be seen where
the village of Dysseldorp stands. Thence to Oudtshoorn
one passes through red Enon, white Enon and finally
the sandy beds above the last.
The Eende Kuil and Hopefield Lines.
Leaving the main line at Kraaifontein the Malmes-
bury branch traverses undulating country cut out of
the Malmesbury beds as far as the town of that name,
where granite is met with. At Klipheuvel, a faulted
outlier of Table Mountain sandstone, the continuation
of Joostengerg is crossed.
At Kalabas Kraal the Hopefield railway branches oflf
from the Malmesbury line. The great granite masses
of Paarde Berg and Dassen Berg form considerable hills
to the east and west of the Hne near Kalabas Kraal.
The Dassen Berg mass is followed as far as Darling
where the line turns northwards through the Zwartland,
a flat grain country of little geological interest, as far as
Hopefield.
From Malmesbury the Eende Kuil line skirts the
eastern edge of the Zwartland, and some good sections
of the sericitic slates of the Malmesbury series are ex-
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442 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
posed in the cuttings. The structure of the wide extent
of Malmesbury beds which stretch from the west flank
of the Olifant's River and Cardouw's Mountains to
Piquetberg and the Saldanha Bay granite is not under-
stood. These beds are intensely folded and consist of
phyllites with occasional interbedded layers of grits and
quartzites. From the Berg River Bridge to Eende
Kuil fine views of the escarpments of Piquetberg and
the 01ifant*s River Mountains can be seen from the
train.
Caledon Line.
Leaving the main line at Durban Road the railway
passes the granite of Kanon Kop and Papagaai's Berg
and the Helderberg outlier of Table Mountain sand-
stone; it skirts the eastern part of the Gape Flats.
Near Somerset West a small but interesting granite
mass is passed about two miles on the down side of the
station ; this granite contains much tourmaline, andalu-
site, and other accessory minerals. Beyond Sir Lowry's
Pass the line ascends the steep sandstone escarpment
of Hottentot's Holland and enters the Grabouw-Houw
Hoek area of Bokkeveld beds, a more or less quad-
rangular sunken tract defined by north-west and north-
east lines of folding. The Bot River Valley is gained by
the Houw Hoek Pass and from that river to Caledon
the line runs over the Bokkeveld beds. The rugged
mountain of Table Mountain sandstone near Caledon
is an anticline, to the south the sandstone again rises
from below the Bokkeveld beds in the Babylon's Tower
Range, and to the north in the Zond^r Einde Mountains,
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GEOLOGY OF SOME OF THE RAILWAY LINES 443
The Rivbrsdale Line (Cape Central Eailway).
This line leaves the Government Railway at Wor-
cester. The Ecca beds are seen near Worcester Station,
but for some distance to the east nothing but river
gravels and occasional banks cut into the Uitenhage
conglomerates (Enon type) which are not easily dis-
tinguishable from river gravels from the train, can be
seen from the railway. Near Nuy Siding the Ecca
beds are again seen, and at Lange Vley the line passes
on to the Dwyka series. From Vink River to Robert-
son the Witteberg, Bokkeveld, and Table Mountain
sandstone are traversed. The high hill to the north of
the railway between Vink River and Robertson is a great
mass of granite intrusive in the Pre-Cape rocks (Mal-
mesbury series) north of the Worcester fault which
makes a bend round it. The Cape and Karroo forma-
tions abut against the fault in this region, having been
folded in a north-easterly direction on the down-throw
side. Between Robertson and Ashton the railway
crosses an outlier of the Enon conglomerates which
cover the great fault in this neighbourhood. From
Ashton to Swellendam Bokkeveld and Witteberg beds
are seen, the latter form the conspicuous hills with thick
groups of quartzite beds. Near Swellendam an ill-de-
fined Uitenhage outlier is crossed, and yet another is
entered at Slang River ; from there to Riversdale excel-
lent sections through the clays, shales, and conglomer-
ates of the Uitenhage beds are exposed in the cuttings ;
fossils have been obtained from several of those cuttings.
Eagt of Swellendam numerous ejttensive gravel plat-
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444 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
eaux lying high above the rivers are seen, and small
outhers of them form the table-shaped hills characteristic
of the Ruggens — the hilly country between the Zonder
Einde and Langebergen on the north and the coast
mountains on the south.
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APPENDIX.
List of books and papers referred to in the body of
the work : —
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London, 1818.
Amalitzky, W. "A Comparison of the Permian Freshwater
Lamellibranchiata from Russia with those from the Karoo
System of South Africa," Qiiart. Jouni, Geol. Soc., p. 337.,
1895.
Sur les Fouilles de 1899 de Debris de Vert^brh dans les D^pdts
Permiens de la R^issie du Nord, Warsaw, 1900.
Anderson, W. First Report of the Geological Survey of Natal and
Zulularid. Pietermaritzburg, 1901.
Atherstone, W. G. ** Geology of Uitenhage," The Eastern Province
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1867.
**A Geological Tour from Grahamstown to the Easouga,''
Cape Monthly Magazine, 1st series, vol. iv., pp. 273-282 and
328-334. Cape Town, 1868.
Baily, W. H. *^ Description of some Cretaceous Fossils from South
Africa Collected by Capt. Garden of the 46th Regiment,''
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Bain, A. G. ** On the Geology of Southern Africa," Trans. Geol.
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D. Sharpe on the "Fossils from the Secondary Rocks of
Sunday River and Zwartkop River " ; by D. Sharpe and J.
W. Salter on ** Palaeozoic Fossils from South Africa" ; by D.
Sharpe, J. D. Hooker and Sir P. Egerton on "Some Fossils
from the Karoo Desert and Its Vicinity ".
Blanford, H. F. and W. T., and Theobald, W. "On the Geo-
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in the District of Cuttack," Memoirs of Geol. Survey of India,
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446 GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY
Bonney, T. G. " The Parent-rock of the Diamond in South Africa,"
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Broom, R. ^*0n an almost Perfect Skeleton of Pareiasaurtis
serridenfty Owen," and five other {lapers, in Ann. of the South
Afrkan MuMum, voL iv., pt. ii., 1903. Also many papers
in Trans. S. A. Phil Sac, vols. xL-xv., Records of the Albany
Museum, and Report of the i^uth African Assodatwn for the
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Chapman, F. *^ Foraminifera and Ostracoda from the Cretaceous
of East Pondoland, South Africa," Ann, of the South African
Museum, vol. iv., pt. v., 1904.
Cohen, E. Letters to the Editor, Neues Jahrbuch fiir Min,, etc.,
p. 857, 1872 ; and p. 52, 1873.
'*Geognostisch-petrographische Skizzen aus Siid-Afrika,'*
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band, v., p. 195, 1887.
Corstorphine, G. S. C. See Geol. Commission, Annuul Reports,
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" On the Mode of Occurrence of Diamonds in South Africa,"
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8. Cape Town, 1878.
Report on a Supposed Extensive Deposit of Coal Underlying the
Central Districts of the Colony, Parliamentary Report, G. 8.
Cape Town, 1886.
** Notes on the Dwyka Coal Measures at Vereeniging, Trans-
vaal," Trans. S. A. Phil. Soc., xi., p. 67, 1900.
Geological Sketch Map of Cape Colony. London, 1872.
Geological Sketch Map of South Africa. London, 1875.
Melbourne, 1887.
Feistmantel, 0. '^ Uebersichtliche Darstellung der Geologisch-
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AhKder konigl. bohm, Gesellschaft der Wiss., vii. Folge, 3 Band,
1889.
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APPENDIX 447
Geological Commissiony Annual Report of^ for 1896. Cape Town,
1897.
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For 1898. Cape Town, 1900.
For 1899. Cape Town, 1900.
For 1900. Cape Town, 1901.
For 1901. Cape Town, 1902.
For 1902. Capo Town, 1903.
For 1903. Cape Town, 1904.
Gervais, P. Description du Mesomurus tenuidens, Reptile fossile de
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Graiohen, W. "Die Diamentminen Siid-Afrikas," Zeitschrift fiir
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mentary Report^ 1883.
"A Contribution to the Geology and Physical Geography
of the Cape Colony," Qiuirt, Joum, GeoL Soc,, xliv., p. 239,
1888.
Griesbach, C. L. "On the Geology of Natal in South Africa,"
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Gumprecht, T. E. DU Mineralquelle auf dem FestUinde von Africa^
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Hochstetter, F. v. " Beitrage zur Geologic des Caplandes," Reiser
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448 GEOL(XiY OF CAPE COLONY
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Kaplandes," Nova Acta Acad, Caes. Leop.-Car, Nat. Cur., xxii.,
p. 441, 1847.
'' Ueber die Quellen des SUdliohen Afrika's,'' Neties Jakrbueh
fur Min., eta, p. 150, 1843.
Ijacroiz, A. " Note sur les Min^rauz et les Roches du Gisement
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du Griqualand," BiiU. Soc. Franc. Min., xxL, pp. 21-29, 1898.
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APPENDIX 449
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North, F. W. Report on the Coal Fields of ihe Stormbergen, Parlia-
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Osborne, C. F., and Bain, T. Report on Gold Discoveries in Ihe Knysna
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of South Africa in the GolUdion of the British Museum,
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29
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450 GEOLOGY OP CAPE COLONY
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APPENDIX 451
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Zirkel, F. Lehrhuch der Petrographie, 3 vols. Leipzig, 1893.
29*
y Google
Digitized by*
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Google
INDEX.
Aberdeen, 24, 194, 256.
AcUBtmina, 288, 292.
Actinopteriay 138.
Addo, 292.
jElurosaurus, 193, 284.
Agulhas, 96.
Alaria, 292.
Algoa Bay, 881, 282.
Alicedale (Prieska), 71, 80.
Alleman*s Hoek (Beaufort West),
254.
Alluvium, 368-367.
Amalienstein, 49.
— or Cango Fault, 104.
Amandel Bosoh Bug, 808.
Amatolas, 257.
AniboccBliay 184.
Ammonitea, 292, 822.
Amygdaloidal lavas of Zeekoe Baaid,
170.
Beer Vley, 170.
Stormberg series, 214.
AnisoceraSj 825.
Annular dykes, 269.
Anodontopsis, 133.
Anomodontia, 284.
Anysberx, 104.
Araucarites^ 287.
Asbestos Mountains, 64, 69.
Ashton, 84, 807.
Assegaai Bosch (Riversdale), 800.
AstarU, 293, 326.
Astieria, 816.
AthersUmia, 197, 224, 348.
Avellana, 822-825.
Avicula, 293.
Baboon Point, 110.
Babylon's Tower, 19, 102.
Baculites, 292, 816, 822, 825.
Baiera, 222.
Bakoven's Hoogte, 34.
Balmoral (Fraserburg), 839.
Bank Berg, 257.
Banks Gaien (Beaufort West), 254.
Barkly Pass, 211.
Basutoland, 221.
Batraoosuchua, 195.
Baviaan's Kloof (Willowmore), 353.
Mountains, 106, 358, 854.
Beaufort' dykf>, the, 256.
— series, 189, 226, 256, 837.
Bedford, 197, 256.
Beer Vley volcanic rocks, 86.
BelemniteSf 292.
Bellerophan, 12^, 131, 138.
B4nstedtia, 286, 287.
Berenicea^ 294.
Bethelsdorp salt pan, 290.
Beukes Fontein (Ceres Karroo),
169, 251.
Bezuidenhout*s valley, 285, 287.
Bidouw (Clanwilliam), 142.
— Kuil (Hope Town), 86.
Bier River Mountains, 101.
Bizana, 185.
Blaauw Blommetjes Keep (Suther-
land), 839.
— Kranz (Calvinia), 175.
Black shales in the Dwyka series,
178.
Blink Berg (Geres), 126.
— Fontein (Prieska), 85, 87.
Blown Sand, 869-878.
Blue Cliff, 282.
ground, 836, 342.
Bokkeveld Mountain, 25, 60, 62, 97.
— period, 895, 896.
— series, 49, 121-187.
Bonteberg, 142.
Bosch Kloof, 252.
Boschiesman's Berg, 67.
Bo3chveld Mountains, 101.
Botha's Hill (Albany), 148, 175,
179, 858.
Bothriceps, 196.
458
Digitized by
Google
454
INDEX
Bothrodendrm, 186, 188.
Botfele*B Kop, 297.
Boven Plaats (Sutherland), 26S,
Brachyphyllum, 287.
Br&kbosch Poort Hills, 65, 67.
Brak Pan (Hope Town), 86.
Brand Vley (Worcester), 891.
Brandwacht valley, 800.
Bzedasdorp, 88, 131, 352, 876.
Britfltown, 181.
Bnil Pan (Prieska), 66.
BubaliM, 867.
Building stone, 117, 226, 276.
Buis Valley, 70, 72, 73.
Bulthouder's Bank (Beaufort
West), 254.
Bult Fontein Mine, 331.
Bushmanland, 63, 370.
Butterwortn, 265.
Byssopt&ria, 133.
Gala, 203, 269.
Calcareous concretions in Beaufort
beds, 190.
Dwyka beds, 170, 179.
— tufa, 377-379.
Galedon, 131, 352, 368.
— hot spring, 391.
— Mountain, 102.
Galitzdorp, 49, 307.
Callipteridium, 204, 222.
Calvinia, 58, 131, 268, 272, 866, 370.
Gamdeboo, 193.
Gampbell Rand, 64, 69.
series, 68, 171, 370.
— Town, 68.
Gango caves, 54-56.
— fault, 49, 409, 416.
— series, 36, 48.
Gape Agulhas, 373.
— Barracouta, 378.
— flats, 860, 368. 373.
— formation, 5, 93.
— Hangklip, 19, 96, 101.
— Hermes, 184.
— Infanta, 376, 880, 382.
— Recife, 96, 106, 373.
— St. Blaize, 96, 297, 299, 800.
Francis, 96.
— Town, 32.
CardiocarpuA, 185, 186.
Cardiomorpha, 133.
Cardita, 293.
Cardium, 822, 326.
Carnarvon, 832.
Carpolithes 287.
Caasidulus, 328, 326.
Gat's Pass, 264.
Gave sandstone, 207.
Gederbergen. 17-23. 99, 251.
Ceratodus, 223, 224, 227.
Geres, 123.
— Karroo, 251, 355.
Cerithiumj 825.
Ceromya, 293.
Chalcedony, 190, 216.
Oiara, 360.
ChemnitHa, 322, 326.
Chert in Dwyka series, 173.
Chiastolite-schist, 45.
Chiropteris, 222.
Chonetss, 122, 181, 134.
Cidaris, 294.
Cladophlehis, 222, 223, 287, 290,
299.
Clay-pellet conglomerate, 190.
Cleithrolepis, 208, 228, 224. 227.
Goal (Beaufort beds), 192.
— (Molteno beds), 208.
— (sub-Karroo), 174.
Goetzee's Poort (Oudtshoom), 67,
308.
Cold Bokkeveld, 122, 126, 129, 142.
Mountains, 18.
Colesberg, 197.
Columba Mission Station, 264.
Commadasga, 148.
Compass Berg, 257.
Conglomerate (Gango), 52, 56.
— (Dwyka), 147-179.
— (Enon and Uitenhage), 262-286,
294-809.
— (Ibiquas), 69.
— (Table Mountain series), 110-
113.
— (Embotyi), 328-380.
Coniferous wood, 286.
Conites, 186, 287.
Constable. 145, 178.
Contemporaneous erosion and de-
posit, 192, 204.
Conularia, 130, 133.
Coo, 100.
Copper ores of Namaqu aland, 91.
Corbiila, 293, 826.
CordaiteSy 223.
Digitized by
Google
INDEX
465
Cradock hot spring, 891.
Cretaceous system, 9, 281, 816.
Crinoids, 130, 181.
Crioceras, 292, 816.
Grocidolite, 74.
Cryptocynodont 196.
Cryptodon, 364.
Cryptonella, 184.
CucuLUsa, 298, 826.
Cycadolepisy 287.
CyclosHgmat 139.
Cynochampsay 196.
Cynodraco, 196.
Cynognaihttt, 195, 288, 239, 241.
Cynnsuchusy 196.
Gyphergat, 200.
Cyprina, 293.
CypriSy 302.
Cytherea, 326.
Dalmanites, 134.
Danger Point, 96, 377.
Dasyurusy 241.
De Aar, 278.
De Beer*s Mine, 881, 836, 842.
De Dooms, 122.
Deer Park (Matatiele), 220.
Delphinognathua, 197.
Dentalium, 290, 826.
Denudation in pre-Uitenhage
times, 810.
Despatch (Uitenhage), 284.
DeuterosauruSy 284.
De Vrede (Sutherland), 889.
Diabase, 52, 56-58.
Diademodony 195.
Diamond, 849.
Dictyqpyge, 224. .
Dicynod<m, 196, 198,. 224, 235, 286
406.
Dicynodontia, 284.
Diorite, 47-48.
DitrochosauruSy 176.
Dobbel Aar's Kloof, 148, 178.
Dolerite, 24 26, 45, 62, 245.
Donkerhoek Mountains, 101.
Doombergen, 12, 64, 69, 72-75.
Doomberg*8 Fontein (Prieska), 78.
Doom River valley (Calvinia), 60.
Drakensberg, 210.
Drakensteins, 17, 97.
Drie Fontein, 263.
Dry Diggings, 881.
Dunbrody. 286, 813.
Dune-limestone, 273.
Du Toit's Kloof, 117.
— Pan Mine, 381.
Dwars Berg, 102.
Dwas Douw (Calvinia), 275.
Dwyka series, 147 fif., 397-405.
Eagle's Nest (Butterworth), 265.
East London, 197, 256, 381, 888,
390
Ecca series, 179, 328.
Eclogite, 386, 344.
Benzamheid (Kalahari), 179.
Egossa Forest, 251, 328.
Eland's Berg (Calvinia), 252.
(Laingsourg), 143.
(Uitenhage), 106.
— Kloof, 33.
— Vley (Clanwilliam and Cal-
vinia), 140, 160, 162, 164, 169,
252.
Elim, 88.
Elliot, 208.
Embotyi series, 271, 818, 328.
Endothiodan, 196, 236.
Enon beds, 282, 284.
Esoterodon, 196.
Estheria, 801, 813.
Euskelesaurus, 223.
Exogyra, 292, 298.
Eyrie, 218.
Ezel Klauw (Prieska), 66.
— Kop Vlakte, 61.
— Rand, 12, 65, 76, 86.
Fascidaria, 822, 325.
Fault (Bushmanland and Van
Rhyn's Dorp), 61.
— (Cango), 49, 104.
— (Pondoland), 184.
— (Worcester), 29, 30, 33. 49, 102,
142. 172, 177, 185, 807. 409,
416.
Ferruginous gravels, etc., 867.
Fissure eruptions, 220.
Folded belt, 17.
Foraminifera, 323.
Forests, 119-121.
Fort Beaufort, 197, 226, 256.
Fraserbuig, 194, 832, 866.
French Hoek, 33, 97,
Digitized by
Google
456
INDEX
Galena in Campbell Rand beds 72.
Oalesaurtu, 196, 288.
Gamka Poort, 51, 104, 121, 129.
Gamtoo'8 Valley, 284, 294.
OangamopteriSy 176, 181-186, 199,
228.
Garcia's Pass, 421.
Oaatrochcma, 286, 288, 818.
Gat Beig (Elliot). 217.
Gates of St. John's, 22, 106.
Geelhoutboom (Uitenhage), 286.
Genadendal, 866.
Gentuli, 266, 206.
George, 88, 48.
— granite, 297, 800.
— Moehesh's coantry, 220.
Gerustheid (Glanwilliam), 142.
OervilUa, 298.
Gift Beig, 97.
Glacial oonglomerate in Table
Mountain series, 111-118.
Glaciated floor below Dwyka con-
glomerate, 154-160.
Glaucophane-schist, 88.
Glittering sandstone, 202.
OlossopUris, 180-188, 197-199, 228-
224, 406.
QlossiUs, 188.
Gneiss (Bushmanland), 61.
— (Prieska), 64.
Gobogobo, 265.
Gold in Table Mountain series,
117-118.
Witteberg beds, 145.
Oomphognathus, 195. 238.
Gondwanaland, 405, 406.
Gonubie Hill, 267.
Oorgonopa, 196.
Goudini Boad, 807.
Gouph, 194, 197.
Gouritz River Poort, 129.
Government Salt Pan (Uitenhage),
290.
Gqunqi, 268.
Graafi Reinet, 226, 256.
mineral spring, 891.
Grabouw, 117, 122.
Grahamstown, 148, 355, 382.
Grammysia^ 183.
Granites (in north and noith-west),
61, 64, 79-81, 91.
— (in south and south-west), 38,
41-46.
Granophyre, 260, 268. 268.
Grannlites, 81, 886.
Grass Ridge, 290.
Great Karroo, 28.
Great Winterhoek Range, 106.
Grenaat'8 Eop, 67, 80.
Grey's Pass, 110.
Griqualand East, 266.
Griqualandite, 74.
Griqualand West, 68.
Griqua Town series, 69, 78, 88, 170,
870.
Grobbelaar's valley (Cango), 63.
Groenland Mountains, 101.
Groot River Range, 148.
— Vader's Bosch, 806.
Guap Mountain (Galvinia), 258.
Gydo Pass, 123.
Gypsum, 178, 814, 808, 887.
Hagel Kraal (Moesel Bay), 353.
Hamiies, 292, 816.
HangkUp, 97.
Hankey, 284.
Hanover, 882.
Hantam (Galvinia), 181, 253.
Hartenbosoh (Moesel Bay), 300.
Heidelbeig, 800, 813.
— beds, 301.
Helix, 874.
HemioBUr, 328, 326.
Herbertsdale, 298, 299, 313, 863.
Hermanns, 96. .
Heulandite, 216.
Hex River Mountains, 19, 99, 102.
valley, 126.
High level gravels, 806.
Hoetjes Bay, 878.
Holaster, 826.
HonuUonotus, 122, 184.
Honig Berg, 86, 58.
— Klip Kloof, 298.
Hope Town, 154, 176, 181.
Homblende-granultte, 83.
— -schist, 48.
Hot springs, 891, 892.
Houwhoek, 19, 101, 121.
Humansdorp, 294.
Ibiquas series, 58, 99, 251.
Ice, movement of, in Dwyka times,
162, 172.
Ictidosaurua, 196«
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INDEX
457
IcHdosuchus, 196, 234.
Idutywa beds, 186, 197, 198, 266.
Indwe, 200, 269.
Ingeli Mountain, 268.
Inland surface limestone, 377-879.
Inoceramtis, 822, 828, 326.
Insiswa, 268.
Inver Gcua, 264.
Ironstone grayels, 367.
Isastraa, 294.
Izinhluzabalungu, 319.
Jackal's Fontein (Sutherland), 264.
— Water (Prieska), 76, 166.
Jager*s Fontein Mine, 881.
Jamestown, 216.
Jan Niemand's Bosch, 121.
Jansenville, 24.
Jayander Kop, 266.
Jointed pebbles in the Dwyka con-
glomerate, 168.
Jonker's Hoek, 97.
Jonker Water (Prieska), 66, 68.
Joosten Berg, 96, 110.
Joisten's Berg (Hope Town), 86.
Kaalng Bult, 63.
Kaap Plateau, 18, 64, 69, 70.
Kaboom (Prieska), 66, 67, 69.
Kalahari, 176, 179, 368. 370.
Kalk Fontein (Prieska), 72.
Kameel Puts (Prieska), 73.
Kammanassie Mountain. 106.
Kareedouws Mountains, 102.
Karree Bergen, 267.
Karroo basin, 3, 11, 28.
— formation, 7, 146.
— Poort, 176.
Keerom Berg, 100.
'Keis series, 67, 370.
Keizie, 100.
Kenhardt, 16, 68, 870.
Kentani, 268, 264.
— Hill, 366, 860.
Kimberley, 176, 340.
— Mine, 381.
— pipes, 219, 304, 889.
— shales, 174, 181, 184.
Kimberiite, 842, 346.
Klaarstroom, 104.
Klaas Kaffir's Heuvel, 357.
Klapmuts Hill, 96, 110.
Klein Berg, 143.
Klein Dassen Berg, 48.
— Modderfontein (Prieska), 66.
— Paarde Berg, 48.
— Roggeveld, 194, 180. 197.
— Straat, 122.
— Winterhoek Range, 143.
Klip Fontein's Berg pan, 387.
— Rug Kop (Calvinia), 268.
Klomp Boomen (Calvinia), 61.
Knysna, 106, 118, 294.
Kobe Mountain, 97-
Kogman's Kloof, 807.
Komgha, 266, 860.
Komsbere, 26, 192, 264.
Kouga Hills (Worcester), 143.
— Mountains, 106, 364.
Kragga Poort, 146.
Kreits Berg (Calvinia). 263.
Kwardouw Mountains, 100.
Ladismith Karroo, 103, 122.
Lady Grey, 102.
Lagoons, 888.
Laingsburg, 176, 364.
beds 180.
Langebergen (Calvinia), 61, 68, 91,
262.
— (Griqualand West), 13, 65. 76.
— (South Coast), 17, 100, 102, 362.
Lange Kuil (Sutheriand), 192.
— Vley (Robertson), 177.
Laterite, 368.
Lavas of the Stormberg series, 214.
Leda, 133.
Leeuw Kloof Poort, 366.
— River Poort, 193.
Lepidodendroid plants, 130, 228.
LeptoccBlia, 128, 131. 134.
Libode, 186.
Lignite in Uitenhage beds. 309.
Lima^ 293.
Limestone (Gango), 64-66.
— (Cretaceous), 291. 319.
— (Karroo), 190, 227.
— (Pie-Cape), 34, 65, 70.
Limiet Berg. 38.
Limmea, 860.
Lingula, 130, 134.
Lion's Rump, 16.
Lithodomtis, 298.
Littcrina, 138.
Loeries Fontein, 176.
Long Kloof Mountains, 102.
Digitized by
Google
458
INDEX
Lower Dwyka shales, fossils in, 166.
Loxonema, 183.
Lusiksiki, 184, 968.
Lusizi, 263.
Lycosaurua, 196.
LycomchuH, 196, 284, 241.
Lystrosavrui, 196, 286.
Lytoceras, 826.
Maclear, 200.
Main watershed, formation of, 274.
Maitland Mines, 118.
Malmesbury, 88, 868, 891.
— series, 82, 56, 297.
Malati Mountains, 211.
MoMOspandylus, 228, 224.
Matatiele, 200, 208, 210, 213, 269.
Matjes Fontein, 140, 169.
(Calvinia), 160, 898.
(Sutherland), 886, 389.
— Kop (Worcester), 148.
Mats4p Hills, 64.
— series, 76, 88, 171.
Matsiekamma, 97.
Mazeppa Bay, 259, 262.
Meiring's Poort, 49^1, 808.
Melilite-basalt, 808, 838.885, 344,
846.
Me908auru$t 176, 188.
Metamorphism due to dolerite, 274.
granite, 44.
Mica-diorite of the Transkei, 266.
Microgomphodon^ 196, 238.
Microgranite of Komgha, 267.
MicKopholtB, 196.
Millwood, 117, 118.
Mimosa Dale (Kentani), 264.
Mitchell's Pass, 99.
Modiola, 293.
Modiomorpha, 188.
Molteno beds, 200.
Monodonta, 293.
Montagu Pass, 106.
Montague, 391.
Moordenaar's Karroo, 194, 197.
Moorreesburg, 84.
MoBsel Bay, 83, 296, 852.
Mostert's Hoek Range, 101.
Mount Aylifl, 268.
— Currey, 268.
Mountain Building, 407-408.
— Cliff, (Elliot), 211.
Mytilus, 293,
Namaqualand, 15, 870.
— schists, 15, 90.
Napier, 856.
Nardouw Beig, 97.
Natal, 21.
Natica, 298, 826.
Nauga (Prieska), 72.
— Hills (Worcester), 148.
Na/iUUus, 822.
N'Debe Nek, 266.
Neithia, 326.
Neritopsis, 293.
Newlands Mine, 342, 345.
N'Hlambe, 265.
Nieuweveld, 26, 189, 197, 264, 276.
Noeggerathioysis, 176, 182, 186.
Noro Kei Pan (Kalahari), 179.
Nostromewia, 234.
Notochampsa, 227, 244.
Nquise, 264.
Nqundwyu, 265.
N'tabankulu, 268.
Nucula, 290, 826.
Nuculites, 138.
Nuy, 807.
Nxaxo, 264.
Nyntugha, 264.
Oil shale, 206.
Olcostephanus, 292, 316.
Olive shale group, 181.
Onychiopsis, 287, 289.
OphiocrtntUt 138.
Opisthoctenodon^ 196.
Orange River valley, 370.
Orbiculoidea, 181, 184.
Orinosaurus, 228.
Orosaurus, 228.
Orthis, 134.
Orthoceras, 122, 181, 134.
Orthonota, 133.
Orthothetes, 122, 184.
Ostracods, 328.
Ostrea, 288, 318, 826.
Ottrehte-schist, 84.
Oudenodon, 196, 236, 258.
Oudtshoom, 296, 807, 808, 865.
Outiniquas. Mountains, 102, 118.
Paarde Berg (Ladismith), 103.
(Malmesbury), 16.
Paarl, 33, 368.
— Mountain, 16,
Digitized by
Google
INDEX
469
Pakhuis Pass, 111.
Palaanodonta, 197, 198.
Palaomutela, 197, 198.
PaiaaneiU}, 128, 129.183.
PalceonucuSf 197.
Paliguaruit 244.
Paltje'fl Kraal (Uitenhage), 286.
Panne-yeld, 887.
Pans, 385-887.
Parallehdon, 293.
Pareiasaunis, 189-198, 197, ld9,
231-234, 240, 406.
Pariotichus, 281.
Patella, 298.
Paternoster, 428.
Pecten, 288, 290, 318, 822, 826.
Pectunculu8, 822, 826, 881.
Peninsula, the, 38, 94.
PerTta, 298.
Petrified wood, 286.
Phacops, 122, 181.
PfuBtUoopsis, 222.
Pholadomya, 298.
Phyllite-gneiss, 44.
Phyllotheca, 166, 180, 186.
Pienaar's Kloof, 142.
Pikenier's Kloof, 96, 110.
Pinna, 298.
Pipe-amygdules, 216.
Piquetberg, 33, 34, 96.
Placunopsis, 293.
PlesiosauruSf 292.
Pleuromya, 294.
Pleurotomaria, 188.
Pogha Hills, 108, 122.
Pollia, 826.
Pondoland, 21, 96, 162, 266.
Poortje pan, 366, 884.
Porphyroid, 64.
Port Beaufort, 128.
— Elizabeth, 33.
Pot Berg, 123.
Potgieter's Poort (Oudtshoom), 67,
808.
Potkly's Berg East, 252.
PrcBcardiutn, 183.
Premier Mine, 848.
Pre-Gape region and rocks, 4, 12,
32>92.
Prieska, 12, 68, 158, 370.
Prince Albert, 104, 175, 865.
Prist&rodon, 1%.
Pristerognathw, 197.
Procolophon, 196, 280, 284, 289, 340.
Proetm, 134.
ProterosuchuSf 244.
Protocardium, 822, 326.
Psammobia, 286, 288, 294, 803.
Psygmophyllum, 186, 188, 198.
Ptychognathus, 196, 236.
Ptychomya, 294, 816.
Ptychosiagum, 198, 224.
Pugnellus, 826.
Pmosia, 325.
Pyrolusite in Table Mountain series,
117.
Pyroxene-grannlite, 82.
Quarrie Kloof (Worcester), 178.
Quartzite-lenticles in Dwyka con-.
glomerate, 169.
Queenstown, 226, 268.
Raised beaches, 879-383.
Rawsonville, 101.
Rawson bridge, 290.
Recent alterations in level, 419-424.
— deposits, 11, 851-390.
Red beds, 206.
Rensselaria, 134.
Reptiles in the Karroo formation,
228-244.
Uitenage formation, 292, 809.
Umzamba formation, 322.
ReUia, 184.
Rhapalodon, 284.
Rhynchonella, 184.
Rhynchospira, 184.
RhytidoBteus, 196.
Riebeek Kasteel, 16.
Riyer-diggings, 831.
River Bavian*s Kloof, 809.
— Berg, 867, 888.
— Bitou, 295, 864.
— Bot, 102, 373, 884.
— Brandewyn, 26^ 261.
— Breede, 863, 888.
— Bufitalo, 354, 366, 381.
— Buffeljagts, 305, 852.
— Gamdini (Galvinia), 175.
— Goega (Uitenhage), 290.
— Dasbosch, 101.
— Doom (Galvinia and Van Rhyn's
Dorp), 69, 61.
(Geres and Glanwilliam), 142.
(George), 353.
Digitized by
Google
460
INDEX
River Doom (Heidelberg), 302-808.
— Draai Kraal's (Calvinia), 867,
886.
— Duivenhoek^B, 800.
— Dwyka, 264.
— Embotyi, 184.
— Fish (Boggeveld), 194.
— Gamka, 67. 307. 308. 866.
— Ganjtoos, 106.
— Gcaa. 268, 268.
— Goree, 186.
— Gouritz, 298, 863, 882.
— Great Brak, 297, 383.
— Grobbelaar's, 68.
— Groen (Calvinia), 261.
— Gualana, 12, 21, 366.
— Hartog'a Kloof, 266.
— Hex, 122.
— Hoad den Bek's, 99.
— Istamfoona, 268.
— Kaai man's, 866.
— Kabakazi, 263, 267.
— Kaffir Kuil's, 300.
— Kei, 268, 268, 273, 383.
— Kenigha, 200.
^ Kleena, 262.
— Klein, 384.
Brak, 883.
Doom, 303.
Vette, 302.
— Kobonqaba, 269, 263.
— Koekemoer's, 264.
~ Kogha, 268, 263, 266, 267.
— Kologha, 263.
— Kombolo, 264.
— Kowie, 146, 384.
~ Kraai (Sutherland), 181.
— Kruis (Cango), 61.
— Lang Touw, 299.
— Mabele, 218.
— Manubi, 262.
— Matje's (Cango), 63.
— Modder, 367.
— Nauga (orNouga) (Mossel Bay),
307, 363.
— Nels (Cango), 67.
— Nxagha, 262.
— Olifant's (Clanwilliam), 96, 391.
(Oudtshoora), 308, 366, 392.
— Ongor's, 266.
— Oorlog's Kloof, 99, 131, 160, 181.
262, 363.
— Orange, 331.
River Palmiet, 101.
— Patata's. 180.
— Pisang, 296, 296.
— Portugars, 839.
— Rhenoster (Calvinia), 263.
— Saffraan, 363.
— St. John's, 383.
^ Slang (Swellendam), 300.
— Spiegel, 382. 383.
— Stink, 298.
— Sunday's, 288, 290.
- Tanqua, 176, 180.-
— Touw's, 178.
— Tra-Tra, 142.
— Troe Troe, 97.
— Umfane, 268.
— Umgwegwane, 328.
— Umnyama, 264.
— Umtamvuna. 318.
— Umtento, 818.
— Vaal, 166, 831.
— Waterval (Riversdale), 863.
— Weyer's, 297.
— Wheeli, 269.
— White (or Witte), 286-287.
— Winkelhaak's, 142, 178.
— Witteberg's, 164, 166.
— Wolf, 263.
— Zak, 266.
— Zondag's (Caledon), 33.
— Zwart Kops, 282. 283.
Riveisdale, 296, 362, 377.
Riverstone (Kentani), 264.
Robertson, 131, 186, 296, 807, 313.
Robinson's Pass, 297.
Roches Moutonn^es, 172.
Hoep-my-niet Mountains, 268.
Roggeveld, 26, 181, 194, 197, 263,
273.
Roode Berg (Oudtshoom), 103.
(Worcester), 142.
— Fontein (Calvinia), 263.
— Hoogte sheet, 264, 266.
(Riversdale), 298.
— Zand Mountains, 97, 100.
Ruggens, 362, 366, 382.
Ruitersbosch, 297.
Baft Sit Pan (Prieska), 81.
St. John's, 21, 106.
Saldanha Bay, 373, 380, 423.
Salt-pans, 386-887.
Saltpetre Kop, 264, 837, 346.
Digitized by
Google
INDEX
461
Salt Vlei (Port Elizabeth), 291.
Sand dunes, 372, 878.
— Veld, 370-872.
SanguinoliteSt 188.
Saron, 36, 58.
SauroBtemon, 196, 248, 244.
Scala, 826.
Schalk's Puts (Prieska), 80.
Sohiet Fontein (Carnarvon), 840.
Schuoneura, 180-186, 188, 197, 198,
204, 222, 228.
ScMambachia, 825.
Schoeman's Poort, 52.
Schurfteberg (Geres), 99, 126.
— (Griqualand West), 65.
Sclerosaurus^ 281.
Scolecite, 216.
ScylacosauniSf 196.
Scymnosaurus, 196.
Seal Point, 295.
Seebaehia, 294.
Semionottis, 208, 228, 227.
Serpula, 294.
Serpulites, 133.
Seven Weeks* Poort Mountain, 104.
Shale bands in Table Mountain
series, 110.
Sigillaria, 186-188, 228.
Silicified wood, 179, 207, 848.
Silver Dam (Sutherland), 335, 836.
Simon's Berg, 95.
Slab-structure in Dwyka con-
glomerate, 166.
Slang Bergen (Fraserburg), 257.
— Hoek, 101.
Sneeuwbergen, 197, 257.
Sneeuw Kop (Gederberg), 109.
— Krantz (Sutherland), 253.
Solarium^ 326.
Somerset East, 197.
— West, 88.
Sphsnopteris, 186, 223-224, 287.
Spvri/er, 122, 129, 181, 134.
Spirophytofiy 189.
Spitzkop (Beaufort West), 26, 254.
S-shaped gorges, 422.
Steenkamps Poort, 255.
Stellenbosch, 83.
StmopterUt 200, 204, 222.
Stilbite, 216.
Stink Fontein Poort, 59.
Stoltz Hoek (Beaufort West), 256.
Stone implements, 388-390.
Stormbeig series, 199.
Strand Fontein (Van Rhyn's Dorp),
369-872.
Striated boulder-pavement, 160.
— pavements in Dwyka conglom-
erate, 162.
StrobUites, 222.
Stropheodonta, 134.
Straphanella, 184.
Struys Point, 874.
Sub-Karroo coal, 174.
Sugar Loaf HiU (Grahamstown),
355, 360.
Sunday^s Biver beds, 282, 290.
Superficial deposits, 851.
Surface deposits, 298.
— quartzites, 357.
Sutherland, 268, 382, 334, 366.
— pipes, 304.
Swellendam, 38, 34, 296, 805, 318,
852, 859.
Table Mountain, 94.
series, 5, 25, 49, 94-121, 818,
328.
glacial conglomerate in,
111-118.
soils and vegetation on,
118-121.
Taohylite, 270.
Tcmiopteris, 199, 204, 222-228, 224,
287 299
Tafel Berg (Beaufort West), 26,
254, 276.
(Riversdale), 358.
Tandjes Berg, 257.
Tanqua Karroo, 164, 355.
— valley, 252.
Tapinocephalusj 234.
TaxiUs, 287, 299.
Telemachus Kop, 216.
Tembu Pass, 211.
Tentaculites, 181, 188.
Teredo, 822, 326.
Terrace and plateau cutting, 419.
Terraces, 851-363.
Theca, 133.
Thee Kloof, 256.
Theriodontia, 238, 239.
Theriognathus, 196.
Therocephalia, 238.
Thinnfeldia, 197, 198, 204, 222,
224.
Digitized by
Google
462
INDEX
Thomsonite. 216.
Thorn Bay, 879.
Tigrimchus, 196.
Titanosuehust 284, 406.
Toleni, 265.
Tontelbosch Kolk, 366.
Touw'g River Station, 142.
Touw Ylakte, 108.
Tover Kop, 104.
— Water Poort, 807.
Transkei, 256.
— gap-dykes, 264, 265.
Trapeeiunif 294.
Trig&nia, 184, 222, 292-296, 816,
817, 326.
Tritonidea, 326.
Tritylodon, 228.
Trochus, 298.
Tropidoleptvs, 184.
Tsala hills, 26a
Tuff dykes, 837.
Tuin Plaats (Sutherland), 181.
Tulbagh, 83.
Tullooh (Elliot), 211, 217.
Turbo, 288, 293.
Turlxmilla, 826.
Turritella, 326.
Tutugha, 265.
Twenty Four River Mountains, 97.
Tygerbetg, 34.
TyphUm%9cu9, 134.
Uitenhage, 283, 818.
— conglomerate, 271.
— series, 49. 281, 414, 417.
Umsikaba beds, 184.
Umzamba beds, 318.
Uniondale, 106, 296.
Upper Dwyka shales, 178.
— Karroo, 28.
Vaartwell, 52.
Van Rhyn's Dorp, 20, 83, 34, 58,
95.
-^ Wyk»s Pan (Prieska), 67.
Vereeniging, 172, 186.
Verloren Vley (Hquetberg), 62.
Victoria West, 194.
Vilefs Kuil (Hope Town), 158.
Villiersdorp, 19, 101, 102.
Vitulina, 134.
Vlakte Plaats (Oudtshoom), 308.
Vleys, 383-387.
Vloers, 366, 885.
Voetpad Berg, 142.
Vogel Valley, 84.
Mountains, 38.
' Volcanic periods, 418.
' — pipes, 813.
— series of Beer Vley, 86.
Stormberg, 210.
Zeekoe Baaid, 86.
Viyburg, 179.
Waai Kloof (Worcester), 84, 307.
Wagenboom Berg, 100.
Warm Bokkeveld, 121, 122.
— Water Berg, 108.
hot spring, 891.
Washbank peak, 212, 217.
Water, boring for, in the Karroo,
227.
Waterfall Bluff (Pondoland), 328.
Watershed, main Golonial, 1-3,
412.
White band, 173.
Williston, 257.
Willowmore, 106, 296, 807.
Windvogel Bexg, 269.
Winterbergen, 257.
Winterhoek, 88, 100.
Witte Drift (Piquetbetg), 62.
— Vlakte (Galvlnia), 866.
Wittebergen, 140.
Witteberg period, 895, 896.
— series, 138-145, 895, 896.
Witzenbergen, 18, 101.
I Wolve Kraal (Uitenhage), 282, 290.
Wood beds, 282, 285, 313.
Worcester, 83, 84, 142, 177, 178,
185, 296, 907, 318.
— fault, 29, 80, 33, 49, 102, 142,
177. 185, 307, 409, 416.
Wupperthal, 123.
Xalanga Peak, 212.
York (Matatiele), 218.
Yzer Fontein Point, 48.
Zamites, 286-288, 291.
Zand Kop (Oalvinia), 268.
I — Leegte, 371.
I Zeekoe Baard (Prieska), 70, 72, 84.
volcanic groups, 86, 336.
^ Zitzikamma, 102.
Digitized by
Google
INDEX
463
Zoet Ylei (Prieaka), 85.
Zoetendal Yley, 384.
Zonder Einde Mountains,
102.
Zuurberg Poort. 104.
Zuarbeigen, 148, 284.
Zuurbraak, 352, 858.
Zwart Kop (Prieska), 85.
Pan (Prieska), 76, 84.
101,
Zwart Kop Huggens, 142, 855, 856.
Zwartberg (Caledon), 102.
— folds, 18, 408.
Pass 51.
Zwartebergen, 17-28, 51, 103, 104,
854.
Zwartkops Heights, 882.
— salt-pan, 886.
— vaUey, 284. 290.
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