TRANSACTIONS
OF THE
EDINBURGH FIELD NATURALISTS’
AND
MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY
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TRANSACTIONS
OF THE
EDINBURGH FIELD NATURALISTS’
AND
MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY
INSTITUTED AS THE
EDINBURGH NATURALISTS’ FIELD CLUB
VOL AE
(SESSIONS 1886-91)
Printed for the Society by
WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS
MDCCCXCI
—
II.
Ill.
CONDENS.
SESSION 1886-87.
. Opening Address.— Mr Symineron Grieve, President, . : 1
. Notes on Bird-Life.—Mr R. Srewart, S.S.C., . : : : 12
. Polyporus giganteus, Fr.—Mr A. B. STEELE, . : : : 18
. Exhibition of a White Sparrow.—The Szcrerary, . ; : 19
. Apochromatic Object-Glasses.—Mr W. Forean, : : : 21
. Jottings on a Ramble in Wester Ross.—Mr J. ALLAN, 23
. Ormiston Hall: Its Yew-tree and other Antiquities. —Mr a
LINDSAY, : ; : : ; : 30
. The Paride, or Tienes _Mr A, Gnare : 41
. The Fossils of the Red Crag and Chalk Pits, Suffolk, ie M.
M‘Kran, - 51
. Notes on some New and Bare British Pianie ir Sree carne
GRIEVE, President, S 55
. On Dark-ground Illumination, as Sita Peeiae ite of cer ie
Dae —Mr W. Penman, Assoc. M.Inst.C.E., . P 56
- Hume’s Projection Mieroseare: —Mr W. Hume (comedy. 61
. The Hare.—Mr T. Sprrupy, - ; 64
. Swallows and Starlings Feeding in ances _Mr ids B. Herperr, 71
. Fawside or Falside Castle.—T. A. Doucnas Woon, F.S.A.Scot., 72
. List of the Less Common Plants gathered at the Excuraions
during 1886 and 1887, with Localities. The Srcrrrary, : 79
. The Diatoms of Linlithgow Loch.—Mr J. Linpsay, . t : 80
. Grouse Disease.—Mr T, Sprrpy, < ; A : : ‘ 82
Meetings of Microscopic Section, : “ : ; : = 89
Annual Business Meeting, . ; : é ; : : : 90
SESSION 1887-88.
. Recent Notes on the Great Auk or Garefowl (with two Plates).
—Mr Symineron Grirve, President, . . 5 A 93
The Rook.—Mr T. Sprepy, r ‘ : ; : 120
Notes on the Coniferee.—Mr H. ane : : ; ; oe AG
vi
Contents.
. Polarised Dark-ground Iluminaiion.—Mr W. PENMAN, Assoc.
M.Inst.C.E.,
. An Ancient ake. ieee in Guess fens (with Sheteh- Plan},
—Messrs J. A. Jounsron and J. Linpsay,
. On an Ornithological Visit to Warwickshire.—Mr A. Crate, jun.,
. Some Peculiar Occurrences in Natural History.—Mr R. STEWART,
8.8.C.,
. Optical Beaomenen seen in n @lenure. _Mr W. Co ars,
. Note on Eucalyptus globulus.—Mr H. FRASER, .
Stoats and Weasels.—Mr T. SPEEDY, .
. List of Plants gathered in Switzerland.—Mrs Gra icum
. Fungus Folk-Lore.—Mr A. B. STEELE,
. Remarks on the Genus Aulacodiseus Ehrb.—Mr J. Ranrnan M. ne
B.Sc., F.B.S.E.,
. A New Form of Eréezing Sr Rabedding RE PObDING. Bi x
Frazer, M.A.,
Meetings of Microscopic Section,
Annual Business Meeting, .
SESSION 1888-89.
. Notes on Natural History in India.—Dr Wm. Watson, President,
. A Sporting Tour in Norway.—Mr T. SPrEpy,
. Kintail and Glenelg, with Notices of the Brochs Goa Sige ee
Plates).—Mr A. CRAIG, jun., .
. On Dry-Rot.—Mr A. B. STEELE,
. The Genus Colletia.—Mr H. FraAsgEr,
. The Ichneumon or Mungoos.—Mr R. Stewart, 8. S. C.,
. A Few Notes on Bird Life, &c.—Mr A. B. HERBERT,
Vill.
In Memoriam: John Allan.—Mr J. Linpsay, .
Meetings of Microscopic Section,
Annual Business Meeting,
SESSION 1889-90.
. An Account of Gurhwal, a District in the Himalayas.—Dr Wm.
Watson, President,
. The Eloupoes in Westmoreland. Saat Watcor,
. A Few Notes on a Journey from Bombay to Jeypore, Beqaniuas:
—Mr SyMIncTon GRIEVE, . ; a
. Rats and the Balance of Nature—Mr 7. Sp EEDY,
. The Garden-Spider (Zpeira diadema) as an Architect. _Mr R.
Strwart, 8.8.C.,
. On the Echinoidea or Sea- Urchine =e de Tee
. The Kaurie Pine (Dammara australis)—Mr H. Fraser,
Vill.
Stray Notes on the Birds of Angleseaa—Mr A. Crate, jun.,
127
135
141
155
159
165
166
174
175
183
189
192
193
197
209
229
246
252
253
260
275
279
279
281
308
310
323
337
341
357
360
Contents. vii
IX. Round about the Northern Cliffs.—Mr J. Surnernanp, 372
X. On Sclerenchymatous Cells——Mr W. Coats, 378
XI. The Tufted Duck (Fuligula cristata).—Mr A, B. Picea 382
XII. The Magpie.—Mr T. Sprrpy, : ; : : 384
Annual Business Meeting, : 391
SESSION 1890-91.
I. A Description of Kumaon, in the Central Pree tes —Dr Won.
Watson, President, : a - - =) aoe
II. The Kingfisher.—Mr T. SPEEDY, 411
III. The Common Lump-fish.—Mr SomMERVIELE Guys, 413
IV. Plant Multiplication.—Mr M. Krve, 416
Y. The ‘* Green Balls” of Loch Kildonan,—Mr 7. B. SPRAGUE,
F.R.S.E., . - 420
VI. Natural History Notes. ate R. Srewasn, 8, 8. C., : 422
VII. The Structure and Life-History of a Sponge.—Mr J. Liypsay, 428
VIII. Birds of the Great Glen.—Mr A. Crate, : 3
IX. The Andromeda Family.—Mr H. Frasmr, . E 457
X. On Vegetable Ivory (with Plate).—Mr T. Wricut, 459
XI. How I Robbed the Eagle’s Nest, and Why.—Mr T, SrEnpy, 463
XII. On a Peculiar Mode of Fishing in the Estuary of the Thames, —
Mr A. B. HEerpert, 467
XIII. A ‘‘ Colonial” Hertanera ee ahi Th H. Wirsoy, D. ae
F.R.S.E., : . 469
XIV. Bear and Wolf Ghildvens _Mr Scere Grieve, 476
XY. List of Plants gathered at Excursions, 1890.—The SEoRmrary, 477
Annual Business Meeting, . : : : 4 : 479
INDEX TO VOLUME, 481
Lists oF Mremperrs, 1886-91, . : ‘ : ; . 1X-Xxxviii
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FS VOL. II. PART
TRANSACTIONS
Ole Gdinturgh Fielb Maturalists’
Wirrosropiral Society
SESSION 1886-87 | 46
CONTENTS.
I. Opening Address.—Mr S. Grieve, President,
II. Notes on Bird-Life.—Mr R. Stewart, S.S.C.,
III. Polyporus giganteus, Fr.—Mr A. B. Steele,
IV. Exhibition of a White Sparrow.—The Secretary,
V. Apochromatic Object-Glasses.—Mr W. Forgan, . ‘
VI. Jottings on a Ramble in Wester Ross.—Mr J. Allan, x
VII. Ormiston Hall: Its Yew- tree , and other Antiquities. — Mr J.
Lindsay, 5 ‘ E : 4 3
VIII. The Paridsz, or Titmice. Mr AL Cae
IX. The Fossils of the Red Crag and Chalk Pits, Suffolk. _ Miss M.
ny M‘Kean,
X. Notes on Some New said ‘Gane ‘British Plants, Mr s. Guieee
President,
XI. On Dark-ground Tlumination; as showing Peculiarities of certain
Diatoms.—_Mr W. Penman, Assoc. M.Inst.C.E., ‘i
XII. Hume’s Projection -Microscope.—Mr W. Hume (Commumicated),
XIII. The Hare.—_Mr Tom Speedy, .
XIV. Swallows and Starlings Feeding in Guucect: _Mr. A. B. Harbert.
XV. Fawside or Falside Castle.—T. A. Douglas Wood, F.S.A.Scot.,
XVI. List of the Less Common Plants gathered at the Excursions
during 1886 and 1887, with Localities.—The Secretary,
XVII. The Diatoms of Linlithgow Loch.—Mr J. gp t
XVIII. Grouse Disease.—_Mr Tom Speedy, - 5 >
Meetings: of Microscopic Section, .
Annual Business Meeting,
List of Members, 1886-87, *
Publishen for the Society
BY
WILLIAM BLACKWOOD & SONS
‘ : MDCCCLXXXVII §
Pea oa OT TONS.
SESSION 1886-87.
I.—OPENING ADDRESS.
By Mr SYMINGTON GRIEVE, PresipEnt.
(Read Nov. 24, 1886.)
ALLOW me to express my thanks for the honour you have
been pleased to confer upon me by electing me as your Presi-
dent for another year. As you are aware, we have this year
made some important alterations not only in the name but in
the constitution of the Club, and we trust that these reforms
may tend to make it more popular, and also supply the neces-
sary funds to make its microscopic section increasingly suc-
cessful. Instead of having fortnightly meetings for the read-
ing of papers during the winter months, we are now to have
a larger number of monthly meetings—these being continued
till June. We trust this arrangement may prove advantageous
in every way, as it is intended to introduce some variety into
the meetings by having each evening not only papers on
Natural History subjects, but also others on Microscopy, as
well as demonstrations. At those meetings to be held after
the field excursions begin, we hope to have the results of the
observations of our members at those excursions brought
before us in the form of contributions for our ‘ Transactions.’
The Microscopie Section intend also to have regular evening
VOL, II. A
2 Opening Address. [Sess. |
meetings in the room of the Society up-stairs. The Council
hope that the great majority of our members will join this
section, as if they do, they may hope to obtain much infor-
mation that is invaluable to every naturalist.
When I had the honour to read to you last year my open-
ing address,-I had occasion to refer to the advantage that
would accrue to our members if we had committees appointed
to devote special attention to each of the following subjects—
viz., Flora, Fauna, Geology, Archeology, and Microscopy. I
am sorry to say we are still without any of these committees,
except that for Microscopy. I hope the matter may not be
lost sight of, as I feel sure the subjects above enumerated are
not likely to get the full attention they deserve until we
appoint some properly constituted authority to give them
special attention, and at the same time direct the efforts of
our younger members in whatever line of study they may
desire to take up.
It is with great satisfaction that I see the printed ‘ Trans-
actions’ of the Society for last year now ready, as it completes
our first volume, which records the labours of five years, and
represents a large amount of creditable and useful work on the
part of some of our members. I wish every one connected
with our Society would give us contributions; and I can
assure them that it will give us the greatest pleasure to print
any special scientific information they may possess. I am
sure you will all join with me in expressing thanks to our
joint editors, Mr Andrew Moffat and Mr John Lindsay, for the
able and careful way in which they have seen our publications
through the press.
There is only one other matter to which I need refer be-
fore proceeding to the subject proper of my address, and that
is the summer excursions of next year. We are all most
anxious to make these interesting and successful; and with
the object of attaining this end, a committee has been appointed
to consider the matter, and make suggestions. If any members
can give information regarding places not previously visited by
the Society, or have any suggestions as to the way in which
our field meetings may be made more useful and interesting,
they might kindly write the Secretary, who will lay their
suggestions before the committee.
1886-87. ] Opening Address. 3
A FEW SUGGESTIONS TO OUR YOUNGER MEMBERS ON HOW TO
EQUIP THEMSELVES FOR USEFUL BOTANICAL WORK IN
THE FIELD.
In addressing you to-night, I must claim your indulgence,
as I am about to venture to offer our younger members a few
suggestions on how to equip themselves for useful botanical
work in the field. I have been led to make this attempt for
several reasons—the principal of them being, that I fancy my
remarks may perhaps induce some to undertake studies that
may lead to investigations full of results; whereas if I con-
fined myself simply to narrating the results of some investiga-
tions of my own, as I at one time intended, it would have been
quite beyond my subject to narrate the studies undertaken be-
fore even a partial understanding of the things observed could
be obtained. I cannot pretend to be a very capable teacher,
but I may plead a little practical experience. I cannot treat the
subject exhaustively, as time will not permit of my doing so,
but I will endeavour to throw out a few hints, and illustrate
my subject by the experiences of others as well as myself.
In the first place, let me say I have invariably found that
one of the first questions young naturalists ask themselves
when they join a Society such as ours, is—What subject
should I take up so as to do useful work? Perhaps they feel
a little shy, and do not care to push themselves forward
until invited; but all the same, they are most anxious to
become active workers, and nothing would give them more
encouragement than to be taken in hand by some of our more
experienced members. Can any of you doubt that if we had
such committees as I have just told you of, they would prove
most helpful to our new members, whether young or old, by
indicating useful fields of research, and by associating them in
more intimate relations with kindred spirits in our Society ?
But however valuable the friendship and association with
brother naturalists may prove, all students of science will
remember that they must have an independent equipment
of their own, unless they court failure. Natural inclinations
and abilities yaay go a long way, but having chosen a theme
they must have it thoroughly mastered before they can ex-
pect to obtain information or results beyond what is already
4 Opening Address. [Sess.
known. I do not mean by this, that before they can hope to
make some new discovery they must have a thorough know-
ledge of every branch of a great subject. If they have little
leisure, they will find it possible, with an ordinary amount of
general knowledge of a subject, to take up one branch of
it, and excel in their knowledge of this branch in a way quite
surprising to their fellow-men, and this without such great
effort as may be supposed requisite. While in a general sense
we may take it as an axiom that men with a university train-
ing are much more capable of undertaking original research
than those who have not had similar advantages, or are only
self - taught, still there are so many striking exceptions to
this rule in every field of study, that one is almost led to
doubt if such great advantages accrue from this special train-
ing after all, unless it is combined with an earnest determina-
tion to make life a success in some particular department of
study or work. In far too many instances parents lavish
great expense upon a training that is quite unsuitable for
the development of the energies, mental or otherwise, of sons
or daughters. Young people who have had a good education
to begin with, would, in most instances, be much better to be
encouraged in the particular line of study to which their
inclinations point, instead of being forced to cram with know-
ledge of a kind they do not like or appreciate, only to suit the
eager desires or ambitions of a parent.
Life is too short and too earnest with most of us, to warrant
that even a single hour should be misspent. It is therefore
necessary that each of us should form, as early as possible in
our career, some definite ideas of what we are best adapted
for, and direct our studies accordingly. Now, while what
I have said applies to every course in life, to-night you must
look upon yourselves as strictly Field Naturalists. May I ask
you to try and apply what I have said to your daily life,
whether in the field, or in your homes studying the results of
your field work, For my own part, I believe that if a
man makes up his mind to succeed in life, with God’s help he
will; but he must be patient, and have a strong and fixed
determination. This, properly exercised, will carry him
through every difficulty. He will be stepping out when
other men are resting: once give him a start, and he will
1886-87. ] Opening Address. 5
keep it. Now I say this for the encouragement of every one
who has the feeling that he can make no new discovery, and
cannot even help us, as a Society, in our investigations. The
sooner that all who have these feelings disabuse their minds
of their supposed inability the better. In fact, until you try
you cannot tell how great an amount of success you will
attain, and I promise each of you that if you strive properly,
you will surprise yourselves as well as others. My own
experience is, that a man who studies any particular subject
for a short time, soon knows much more about it than most
of his fellow-men, and he will probably get credit from them
of being a great deal wiser than he really is. Even that is
something to aspire to, and should give us encouragement.
Besides this, you will find that you cannot strive to improve
yourself in one branch of study without imperceptibly gaining
a large amount of general knowledge. Ask those who con-
tribute papers to our own and other Societies, and they will
tell you how much they have felt benefited by even reading
up for the preparation of a short note.
“Whatever is worth doing, is worth doing well;” but it
not unfrequently happens that in endeavouring to do well,
the student of science strives to do too much, and when this
occurs, it generally follows that the work done is unsatisfac-
tory. It is well to be careful to avoid this mistake, as it is
one into which I am convinced most of us fall, and we have
not far to seek for examples of how earnest workers of previous
generations have committed the same error. Let me give you
a simple illustration of what may probably happen with some
of you when collecting plants for your herbarium, unless you
are careful. We will suppose you are having your holidays,
and start for a botanical excursion that will occupy some days.
As you wish to travel with as little impedimenta as possible,
you take only absolute necessaries, and none of the appliances
for drying your plants, in the hope that when you get home
they will still be in a fit state for preservation. The first day
is warm, but wet: however, you get on very well; your
vasculum is half filled, and you think you can remember
where you got each plant. By the end of the second day
your vasculum is very full, and you rejoice over the speci-
mens of rare plants you have met with. The third day you
6 Opening Address. [Sess.
start for home, collecting more plants on the way, and press
down your plants in the vasculum to make room for fresh
treasures you may never have an opportunity of collecting
again. At night you get home so tired after your travels that
you cannot think of starting to arrange and press your plants,
so allow the vasculum to remain untouched until next morn-
ing, when you think you will have plenty of leisure, and feel
more inclined to bestow time upon the careful arrangement of
the foliage and flower of each plant. The morning arrives,
and you turn out the contents of your vasculum before some
interested friend. To your dismay, you find that you pressed
the plants far too tightly into the tin box, crushing the flowers,
leaves, and stems, and rendering them useless for specimens.
When you come to your collections of the first day, which was
wet, you discover that all the plants are mouldy, and most
have to be thrown out. But what is even perhaps more
vexatious, you find that, through having gone over so much
ground during the three days you were from home, you have
forgotten the exact locality where you got each plant. How-
ever, you think this of secondary importance, and it does not
trouble you much so long as you can get the plants named.
On further examination of your mutilated specimens a few
days after your return, you find that some of them are quite
unfamiliar to you, and that even with the aid of an illustrated
Flora you cannot identify them. So you ask some botanical
authority to help you with their identification. Having got
the promise of his assistance, you send him a plant of each
variety collected. He has no sooner looked over the speci-
mens than he notices one to be a plant of the greatest rarity
in Britain, and never previously recorded from the locality you
have visited. He at once communicates with you, congratu-
lating you on your find, and asking for full particulars, with, if
possible, one or two specimens. To your dismay you discover
that, beyond telling him where you visited, you cannot state
any particular locality, and have only the one specimen which
he has identified. I need not try to picture to you the sorrow
and regret that fill the young botanist’s heart, all through
endeavouring to do too much in a limited time.
Permit me to remind you that when a rare plant is found,
the knowledge of its discovery should not remain concealed
1886-87. Opening Address. "4
p oS s
from the scientific world. The discovery should at once be
made known through the recognised mediums of publicity;
but how much of its value is taken away when the precise
locality, surroundings, and soil in which the plant grew are
unknown even to the collector himself? I am not one of
those who believe in publishing the precise spots on which
rare plants grow, as it has too often led to their eradication.
However, it can do no harm to name the mountain or glen
where the rarity is to be found, as it will place on record the
locality, and prevent future botanists, if they come across the
station, claiming a record. Beyond this, a very accurate note
of the spot where the plant grew should be preserved in the
herbarium in which the specimen is placed. It is extra-
ordinary how much doubt has been thrown upon the work of
some botanists through their want of keeping a proper record
of stations. Perhaps no man suffered more in his reputation
at one time from this than the greatest of our Scotch field
botanists, George Don. He was a man that each of us may
well aspire to take as an example in his zeal to add to the
existing knowledge of the Scottish flora. His solitary wander-
ings among our Highland mountains for weeks at a time may
well astonish us—at night generally making some mossy
hollow his bed and a stone his pillow, with no roof over him
except the arch of heaven. But even with all his enthusiasm
and devotion to science, George Don sometimes did too much.
Long after his death acrimonious disputes took place among
botanists regarding Don’s work, as there were numbers of
plants which he alone had recorded in Scotland, and for which
he gave either vague localities or none at all. As time rolled
on and Scotch stations for these plants were not found, the
botanists of fifty or sixty years ago began naturally enough to
cast doubts on the reality of Don’s work. Some even hinted
that he had got specimens of certain plants from abroad and
noted them as Scotch; while others, who thoroughly believed
and trusted him, did their best to defend his memory. The
war of differing opinisns was waged for years, and was carried
on till recent times. However, one by one the plants noted
and recorded by him have been rediscovered where he found
them about ninety years ago, and now we hold his memory
sacred as that of a noble and honest man. It was only last
8 Opening Address. [Sess.
year that Mr Brebner of Dundee, along with the President of
our Microscopic Section, Dr J. M. Macfarlane, and Mr P.
Neill Fraser, Treasurer of the Botanical Society, rediscovered
on Ben Heasgarnich, Carex ustulata Wahl., one of Don’s long-
lost plants. It had been deleted from the list of the British
flora, as it appears in the second edition of ‘Topographical
Botany.’ But how came all this doubt regarding the great
botanist’s work ? Such a question is easily answered. He lived
at a time when the methods of conducting scientific studies
were less accurate than they are now; and when he went on
his long excursions, he did not think it of such importance as
we do at present to note localities with particular care. He
therefore appears to have made his collections from day to day
without keeping each day’s work separate, with the result that
when he got home, and in arranging his specimens came across
some rare plant that was new to him, he sometimes could only
tell the name of the district which he had brought it from, but not
the exact spot at which it had been found. If he knew, as some
suppose, the exact places where such plants grew, it is at least
remarkable that he did not keep some record of these stations.
I have said sufficient about trying to do too much, so
let me now direct your thoughts for a moment to what I
may define as doing too little. It frequently happens that
field botanists quite forget what should be their aim in con-
ducting their researches. It is not merely to make collections
for their herbariums, or only to search for rare plants. If this
were all that had to be done, it would take away half the
charm of field work. No; the botanist must note everything
botanical, and take time to do so too. I can never forget the
earnestness with which the late Rev. W. W. Newbould repeated-
ly enforced upon me the feeling that seemed to be the message
of his life to botanists, and a great topographical botanist he
was himself, He used to say, “ Never mind rarities, and tell
all your botanical friends the same. Note all plants, and the
conditions under which they grow, and you will be sure to
come across the rare ones.” He also told me that in his long
experience he always found that those who made the greatest
discoveries, and were the best field botanists, were those that
did not forget to look for common plants. I feel sure the
Rev. Mr Newbould was right, and would advise every young
1886-87. ] Opening Address. 9
botanist to keep in mind that common plants, owing to their
wider distribution, are much more useful to the topographical
botanist to draw inferences from than rare plants that are
found sparsely scattered over isolated areas widely separated
from each other.
Of the older field botanists who worked in Scotland, perhaps
no one, according to the standard of his time, was more accurate
in his observations than Dr John Lightfoot, author of the ‘Flora
Scotica,’ published in 1777. He sometimes visited a locality
and noted very few plants, but he made a record of those that
were common as well as rare. He had the faculty of taking
in, as it were, at a glance, what were the most striking botanical
features of a locality, and recorded them. I have more than
once had most surprising instances of his faculty of coming
across uncommon forms that would have been overlooked by
most botanists, had they been such a short time as he was at
some of the places he visited. The season I began to record the
flora of the island of Colonsay I found Orchis pyramidalis, and
when I returned home was told that it was the first record
of that plant in the west of Scotland. One day I was look-
ing over the ‘Flora Scotica,’ when I observed, to my surprise,
that Dr Lightfoot had found the plant growing more than a
hundred years before at or near the same place where I had re-
discovered it. Later I found another station for the same plant
on the island of Oronsay; and I believe that these are, up to
the present time, the only two stations known for Orchis pyra-
midalis in the extreme west of Scotland. At both stations
the plant grows on sandy soil in the midst of a rabbit-warren,
and these animals seem to have a great liking for the succulent
leaves and stem of the orchis, which they generally eat down
close to the ground, so that it is easily overlooked. Two years
ago I had further evidence, at the island of Rum, of the per-
sistence of plants at stations where undisturbed, and also
additional proof of the accuracy of Lightfoot’s work. With
the aid of the information given in the ‘ Flora Scotica’ and the
routes mentioned by Pennant (‘Voyages and Travels,’ vol. iii.
pp. 312-315), I was able to go over most of the ground visited
by Lightfoot. As I came upon the plants where he noted
them, one after another, I gazed upon the descendants of the
flora of 1772 with most peculiar feelings. Perhaps no botanist
10 Opening Address. [Sess.
had visited these places and looked upon the wild-flowers ir
found, or their predecessors, for more than acentury. Yet they
had flowered on year after year, unknown and neglected, and
it almost seemed as if they had been growing on through all
the decades of a hundred and twelve years for me alone. I can-
not express to you how overwhelming was to my mind the
feeling that the Creator of all things had preserved such beauti-
ful forms to flower far from the beaten track in the bleak wilds
of Rum, for all these years unnoticed and forgotten, but in me
once more to gladden a human heart.
But time will not permit me to go further into an investiga-
tion as to the merits of Dr Lightfoot, and I must endeavour to
point out to you one or two fields in which, as botanists, you
can work with success, and confer at the same time a benefit
on science. I have no doubt you have all heard of the late
Mr Hewett Cottrell Watson, the author of ‘Topographical
Botany.’ He was a man of whom it may be said that in some
respects he lived before his time, and I am afraid that some
of his fellow botanists of fifty years ago were hardly able to
appreciate his genius. It is to Mr Watson that we owe the
present position of British Topographical Botany. It has been
through his labours that such a correct record of the plants
discovered in each district has been obtained. His researches
revealed those parts of our country that were neglected, and
set botanists to work to record the flora of these districts. The
outcome has been, that willing workers have laboured steadily
during recent years with splendid results. Still the work goes
on with earnestness, and some of you might join in it. I had
a large amount of correspondence with the late Mr Watson,
and in one of his last letters to me he said that Wigton and
Wester Ross-shire were the two districts in Scotland that needed
most attention. Both districts have now been pretty well
worked up, but that there is still work to do is evidenced by
the new records for Wester Ross-shire obtained by the parties
forming the camp of the Botanical Society this summer.
Remember, commou plants as well as rare, if discovered in
a district for the first time, are records, and at times it is
much more valuable to have the evidence obtained from ob-
serving common plants than from those that are seldom
met with. In collecting plants, as far as possible take a
1886-87. | Opening Address. 1%
note of the climate, soil, and the elevation at which the plant
grows.
There is another department of British Field Botany that is
attracting much attention, and that is, its Scandinavian flora. I
think it is to Mr Arthur Bennett of Croydon, Surrey, we are
most indebted for drawing attention to this interesting feature,
which is most likely to be studied with success at those parts
of the British coast nearest to Scandinavia. We may therefore
expect new discoveries to be made on the east and north-east
of Scotland, and I trust some of our members may be fortunate
enough to help on this work by obtaining new records for our
metropolitan district. You are doubtless all aware that the
flora of our country is not endemic, or peculiar to our insular
position, but has been nearly all derived from the European
continent. In a paper read before you in 1884, I had occasion
to refer to the introduction of the Continental flora to these
islands, but at that time I was not fully appreciative of the
number of Scandinavian plants we have representatives of
in Scotland. While it is principally in the north-eastern
counties and the Orkney and Shetland islands that we may
expect the best results, we may perhaps find plants that will
surprise us much further south. This knowledge should inspire
each botanist who has time and health with a new energy.
Month after month new discoveries are being made that quite
surprise us, as it is no new ground that is being gone over, but
the old beaten tracks. Now it is Caithness, then Sutherland,
and so on, until it seems doubtful what other well-known field
is next to add new plants to our Scottish flora. I might con-
tinue this subject much further, but I feel I have said enough
to let each of you see there is work for you to do, and that old
Scotland is still a mine of botanical wealth. How this work
can best be done, is well worth the consideration of every
botanist. I wish we had a good herbarium in connection with
our Society, so that members could always have a series of
good type-specimens within their reach, and critical specimens
could thus be determined with some certainty. It might be
well to begin a collection as soon as possible ; and if the gentle-
men do the hardest part of the outdoor work, perhaps the ladies
might assist by drying and mounting the plants on paper.
In conclusion, let me ask you to be enthusiastic. Equip
12 Notes on Bird-Life. [Sess.
yourselves as best you can with advice and aid from your
fellow botanists who wait to help you. In the field or in your
study, be determined to succeed, and be sure you will.
Il.—NOTES ON BIRD-LIFE.
By Mr ROBERT STEWART, S.S.C.
(Read Nov. 24, 1886.)
WHEN it was arranged that I was to observe and report on
Bird-Life in the Royal Botanic Garden, I was in hopes
that some interesting facts would be brought to light in this
connection; but so far I have only been able to ascertain
generally, that although the numbers of birds which frequent
the Garden are considerable, still the varieties are compara-
tively few.
During the spring and early summer—and the season at that
time promised well—I paid a good many visits to the Garden,
thoroughly exploring every bush or shrub where a bird might
build. Thrushes’ and blackbirds’ nests were abundant. It
has often occurred to me to inquire why the nest of the
thrush should be plastered inside, and the only reason I can
think of is, that as this bird builds in the early spring, the
cold winds are kept from the eggs and young by this mud
interior. This appears probable, for the blackbird, which, next
to the thrush, brings in the nesting season, also uses mud or
decayed wood in the manufacture of its nest, only the layer in
this case is in the centre and not in the inside of the nest, as
with the thrush.
Next in order of numbers came the hedge-sparrow, and it
was amazing the number of nests of this quiet and retiring bird
that was this year in the Garden. These birds are always more
plentiful than one would suppose, as they are given to frequent-
ing the quietest corners, and appear quite content to spend the
oreater part of their existence in an uneventful popping out
and in at the fuot of hedges or among the shrubs. The hedge-
sparrow’s nest is usually easily found, as it is built for the
most part in hedges while they are yet bare; and a well-built
1886-87. | Notes on Bird-Life. 13
and comfortable habitation it is, while the contents, in the
shape of its complement of blue eggs, usually figure as the
first contribution to all amateur collections. Of all birds, one
would expect the hedge-sparrow to follow the beaten track, and
not to introduce any questionable innovation; but this year
there was to be seen in Warriston Cemetery a hedge-sparrow’s
nest built upon the ground, and covered to a certain extent by
one of those “in memoriam” circular glass-shades which are
placed at the head of graves, one end of which was propped up
by wires at the back. In this same cemetery last year there
flew past me and alighted close at hand a bird which, to all
appearance, was a great titmouse or ox-eye, but of such a
peculiar colour that I was fairly at a loss to name it. On
watching it for a minute or two, it suddenly disappeared, and
on examination I found it had gone into a hole in one of the
iron pillars surrounding some private ground, where its nest was
built, and that in the passage out and in it had got so impreg-
nated with rust that, as the saying goes, “its own mother would
not have known it.” This year, in the Botanic Garden, the
Curator, Mr Lindsay, showed me a nest of one of these birds
inside an iron pump, where the birds had to go up the spout
every time they wished to visit their young. The nest and
contents were readily examined by lifting off the iron top; but
the parent birds had so easily accustomed themselves to their
being taken notice of, that at the time I paid them a visit the
lady who was in charge disdained to desert her post, and
“fuffed” defiance at the intruders. A most interesting paper
could be written on the subject of birds’ nests, dealing par-
ticularly with the curious freaks which possess almost all var-
jeties at times to build in out-of-the-way and unnatural places.
For instance, I found a blackbird’s nest a short time ago in one
of the nurseries on the top of a large stone which had fallen
out of the dyke, in quite an exposed position, while all around
were hedges and shrubs where one would imagine the most
fastidious bird could find a place where she “safe her young
ones forth might bring.” I remember also a robin-redbreast
which chose for itself so peculiar a nesting-place, that it was
only when the young ones by their cries gave up the secret
that we could find the nest. We were sure the nest was some-
where near the foot of some bushes at the bottom of a garden,
14 Notes on Bird-Life. [Sess.
but the minutest search failed to discover it until at last, as
we said, the young ones came to our assistance, and we found
it in an old tin coffee-pot, which had been the most noticeable
object during all our repeated searches.
To return, however, to the titmice, I find it noticed in
almost all books on the subject that they disarrange the
thatch of out-houses in quest of torpid insects. Gilbert White
says: “The great titmouse, driven by stress of weather, much
frequents houses; and in deep snows I have seen this bird,
while it hung with its back downwards, to my no small delight
and admiration, draw straws lengthwise from the eaves of
thatched houses in order to pull out the flies that were con-
cealed between them, and that in such numbers that they
quite defaced the thatch and gave it a ragged appearance.”
Now, while I don’t dispute that the titmice may do this
in search of food, still it is the fact that they shelter themselves
during the night in the holes they so make under the thatched
eaves; and I have taken dozens of them in a night by going
round the old-fashioned farm-offives and searching all such holes
by thrusting the hand into them. To do this, one does not
require to be of a nervous temperament, as the titmice are of
a bold nature, and bite the hand in quite a savage manner
when they feel themselves taken hold of. They make first-
rate pets, and thrive well in captivity, provided they can be
kept in the cage, but they have such a faculty for getting
outside that it is a difficult matter to confine them. They
delight greatly in nuts, and manage in a very clever way to
scoop out the contents of a nut suspended in the air by a string
from the top of the cage, grasping the nut with their feet in
the process.
In addition to blackbirds, mavises, and hedge-sparrows, we
found the nests of greenfinches, chaffinches, and robins: but it
would be difficult to give any idea of the numbers of nests in
the Garden, because very often one found that, since the
previous visit, the eggs had been taken from a particular nest,
while near at hand a pair of the same species, evidently the
owners of the harried nest, were engaged in nidification. The
Garden is not well suited for birds nesting, as the greater
number of otherwise suitable trees or shrubs are of the ever-
green species, and as a general rule birds, with perhaps the
1886-87. ] Notes on Bird-Life. 15
exception of the very birds whose nests are most common—
blackbirds and thrushes—do not care to build in these. I
noticed, when visiting the Garden the other day, a sparrow-
hawk darting hither and thither in search of a victim; while
earlier in the season, from the road adjoining Fettes College,
we had a splendid opportunity of watching the kestrel at work.
Nothing is prettier in its way than the sight of this hawk
on the wing in search of a meal, as every short time it poises
itself in the air, and is quite motionless—for all the world like
a paper kite. I have seen also in the Warriston district the
missel-thrush, the long-tailed tit, and the fallow-finch; while
in Warriston Cemetery a pair of flycatchers regularly build.
During the month of August last I was residing at Glendevon,
near Rumbling Bridge, which is a perfect paradise for birds.
There you get the sparrow fresh and clean-looking, and with
nothing of the draggled and rakish air of his town brother.
The golden-crested wren was there in great numbers; while
we also saw upon more than one occasion the redstart. On
the Devon, which, as most of you know, is an exceptionally
clear stream, there were several families of the water-ousel,
and we could see how they worked their way on the ground
under water looking for grubs, &c. They were very tame—in
fact, perhaps a little too much so, as it was annoying to have
two or three of them come plump down into the pool you
were fishing. It was very interesting to watch them at play.
One would sit on a stone in the middle of the stream, dip, dip,
dipping away at his companion who was up to the neck in the
water at the side. Suddenly the latter would, with a brisk
chirrup, make for his friend, who then plunged out of sight
into the pool, closely followed by the other, when, after a
minute or so, they both suddenly appeared a little further up
the stream, shot up as it were from the bottom, and then
bobbed about with all the seeming buoyancy of corks. That
they walk on the bottom is not, I think, correct, as it must
require some considerable force to enable them to breast the
stream, at the same time keeping under water, as the mere
ceasing of exertion appeared to have the effect of sending them
to the top like an air-bubble. Occasionally the game was
varied by the players keeping their heads alone above the
water; and in this way they chased one another in and out of
16 Notes on Bird-Life. [ Sess.
the shallows until, a sudden thought striking them, away they
flew to some other pool.
Here, too, at night owls were plentiful, and it was rather
eerie to feel them flying past in the gloaming without seeing
them. One missed such old friends as the bullfinch and
siskin; but bird-fanciers seem to have almost exterminated
these once very plentiful favourites. Some of you may have
noticed a letter in the ‘Scotsman’ a month or so ago regarding a
crow which came regularly to a gentleman’s house for food. One
day, while in the village of Muckhart, and standing at a shop-
door speaking to the owner—a very old man—we were rather
mystified by his calling out to the inmates, “There’s the craw!”
On looking across the road, we saw sitting on the dyke, and
eyeing us curiously, a very patriarch of the crow species; and
when my old friend, who, in answer to his summons, had been
supplied with bread-crusts, threw a piece on the road, the
veteran hopped down and leisurely consumed it. We learned
that she came daily for her meals for years, and when the
supply at any time exceeded the demand, the crow carefully
collected all scraps and buried them at the bottom of the dyke
for future consumpt. I was also informed that before the
sacramental raid on the young crows, our friend put in an
appearance with her family, and to the number of half a dozen
would sit in a row on the dyke waiting to be fed. This
coincides exactly with the facts narrated in the case I refer to,
and proves, I think, that crows will be crows.
A point on which a good deal of curiosity is always expressed
is as to the powers of the corn-crake as a ventriloquist, and how
it is that it is so difficult to make this bird take wing, even with
the assistance of a dog. I could ere now have supplied the
needed information, as I have heard the matter solemnly dis-
cussed on many occasions at our meetings, and indeed have
often been tempted to do so; but there was a reason for my
silence, which, being in a confidential mood to-night, I will now
explain. Know then, when you get a little accustomed to the
sound, that you can pick out the exact spot in the field where
the bird is; and if you have sharp eyes you will see, after every
“eraik,” his head appearing to make sure that you are still where
you ought to be. Should you make the least movement, down
goes our friend’s head, and no greyhound could cover the distance
1886-87. ] Notes on Bird-Life. 17
from one end of the field to the other quicker than he can, so that
when you get to the place where you thought you heard him, and
where indeed he really was, you hear him uttering his peculiar
cry at the other end of the field. Knowing this, when, as boys,
there were a number of us together, and we heard the corn-crake
in a field, we spread ourselves out in a line, a short distance
being between each, and when we found we had our friend in the
centre of the line, the signal was given, when away we went as
fast as we could run across the field, and invariably succeeded
in sighting him. But you may say, “ Why did you not give this
information before?” The reason is, that the corn-crake is
indelibly associated with a certain episode in my life, where I
certainly did not figure to advantage. It arose thus. Many
years ago, it used to be the case that every Saturday afternoon
saw a party of boys, as soon as school was over, make for the
country, intent on scientific discoveries. But I am sorry to say
that these researches were carried out utterly regardless of the
sacred rights of property; and anything in the way of game
which unfortunately fell into the hands of the expedition was
ruthlessly confiscated. On one of these excursions, a corn-crake
was heard to give tongue in a neighbouring field: the usual
tactics were gone through ; the bird was flushed, only to fall a
victim to the unerring aim of the leader of the gang. The ex-
pedition speedily came to the conclusion that the bird was not
good to eat, so a council of war was held as to how the body
was to be disposed of. Finally, it was resolved on to try and
dispose of it to the game-dealer in the village; and as a corn-
crake was not a marketable commodity, it was thought, with
the elastic conscience of youth, that we were in these circum-
stances entitled to represent it in the light of a partridge. The
game-dealer, who was known in the place as “the laird,” on
account of his being a large holder of house property, in addition
to dealing in game, dealt in confectionery, tallow, hides, and
other miscellaneous articles, to which he added the duties of
money-lender and bill-discounter. He was always in a chronic
state of drunkenness, but notwithstanding this he seldom made
bad debts, and usually had the best of a bargain. It was there-
fore a matter of moment who was to dispose of the game, but
ultimately one of the party was fixed upon as being of good
character, and a favourite with the laird. It was found, on in-
VOL. Il. B
18 Polyporus giganteus. [Sess.
spection, that the gentleman was in fine form for being operated
upon, seeing that he was lying in a helpless condition, with
outspread arms, upon the counter. Enter first conspirator,
followed by an admiring but select few as assistants. “Fine
day, laird.” One eye opens partially, but never a word spake
he. “We thought you might like to buy a partridge,” and the
corn-crake is thrust invitingly before his view. The eye gradu-
ally closes, while a quiet humorous voice gently says, “Ou ay,
Robbie, get awa’ wi’ your sparra.”
IIL—POLYPORUS GIGANTEUS, Fr (GIANT
SAP-BALL).
Exuipitep By Mr A. B. STEELE.
(Nov. 24, 1886.)
THE specimen exhibited was gathered from a splendid group
growing in the policies of the Marquis of Lothian at Mount
Teviot, near the entrance-gate at Penielheugh. The enormous
size and beauty of the plants attracted the notice of the
Marquis, who takes an interest in Natural History, and orders
were issued that they were not to be removed. Application
being made to his lordship personally for a specimen, permis-
sion was at once courteously granted. The specimen was un-
fortunately gathered during the wet weather in September last,
and was not in a favourable condition to be permanently pre-
served. When fresh it weighed nearly 20 lb., and measured
2 feet across.
The species is not common. It grows in tufts on under-
ground roots and stumps of trees. It is formed of imbricated,
dimidiate pilei, covered with a rigid velvet pile, and springs
from a common root. The surface is irregularly zoned, and the
colour various. In the Mount Teviot group the colour varied
from a pale yellow to a date-brown. The flesh, when torn
longitudinally, comes away in white cotton-like fibres, termin-
ating in tubes which are sometimes half an inch indepth. The
spores are pale yellow, and may be seen lying on the ground
under the ripe plant like a mass of gold-dust.
1886-87. ] Exhibition of a White Sparrow. 19
IV.— EXHIBITION OF A WHITE SPARROW.
By THe SECRETARY.
(Read Dec. 22, 1886.)
THE sparrow now exhibited was sent me by Mr John Cruick-
shank, Aberdeen, that I might bring it under the notice of the
Society. In his accompanying letter he says, “ He has been in
my possession since June 1878, eight years and a half. He
fell out of a nest, and could neither eat nor fly. I fed him till
he could do both, and Jet him out to fly away; but he did not
do so, and was taken into the house again. I had several
canaries, and he seemed to prefer their company to being free:
indeed he was free enough, for he was allowed to fly about, but
he never would leave the canaries. He ate nothing but canary-
seed and anything the canaries got to eat. He was quite of
the colours of a common sparrow till the first moulting of his
feathers, which was in 1879, and they then came in as you see
them, and have always come in the same year by year till the
present, when he has not had strength to cast them, and death
has been the result. J thought last year he would hardly have
come through the casting; but he did, and got as lively as be-
fore. I attribute the white feathers to the domestication and
the food he lived on. He was clean and tidy in all his ways,
bathing every day like the canaries. In his earlier years he
picked up some turns of their song, and performed very agree-
ably. He was gentle, even timid in his ways, and if any dif-
ference arose the canaries easily mastered him. If any thing or
person that was strange appeared, he made for his cage at once ;
indeed he never lost sight of it, and when it was removed to be
cleaned he invariably followed it: no open window presented
any inducement to him to lose sight of it.” The sparrow is
not a very pure albino, being not nearly so white as some which
are occasionally seen in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, but
is interesting from the fact of its changing the colour of its
plumage after the first moult.
20 Microscopic Apparatus. [Sess.
Mr A. Frazer, M.A., Secretary of the Microscopical Section,
exhibited at this meeting the following pieces of apparatus,
some of which had been forwarded to him for exhibition by
Mr H. Crouch, of London :—
(1.) Crouch’s Large Premier Microscope of the Binocular Pat-
tern.—It was explained that this instrument did not differ in
any marked manner from other large instruments of its class,
and that it was exhibited chiefly for the purpose of enabling
members to examine a large modern microscope of the best
construction.
(2.) Crouch’s Photo-Micrographic Camera.—This camera is
similar to an ordinary photographic camera of small size, but
is provided, at the part to which the lens is usually fixed,
with a flange carrying a tube of the same dimension as an
eye-piece tube. By this device the eye-piece can be with-
drawn, and the camera put in its place, thus affording a ready
means of preparing photo-micrographs.
(3.) An Improved Tripod Knife-Carrier for Freezing and
other Microtomes: by A. Frazer.—This knife-carrier is so
arranged that an ordinary razor occupies the place of the
specially prepared knife in a Williams’ microtome knife-
carrier. It was explained that special knives are not, in
many cases, readily to be procured, and are always more difficult
to sharpen than an ordinary razor; hence the need of this new
knife-holder. The method of holding the knife now adopted
(that of grasping it by the handle end) avoids the incon-
venience, sometimes found in the Williams’ instrument, of the
knife-clamp rubbing against the tissue at the time of cutting.
(4.) Crouch’s Petrologist’s Microscope—It was explained that
this instrument had been made at the suggestion of Prof.
Geikie and others, and was intended to meet the wants of
those desiring a good petrological microscope at a moderate
price.
(5.) The Syracuse Solid Watch-Glasses—These are glass
dishes with a concavity similar to an ordinary watch-glass,
but are made of glass about half an inch thick, so that they
may not readily be overturned. The glasses are intended for
staining sections and similar purposes.
1886-87. ] Apochromatic Object-Glasses. 21
V.—APOCHROMATIC OBJECT-GLASSES.
By Mr Wm. FORGAN.
(Read Dec. 22, 1886.)
Wuat is an apochromatic object-glass, and in what respects
is it better than an ordinary achromatic one? ‘The term
apochromatic means “free from colour.” Now we have
hitherto always regarded an achromatic lens as essentially
possessing this property of freedom from colour. To enable
one to understand the matter properly, it is necessary to begin
with an illustration of what takes place when light is trans-
mitted through and refracted by an ordinary convex lens. Light
so refracted is bent or brought to a focus behind the lens at a
point nearer to or farther away from it, depending upon the ex-
tent of its curvature. But from the fact that the separate rays
of light have not all the same refractive power—those at the
violet end of the spectrum having the greatest and those at
the red end the least—the coloured rays into which the light
is broken up by the lens do not form the focal point at one
and the same distance, but each ray has a focus of its own,
the consequence being that the focal point of the violet ray is
nearest to the lens, and the focal point of the red ray farthest
away. It may be readily seen from this that every ordinary
lens has as many focal points as there are rays in the
spectrum. When the principle of achromatism was discovered,
it was found to be possible, by using glass of different
densities, to combine two of these rays, and so render the
images produced by such a lens what was termed achromatic—
the two rays selected for combination being those which gave,
by means of the glass, the whitest and purest image. In this
case all the other colours were left necessarily out of view,
and, so to speak, to shift for themselves. These outstanding
or uncorrected rays are what is called the “ secondary
spectrum.” The combination of the two primary rays by the
lens rendered the others so little conspicuous, except in certain
cases, that they had to be, and were, necessarily disregarded.
Another point in regard to this so-called achromatic com-
bination, and a very important one, is this, that as every ray
22 Apochromatic Object-Glasses. [Sess.
has its own focal point, depending upon its refractive power, so
each one must of necessity have a separate magnifying power
with the same lens. This, it will be seen, introduces a very
strong element of confusion in the image rendered by an
achromatic lens of the very best construction. In the con-
struction of an achromatic lens any two of the rays might be
taken for combination. The lens might be, as many are,
corrected for the red end, or give a very red image; or they
might be corrected for the violet end, as is done in photo-
graphic lenses. But the point to be kept prominently in view
is, that whatever two were taken, there could only two be
taken, and the others left.
Now, taking that as the principle of construction of the
ordinary achromatic lens, we shall see why so much has been
done to get rid of the “secondary spectrum,” and the effect it
has always had in the deterioration of the image in the best
constructed lenses. We have heard of it specially in the
construction of object-glasses for telescopes, in the best of
which it has usually made itself apparent, declining to be left
out of view. The object in view in the construction of the
new apochromatic lenses has been, to get rid of this secondary
spectrum, and to combine at least four of the refracted rays,
so as to produce a still further perfected image, and render
the other outstanding and uncombined rays, termed the
“tertiary spectrum,” of little, or at least of much less, account
in the formation of the image. This object has been sought
to be attained by two means—/irst, by the formation of
certain kinds of very dense glass containing other substances
than lead, which has been used for density, in the con-
struction of the object-glasses; and second, by the use of
specially constructed eye-pieces to correct still further the
effects inherent in the flint-glass. It is unnecessary here to
detail the nature and kinds of glass used. These may be
found in detail in the printed pamphlet issued by the makers
of the glass. They have been able to construct glass having
a density very much greater than that of the diamond. The
makers of the new apochromatics have of course kept their
methods of construction a secret, and we know nothing as to
the formule upon which they are constructed, and can judge
them only by the results they give us with known tests.
1886 87.] Fottings on a Ramble in Wester Ross. 23
These results are certainly very wonderful, and the glasses
deserve the highest praise. The images they give of these
tests are undoubtedly clearer and brighter and freer from
colour than other glasses of the same magnifying power, and
their resolving power is consequently very much increased.
The price put upon them, however, by the makers is so
excessively high, that they may not become popular ex-
cept with those who can afford the luxury of buying them.
There are very few, if any, tests resolvable by them which
cannot be as easily seen by means of a homogeneous oil-
immersion. To see, however, the striz upon Amphipleura
pellucida by means of diffused daylight from a north window
at 5 p.M.in the month of April with a Zeiss condenser, is
certainly what no ordinary oil-immersion would readily do.
These notes have been written at the request of the editors
of our ‘ Transactions,’ although it is feared they may not be of
much service to the members of the Society, none of whom
may possess apochromatic lenses. The above short detail of
the principles involved in their construction, and of defects in
previous glasses to which we are indebted for apochromatic
lenses, may, however, be interesting to those members of the
Society who take a genuine pleasure in the microscope, and
everything which tends to improve it.
VI—JOTTINGS ON A RAMBLE IN WESTER ROSS.
By Mr JOHN ALLAN,
(Read Jan. 26, 1887.)
In the end of July and beginning of August last, I had the
pleasure of forming one of a party who, under the auspices of
the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, passed a fortnight in
investigating the flora of the parish of Applecross, more parti-
cularly of that part of it lying on the southern shore of Loch
Torridon. Our headquarters were the schoolhouse in the small
erofter and fishing hamlet of Arrin-a-chruinach. We met with
but a moderate degree of success in our search for plants,
not many rare ones being found. Our report on this head,
24 Fottings on a Ramble in Wester Ross. [Sess.
however, will be laid before the Botanical Society; and the
object of this paper is mainly to give you a short account
of the place, and of some of the incidents which came under
our observation while in that locality.
We left Edinburgh about 5 o’clock on a July morning,
travelling by the Highland railway to Inverness, and thence,
by the Dingwall and Skye section, to Strathcarron station,
where we arrived about 5 P.M. Having dined at Strathcarron
Station Hotel, we drove to Shieldaig, a distance of twenty miles,
where we found a sailing-boat waiting to take us to Arrin-a-
chruinach, the last stage of our journey, and at a distance of
nearly seven miles, where we arrived about 11 P.M.
The route as far as Inverness is too well known to need
description. On leaving that place, the railway skirted the
flat shores of the Moray Firth to Beauly, and thence through a
fertile and well-cultivated country to Dingwall, a neat, well-to-
do county town at the head of the Cromarty Futh. The town
seemed to be well stocked with churches, judging from the
number of steeples visible from the railway. The branch to
Skye diverges here, and this was our route. We soon com-
menced a long ascent by the base of Ben Wyvis, which was
some distance off on our right hand, obtaining a very fine view
of the neat little watering-place of Strathpeffer, situated in a
tine fertile strath about two miles to our left, and to which a
branch railway was lately made. The picturesque old mansion
of Castle Leod, a seat of the Duchess of Sutherland, who is the
owner of Strathpeffer, lies between the town and the railway.
Continuing our ascent, we got into the valley of the Black-
water, along which we went in a westerly direction through a
chain of straths interspersed with lochs, the largest of which is
Loch Luichart. We reached the summit about Achnasheen,
where the road to Loch Maree diverges on our right. The
country is here very bleak and bare, but the scenery improves
as we reach Strathcarron station, which is at the head of the
sea-loch of the same name. The post-office village of Janetown,
through which we passed, is on the north-west shore of the loch,
three miles distant ; and after passing it we crossed over a high
neck of land till we reached the head of Loch Kishorn, a
branch of Loch Carron. After passing Courthill, a gentleman’s
seat at the head of the loch, the road to Applecross diverges,
1886-87.] Fottings on a Ramble in Wester Ross. 25
and is seen winding up between high and precipitous hills to
the Bialloch pass, a height of about 2000 feet, said to be the
highest road in Scotland. The scenery now becomes very
grand, and soon the colossal and almost perpendicular precipices
of Beinn Bhan, 2936 feet high, tower up on our left. From
this on to Shieldaig the view of the surrounding mountaius is
as grand as can be obtained in any part of Scotland. The
village of Shieldaig stretches in a straggling way along the
shore of Loch Shieldaig, which is an arm of Loch Torridon, and
divides the outer from the inner loch. There is a precipitous
hill behind the village called Ben Shieldaig, and an island in
the loch immediately in front of it well clothed with fir-trees.
On arriving at Shieldaig, we found two of our party who had
preceded us by a week; and we embarked in the sailing-boat
by which they had come that evening from Arrin-a-chruinach.
The wind being against us, we had to take many a tack to get
round the peninsula of Ardheslaig, and it was quite dark before
we reached Camas-an-eilein, the residence of Lord Middleton’s
gamekeeper, where we landed; and we had great difficulty in
picking our way through the wood in the dark to Arrin-a-
chruinach, The track was most uneven ; aud having our impedi-
menta to carry, we were very glad indeed to see the light which
shone from the window of the schoolmaster’s house, which was
to be our home for the next fortnight.
The situation of Arrin-a-chruinach is rather pretty. The few
houses, not more than a dozen, are situated almost in a row on
the western bank of a small stream which takes its rise in
Loch-na-Creige, a fresh-water loch about half a mile distant,
and flows into Loch Torridon at the top of a small sheltered
bay. Behind the houses is a desolate track of moorland
stretching away to the Atlantic, a distance of three or four
miles, while to the front rises a high rocky ridge clothed with
wood, chiefly birch and hazel. The view from the village
across the loch to Ben Alligin and the high picturesque range
of hills bordering upper Loch Torridon, was very grand. There
are no roads in the district, but only tracks, which are barely
distinguishable in many parts. This desolate moorland con-
sists chiefly of mosses, with occasional low hills and many
inland lochs, both large and small. From some of the heights
fine views are got of the Atlantic, with the island of Rona in
26 Fottings on a Ramble in Wester Ross. [Sess.
the foreground and the island of Skye beyond, showing a high
and picturesque outline, and on clear days the island of Lewis
is distinctly seen. The cattle and sheep of the crofters pasture
in common on this moorland, while they have small patches of
corn and potatoes on land reclaimed by their own exertions in
the more sheltered places in the vicinity of their houses.
These houses are mostly very small, built of rough unhewn
stones gathered from the adjacent shore, and thatched with
heather, but can be made very comfortable within. The
accommodation for their cows is of a still more primitive de-
scription. They each possess two or three cows, with followers,
and a few sheep. There are no horses about the district, and
indeed they could not be used for want of roads. The cows
are of the small, shaggy, Highland breed, and their milk is very
rich. The crofters dig their crofts with an implement called a
caschrom, which has more the appearance of a tool used by
drainers to clear and level the bottom of their drains than of
a spade. It consists of a piece of wood about 14 foot long and
4 inches broad, shod with iron at one end, and having a handle
at the other end projecting at an angle, and about 4 or 5 feet
long. It is shoved into the ground with the aid of the foot,
and pushed along, the furrow being turned over as it goes by
regularly canting the handle to one side. It goes over the
ground a great deal quicker than a spade, but to my mind not
nearly so good a job is made, as the furrows it makes are very
shallow. The land is manured with sea-weed. It is quite
evident that these primitive modes of cultivation can never
yield anything but poor and barren results in such a region as
this. And when the scanty harvest of both sea and land fails,
the condition of the poor inhabitants must be sad indeed.
The crofters themselves seem decent, honest, and industrious,
and I do not think the characteristics recently manifested by the
crofters on the opposite coast of Skye belong to them. ‘They
are mostly engaged in fishing in the summer season, but their
fishing last season was not successful. They have small fishing-
yawls of two or three tons burden, which carry a crew of from
three to five. They are generally part owners of a boat, and
the earnings are divided among the crew. They are a very re-
ligious people, and very strict in their observance of the Sab-
bath, going frequently long distances to church. They are
1886-87.] Fottings on a Ramble in Wester Ross. 27
almost to a man Free Churchmen, the local F.C. minister exer-
cising a very great influence over them. The whole popula-
tion, especially the young women and children, have very sal-
low complexions, caused, I suppose, by a want of iron in the
blood, their diet being too exclusively fish, without the addition
of butcher’s-meat. Exposure to the weather gradually causes
this sallow hue to disappear. The Gaelic language is univer-
sally spoken, the bulk of the women and the older men being
unable to speak English: the children are taught oaly English
at school, but use the Gaelic almost exclusively as soon as they
are outside the school. They go about without any head-cover-
ing, and are very scantily clothed, the boys’ dress consisting
generally only of a shirt, jacket, and short ragged kilt. Those
children we conversed with were very intelligent, and their
manners were very much superior to those of the children of
a corresponding age and class in the Lowlands. One very
pleasing feature of their character was their non-molestation of
the birds; and I was much struck with the utter want of fear
in many of the smaller birds, such as the yellow-hammer, which
hopped about almost among our feet.
The inland lochs, before referred to, are nearly all full of
trout, and in most of them the white water-lily (Wymphea alba)
grows in great beauty and profusion. Lobelia Dortmannii is
another plant found very plentifully in them; while round
their banks Drosera angelica and D. rotundifolia grow in great
luxuriance. On a warm sunny day large numbers of dragon-
flies skim along their surface. In the small streams issuing
from these lochs Chara and Myriophyllum grow plentifully ;
while Batrachospermum and fresh-water sponges are less com-
monly found. In the wood, before referred to, in front of the
village, we found Hymenophyllum unilaterale growing plenti-
fully on the northern sides of large stones and on the trunks
of decayed trees. Mosses and lichens were plentiful everywhere.
I searched in Loch-na-Creige one afternoon for diatoms, and
on going over them carefully after getting back to town, I
found I had collected specimens of the following: Tabellaria,
Epithemia, Nitzschia, Navicula, Cocconema, and Gomphonema.
I also found a good many Desmids, chiefly forms of Closterium
and Cosmarium.
There was a small island, just beyond the corner of the bay,
28 Fottings on a Ramble in Wester Ross. [Sess.
called Eilan Mor, which we often visited, and which was the
resort of large numbers of gulls and terns. They built their
nests among the heather on the top of the island—or, more
strictly speaking, they laid their eggs there, for their nests
hardly deserved the name. We found nests with eggs, two or
more in each, in all stages of development, the young chick
being occasionally seen with only its bill protruding, and busy
picking a hole large enough for its emergence. Young gulls
unable to fly were sitting about on projecting rocks: our ap-
proach always caused a great commotion among them, and
much screaming. Cormorants, puffins, and oyster-catchers
were seen in smaller numbers, but they did not frequent or
breed on the island. The cormorants seemed to have their
home on a small rocky islet close by Ardheslaig Point, which is
known as the Cormorant Island. The crowberry was plentiful
among the heather on the top of the island, and the fruit,
which was quite ripe, was in great plenty. There was
abundance of crowberry on the mainland also, but no fruit.
I suppose these had been plucked by the grouse, while on
the island there was nothing but sea-birds, and they appa-
rently did not take the berries. I picked up the cast skin
of an adder, which shows they frequent the island, but I saw
none.
The shores are very rocky, and there are numerous caves.
We penetrated one at Fearnimore to the distance of 140 yards,
by the aid of candles. It divided into two at that distance, one
part ending in a round chamber of considerable height, and the
other, after rising considerably, was closed by a pool of water.
The cave-moss (Zurhynchiwm pumilum) grew here for some dis-
tance inwards, depending from the roof and sides. There was
another cave between Arrin-a-chruinach and Eilan Mor, where,
when approaching it, 1 was struck with a singular projection
of the rock from one of the sides in the shape of the profile
of a man’s head with a pipe in the mouth. We found a few
plants of lovage (Ligusticwm scoticwm) on the rocks over this
cave, while on the roof inside the sea-spleenwort (Aspleniwm
marimum) grew in tufts. These caves must be very convenient
for the operations of the illicit distiller, who still carries on his
operations in the Alligin district, on the opposite shore of Loch
Torridon, The Excise have made several seizures in this
1886-87.] Fottings on a Ramble in Wester Ross. 29
neighbourhood lately ; and that the natives appear to live in
constant wholesome dread of these “gentry” is pretty evident,
for we were at once taken for Revenue officers when we visited
that district one day. We crossed over to Diabaig, which is
a most picturesquely situated crofter village in a small bay,
surrounded by high, rugged, and almost perpendicular rocks.
A burn comes down a tremendous fissure in the rocks behind
the village, and at the lower bottom of this gorge the royal
fern grows in large patches, and in splendid condition. We
dug up several specimens, and then commenced the steep
ascent of the gorge. A small cottage was perched a short
distance up, and on our approach to it a comely middle-aged
woman, the mistress of the house, came out with a tumblerful
of milk for each of us. This we received very thankfully, as
we were hot and tired climbing up the steep ascent after our ex-
ertions in digging up the ferns, and we were much pleased with
the kindness she showed us, total strangers as we were. On
reaching the top of the ravine we found the burn to issue from
a large loch lying between us and Ben Alligin, which was about
three miles distant. We were anxious to ascend this moun-
tain, which is the highest in that neighbourhood, being over
3000 feet, but were unfortunately prevented.
We observed enormous numbers of jelly-fish in the sea,
chiefly between Eilan Mor and Arrin-a-chruinach Bay. They
were of various kinds and sizes, and were sometimes so numer-
ous, especially in the evenings, when they seemed to rise to the
surface of the water, that it was impossible to row without
bringing the oars in contact with them. We were careful not
to handle any of them, on account of their stinging propensities.
The fishermen told us they often got their hands badly pricked
while taking the long threads off their hooks. We used to go
out in the evenings to fish for lythe, which seemed to be the
most plentiful fish in the loch, and sometimes we were very suc-
cessful. We caught them with an artificial bait, made of india-
rubber, resembling a lob-worm of two colours, red and white ;
and it is curious to note that some evenings the fish indicated
a decided liking for the red, seizing it only, while on other
evenings it was the white that had the preference. We also
found many large and fine specimens of Echinus sphcera adher-
ing to the rocks at low water. A very beautiful zoophyte,
Coryne pusilla, and a Botryllus, were also found.
30 Ormiston Hall: its Yew-Tree [Sess.
Red-deer were very plentiful in Lord Middleton’s forest in
the neighbourhood. On one occasion, while two of our number
ascended Beinn Bhan, they saw a herd of over 200 at one time.
We noticed few wild animals, but Mr M‘Rae, Lord Middleton’s
gamekeeper, informed us that he occasionally trapped wild cats,
large and splendid specimens, and that he sent the skins to
Inverness, where he got five shillings each for them.
Though we met with nothing very rare, as I have already
said, in our rambles, still we enjoyed a most delightful holiday
trip, not alogether without profit, amid the wild and picturesque
scenery of this Ross-shire village, overlooking the Western Isles ;
while, last but not least, we laid up a store of health and had
our energies renewed for the labours of the winter.
VIL—ORMISTON HALL: ITS YEW-TREE AND
OTHER ANTLIQCLIILES.
By Mr JOHN LINDSAY.
(Read Jan. 26, 1887.)
A visiTor to the quiet little village of Ormiston is at once
struck by its peculiar aspect, it being so unlike all other Scottish
villages with which he is acquainted, and so remarkably similar
in appearance to some English villages which he may have
seen. It is situated on the north bank of the Tyne, in the
centre of a fertile district, and is noteworthy for its acres of straw-
berries and other fruits. Sitting down beside the monument
lately erected to the memory of Dr Moffat, the African mission-
ary, in this place of his birth, on a still, warm June day like
that on which the Club visited it last summer, we may rest a
while to take in the scene before us. The silence is almost
oppressive as we look away west, up the long line of village
street, with its tall and fine trees set at regular intervals on
each side, and casting dark shadows athwart the wide interven-
ing space. Not a living thing is to be seen moving out-of-
doors, suggesting the fancy that some enchanter’s wand has been
waved over the scene; while the only sound is a dull clang
which reaches us lazily through the heavy noontide air from the
1886-87. ] and Other Antiquities. 31
village forge. Right in front is the ancient village cross, gener-
ally supposed to be a remnant of an old Roman Catholic foun-
dation which at one time occupied the same site,— though
Chalmers, in his ‘ Caledonia,’ affects to make merry over this
suggestion, and says ‘“‘it is obviously the market-place of a
prosperous town, in the midst of an agricultural country.”
Letting the eye wander on beyond this point, there may be
discerned in the distance a sign-board thrust out a little into
the roadway on the right, which we afterwards find marks the
village inn or Hopetoun Arms, and represents the crest of that
noble family, with the punning motto, “At Spes non fracta.”
The vista is closed by a background of foliage, so that altogether
the scene is a very pleasant one; and we almost envy the lot
of these villagers in this quiet rural retreat. Here is a picture
which is still much the same, in all its details, after the lapse of
fully half a century. The minister of the parish, writing in
1835, avers that “the great bulk of the people are contented and
comfortable in their circumstances;” yet he has perforce to
complain of some “ who disturb, by their irregularities, the peace
of a place which, from its beautiful and retired situation, seems
peculiarly fitted to be the abode of tranquillity and happiness.”
The sign-board of the village inn reminds us that the
Hopetoun family is now dominant in the parish, and we natur-
ally inquire how and when they thus came into possession.
Ormiston derives its name from a half-mythical Saxon settler
called Orme, who dates as far back as the twelfth century, and
whose descendants continued to hold “ Orme’s toun,” or Orme’s
dwelling, down through the thirteenth century. Orme, it has
been remarked, was a common name during the eleventh and
twelfth centuries, as we know from the chartularies still in
existence. From the Ormes the lands passed into the possession
of the Lindsays, until, in 1368, the only daughter of Sir Alex-
ander Lindsay, Joan, married John, the second son of Sir
Alexander Cockburn of Cockburn, and this historical family
was then vested in the lands and barony of Ormiston, with
several other lands contiguous. The Cockburns continued in
possession until 1747, when John, second Earl of Hopetoun,
acquired the whole by purchase from the last member of the
family, and became the sole proprietor of the parish.
1 Chalmers’s ‘ Caledonia,’ vol. ii. p. 552.
32 Ormiston Hall: its Yew-Tree [Sess,
I have spoken of the family of Cockburn as a “ historical
family”; and it was, in truth, bound up intimately with the
history of Scotland during centuries “big with fate” to our
native country. For many years the office of Lord Justice-Clerk
was retained in the family ; other members of it were Lords of
Session; while John Cockburn, best known as “the agricul-
turist,” sat in the old Scots Parliament, took his share in the
negotiations regarding the Treaty of Union, and again repre-
sented his native county in the British Parliament, after the
Union had been effected. One of the family who held the office
of Justice-Clerk, Adam Cockburn, appointed to that honour in
1692, was rather a notable character in his day. Ina profusely
illustrated work, published a few years ago in two quarto volumes,
entitled ‘The Castles and Mansions of the Lothians,’ the late
Mr John Small, Librarian of Edinburgh University, who wrote
the descriptive letterpress for the work, tells us, when dealing
with Ormiston Hall, that Adam Cockburn was very unpopular
from his zeal in suppressing the Rebellion of 1715. And he adds
the curious fact that when, at that time, “ladies at cards were
playing the nine of diamonds, commonly known as the curse of
Scotland, they called it the Justice-Clerk.” But it is John
Cockburn, son of this Whig Lord Justice-Clerk, whom I would
more particularly speak of at present. This Laird of Ormiston,
born about 1685, was long resident in England, which circum-
stance explains the distinctively English character of the village
of Ormiston. From the ‘New Statistical Account’ we gather
that about 1732 he “made great improvements in the village,
and laid out the fields contiguous to it upon a plan furnished
by Mr Lewis Gordon, a land-surveyor, whom he brought from
England for that purpose. They were all divided into small
portions, and enclosed with thorn-hedges and hedgerow trees.
This plan was extended over the whole barony of Ormiston, by
which it was, and still is, distinguished from all other parishes
in the neighbourhood.” He also endeavoured, we are told, to
promote the growth of flax, founded a school for teaching the
spinning of linen yarn, and established a bleachfield—said to
have been at that time the second in Scotland—for the bleach-
ing and dressing of fine linens, which formerly had to be sent
to Haarlem for this purpose. (The first bleachfield in Scotland
was that of the British Linen Co., in the neighbouring parish
1886-87. | and Other Antiquities. oe
of Salton; and in the same antiquated little village the first
barley-mill in Scotland was erected, by William Adam, the
architect, who carried the plan in his memory from Holland.)
But it is as an enterprising agriculturist and landlord that
John Cockburn’s chief renown rests. The system of long leases
which he introduced is said to have ruined himself, the leases
being on too easy terms, and to have compelled Capt. George
Cockburn, on his father’s death, to sell the estates to the Earl
of Hopetoun, as already mentioned. Whether this be so or
not, these long leases certainly did much for the ultimate im-
provement of the agriculture of Scotland. Formerly lands
were usually held on a five years’ lease; but John Cockburn
fixed a thirty-eight years’ lease, as an inducement to tenants to
improve their farms, with a renewal every nineteen years, “ for
all time coming,” on payment of a grasswm, or stipulated extra
sum, as rent, at the expiry of each period of nineteen years—
a system which has now, in its turn, given place to still better
and fairer methods. He was, in truth, far ahead of his time
as an agriculturist, and the various improvements he began
were taken up and continued by the noble family who came
next into possession. In an interesting newspaper article
which appeared lately, entitled “Reductions of Rent in East
Lothian,”! it is stated that “in 1748 the estate of Ormiston
was regarded as a model for imitation by landlords and ten-
ants.” And to show that its prestige still continues, the writer
proceeds: “ Ormiston has bravely sustained its early reputation.
The reduction of rents indicated by the Valuation Roll for the
period from 1872-73 to 1883-84” (the latest then available) “is
only £59 on a previous rent of £7154;” and this although, as
we are informed, “from 1872 rents have been reduced in some
cases more than 40 per cent ”—the adjoining parish of Pencait-
land being cited as one in which there has been a large deduc-
tion during that period.
Our subject, however, is more particularly Ormiston Hall,
and not the parish of Ormiston, though the two are closely re-
lated. And here behind us is one link of connection with the
old Hall: let us turn round and look on the bronze medallion,
by Mr D. W. Stevenson, of the veteran missionary — pro-
nounced by his son to be “one of the best portraits that I
1 ‘Scotsman,’ Jan. 12, 1887.
VOL. I. c
34 Ormiston Hall: its Yew-Tree [Sess.
know,” of the many that have been executed. The face recalls
vividly to my own mind a rather memorable occasion, when Dr
Moffat gave an address in a village church not far from Ormis-
ton, on a summer Sabbath evening some years ago. “The old
man eloquent” became so engrossed with his memories of
African scenes, that he forgot the flight of time, continuing
his discourse until the shades of night had fallen, and the
congregation had at length to be summarily dismissed. In
‘The Lives of Robert and Mary Moffat,’ lately written by their
son, the Rev. John S. Moffat, the following sentence will be
found in the preface: “At the entrance of the grounds” of
Ormiston Hall “stands the gardener’s house, a substantial
stone building, in which Robert Moffat’s mother spent her
youth a hundred years ago; and in the churchyard stands a
stone to the memory of her parents, William Gardiner and his
wife, erected by the Earl of Hopetoun of that date, in whose
service they had lived and died.” Let us therefore suppose
that we have now passed over the mile of road between the
village and the entrance to the Hall, and that we are proceed-
ing down the avenue to the mansion-house. This avenue con-
sists of stately trees—beech and elm and oak—mostly planted
by the John Cockburn, Laird of Ormiston, of whom I have
already spoken. The modern house, too, which by-and-by
comes in sight, was built originally by the same laird in his
later years—in 1745—though various additions have been
made by the Hopetoun family since then. John, fourth Earl
of Hopetoun, on succeeding to the title in 1816, lived at
Ormiston Hall for a year and a half while Hopetoun House
was being enlarged, and made numerous improvements at that
time not only on the house but on the whole estate. After his
death at Paris, in 1823, his widow, the Dowager Countess of
Hopetoun, took up her residence at Ormiston Hall, when
further extensive alterations were made both on the house
and grounds. It was then that the yew-tree, to be afterwards
specially mentioned, was left outside the orchard-wall by the
contraction of the orchard—though this is to the advantage of
the tree, giving it a more prominent position. Sir Thomas
Dick Lauder has described the mansion-house as being “in the
tea-canister style of architecture, with three additions to cor-
respond, one canister being added to another till the accommo-
1886-87. ] and Other Antiquities. 35
dation wanted was completed.” He admitted, however, that
the interior arrangements for comfort were well planned. Or-
miston Hall is at present leased to George Dempster, Esq.,
LL.D.,—who, it should be here mentioned, at once consented to
permit the Society to inspect the grounds, and paid our party
much kindness on their visit to this most interesting place last
summer. The benign influence exerted by this gentleman and
his like-minded lady over the surrounding district is worthy
of all honour and praise.
The old fortalice, or rather what remains of it, stands about
200 yards west of the present mansion-house, and one cannot
look upon the ancient buildings without being stirred in
thought. Though now in great part dismantled, enough re-
mains to suggest what once had been. Here was the prin-
cipal entrance, through this low archway, with pieces of the
old iron stanchions still embedded in the masonry at the sides.
This gave entrance from the outside to the courtyard round
which the buildings were ranged. Part of the principal stair-
case, close to this gateway, still remains, and at the top we
come on the room whence Wishart is said to have been taken,
before his martyrdom, at the end of the year 1545. The whole
story is picturesquely told in Book I. of Knox’s ‘ History of
the Reformation,’ but is too long for quotation here. There is
first the sermon at Haddington ; then the travelling on foot to
Ormiston, accompanied by the Laird of Ormiston and several of
his friends (Knox adds the graphic touch, “it was a vehement
frost”); then supper, and the singing of the 51st Psalm; when
Wishart passes to his chamber, to be aroused at midnight by
the tramp of armed men, and angry voices demanding admit-
tance—for the Earl of Bothwell has just left Cardinal Beaton
at Elphingstone Tower, a mile distant, and is come to demand
that Wishart should be delivered over to him. After many
solemn promises on the part of Bothwell that Wishart would
be kept in safety, he was at length given up, and the party
then marched off in triumph, their tread ringing out sharp in
the clear frosty air of that December night, as they returned
to Elphingstone. We all know the sequel: though not directly
and at once handed over to the tender mercies of the Cardinal,
that wily prelate at last succeeded in getting Wishart into his
power, and on the 1st of March following he suffered martyrdom
36 Ormiston Hall: tts Yew-Tree [Sess.
before the Castle of St Andrews, in presence of Beaton and his
friends. Knox was greatly influenced by Wishart’s preaching ;
and several of the landed gentry, including the Laird of Or-
miston, were also much attached to him. Thus it is related
that “when, in 1545, George Wishart courageously ventured to
preach in Leith, among his auditors were the Lairds of Brun-
stane, Longniddry, and Ormiston, at whose houses he after-
wards took up his residence in turns, accompanied at times by
Knox, his devoted scholar, and the bearer of his two-handed
sword.”! The mention of Knox recalls the circumstance that
Alexander, son of Sir Alexander Cockburn, was a favourite
pupil of the Reformer, and is spoken of in affectionate terms
in his ‘History of the Reformation.’ A monumental brass to
the memory of this talented young man, who died in Aug.
1564, in his twenty-eighth year, is on the north wall of the
only part left standing of the old church, within the grounds
of Ormiston Hall—viz., what was probably the chancel. The
classic elegiac verses of George Buchanan, in praise of his
linguistic attainments and regret at his early death, are still
perfectly legible ;? but the building itself is dark, half choked
up with rubbish, and has been roughly roofed over at some late
period. It is said that a number of stone coffins, the last
resting-places of several Cockburns of Ormiston, are here at
no great depth below the surface. A brief notice of this old
church, where both Knox and Wishart are believed to have
officiated oftener than once, is found in a volume printed by
the Maitland Club, in 1835, from a manuscript discovered acci-
dentally about that time in the Register House. It is there
stated that “the Kirk of Ormistoun of old wes ane of the
Kirkis of the Trinitie College of Edinburgh, consisting of 4
1 “Old and New Edinburgh,’ vol. iii. p. 150.
2 This monumental brass forms the subject of a short paper by the Rev. Dr
Struthers of Prestonpans, in the ‘ Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of
Scotland,’ vol. iv. p. 225. The late Dr David Laing adds the remark to Dr
Struthers’s paper, that the tablet “is of peculiar interest ; and as few specimens
of the kind exist in Scotland, it was thought desirable to give a reduced fac-
simile of the ‘rubbing’” which Dr Struthers had made. This facsimile has
been executed in a very artistic manner, and will be found in the Society’s
‘Proceedings.’ Dr Laing was of opinion that the tablet in St Giles’s, in
memory of the Regent Earl of Morton, was of the same period, perhaps executed
by the same hand; while the inscription upon it, by a curious coincidence, is
also by George Buchanan.
1886-87. ] and Other Antiquities. 37
prebendaries, a paroche priest, and a vicar. Bot sen reforma-
tioun it is a laik patronage, according to the new erectioun,
quhais patron is the Laird of Ormiston.”! The only entrance
to this old parish church was through the laird’s garden-gate ;
and as this was felt to be rather inconvenient for all parties,
another church was erected on a different site in 1696, which
in turn gave place to the present edifice.
Surrounding the old church, from pre-Reformation times,
was the ancient churchyard, both situated a little to the west
of the mansion-house of Ormiston Hall; and probably in or
near this churchyard stood originally the venerable tree now
known far and wide as “the Ormiston yew.” The age of
this tree is unknown, though there is evidence to prove that
it was of considerable size in 1474, when a lease of a piece of
ground, granted by the superior of the religious house in the
village, was signed beneath it. The uniform tradition is that
Wishart occasionally preached under its branches to con-
gregations composed of the Ormiston family with their friends
and retainers; and there is every reason to believe the accuracy
of the report. Strange to think that we now look upon, not a
crumbling ruin, but a living object which has existed all
through these centuries, from the beginning almost of authentic
history in our own country, and yet lives and thrives, green
and flourishing. How many generations of men have passed
away during its existence; and how many stirring events,
ecclesiastical and civil, have taken place! And it may con-
tinue to grow for as many centuries still, so far as any one
can predict. The tree is very graceful and well-proportioned ;
and standing in the midst of a clear space, as it now does, it is
seen to the full advantage. It has frequently been measured
by visitors and others, amongst the more recent of these
measurements being one carefully made by the late Professor
Balfour and Mr Isaac Anderson Henry, in August 1879. Mr
John Hamilton, forester at Ormiston Hall, kindly measured
the tree, by request, on the 6th of December last, and wrote as
follows: “Its circumference, at 3 ft. 9 in. from the ground
(where the branches begin to spring), is 16 ft. 2 in. The
outside circumference, where the branches lie on the ground,
is 227 ft.; and the inner circumference, 147 ft. I am sorry
1 «Reports on the State of Certain Parishes in Scotland, 1627,’ p. 125.
38 Ormiston Flall: its Vew-Tree [Sess.
I can tell nothing about its age. I am glad to say it is in
good health: in seven years the bole has increased in cir-
cumference 2 inches, and the outside branches 8 ft.” As there
was no mention here of the height of the tree, I asked Mr
Hamilton for this measurement, and received the reply, dated
Jan. 7, 1887, that it was at that date 35 ft. 3 in. high. I have
drawn up in tabular form authentic measurements of the tree
for periods stretching over nearly a century. The first is from
Sir John Sinclair’s Statistical Account, of date 1792; the
second, from the ‘ New Statistical Account,’ 1824; the third
from Croal’s ‘Sketches of East Lothian, in 1864; and the
fourth, Mr Hamilton’s measurements of December last. The
only uncertainty is regarding the girth, which is not in every
case at exactly the same distance from the ground; but the
variation is slight, and the height may be taken in each instance
as 3 ft.9 in. The following are the figures :—
Average
— 1792. 1824. » 1864. 1886. growth in
five years.
Girth, . ; . | 11 ft. | 13 ft. 10in. | (No record.)! 16 ft. 2 in. 3} in.
Height, P AB tite 20 eite 34 ft. 35 ft. 3 in. 63 in.
Outside diameter F
Sea ae \ 53 ft. | 59 ft. 69 ft. | 72 ft. 1 ft.
It will be seen from this comparative statement that the
Ormiston yew is still enjoying the vigour of youth; and with
the careful attention which for long has been, and still is, paid
to it, the tree may yet reach a “green old age,” which, in the
case of a yew-tree, is very much of an unknown quantity.
Any one who has had frequent occasion to consult the Old
or the New Statistical Account of Scotland, cannot but have
noticed the meagre references to the flora and fauna of some
parishes, as contrasted with others. This, indeed, is just what
we might expect, when we consider the different tastes or pre-
dilections of the various writers; and especially when we
remember that Natural History was not then the popular study
which it is now. Yet there are instances where the geology,
botany, and zoology of a district are all very fully described,
either by the minister of the parish or by some scientific
; 1886-87. ] and Other Antiquities. 39
friend; and in one case—that of the parish of Prestonpans—
the writer bewails the difficulties in the way of his study of
Natural History, especially the domain of ocean-life. The Rev.
W. B. Cunningham thus writes, half in anger, half in sorrow:
“Tt is to be regretted that, in some of those districts in which
the most ample fields of Natural History are presented to the
inquirer, the means of exploring them are unfortunately denied
to him. Notwithstanding the writer’s most anxious exertions
to procure the rare specimens (which the sea occasionally
yields up to dredge, net, and line) from the fishermen under
his own pastoral superintendence, he has almost entirely
failed in attaining his purpose, through their utter apathy to
everything like a love of the ‘unsaleable’ creatures that ‘swim
the ocean’s stream.’” Ihave no doubt that the experience of
several amongst ourselves has been much the same as that of
this clergyman half a century ago—though his case had its
own peculiar ageravations. But to return to the Ormiston
yew. In both Statistical Accounts this tree is noticed at some
length, while the yew at Whittinghame, which is often looked
upon as a rival to the Ormiston tree, is mentioned in neither
Account. Nor does Loudon include the Whittinghame yew in
his long list of remarkable trees, though the Ormiston yew has
a paragraph devoted to it. A stranger omission still is that of
the late Sir Thomas Dick Lauder, who edited in 1834 ‘ Gilpin’s
Forest Scenery, making many curious and useful additions to
that well-known work. Among other remarkable trees, he
gives an interesting notice of the Ormiston yew, with detailed
measurements of its circumference. Yet the Whittinghame yew
is not once referred to by him, though it was only a few miles
distant from his own estate of Fountainhall. Some days after
inspecting the Ormiston tree, I accompanied a friend to Whit-
tinghame to see the eucalyptus there growing. This tree was
planted as a seedling in 1846, and though cut down nearly to
the ground at one time by frost, is now 60 feet high. When at
Whittinghame, I made a careful survey of the yew-tree there,
while the appearance of the other East Lothian specimen was
still fresh in the memory. Although the Whittinghame yew
is certainly a very fine old tree, and has also its own historic
associations, it did not appear to me to be so stately or so well-
proportioned as the Ormiston yew. When the Berwickshire
40 Ormiston Fall. [Sess.
Naturalists’ Club visited this fine estate in July 1884, the
yew-tree was found to have an inside diameter of 40 feet 6
inches, which is not very far behind that of the Ormiston yew
—viz., 47 feet. But the girth of the Whittinghame yew at 5
feet from the ground is only 11 feet, while that of the Ormiston
yew at the same distance is nearly double, which would go to
prove that it is much the older of the two. At 5 feet up, the
Whittinghame yew separates into a great number of inter-
lacing shoots, thus shortening the stem, though making it more
dense in appearance—so much so, that from the inside the
branches seem like an impenetrable wall. It is to be hoped
that our Society, having visited Ormiston Hall, with its
ancient yew and other interesting sights, may yet include
Whittinghame, with its historic tree, its old tower, and other
notable features, in some future list of excursions.
It may be mentioned here that to the north of the mansion-
house of Ormiston Hall there is a narrow glen through which
the Belsis burn flows, containing a mass of vegetation, and
where are several large and fine trees—oaks, beeches, and syca-
mores. It may also be of interest to some of the members of
the Society to know that there is growing near the flower-
garden the parent of a very distinct form of the Portugal
laurel (Laurus or Cerasus lusitanica). This form is popularly
known as the “Ormiston laurel,” and has dark leaves of a
thick, leathery texture—therefore the varietal name which has
been given to it of coriacea. There are several specimens of
this laurel in the Royal Botanic Garden, some of them as-
suming the dimensions of trees. I am informed that it was a
particular favourite of a respected “past president” of this
Society, the late Mr Wm. Gorrie, and that he did much to
spread it, sending cuttings to several places throughout the
country which were thought suitable for its growth. I can
find no mention of this variety of the Portugal laurel in any
of the numerous works on the subject which I have consulted.
The forester at Ormiston Hall is of opinion that it was in all
likelihood brought by Sir John Cockburn from Portugal in the
early part of last century.
In concluding these remarks, the fig-trees growing on the
south wall of the orchard at Ormiston Hall deserve notice.
These, too, were planted by Sir John Cockburn, and are said
1886-87. | The Parida, or Titmice. 41
to have produced at one time figs of peculiarly fine quality.
Though cut down to the ground by frost during the inclement
winter of 1880-81, they are again throwing out fresh shoots, in
some instances over 3 feet in length, and form no unfitting
memorial of the far-sighted, enterprising cultivator who origin-
ally planted them, and whose memory will always be so in-
timately bound up, not only with the lands of Ormiston, but
with the whole fertile county of East Lothian.
VIIL—THE PARIDA, OR TITMICE.
By Mr ARCH. CRAIG, Jun.
(Read Feb. 23, 1887.)
THE Paride, or titmice, are a small group of birds that present
great attractions to the student of Natural History, in conse-
quence, so far, of their possessing the dual advantages of not
only being very numerous, but from their constant residence in
this country throughout the year. Opportunities of observation
are not, therefore, confined to the narrower limits afforded us
in the case of migrants. Strictly speaking, partial migration
does take place among some of the species; but as they never
actually leave our land in a body like the swallow tribe, and
are more or less to be met with in suitable localities at every
season, for all practical purposes they may be designated non-
migratory. They form a distinct and select little clan by
themselves, both as regards their habits, plumage, and song;
and although frequently accompanied in their wanderings by
other birds of kindred tastes, they seem notwithstanding to be
so intent upon their own affairs as to furnish ground for the
belief that they fill the more honourable réle of leaders, while
the others again enact the character of the escort. Be that as
it may, they are essentially a unique and highly interesting
fraternity, and I shall endeavour to bring under your notice a
1 On a visit to Ormiston Hall during the present summer (Aug. 1887), the
fig-trees were found in good health and vigour, and would probably have.
borne fruit this season had they not in 1880-81 been so severely damaged
by frost.
42 The Paride, or Titmice. [Sess.
few of the more prominent features of what all naturalists
unite in considering an order of birds most worthy of attention.
One of their leading characteristics, even to the inexperienced
eye, is their constant restlessness and activity, carried to an
extent which has almost no parallel save in the well-known
instance of the Hirundines, or swallows; and if proof of this
assertion were wanting, a few hours spent in following the
track of a flock in autumn would be sufficient of itself to bring
conviction to the most incredulous mind. Another peculiarity
is their intense inquisitiveness. This latter trait when de-
veloped in the human animal is not always to be considered
commendable, but in the case of the titmice it is much to be
admired, and, besides, is most beneficial to the growth of trees
and plants directly, and indirectly of course to the owners of
these. Just take the trouble to watch a titmouse hanging on
the trunk or branches of a tree, and see how eagerly he re-
connoitres every little crevice or crack in the bark, hammering
away with his hard little bill, or poking the same into some
small recess barely visible to the naked eye. The uninitiated
in many cases imagine he is doing harm, whereas he is a
decided benefactor, being busily engaged destroying insect-life
in the shape of eggs, larve, or the creatures themselves, which
ultimately would injure the growth of the tree. Yet, neverthe-
less, the day was, and unhappily in some parts of Great Britain
still is, where a premium was paid for the destruction of the
whole race of titmice, probably the best friends that gardeners
or tree-growers have. It has been advanced as an argument on
the opposite side that they eat grain, destroy plants for the
sake of the seed, and tear open buds in early spring. This is
true, but to a certain extent only, as the grain devoured is
trifling, and the buds burst usually contain insects in one form
or other; so that, even painting them in as black a hue as
perversity is capable of, their bad qualities are a mere bagatelle
in comparison with the good services they render. Their fear-
less nature, and trusting disposition in the presence of man,
made them an easy prey; but it is pleasant to record that this
prejudice is fast dying out, in common with many other equally
mistaken ideas that our forefathers, from want of knowledge,
indulged in at the expense of the feathered fauna of our
country, and it is perhaps not too much to hope that, with the
1886-87. ] The Parida, or Titmice. 43
rapid march of education, in a few years they may exist in the
minds of people as obsolete traditions only. As a whole they
are insectivorous, except when pressed by scarcity of their
natural food to eat seeds and other viands—even flesh at a
pinch is not despised. For this reason they are rather difficult
to keep in confinement, although with care as to diet they may
to a certain extent be successfully caged. The practice, never-
theless, savours of cruelty, as they are of such a roving, active
disposition as to rouse in us a feeling of sorrow when we look —
at the little captives cooped up into such narrow prison-houses,
when they would otherwise be so happy in the enjoyment of
their liberty. The same may be said likewise of all insectiv-
orous species, who cannot be so readily inured to captivity as
the granivore, owing to the difficulty of procuring the proper
food to maintain them in a state of good health. One and all
are accomplished acrobats, it apparently making no difference
to them whether they hang with their backs up or down, or
whether, figuratively speaking, they stand on their heads or
their tails. Sometimes you see them diligently working on the
upper surface of a branch, to shift instantaneously to the under ;
next minute they are clinging to the trunk like a creeper,
fluttering in the air like a butterfly, or dangling like a cork at
the end of a swinging twig, and all the time never for a
moment losing sight of the main object of their quest, calling
to each other in shrill clear notes that penetrate to a consid-
erable distance, especially when uttered amidst the solemn
silence of dark and lonely pine woods. It is chiefly at these
times when foraging in bands that they are joined by other
species, such as the goldcrests, siskins, redpoles, creepers, &c.;
but concerning this companionship more may be said at some
future time. Their plumage is striking, being characterised in
most examples by clearly defined colours and decided con-
trasts—yellow, slaty blue, black, white, and combinations again
of all these, being the chief factors in forming the sum total of
their outward covering ; and in the cases of the great and blue
tits their garb is really handsome. In some the feathers are of a
soft, fluffy nature, and as a natural sequence specimens are diffi-
cult to shoot clean, and decidedly more difficult to stuff after
they are secured; therefore really good and satisfactory skins
are seldom to be seen. Although by no means formidable as
44 ; The Paride, or Titmice. [Sess.
regards bulk, they possess daring that would put to shame
birds six times their size. Just attempt to rob the nest, or put
your hand into the hole where the same is concealed, and you
will soon have painful evidence of their dislike to your inter-
ference. The sitting bird will hiss like a small snake and salute
your fingers with no gentle bite, particularly the great tit, to
whose natural disinclination to be meddled with is to be added
a longer, and correspondingly stronger, mandible, capable of
inflicting considerable pain on the assailant. One cannot help
admiring the pluck displayed by these mites of creatures when
guarding their eggs or young,—a bravery, when we take their
size into account, far exceeding that of most birds whose
powers of defence are infinitely greater. Why titmice should
be gifted with larger powers of resistance than other small birds
is not easy to understand. It can hardly be that Nature,
taking into account their usefulness, endows them with courage
disproportionate to their size, in order to allow of their in-
crease,—as in the case of many other equally useful species,
notably the Warblers, the reverse is the rule, the mere acci-
dental finding of the nest or touching the eggs being sufficient
to make the birds desert. There can be no doubt, however,
that Providence, who has ordered everything so wisely, must
have bestowed the quality for some rational end, and with the
knowledge of that we are fain to be content.
Enough, perhaps, has been said by way of introduction, so
we will now turn to look at the species in detail. Of the true
titmice, six exist in Scotland, and one other, known as the
bearded tit, forming a separate genus, has been found in
England; but of this latter no mention need be made, as it is
quite unknown in our more northerly part of the island. The
names of the six are as follows :—
Great tit, . . Parus major. | Marsh tit, . Parus palustris.
Blue tit, . : n caeruleus. Long-tailed tit, . 1 caudatus.
Cole tit, . : " ater. | Crested tit, . nu cristatus.
The great tit, or ox-eye, is the largest of the genus, and can
be readily distinguished from the broad black band down its
breast and lower parts. The cognomen ox-eye is occasionally
applied to the blue and cole tits, but erroneously so. How the
name originated is not clear, and in reality is of little im-
1886-87. | The Parida, or Titmice. © 45
portance. Some writers aver that its call-note in spring has a
resemblance to the syllables “ox” “eye,” but if that be so, the
believers in this theory must be gifted with livelier imagina-
tions than have fallen to the lot of most folks, as by no pos-
sibility can its notes be contorted into a sound resembling these
words. While upon the subject of names, it may be as well to
mention that “tom-tit” is a favourite synonym for the genus,
but as it is rather a weak and puerile designation it would not
be much loss to ornithology if it fell into disuse. Many
popular names have a real significance, and are of great value,
but the same can scarcely be said of this one. For example,
take a few of the more absurd epithets by which the Paride
are known in different parts of England: “Sit-ye-down,” “Tom
Collier,” “Billy Biter,” “Joe Bent,’ “Long Tom,” “Mum
Ruffin,” “ Bottle Tom,” and “Poke-pudding.” _I think it will
be confessed that these do not add much dignity or weight to
ornithological nomenclature. It is of great importance, there-
fore, to adhere as far as possible to one recognised denomina-
tion, and this, combined with the scientific name most in vogue,
will prevent dubiety. The plurality of scientific names in
ornithology is most puzzling at times, but this may be over-
come by taking up one well-known system and holding to it.
The great tit haunts woods, gardens, hedges, and brushwood,
but is often to be seen about the vicinity of houses and farm-
yards. In spring the note of the male is peculiar and pretty
constantly repeated, and although not attaining to the dis-
tinction of a song, is cheerful and lively. Some of his efforts,
however, are the reverse of musical, being grating and dis-
cordant, and not unlike the sound made by a saw when it
encounters a nail in a piece of wood. Asa rule, this species
does not travel about in such large numbers as the cole or
long-tailed tits, and is decidedly more vicious in disposition
when captured. Like the robin, they often alight upon the
limed twigs set round the call-bird’s cage, and I have frequently
made their acquaintance under these circumstances, but, to
speak truth, never with any great desire to renew it, as while
endeavouring to release them from their self-imposed position
they bit so persistently as in many instances to draw blood.
The nest is fabricated of moss, hair, feathers, &c., and is most
commonly placed in the hole of a tree or wall. A decayed and
46 ' The Paride, or Titmice. [Sess.
hollowed-out stump is a favourite site, especially where there
is a narrow hole deep enough to prevent access by the human
hand; but occasionally other and more singular situations are
adapted to the purpose, such as the disused nests of magpies,
or even a squirrel’s drey. It is amazing how agilely they
wriggle in and out of a small space. Last summer I watched
one at Temple Bridge flying in and out of a long narrow aper-
ture in the masonry, apparently one of those outlets for the
escape of the water after rain. It alighted on a tree within
five or six yards of the bridge, and then flew like a flash
straight for the slit. The latter, however, was too small for it
to pass into direct; so as quick as thought it grasped the sharp
edge of the stone, turned itself sideways, and disappeared into
the recess, to emerge again in a few seconds with equal rapidity.
This performance was repeated every few minutes; so taking
into account the length of a summer day, one can gather an
idea of the indefatigability of the parents while feeding the
young, and of the incalculable benefit they confer on sylvan
life by destroying countless insects. Some authors accuse it
of cannibalistic tendencies, in so far that it now and then kills
and eats other small species; but upon this point I should not
care to hazard an opinion, never having come across a case of
the kind. That it does so when confined has been indubitably
established by Dr Bechstein in his valuable work on ‘ Chamber
Birds’; but one is loath to credit such evil of this little ornament
of the woods in its native state, although, from the evidence
adduced in support of the statement, it seems likely to be too
true. A friend who possessed a number of marsh tits, in-
formed me that on one occasion, when by some blunder food
was omitted to be put into the cage, they fell upon each other,
and, like the far-famed Kilkenny cats, in the morning none were
left to tell the tale, the last survivor having evidently succumbed
through exhaustion. Any one who has kept an aviary must
have observed how intensely cruel birds are to any of their
number who fall sick. In nine cases out of ten the healthy set
upon the weak and peck them to death. It is hard to com-
prehend the motive of this seemingly relentless nature, unless
it be with the object of putting the sufferers out of pain, or
from some inherent desire to extirpate all who cannot “ fend ” for
themselves ; but this is all the more difficult to reconcile when
1886-87. ] The Paride, or Titmice. 47
we take into account the loving care that they bestow upon
their young broods. The great tit is no favourite with
apiarists, as, if all tales are true, it manages to destroy a good
many bees as they issue from the hive, by perching on the little
shelf outside the entrance-hole and dabbing the unsuspecting
insect as it emerges! The female is very like the male, but
hardly so bright in colour.
It would be useless to take up time describing the plumage
of the various species, as the accompanying specimens speak for
themselves, so we will pass on to the next in order—viz., the
blue tit. This is the prettiest and at the same time the most
impudent of all the Paridew. It seems to be regardless of the
presence of human beings, and is not easily frightened, coming
close to houses, farmyards, and gardens at certain times of the
year, particularly autumn and winter. If a person remains still
in a wood where these tits are feeding, they will often alight on
trees within a few feet, and hammer away at the bark close to
your elbow, with as much nonchalance as if you were a hundred
miles distant. In general habits they resemble the great species,
but, if anything, utter their shrill notes oftener, and have a knack
of dropping down to the ground when least expected, in this
respect being very like the robin. When upon the nest they
show a marked reluctance to leave, and display even greater
intrepidity in defending their young than their larger relation.
They build in cavities of trees, rocks, or walls, and sometimes the
entrance is so small as to make one wonder how they get in or
out so readily. Many extraordinary breeding-sites are recorded,
such as inside bottles, old pipes, pumps, &c., for full descriptions
of which I would refer any curious upon the subject to well-
known works on ornithology, such as Yarrell, Morris, or Jardine.
A very good method of observing this bird’s powers of clinging
and curious attitudes, is to hang an old bone with meat upon it
by a string to the branch of a tree, and in winter especially it
won’t be very long ere the dainty morsel is discovered by one or
more tits, who, notwithstanding the swaying motion, manage to
retain their foothold and satiate their appetite at the same time.
The popular name of this beautiful bird in Scotland is “blue
bonnet,’—an appellation that calls to the recollection of en-
thusiastic Scotsmen the “bonnets” of quite a different nature,
1 This is disputed, and apparently with some show of reason.
48 The Paride, or Titmice. [Sess.
whose wearers played such a prominent part in the days of
Border warfare.
Next on the list is the cole tit. This word is spelt alterna-
tively cole or coal. The latter is perhaps the more correct form,
and has been adopted in the latest edition of Yarrell by Professor
Newton, who adduces as proof that the French name “ petite
charbonniére ” clearly points to the fact that it has connection
with the fuel burnt in our fires, and not with a plant known
as cole. This bird is usually found to be more plentiful in high-
lying plantations than any of its brethren; but it is by no
means confined to these, as thick woods in the low grounds
often abound with them. It can never be mistaken for the
blue tit save by a novice, as its note is different, and as a rule
it travels in bands, a constant calling to each other going on all
the time. Whether owing to its greater sociability or from a
similarity of tastes, you mostly find it consorting with other
small species, notably goldcrests and creepers; and while the
former are chiefly busy among the leafy branches, the latter
devote their attention to the trunk. In autumn in suitable dis-
tricts of the Highlands there is a constant succession of the afore-
mentioned hunting the woods in concert; but, besides these,
siskins and redpoles often join in the campaign. Where cross-
bills are numerous this is very noticeable, the smaller fry tak-
ing advantage of the greater powers possessed by the larger
birds, to extract the seeds from the half-opened cones left by
the former. It is amusing to see the pertness with which the
minuter species mix with the crossbills and perch within a few
inches of them, evidently with the assurance of perfect safety
and immunity from assault, which says a great deal for the
good-nature of the crossbills, who, all the same, have probably
very little intention of reversing the order of things and becom-
ing jackal to their lion. At a distance this species is apt to be
confounded with the marsh tit; but when near enough to
admit of scrutiny, the white patch on the nape of the neck is a
sure distinction, the latter never having that at any time of life.
The whitish spots on the wings also occur in the cole tit alone.
The marsh tit is not nearly so common in Scotland, and must
be considered very local in its distribution. In England, again,
it is much more plentiful, and during last May it was my good
fortune to make its acquaintance in. Warwickshire, in suffi-
1886-87. | The Paride, or Titmice. 49
cient numbers to become familiarised with its note and general
appearance. The name “marsh” implies a fondness for swampy
localities, but in the district of Snitterfield it was frequenting
a thick forest of small trees (ash principally) known as “The
Bushes,” and miles away from any marsh. The nest of one
which I found accidentally was in the hollow stump of an ash-
tree, rising about a foot from the ground. The bird alighted on
the edge of the stump, and dropped into the hole, which ap-
peared to be about eighteen inches deep. The aperture was
much too narrow to admit the hand, so, gently inserting a thin
twig, the hissing noise began at once. Being very anxious to
identify the species, and be satisfied that it was not the cole-
tit, I rattled the twig against the edge of the hole; but the little
creature was not to be dislodged so easily, and it was only
after several louder applications of the twig that it evidently
lost patience, and flew up the narrow space like a shot, perch-
ing on a tree close by, and chirping in a very angry tone in-
deed. Having now a good opportunity of observing both it
and its partner, who was attracted by the noise of its mate, I
was much pleased to distinguish the marsh-tit, previously al-
most unknown to me. Further investigations in the same dis-
trict proved them to be very numerous. It has been found
nesting in various parts of Scotland, and was seen by a friend
of mine inhabiting a wood a few miles south of Inverness.
Before calling attention to the long-tailed tit, it may be as
well, in a few words, to advert to its crested congener. It has
fallen to the lot of few ornithologists to recognise this species
in the flesh, and it must on all accounts be considered a rare
bird. The only district where it is really known to frequent
regularly is Strathspey, among the pine and fir forests that
skirt the base of the Grampians east of Grantown, in that
lovely locality Rothiemurchus and Glenmore. The extent
of wood is so great on the Gordon and Seafield estates, that
one might go specially a dozen times to look for it, and never
have the felicity to come across a single specimen ; but it is be-
yond doubt that it makes its home in the neighbourhood men-
tioned. The fact of its being so difficult of discovery is in
reality the only safeguard against its extermination—for to
speak truth, and entre nous, ornithologists are in many cases
little better than hypocrites, in so far that they do not always
VOL. II. D
50 The Parida, or Titmice. [Sess.
practise what they preach ; and although inveighing against the
slaughter of rare birds, I am just afraid, if temptation in the
shape of a crested tit were put in some of our own ways, we
might be apt to eat our principles for the time being in order
to possess the skin. A stuffed example may be seen in the
Museum of Science and Art, and judging from it and the
coloured plates in several ornithological works, it must be a very
pretty bird to watch in life.
We come now to. the last, the loug-tailed tit. This is the
creature that rejoices in the names of Bottle Tom and Poke-
pudding. The peculiarity about this species is the dispropor-
tionate length of tail to the size of the bird, and in many re-
spects it is different from other tits,in none more so than in
its plumage, which is fluffier, more muddled in its colours, and
not so decided in its contrasts. To watch the old birds and
‘the newly-flown young herding together among the woods is a
never-tiring treat. The fledglings look no larger than humble-
bees, and the long thin tail attached gives them somewhat the
appearance of a comet as they flit from branch to branch.
To add two other similes, the one ornithological and the other
reptilian, they may be said to resemble a magpie in shape,
though not in colour, and a powet or tadpole, though not in
size. The body is exceedingly small, and is the most diminu-
tive of British species, save the gold and fire crests: the bill
also is shorter than that in any of the other tits, and is nearly
obscured by the soft downy feathers at the base. It is not an
uncommon bird by any means, and may be seen during late
autumn, and winter even, in the suburbs of Edinburgh where
there are belts of high trees; but perhaps it may only resort
to those localities when driven in by stress of weather. The
scientific name adopted by most modern writers is Acredula
caudata, it having been made the type of a sub-genus from its
dissimilarity in many points to the other Paride; and certainly,
when you examine a specimen, there is sufficient evidence to
warrant the change. With a slight description of its nest I
shall conclude this paper. Unlike other tits, this species does
not hide its nest in holes, but forms an elaborate structure,
which is placed between the branches of bushes or in the fork
of a tree. It is composed of moss, coated with lichens, after
the manner of the chaffinch, and lined with soft feathers. In
* ¥886-87.] Fossils of Red Crag and Chalk Pits, Suffolk. 51
shape it is oval rather than round, and the means of entrance
and exit is a small hole near the top. How the sitting birds
dispose of their long tails is more than I can tell. It has been
stated, and probably with truth, that they turn them backwards
over their heads, after the manner of those contortionists we
occasionally see in the theatre, who, by doubling back their
bodies, manage to gaze at the audience through their legs.
They may, perhaps, put them straight up against the side of
the nest; but it is really of very little use hazarding theories, as
they would be extremely difficult to prove, especially when the
smallness of the entrance-hole is taken into consideration, and
the fact that the bird is not likely to remain long enough in the
nest to permit of close investigation.
In conclusion, let me urge upon every member of this
Society who may have it in his or her power, to do what
they can to protect the little subjects of this paper, and by
their influence and good example endeavour to uproot those
silly and cruel prejudices which in the past have done so much
to deprive our woods and gardens of the presence of that most
interesting and useful race, the titmice.
[Stuffed specimens weve shown in illustration of the above paper. ]
IX.—THE FOSSILS OF THE RED CRAG AND
CHALK PITS, SUFFOLK.
By Miss MINNIE M‘KEAN.
(Read Feb. 23, 1887.)
Last November, being in Suffolk, I visited, with some friends,
one of the red crag cuttings and one of the chalk pits in the
neighbourhood of Ipswich. I had heard a great deal about the
crag formation, but it was all so new to me that I wished
much to see it, and to make a collection of its fossils for my-
self. This desire was strengthened after inspecting the inter-
esting collection in the Museum at Ipswich,—a building which
I would advise any lover of Nature in most of her departments
to visit as soon as possible.
We had a beautiful day, and after driving four miles or so
through lanes bordered with hedgerows on either side, over
52 _ Fossils of Red Crag and Chalk Pits, Suffolk. (Sess.
which the briony-berries were clustering in scarlet masses,
while the tufts of wild clematis-seed (Clematis vitalba) clothed
everything in a mantle of snow, we arrived at Foxhall Crag
Pit. This pit is leased at present by the farmer on whose
ground it is situated, and he accompanied us to the place
where the men had just left off working.
A few words as to the nature of the crag formation will ex-
plain it at once. In the Phocene period in geology, Britain,
after a long time of exposure as a land-surface, when it under-
went great denudation by weathering, began gently to subside.
Nothing definite can be said as to the extent of this subsidence,
but it is well known that that part which forms now the south-
east counties of England was gradually submerged, when sand-
banks and shelly deposits were laid down in the shallow waters
of the North Sea, and it is these accumulations that are termed
“crag.” Many of the “crag” shells still live in arctic seas.
Geikie, in his ‘Text-book of Geology,’ says :—
It is evident that in these fragmentary accumulations of the “crag”
series we have merely the remnants of some thin sheets of shelly sands
and gravels, laid down in the waters of the North Sea, while that great
lowering of the European climate was beginning which culminated in the
glacial period.
The “crag” series is subdivided into five groups, of which
the “red” is the second oldest, and it is principally in Norfolk
and Suffolk that all of these groups are exposed. The cutting
which we visited seemed to be about 6 or 8 feet thick. Its
natural colour is a deep red, and in some parts it is stained
deeper still by a mixture of iron. The section here is very
good, and shows the “red crag” resting on the “‘ London clay.”
The crag shells are 230 in number, and there are five dif-
ferent species exhibited to-night—viz. Trophon antiquum,
Pectunculus glycimeris, Cardita senilis (extinct), Astarte
Omallii, and Nucula Cobboldiz. The Foxhall Crag Pit is
worked for the purpose of obtaining those valuable phosphatic
nodules called “coprolites.” These are gathered by the ton,
after being extracted from the “crag,” and are then conveyed
to the crushing and chemical works and converted into manure.
As there are various opinions regarding the nature of these
nodules, I shall quote an extract from Dr J. E. Taylor’s book,
‘Nature’s Bye-Paths,’ which gives his verdict on the subject :—
1886-87.]. Fossils of Red Crag and Chalk Pits, Suffolk. 53
The well-known red crag phosphates of Suffolk are scarcely less
interesting to geologists than those of the south of France. They occur
as nodules, often enclosing fossils ; but, singularly enough, these fossils are
never those of the red crag itself, but always those of the much older
“Tondon clay” formation. These crag phosphatic nodules still go by
the name of “coprolites,” from an antiquated but erroneous opinion that
they are the fossil excrement of animals. Instead of this being their
origin, however, we know that they represent that portion of phosphorus
which has entered into the structures of the soft bodies of those very
animals whose hard parts, as bones, shells, &c., also occur in the fossil
state ; in fact, they are phosphuretted hydrogen set free from the decom-
posing bodies of the animals which died in the sea along whose floor the
“London clay” was deposited. Phosphoric acid, so forming, combined
with lime, and in this manner the nodules of phosphate of lime were
formed by segregation.
Here is another short extract bearing on the same topic, from
Dr Taylor’s ‘Geology of Ipswich’ :— .
There is every reason to believe that the so-called coprolites or phos-
phatic nodules were in reality accumulated on an old exposed land-surface
of the “London clay,” before the area was submerged to form the bed of
the red crag sea, Teeth of “mastodon,” rhinoceros, and deer are not un-
frequently met with, associated with bones of older date.
Fossil wood, as well as bones, teeth, &c., of animals, chiefly
cetaceans, are met with in the “crag,” these having been re-
deposited in the crag beds after having been washed out of the
London clay in which they were originally embedded. I am
indebted to Dr J. E. Taylor for several specimens of Otodus
obliquus (shark’s teeth) which are shown to-night, as well as
for the beautiful “box-stone” containing Pectunculus glyci-
meris. The nature of these box-stones will be best described
in Dr Taylor’s own words :—
Very singular are the roundish masses of coarse sandstone which are
met with at the Foxhall Crag Pit. From Foxhall, the bed containing
them, which usually lies directly on the “London clay,” extends to
Felixstowe, and heaps of them may be seen by the roadside, waiting to be
broken up for road-mending. They are very curious as representing a
lost formation, older than the “coralline crag,” for they are also found
under it, which is probably of late Miocene age. It is the quarrymen
who have termed them “box-stones.” You strike them with a sharp
blow of the hammer, and about one in every ten will break in halves,
revealing the cast of a fossil shell within. These “ box-stones” are the
broken-up and rolled remains of a bed of sandstone which once covered
this part of Suffolk, and which still underlies Antwerp, Brussels, and other
places in Belgium. °
54 Fossils of Red Crag and Chalk Pits, Suffolk. (Sess.
Let us now turn from the fossils of the crag to those of the
chalk. The chalk pit we next visited was a very large one,
near the village of Bramford, about three miles from Ipswich.
It was a very deep cutting, the walls of pure chalk towering
up like lofty hills above our heads. The men were busy
burning the chalk for lime. We were not so fortunate as to
chalk fossils, but secured a pretty specimen of Ananchytes ovata,
an Hchinoid of the Cretaceous period, locally termed “ Fairy
loaves.” We found them difficult to dig out of the close,
compact mass of chalk, the outside shell being so delicate. At
the same place I picked up a completely round ball of flint,
and on splitting it in two halves, I came upon a ball of pure
white chalk, which, Dr Taylor informed me, when carefully
washed, would be found to be full of sponge-spicules. Flint,
indeed, is closely connected with sponge-organisins, and there
are various theories as to what flint itself really is.
Thus ended our excursion to the red crag and chalk pits of
Suffolk—very pleasant in the carrying out, and no less pleasant
in the retrospect. A systematic search would of course bring
many more fossils to light, and such a search I hope soon to
undertake. What was accomplished on that November day was
just enough to whet the appetite for more. In addition to the
shells found, and now exhibited, I have brought for your inspec-
tion a small quantity of the ferruginous shelly sand of the red
crag. This sand has for centuries been used for enriching poor
clayey soils, on the surface of which it is spread. Jam indebted
to two gentlemen, members of the Society, for the preparations
shown—viz., to Mr Johnston, for the section of a coprolite which
he has made, and which is now exhibited under the microscope ;
and to Mr Pearcey, of the Challenger Commission, who has
kindly prepared slides of some of the chalk which I brought
with me from Suffolk. These slides show a very considerable
number of Foraminifera of various forms, some of them being
new species.
The lessons to be learned from the Suffolk crag and chalk
pits are extremely interesting, and reveal to us much of the later
geological history of this island of ours. Perhaps some of our
members have not yet turned their attention to the subject ; and
if I have succeeded in bespeaking their interest for it, then
something has been gained by these remarks.
1886-87.] Notes on some New and Rare British Plants. 55
X—NOTES ON SOME NEW AND RARE
BRITISH PLANTS.
By Mr SYMINGTON: GRIEVE, PRESIDENT.
(Read Feb. 23, 1887.)
I am indebted to Arthur Bennett, Esq., F.L.S., Croydon, for
kindly sending me some of the following plants from his
herbarium, and also for identifying one or two which were
collected by myself during a visit to the island of Rum in
July 1884. As all the plants are exceedingly interesting, it is
my intention to hand them over to the keeper of the herbarium
at the Royal Botanic Garden of this city for preservation.
Potamogeton prelongus Wulf, from the island of Rum. This
plant has been recorded in most of the eastern counties of Eng-
land and Scotland, from Essex to Caithness. On the western
seaboard it appears to be a rare plant, and has hitherto only been
recorded from Westmoreland and Kirkcudbright.
Carex flava var. Gauda of Gay, from the island of Rum.
Although Mr Bennett is not quite certain about the identi-
fication of this plant, owing to the immature state of the fruit,
still he has little doubt regarding it, after comparing it with
specimens in the herbarium at Kew. If this plant is correctly
named, it is the first record of it in Scotland, and it has only
been once recorded in South Britain, where it was many years
ago collected upon Snowdon. In any case, the plant in question
is a remarkable form of Carex flava, and as none of its varieties
have previously been recorded in the North Ebudes, it is at
least a new record for Watsonian County 104.
Cerastium arcticum Lange, var. Edmonstonii Beeby, grows
on Serpentine Hills, Unst, Shetland. This seems to be a var-
lety of Cerastium latifolium L., var. nigrescens, of our Floras,
and which appears as yet to have been only found in Britain
in the Shetland Islands. From a paper contributed about a
year ago to the ‘Scottish Naturalist’ by Mr A, Bennett, it
would appear that the Cerastiwm arcticwm of Dr Lange was
not thought to be the same as Cerastiwm latifolium L., var.
nigrescens. It appears to have been supposed that Cerastiwm
arcticwm Lange, which was found in Greenland and Iceland,
might be found as far south as the Faroes. It is exceedingly
56 On Dark-ground [lumination, [Sess.
interesting to find such a near variety to the true Cerastiwm
arcticum Lange as the specimen upon the table, from a station
much farther south.
Alsine hirta var. foliosa, Hartm., from Serpentine Hills, Unst,
is very close to Alsine rubella. Dr Lange, in his ‘Flora
Greenlandica,’ p. 24, places A. hirta and A. rubella as mere
varieties of 4. verna, which grows so plentifully on Arthur’s
Seat, and which some of you may know better as Arenaria
verna.
Luzula maxima D.C., var. gracilis Rostrup, was gathered by
Mr W. H. Beeby on Saxa Vord Hill, Unst, on the 28th July
1886, and appears to be an entirely new British plant. It is
found. abundant on the upper slopes of the hill, but flowers on
the small plateau which forms the summit.
Psamma baltica R.& S. This plant has been previously record-
ed from only one locality in Britain—namely, the Holy Isle and
adjoining coast of Northumberland. The specimen before you
is from a second British station—Caistor, in East Norfolk.
Festuca sciuroides var. intermedia Hiichel med. This is a
new variety, recorded July 1886, from Mitcham Common
Surrey. Mr Bennett remarks, “It appears to be a connecting
form between Festuca sciuroides and F. myurus L.”
XI—ON DARK-GROUND ILLUMINATION, AS SHOW-
ING PECULIARITIES OF CERTAIN DIATOMS.
By Mr WILLIAM PENMAN, Assoc. M.Inst.C.E.
(Read March 23, 1887.)
DARK- GROUND illumination must not be confounded with
opaque illumination. The latter takes its name from the man-
ner in which the object viewed is mounted—that is to say, the
object is mounted upon an opaque ground, and treated with super-
stage illumination. Dark-ground illumination, on the other
hand, deals with mounts through which light can be trans-
mitted from beneath in the usual way. Besides this, however,
there are a few distinctions that must be attended to in the
selection of suitable objects for this treatment. Briefly, they
1886-87.] as showing Peculiarities of certain Diatoms. 57
may be condensed into two necessary conditions: jirst, that
the object is iridescent; and second, that it is mounted in a
reasonably thin medium.
There are several kinds of micro-accessories in general use for
the production of dark-ground illumination, but I shall confine
myself to a description of those that I have tried :—
I. By Means of an ordinary Stand-Condenser.—The lamp is
placed so that the flame is about the same height as the stage,
and the edge of the wick turned towards the microscope. All
sub-stage arrangements are removed, so as to allow the light
greater range, and the mirror turned aside or taken off altogether.
The condenser is now placed, and the microscope tilted to allow
the rays to strike the object upon the slide, and then the con-.
denser is moved until the rays are brought to a focus upon the
object. After the rays pass the conjugate focus at the stage,
they diverge, and do not enter the objective at all. For, pro-
vided they fall upon the under side of the glass slip at a reason-
able angle, they will pass onwards in their original course ; but
should they impinge at an angle exceeding, say, 70°, they will, if
properly focussed, be almost totally reflected downwards,—so
that in the first case they strike the object as they pass, al-
though not entering the objective ; while in the other case they
do not properly illuminate the object. It is, therefore, mani-
festly important that the slope of the microscope should not be
such as to cause a loss of light by reflection. Granted, therefore,
that the object under examination is an iridescent one, the ob-
server will see it by reflected light, which passes up from it
into the objective. The object will thus stand upon a dark
ground, illuminated and examined according to the same optical
principles as the moon or the stars. It is important that the
focal length of the objective be taken into account, in order to
procure the best results from this kind of illumination. Sup-
pose the objective to be a high power with short working dis-
tance, it will be found practically impossible to exclude the
direct rays from entering the objective; but I have found that
even with a high-angled {-inch it is quite possible to get dark-
ground illumination from the stand-condenser.
If. By Means of a Spot- Lens—This instrument may: be
generally described as a plano-convex lens with a slice taken
off the convexity, and the flat face thus formed rendered
58 On Dark-ground [lMumination, [Sess.
perfectly opaque by a coating of dead-black varnish. On
throwing parallel rays upon the under side of this lens, the
central ones strike the opaque surface and do not reach the
object; but the marginal ones that fall outside the stopped
centre or spot are transmitted, refracted, converge, and come to
a focus, which focus may be made to rest upon the object by mov-
ing the lens up or down. Now these marginal rays diverge, after
passing the focal point, in the same way as those we have
already considered, but with this difference, that they pass
onwards on each side of the objective. They, however, do not
enter the tube, consequently the reflected rays only are seen on
looking through the microscope, so that the object thus illumin-
ated appears upon a dark ground. This method is better than
the first, because both of the transmitted beams pass at equal
angles to the axis of the microscope tube—or in other words,
the axes of the objective and the spot-lens are coincident. On
account of this the spherical corrections of the lenses are not so
severely taxed; and the diffraction, or fringe of light in the
object, is not rendered eccentric, but is better distributed round
the edges.
Ill. By Means of the Abbe Condenser—Most of you will
know that this is the form of condenser almost exclusively used
in Continental microscopes. It is a non-achromatic combina-
tion; and whether or not the want of achromatism is against
its usefulness as a sub-stage condenser, certain it is that, as a
dark-ground illuminator for diatoms, its performance is not.
thereby impaired. Like the spot-lens, it is lit up by rays from
the mirror underneath the stage, the central rays being cut off
by an opaque surface. There is, however, a decided difference
in the way the exclusion is effected. Underneath the Abbe
combination a circular central stop is inserted, so that the
cutting off takes place in the centre of the entrant rays, whereas
in the case of the spot lens the stop takes effect upon the
emergent rays. Owing to the peculiar construction of the
apparatus, the rays are brought to a focus almost at their
emergence from the upper lens, and thus a much closer working
distance is available ; or in other words, a higher power may
be used without admitting transmitted rays into the objective.
By this instrument the size of the stop can be regulated, and
the more intense beam gives brighter illumination. The
1886-87.] as showing Peculiarities of certain Diatoms. 59
peculiar feature of the Abbe condenser is its non-achromatism,
on account of which there is dispersion of the emergent rays
into coloured pencils, and through the different refrangibility of
the chromatic rays the focus is lengthened out along the axial
line, and consists of a series of points forming a complete
spectrum. Thus the red rays, being least refrangible, come to
a focus at a point on the axial line farthest from the condenser,
and would illuminate an object placed at that point with a
monochromatic red light. Similarly the blue rays come to a
focus nearest to the condenser, and would affect an object in
their focus. In practice these changes are effected by moving
the condenser up or down.
The appearance of diatoms upon dark-ground illumination
is very striking ; for, not only do we see them projected upon a
dark ground in the same way that we can see foraminifera, but
for the most part they present themselves either in monochro-
matic light or in variegated colours—that is, some stand out in
one colour only, others are lit up by several spectral colours.
Now, as the light which falls upon the diatom by transmission
through the condenser consists of decomposed light by virtue
of the aberrations of the combination, it follows that, upon
whatever horizontal plane of the spectral focus the diatom is
placed, a monochromatic light will fall. Thus, as we have al-
ready seen, if the diatom is placed at the focus farthest from
the light, it will be illuminated by the least refrangible ray
—namely red. Placed at the focus nearest to the light, the
illumination will be blue—the other end of the spectrum. Or,
practically speaking, by racking up the condenser you get blue
light, by racking down you get red. This is the actual effect
presented to the eye in the case of a great many diatoms, but
with others it is not so; consequently it must be concluded
that, because the reflected light does not conform to the colour
of the incident ray, and that it is impossible to disperse or alter
the colour of a homogeneous ray by interference, there must be
something in the composition or form of the frustule itself to
produce one effect.
In the first place, we know that diatoms are siliceous, and
this accounts for their iridescent and reflective power. For-
aminifera, on the other hand, are also iridescent, but because
60 On Dark-ground [Mumination. [Sess.
they are calcareous their reflective power is impaired, and no
-colour is detected in their illumination by this process. The
optical difference between diatoms and foraminifera is some-
what the same as between ice and snow. Reflection from ice
enters the eye from one extended surface at a time; when this
reflection is lost you have transparency: so you have with
many diatoms in certain positions of the illuminator. In snow,
on the other hand, you have the same iridescent medium; but
each particle throws its reflection upon its neighbour, and the
appearance of opacity is created. The only theory, therefore,
that I can give for the appearance of more than one colour upon
certain diatoms, is that they must be possessed of an irregularity
of surface sufficient to intercept two or more rays of the spec-
tral focus at the same time, and that the minute planes of re-
flection upon that surface are not turned towards each other,
but reflect the particular ray they impinge upon straight up-
wards to the objective, and thence to the eye.
I have recently examined upwards of 150 different diatoms
by dark-ground illumination, under powers ranging from 50 to
600 diameters,’and in doing so discovered that, when using
high powers, a better result is got by placing a drop of water
or glycerine between the top of the condenser and the slide.
Those of you who are familiar with the theory of immersion
objectives, or the principles of refraction generally, will readily
understand in what way the benefit arises. Curiously enough,
a few days after I had noted this effect I stumbled upon a
short communication to the American ‘Micro Journal,’ 1884,
in which Mr Grunow of New York points out the very same
thing. From my cursory examinations I find there are many
diatoms unaffected by chromatic light, and appear perfectly
transparent. Of these, Navicula rhomboides may be taken
as an example. Another class take on from a bluish-white to
a deep blue, as, for instance, the Pleurosigmee. Others appear
in orange, yellow, or green; while a select few are radiant in
variegated colours. Selecting some of the most conspicuous,
I find that Aulacodiscus pruinosus shows its flowery markings
in bluish-white; Gomphonema geminatum in the same colour,
with black dotting very distinct. The spokes and rings of.
Arachnoidiscus are made to stand out in relief, the black dots
are well seen, and the differences between A. ornatus, A. japon-
1886-87. | Flume’s Projection Microscope. 61
icus, and A. Ehrenbergii can easily be detected. Pleurosigina
angulatum is perhaps the most beautiful diatom for this light.
It varies from a milky to a deep blue; and I consider that
unless where resolution is desired, this diatom should always be
shown by dark-ground illumination. Pleurosigma balticum,
Navicula major, Pinnularia, &c., take on the yellow, orange, or
red rays. Amongst diatoms capable of reflecting variegated
colours there is Podosira maxima, which is seen to consist of
flat radiations (Maltese-cross fashion) ; and while the body of
the diatom is of greenish blue, these radiations are tinted with
purple, sienna, and yellow. On examining this frustule with
ordinary means, it appears flat and uninteresting. Heliopelta
is also seen to much advantage: the fine colours form a most
gorgeous object.
I think it a pity that there is no published account of dia-
toms giving a classification with respect to their appearance
under this illumination; but I feel confident that our skilled
diatomists will some day be induced to take the matter up.
Certain it is that any one engaged in this will have matter in
hand for profound speculation as to the causes of these exqui-
site diffraction spectra, and will perceive for himself that his
preconceived notions of the structure and forms of many dia-
toms were erroneous and misleading.
[On the table were placed three microscopes giving dark-ground illum-
ination in the three different methods above explained—viz., by the ordin-
ary stand-condenser, the spot-lens, and the Abbe condenser. ]
XIL.—HUME’S PROJECTION MICROSCOPE.
By Mr Wm. HUME.
(Communicated March 23, 1887.)
I sHALL do my best to first describe the general mechanical and
optical arrangements of this micro-lantern, and then will, I
hope, be able to show you, what will be more interesting, a
number of micro objects thrown on the screen from it. By
means of this its actual performance will be made visible, and
you will be provided with a test for judging its capabilities.
Until a comparatively recent date, the demonstration of
62 Hume's Projection Microscope. [Sess.
micro objects on large screens was in a very primitive state,
and it is only lately that any real progress has been made.
One of the great difficulties in the way of successful projection
is the want of a very high illuminating power which is capable
of easy manipulation. Even the lime-light, as used in the
mixing burner, is insufficient for the higher objectives. In the
earlier forms of lantern-microscopes, very little attempt was
made to collect all the rays of light emitted from the radiant ;
and, as a rule, no other condenser except the ordinary double-
lantern condenser was used. Since then, however, more lenses
have been introduced in this and other forms of micro-lanterns
for the purpose of, as nearly as possible, concentrating the
whole of the effective rays on the. object. For this purpose
some provision has also to be made so as to adapt to higher
and lower objectives of varying aperture. Another difficulty
lies in the want of objectives specially suited to this work.
The objectives which are used to-night have been picked out
of a large number which, however suitable for ordinary micro-
scopic work, are useless for projection. Many objectives which
yield excellent results in the microscope, produce only a very
small-defined circle in the centre of the screen, while the
greater part of the field is very blurred. It is very difficult,
indeed, to find one which gives sharp definition all over. This
defect for lantern-work is fully recognised by micro-objective
makers, and several are experimenting with the view of bring-
ing out glasses suitable for projection. Among these are Zeiss
and Wray, the former having a place fitted up, and under the
direction of his son, for this special purpose. In general, the
objectives used are of low power. Those which I have found
best are a 2-inch Zeiss; a 1-inch Zeiss; a $-inch Crouch; and
a t-inch Wray. This is about the limit possible, as even in
the case of a 4-inch some objectives touch the cover-glass be-
fore the object is in focus. With low-power objectives and a
moderately large screen the best results are obtained. In the
matter of slides suitable for projection, those are, as a rule, best
which present any good contrast or decided markings or feat-
ures. They do not necessarily require to be thin sections, since
in the case of some very thin objects the light may be so bright
that all detail will be lost, and only a white glare appear to the
observer. In the mechanical arrangements of the apparatus,
1886-87. ] FTume’'s Projection Microscope. 63
the two great essentials are steadiness of the whole, so that any
adjusting or focussing does not produce a visible movement on
the screen; and also, it must be capable of easy and rapid ad-
justment, and of picking out on the slide any part desired to be
brought to the centre. In the lighting arrangements, also,
steadiness and freedom from flickering, as well as easy man-
ipulation, are essentials. In the apparatus before you these
requirements are obtained in a very high degree, as I shall
show you afterwards. These being the general principles essen-
tial to successful projection, it remains for me to describe to
you Mr Hume’s apparatus for obtaining them. In it the lime-
light is used by means of the mixing burner, having a power
of about 500 candles. This is fitted with an ordinary lime-
turning arrangement, and has adjustments for bringing the
light to the optical centre. This is contained in a mahogany
body, iron-lined, with air-passages to keep it cool. In front of
this burner is a 4-inch double condenser, consisting of a men-
iscus with the concave side towards the light, and a plano-
convex with the convex side to the light. This combination
has a back focus of about 2 inches, and has the light set about
21 inches from it, giving slightly convergent rays. Another
single 34-inch condenser, double convex, of 4$-inch focus,
which is capable of adjustment, slips in a tube before this.
All the rays emitted from the first condenser are taken up by.
this, and are breught to a focussing-point at 4 inches from the
lens, where the disc of light is about }-inch diameter. At this
point the slide is introduced, where it has all the rays of light
converged on it. This arrangement of condensers is used for
low powers, stops being introduced for special objects to
sharpen the disc, For the higher powers a third condenser is
introduced, plano-convex, 12-inch diameter and 1-inch focus.
‘This possesses the function of an Abbe’s illuminator, bringing
the rays to a very bright spot about } inch from the front of
it. The object is held by means of clips in front of this lens,
or the stops, on a steady mechanical stage, with vertical and
horizontal movements. This is mounted on a tube, within
which is carried the objective, which is held in a fitting cap-
able of being pulled out for the insertion of other objectives.
The whole is fitted with rack-and-pinion for quick focussing, and
micrometer adjusting-screw, one complete turn of which moves
64 The Hare. [Sess.
the objective 33, inch. For the purpose of absorbing the heat
rays, an alum-bath is introduced before the first condenser,
which effectually prevents any heat being communicated to
the object during the transmission of the light. The whole
apparatus is, for rigidity and compactness, mounted on a cast-
iron base, having at one end an upright which holds the
mechanical stage and objective tubes.
[Mr Dixon, who read the above paper, then showed a large number of
slides, including both animal and vegetable preparations, on the screen,
and the clear definition and illumination of these were much appreciated
by the members present. ]
XIII—THE HAEE.
By Mr TOM SPEEDY.
(Read April 27, 1887.)
In writing a paper such as the present upon any of the fauna
of our country, one is apt to take for his subject the badger,
the otter, the wild cat, or some other of those animals which
are exceptionally rare. I have, however, chosen one of the
most common of our wild animals, though modern legislation has
put it in a fair way of becoming very soon as extinct as the
great auk. A few years ago, several of our statesmen were
clamorous for the protection of sea-gulls, which are of compara-
tively little use to man, while they, in fact, by feeding to a
large extent upon young fish, tend to destroy the food-supplies
of the nation. That the feathered tribe should be protected
during the breeding season is only justice, in the interests of
humanity; but the animal from which that most enjoyable re-
past, hare-soup, is made, is surely entitled to a like protection.
That the hare is now in many parts subjected to slaughter dur:
ing the entire year is beyond dispute ; and if steps are not forth-
with taken, and a law passed to protect them during the breed-
ing season, genuine hare-soup, like that of the turtle, will only
be indulged in by our wealthy gourmands, or vile imitations
will be palmed off upon the unwary. Notwithstanding that
the hare is so well known in all parts of the country, it is un-
doubted that there is a deal of popular ignorance regarding
1886-87. | The Hare. 65
many of its habits and peculiarities. I shall therefore, in the
first place, direct attention to a few particulars on these points ;
and as I do not profess to lay claim to infallibility, nor have
any desire to indulge in dogmatism, I shall be glad to hear the
criticisms of any whose opinions may not coincide with my
own.
There are several questions of interest to the naturalist af-
fecting the hare, which I shall here put in consecutive order :—
First, Do hares necessarily pair during the breeding season ?
Second, How long is their period of gestation ?
Third, How many do they produce at a litter?
Fourth, How often do they breed in a year?
Fifth, Do young hares born in March breed the same year ?
As regards the first question, I am of opinion that by natural
law hares pair, and I shall very briefly give my reasons for
making this statement. In districts where hares are limited in
numbers, they are, as a rule, in the month of February to be
found in pairs lying in proximity to each other on ploughed
fields or on rough sheltered grounds. I do not mean to assert
that this is their invariable habit, but in places where they are
undisturbed, when one is started in the conditions indicated,
another at no great distance may be expected. That they pair
must therefore appear manifest, but whether they keep faithful
to conjugal laws is a controverted question. Rabbits, as is
well known, pair, being found in holes together in the early
spring; and I have seen a male rendering assistance in carrying
into the hole the material for making the nest in which the
female deposits her young. At the same time, I have proved,
in a locality where I knew only one pair of wild rabbits existed,
that by turning out at night a black and white female tame
rabbit she very soon produced a litter which generally took
after the wild progenitor in colour. All such cases, however,
are exceptions to the general rule, though confined to no single
class of animals.
Secondly, regarding the period of gestation in the hare, in
my opinion it is one month, or more probably nearer five weeks.
I have no correct data to guide me, but have often dissected
hares in the spring and found them rarely with young till the
end of January. As I have noticed young hares in the end of
February, and as they are quite common in March, it will thus
VOL, Il. E
66 The Hare. [ Sess.
be seen that the period of gestation does not, as already in-
dicated, exceed five weeks. I have never kept adult hares in
confinement with the view of observing their habits, which, I
think, would be the only way of testing the matter under con-
sideration with any degree of certainty. At the same time, I
think it dangerous to rest any theory, or argue in support of any
experiment, founded on the artificial conditions produced by
dissociating animals from their natural environments and plac-
ing them in confinement. Nature resents all such interference.
Thirdly, as to the number hares produce at a litter. This is
generally two, though very frequently only one. I have, how-
ever, seen three and have heard of four; but, though I have
skinned and dissected very many gravid hares, I have never,
with only some two or three exceptions, found more than two
young ones, and certainly never more than three.
The fourth point, as to how often hares breed in a season, is
a much-controverted question—gamekeepers and others, who
have spent their lives in the country, holding a wide diversity
of opinion. There are, I am persuaded, no certain data to
warrant the general application of any definite theory, many
circumstances and conditions falling to be considered which
necessarily preclude the operation of any uniform law. There
are, for instance, the nature of the climate and the abundance
or scarcity of food-supplies to be taken into account. Then
there is the circumstance of “puss” being allowed to luxuriate
in conscious security from her enemies, or that of her being
subjected to daily disturbance by farmers’ collies or miners’
lurchers, each and all of which exercise an influence in deter-
mining the extent to which hares are prolific. It may safely
be assumed that the natural time for hares dropping their young
is in the month of March—some, of course, earlier, and others
later. Still, this may be regarded as a fact which few will care
to dispute. There are, I am satisfied, very many—lI would be
disposed to say the greater proportion—which do not again
breed that season; but there is still a considerable number,
certainly not young hares, which have a second litter late in
August or in the earlier part of September. I have shot hares
in milk in October, although in rare instances. This, however,
is no unusual thing in September—a fact which leads me to
suggest that, in so far as the sportsman is concerned, hares
1886-87. ] The Flare. 67
should not be shot till the commencement of the partridge
season. This remark, it will be understood, does not apply to
the protection of leverets.
On the fifth and last point, as to how early young hares
breed, it would be rash to affirm that hares dropped late in
February or early in March never breed during the same year:
still such cases, if any, are, I am certain, exceedingly rare.
There are several points of resemblance between the hare and
the rabbit, but in this respect there is an essential difference.
Having thus disposed of these physiological questions, I
would now briefly advert to a few characteristic traits which I
have observed in the hare. Though somewhat unusual, it
sometimes happens that in the early spring hares are seen en-
gaged in furious combat, like the red deer which have been
immortalised by the genius of Landseer. I was once fortunate
enough to witness such an encounter, which lasted about half
an hour. The two rivals stood on their hind legs, and, with
wonderful dexterity, hammered each other on the head and
breast, tearing off the down with their fore feet; and so deeply
engrossed were they in their engagement, that I managed to
get within thirty yards of them unobserved. How long they
had already fought I, of course, had no means of ascertaining ;
but, as they seemed equally matched, I lay down and watched
the result with interest. For a considerable time neither
-yielded an inch to the other, but they stood, like the “Saxon
and the Gael,’ in deadly strife. Besides their loud and rapid
breathing, which I distinctly heard, they emitted a peculiar
defiant noise, which I am afraid I am unable adequately to
describe. Still the fight continued, but I could see their sides
heaving and their blows becoming feebler and less desperate.
At last one of them, evidently worsted, turned and galloped off,
hotly pursued by his antagonist. Within fifty yards, however,
they again closed, and the battle was waged as before. But it
was this time of short duration, as unfortunately the barking of
a shepherd’s dog, gathering the sheep in the field, caused them
to scamper off into a young wood, where I have no doubt the
battle would be decided. I hurried to the place where they
disappeared, got up into a tree, but was disappointed in not
seeing the end of this most interesting incident in Natural
History.
68 The Hare. [Sess.
Instances are recorded of deer, and even of the fox with all
his wariness, being caught napping; and it is perhaps worthy
of note that I have seen a hare sound asleep. Forming one of
a shooting-party some years ago in Berwickshire, we were beat-
ing a grass field, when I spied a hare in her form. Telling
the sportsman next me to be ready, I walked close up to
“puss,” when, to my surprise, I observed that her eyes were
closed, and that she was evidently in an unconscious snooze.
Calling out to the others, “ Here is a hare sleeping!” the sound
of my voice in such close proximity caused her to awake, and,
giving a wild stare, she bounded off. This does not comport
with the general opinion that hares sleep with their eyes open.
Though hares feeding is a common sight to those who live in
the country, few have had opportunities of seeing them drink-
ing. Once I was fortunate enough to see this, when fishing
at dusk in Loch Garry. Casting down the side of the lake, I
struck the heather on the bank behind me and lost the fly.
Sitting down to put another on the cast, I was interested in
observing two hares, one behind the other, coming down the hill
towards where I sat. Keeping perfectly still, I watched their
movements, and was not a little surprised to see them go close
to the edge of the lake—one of them on to a large flat stone
bleached white by the sun and the action of the water—and
drink for a considerable time. After assuaging their thirst,
they cantered up hill again and commenced to feed.
Through the hare being subjected to daily danger from
numerous enemies, Nature has extended to her the means of
self-preservation by her senses of seeing, hearing, and smelling
being all extremely acute in an equal degree. In this hares
are unlike most other animals, which are dependent chiefly for
protection upon one or other of the senses, as illustrated in the
case of the red deer, with its marvellous power of detecting
the presence of an enemy, sometimes nearly a mile distant, by
its sense of smell alone. Ido not mean to assert that deer do
not quickly both see and hear, especially the latter; but, as is
well known, they trust much more to their sense of smell for
protection. Hares are also, though in a more limited sense,
dependent on their nasal organ. I have been interested, when
sitting quietly under a hedge on a moonlight night, to see them
feeding, and directly one got leeward of where I was, she
1886-87. | The Hare. 69
would immediately sit up for a second, then scamper off. None
know this better than poachers, who, when hanging nets on
gates, always take care to keep to the lee-side. I have fre-
quently noticed the keen scent of hares by observing one
following the track of another, sometimes after an hour had
intervened.
That hares are quick-sighted may be inferred from the fact
that when one is discovered lying on a field—it may be hun-
dreds of yards off—directly any person goes over the fence, or
even stops opposite it on the road, she will at once squat closer.
The quick sense of hearing in the hare is noticeable when being
driven out of a wood where they had shortly before been dis-
turbed, and where they may be seen stealing away at the other
end, sometimes half a mile ahead.
Hares trust a great deal to being passed unnoticed, and will
sometimes allow people almost to trample on them before
making off. When one is squatted in a field, and the sports-
man goes straight towards where she is concealed, she will
very frequently rise out of shot. Human intelligence, how-
ever, 1s superior to animal instinct, and when one is seen in its
form, the sportsman, by circling round as if going to pass her,
will get within easy range.
Another peculiarity by which the hare very frequently makes
good her escape is by doubling back on her tracks, and thus
throwing dogs off the scent. In my boyhood I was frequently
surprised at seeing harriers and beagles “full cry” on a burning
scent, when, all at once, the “music” would cease, and the sport
was brought to an abrupt termination. I was, however, fortu-
nate one day in having the mystery unexpectedly solved. The
harriers were out, and hares being plentiful, they were very soon
“full ery.” I climbed a tree in order to have a good view of
the sport. It was not long before I descried the hare, a long
distance in advance of the hounds, coming near to where I was
concealed. “Puss” galloped up the centre of a field, then sud-
denly stopped, sat up, and for a second, with pricked ears
listened to the distant full ery of the hounds. Instantly she
wheeled round and galloped back for a couple of hundred yards
exactly where she had come up, then struck off at right angles
down wind, and speedily disappeared from view. I then turned
my attention to the hounds and riders, who were fast approach-
70 The Flare. [Sess.
ing, and wondered if they would discover the manceuvre, or
follow up to where the hare had doubled. I was not long kept
in suspense, for, on the hounds getting through the hedge, they
took up the double scent, giving tongue as if vying with each
other which would be the loudest. A number of ladies and
gentlemen came galloping up, evidently enjoying the sport. In
an instant the music of the hounds had ceased, horses were sud-
denly pulled up, and disorder and disappointment ensued. I
am almost ashamed to confess that I betrayed the secret of poor
“puss,” which conscience told me should have been kept sacred.
Again the hounds were “full cry” on the trail, and, taking ad-
vantage of some elevated ground, I watched the remainder of
the hunt. Several checks were made, and the hounds seemed
baffled; but, unfortunately for the hare, some of the “field” or
an onlooker would yell out a “tally-ho,” and the chase con-
tinued. The instinct and cunning displayed by “ puss” were
therefore of no avail, and now, struggling up the furrow of a
ploughed field, the hounds ‘from scent to view” speedily ter-
minate the chase, and tear their victim to pieces, making a
savoury meal of her remains as the reward of their persistent
pursuit.
The hare almost invariably doubles back on her track for
fifty or a hundred yards, then makes a spring of six or eight
feet down wind, and goes a short distance before settling for the
day in an open field. So strongly are hares endowed with this
instinct that, as I have observed after a snow shower in April,
it is practised by leverets a few weeks old.
One word on the cruelty of greyhound coursing in the months
of February and March. The trusty shepherd is ever jealously
on the watch to prevent any strange dog from crossing the field
among his flock during the lambing season, as causing sheep to
run at this time is known to havea prejudicial effect. Coursing
hares, therefore, in similar circumstances is cruel in the extreme.
Should any Bill be introduced into Parliament providing close-
time for hares, care should be taken to protect them from being
coursed by greyhounds during the months referred to, so that
there would thus be an end put to a species of cruelty which
must be deprecated by all humane and thoughtful persons.
1886-87.] Swallows and Starlings Feeding in Concert. 71
XIV.—SWALLOWS AND STARLIINGS FEEDING
IN CONCERT.
By Mr A. B, HERBERT,
(Read April 27, 1887.)
A RATHER curious coincidence came under my notice on the
14th of August last, while on a visit at a country-house in
Warwickshire. I had observed that the “Daddy long-legs” or
erane-flies (Tipula oleracea) were most abundant just at that
time—indeed it was impossible to walk in the pastures without
arousing these insects at almost every step—and on one of my
customary walks about the grounds before breakfast, I saw over
the garden hedge a large flock of starlings sitting and stretching
out in a long line across a meadow, and working against the
wind in a very methodical manner, as is their usual custom,
those in the rear flying over the others and settling again in
front, and in this manner beating over the whole length of the
field. Immediately the starlings settled, a vast concourse of
swallows appeared on the scene, and these kept flitting about
in a long line just over the heads of the starlings, and feeding
on the crane-flies which the starlings disturbed from the grass.
Thus the flocks of birds of two very diverse species and habits
kept in parallel lines over the whole pasture, feeding in concert ;
and when the starlings, on approaching the hedge, rose up in a
body and wheeled round for another beat, the swallows followed
them, and commenced again flitting just over their heads ina
similar manner as before. I watched these peculiar proceed-
ings with much interest till the breakfast-bell summoned me
indoors. Whether the starlings were eating the “daddies,” or
searching for grubs, &c., in the grass, I could not distinctly
ascertain, but as to the food of the swallows there could be no
doubt, and it appeared to me an intelligent act on their part to
avail themselves of the services of the starlings in procuring
what we well know is a favourite article of swallow diet; and
when we consider how destructive to the crops of farmers and
gardeners these insects are in their larva stage, we cannot over-
estimate the value and importance of the services rendered by
these most useful birds. From their peculiar toughness these
72 Fawside or Falside Castle. _ [Sess.
larve are in some districts called “leather-jackets” ; and as an
illustration of their destructive habits, Kirby and Spence state
that “in the year 1813 hundreds of acres of pasture were entirely
destroyed by them, being rendered as completely brown as if
they had suffered a three months’ drought, and destitute of all
vegetation except a few thistles, and when a’ square foot of dead
turf was dug up, 210 grubs were counted on it.’ Curtis also
mentions a case at Southall where two crops of mangel-wurzel
plants were utterly destroyed by them.
Pheasants are known to be great devourers of these larve.
Mr Melton of Great Marlborough Street states that he once took
from the crop of a cock pheasant the almost incredible number
of 852 of these destructive grubs. A female crane-fly lays
about 300 eggs.
I may mention that almost all the swallows I saw were
Hirundo rustica, but there were also among them a few of the
species H. urbica.
At this meeting Mr Hugh Fraser, of Leith Walk Nursery,
made a few remarks on the “ Oaks of the World,” illustrated by
a large collection of herbarium specimens of oak leaves, divided
into four main groups—viz., British, Continental, American, and
‘Chinese (including Japanese).
XV.—FAWSIDE OR FALSIDE CASTLE.
By T. A. DOUGLAS WOOD, F.S.A.Scozr.
(Read May 25, 1887.)
Since I last had the honour of submitting a paper before your
meeting, I have frequently intended to take up and study the
history of the ancient royal burgh of Musselburgh, and become
acquainted with its many relics—for, be it remembered, though
now it lies in a semi-dormant condition as if removed far from
the stir of a busy metropolis, the time was when its streets
were thronged with the soldiers of the Roman occupation, and
in later times with those who fought for the beautiful Mary and
1886-87.] Fawside or Falside Castle. 73
the Young Pretender. Not far from its borders were two battles
fought of the greatest interest and importance to Scotland.
Musselburgh, then, is ancient, and much could be written
about it and its surroundings, the difficulty being to condense
the material in hand so as to form a concise sketch. It is my
intention to submit from time to time short notices, giving
what particulars I may be able to lay my hands on regarding
such names as Loretto, Elphinston, Pinkie, Inveresk Church,
the Town Hall, and, if I may include within its pale the neigh-
bouring parish of Tranent, the names of Fawside or Falside
Castle and Morrison’s Haven.
To-night, then, my subject will be Falside, or more properly
Ffauside or Fawside Castle. It stands seven and a half miles
from Edinburgh Castle as the crow flies, two from Tranent ina
westerly direction, the same from the Forth or Musselburgh on
the south, and one from Elphinston Tower on the north-east.
Standing as it does on an eminence, it can be seen from a great
distance, and for the same reason those who used to inhabit it
could descry friends or foes long before they reached its pre-
cincts. I have long desired to learn who were its occupants
and what was its history, but not till lately have I been able to
get any information except what is to be found in any school
history—viz., that here, or on the brae below, was fought the
famous battle of Pinkie, and from here also Mary Queen of
Scots watched the progress of the battle of Carberry Hill, which
proved so disastrous for her. Little, then, is known of those
who in earlier times defended its walls, but what is known leads
one to the belief that they were hard, brave men—inclined to
live peaceably with all around them, but if once roused it
would be difficult to say what the consequences would be. Its
date cannot go further back than the eleventh or twelfth century.
M‘Gibbon and Ross, in ‘The Castellated and Domestic Archi-
tecture of Scotland, lately published, give the latter part of the
fourteenth century, but a deed has been found with the name of
William de Ffauside as witness in the reign of David I, in the
twelfth century. From this time down to the sixteenth cen-
tury abundant evidence has been adduced connecting the chain
of the Ffausides by the granting of deeds and mortgages. To
take a few examples :—
In the twelfth century a charter was granted by David I. to
74 Fawside or Falside Castle. [Sess.
Thor of Tranent of certain lands, which was witnessed by Ed- —
mondo de Ffauside. Another, in the time of William the Lion,
Gilberto de Ffauside, witnessed a charter of the monastery of
St Maria of Newbattle. In 1246 Donatius Sybald witnessed a
charter by De Quincy, Count de Wynton, to Adam of Seaton, de
maritago heredes Alani de Faside. Seven years thereafter this
same Alan bound himself to pay to the monks of Dunfermline
yearly the sum of “ quinque solidas argenti.” In 1371 William
de Seaton granted to John de Fawside, for true and faithful ser-
vice, the whole lands of Wester Fauside in the barony of Trau-
ernent—a gift which was confirmed by King Robert IL. on the
20th of June. Again, in 1425, William of Fawside and Marjorie
Fleming his spouse obtained the lands of Tolygart; and the
lands of Wester Fawside were confirmed to John of that Ik
in June 1472. John Fawside married Margaret, daughter of
Sir John Swinton of that Ilk, and at his death she became
prioress of the Cistercian nunnery of Elcho. The family is
now extinct.
The nearest lands to the east were those of Preston, belonging
to a kinsman of the Fawsidians, Hamilton by name. With them,
as with all those around them, the Fawsidians lived in the
greatest concord and friendship up to or near the year 1520.
At this time disputes and misunderstandings arose between
the two families regarding the removal of certain landmarks
on the estate of Preston. The Fawsidians were charged with
the offence, which was indignantly repudiated. Occasionally,
too, there would be a raid made into each other’s keeps, and
depredation committed. These did not improve matters, but
nothing of a serious description took place, nor was blood shed
between them, till about 1540, when matters became more
‘serious and complicated. There happened to be a small
stream not far from the estates—indeed it flowed between the
two, and served to water the cattle of both. As ill-luck would
have it, the Prestonian cattle became suddenly sick, and many
died. What was the cause of this sickness? The cattle had
been quite well till within a day or two; now they suddenly
dropped off. Had any one been seen near them? Their kins-
men the Fawsidians had, and the conclusion was that it was
they who had poisoned the upper waters, for none of their cattle
had as yet, at any rate, been so afflicted. Retaliation must take
1886-87. | Fawside or Falside Castle. 75
place, and that immediately ; so the warders at Fawside were
surprised and killed, and the gates and walls burned. The
Fawsidians, now thoroughly roused by so daring an act of
injustice, could stand matters no longer. Accordingly the
great bell was rung, and a council of war summoned: nothing
but the sound of the war-horn was heard. Arrangements being
settled, the next evening a strong select band was to be seen
emerging about midnight from the gates, and treading gently,
first to the east, and then, turning suddenly northwards, they
slipped down by the Whinney Loan. Evading, if possible, Dol-
phinston Tower, they arrive at Preston before ever those near at
hand knew of their presence. Having performed their murder-
ous purpose, they as quickly and quietly disappear. These were,
however, but the works of skirmishers, for on the next day both
parties ranged their respective hosts, and nothing was to be
heard but the noise of arms, each party thirsting for the other’s
blood. The Fawsidians, of course, were there to a man, led by
their old chieftain, whose lady (a warlike woman) was left in the
keep to defend it with the last drop of blood. It need not be
stated that the battle was a fierce one: the prejudices and feel-
ings engendered during the years gone by, with many raids and
incursions that had taken place during these times, all culmin-
ated here; a decisive blow was now to be given, and each
strove to give it. From east to west the forces came down
heavily on each other, until at one time it seemed as if the
Hamiltons were to have the worst of it. In time, after the
battle had been waged hot and sore without much difference
being made on the Preston side, Hamilton was seen to make
a move to the east from the thickest part, and gain some ground.
Old Fawside, anxious to meet him, pressed forward, and thus
isolated himself from his followers. He was slain, and they,
beholding their chief lying on the ground, fled. Thus the battle
was ended. But what about the result? Had the cattle been
poisoned? No; the Fawsidian herd also took the same sick-
ness and died, and on proper inquiry being made, murrain was
found to be the cause. Thus if a little forethought had been
taken on both sides, and especially on that of the former, and.
inquiry into the cause been made, much bloodshed might have
been saved, and the Laird of Fawside would have been spared
at least to die in a nobler cause. When the real cause had been
76 Fawside or Falside Castle. [Sess.
ascertained, and no further doubt existed, Hamilton, like a man,
went to Fawside and apologised to the widow for slaying her
husband, and tried to make amends for what had been done in
hot haste. To their honour no fresh outbreak of the kind ever
took place again, so far as we can hear. Let us hope that
before any dispute on so trivial a matter took so serious a turn,
they would weigh the evidence better than they had done
before.
Seven years have come and gone, and during that time the
inmates of Fawside, and those near them, I doubt not plodded
on their way quietly and cheerily, tending their flocks, sowing
their seed, and reaping their harvests. There was nothing to
disturb them. But the time did come when the sound of trum-
pet and roll of cannon were again heard. The crown of England
was worn at the time by Edward VI. Negotiations had been
made for the marriage of the young Queen Mary of Scotland
with Edward; but these failing, war was proclaimed to compel
the Scotch to submit. Accordingly an army crossed the Borders
and marched on Edinburgh, Somerset being the Protector dur-
ing the English minority, and the Earl of Arran Regent during
the Scotch. The Scotch sent an army to meet the invaders,
and both met about two miles from Musselburgh, on the ridge
of ground just above Pinkie and close to Fawside. It was just
seven years since old Fawside lost his life at Preston, and one
could have wished he had lived to this time. On the 9th Sep-
tember 1547 a renewal of hostilities took place; it was but the
precursor of the more bloody battle of the morrow. If more
bloody, it was less fierce than that waged in 1540. The com-
batants were the English and Scotch; then it was between two
kinsmen and neighbours. The English the next day renewed
the fight, and as both parties waxed hotter and hotter in the
fray, the scene lay in time around the castle, which at length
had to stand a siege. On the ramparts might be seen the re-
tainers and body-guard dving what was in their power to beat
back their foes. Commanded by Lady Fawside, the widow of
the same old Fawside, as each charge of the English was made
she and her followers would stoop and throw over volleys of
large stones, working considerable havoc on those beneath, while
others would occasionally make a sortie from the gate. This
continued till the English, tired of the siege, set the castle on
1886-87. | Fawside or Falside Castle. 77
fire—the brave old lady preferring to die among the ruins of her
ancestral home rather than flee, only to be captured and killed
by her enemies. I need not enter further into the details of the
struggle—it is well known to all; suffice it to say that, though
victorious, the English gained nothing, for Mary was secretly
sent across to France, there to be married to the Dauphin.
After this, Fawside was rendered for a time at least useless
as a dwelling. By-and-by, however, it recruited itself, its
massive walls and arched roof saving it from utter destruction.
Of its after-history we know little or nothing. Twenty years
elapse, and we find in Pitcairn that a Thomas Fawside signed
a bond of association for defending the coronation and govern-
ment of the young King James VI. against his mother, and in
1570 he formed one of the assize for the trial of Carkittle of
Moreless for treason. In 1616 the servant of James Fawside
was “delated for the crewl murder (slaughter) of umquhile
John Fawside, in the house of Fawside, with a knife or dagger,
on the 10th of November.” For this offence he suffered the ex-
treme penalty at Edinburgh Castle. In 1631 Robert of Faw-
side is found to be on the commission for augmenting the
stipend of the minister of Inveresk. Some years thereafter the
estate was sold to one of the name of Hamilton in Edinburgh.
In 1666 James, eldest son of the deceased Fawside, witnesses
a charter of George Earl of Haddington. He seems to be the
last of the race of Fawside of Fauside.
I now come to the second part of my paper, and it will be
brief—viz., the description of the building itself and its archi-
tecture. M‘Gibbon and Ross, in their interesting work already
mentioned, rank Falside as a keep extended into a mansion, and
put it down to the Third period, which period, they say, “ began
with the fifteenth century.” Our authors continue: “About
that time a few castles began to be erected on a different model
from that of the keep tower. These consisted of buildings
surrounded by a courtyard or quadrangle. The great castle of
Doune, built by the Regent Murdoch, Duke of Albany, is of this
description. The powerful castle of Tantallon, which also
belonged to the Duke of Albany, and the rebuilding of Dirleton
and Caerlaverock (both destroyed by Edward I.), were likewise
carried out on this plan.”
The original building, then, or that which existed before or at
78 Fawside or Falside Castle. [Sess.
the time of the battle of Pinkie, was 39 feet 4 inches by 30 feet
7 inches over the walls, and contains four storeys, the upper
being vaulted. The height to the under side of the vault is 41
feet 7 inches, and the entrance is by a round arched doorway
to the north. On the ground-floor was the keep, on the first
floor the common hall, and on the second the original great
hall. The addition, evidently built after the battle, when the
buildings were restored, contains on the ground-floor a kitchen
with large fireplace nearest the keep on the one side, and
another small one at the opposite. Above on the first floor,
immediately above the kitchen, is the dining-hall, also with
large fireplace: there is off this room a good - sized private
apartment, at the end of which, on the west, there has been
a window, splayed out like our own bow, in order to allow
the inmates as good a view of Edinburgh and the district as
possible. On the second floor of this building we have above
the dining-hall two bedrooms, and also one above the private
room. Off the first of the two bedrooms there was a small
closet sufficiently large to admit a bed: here, too, was situated, a
little to the west, a hiding-hole 3 feet 6 inches under the closet
floor. These additions to the castle extend southwards, and
measure 41 feet in length—indicating, according to M‘Gibbon,
a distinct advance in house-planning. The walls are 10 to 12
feet at base, and range from 44 to 6 feet thick. The gable-ends
at the south were turreted, and range about 50 feet in height.
There is a building, or the ruins of one, to the south of the castle.
Whether it belonged to it, or was merely a house built for a
dependant, I cannot say; it, however, bears the date of 1618, with
the initials “I. F. 1. L.” I. F. is supposed to be John Fawside,
to whose memory a tablet is erected in Tranent Parish Church.
“The mode in which the additions have been made at Falside,”
say M‘Gibbon and Ross, “is somewhat peculiar, resembling
rather an addition of modern times than of old. In the six-
teenth century an old keep was generally extended by the addi-
tion of single buildings round a courtyard, but here we have
an addition made so as to render the whole building, old and
new, one solid block.”
There used to be a considerable village near at hand, at the
base of the hill, numbering 145 of a population. They were
principally composed of the mining class, and worked in the
1886-87.] List of Less Common Plants. 79
coal-fields of Prestongrange or the distillery of St Clement’s
Wells. This was in the year 1791. The castle itself is now in
the Prestongrange family, who have come to it through their
maternal ancestors, the Setons, Earls of Hyndford.
M‘Neil, in his ‘ History of Tranent, thus describes his feelings
as he enters these ruins, and with it I conclude: “As we enter
the ruins the sensation becomes even more intense: we think
how our feet now tread the same rough floor on which the
Fawsidians of old were wont to stand, and that we gaze out
from the same strong iron-stanchioned windows at which the
lords and ladies of the fortalice used to wait and watch with
heart and hand, ever ready to welcome a friend or oppose the
incursions of an enemy; and as we musingly seek to recall the
loud laughter, the grim jest, or the merry song of those stern but
jovial retainers sitting round the wassail-bowl on a blithe Yule
F’en, or anon cracking their jokes while tightening their girths
and sharpening their swords for the bloody encounter of the
morrow, spectres innumerable of the departed heroes we seem
to see peering round every corner, or gazing out from every
dark nook, eagerly listening to the footfall or keenly watching
the scrutinising eye of the daring intruder on their ancient
domain. Nothing, however, is seen, save the wicked leer of
some limping old rat as he hies from one hiding-place to another,
or heard save the gentle cooing of the timid stock - dove
hurriedly taking its flight through the crumbling archway
overhead.”
XVI.—ZLIST OF THE LESS COMMON PLANTS G.ATH-
ERED AT THE EXCURSIONS DURING 1886
AND 1887, WITH LOCALITIES.
By Mr ANDREW MOFFAT, Srcrerary.!
Thalictrum minus L. Caroline Park.
Ranunculus auricomus L. Roslin.
Cerastium arvense L.
This plant I was able to gather abundantly in the Queen’s Park
on Ist June 1887.
1 Former lists will be found in ‘ Transactions,’ vol. i. pp. 254, 298,
80 The Diatoms of Linlithgow Loch. [Sess.
Stellaria glauca With.
This very rare plant in the Edinburgh district was gathered
abundantly at Philpstoun Loch on 3d July 1886.
Pyrus Aria L. Arthur’s Seat.
Chrysosplenium alternifolium L. Auchendinny and Roslin.
C. oppositifolium L. Auchendinny and Roslin.
Parnassia palustris L. Pentlands near Clubbiedean.
Adoxa Moschatellina L. Firth Woods, Roslin.
Senecio aquaticus Huds. Duddingston.
Vinca minor L. Roslin; naturalised.
Littorella lacustris L. Philpstoun Loch.
Veronica montana L. Firth Woods.
V. scutellata L. Philpstoun Loch.
Bartsia Odontites Huds. Pentlands between Clubbiedean and
Currie, and in the neighbourhood of Balerno.
Alisma Plantago L. Philpstoun Loch.
Butomus umbellatus L. Duddingston Loch; introduced.
Sparganium ramosum Huds. Duddingston Loch.
Typha latifolia L. Duddingston Loch.
Asplenium septentrionale Hull. Arthur’s Seat.
Polypodium Phegopteris L. Tynehead, Habbie’s Howe, Auch-
endinny.
P. Dryopteris L. Tynehead, Auchendinny.
XVIL—THE DIATOMS OF LINLITHGOW LOCH.
By Mr JOHN LINDSAY.
(Read May 25, 1887.)
At the Society’s excursion to Linlithgow on the 30th ult., it
occurred to some of the members of the Biological Section
that a few: samples of water from the loch might be taken, to
be afterwards examined under the microscope. It was be-
lieved that a number of very interesting forms of “low life”
were present in this loch: indeed, a few years ago Mr Pearcey,
of the Challenger Commission, made an investigation on this
1886-87. | The Diatoms of Linlithgow Loch. 81
point, more particularly of the Ostracoda, from dredgings fur-
nished by the son of the late Prof. Sir Wyville Thomson,
when fourteen species of crustaceans alone were found, be-
sides several other minute forms. It is well known, however,
that “pond life” is very capricious, some species being found
at one time in great abundance, while at another these may
be almost entirely absent, and their place filled by others, and
this altogether irrespective of the season of the year. It was
therefore determined to take some samples from the loch, and
a few bottles were filled from a boat in shallow water,—taking
care to include not only some of the mud or ooze, but also sub-
merged plants which had rusty - brown parasitic growths on
them, as these growths were in all probability diatomaceous in
character. When examined afterwards under the microscope,
many beautiful specimens of Rotifera and Vorticellee were ob-
served, besides entomostraca, amcebze, and numerous diatoms.
Unfortunately, after a few days most of these interesting organ-
isms began to disappear, probably for want of proper nourish-
ment, or because of the small quantity of water in which they
had been gathered ; and by-and-by little or nothing was left
but the indestructible siliceous frustules of the diatoms which
had been seen shortly before under the microscope in the living
state, moving through the water. It was therefore determined
to secure these frustules, so as to preserve them in a permanent
form; and Messrs Pearcey and Rattray kindly lent their valu-
able aid in preparing and naming the specimens. The result
is, that to-night no fewer than twenty-three named forms are
shown under the microscope, while there are several others
which have not yet been identified. The full list is appended,
showing that Gomphonema is represented by five species and
varieties; Navicula by four; Cymbella, Diatoma, Fragilaria,
and Synedra by two each; while other forms of fresh-water
diatoms are also present, including the beautiful star-shaped
Asterionella formosa. These diatoms are all, of course, very
minute, requiring a high power of the microscope in order to
examine them—fresh-water forms, as a rule, being smaller than
those found in salt water. Additional species and varieties of
diatoms are doubtless present in the loch, and those members
who turn their attention to this subject are recommended to
make further investigations, as opportunity offers.
VOL. II. ee
82 Grouse Disease. (Sess:
The following is the list of diatoms now exhibited :—
Achnanthes exilis, Kiitz. Gomphonema olivaceum, var. vul-
Asterionella formosa, Hassal. garis, Grun.
Cocconeis placentula, Ehr. " olivaceum, var. sub-
Cymbella cistula, Hempr. ramosum, Kiitz.
" cistula maculata, Kiitz. Melosira, sp.
Diatoma elongatum, Ag. Navicula gracilis, Ehr., var.
1 vulgare, Bory. " major, Kiitz.
Encyonema ventricosum, Kiitz., var. 1 pelliculosa, Hilse.
minuta, Van Heurck. 1 sp. (apparently similar to
Fragilaria mutabilis, var. elliptica,| the unnamed form figured by
Schum. Schmidt (pl. 47, fig. 22) from near
" virescens, Ralfs. York).
Gomphonema capitatum, Ehr. Synedra ulna, var. danica, Kiitz.
" dichotomum, Kiitz. » ulna, var. vitrea, Kiitz.
" olivaceum, Ehr. Tabellaria fenestrata, Kiitz.
At this meeting Mr Hugh Fraser made some remarks on
the subject of “Fasciation,” as found more particularly in
the Ash, exhibiting at the same time several interesting
examples of this curious abnormal growth. Mr A. Frazer
also exhibited and described certain objectives constructed by
Mr Edward Swift of London. The lenses were submitted to
the Society on the ground that they combined high quality
with moderation in price. The objectives submitted were of
34-inch and }-inch focus, and an immersion (water) objective of
:-inch focus. The last mentioned lens cost but £3, 15s., and
the others were equally moderate in price. At the close of the
meeting an opportunity was given of examining the lenses.
XVIII GROUSE DISEASE.
By Mr TOM SPEEDY.
(Read June 22, 1887.)
From the interest taken in grouse disease by all sportsmen
and naturalists, it has occurred to me that a paper on this
subject might not be unacceptable to the members of this
Society. I confess to be one of those who regard these period-
1886-87. | Grouse Disease. 83
ical outbreaks of disease among the grouse with concern. For
the last quarter of a century I have been interested in study-
ing the haunts, habits, and peculiarities of all kinds of game in
Scotland, as well as the ravages of this malignant distemper
among grouse. I therefore propose to deal shortly with the
history and origin of the grouse disease, and to add a few words
in the way of suggesting a remedy for it.
First, as to the history of the disease. It is difficult to say
when this dreaded malady first made its appearance, but so
early as in the ‘Sporting Magazine’ for October 1817, a para-
graph appeared stating that “an extraordinary disease has
lately spread more havoc among the grouse in the north of Scot-
land than the double-barrelled guns of the numerous sports-
men. The birds are found dead on the hills in great numbers,
and in a state of extenuation, as if they had perished from
hunger.” It would be a mistake to suppose that the disease did
not prevail prior to this period. Indeed it may have exhibited
itself centuries before. This is by no means improbable, in
view of the considerations that the value of grouse and grouse
moors was then of little account, and that the means of dissem-
inating information were at that time of a meagre kind. Be
that as it may, it is now a matter of history that since the time
referred to there have been periodic visitations of the epidemic,
and, though differing in many respects, it is similar in this,
that it is generally fatal in its character. In 1838 the disease
attracted considerable attention south of the Forth, proving
specially virulent in Lanarkshire and on the western extremities
of the Pentland range. Again, in 1867, there was a more wide-
spread visitation, the malignant and destructive character of
which stimulated an inquiry into its nature and causes; but,
like all subsequent investigations, this one was without any
practical result, in so far as the remote or originating cause of
the distemper was concerned. The next serious recurrence of
the epidemic was in 1873. In the preceding year grouse were
exceptionally numerous, but so fatal was the visitation that
whole tracts of country were swept by the plague. The first
time the disease obtruded itself upon my personal attention was
in 1867, in that wild and mountainous tract of moorland
between Blair Athole and Kingussie. On that occasion it
proved alarmingly fatal, sweeping whole mountain ranges as
84 Grouse Disease. [Sess
if by a fiery scourge, leaving few parts of the country unscathed
by its desolating influence. For virulence and prevalence in all
parts of Scotland, the grouse disease of that year was quite
unprecedented; and whether it was a new kind of disease,
or the former disease in a more aggravated shape, competent
scientific authorities were divided in opinion. In previous
attacks the birds were all externally wasted and “drageled,” as
if they had been starved to death; and a characteristic of the
disease was the plucked appearance about the eyes and legs,—
grouse in a healthy state being feathered to the claws. I must
confess my inability to explain why, on their being smitten
with disease, the legs should so speedily become denuded of
feathers.
Second, as to the origin of the disease. Though I have read
almost every article that has been written upon this subject,
aud spared no amount of effort to ascertain the originating
cause of this dire calamity, I must confess that I am as yet
ignorant of its primary origin. Notwithstanding the several
conflicting theories that have, from time to time, been dogmati-
cally submitted, and the pretentious claims of self-confident
discoverers of the cause of the malady under discussion, I am
persuaded that those remote forces, or germs, which /irst assail
the healthy bird, are up to the present hour a profound mystery.
What may be the results of the experiments and investigations
undertaken by M. Pasteur I shall not anticipate; but if he
shall be able to solve this mysterious problem, he, with the
Editor of ‘Land and Water, will have earned the gratitude, not
merely of naturalists and sportsmen, but of the entire commun-
ity. There are those superficial thinkers who direct attention
to the parasites which are found in incredible numbers in
diseased grouse, and who triumphantly point to these as the
cause of death. More recent discoverers point to the unhealthy
condition of the blood, and affirm this to be the cause of death.
But why those parasites? and why that condition of the blood ?
are questions which press for solution, in the absence of which
we have no explanation worthy of the name. The eating of
frosted heather, overstocking, the disturbance of the balance of
nature, wet seasons, dry seasons, feeding on corn in late
harvests, and the outrageous theory of the grouse picking up
lead pellets on heavily-shot moors, are each in their turn sub-
1886-87. | Grouse Disease. 85
mitted as the cause of those internal and diseased conditions
of the grouse, but any evidence we have in support of these
theories is absolutely nil.
The first of these supposed causes of the grouse disease, that
of eating frosted heather, is so prominently and plausibly urged
that it calls for a passing notice. It is argued by those who
advocate this theory that on those moors where burning is not
practised the heather becomes old and “ fushionless, ” and when
subjected to the frost, lacks nutriment, and is thus responsible
for lowering the vitality of the birds. This theory is invested
with a reasonableness which doubtless accounts for its being by
many readily accepted; but a close examination of facts and
conditions disposes of it in common with the others I have
referred to. Some years ago I found the disease exceptionally
fatal in Tweedsmuir, where rank old heather was very rare, and
where young fresh heather was abundant. This in itself was
sufficient to shake my faith in the frosted heather theory. The
accuracy of my convictions has very recently received confirma-
tion. A few days ago I made a tour of investigation along the
base of the Pentlands. Last year I knew the grouse to be
very plentiful, more especially along that watershed where the
river Lyne takes its rise. I know few moors that have been
more extensively burned, and where young fresh heather is
more abundant. What, then, are the facts amid such condi-
tions? There are few places where the disease has been more
general, and more fatal in its consequences. Diseased birds
were found in incredible numbers dead by the water-courses,
one shepherd having observed that during his lifetime he had
seen many visitations of the grouse disease, but in no case did
he ever see anything approaching to it for malignity than dur-
ing the present season. On asking him if the disease still con-
tinued, he replied that during the last week or two it appeared
to have ceased, but it was only after the birds had disappeared !
Another shepherd in the same district informed me that
although on the moors daily, he had only seen one young bird
during the entire season. It would be difficult to find a more
conclusive reply to the advocates of the “frosted heather”
theory than is here presented.
Had time permitted, I would have referred somewhat in
detail to those other theories mentioned, although less reason-
86 Grouse Disease. [Sess.
able and important. Any one present interested in any of these,
will find them discussed and disposed of in my recent work on
sport and natural history. Setting aside all these theories as
most unsatisfactory, personally I cannot divest my mind of the
notion that the cause of this mysterious epidemic is largely
atmospheric, and pertains to a class of diseases in the animal
and vegetable world which have as yet baffled the researches of
the most skilled scientific investigators. May it not reasonably
be supposed that there is an affinity—not in the nature, but
in the unseen causes in which the cattle plague may origin-
ate? Mark, I do not say so; but surely the supposition is
admissible. I can remember a number of beautiful cows,
belonging to my friend and neighbour, Mr Jack, of Liberton,
which I often admired as they grazed in an adjoining park.
After having one evening had them shut up in his byres, he
retired to rest, but on the following morning he discovered that
during the night the place had been visited by a destroying
angel, and in little more than a week thirty-four out of thirty-
five cows succumbed to the insidious malady. Similar attacks
have manifested themselves in the vegetable world. Those of
you who have lived in the country must have seen and admired
the growth of a field of potatoes, few things being more beauti-
ful when in full bloom. Everything indicates an excellent
crop, and the farmer’s prospects look bright. Without warn-
ing, however, “like a thief in the night,’ a mysterious agent
visits the field, and in the morning it is discovered that the
entire crop has been smitten with disease, leaving them black-
ened, and with an odour which is most offensive. Here, I ask,
if the originating forces—spores, germs, or call them what you
will—are not present in the atmosphere, where are they? Mr
Jack, just referred to, informed me that both his father and his
father-in-law were victims to cholera at Cambuslang about
thirty years ago, and that the development of the disease was
striking in its resemblance to that which proved so fatal among
his cows.
As already indicated, I have given considerable attention to
the subject in hand, and have, in conjunction with competent
professional authorities, dissected scores of grouse, old as well
as young, in all stages of this fatal epidemic. Since the present
outbreak of the malady, I have had specimens sent me from
1886-87. | Grouse Disease. 87
different parts of the southern counties, and I was interested
to note that in some districts cocks seemed to suffer more than
hens, and in others exactly the opposite. A gentleman from
Peeblesshire writes, “Is it not singular that no cocks have been
found dead? One old cock last week remained beside his
dead mate a whole day, strutting round and near her, and
evidently doing his best to attract her attention.” With the
same post I received a letter from a gamekeeper in Lanarkshire,
who stated, “The grouse are dying here thick and fast. They
are generally about burn-sides, and mostly old cocks.” Receiv-
ing numerous similar statements, and getting specimens for-
warded from different parts, I subjected them to a searching
examination. The result only corroborated the examinations of
previous years, no new facts being elicited. At the same time,
I received specimens of healthy birds from Mr Campbell, game-
keeper to A. J. Balfour, Esq., in Strathconan forest, in Ross-
shire, and specimens of diseased ones sent alive from Mr
Stewart, gamekeeper to Sir Edward Colebrook, Abington, Lan-
arkshire, for purposes of comparison. The internal organs of
the healthy and diseased birds corresponded in all particulars,
with the exception of the intestines. In the healthy birds I
found both strongyli and tenia calva, though in very limited
numbers, and from which they seemed in no way to suffer.
The diseased birds were externally of a wasted and emaciated
appearance, and as bare about the legs as a plover, with the
breast-bone almost cutting the skin. Only a few tenia calva
were to be seen; but I discovered millions of strongyli in the
cecum, and which would undoubtedly have caused death in a
short time had the birds not been killed. On examining some
specimens forwarded from Ayrshire, I found them plump and
fat, perfect and beautiful in their plumage, and feathered down
to the very claws. In them I discovered that death was trace-
able to parts of the bowel being literally packed with tania
calva, and being so inflamed as to constitute a species of gangrene
around this loathsome parasite. I have here an illustration
which proves beyond question that the immediate cause of death
was that which I have indicated. Here, also, are a large number
—millions I should say—of strongle taken from the cecum of an
emaciated grouse. I am, therefore, of opinion that the mortality
of plump fat birds is caused by tenia calva, and in thin ema-
88 Grouse Disease. [Sess.
ciated birds by strongylus pergracelus ; but in view of both being
found in healthy birds from Ross-shire, where disease has not
been seen for years, we are forced to the conclusion that they
are the natural parasite of the grouse. Why, then, should they
cause death? Simply by a lowering of the vitality by some
occult cause: the birds become weakened, the tone of their
digestive organs and intestines lowered, and the internal action
ot the organisms is finally arrested. In such circumstances, it
is apparent that increased mortality is inevitable. Looking back
upon these investigations, it is a significant fact that it is only
in connection with the digestive organs that any departure is
found from the condition of health, and in this respect the
grouse disease clearly shows its aftinity to those diseases for-
merly referred to.
What can be done for the preservation of the grouse from
this subtle distemper, is the question which presses itself upon
the attention of all sportsmen and naturalists. While it may
be impossible altogether to avert the malady, I feel sanguine
‘that it might be modified. By a change of stock all over the
country, there is no doubt that the general health of the birds
would be vastly improved, and one of those forces in nature—
viz., close breeding, which invariably tends to the deterioration
of the species, would be counteracted, and an impulse given
to the healthy and vigorous development of the stock. Were ~
keepers to attend to this by a fair exchange of eggs and young
birds from one district of the country to another at a consider-
able distance, I feel assured they would be amply repaid. This
suggestion is no merely speculative proposal. It is an experi-
ment which has been repeatedly acted upon by the Duke of
Hamilton in transferring grouse from his Lanarkshire moors to
the Island of Arran, with the best possible results.
At this meeting Mr A. Frazer, M.A., read a short communi-
cation from Mr John Turnbull, Galashiels, describing his
process of taking photo-micrographs. It was explained that
Mr Turnbull’s apparatus consisted only of his microscope and
a packing-case, and that by these appliances he was able to
produce excellent photo-micrographs. Some specimens of Mr
Turnubull’s work were exhibited, and were much admired by
the members present.
1886-87.| Meetings of Microscopic Section. 89
MEETINGS OF MICROSCOPIC SECTION.
THE Microscopic Section has now been put on a more firm
basis than heretofore, with a Secretary and two Assistant
Secretaries as office-bearers. For the past Session these were:
Mr A. Frazer, M.A., Secretary; Mr J. Lindsay, Assistant
Secretary, Biological department; and Mr J. D. Murray, Assis-
tant Secretary, Optical department. The Session was opened
by a Business Meeting, when office-bearers were appointed and
the course of study for the Session was mapped out; and it
was closed by a General Meeting of both departments, when
the work done throughout the Session was reviewed, sugges-
tions were made for future operations, and a statement as to
funds was given in. The bi-monthly Journal of the Royal
Microscopical Society is now also provided for the use of the
members, and it is hoped that similar publications may be
added as funds increase.
The meetings of the Optical department were held fortnightly
during the Session, and had an average attendance of about
twenty —the meetings taking place in the Society’s room.
The subjects chiefly considered were: Achromatic Condensers,
Angular Aperture of Objectives, and the Polarisation of Light.
Attention was also given to the phenomena of light. The
meetings were, for the most part, of a conversational character,
but papers were also read, explanatory of the subjects above
mentioned, by Messrs Murray, Forgan, Penman, and A. Frazer.
The meetings of the Biological department were also held at
intervals of a fortnight throughout the Session, when demon-
strations of a practical nature were given. The subjects taken
up were the following: The Structure of Insectivorous Plants,
by Dr J. M. Macfarlane (two demonstrations); the Mounting
of Marine Algze, by Mr J. Allan (two demonstrations) ; the
Mounting of Fresh-water Alge, by Mr J. Terras; the Prepara-
tion and Mounting of Crystals, by Mr W. Penman; the Col-
lecting and Mounting of Foraminifera, by Mr F. G. Pearcey ;
the Mounting of Animal Tissues in Glycerine-and-water, by
Mr A. Moffat ; the Hardening and Cutting of Animal Sections,
by Mr A. Frazer; the Cutting, Staining, and Mounting of Vege-
table Sections, by Mr J. Lindsay ; and the Preparation and
go Annual Business Meeting. [Sess.
Mounting of Mineral Sections, by Mr J. A. Johnston. The
Society’s room at 20 George Street was inconveniently crowded
at most of these meetings, and the use of a larger room has
been kindly granted, where the meetings of both departments
will be held next Session.
A few of the members of the Microscopic Section contributed
to the monthly meetings of the Society various exhibits of
Microscopic apparatus and preparations; and two interesting
papers, on subjects connected with Microscopy, by Messrs
Penman and Forgan, are printed in extenso in the Society’s
‘Transactions’ for the present Session (ante, pp. 21, 56).
The Annual Conversazione, which took place in the Free-
mason’s Hall on March 29, partook largely, as in former years,
of the character of a Natural History and Microscopic exhibi-
tion. The exhibits were numerous and varied, illustrating
nearly every department of Natural History; while about
seventy microscopes were placed, under which were shown a
most interesting series of preparations, including animal and
vegetable tissues, fungi, crystals, minerals, insect parts, diatoms,
foraminifera, &c. These were examined by the large company
present with keen enjoyment. As on a former occasion, the
Albany Orchestral Society kindly supplied the music, aided by
Messrs Chumley and Campbell.
ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING.
THe Annual Business Meeting of the Society was held in the
Hall, 20 George Street, on the evening of the 26th October
1887,—Mr Herbert, ex-President, in the Chair. From the
Report submitted by the Secretary, it appeared that in all
27 meetings had been held during the past Session, 10 of these
being indoor meetings,! and 17 field meetings. The following
list gives the dates and localities of these meetings, viz. :—
Inpoor MeeEtiInGs: (1) Annual Meeting—Oct. 22, 1886.
(2) Ordinary Evening Meetings, 1886—Nov. 24, Dec. 22;
1 This does not include the meetings of the Microscopic Section, which are re-
corded separately, ante, p. 89.
1886-87. | Annual Business Meeting. gl
1887—Jan. 26, Feb. 23, March 23, April 27, May 25, June
22. (3) Annual Conversazione—March 29, 1887.
Frexp Meerines, 1887: April 30, Linlitheow—Palace and
Church; May 7, Polton to Roslin; May 14, North Berwick ;
May 21, Dunfermline; May 28, Crichton; June 1, Arthur
Seat; June 11, Driving Excursion to Moorfoots; June 15,
Visit to Pilrig Park Nursery; June 18, West Linton; June
25, Gosford; June 29, Duddingston Loch; July 2, Driving
Excursion to Carlops; July 9, Dredging Excursion; July 13,
Visit to Leith Walk Nursery ; July 16, Haddington; July 23,
Balerno; Oct. 1, Fungus Foray in Roslin Glen.
The Treasurer’s Statement showed that, including a balance
from last account, the income had been £83, and the expendi-
ture £66, 11s. 3d., leaving a balance in favour of the Club of
£16, 8s. 9d.
The election of Office-bearers was next proceeded with, when,
after the vacancies were filled up, the complete list stood as
under :—
President.—Symincron GRIEVE.
Vice-Presidents.
AuEex, Frazer, M.A. | GrorcE Birp. ! Rosertr Stewart, S.S.C.
Council.
WILLIAM ForGAN. JOHN ALLAN. Dr J. M. MAcFARLANE.
WILLIAM BoNNAR. J. D. Murray. JAMES TERRAS.
JoHN HENDERSON. JoHN LrInpsay. F. G. PEARCEY.
A. B. STEELE. Wm. PENMAN. WILLIAM COATS.
Secretary and Treasurer.—Anprew Morrat.
Auditors.—Hveu H. Pintans; Joun Parrmay, §8.S.C.
During the past Session 40 names have been withdrawn
from the roll,and 51 new names added, making a net increase
of 11, and giving a total roll of ordinary members at the close
of Session 1886-87 of 232.
Although the Society’s field meetings have been on the
whole always well attended, there was a marked increase at
the meetings during 1887. A new feature of the field meet-
ings was the Driving Excursions, of which there were two,
both of them numerously attended. More attention was paid,
also, to Archeology, four of the excursions having that subject
92 Annual Business Meeting. [Sess. 1886-87.
specially in view—viz.: Linlithgow, Crichton, Dunfermline, and
Haddington. At Linlithgow, Mr John Lindsay read a paper
giving a short account of the Palace and of St Michael’s
Church; at Crichton, Mr T. A. D. Wood, F.S.A.Scot., gave
some notes on the history of the Castle; at Dunfermline, the
party were met by Mr Geo. Robertson, F.S.A.Scot., Custodian
of the Abbey, who explained the various features of the build-
ings; and at Haddington, Dr Brown and Mr Wm. Davie, of
Haddington, conducted the party over the various antiquities
of the town.
Eliot OF--PAST PRESIDENTS.
Dr Rost. Brown, 1869. Rey. R. F. Cotvin, 1877-1879.
Mr R. Scor Sxrrvine, 1869-1874. Mr JoHn WaALtcort, 1879-1882.
Mr Wm. GorrRir )
Mr A. B. Herpert, 1882-1885.
(deceased) ( 1874-1877. Mr Symineton GRIEVE, 1885-1887.
OFFIGE-BEARERS, (1867-86.
President.
SyMINGTON GRIEVE.
Vice- Presidents.
ALEXANDER Frazer, M.A. | Rozperr Stewart, 8.8.C.
GrorcE Brep.
Council,
WILLIAM FORGAN. JoHN LINDSAY.
WItitrAmM Bonnar. Wma. PENMAN,
JOHN HENDERSON, Dr J. M. MACFARLANE,
A. B. STEELE. JAMES TERRAS.
JOHN ALLAN. F. G. PEARCEY.
J. D. Murray. WILLIAM COATS.
doint-Gditsrs of ‘ Transactions.’
ANDREW Morrat, JoHN LINDSAY.
Secretary and Treasurer.
ANDREW MorFrrat,
Auditors.
Hues H. Pirtans; Joun Parrmay, 8.S.C.
Elst OF MEMBERS, 1886-87.
Oriyinal Members marked thus*.
Honorary Wembers.
Brown, Ropert, Ph.D., F.L.S., London.
GrizveE, Davip, F.R.S.E., 1 Lockharton Gardens, Slateford.
Henverson, Prof. Jon R., M.B., C.M., The College, Madras.
Corresponding Wembers.
ARCHIBALD, STEWART, Carroch, Kirriemuir.
BroTHERSTON, ANDREW, Kelso.
CruicksHank, T. M., South Ronaldshay.
Hopxirk, CHArwes P., Huddersfield.
Hossack, B. H., Craigie Field, Kirkwall.
TuHomson, JOHN, Stobo.
10
30
List of Members, 1886-87.
Ordinary
Adam, James, Comely Park, Dun-
fermline.
Adams, William, Royal Bank, St
Andrew Square.
Aitken, D. Percy, 5 Grosvenor Cres.
Alexander, Robert, 9 Montrose Ter.
Allan, John, 15 Rosefield Avenue,
Portobello.
Amoore, J. 8., 7 Abercromby Place.
Anderson, G. R., 33 Howard Place.
Archibald, Jas., 13 Clifton Terrace.
Arthur, Charles, Royal Infirmary.
Ayton, Alex., 43 N. Bruntsfield Pl.
Barbour, T. F., Chemical Laboratory,
University.
Bashford, W. T., Argyle House,
Portobello.
Bathgate, John, 8 Wardie Avenue.
Bird, George, 24 Queen Street.
Black, William, 8.8.C., 3 Hill St.
Boa, Peter, 119 George Street.
Bonnar, Wm., 54 Castle Street.
Brodie, J. A., Bonnington Iron
Foundry, Leith.
Brotherston, G. M., 18 St John
Street.
Brown, George L., Millburn House,
Morningside.
Brown, R. Smith, 5 Marchmont Ter.
Brown, Thos., 1 Gillespie Street.
Bryden, Mrs, 72 Great King Street.
Bryden, Miss, 72 Great King Street.
Burn, C. M. P., Prestonfield House.
Cairns, Wm. M‘Gregor, 16 South
Charlotte Street.
Carter, A. E. J., 9 Argyle Crescent,
Portobello.
Carter, Wm. Allan, M. Inst. C.E.,
5 St Andrew Square.
Clapperton, Mrs Wm., 9 Strathearn
Road.
Clark, Alex., S.8S.C., 80a Princes St.
Clark, William, Greenside Cottage.
Coats, William, 21 Nelson Street.
*Colvin, Rev. R. F., 50 Ann Street.
Cooper, James, 31 Howe Street.
Cotton, Miss Maria, 26 Mayfield Ter.
Cowan, Alfred, 19 Rutland Square.
Cowan, Charles Wm., Valleyfield,
Penicuik.
Coyne, R. A. F. A., 21 Archibald Pl.
Members.
40
60
Craig, Archibald, jun., 16 Blacket
Place.
Crawford, Wm. C., M.A., 1 Lock-
harton Gardens, Slateford.
Crichton, George, 30 Restalrig Ter-
race,
Dickson, Professor Alexander, M.D.,
F.R.S.E., F.L.8., 11 Royal Cireus.
Dobbin, Leonard, Ph.D., F.R.S.E.,
4 Cobden Road.
Dobbin, Mrs Leonard, 4 Cobden
Road.
Dowell, Mrs, 13 Palmerston Place.
Dowell, Miss, 13 Palmerston Place.
Duncan, Esdaile, Dean Public
School.
Dundas, George, 10 Grosvenor Cres-
cent,
Eld, Thos. W., 50 South Bruntsfield
Place.
Elliot, G. F. Scott, M.A., Royal
Botanic Garden.
Ewart, James, 1 Dundas Street.
Farquharson, Miss, Roseville,
Catherine’s Place, Grange.
Farquharson, Thos. Ker, Roseville,
St Catherine’s Place, Grange.
Ferguson, John, 15 Brighton Place,
Portobello.
Forbes, Miss Mary, 5 Brunstane
Road, Joppa.
Forgan, William, 3 Warriston Cres.
Foulis, James, M.D., 34 Heriot Row.
Fraser, Dr Angus, 232 Union Street,
Aberdeen.
Fraser, Charles, 13 Greenhill Place.
Fraser, Mrs, 13 Greenhill Place.
Fraser, Hugh, Leith Walk Nurseries.
*Fraser, P. Neill, Rockville, Murray-
field.
Frazer, Alex., M.A., 7 Lothian St.
Galloway, James, St Fillans, Trinity.
Gibb, Philip B., M.A., 14 Picardy
Place.
Gilchrist, James, 17 Manor Place.
Gloag, David, 9 Barnton Terrace.
Gordon, James, Royal Institution,
Mound.
Gray, Arch.
Gray, Jos. T., M.A., Parkside.
Gray, Mrs Robert.
St
80
90
100
List of Members, 1886-87.
Grieve, Miss Amelia, Salisbury View,
Dalkeith Road.
Grieve, Somerville, Salisbury View,
Dalkeith Road.
Grieve, Symington, 1 Burgess Ter-
race.
Grieve, Mrs Symington, 1 Burgess
Terrace.
Grosert, Robert, So. Oswald Road.
Groves, Charles H., M.D., 36 Inver-
leith Row.
Guthrie, Mrs, Almora, Liberton.
Hardie, William, 49 Morningside
Road.
Hart, James, M.A., Dean Public
School.
Hately, W., 12 Bruntstield Place.
Heggie, John, 1 Greenbank Terrace.
Henderson, John, 21 Nicolson Sq.
Henderson, Miss Jessie, 17 W.
Preston Street.
Henderson, Mrs, 6 Carlton Terrace.
Henderson, Miss, 6 Carlton Terrace.
Herbert, A. B., 13 Polwarth Terrace.
Hoyle, W. E., M.A., M.R.C.S.,
F.R.S.E., 8 Kilmaurs Road.
Hume, William, 1 Lothian Street.
Hunter, James, 7 Melgund Terrace.
Hurry, Miss, 56 India Street.
Hutchison, Robert, F.R.S.E.,
Chester Street.
Inches, Miss Ella M., 10 Broughton
Place.
Jamieson, P., Natural History La-
boratory, University.
Jenner, Charles, F.R.S.E., Easter
Duddingston Lodge.
Johnstone, Alex,, 38 Lady Menzies
Place.
Johnstone, J. A., 30 Haddington Pl.
Johnstone, Miss Annie, Eskhill,
Roslin.
Keith, Sydney, 69 So. Clerk Street.
Keith, Miss Catherine, 16 Mentone
Terrace.
Kennedy, Adam, 63 Haymarket Ter.
Key, Rev. D. Ritchie, M.A., 17
Elm Row.
Kilgour, Thos. W., 4 East Brighton
Crescent, Portobello.
King, J. Falconer, Minto House.
King, Mark, 120 Pitt Street, Leith.
Knight, Donald, 33 Regent Place.
Kynoch, Miss, 2 Darnaway Street.
Laing, Jas. H. W., M.A., B.Sc., 105
Warrender Park Road.
29
110
130
140
XI
Laughton, Wm., So. Darenth, Kent.
Law, Mrs John, 41 Heriot Row.
Lee, William, 15 Craiglea Drive.
Lennie, Joseph C., 25 Gayfield Sq.
.Lewis, David, 32 Findhorn Place.
Ligertwood, George C., M.A., 9 Spot-
tiswoode Street.
Lindsay, John, 43 James St., Pilrig.
Livingstone, Matthew, 108 Gilmore
Place.
Lockie, John, C.E., 39 Restalrig Ter.
Lorimer, Miss, 16 Mayfield Terrace.
MacAdam, W. Ivison, F.C.S., F.1.C.,
Surgeons’ Hall.
M‘Bride, James, 31 Buccleuch Pl.
M‘Craith, Miss, 26 Haddington PI.
MacDougall, W., Woodburn, Mor-
ningside.
Macfarlane, J. M., D.Sc., F.R.S.E.,
1 Wardie Avenue.
M‘Glashan, D., 12 West End Place.
M‘Glashen, Robert L., 1 Brandon St.
M‘Intosh, James, 42 Queen Street.
Mackay, Miss, 69 Northumberland
Street.
M‘Laren, J. R., M.A., 9 Gt. King
Street.
M‘Kean, James, 3 Warrender Park
Terrace.
M‘Kean, Miss J., 1 Inverleith Ter.
M‘Kean, Miss Minnie, 1 Inverleith
Terrace.
M‘Kechnie, Campbell, 60 Northum-
berland Street.
Macpherson, C. E. W., C.A., 28
St Andrew Square.
Macpherson, John C., 3 Warrender
Park Terrace.
Marshall, Hugh, B.Sc., 1 Lorne Ter.
Marshall, Ralph, 1 Lorne Terrace.
Maxwell, Graham, Royal Botanic
Garden.
Melvin, Alex., 40 Warrender Park
Road.
Methven, John, 6 Bellevue Crescent
Millar, R. C., C.A., 8 Broughton Pl.
Millar, Miss Isabella, 8 Broughton Pl.
Millar, Thos. John, 8 Broughton PI.
Miller, Rev. Robert, M.A., 15 Thirl-
stane Road, East.
Miller, R. K., 13 Lennox Street.
Miller, Peter, 8 Bellevue Terrace.
Moffat, Andrew, 5 Scone Gardens.
Morham, Robert, 2 Bright Crescent.
Muir, John, 115 Warrender Park
Road.
Xil
List of Members, 1886-87.
Murray, Chas. G., 68 Haymarket Ter.
150 Murray, J. D., 68 Haymarket Ter.
Murray, Wm., 8 Clifton Terrace.
Neill, John, 3 Sylvan Place.
Nelson, W. F., Salisbury Green.
Nesbit, John, 162 High Street,
Portobello.
Nisbet, Miss, 28 E. Claremomt St.
Norfor, Robt. T., C.A., 47 So.
Bruntsfield Place.
Ogilvie, Miss, 18 Buckingham Ter.
Oliphant, J. C., M.A., 23 Charlotte
Square.
Oliver, G. E., 4 Mostyn Terrace.
160 Oliver, John 8., 12 Greenhill Park.
Pairman, John, 8.8.C., 50 George St.
Paton, Henry, 15 Myrtle Terrace.
Patterson, J. C., 6 Mentone Terrace.
Peacock, Alex., 9 M‘Laren Road.
Peacock, Miss, 9 M‘Laren Road.
Peacock, Thomas R., 9 M‘Laren Rd.
Pearcey, F. G., 37 Raeburn Place.
Penman, Wm., 8 Lauriston Park.
Philip, James, 5 Argyle Place.
170 Pillans, Hugh H., 12 Dryden Place.
Pillans, Miss, 12 Dryden Place.
Purves, Samuel, 70 Haymarket Ter.
Ranken, William, 11 Spence Street.
Reid, Andrew, 2 Lixmount Terrace,
Trinity.
Richardson, A. D., Royal Botanic
Garden.
Robertson, C. F., 54 Blacket Place.
Robertson, George, Lothian Road
Public School,
Sanderson, Dr Alfred, Lixmount,
Trinity.
Saxby, Charlie, 15 St Leonard’s
Bank.
180 Semple, Andrew, Deputy Surgeon
General H.M.&%.,
United Service Club,
Shaw, JohnO., Beauly, Victoria Park,
Trinity.
Simpson, James, 4 Middlefield, Leith
Walk.
Skinner, Jas.,8.S.C., 14 Frederick St.
*Skirving, R. Scot, 29 Drummond PI,
Smith, Miss, 34 Dublin Street,
Smith, Mrs Geo,, 25 East Claremont
Street.
Smith, Walter A., Falcon Lodge,
Murrayfield.
Somerville, Alex., B.Sc., F.L.S., 34
Granby Ter., Hillhead, Glasgow.
Speedy, Tom, The Inch, Liberton.
Caledonian
190
200
210
230
Sprague, T. B., M.A., F.R.S.E., 29
Buckingham Terrace.
Sprague, Mrs T, B., 29 Buckingham
Terrace,
Steele, Adam B., 10 Comely Bank.
Steele, Miss, 16 Upper Gray Street.
Stewart, James R., 10 Salisbury Rd.
Stewart, Miss, 53 Lothian Street.
Stewart, Robert, $.8.C., 21 Warris-
ton Crescent
Storrie, James, 5 Bowhill Terrace.
Summers, Miss Maggie, 32 Craig-
millar Park.
Sutherland, John, 4 Caledonian Rd.
Tait, John, Lochend Road Public
School
Tait, John Scott, C.A., 8 Claremont
Terrace.
Taylor, William, M.D., 12 Melville
Street.
Terras, James, 34 Findhorn Place.
Thomson, Mrs, 6A Bruntsfield Place.
Torrie, Robert, 198 Bonnington
Road, Leith.
Turnbull, George, 16 Thistle Street.
Turnbull, J. M., 6 Rose Street.
Turner, Daniel, 8.L., 24 George St.
Usher, Andrew, Blackford House.
Walcot, John, 50 Northumberland
Street. .
Walker, David, 2 Bellevue Terrace.
Walker, Wm. F., 5 Restalrig Ter.
Wallace, William, Jesstield Terrace,
Newhaven Road.
Wardlaw, Geo., 14 St John’s Hill.
Waters, James, 3 St Andrew Sq.
Watson, Dr Wm., 49 Grange Road.
Watson, Mrs, 49 Grange Road.
Weir, James Lind, 3 Beechwood Ter.
White, Miss, 9 Bernard Terrace.
Williams, Caradoc, 4c Pilrig Street.
Wilson, Geo. A., 46 Queensferry St.
Wilson, James T., Restalrig House
Wilson, Miss Helen, 1 Lennox St.
Wilson, Miss Katie, 2 Archibald Pl.
Wood, Alex., 4 Avondale Place.
Wood, T. A. D., Viewforth, Brun-
stane Road, Joppa.
Woodhead, Dr G. Sims, 6 Marchhall
Crescent.
Wright, Hilda, Ravensrood, Craig-
lockhart.
Wright, Thomas, 6 Greenside Place.
Young, David E., 22 Rosehall Ter.
Young, Mrs D. E., 22 Rosehall Ter.
Yule, Robert, 6 Mansfield Place.
6 dt!’ qasgq
=
@
ce
VOL. II. PART II.
TRANSACTIONS
OF.
Gie Edinburgh Field Waturalists’ and
Wirrosropiral a
aoe Ta OG S>> ~
‘SESSION 1887-88
CONTENTS.
4 k PAGE
ie _ I. Recent Notes on the Great Auk or Garefowl.—Mr S. Grieve,
oe President, . BAe Ie. eo etes Ne eC Re Ee 93
II. The Rook. Mr Tom Bpaadn 3 5 y Z ; ; : : F 120
III. Notes on the Conifers. Mr H. Fraser, A 126
IV. Polarised Dark-ground Illumination. — Mr w. Peniian: ae
a M.Inst.G.E., . 127
2 V. An Ancient Lake- Deposit i in Queen’ 8 Park, Peary J. A. ‘Jounston
and J. Lindsay, . : 135
ey VI. On an Ornithological Visit te Warwickshire. Mr x eae jah. 141
ne VII. Some Peculiar Occurrences in Natural History. — Mr R. Stewart:
a SBC. ot Stayt poeel eB
a VIII. Optical Phenorhenon seen in Sieanre: Mr Ww. Coats, A ; , 159
om IX. Note on Eucalyptus globulus.—Mr H. Fraser, . , : ‘ ’ 165
an X. Stoats and WeaselsMr Tom Speedy, 3 ‘ : ; 166
om XI. List of Plants gathered in Switzerland.—Mrs Saraeic, : ; - 174
_ XII. Fungus Folk-Lore.—Mr A. B. Steele, . 5 175
a _ XIII. Remarks on the Genus Aulacodiscus Ehrb. _Mr J. igibtay: MLA.,
aes BiSc., -F:R.S8.E., >. 183
_. XIV. A New Form of Freezing and Embedding miaratenie, _—Mr rt
R. : Frazer, M.A., ; : ° z ; 3 188
Meetings of Microscopic Section, . : : i : : é ‘ 191
Annual Business Meeting, ; gia Fy ‘ ‘ E ; - ; 193
List of Members, 1887-88, Xlii
Published for the Society
BY |
WILLIAM BLACKWOOD & SONS ¥:
MDCCOLXXXVIII oS
Price to Non-Members, Half-a-Crown.
PLATE |.
SPECIMEN OF GREAT AUK
(Alca impennis Linn.)
or NATURAL HIsTORY, CENTRAL PARK,
New YORK.
In AMERICAN MUSEUM
I—RECENT NOTES ON THE GREAT AUK OR
GAREFOWL (ALCA IMPENNIS Liv.)
By Mr SYMINGTON GRIEVE, PresipEnt.
(Read Nov. 23, 1887.)
I PRESUME you are all more or less acquainted with Great
-Auk history, and that none of you are under the belief I am
about to address you regarding the sayings and doings of some
Eastern potentate. It is not the first time that I have found
persons who should have been better informed making such a
mistake. They seemed determined to confound this poor bird
with some ancient or modern human ruler, like the Great
Moeul or the Khan of Khiva. However, in case there should
be any one present who has forgotten the salient points of
Great Auk history, I shall very briefly recapitulate some of its
principal features, so as to present before your minds a few of
the facts that make all that is known about this bird so in-
teresting to every naturalist.
The Great Auks were large birds, and were good for food.
They were so abundant at certain points on the coasts of the
North Atlantic basin, that they attracted the attention of the
early voyagers. Their wings were so small that they were
unable to fly. At the nesting-season each year they landed
in immense multitudes at the places at which they hatched
their single egg, and fell an easy prey to such an enemy as
man. The Great Auks may be said to have been stupid
birds. They were not easily frightened, and allowed them-
selves to be massacred by the mariners, who knocked them
over by striking them upon their heads with short sticks or
clubs. At an island off the coast of Newfoundland, and pro-
bably at other places, they even permitted themselves to be
driven across planks or sails stretched from the vessels to the
shore. In this way such multitudes were captured that they
VOL. II. G
94 Recent Notes on the Great Auk. [Sess.
are described as having been got on board by the ton weight.
The birds thus procured were salted down lke herrings and
packed in barrels, and formed for many years the staple food
of the fishermen and others who visited the Newfoundland
banks and explored the North American coasts. It may be
admitted as a fact that, without the presence of the Great
Auks, the explorations that led to the settlement of North
America so quickly could not have been carried on, nor would
the fisheries upon the banks of Newfoundland have been de-
veloped as they were. The Great Auk was also a British
bird, and appears to have afforded food to our ancient inhabit-
ants in much the same way that at a later date it supplied
the wants of the voyagers to North America. The remnants
of the Great Auk colonies, in sadly reduced numbers, lingered
around the coasts of Britain and Iceland probably after the
birds had disappeared from the coasts of North America. The
final act in the drama, however, took place in the early days
of June 1844, when what are believed to have been the last
two Great Auks were killed upon a skerry called Eldey, off
the south-west coast of Iceland. The remains of this bird,
exterminated by man within the memory of those now living,
are so rare that they are among the most prized objects in
natural history collections. The skins and eggs are worth
many times their weight in gold, and the prices fetched at
public sales have caused quite a flutter of excitement far out-
side scientific circles. It is therefore no unworthy object we
have in view if we can place on record any information re-
garding the Great Auk; and it is with that intention I am
about to address you to-night.
Most of you are aware that a book was published a little
over two years ago, entitled ‘ The Great Auk or Garefowl; its
History, Archeology, and Remains.’ In those departments of
Great Auk research of which it treats, it may claim to be pretty
exhaustive; but perhaps the most important result of its pub-
lication has been, that it has called attention to matters con-
nected with the Great Auk. This has led to accurate infor-
mation being given by critics and others upon a number of
points that might otherwise have remained unascertained. It
is with a portion of this supplementary information that I in-
tend to try to interest you. As it is desirable that I should
1887-88. | Recent Notes on the Great Auk. 95
endeavour to treat the subject in as connected a form as
possible, I intend first to refer to some matters in connection
with
THE GREAT AUK OR GAREFOWL WHEN LIVING.
In my work on this bird already mentioned (p. 62), I refer
to the last notice of the occurrence of the Great Auk in the
north-east of England, and perhaps it may be interesting to
give you the original reference, which occurs in ‘The Natural
History and Antiquities of Northumberland, and so much of
the county of Durham as lies between the rivers Tyne and
Tweed, commonly called North Bishoprick.’ In two volumes,
by John Wallis, A.M.: published in London, 1769. In vol.
i. p. 340 is the following: “The Penguin, a curious and un-
common bird, was taken alive a few years ago in the island of
Farn, and presented to the late John William Bacon, Esq. of
Etherston, with whom it grew so tame and familiar that it
would follow him with its body erect to be fed.” You will
observe that the name used in the above quotation for the
Great Auk is the “ Penguin,’ which was one of its most
common names, especially on the shores of North America,
The capture of what are believed to have been the last two
Great Auks took place at Eldey at the beginning of June
1844, and the dead birds were sent by Hansen, the purchaser,
to Herr Moller, the apothecary at Reykjavik, to be skinned.
In a note at p. 21 of my book, I quote a letter of Professor
J. Steenstrup of Copenhagen, in which he says that “the only
claim this person had to be called an apothecary was that he
prepared skins.” After my book was issued, the venerable
professor wrote me saying he was sorry there had been a mis-
understanding as to his meaning in the letter referred to, and
he adds, “ Certainly my friend Moller was a good apothecary
in every sense, but he also skinned birds extremely well.”
In the ‘ Memoirs of the Museum of Comparative Zoology
at Harvard College, Cambridge, Mass., vol. xiii‘ The Water-
Birds of North America,” by 8. T. Baird, T. M. Brewer, and R.
Ridgeway, issued in continuation of the publications of the
Geological Survey of California, vol. ii. p. 471, published at
Boston, U.S., 1884: Little, Brown, & Co.,—there is the follow-
ing: “In a work on ‘Newfoundland and its Missionaries,’
96 Recent Notes on the Great Auk. [Sess.
printed in Halifax by Dakin & Metcalf, and published at the
Wesleyan Book-room in 1866, p. 64, the following reference
is made to the Great Auk: ‘ Half a century ago the Penguin
was very plenty. It is a handsome bird, about the size of a
goose, with a coal-black head and back, a white belly, and a
milk-white spot under the right eye. They cannot fly well,
—their wings are more like fins. They have on their bodies
short feathers and down. The Penguin is now but seldom
seen: such destruction of the bird was made for the sake of
its feathers, that it is now all but extinct.’” Mr George A.
Boardman having seen the above paragraph, and meeting its
author, questioned him more particularly about the Penguin,
and obtained a few further details. At the time of his resi-
dence in Newfoundland he was a Methodist missionary stationed
on the coast, not far from Funk or Fogo Island, between the
years 1818 and 1823. “He saw the Penguin during the
whole of his stay in the island in considerable numbers, and
frequently lectured the inhabitants for their cruelty in de-
stroying them merely for their feathers. It was quite com-
mon for the boys to keep them tied by the legs as pets.”
The foregoing is a most interesting and important statement,
and refers to a period (as far as the history of the Great Auk
on the shores of Newfoundland is concerned) about which
very little appears to have been recorded. If the statement
can be thoroughly depended upon, the Great Auk must have
been much more plentiful in the region referred to from 1818
to 1823 than we have hitherto been led to suppose. There
are one or two inaccuracies in the above statements, such as
the reference to the bird having a white spot over only the
right eye, and the remark, “not far from Funk or Fogo
Island ”»—Funk Island and Fogo Island being separate places,
although not far from each other. From other references to
be met with, it appears that the fishermen who lived on Fogo
Island were in the habit of visiting Funk Island to obtain the
Great Auk, so it is probable the missionary was located on
Fogo Island, as there are no human beings resident on Funk
Island, and it is only visited a few times each season."
1 Since the foregoing was written, Mr Frederic A. Lucas of the United States
National Museum, Washington, has contributed a paper to the American
Ornithological Journal, ‘The Auk,’ vol. v. p. 278 (July 1888). At p. 279 he
1887-88. ] Recent Notes on the Great Auk. 97
We may now go on to consider
DOUBTFUL OCCURRENCES OF THE GREAT AUK.
It is generally admitted that the last thoroughly authentic
occurrence of the Great Auk in Scotland was the capture of
one at St Kilda in 1821. But there have been stories told
that may be more or less authentic, pointing to the occurrence
in Scottish waters of the Great Auk nearly twenty years later
than the time of the above capture. I need not refer to those
treated of in the book I have already mentioned, but may as
well place on record an interesting account I have received,
through the kindness of Henry Evans, Esq. of Jura Forest,
island of Jura, regarding the supposed occurrence of a Great
Auk upon Stack-an-Armin, one of the skerries of the St
Kalda group.
The first communication I received from Mr Evans is dated
“ At sea, off St Kilda, 8th August 1885.” He says :-—
Having read your account of the Great Auk at St Kilda in the year
1821, I can now give you particulars of the occurrence of a second example
of this bird about the year 1840, or a year or two later, also on the St
Kilda group of islands. You may at first sight imagine two stories have
been made out of one, because Donald M‘Queen’s name appears in each
instance. However, I am satisfied such is not the case, and I think the
enclosed particulars will also satisfy you. Donald M‘Queen died in 1880,
aged 73. I know his son Donald very well. I often go to St Kilda and
have conversations with the inhabitants. The present Donald M‘Queen
can tell me nothing about the Great Auk of 1821, except that, as other St
Kilda men also say, the old men there remember their fathers talking
about that bird. But M‘Queen says his father with two other men helped
to catch a Gairfowl on Stack-an-Armin, off Borera, about forty years ago,
—perhaps a trifle over forty years. They kept this bird, tied by the legs,
alive for three days, and then killed it with a stick, thinking it was a
witch. The bird was left to decay behind the little bothy built of stones
half-way up Stack-an-Armin, where they stay fishing for a week or ten
days at a visit. I have seen this bothy, and the men are to search for the
bones. I entertain little hope of discovering them. I enclose details.
There are but few flat ledges of rock near sea-level about the St Kilda
says, “‘ There is a rumour that twenty years ago the Great Auk was still to be
found on the Penguin Islands, in the mouth of Gros Water Bay, sixteen miles
from Grady Harbour, a locality about 250 miles north of Cape Norman, N.F.
Of course this is possible, but it seems hardly probable.” In a note he adds,
‘*For this report I am indebted to Mr William Sclater of St John’s, N.F.”
98 Recent Notes on the Great Auk. [Sess.
group of islands. I know every rock there, and I think it impossible St
Kilda can ever have been a great breeding-place of the Great Auk.
The following are the details referred to above :—
The Great Auk at Borera, St Kilda, about 1840-43.
Lauchlan M‘Kinnon, now aged 75, tells me that, with his father-in-law
and Donald M‘Queen, he caught and killed a Gairfowl on Stack-an-Armin.
He dates the event at about forty years ago. Donald M‘Queen’s son also
says it was about forty years ago, or perhaps a year or two more. Lauch-
lan M‘Kinnon is the only survivor of the three men. I know him quite
well: he appears as bright and sharp as any man in St Kilda. He recog-
nised at once as the Gairfowl a picture of the Great Auk I showed him.
He especially called attention to the little wings for so large a bird, and to
the white spot on the side of the head, which he remembered was on the
bird. He spoke much of the great bill the bird had, which he said it kept
open very long and often, “as if it would never shut its bill again.” He
also put both hands to his sides, and said the bird was very fat and fleshy
there. The three men were fowling on Stack-an-Armin isle, off Borera,
St Kilda, when they found this bird, which they caught sleeping. They
tied it by the legs behind the bothy on Stack-an-Armin, where they stay a
week or ten days at a time fowling. They kept it alive for three days,
then killed it with a stick, thinking it must be a witch. It was left to
decay.
In answer to my further inquiries, Mr Evans wrote me from
Jura Forest on 24th October 1885, as follows :—
I think it is hopeless to search for remains of the Great Auk killed on
Stack-an-Armin about 1840, but I asked the natives to look. I shall not
see them before June 1886, but you may be sure we shall get nothing
there.
In August 1886 I wrote Mr Evans, asking him kindly to
let me know the result of the search for the Great Auk bones,
and he replied from Jura Forest on the 26th September fol-
lowing :—
The bones of the Great Auk could not be found—it was very unlikely.
I heard more on the same subject, and it all confirms what I have already
told you.
Mr Evans refers to Donald M‘Queen, who died in 1880,
aged 73, who caught the last undoubted Scotch Great Auk in
1821. An obituary notice of him, written by Mr J. Sands,
appeared in the ‘Glasgow Herald’ of 14th June 1886.
At p. 69 of ‘The Great Auk; its History, Archeology, and
Remains,’ reference is made to a Great Auk said to have been’
1887-88. ] Recent Notes on the Great Auk. 99
shot by Herr Laurenz Brodtkorb, near Vard6, Varanger Fjord,
East Finmark, in 1848. Professor Steenstrup, who first re-
ferred to this supposed occurrence of the Great Auk as far
back as 1855, has no doubt in his own mind that the bird was
certainly not a Garefowl, and he had much better opportuni-
ties at that comparatively recent period after its supposed
observation to get accurate information. His opinion has also
been shared by most subsequent writers. However, the fol-
lowing interesting statements, published by Professor Robert
Collett of Christiania in his valuable paper, “ Uber Alca im-
pennis in Norwegen,”—‘ Mittheilungen des Ornithologischen
Vereins in Wien, 1884, translated from German, are worth re-
cording for English-reading students of alcine history. Professor
R. Collett (referring to the statements made by Professor J.
Steenstrup in his ‘ Bidrag til Geirfuglens Naturhistorie, &c.,
1885, p. 95, as well as Nilsson in his “ Skandinaviens
Fauna,” 1858 (‘ Foglarne, p. 571), and Professor William Bla-
sius in his ‘Uber die letzen Vorkommnisse des Riesen-Alks,’
1881-82 and 1882-83, p. 97, “ Alca impennis,” &c.), says :-—
I have, however, been placed in a position to give more accurate par-
ticulars regarding the specimen in question—particulars which, I trust,
will place it beyond doubt that there is here an actual and unimpeachable
case of the appearance of the Garefowl,—perhaps of the last appearance of all.
I have obtained these particulars directly from the two gentlemen con-
cerned in the case—namely, Herr Brodtkorb, who killed the bird, and
Herr Nordyi, to whom we owe it that the fact was at once made known in
wider circles. I have recently got to know these two gentlemen person-
ally, and they have, with the greatest readiness, placed at my disposal the
following information, which they themselves put, at my desire, in the
form of letters. These letters I subjoin, accompanying them only with
the following observations :—
Herr Brodtkorb was in 1848 a young man of twenty, who had adopted
a business career, and at the same time devoted himself eagerly to sport;
and as the place in which he resided is an important breeding-place of
sea-birds (Fuglevar), where masses of auks,! mews, and cormorants breed
on the adjacent islets of Horné and René, he had the best opportunities for
learning all the birds that normally appear near Vard6. When I visited
that place last summer (1883), in order to examine these noteworthy bird-
cliffs, I came to know Herr Brodtkorb as a man well informed in every
respect, and thoroughly trustworthy. I caused myself to be rowed several
times over the little strait in which the Alca impennis was shot. This arm of
the sea separates the town of Vardé from the adjacent islets of Horné and
1 Alca torda and Arctica alle, in all probability.
100 Recent Notes on the Great Auk. [Sess.
René, on which the great bird-cliffs (Fuglevar) are. It is two English
miles broad, and has a strong current. The shore of René is flatter than
that of Horno, though on it also breed a great quantity of birds, chiefly
mews (Larus argentatus, marinus, and canus). The bird-cliff, properly so
called, is on Horné, and on its terraces are the nesting-places chiefly of
the Fratercula, Alca, Uria, and the two species of Phalacrocorax. Herr
Brodtkorb had for the present, however, given up sport, because the
attention of every one on the little Arctic seaport was taken up with the
whale-fisheries. In a letter dated Vardé, December 31, 1883, Herr Brodt-
korb writes me as follows: “ It is exactly so as Herr Nordvi has told you,
that in April 1848 I shot near Vardé a strange bird, the like of which I
never saw before nor since. . . . I was rowing on that day with some com-
panions over to René, when we espied in the strait four large birds that
attracted our notice. One of my companions, Herr Wind, now Tensmand
Wessel, asked me to fire at them, in order by that means to learn exactly
what sort of birds these could be which, instead of flying, only paddled
upon the water with their wings. I fired, and one fell. We were all per-
fectly convinced we had never before seen that kind of bird. It was the
size of a Ringgaus.!_ Its back was black, and, so far as I can remember,
its whole head and neck were of that colour, but in other respects it was
in shape like an Auk. I remember particularly that we observed a white
spot at the eye on the side of the head. On the other side the ball, which
had gone through the head, had torn away a piece of the white spot and
shattered the beak, so that as regards the form of the beak I can tell
nothing. The wings were so small that we were all agreed that this cir-
cumstance was the reason why the bird only paddled. .. . The bird was
placed in the boat in order that it might be kept ; but when we reached
land, it was so soaked through with water and blood that we threw it
away upon the shore, though it was my intention to examine it afterwards
more minutely. But when I went to get it on the following day, it had
been washed away by a high sea during a storm in the night... . A day
or two later I was out again to seek for the remaining three birds ; but I
never found them. I remember, likewise, that several fishermen had
taken notice of these birds before I shot the one referred to; but subse-
quently they were never seen again.”
On the receipt of this letter I wrote to Herr Brodtkorb asking him to
inform me as to any observations he might have made on the nature,
voice, &c., of this bird. To these questions he replied as follows, in a letter
dated Vardé, February 27, 1884: “On the day when I shot the bird a
storm was blowing from the south, so that there was rather a heavy sea.
The birds were swimming right against the wind, and as we were rowing
in the same direction, we got a sight of them, when they were about
twenty-five yards straight in front of the boat, without flying up. In
swimming they used both wings and feet, and also dived, but did not stay
long under the water. It almost seemed as if they only went through the
tops of the waves (“som om de nisten blot gik gjennem Bolge Top-
pene”). The birds kept together, and did not seem afraid. We also heard
1 The Ringgaus is the Bernicla brenta.
1887-88. ] Recent Notes on the Great Auk. IOI
a ery which they emitted when they drew more closely together. It
resembled a cackling, as if they wished to call one another. At first I did
not think of shooting, for the boat was rolling hard. It was only when
the birds had removed to a distance of about seventy yards, and were
only visible at intervals, that I resolved, at the request of my companions,
to take aim. When the shot went off all the four birds disappeared ; but
shortly after I saw the remaining three paddling on farther until they dis-
appeared behind the surging waves of the current.”
To what is here said I need only remark, in addition, that during the
winter the Colymbus glacialis is along the coast of the whole of Finmark
(and also of all the rest of Norway) a perfectly well-known bird, which
is called by sportsmen Immer or Hay-Immer (sea-immer). No confu-
sion with it can therefore have taken place, as indeed becomes sufficiently
plain from the following letter of Herr Nordvi. Any one who is at all
acquainted with the nature of our different sea-birds will besides have
remarked that none of the diver (Colymbus) species keep close together
when they are lying on the water, whilst this is exactly a peculiarity of
members of the Auk family. Herr Nordvi, who at present occupies the
post of Inspector of the Archeological Museum in the University of
Christiania, was formerly a merchant and collector of objects of natural
history at Mortensniis, a town lying to the south of Vadso.! He is a man
to whom science is indebted for many contributions to the knowledge of
the ethnography and natural history of these northern regions, and even
at that time he had entered into active correspondence with various men
of science. In a letter dated “ Christiania, March 11, 1884,” he writes me
as follows: “In December 1848 I received at Mortensniis, to the south of
Vads6, then my place of abode, a visit from my friend Herr L. Brodtkorb
of Vard6. On my asking him—who had been brought up in Vardé, and
was from boyhood familiar with all the birds and fishes there, and whom
I knew to be an eager sportsman and good observer—what in the way of
novelty he had to tell me about the animal kingdom, he told me that in
the last days of April he had, in a sporting tour in the strait between
Vardé and René, come upon four birds hitherto unknown to him, one of
which he had shot and taken away with him, but had afterwards thrown
away upon the shore, I asked him if the bird shot might not perhaps be
one of the larger divers (Colymbus glacialis or arcticus). He said that could
not be, since he had shot many birds of that genus. When he stated that
the bird killed by him had no proper wings, and, as he considered, could
not fly at all, because it used its wing-stump (vinge-lapper) to aid it in
swimming, and when he mentioned, in addition, that it had a large white
spot beside the eye, the thought at once came to me that this might have
been the Alca impennis. To be surer of the matter, I asked him to look
over a book containing copperplates which I had, and to see if he could
there find the bird that he had shot. Without any hesitation he pointed
to the Alca impennis and said, ‘ There it is.’ I then gave him some details
' Vardo and Vadsé are two small towns on the Varanger Fjord, which, in its
extreme part, forms the boundary between Norway and Russia. Vardé lies
farthest up, towards the Arctic Ocean.
102 Recent Notes on the Great Auk. [Sess.
regarding the Alca impennis and its history, and asked him to use every
effort to discover if the other three birds should yet show themselves ; but
none of them were afterwards visible.” When Brodtkorb had learned from
Nordvi what a treasure he had cast into the sea, they both instituted in
the following year careful searches after other specimens, but in vain.
When Mr John Wolley, some years later (1855), visited Vardé, and heard
this information from Brodtkorb’s own lips, he too felt personally con-
vinced that the bird shot was an Alca impennis, and made diligent inves-
tigation along the shore in the hope of finding parts of that or some other
specimens.
The communications given above hardly leave a doubt possible that as
late as 1848 isolated individuals of this species were living as homeless
wanderers. It was some of these (perhaps the last survivors of the whole
species) that were found in the spring of that year close inshore on the
coast of the Arctic Ocean near Vardié—that is to say, a far way to the east
of the North Cape, and under a latitude which is considerably higher than
that which scientists had felt themselves justified in assigning as the limit
of the Great Auk’s diffusion, at least within historical times.
So writes Professor Collett; and, while giving due weight to
his valuable opinion, we have to put in the opposite balance, as
against the theory of the bird observed being a Great Auk, the
opinion of Professor Japetus Steenstrup of Copenhagen, who
referred to this supposed occurrence of Alca impennis as far
back as 1855, as we have already mentioned, when he had
far better opportunities of sifting the evidence than Professor
Collett twenty-nine years later. After such a length of time
even the memories of Herr L. Brodtkorb and Herr Nordvi
may to some extent have failed them. Professor A. Newton
of Cambridge agrees with the opinion expressed by Professor
Steenstrup ; and he has in his possession the manuscripts of
the late Mr Wolley, whose opinion regarding the authenticity
of this supposed occurrence of the Great Auk he must know,
and it is not likely that Mr Wolley had expressed himself (in
his notes at least) as at all certain that the bird referred to
was really a Great Auk, or Professor Newton would have
mentioned it. My own opinion is that it is better to leave
such a matter an open question; and in any case the interest-
ing statements collected by Professor Collett are well worth
recording. If three specimens really did escape from Herr L.
Brodtkorb, it is possible that we have not heard the last of the:
living Great Auk ; and who knows but some fine morning the
daily press will be filled with telegrams upon the rediscovery:
of the bird. We can picture the despair of possessors of
1887-88. ] Recent Notes on the Great Auk. 103
alcine remains, if ever such an event should happen. It
would cause a tremendous fall in prices! But, if not extinct,
the rediscovery of Alea impennis would likely seal its fate,
and only be the beginning of its end.
It is well known that the Great Auk in prehistoric times
frequented the Cattegat, as its remains have been found in the
Danish kitchen-middens, but none of the more recently re-
ported occurrences of the Great Auk in the Cattegat or on the
coast of Norway have been sufficiently attested. As Iam not
aware that any detailed reasons have appeared in English for
refusing to believe in these alleged observations of the Great
Auk, I have thought it worth while to have what Professor
Robert Collett says on the subject translated. He only refers
to those specimens said to have been met with on the coast of
Norway. He says :—
I now proceed to discuss the cases of an alleged appearance of the
Alca impennis on the coast of Norway in the present century, and I shall
treat each of these cases separately.
1. Boie, in his ‘Tagebuch einer Reise durch Norwegen in 1817,’ re-
lates that one day in August 1817 he saw in the distance in the Ranen-
fjord in Helgeland a bird which, as he thinks, was probably the Imber of
Pontoppidan (Alea impennis), which undoubtedly exists in Norway. He
also states that among the birds which are to be found in winter in the
Westfjord (to the south of the Loffoden Islands), the Imber (Alca impen-
nis) is to be included. How far Boie was correctly informed as regards
this last case cannot now, of course, be determined. Since, however, he in
both cases gives the Norwegian name “ Imber,” and relies for this designa-
tion on the authority of Pontoppidan, it must be observed that Pontoppidan
by his “ Imber” undoubtedly means the Colymbus glacialis (the Great Nor-
thern Diver), and that even Faber in his time (‘ Isis,’ 1827, p. 681) assumes
that Boie was in error.
2. In the year 1838 Professor Rasch, in the ‘ Nyt Magazin for Naturvi-
denskaberne,’ 1 B., p. 386—“ Fortegnelse og Bemarkninger over de i Norge
forekommende Fugle” (“List of Birds found in Norway, with Notes
thereon”), mentions that he had just received a communication to the effect
that a specimen of the Alea impennis had been killed in the winter of
1837-38 in the neighbourhood of Frederikstad, a town situated between
the mouth of the Christiania Fjord and the Swedish frontier. But
Professor Rasch’s authority for this statement, the present occupant of the
botanical chair in the university of Christiania, Professor Schitibeler, has
since informed me that the specimen in question was never actually seen
by him, and that there is no positive evidence to the effect that the bird
then killed was really the Alca impennis.
3. In the year 1850 Lilljeborg, in the ‘Kgl. Vet. Akad. Handl. f. 1850,’
p. 331—“ Bidrag til Norra Rysslands och Norridges Fauna” (“Contribu-
104 Recent Notes on the Great Auk. [Sess.
tions to the Fauna of Northern Russia and Norway”), says: “An Alca
ampennis is said to have been shot a considerable time ago in the district
of Tromsé.” Since this specimen, too, has not been preserved, this report
must be regarded as quite as uncertain as the preceding one!
The next branch of our subject for consideration is
INFORMATION REGARDING THE HABITS OF THE GREAT AUK, AND
SOME OF THE LOCALITIES IN WHICH IT HAS BEEN SUPPOSED
TO HAVE LIVED.
There are several references by voyagers to North America
about two hundred years ago, under different names, to what,
from their descriptions, must, I think, be considered to be no
other than the Great Auk. They make some interesting
remarks regarding its habits. The Baron Lahontan, in ‘ New
Voyages to North America, from 1683 to 1694, translated
from the French—London, 1735, vol. i. p. 241, says: “The
moyacks are a sort of fowl as big as a goose, having a short
neck and a broad foot; and, which is very strange, their eggs
are half as big again as a swan’s, and yet they are all yelk,
and that so thick that they must be diluted with water before
they can be used as pancakes.” It would be interesting if
any one has an opportunity of obtaining eges of some allied
bird, such as Alcea torda, to experiment so as if possible to
ascertain if there appears to be good reason for accepting as
correct the observations of Baron Lahontan. It is unfortunate
we cannot obtain any new-laid Great Auk eggs to definitely
settle the question! It may be as well to remark that although
Baron Lahontan appears to have visited the coast of Labrador,
it was not during the particular voyage in which he met with
the moyacks, as he then does not seem to have been farther
north than the Gulf of St Lawrence. It must not, therefore,
be supposed that he recorded the moyack in a region from
which we have no authentic record of the Great Auk. It is
evident from what we know that he either met with the moyack
in the Gulf of St Lawrence or perhaps farther south, at some
of the other then stations for the Great Auk, or, as it was then
called, Penguin.
A bird named the “wobble” is referred to in a work on ‘ New
England Rarities, by John Josselyn, Gent.: London, 1672.
1 For doubtful occurrence of Great Auk at Mevenklint, see post, p. 119, Note.
1887-88. ] Recent Notes on the Great Auk. 105
The following is what appears, and probably refers to the Great
Auk: “The wobble is an ill-shaped fowl, having no long
feathers in their pinions, which is the reason they cannot fly,—
not much unlike the Penguin. They are in the spring very
fat, or rather oyly ; but pulled and garbidged, and laid to the
fire to roast, they yield not one drop.” Josselyn appears to
have lived eight years in Scarborough, a hundred leagues east
of Boston. This was probably in the neighbourhood of Casco
Bay, in which locality the Great Auk was at one time used by
the ancient inhabitants for food, its remains having been found
in shell-heaps. Professor F. W. Putnam of the Peabody
Museum of American Archeology and Ethnology, Harvard
University, Cambridge, Mass., in a footnote in connection with
a paper by Professor James Orton which appeared in the
‘American Naturalist,’ vol. ii. p. 540, says :—
That the Great Auk was once very abundant on our New England
shores is proved beyond a doubt by the large number of its bones that
have been found in the ancient “shell-heaps” scattered along the coast
from British America to Massachusetts. The “old hunter” who told
Audubon of its having been found at Nahunt was undoubtedly correct in
his statement, as we have bones of the species taken from the shell-heaps
of Marblehead, Eaglehead in Ipswich, and Plumb Island ; and Mr Elliot
Cabot has informed me that an old fisherman living in Ipswich described
a bird to him that was captured by his father in Ipswich many years ago,
which, from the description, Mr Cabot was convinced was a specimen of
the Great Auk.
I am indebted to Mr Frederic A. Lucas of the United States
National Museum, Washington, D.C., for the following extract
from the ‘ Gloucester Telegraph, August 7, 1839, taken from
the ‘Salem Register,’ no date given :—
All the mackerel-men who arrive report the scarcity of this fish, and at
the same time I notice an improvement in taking them with nets at Cape
Cod and other places. If this speculation is to go on without being
checked or regulated by the Government, will not these fish be as scarce
as Penguins are, which were so plenty before the Revolutionary war that
our fishermen could take them with their gaffs? But during the war some
mercenary and cruel individuals used to visit the islands on the eastern
shore, where were the haunts of these birds for breeding, and take them
for the sake of the fat, which they procured, and then let the birds go.
This proceeding finally destroyed the whole race. It is many years since I
have heard or seen one except on the coast of Cape Horn.—A FIsHERMAN.
It seems, however, exceedingly probable that the Great Auk
106 Recent Notes on the Great Auk. [Sess.
went much farther south along the shores of the United States
than Massachusetts, as Catesby, in ‘The History of Carolina,’
App., p. Xxxvi, writing early last century, includes the species
as an occasional winter visitant to the shores of Carolina. I
am indebted to Mr Edward Bidwell of London for the follow-
ing extract from an old catalogue. The title rans—
A Catalogue / of many natural Rarities / with / Great industry, Cost,
and thirty years’ travel in Foreign Countries / Collected by / Robert
Hubert, alias Forges, / Gentleman and Servant to / His Majesty, / and
daily to be seen at the / place formerly called the / Musick House, near
the / West End of St Pauls’ Church, London. Printed by Tho. Ratcliff
for the Author. Anno Domini 1665.
At p. 9 of this catalogue is this description :—
A strange Sea-Fowle as big as a Goose: it is called the Sea Pinguin. It
cannot fly, for his wings are like Pinnes, and is so thick of Feathers that
one cannot shoot him, unlesse behind against the growth of his thick Down
or Feathers. He is found threescore leagues from the coast of Canada.
Professor A. Newton of Cambridge, in his paper on “ The
Garefowl and its Historians,’ in the ‘ Natural History Review’
for 1865, p. 486, says: “The only place where may possibly
linger the last of the American Garefowls is the Virgin Rocks,
near the edge of, and midway on the north-west side of, the
Great Bank, off the coast of Newfoundland.” On the 29th
September 1885, Professor Newton told me in conversation
that he was then satisfied that the Virgin Rocks could not
have been a breeding-place for the Great Auk, as he had been
told that these rocks are at times covered with water. Writing
upon this subject in ‘The Auk,’ vol. v., No. 3, July 1888, p.
282, Mr Frederic A. Lucas, who evidently is unaware of the
changed views now held by Professor Newton, says of the
Virgin Rocks, “ It will suffice to say that they lie three and
one-half fathoms under water.”
THE FOOD OF THE GREAT AUK.
At p. 72 of ‘The Great Auk or Garefowl; its History,
Archeology, and Remains, I refer to the statement made by
O. Fabricius about the Great Auk feeding upon the lump-fish
(Cyclopterus lumpus). The following remarks on the same
subject, by Mr Frederic A. Lucas, in ‘ The Auk,’ vol. v., No.
3, July 1888, p. 282, are interesting :—
1887-88. ] Recent Notes on the Great Auk. 107
A word regarding the food of the Great Auk, and in support of the
statement made by Fabricius that the lump-fish (Cyclopterus lumpus)
formed an important item in its bill of fare. While the lump-fish is
rather rough to look upon, the bones are extremely brittle, and the strong
beak of the Garefowl would slice through the body of any specimen it
might have captured as easily as the knife of the Eskimo does through the
body of the lump-fish he dries or freezes for his winter store. The young
lump-fish—and these would be most dainty morsels—keep near the surface
of the water, and seek concealment in patches of floating rock-weed, where
they would easily have been detected by the keen eye of a sea-fow] ; while,
being but indifferent swimmers, there would be no safety in flight.
REMAINS OF THE GREAT AUK,
The skins, bones, and eggs of the Great Auk are of con-
siderable value, and the historians of this bird, whoever they
are, will find it no easy matter to hear of all the changes that
take place in ownership, so that they may be recorded. Much
has been already done in recording all existing remains of the
Great Auk, and the first place in this department of alcine
work deservedly falls to Professor William Blasius of Bruns-
wick. Since 1885, when I completed my former list, much
interesting information has come into my hands, mostly the
result of a large correspondence with numerous individuals
both in Europe and America. I am most anxious to place as
much of the information as possible on record, but space will
only permit of my doing so in a curtailed form. I will first
refer to matters connected with skins of the bird, then of the
skeletons and separate bones, and afterwards to the eggs. [
will not attempt to give a detailed list, as I did in my book,
but will only mention matters that have come to my know-
ledge since then, and which I think worth recording. I there-
fore append a summary of the total remains now known,
Skins.
BritisH Isxxs,
Boyle Court, Essex, is the proper address of Mrs Lescher, who has a
specimen of the Great Auk. In my book, by a printer’s error, the
name appeared as Boyne Court.
Clungunford House, Aston-on-Clun, Shropshire.—The specimen pre-
served here was purchased by the late Mr Rocke from Mr Henry
Shaw of Shrewsbury.
Leeds, Museum of Philosophical Society.—I am indebted to Mr
108 Recent Notes on the Great Auk, [Sess.
R. Champley for introducing me to the Rev. 8. Edward Fitch. M.D.,
Scarborough, who sent me the following information on 5th October
1885. After mentioning that he had got the information from the
Rey. R. J. Buddicom, he says: “It appears about forty years ago a
Mr Pinches of Ticherton Church, Shelton, Salop, purchased of Mr
Henry Shaw, 45 High Street, Shrewsbury, this bird,—that at the
death of Mr Pinches it came into the possession of Mrs Buddicom, his
sister, and was sold about thirty years ago to Sir William Milner of
Nunappleton, Yorkshire. From the letter received from Mr H.
Shaw, to whom I at once wrote, I find that he purchased it from
Mr Leadbetter, but does not know how, when, or where Mr Leadbetter
obtained it.” This specimen is now loaned to the Leeds Museum by
Sir Frederick Milner, son of Sir William Milner. (For further infor-
mation see ‘ The Great Auk ; its History, Archeology, and Remains,
App., p. 14.)
GERMANY.
Metz. Town Museum.—Mr G. A. Frank, 9 Haverstock Hill,
London, writing me on 25th October 1887, says: “I have seen this
summer the specimen in Metz (Malherbe), but I fear that this bird
will not last a great many years, as the moths have got in it.”
HOLLAND.
Amsterdam. Museum of Royal Zoological Society.—On the 29th
October 1885, Dr G. F. Westerman, Director of the Royal Zoological
Museum, writes me: “I beg to inform you that the proper date we
bought the stuffed specimen is May 18, 1840.”
Norway.
Christiania. University Museum of Natural History—The speci-
men that was in the collection of Herr Nicolai Aall at Naes, near
Arendal, has been recently remounted, and is now in the above
museum.
SWITZERLAND.
Lausanne. Museum of Natural History.—The Vouga collection
from Cortaillod is now in this museum. Mr G,. A. Frank of London
wrote me from Lausanne on 13th June 1886, and says: “It may
interest you to know that the Vouga collection was sold some five
months ago tothe Lausanne Museum. The price paid for it was 12,000
francs. I went to see the collection to-day with Dr Lareguier. The
birds are not unpacked yet. The only bird I saw was the Auk, a
fine female.”
UNITED STATES.
New York. American Museum of Natural History.—It has been
clearly shown by a writer in ‘The Auk,’ vol. iii., No. 2, p. 263, that
there is only one skin of Alcea impennis in this museum, which is the
fine specimen originally in the collection of Dr Troughton. (See ‘ The
Great Auk ; its History, Archeology, and Remains,’ App., p. 19.)
1887-88.] Recent Notes on the Great Auk. 109
Washington, National Museum.—There is only one specimen in this
museum, and not two, as previously recorded. See ‘The Auk,’ vol.
ili., No. 2, p. 263.
Skeletons.
There are twelve, or perhaps fifteen, additional skeletons of
Alca impennis to record, besides those mentioned in ‘The
Great Auk,’ &c., p. 82; and of the two mummy specimens
said to exist in Harvard University Museum of Comparative
Zoology, Cambridge, Mass., United States, one has to be de-
leted, as only one is preserved there. The following are par-
ticulars of these specimens:— —
British Isues.
Durham. Tn the collection of Dr Tristram, Canon of Durham.—I
am indebted to the Rev. H. H. Slater, Irchester Vicarage, Welling-
boro’, for the following information (see below under Wellingboro’).
One skeleton.
Edinburgh. Museum of Science and Art.—Mr Wm. Eagle Clarke
informed me, 28th August 1888, that Dr R. H. Traquair, F.R.S8., has
just acquired from Mr Edward Gerrard, jun., for the Museum, a very
fine skeleton of Alca impennis. I have been unable to ascertain its
history, so it may be one of those already recorded changing hands.
Wellingboro’. In the collection of the Rev. H. H. Slater, Irchester
Vicarage.—I am indebted to Mr Wm. Eagle Clarke of the Museum of
Science and Art, Edinburgh, for first mentioning this skeleton to me,
and for advising me to communicate with the Rev. H. H. Slater, who
kindly sent me the following. Writing on 2d September 1885, he
says; “The skeleton of Alca impennis in my possession was acquired
thus. It is, as you surmise, part of the Funk Island find (Prof. J.
Milne’s). I was stopping at Dr Tristram’s house in or about the year
1877, and he had just received a box of Great Auk bones, as far as I
remember from Gerrard. Dr Tristram (I mean the Canon of Dur-
ham, not the Chancellor and Q.C.) asked me to look over them, and
make him up a skeleton. I did so, being at the time in good practice
with birds’ bones, and made him a very good one, only a few vertebra,
ribs, and phalanges being absent. As Dr Tristram did not care to
keep the rest of the bones, which would make a very fair skeleton
also, I became their possessor. His skeleton is some degrees better
than mine. His has a good vertebral column.”
GERMANY.
Breslau.—In addition to the foregoing, it is just possible there may
be still another skeleton to record in Germany, as will be seen from
the following communication Professor Wm. Blasius of Brunswick
sent me on 3lst October 1887: “I lately got some information from
Breslau, according to which there may still exist a skeleton of Alca.”
VOL, II, H
IIO Recent Notes on the Great Auk. [Sess.
Since the above communication reached me, I have been unable to
ascertain anything more about this supposed skeleton, so possibly
there is some mistake,
UNITED STATES.
Cambridge, Mass. Museum of Comparative Zoology.—A writer,
“LL, §.,” in ‘The Auk,’ vol. iii., No. 2, p. 265, April 1886, says: “The
Harvard University Museum (=Museum of Comparative Zoology,
Cambridge, Mass.) is credited with the possession of two skeletons
‘prepared from mummy Great Auks obtained at Funk Island during
1864” Mr J. Allen, then curator at the Museum, wrote me under
March 18, 1885, as follows : ‘We have but one specimen of the Great
Auk, and that is to be rated as a skeleton. It is in reality a so-called
mummy, and is from the Funk Islands. Only a portion of the bones
have yet been laid bare—one wing and one leg; the rest is still cov-
ered with the dried flesh. In some unaccountable way it is commonly
and erroneously supposed that we have two of these Great Auk
mummies. Four mummy Great Auks were obtained on Funk
Island—namely, one in 1863, and three in 1864—and of these the
specimen got in 1863 is in Cambridge, England, and of the others,
one is in London, and the other, as above mentioned, at Cambridge,
Mass. The missing one was sent by the Bishop of Newfoundland to
the Nova Scotian Institute of Natural Science. What has become of
it, isthe question, I have addressed repeated inquiries to the Secretary
of the Nova Scotian Institute of Natural Science, but have had no
reply. I hope this may meet the eye of some one who will be able
to make the necessary inquiries in Nova Scotia. While referring to
this subject, it may be as well to draw attention to an interesting
statement made by Mr Frederic A. Lucas in ‘ The Auk,’ vol. v., No. 3,
July 1888, p. 280: ‘The soil of Funk Island, by the way, is frozen
for only a part of the year; and the statement that a mummy of the
Great Auk was “taken from under ice which never melts,” was doubt-
less made from a misapprehension of the facts in the case, for al-
though floe ice is driven upon some portions of the island, it never
reaches those places where the Auk remains lie buried, and never
endures into the summer months.’”
Washington. National Museum.— Writing me 9th August 1888,
Mr Frederic A. Lucas informs me that there are “ten or twelve”
more or less complete skeletons among the remains brought home
by the Grampus Expedition to Funk Island in 1887.
Detached Bones.
At the time I wrote my book, my information led me to
suppose that only bones representing about 45 or 50 Great
Auks had been brought home from Funk Island in 1874 by
Professor J. Milne. However, I was informed by Professor
= a i,
1887-88. Recent Notes on the Great Auk. III
A. Newton of Cambridge, into whose hands the collection was
placed on arrival, that there were at the lowest computation
from 60 to 70 crania. It was not long after my book was
published that Mr Edward Gerrard, jun., dealer in natural
history wares, London, into whose hands this collection went,
sold the last bones in his possession. On 8th September
1885, Mr J. Whitaker, Rainworth Lodge, Mansfield, wrote
me: “I have bought Gerrard’s last bones of Alea impennis.”
From a list of the bones sent me, they appear to represent
only one individual. On the 22d August 1885, Mr William
Eagle Clarke, now of the Museum of Science and Art, Edin-
burgh, informed me by letter that Mr James Backhouse of
York had some remains of Alea impennis in his possession.
I wrote Mr James Backhouse, sen., and got a most courteous
reply, on 21st October 1885, from Mr James Backhouse, jun.,
West Bank, York. He says: “In reply to yours of the 19th
inst., my father has a set of 35 bones of the Great Auk from
Funk Island, which are in a good state of preservation.”
These bones are also part of the Milne collection. In the
Natural History Museum, Bergen, Norway, there are a few
bones that were brought from Funk Island by Herr P. Stuvitz.
The curator of the museum, Herr James A. Griig, writing me
on 5th November 1887, says: “In Bergen Museum there
are only a cranium (maxill. inf. are wanting; the right os
zygomaticus is broken off), a pair of maxill. inf., and a right
humerus of Alca impennis.”
The bones that were found by the late Professor Wyman in
shell-heaps near Ipswich, Massachusetts, are now preserved
in the Peabody Museum of American Archeology and Eth-
nology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., as I have
been informed by Professor F. W. Putnam, present curator,
in a letter dated 29th October 1885. He writes: “The
bones of the Great Auk mentioned by Professor Wyman are
all in this museum. He afterwards obtained others from
shell-heaps on Cape Cod, and I presume there are specimens
among the many bones which I have taken from the shell-
heaps on the coast of Maine, but which, as yet, have only
been roughly identified. Cape Cod is the most southern
limit of the Auk bones, so far as I am aware.”
During the summer of 1887 the United States’ fishery
112 Recent Notes on the Great Auk. [Sess.
cruiser Grampus, under the command of Captain J. W.
Collins, now in charge of the Bureau of Statistics and
Fisheries Investigation in the United States, visited the Bird
Rocks in the Gulf of St Lawrence, and also Funk Island,
off the Newfoundland coast. A most interesting account of
the visit to the Bird Rocks, from the pen of Captain
Collins, appeared in ‘The Boston, Mass., Herald, 25th
July 1887, and there appears to be little doubt that they
are the islands referred to by Jaques Carthier as the islands
of Margaulx.
When the Grampus reached Funk Island, a landing was
effected by the osteologist of the expedition, Mr Frederic A.
Lucas, and a party. They were successful in obtaining a
large quantity of Great Auk remains. Writing me on 9th
August 1888, Mr Lucas says: “I have finished the count of
Auk humeri, and find that we have 1424, so that we have
representatives of at least 712 birds. This does not include
about one and one-half cubic foot of earth containing bones in
situ which will not be disturbed. And yet, with all this, we
can make up only ten or twelve skeletons.” Through the kind
permission of Professor G. Brown Goode of the United States
National Museum, Washington; Mr Lucas has been able to
favour me with photographs of the skeleton of the Great Auk
in the Museum, and also of some remains collected by the
Grampus expedition. To both these gentlemen I desire to
tender my best thanks. Mr Lucas has already contributed
two valuable and interesting papers upon the Great Auk,
resulting from his recent investigations. I have already
repeatedly quoted from one of them which appeared in ‘The
Auk,’ vol. v., No. 3, July 1888, pp. 278 to 283. The other
will be found in ‘The Popular Science Monthly, August
1888, pp. 456 to 464. In this paper he gives a most par-
ticular description of Funk Island and its skerries. He tells
about the places where a landing can be effected, and also the
exact position of the island on which the Great Auk remains
are found. He mentions that undoubtedly the Great Auks
were slaughtered on Funk Island, and did not die natural
deaths, as many of the crania are fractured, and one skull
bears evidence of the stroke of a knife.
The only unrecorded British bone of Alca impennis, so far as
1887-88. ] Recent Notes on the Great Auk. 113
I am aware, is a dorsal vertebra, now in my possession, and
found by me while examining a quantity of material brought
from Caisteal-nan-Gillean, a shell-mound on the island of
Oronsay,—the same place where the other bones discovered
by me came from. (See ‘The Great Auk; its History,
Archxology, and Remains,’ p. 47.)
Lgs.
BritisH Istes.
Addlestone Hall, Surrey. Collection of Leopold Field, Esq.—This
egg was in the possession of the Rev. H. Burney, Woburn, Bedford-
shire. It was sold at Stevens’s Auction Rooms, Covent Garden, for
£168, on 12th December 1887, and bought by Mr Field.
Cambridge. The collection of eggs that belonged to Lord Lilford is
now in the Natural History Museum at Cambridge. It consists of
five eggs, and the following additional particulars regarding two of
these is worth recording.
Lord Lilford’s collection. Lausanne Egg.—So as to prevent any
mistake as to the way the egg obtained at Lausanne by Mr G, A.
Frank, and purchased by Lord Lilford, came into Mr Frank’s hands,
it is as well to publish the following statement by Mr Frank, as at
page 109 of my book I have given information from another source.
He says: “I first heard of the two eggs by chance in 1881, and I
quite believed myself to be the only person who knew of them—
never having been aware that M. Fatio had seen or had given an
account of them. In 1882 I went to see the hon. curator of the
Lausanne Museum, and I then asked him if he would sell or make an
exchange of one of the two eggs. His reply was that he could not
dispose of such a rare specimen without the full consent of the Museum
Committee. The Committee met later on, and they decided, as they
had two specimens, to let me have one of the two for one stuffed
gorilla (not a bad skin, as has been stated), a fine skull, and several
bones of Alca impennis from Professor Milne’s collection, and several
other specimens which they selected. To this I agreed, fully believing
that these two eggs were unknown to science. After keeping it three
months, I sold it to Lord Lilford for £110, not £140. That his lord-
ship obtained the finest egg was a mere chance, as Dr Larguier wished
to keep the most perfect for the Lausanne Museum. I should have
preferred the other one.”
Dorsetshire Egg.—I am indebted to Mr J. E. Harting, editor of the
Zoological and Natural History Department of the ‘Field,’ for the
following information regarding this egg. Its owner, a farmer, Mr
Hill, was quite unaware of its value, and several times had been in-
clined to throw it into the fire—as, being broken at one end, he began
to think it was no ornament to his mantel-shelf. One day a clergy-
man called, and, knowing something about oology, his attention was
114
Recent Notes on the Great Auk, [Sess.
attracted by the broken egg-shell, and having some idea of its value,
he asked Mr Hill why he did not take better care of it. The reply
he got was that it was a useless egg-shell, aud it had often been
intended to destroy it, but that to settle the matter it would be thrown
on the fire there and then. The clergyman advised Mr Hill not to be
in such a hurry to destroy it, as he believed the ege-shell was of con-
siderable value—if it was, as he supposed, that of a Great Auk. The
farmer was incredulous, but agreed to wait until the authorities at the
British Museum were communicated with. When he heard that, if it
was really an egg of the Great Auk, it was very valuable, he brought
it to London. He placed it in the hands of Mr Bowdler Sharpe, of
the British Museum, who put him in communication with Lord Lil-
ford, who bought it for £50.
Cambridge. Collection of Mr G. L. Russell—Since this paper was
read, this egg, along with a collection, has been presented to the
Natural History Museum, Cambridge.
Croydon, Surrey. The egg that belonged to the late Mr Alfred
Crowley is now in the possession of his brother, Mr Philip Crowley, at
Waddon House.
London. Collection of the late Lord Garvagh.—On the 5th February
1886 the present Lord Garvagh wrote informing me that the whole
collection of the late Lord Garvagh was sold to the Dublin Museum,
and that if the broken egg was retained in the collection it would
be found there. I have, however, ascertained that they know noth-
ing regarding the broken egg in that Institution.
London. Collection of Mr Gardiner.—This egg belonged to Mrs
Wise, who lived at one time near Reigate, Surrey. This lady re-
moved to Steyning, near Brighton, and sold the egg in her possession
at Mr J. C. Stevens’s Auction Rooms, Covent Garden, on the 12th
March 1888, for the sum of £225, to Mr Gardiner, dealer in natural
history wares, Oxford Street, London. Holland was the maiden
name of Mrs Wise, and her late father, Mr H. Lancelot Holland,
bought the egg on 6th October 1851 for £18 from Williams of Lon-
don, who, in turn, had bought it from Lefévre of Paris,
Saffron- Walden. The egg that was in the collection of Mr Tuke,
Hitchin, Hertfordshire, is now in the Saffron-Walden Museum, The
curator, Mr Maynard, is said to have taken some casts of it.
Scarborough. Collection of Robert Champley, Esq.—I am much in-
debted to Mr Champley for kindly allowing me to publish the follow-
ing information regarding the history of the nine eggs in his collection,
which is the finest in existence. The information is from Mr Champ-
ley’s private notes, made at the time of each transaction :—
No 1, figured in Thienemann.—The above egg, and the first I
obtained, came into my possession in the following singular manner.
IT had written to Mr Newman, the editor of ‘The Zoologist,’ a letter:
asking him if he could inform me what had become of the egg that
belonged to the late Mr Yarrell. I received no reply ; but my letter
1887-88. ] Recent Notes on the Great Auk. 115
to Mr Newman, unknown to myself, was inserted on the outer cover
of § The Zoologist.’ Some months after I received a letter from Kunz,
Leipzig. He informed me he had seen my query respecting Yarrell’s
egg, and said he had an egg for sale. Would I have it? He wrotea
second letter giving the price, £18 (July 1859). Five letters refer to
this transaction. The egg, from its beautiful shape, is the finest
known. This ege was purchased from Theodore Schultz in 1857, he
then residing at Neuhaldensleben, Saxony (a short description of
which appears in ‘Cabanis,’ January 1860). Schultz purchased it
from a person of the same name then residing at Leipzig. He re-
ceived it, with six others, from Iceland. No. 2.—This egg is engraved
in Bideker’s ‘ European Oology.’ My first intimation of its whereabouts
was from reading a number of ‘ Cabanis.’ I purchased the egg with
the bird (said to have laid the egg) in 1861, from the apothecary
Mecklenburg, residing at Flensburg, Denmark (now Germany),—the
same person who sold Hancock his egg and bird obtained from Iceland,
1829. Egg perfect, well marked with blotches. Mecklenburg’s son,
after his father’s death, sent me a catalogue of his eggs and skins for
sale, including another skin of the Great Auk, but with, I think, false
feet. I don’t know what became of this last skin. No 3.—This egg
was obtained during my Italian tour in 1861. I was at Verona, 31st
May 1861. I met accidentally a Russian nobleman at the station
(Porta Neuva). My acquaintance was renewed at Milan a few days
later, on the evening of 2d June. I met him near the Duomo, the
day of the celebration of the unity of Italy. He told me he was
going to see the Certosa Monastery the following morning. We
agreed to go together, and another friend accompanied us. We three
took a carriage and pair, and arrived at the convent, fifteen miles dis-
tant, about noon. We then drove on to Pavia, five miles farther.
After seeing the cathedral, we went to look at the university, and
went over the Museum of Anatomy. I inquired if there were any
eggs and birds in the museum, and was answered in the affirmative.
On looking round the glass cases, I noticed many eggs stuck on wires
on shelves, but all black over with dust. I noticed among some large
eggs what I thought was an egg of a Great Auk. I asked the attend-
ant to open the case, but he had not the key. I told him to go for
the sub-director. He returned with him and opened the case, which
was fastened with screws. I took down the egg, black over with dirt,
and rubbed it clean, and saw it was an Alca impennis. I told the sub-
director I would exchange some skins for it. He could not say any-
thing, but referred me to the chief director, and at the same time told
me that the collection was given by Professor Spallanzani one hundred
years before, and that Spallanzani had been one of the lecturers in the
University. My friend the Russian interpreted for me. When I ob-
tained the address of the chief director, I proceeded to his residence,
accompanied by a youth, a student of the college, who spoke English
—my friends meanwhile staying at the museum waiting my return.
On my arrival at the director’s residence, I told him there was
amongst the eggs an egg of “Le Grand Pinguin,” and I should be
116 Recent Notes on the Great Auk. Peas:
glad if he would let me have it for an exchange. He accompanied me
back to the museum. After looking at the egg, the sub-director told
him I had offered five napoleons or an equivalent in exchange for it.
He said they would rather prefer the money. I therefore borrowed
the amount from my Russian friend, and, after packing the egg care-
fully, left the museum, they seeming sorry that they had no more
specimens, and considered they had got a good bargain. We arrived
at Milan at seven in the evening. I had a box made for the egg the
next day. The egg is perfect, and thickly pencilled at the thick end.
No. 4.—This fine egg was obtained as follows: Passing through Paris
for Italy the same year (1861), I called on Parzudaki, the French
naturalist. He told me the Abbé la Motte had an ege of Alca im-
pennis, but was then in Algiers. I told him to buy it for me, and to
write in three months to me at the Poste Restante, Rotterdam. On
arriving there I found his letter, saying the son was at Abbeville, and
asking instructions. I at once wrote telling him to buy the egg. This
he did for £24. I have four letters referring to this purchase. No
history, excepting a statement that it was obtained forty years pre-
viously from French whalers. Nos. 5 and 6.—I bought these eggs in
London from Ward, the naturalist in Vere Street, in 1864. Pre-
viously I had received a letter from Fairmaire, Paris, saying he had
two eggs. Unfortunately his letter was sent to Scarborough while I
was in London. There was consequently some delay in my knowing
he had the two eggs for sale. As Fairmaire did not hear from me, he
supposed I either did not care to have the eggs or that I had not got
his letter. When I wrote he said he had parted with them. By
chance the same week I called at Ward’s, and he showed me one egg,
for which I gave him £25, and asked him if he had any more. He
then showed me another egg, for which I paid him £30. I then asked
him if he had any more, as I would take twenty. He smiled. He
would not say how he got them ; but I afterwards found out they were
the same as offered to me by Fairmaire. I called on Ward many
times after, and he always regretted having parted with these eggs.
They are perfect, and well marked. I don’t know their previous: his-
tory. Nos. 7, 8, and 9.—These eggs were bought in 1864 from Pro-
fessor Flower, then of the Royal College of Surgeons, London. They
were part of the collection of ten eggs of Alca impennis in the Hunt-
erian Collection. I had difficulty in getting them, as at the time they
would not take money. I got over the difficulty by purchasing a col-
lection of anatomical specimens for £45, which the museum was
anxious to possess, and then exchanged it for the four eggs, all very
fine specimens. If I had pressed at that time, I could have got the
other four eggs afterwards sold at Stevens’s salerooms in July 1865.
FRANCE.
Chateau de Manonville, Meurthe.—The three eggs in the collection of
the Count de Baracé, Angers, have been purchased by Baron Louis
d@Hamonville, Chateau de Manonville, par Noviant-aux-Pres, Meurthe,
and are now in his possession, These, added to Yarrell’s egg already
a |
PCA ES ITs
GREAT AUK OR GAREFOWL.
(Alea tmpennis Livi.)
1887-88. ] Recent Notes on the Great Auk. i177
recorded as in Baron Louis d’Hamonville’s collection, makes him the
owner of four eggs in all.
GERMANY.
Breslau. Count Rédern’s collection—It is as well to explain, to
avoid future confusion, that this is not the egg sold by Herr Mecklen-
burg of Flensburg to a Herr Platow of Breslau, and of which Mr
Robert Champley of Scarborough has a drawing.
HOLLAND.
Amsterdam. Museum of Royal Zoological Society.—At p. 89 of my
book I print a letter from Professor Schlegel of Leyden Zoological
Museum to Robert Champley, Esq., Scarborough, from which it ap-
pears that in 1859 one of the eggs in the Leyden Museum had been
presented to the Royal Zoological Museum at Amsterdam. From
what Mr G. A. Frank of 9 Haverstock Hill, London, writes me, there
appears to be some mistake with regard to the date of the egg reaching
Amsterdam, as well as the conditions under which it came into that
collection. On the 30th October 1885 Mr Frank wrote me: “I re-
turned yesterday from Holland. Dr Westerman told me that Tem-
minck gave him the egg between 1840 and 1845.” Writing me again
on 5th November 1885, he says: “It does not much matter when they
came into possession of it [the egg], but I know for certain that it was
never in Professor Schlegel’s time. I often made a drawing of it when
I was a boy some twenty-five years ago. Dr Westerman told me last
week that he obtained it in exchange from Temminck.”
Leyden. Zoological Museum.—Mr G. A. Frank, writing me 30th
October 1885, says: “I believe that the two eggs (now one in Amster-
dam) were bought by Temminck from my grandfather or father.”
SumMARY OF ExistinG REMAINS OF THE GREAT AUK.
Total number of
birds represented.
Skins, . 3 ‘ - . : 78 or 79
Skeletons more or less complete . : 21 or 24
Detached bones,? - : : A 841 or 851
Physiological preparations, . : : 2 or 3
Eggs, . : c : : : 67 or 69
1 If the skeleton recently acquired by the Museum of Science and Art, Edin-
burgh, is found to be one of those already recorded, it must then be deducted
from the above total, which will read 21 or 23.
2 Mr Frederic A. Lucas informs me that the result of his count of the humeri
of Alca impennis collected by the s.s. Grampus expedition at Funk Island in
1887 is 1424; and supposing that exactly one-half of that number were right
humeri and the other half left humeri, it would be evident that at least 712
Great Auks were represented by these remains. However, it is much more likely
that there is an unequal number of either right or left humeri ; and when this is
ascertained, it will enable a much more accurate calculation of the exact number
of birds represented by these remains to be made. In the meantime, it is only
118 Recent Notes on the Great Auk. [Sess.
REPUTED FRAGMENT OF GREAT AUK SKIN.
Boston. Collection of Mr Charles B. Cory.—A writer who signs himself
“U.S.” in ‘The Auk,’ vol. iii., No. 2, p. 263, says: ‘ Mr Charles B. Cory has
a few moments ago orally informed me that what he possesses is only a frag-
ment of a skin of a breast and a few odd feathers, said to be from the Great
Auk, which he bought some years ago of a dealer a little outside of London,
and for which he paid £2.” From the foregoing, it may be inferred that
Mr Cory has some doubt as to the above-mentioned remains being really
those of Alca impennis Linn, There are so many sea-birds from which
portions of plumage can be obtained similar to that of the Great Auk, that
it would be as well to have fuller information regarding the fragment of
skin and the feathers in question, before including them among the genuine
remains of the Great Auk,
IMITATION REMAINS OF ALCA IMPENNIS LINN.
It may interest you to know that recently the number of
imitation skins of Great Auks has been on the increase, and
most of them have been sold, or offered for sale, for what they
actually are—namely, models. However, I recently heard of
a collector who was offered what was described as an unre-
corded skin of the Great Auk, but which, on examination, was
found to be merely a model. It is only about a year ago that a
well-known ornithologist was passing through a town in the
midland counties, when by chance he happened to look into
a confectioner’s window. There he saw, to his amazement, a
stuffed Great Auk. He at once went into the shop to make
inquiries, no doubt with the idea that he would be able to
record another specimen of Alca impennis. He saw the pro-
prietor, who told him it was only an imitation, and that, be-
sides selling confectionery, he did some bird-stufting upon his
own account in the back premises. It transpired that, having
been a trip to Germany, the confectioner had séen a Great
Auk model, and determined to make one for himself on his
return home. To make sure of proceeding rightly, he visited
the museums in York and Leeds, where there are stuffed
specimens—made drawings, and then constructed his model
from Alcea torda and other skins. The ornithologist was so
pleased with the correctness of the model that he purchased
a rough approximation. In addition to the detached bones mentioned above,
there is about 14 cubic foot of earth got by the Grampus expedition with Great
Auk bones in situ, which are not to be disturbed,
1887-88. | Recent Notes on the Great Auk. 119
it, and it has found a place in his collection, no doubt pro-
perly ticketed.
With regard to the eggs, I may say that numerous casts of
different eggs have been taken, and painted so like the origi-
nals that, when seen lying in drawers, they can hardly be iden-
tified. It appears to me that casts should be made of all
Great Auk eggs, as they are so rare, and each egg has some
peculiar difference in the markings. The best proof of the
value of this practice is in the case of a Great Auk egg which
was destroyed in a fire a good many years ago, and all know-
ledge of its appearance would have been lost had there not
fortunately existed a beautifully painted cast.
In conclusion, I may be permitted to say that the tendency
is for Great Auk remains in private collections steadily to find
their way into public museums, where they will be more acces-
sible to ornithologists, better cared for, and unobtainable by
collectors. This will no doubt in time, to a great extent,
remove the present necessity for recording changes in connec-
tion with alcine remains.
Nore.—The most recent rumoured observation of a Great Auk comes from
Iceland. On the 19th September 1888, after this paper was in the printers’
hands, I was informed by Mr T. G. Paterson, who had just returned from
Iceland, that while there he met an official, a well-educated and reliable man,
who stated that nineteen years ago, when he was with a vessel engaged in the
white-shark fishing near Mevenklint, he saw what he believed was a Great Auk.
Mevenklint is said to be a skerry (about the size of Eldey, off Reykjanes) situated
40 miles N.N.W. of Grimsey, in about 67° N. lat. and 18° W. long. It is marked
on the chart at the end of my book, but seems a doubtful station for the Great
Auk, as it is considerably within the Arctic circle.
ILLUSTRATIONS.
Prare I.—Figure of a stuffed specimen of the Great Auk in the American
Museum of Natural History, Central Park, New York. This specimen at
one time belonged to Dr Troughton, and after his death was bought by Mr D.
G. Elliot, through the agency of Mr Cook, dealer in natural history wares,
for the museum, where it is now preserved.
Puate II.—Faesimile of the original figure of a Great Auk, reduced one-
third, given by the Danish naturalist, Olaus Wormius, in his ‘ Museum Wormi-
anum seu Historie Rerum Rariorum’ (Copenhagen), Leyden, 1655, p. 301. It
was probably drawn from a living Great Auk, as Wormius had one from the
Faroes, which he succeeded in keeping alive for some months. The white ring
round the neck was evidently intended to bear an inscription, and is not natural
to the bird. The Scottish Society of Antiquaries has kindly given me the electro-
type from which the figure is printed,
120 . The Rook. [Sess.
Il—THE ROOK.
By Mr TOM SPEEDY.
(Read Jan. 25, 1888.)
In writing an essay on birds, I propose to introduce to you
our familiar friend, the rook. No bird, I imagine, will be
more welcome, as with it every person is more or less familiar.
Even those living in towns have frequent facilities afforded
them for observing the habits of this bird, especially at nest-
ing-time, which is denied to many in the country. Rooks
often take possession of a clump of trees in large centres of
population, where, as a rule, they rear their young more safely
than in rural districts, municipal law forbidding the use of fire-
arms or the scaling of trees within its boundaries. Those who
live in houses of high elevation, with windows overlooking
rookeries in towns, as in the Meadows or Newington in our own
city, must be interested in observing the habits of those birds.
What an absence of sloth! and what a lesson of industry may
there be learned! How scientific and business-like they ap-
pear, as if their whole energies were centred in their work.
No trades-unionism, no strikes, no half-holidays on Saturday
afternoons for them. From the time they begin to carry the
first stick to the nest, till the young birds can take care of
themselves, it is an endless scene of bustle and anxiety from
early dawn till darkness has set in. It does seem strange
that a pair of young rooks—or indeed any kind of birds—can
the following spring commence a structure, and, without ex-
perience, but with unerring instinct, build a nest identical with
the one in which they themselves were reared. As some of
the old nests, with a little trimming and repair, are utilised, I
may presume, by old birds, the difficulty of building devolves
upon young ones. Their first and not the least important duty
is to select a tree with sufficient forks to hold the nest to-
gether, and when a fit one is found, in a few days they com-
mence the structure. It sometimes happens that they fly to
a considerable distance for suitable sticks to make the frame
which supports the inner parts of the nest. The branch of an
elm or thorn is frequently chosen, and to watch them breaking
a
af
——
a i es
1887-88.] The Rook. 12f
one off is most amusing. How they seize it with their power-
ful beaks, suspend themselves by it in the air, and bend it
backwards and forwards in a most persevering manner till it
eventually gives way, when they carry it off in triumph.
After their own nest is completed, it is no unusual thing to
see rooks assisting others in building their nests—a neigh-
bourly act, which, with the exception of the swallow, is rarely
indulged in by the feathered tribe. That they occasionally vio-
late the eighth commandment is true ; but that they hold trials
and condemn the delinquents to death, which is speedily put
into execution, as asserted by some naturalists, is questionable.
Certainly no such incident has ever come within my observa-
tion. The habits of rooks, like those of all other birds, are
governed by uniform laws; and while exceptional incidents,
which may be regarded as a departure from their normal
habits, are occasionally met with, they are, I am certain,
exceedingly rare. It has also been recorded that when a rook
has been found stealing sticks from a neighbouring nest, the
whole colony attack it, tear its nest to pieces, and drive it
from the rovkery. This also, if correct, is very exceptional,
—though rooks frequently, after nests have been finished, evi-
dently change their mind, and in an incredibly short time
remove every stick. Why they should do so is one of the
many secrets in the habits of birds which the closest observers
have as yet failed satisfactorily to explain.
In April last a pair of rooks built their nest on the top of
a chimney at The Inch, near Edinburgh, the house being im-
mediately surrounded by a rookery, and the entire park thickly
studded with trees. That they should have indulged in this
strange freak is remarkable, as rooks seldom build their nests
elsewhere than on trees when the facilities for their doing so
exist. In due course five eggs were dropped into the nest,
and the process of hatching entered upon. For a fortnight
the. hen bird—relieved occasionally by the male—sat closely
on the nest, and the following week young birds were expected
to be hatched. Though their motive will doubtless for ever
remain a mystery, a number of rooks one morning commenced,
and in a few hours removed every stick of the nest, using
these to build another nest in the wood, though by this time
a month behind the normal time for nidification, What be-
122 The Rook. [Sess.
came of the eggs was never discovered, but had the punish-
ment inflicted been for thieving, it is not too much to say it
would have been dealt with more summarily, and that three
weeks would not have elapsed before it was put into execu-
tion.
Though rooks, like most of the feathered tribe, display a
deal of pugnacity at pairing time, there are few birds which
possess more of social instinct, as in all circumstances they
seem to enjoy the fellowship of each other. Though many
birds may be termed gregarious, none in this country so strictly
deserve the name as the rook. Starlings may be seen in large
flocks feeding on our meadows. Plover in immense numbers
frequent our fields. Wood-pigeons in thousands roost in our
woods, and feed on our turnips and on our stubbles. No sooner,
however, does spring come round, than they pair off to their
respective haunts, to breed in solitude. It is not so with
rooks. They invariably form themselves into colonies, scores
and sometimes hundreds of nests being constructed on trees
within a very limited area.
Whether rooks are the foes or friends of the farmer has
long been a controverted question. Some assert they do a
very considerable amount of damage to crops, while others
maintain that any mischief they do is more than counter-
balanced by the immense numbers of slugs, wire-worms, &c.,
they devour, which are so destructive to young plants. That
they work a certain amount of mischief, especially in dry sea-
sons, is true; but they are often mistakenly charged with eat-
ing up the crops, while they are taking the best possible means
of protecting them. In illustration of this, some years ago, in
the early spring, a farm-grieve tried to stalk a flock of rooks
which were busy feeding on a field of grain. Meeting him,
he requested me to shoot some of them, as they were “ playing
the vera mischief wi’ the wheat.” Concealing myself behind
a hedge, I asked him to go round and startle them, to which
he readily agreed, when I had no difficulty in killing a couple
as they flew overhead. “ Man, that’s grand!” the grieve ex-
claimed, as he came forward. “I'll hing them up in the field
to scaur ithers.” Carrying the two birds in my hand, we
walked to where the rooks had been feeding, when we dis-
covered numerous holes dug by their powerful beaks, and
1887-88.] The Rook. 123
blades of young wheat strewn all around. On minute exami-
nation, however, I observed that the blades which had been
pulled up corresponded with a considerable number which
were not so bright in colour as healthy plants are, and digging
one up with my knife, I discovered a small grub adhering to
the root. On opening the gizzards of both birds, I found a
large number of grubs, while no traces of wheat or green
blades were discernible.
Another illustration in point. During the protracted
drought of last summer, a blight seemed to come over a large
quantity of onions in a market-garden at Craigmillar. The
plants at first became slightly discoloured, and eventually
withered away. My attention was called to the circumstance
that the market-gardener was having his onions pulled up
and eaten by the rooks. I felt that while it might be true
that the onions were being pulled up, I was at the same time
certain that it was not that they might be partaken of as
food. On visiting the spot, I at once observed that the
onions were blighted and fading away, as if they had been
sown where there was neither moisture nor soil. This at once
led to the solution of the difficulty, as, upon careful inspec-
tion, I found, as I had anticipated, that the onions were being
destroyed by grubs, which in incalculable numbers pervaded
the entire area on which they had been sown. It will thus
be seen that the object of the rooks in pulling up the plants
was to devour these pestilent insects, as not one of the
plants exhibited the slightest indication of having been par-
taken of. It was interesting to note the sagacity which the
birds displayed in pulling them up, as in no ease did they
make a mistake, even when discoloration could not be dis-
covered by the human eye. It is needless to say that here,
as in the case of the wheat referred to, the rooks rendered a
valuable service to the farmer, and to society at large. It
will be evident that there is a danger of the interests of
the farmer being overlooked by superficial observers rushing
to hasty conclusions, as was the case of the grieve referred
to. As by scientific investigation many palpable mistakes
in agriculture are being discovered, so will the interests of
farmers and gardeners be promoted as the facts of natural
history become more generally and accurately understood,
124 The Rook. [Sess.
The same remarks may be said to apply to those occa-
sional descents which are made upon newly singled turnip-
fields in dry weather by rooks. While, as I have pointed
out, they render immense service to agriculturists in picking
up wire-worms and grubs, which are so destructive to plants,
it is nevertheless true that in certain seasons they are respon-
sible for a very considerable amount of mischief. When
potatoes are appearing through the ground, they dig down
for the seed, which they rarely fail to carry off, and in con-
sequence numerous blanks are visible when the crop grows
up, unless vigilance is practised by “herding” them. In the
plundering ay potato-fields, rooks display a more than ordi-
nary degree of sagacity in their mode of getting at the early
potatoes. Instead of digging down along the side of the
plant from the top of the ridge, they are often to be found
penetrating into the sides of the ridges at a lower level, right
opposite the potatoes, so that labour is thereby economised.
In protracted droughts, as in hard frosts, rooks have ex-
treme difficulty in obtaining their food-supplies. This I have
frequently noticed by about a score of them coming regularly
to feed in my back-garden, where scraps were thrown out to
the birds. No sooner, however, had there been a few hours’
rain than they disappeared, preferring grubs and worms—the
catching of which was facilitated by the moisture—to the bits
of bread and meat thrown out. So long as the weather re-
mained damp, with occasional showers, they were never seen,
but in dry weather, as in frost, they immediately returned.
The reason of this is obvious, as in dry hot weather grubs go
down into the cool earth beneath, but invariably return near
the surface after rain.
It is asserted by some agriculturists that the damage done
to young wheat by rooks is not by eating the seed, “but by
nipping off and devouring the shoot, which “of course destroys
the plant. If such were the case, it is not too much to
say that when pressed by hunger in droughts or frost, they
would regale themselves on the shoots of grain or grass,
which they would have no difficulty in obtaining. This asser-
tion I am exceedingly loath to believe, as in none of those
whose gizzards I have examined have I ever found green
blades of any description.
1887-88.] The Rook. 125
Recurring to rooks feeding in the garden, it is in such cir-
cumstances that their shrewdness and forethought obtrude
themselves on our attention. Several cats were in the habit
of appearing as soon as the food was thrown out. The rooks,
by their noise and attitude of offence, proved themselves able
to keep the cats at bay until their appetites were fully satis-
fied, when, on their leaving, the cats picked up the remaining
food. On the rooks discovering this, it was an interesting
study to observe them, as, after having satisfied themselves,
they picked up pieces of the remaining meat and carried them
off to different parts of the garden, where they carefully buried
them in the earth. During the afternoon they regularly re-
turned, and with unerring accuracy disinterred the pieces of
meat buried in the morning.
The reflective instinct exhibited by the rook is proverbial,
and developed to a larger extent than in most other birds.
Its powers of arithmetical calculation have long attracted the
attention of naturalists. It has been found that they can
count numbers accurately up to three inclusive, but that this
is the limit of their capacity of calculation. This peculiarity
in the rook has been discredited by many, but, when tested by
experiment, has been again and again verified. For example,
when they are so pressed for food during a snow-storm as to
visit a stack of grain, let a place of concealment be extem-
porised by branches of trees or other material within easy
shot, where watchers can successfully conceal themselves. If,
after being repeatedly fired at from the ambush in question,
the rooks discover one, two, or three persons betake themselves
to the place of concealment and leave at intervals, it will be
found that they will not descend to feed until the last of the
three has left. But should four or more persons place them-
selves under cover, it will be found that after the third has
left their sense of danger disappears, as will be seen by their
beginning to feed with apparent security. I am not aware of
this peculiarity being possessed to the same extent by any
other bird.
I have several times been much interested in observing the
ingenuity displayed by rooks in extracting grease from the
grease-box above the wheels of railway-waggons. Perching
at the side of the wheel, and placing their necks awry, they
VOL, II, I
126 Notes on the Conifere. [Sess.
pushed their beaks sideways under the lid of the grease-box,
and, by a process of ingenuity rarely equalled by the feathered
tribe, were thus able to dine at the expense of the railway
company.
There are few subjects of study more pleasing and interest-
ing to the genial and generous mind than that of natural
history, and few of our common birds more deserve a passing
notice than our sable ubiquitous friend, the rook.
IlI.—NOTES ON THE CONIFER.
By Mr HUGH FRASER.
(Read Jan. 25, 1888.)
Amona the many Orders into which the vegetable kingdom
is divided, it would be difficult, or probably impossible, to
name one more important, either from an economic or orna-
mental point of view, than the Conifere. Their wonderful
diversity of habit, from the procumbent junipers of Europe,
whose stature is measured by inches, to the majestic Welling-
tonia of California, rising to the almost fabulous height of 360
feet ; the varieties of colour and tint which the foliage as-
sumes, and the uniform gracefulness and symmetry of growth
which characterise every member of the family, combined
with the fact that a large proportion of the grandest forms are
adapted to the soils and climate of this country—all render
them universal favourites as ornamental plants. The well-
known value, also, of many of them as timber-trees—of some
for their resin, and of others for their fruit—must always
ensure their extensive use in forest planting in this and every
other country over the world.
There is no region or continent which does not produce its
conifers; and as they are. usually found at high altitudes, a
singularly large proportion of the species are suitable for culti-
vation in our climate. China and Japan send us their quota
of Abies, Cupressus, and Pinus; India, its magnificent cedars,
.
1887-88.] Polarised Dark-ground Illumination. 127
and many other most valued forms; South America, its arau-
earia; North America, a host of species of sorts which are
peculiar to itself, including many which, we are persuaded,
will rank one day as most useful timber-trees in Europe; while
Europe, including Great Britain, has its pines and spruces,
which, while lending their own peculiar effects to the landscape,
are almost rivals to the oak as timber-producing trees,
From the very limited time at our disposal, and the magni-
tude of our subject, it seems very obvious that we will best
consult your convenience if we briefly allude to some of the
representative forms of the various genera on the table. We
have arranged them in alphabetical order for easy reference :
the more scientific study of the various divisions must neces-
sarily be left for the private study of those who feel more
particularly interested in the subject.
The following genera were then taken up sertatim, and a short descrip-
tive account given of the habit of growth, geographical distribution, and
cultivation of each :—
Abies. Cupressus. Prumnopitys.
Arauearia. Fitz-Roya. Retinospora.
Biota. Juniperus. Sciadopytis.
Cedrus, Larix. Taxus.
Cephalotaxus. Libocedrus, Thuja.
Chameecy paris, Picea. Thujopsis.
Cryptomeria. Pinus. Wellingtonia.
IV.—POLARISED DARK-GROUND ILLUMINATION.
By Mr WILLIAM PEN MAN, Assoc. M.Inst.C.E,
(Read Feb, 22, 1888.)
Last session I had the honour of making a communication to
the Society upon the subject of “Diatoms under Dark-ground
Illumination ;” and as you have been good enough to embody
the paper in your ‘Transactions, I will not recapitulate the
methods and phenomena therein described, although they
necessarily form the groundwork of the important subject I
now desire to bring before your notice.
128 Polarised Dark-ground Illumination. [Sess.
Some time ago I had the good fortune to become possessed
of a very fine polarising prism, which fits into the substage
arrangement of my Ross microscope; and it occurred to me
that, on account of the largeness of the prism, I might to
advantage employ polarisation with medium powers—especially
as my substage is capable of carrying a condenser along with
the polariser. With this in view, I began to experiment with
a half-inch objective and open aperture on diatoms, and was
rather startled to find that certain forms polarised quite
readily, and that those were the same diatoms that appeared
most brilliantly iridescent under dark-ground illumination.
No sooner did this strike me than I introduced a stop, or spot,
into the substage condenser, thereby producing a dark ground,
and saw for the first time what I believe to be one of the
finest microscopical effects—namely, polarised diatoms upon a
black ground. I soon found that pursuing these observations
only served to bring out fresh examples of the magnificence of
this illumination, and so I have thought that a short paper to
the Society upon this subject might be acceptable.
This polarising—or, more properly speaking, depolarising—
property of the Diatomaceze is not in itself surprising, when we
remember that they are composed of silica—ze., quartz or
flint—which is a positive uniaxial crystal, and consequently
depolarises light. Unfortunately, but like very many other
things, good results in polarised dark-ground treatment can
only be attained by the exercise of some trouble, and the
bringing together of certain factors in their most favourable
conditions. To begin with: it is necessary to be possessed of
a microscope fitted with a substage which is capable of carry-
ing both a polariser and a condenser at the same time. The
polarising prism should be large, so as to admit a very power-
ful beam of light to the condenser above. In order to make
the illumination as bright as possible, a good lamp and a large
deep bull’s-eye condenser should be used, and the light thrown
into the substage from the concave side of the mirror. Owing
to the maximum power of ordinary micro. illumination being
a fixed quantity, only a limited number of diatoms can be
selected for dark-ground exhibition—namely, those that are
large enough to be properly seen under a medium-power
objective. Smaller diatoms, requiring higher powers, either
1887-88.] Polarised Dark-ground Illumination. 129
have their radiancy killed by the inevitable loss of light, or
cannot be made to stand on dark-ground by reason of the
increased aperture of the objective. For this work I would
therefore recommend the use of a half-inch objective of
moderate aperture, so that all the frustules in the field of the
instrument may be sharp to the edges. Deep eyepiecing con-
sumes light, and should be avoided, although I admit that
the effect of occasionally inserting the Kelner orthoscopic C is
very striking, on account of its enormous field. Lastly, the
selenites should be in the form of discs, set on the top of the
polariser, and beneath the condenser, so as not to interfere
with the focus of the emergent rays from the condenser.
Considering the somewhat complicated nature of the sub-
stage apparatus, at first sight it must seem a matter of diffi-
culty to adjust this kind of illumination, but in reality it is
not so. The operation is as follows: Transmit the light in
the ordinary way, focus the object, and centre the stop of the
substage condenser so as to get a perfectly black ground, at
the same time being careful not to cross the prisms, otherwise,
in the first instance, you will get too much darkness. In con-
junction with the adjustment of the stop, it is necessary to
rack the condenser up or down until a position is found where
the field and object are in greatest contrast—namely, where
the object is most brightly lit up and the field darkest. One
or two movements of the mirror generally require to be made
during this operation of centering. By rotating the analysing
prism the splendid effects are then seen, the thickness of the
selenite governing the prevailing colours. I wish again to
mention that, in order to get bright images, and a large num-
ber of them in the field, a low ocular should be used. The
brightness may be greatly enhanced by the application of
glycerine between the condenser and slide; and if a slip
selenite is used, it also should be brought into contact with
the slide by the same means. With your indulgence I will
endeavour to describe the effects of polar dark-ground upon a
few familiar diatoms, the power used being a half-inch, with
an A eyepiece on a ten-inch tube—that is to say, under a
magnification of 100 diameters.
A very slight study will suffice to convince the observer
that there are two distinct classes of diatoms—first, iridescent
130 Polarised Dark-ground Illumination. [Sess.
or spectral; and, second, opaque: and, for convenience, I will
call the one iridescent and the other opaque. For example,
if you examine Aulacodiscus with ordinary dark-ground, you
will find the diatom tinted with certain colours for which it
appears to have an affinity; if you now add the polariscope,
you will produce an extra colour derived from the selenite.
Isthmia enervis, Arachnoidiscus, &c., may be taken as examples
of the other or opaque class, because, when viewed by ordi-
nary dark-ground light, they appear colourless; but if the
polariscope is applied, they are immediately coated over by the
selenite colour, and never present more than one colour at a
time. In my former paper, I took the liberty of suggesting
possible explanations for the phenomenon of colour in diatoms
under ordinary dark-ground illumination, and the subsequent
examinations I have made confirm my opinion in these respects
—(1), that some diatoms have an affinity, so to speak, for a
certain colour, and this colour is evolved from those parts of
the frustules only where the markings exist; (2), that it is
possible, by racking the spot-lens up or down, to change this
colour from one end of the spectrum to the other, demonstrat-
ing the great dispersive power of the object; and, (3), that on
account of the form of other diatoms, the pencils of light may
impinge upon various parts at angles of greater or less obliq-
uity, and thus appear variegated. Bearing in mind, there-
fore, that dark-ground illumination is entirely produced by
reflection, the foregoing appearances are the direct outcome of
the changed angle of incident ray, depending mainly on the
focal length of the condenser.
With regard to these spectral colours, let me explain that
Sir David Brewster, in his celebrated experiments upon mother-
of-pearl, discovered by means of the microscope that the sur-
face of that material is of grooved or striated structure,
resembling that on the tip of a child’s finger, and that these
grooves are not of uniform interval, but range from 200 to
3000 to the inch. It was also discovered that an impression
of these lines, taken in wax, or almost any suitably plastic
material, gives the same effect, from whence it follows that
the beautiful iridescence of this and many other substances
emanates. About the same time Sir John Barton succeeded,
by cutting fine lines upon steel from 2000 to 10,000 to the
1887-88] Polarised Dark-ground Lllumination. 131
inch, in producing the well-known buttons, known originally
as “ Barton’s buttons.” Sir David Brewster, in experimenting
on steel lines, found that grooves of 1000 to the inch, with
the light striking at various angles, gave as follows: at 90%,
White; 74°, brilliant blue; 60°, pink; 24°, green; while a
specimen ruled to 500 lines to the inch gave yellow through-
out. You will thus observe that we have now two factors in
the proposition—namely, (1), fineness or degree of marking;
and, (2), angle of incident light. Sir David Brewster also
found, that if the surface of the steel be covered with fluid,
more orders of colour were developed. For example, it was
ascertained that by applying oil of cassia the result was as
follows :—
Lines per inch, Colour when dry. Colour when immersed,
Se eT ee
312 White. Reddish-yellow.
1,000 Yellowish-green, Greenish-blue,
2,500 Blue. Yellow.
3,333 Yellow. Bright blue.
10,000 Blue. Yellow.
Now, I think you will readily note the significance of these
facts, when applied to the behaviour of some of the Diatomacee
upon the stage of a microscope arranged as I have described.
In the first place, if the angle of the incident ray is altered
by a movement of the mirror, the colour becomes changed ;
‘Second, coarsely lined diatoms, or parts of diatoms, such as
P. balticum, Pinnularia major, &¢., the markings of which are
from 400 to 800 to the inch, appear yellow or orange, irre-
spective of change of direction of light or medium in which
they are mounted ; and, third, finely marked diatoms, or parts
of diatoms, such as P. angulatum, from 10,000 to the inch
upwards in striation, are from pale to bright blue; and, as an
example of the effect that a diatom of two different textures
presents, I have noticed that Surirella gemma has its main
ribs yellow and its fine longitudinal lines blue. Before leay-
ing this, I may mention that it is hardly possible to manipu-
late so as to be able to compare the change of colour that
a single diatom will undergo when dry and mounted in a
132 Polarised Dark-ground Illumination. [Sess.
medium ; but on carefully examining different mounts of the
same genera, I have invariably found the dry, and also the
chloride of zinc, to give the greatest brilliancy : monobromide
does not appear to be suitable for this purpose. With regard
to the diatoms I have referred to, and classed as opaque, on
which there is no dispersion of light, I am inclined to believe
that, while they are in all other conditions the same as their
brethren, they present a calcareous appearance, their surface
being dead, like that of obscure glass.
Now, concerning the polarising property of certain diatoms
treated with open aperture, I desire particularly to point out
that those frustules only polarise which come under the head
of my first class—namely, the iridescent ones. Take, as an
example, P, angulatum polarised under a blue and yellow
selenite. All the valves that appear erect in the field will
be coloured, say red, and all those at right angles green. At
first sight it seems strange that, by using a blue and yellow
selenite, while the field conforms to these colours, the frus-
tules should become red and green; but this arises from the
fact that the diatoms have the power of retarding the light
one quarter of a wave length, in the same way as a quarter
plate of mica. This makes a very pretty as well as instruc-
tive subject, and is only one of the many interesting phases
under which this diatom shows itself. By removing the sel-
enite and crossing the prisms, the highly polar nature of this
Pleurosigma becomes more apparent. The valves shine out
clearly and distinctly on the dark ground—which, as I re-
marked before, proves unmistakably their property of polarisa-
tion. Beyond this, however, it will be noticed that each valve
retains a slight colour—either a tinge of bluish green, or one
here and there from a dark purple to a dingy red. By this I
conclude that a minute quantity of light is admitted, on ac-
count of the imperfections of the prisms or their centering,
which reaches the diatoms in a retarded form, and is partially
polarised, partially dispersed; but I am inclined to believe
that, while both actions are traceable, dispersion is the prin-
cipal colour-producer. If the selenite is now replaced, and
the dark ground maintained by the insertion of the stop,
both the iridescent and polar colours will be visible—the
former directly from interference if the prisms are open,
1887-88. ] Polarised Dark-ground [lumination, 133
and from accidental light if they are crossed. These spectral
colours can indeed be seen without the use of any apparatus,
by simply allowing the light to fall upon a prepared slide of
this class. I suppose every one who has handled a slide of
P. angulatum has been struck with its glittering colours.
I have constructed a table embracing some of the more
familiar diatoms that I have found suitable for this light, and
arranged them in terms of the classification I have en-
deavoured to explain.
Diatom. Class. Colours. Remarks.
Pleurosigma angulatum _, | spectral | variegated | very brilliant.
as balticum ? do. do. do.
4B hippocampus . do. do, do.
Heliopelta metu, &c. . 5 do. do. do.
Meridion circulare_. : do. do. edges only illuminated.
Triceratium septangulatum,
&e. c 3 : . | opaque | single meshes brilliant.
Naviculalyra . : . | spectral | variegated | dingy.
Arachnoidiscus, &e. . . | opaque | single well defined.
Eupodiscus Rogersii . . | spectral | variegated | very bright and well
defined.
Aulacodiscus, &c. s . | spectral do. do. do.
Podosira, &e. . : . | spectral do, do. do.
Isthmia enervis . . . | opaque | single do. do.
In dealing formerly with the subject of dark-ground illum-
ination of diatoms, I stated that resolution was not thereby
assisted ; but with the class of illumination we are at present
considering, the resolving power is undoubtedly augmented.
It is, consequently, the addition of the polariscope that brings
this about. A few months ago, a writer in one of our science
journals announced that, by using the analysing prism in its
place on the microscope, he could strengthen the resolving or
separating power of his objectives. The matter was immedi-
ately investigated, and has been most favourably received by
one or two eminent London microscopists; and, along with
several of our own members, I have tried this simple means,
and found that it was a decided, and therefore a valuable,
improvement. I make no doubt that, in polar dark-ground
illumination, the increased definition emanates from the same
source.
In using, say, a }-inch or 4-inch objective, the manipulation
134 Polarised Dark-ground Illumination. [Sess.
consists in making use of a high-angled condenser, or, what
does equally as well, a small hemisphere of glass not more
than 32; of an inch in diameter, either of which must be
brought into contact with the under side of the slip by means
of glycerine. To this an oblique pencil of light should be
admitted, and a zone of dark ground will extend round the
periphery of the illuminator, on the edges of which the diatoms
may be seen iridescent, polarised, and resolved to great per-
fection. I have found that a green colour on the diatom gives
best results—consequently, a blue selenite should be used.
Another class of subjects equally adapted for examination
by this light upon a 4-inch power are insect scales. Micros-
copists know that these objects polarise to a limited extent
in the ordinary way, but as the colours are dull this quality
gives them no particular interest. It is only when thrown
upon a dark ground that their beauty under polar light is
fully developed. The scales appear almost as brilliant as the
feathers of the humming-bird—nmicroscopically familiar to you
all. I consider that this opens up a question for deep optical
study, at the same time affording one of the. most pleasing sub-
jects for the microscope ; and as they generally have more than
one colour, or rather lustre, the scales are specially beautiful.
Amongst those I have examined under this light are Lepisma
saccharina, Pieris brassicee, Hepitus humuli, &. This illum-
ination can be applied to low powers by the substitution of
the common spot-lens for the stopped condenser—because the
emergent rays from most condensers are too oblique, or, in
other words, the condense focus is too short for objectives of
long focus. In the case of my Ross microscope, I have simply
to screw the spot into the substage diaphragm-holder, and add
the polarising prism underneath as before; and with this
arrangement I can manipulate the light from objectives of
from 1-inch to 2-inch focal length. By this means alge and
desmidaceous matter can be splendidly shown. Its remarkable
differentiating quality is displayed to great advantage on ana-
tomical and other tissues; for not only are the various parts
differently coloured, but the whole has the appearance of relief,
as if seen through a binocular arrangement. Micro-crystals
also produce fine effects. Some, however, are disappointing—
no doubt attributable to the media in which they are preserved.
1887-88.] An Ancient Lake-deposit in Queen’s Park. 135
One peculiar feature is, that dichroic crystals under this light
have their prevailing colour intensified —as in the red of
platino-cyanide of magnesium; and in every position of the
prisms and selenites, crystals of this class adhere firmly to the
one colour, to the entire exclusion of all other polar tints.
The reason of this is obvious, when you consider that, in the
case of a crystal under polar dark-ground, the light, before
reflection, must take the colour of the medium it passes
through, thus becoming monochromatic. This fact is pointed
out by Tyndall; and the example we here find is particu-
larly interesting and instructive to students of polarised light.
In closing, permit me to indicate that, by arranging the
microscope for polar dark-ground illumination, it will be
found that a very large number of slides that may have
become comparatively uninteresting under ordinary manipula-
tion will be found possessed of new interest; and by
attention to the management of the instrument, and care-
ful observations of the many optical effects at command, it
is possible to acquire a more intimate acquaintance with the
various subjects than by mere book study or any other means.
[Several coloured diagrams of diatoms, enlarged from photo-micrographs,
were exhibited in illustration of the above paper. ]
V.—AN ANCIENT LAKE-DEPOSIT IN QUEEN'S
PARK.
By Messrs J. A. JOHNSTON anv J. LINDSAY.
(Read Feb, 22, 1888.)
For some months past extensive excavations have been in
progress in the Queen’s Park, in connection with the making
of a new main-drain, and many interesting sections have thus
been exposed, all helping to reveal more clearly the successive
geological changes of which this well-known locality has been
the scene. At one portion of the workings, near Holyrood
Palace, the attention was particularly arrested by the masses
of shell-marl which the workmen were throwing out of the
136 An Ancient Lake-deposit in Queen’s Park. [ Sess.
cutting, indicating that a lake of somewhat considerable extent
had at one time covered the site. This portion of the Queen’s
Park has until a comparatively recent date been in some parts
of a more or less marshy nature, corroborating the evidence
thus furnished of its much earlier condition. The questions
thus naturally occur to one, When did this lake probably exist ?
and, What was its fullest extent before it had begun to get silted
up and choked with decaying vegetable matter? What follows
may perhaps help us to give approximate answers to these
questions.
It is said that a chief reason for Queen Mary’s frequent
absences from her Palace of Holyrood was the marshy nature
of the ground surrounding it, which rendered this royal
residence disagreeable and unhealthy. It is extremely pro-
bable that amongst these marshy portions would be the ground
now under consideration—which, indeed, in the first half of the
16th century must have been very much of a quagmire. In
that most readable volume of essays by Hugh Miller entitled
‘Edinburgh and its Neighbourhood, there is a paper, written
in 1842, on the Borough Loch, then in process of being drained
to form part of what is now known as the Meadows. In this
paper, speaking of the numerous sheets of water at an early
period existing in and around the city, the writer says: “ The
records of the Medical Faculty of Edinburgh do not extend to
a period by any means remote. We have been informed,
however, by a medical friend, that among their earlier entries
agues and marsh fevers occur as usual diseases of the town and
neighbourhood.” And in an earlier essay on the “ geological
features” of the city, a beautiful word-picture is drawn, in the
author’s well-known graphic style, of the salient points of the
landscape in the bronze age, with rocky ridge and alternating
valley and blue gleaming lake as prominent objects in the
scene. These lakes are enumerated—viz., the Nor’ Loch of
what is now the Princes Street valley ; the South Loch, in the
valley of the Cowgate and Grassmarket ; the Borough Loch ot
the present Meadows; a lake at St Leonards and another at
the Hunter’s Bog ; with the two which are still familiar to us
—Duddingston and the restored Dunsappie Loch. “And
thus,” Hugh Miller concludes, “in a tract of country little
more than one and a half square miles in extent, at least seven
MNolyrood,
=
= SY Had (Miike & Brom
= : Clay. (Blire Read
Rae ae Hogh Gravel,
(BSS) Bice Cay.
Blas,
[Section of Bore att
Cer
e
Pio J
clLOjL Krogh Gre A£B
2L
2
| Mad (White a Brom
SS = Clay. Dues Rei
ae i Horwich Gravel
Wocezan f Bore af
Cig x.
1887-88.] An Ancient Lake-deposit in Queen’s Park. 137
lakes must have opened their blue eyes to the sky, and given
in these early times lightness and beauty to the otherwise
shaggy landscape.” We may now add to this enumeration
the lake at Holyrood, the site of which has in part been now
opened up and spread out before us.
After having completed the investigations and collected the
facts for this paper, it was discovered that another of our
members had some time before been at the same work. In
February last, Mr John Henderson read a paper before the
Geological Society “On Sections exposed in making a Drain
through the Queen’s Park at Holyrood.” In this paper the
earlier portion of the cutting, from its commencement at Spring
Gardens, is described, as well as part of the excavation south-
wards, where the lake-deposit more particularly to be dealt
with here was entered upon. In the cutting near the garden
wall of the Palace “several thin beds of black shale were
_ exposed, containing entomostraca and fragments of fish re-
mains.” These fossils have been identified with known
carboniferous species, and any of our members who feel
interested in the subject may refer to Mr Henderson’s paper,
published in the ‘ Transactions’ of the Geological Society,
where full information on this point will be obtained. It is
now proposed to confine attention to the cutting near the road-
way forming the entrance to the Park at Holyrood, through
the shell-marl deposit in a south-westerly direction, till the
cutting met the old drain from the foot of Arthur Street. In
describing this cutting, reference is made to the accompanying
diagram (fig. 3), partly founded on measurements and the results
of borings kindly furnished by J. Massie, Esq., of the Burgh
Engineers’ Office.
The present section, then, extending from the road-
way to a distance of about 200 yards, exposed, first, a
layer of forced material and natural soil from 3 feet to 10 feet
in thickness; next a yellowish clay, from 1 foot to 44 feet
hick ; then came the peat, varying in thickness from 1 foot
to 144 feet ; and underneath this was the marl, from 5 feet to
feet thick. On reaching the marl, which was excavated in
some parts to a depth of 2 feet, borings were made in six
different places in order to secure a solid foundation for the
heavy mass of material forming the drain. These borings
138 An Ancient Lake-deposit in Queen’s Park. [Sess.
disclosed the soft, loose nature of a considerable portion of the
strata beneath the marl, in alternating bands of mud and clay
and gravel, so that piles had to be driven to the depth, in some
cases, of nearly twenty-five feet for the drain to rest on. No.
3 bore gave a section in all of fully 40 feet before the under-
lying rock was struck, and here the peat was 3 feet thick and
the white marl 9 feet. At No. 5 bore 9 inches of tree-roots
were found embedded in the peat. At No. 6 bore the marl
disappeared, showing that the margin of the lake had been
reached, and here the peat extended to the thickness of 14 feet
6 inches.
The peat and its underlying shell-marl would alone un-
mistakably indicate the lacustrine nature of this deposit, and
its character in past ages, when the whole trough or cavity
was filled by a sheet of water. The peat, when examined
under the microscope, revealed an aquatic vegetation in the
shape of reeds and rushes and plants of similar nature. The
striated and knotted stems of some of these plants were very
characteristic, and wonderfully fresh after their long entomb-
ment. The marl was studded with countless myriads of shells,
testifying to the abundant ‘molluscan life which inhabited
these waters. The genera observed were few — viz., one
bivalve and three univales—but of some there were several
species. The most plentiful was the whorled limnza or pond-
snail (Limnea pereger); the next, the bivalve cyclas (Cyclas
obtusale), like a miniature cockle ; then the trochus-like
valvata (Valvata piscinalis and V. cristata); and, lastly, the
beautiful discoid planorbis (Planorbis nitidus and P. glaber),
like a tiny ammonite, which seemed to be relatively least plenti-
ful. On comparing these shells with, those taken from the
Borough Loch in 1842, and included in the “Hugh Miller
Collection” at the Museum of Science and Art, they will be
found to be nearly identical. Nor need this surprise us when
we remember that the same mollusca are still alive in the
neighbouring lochs and ditches. The shells were very light,
and extremely brittle. Hugh Miller, in the work already
quoted, speaking of the shells taken from the Borough Loch
deposit, remarks that “twenty of them, of the average size,
scarce weigh a grain.” In order to test this, a hundred of by
no means the smallest specimens from the Queen’s Park deposit
1887-88.] Ax Ancient Lake-deposit in Queen’s Park, 139
were selected and weighed in a chemical balance, when it was
found that the hundred weighed only three-tenths of a grain!
So friable were they, that even a slight pressure with a camel-
hair pencil in cleaning them reduced many of them to powder.
The mar! itself is, of course, largely composed of these rubbed-
down shells, in the shape of carbonate of lime. Samples of the
marl, from different parts of the cutting, were sent to two of
our members, Mr Wm. Wallace and Mr Fred. G. Pearcey, who
kindly subjected them to a careful independent analysis, and
found them to contain respectively 89.4 per cent and 92.35
per cent of carbonate of lime. When the use of shell-marl in
agriculture was more common than it is at present, a rich
deposit like this might have been a good “find.” In 1810,
at a meeting of the Selkirk Farmers’ Club, when Mr Walter
—afterwards Sir Walter—Scott was in the chair, “ the thirty-
six members present discussed with energy the question of the
day, ‘ Whether, in low land of light soil, ike the haughs near
Selkirk, lime or marl would be most profitable during a nine-
teen years’ lease, supposing them to be equally cheap?’ By a
majority of four, it was decided in favour of marl.”?*
While examining under the microscope the finer particles of
the marl, a small insect, like a very minute water-beetle, was
observed, of which about a dozen specimens were found, but
all in a less or more imperfect condition. This insect proved
to be one of the Hydrachnidz or water-mites, belonging to the
family of the Oribatide, but, owing to the fragmentary nature
of the remains, the species was difficult to determine.
- We now come back to the two questions put at the outset
of this paper—l1st, How large was this lake originally? and
2d, When did it spread out its blue waters under the summer
sky? The answers to both questions can, after all, be little
more than mere “ guesses at truth.” As to the extent of the
lake, Mr Henderson is inclined to think that at one time it
stretched northwards for a considerable distance, covering the
area now occupied by Holyrood Palace and grounds. In the
diagram accompanying this paper (fig. 1) the probable extent
is given as somewhat less. But that it must have had its
greatest dimension from north to south may be regarded as
certain; while as to its-breadth, it would be confined on
1 ‘Hist. of Selkirkshire,’ by T. Craig-Brown, vol, i. p. 248.
140 An Ancient Lake-deposit in Queen’s Park. [Sess.
the east, speaking generally, by the northern portion of
Salisbury Crags, but in all likelihood extended some distance
westwards, for in 1884, when the foundation for the gasometers
was being excavated, shell-marl was there met with. As to
its age, if we regard it geologically it is of course recent;
but reckoned by human chronology, it may well be termed
“ancient.” It would, no doubt, be contemporaneous with
those other neighbouring sheets of water which have most of
them, like itself, now disappeared ; and it may be interesting,
therefore, in this connection, to quote what is said in ‘ Edin-
burgh and its Neighbourhood’ of the Borough Loch. Hugh
Miller writes of it thus: “The bittern has boomed amid its
reeds, and the stately swan skimmed over its surface, when
yonder Castle rock was a naked cliff, rising amid an uninhabited
country, and the gigantic elk and the bear found shelter in
the shaggy forest which waved on their ridges, now covered by
their ten thousand human habitations, and musical with the
murmurous hum of a busy population. It is not improbable
that some of the shells in the lower portion of that marl bed
were browsing, according to their nature, on aquatic plants, or
alternately rising to the surface to respire and descending to
feed, full four thousand years ago.”* How this lake came to
be gradually filled up may be easily understood, for the process
of silting can be seen going on in many of our lochs at the
present day, as witness Lochend or Duddingston. In the
‘ Lithology of Edinburgh,’ Professor Fleming says, speaking
of Duddingston Loch as it was between thirty and forty years
ago, that it was “only interesting to the observer as an
example of the process of upfiltering by aquatic vegetation.”
“The lake on the west side especially,” he adds, “ would
soon pass into a bog or morass if the reeds which now grow
luxuriantly were not annually cut down and removed for
thatching purposes.’ What Professor Fleming here predicted
has actually come to pass, for the lake on the west side is
now, and has been for years, represented by a wet spongy bog,
and will in the course of time become, no doubt, a verdant
meadow. Duddingston Loch itself has only been preserved as
a sheet of water by frequent removals of the rank vegetation.
‘ Edinburgh and its Neighbourhood’ (8th edition), p. 145.
4887-88.] Az Ornithological Visit to Warwickshire. I4I
It is to the same process of “ upfiltering” that most of our
Scottish straths and English dales owe their origin.
Here may conclude the notice of this ancient lake-deposit,
with the interesting story it tells of its early history, while
its banks were yet trod by the foot of the primitive inhabitant.
Looking on the tons of peat and shell-marl thrown up and
spread out, and the multitudes of tenantless habitations, one
is led almost unconsciously to reflect on the time when a
luxuriant aquatic vegetation filled the waters or waved in the
breeze around its margin, overshadowing still depths where
innumerable generations of animal life flourished, and then
sank out of sight. And the northern portion of the cutting,
with its exposed fossiliferous shales, calls up yet another
scene, long ages before the underlying beds of sandstone were
tilted up on edge by igneous agency, and the cavity of this
ancient lake was gradually scooped out. Over the place where
these sedimentary rocks were deposited the sea then rolled,
leaving the remains of fishes and marine crustaceans to tell
the tale——for there was no human historian to chronicle it!
All this, and much more when read aright, is taught by what
some may have glanced at, and then passed by with a half-
contemptuous shrug, and a muttered “ Only a drain !”
VI—WNOTES ON AN ORNITHOLOGICAL VISIT
TO WARWICKSHIRE.
By Mr ARCHD. CRAIG, Jun.
(Read March 28, 1888.)
Durine the months of April and May 1887 it was my good
fortune, accompanied by a friend, to spend a few days in
Warwickshire, and, thanks to the very kind permission of one
of the largest landed proprietors in the county (Robert N.
Philips, Esq. of Welcombe), I was enabled to traverse a tract
of ground several square miles in extent, which, varying con-
siderably in aspect, gave opportunity for forming a fair idea
of the feathered fauna frequenting the district. With every
VOL. I, K
142 An Ornithological Visit to Warwickshire. [Sess.
facility offered for identifying the various birds, and absolute
freedom to wander alone anywhere on the estate, I cannot
conceal the fact that the results were most disappointing, both
as regards numbers and species; but this was to be attributed
not to the unfavourable nature of the locality, but solely to
the inclement weather, which was of a most boisterous kind,
being made up of rain, cold, high winds, and hail—incontest-
ably the very worst that could be conceived for studying bird-
life. Notwithstanding these drawbacks, however, several species
hitherto strangers to myself, and unknown, or at best rare, to
Scotland, were marked; and this circumstance may perhaps be
sufficient warrant for bringing the subject under your notice.
A very few remarks upon the county itself, before turning to
the other part of the paper, may not be out of place.
Our headquarters were at a little inn in the village of Snitter-
field, about four miles from Stratford-on-Avon and six from
Warwick. The village itself is probably one of the prettiest
in all Warwickshire, and thoroughly typical in character—
curious cottages of red brick, or the same whitewashed, with
high gables and thatched roofs; creepers trained up the walls,
and beautiful little patches of garden-ground in front—some
laid out in flower-beds, others in lawn studded with fruit-
trees, which, at the time of our visit, were hanging thick with
blossom ; immense trees scattered here and there by the road-
side, overshadowing the houses—the whole place displaying a
peaceful air and picturesque appearance that is entirely ab-
sent from our colder-looking stone-built villages of Lowland
Scotland. Many of the neighbouring hamlets—notably Leek-
Wooton and Hampton-Lucy—are even more antiquated-looking
than Snitterfield, the brick building interlaced with huge oak-
beams predominating, and presenting an object of great inter-
est to one who has hitherto been unused to this style of edifice.
These combination cottages, so to speak, last much longer than
a stranger would imagine, many being several centuries old ;
but as age creeps upon them the oak beams warp, and in
the process twist the house at the same time in a fantastic
manner, so that it is not unusual to find the same cottage
leaning towards the four points of the compass, and yet the
building seems to stand as well as ever, and, albeit its dis-
torted appearance, to give the occupants no uneasiness.
188 7-88.] An Ornithological Visit to Warwickshire. 143
With the exception of a few long worm-like ridges travers-
ing the county, and isolated mounds that crop up here and
there, the whole ground is flat and richly cultivated, save in
some parts where large tracts are entirely under wood. The
most important of these latter are the Bearley and Snitterfield
Bushes, which in summer, when the leaf is full out, and vege-
tation at its prime, will almost vie with a virgin forest in the
possession of tangled masses of impenetrable undergrowth,
chiefly brambles, blackthorn, and another hateful prickly plant
which I am not botanist enough to name. Periodical raids
are made upon these obstructions, and a thorough clearance
effected, but in a very few years the growth is as thick as
ever. Wide turf-walks intersect the woods for the benefit of
the sportsman and fox-hunter; but although to all intents and
purposes a game-covert, any respectable person is free to wander
over it, and, to the credit of the inhabitants be it said, little or
no damage is ever done. Apropos of this latter remark, there
are two things which cannot fail to strike a Scotsman, however
casual an observer, who visits Warwickshire: the first is the
number of bypaths through woods and rights-of-way over
fields—two items which greatly enhance the pleasure to be
derived from a sojourn in these parts, when compared with
our own country districts, where one hardly dare leave the
bare turnpike without being hounded off the ground by some
irate agriculturist, or by the minions of the proprietor. The
second noticeable feature is the marked politeness of the
labouring population to strangers—a welcome contrast to the
manners of the same class in the south of Scotland. What-
ever may be said of the relative brain-power of the two—and
the Warwickshire farm-servant certainly does not seem to have
a superfluity of that commodity at his disposal,—it is beyond
dispute that he displays none of that stolid boorishness and want
of politeness to visitors which our men indulge in, and errone-
ously consider to be independence of spirit. I merely mention
these two facts in passing as being too conspicuous to escape
observation, and also out of grateful remembrance for the uni-
versal civility accorded to us during the time we passed in the
county.
Over and above the scenic features, which of themselves are
well worthy of attention, the historic interest attaching to the
144 An Ornithological Visit to Warwickshire. [Sess.
county of Warwick is sufficient of itself to cause thousands
annually to make the round of its numerous attractions.
Mention need only be made of Leicester’s Hospital, Warwick
Castle, Kenilworth, Guy’s Cliff, &., to show that important
events in English history have been enacted in this now quiet
and tranquil county. But what to most folks in Britain, and,
in fact, wherever the English tongue is spoken, is of infinitely
ereater importance than all the castles, mansions, battles,
sieges, and turbulent actions of the old nobility put together, is
the simple circumstance that a little over three centuries ago,
in the dead little town of Stratford-on-Avon, Shakespeare first
saw the light of day, lived there for a considerable portion of
his life, and at last was laid to rest in the old parish church
in which, no doubt, he had often worshipped. This event,
with all its kindred associations, has been so often commem-
orated in writing, and is matter of such universal notoriety,
that it would be presumptuous on my part to attempt to add
another word on the subject. In wandering through the little
hamlets, and visiting towns like Warwick, one feels as if he had
fallen asleep, and, by a process of retrogression, awoke in the
17th century, there is such an old-world look about everything
—a want of modern bustle, and a quaint standstill sort of
aspect, that reminds one of the old Scotch saying, “ As quiet as
the grave—or Lauder.” The effect of this feeling is rather
pleasant than otherwise, and the total change from bustling
cities like Birmingham or Glasgow comes as a relief doubly
grateful to all whose daily occupations are of an active and
often harassing character. Most of the villages have com-
posite names, such as Norton-Lindsey, Henley-in-Arden,
Bishop’s-Hampton, and so on; and, as already mentioned,
many are beautifully situated and highly picturesque, perhaps
none more so than the last named, which is in the immediate
vicinity of the park where tradition says that Shakespeare
enacted the réle of poacher, and was brought before the Lucy
of the day to have punishment meted out to him. The old
park is still tenanted by deer and the mansion-house by a
descendant of the Lucy family. The latter, however, hardly
wields the same power in the district as did his ancestor. As
already hinted, the weather during our stay was most unpro-
pitious, and, somewhat to our surprise, heavy showers of hail
1887-88.] Az Ornithological Visit to Warwickshire. 145
constantly discharged themselves at unexpected moments, to be
succeeded by bursts of bright sunshine, these latter of short
duration. The hail itself was about the size of small beans,
and not calculated to improve one’s temper as it rattled on the
face. But this, it seems, is nothing unusual, if we are to judge
from the fact that in Stratford an Insurance Company exists
for the purpose of recouping farmers for the damage done to
their crops by such destructive climatic vagaries. Time would
not permit of further enlargement on the external features of
this most pleasant neighbourhood; suffice it to say that, for
beauty of a quiet modest nature, a judicious mixture of the
agricultural and the woodland, for fine mansion-houses with
magnificent policies surrounding them, for pleasing associations
of the historic past, there are few counties that can surpass
Warwickshire.
Now as to the bird-life of the district. It would serve no
good purpose to recapitulate and describe all the species
found there, as that would not only be a formidable task,
but a tiresome process for the listeners, whose patience could
scarcely be expected to stand the test, so I shall only advert
to the more uncommon members of the family. To commence
with the warblers: the blackcap, garden-warbler, whitethroat,
willow-wren, and wood-wren were all numerous, but, in addition
to these, the presence in considerable numbers must be recorded
of the chiff-chaff and nightingale. The former little bird is
not much known in Scotland, although it would be wrong to
say that it is rare, occurring as it does here and there over
the country, but nowhere in such numbers as the willow
warbler. It is uncommonly like the last named, and were
it not for the distinctive note it would be difficult to dis-
tinguish one from the other. Apart from the call-note, the
difference lies in this, that the chiff-chaff is slightly smaller in
body and darker in the legs, but at a distance, when both
Species were mute, he would indeed be a bold man who could
authoritatively discriminate between one species and the other.
I have never on any occasion observed this bird in Scotland,
but in Warwickshire it is abundant, and could be heard giving
vent to its somewhat monotonous song in every wood and
garden round Snitterfield, even within half-a-dozen yards of
the inn-door. No one possessed even of the most elastic
146 An Ornithological Visit to Warwickshire. [Sess.
imagination can call its music beautiful, as it seems to consist
solely of the same few notes repeated indefinitely ; yet the
sound is cheerful, and by no means unpleasant. The bird
itself is lively and restless, usually jumping about the tops
of high trees, and seldom remaining long in any one posi-
tion, although the radius of its movements is not great, as it
seems to confine these to one specified locality, where, judging
from the sound, it must be indulging in what to it is circum-
navigation of the globe on a diminished scale. Why this
species is not more frequent in Scotland would be difficult to
tell, as it is quite as hardy as the willow-wren and wood-
wren—in fact, more so, as in some years it arrives very early,
when cold wintry blasts inform us that, notwithstanding the
calendar division of the year into seasons, the months of
March and April are often only spring months in name, and
hardly deserve to be designated as such. Not to prolong
description of this less attractive species, let us turn to the
much more interesting nightingale. Probably no bird has been
the subject of so much writing in prose, or provoked in a greater
degree the zeal of the poets, among which latter class are
included for the time being all those who imagine themselves
possessed of the “sacred fire,’ whatever that article may be.
An ill-natured writer once said that a poet was a man who
wrote stuff that nobody would read, and that he could not
understand himself ; but without acquiescing in that sweeping
denunciation, there is no doubt that many rhymers are re-
sponsible for much erroneous matter when they go into
raptures over bird-life. An old idea, now happily exploded,
used to pass muster that the nightingale placed a sharp thorn
in her nest, and, by leaning painfully against it, was thereby
induced to sing ina more plaintive and sorrowful tone. Over-
looking for the moment the curious inaccuracy of attributing
vocal powers to the female, as it is only the male who warbles,
it can scarcely be thought probable that a thorn inflicting pain
upon the performer would be an incentive to melody. Mr
Harting, author of several ornithological works, and among
them ‘The Ornithology of Shakespeare,’ gives an interesting
account of this superstition, and indicates two passages where
the great dramatist himself makes allusion to the belief. It
by no means follows, however, that Shakespeare believed in its
r887-88.] Ax Ornithological Visit to Warwickshire. 147
truth, although he made use of the tradition. In the present
day, even, many intelligent people suppose the nightingale to be
of large dimensions ; and when they dream of its far-famed
song, their imaginations depict a bird about the size of a crow,
warbling in the dark, whereas, as the accompanying specimen
proves, the species is very small. It is quite a mistake to
conclude that the nightingale sings only at night, as it may be
heard during the whole day, only then it is not nearly so
noticeable, being drowned to a certain extent by the general
chorus of other birds in the vicinity; but at the darkening,
when most species, with a few exceptions, have retired to roost,
the song rings out clearly in the silence of the woods, and rivets
attention in a tenfold degree. Without expatiating on its merits,
in a word it may claim pre-eminence over all the other
warblers that visit Great Britain, and perhaps there is truth in
the statement that no other species excels it in these islands.
The reason for qualifying the latter assertion is, that many
people consider the thrush not to be far short of it in point
of merit. There cannot be hesitation for a moment in saying
that, taking its small size into account, the variety and depth of
melody emitted by the nightingale are perfectly marvellous ;
but again, the song of the thrush may be capable of giving as
much enjoyment to the listener, and it really amounts in the
long-run to a matter of taste. Let me ask you, can anything
be finer than the song of the mavis on a calm mild evening in
May, when the woods have just been refreshed by a shower of
gentle rain? I think not. It may be prejudice, of course,
but, having heard both frequently, I am fain to confess that
to me the melody of the thrush is quite as pleasing ; and there
is no denying that many people whose knowledge of bird-life
is limited, on hearing a sweet song at the gloaming, have
given to the nightingale the credit of the music, which in
reality should have been attributed to the more familiar mavis.
It is a trite observation that the nightingale neither appears
in Scotland nor Ireland ; and even in England, its visits north
of the Trent are rare, and in many parts farther south its
distribution is extremely local. It seems also impossible to
domesticate it in the northern part of the island, as witness
the laudable attempts of the Earl of Buchan and Sir John
Sinclair, who procured eggs from England and placed them
148 An Ornithological Visit to Warwickshire. [Sess.
in the nests of robins, hedge-accentors, &c.—the former in
Roxburghshire, the latter in Caithness ; but although success-
fully hatched, when the period of autumnal migration arrived
the birds disappeared, but did not return next year, as it was
fondly hoped they would. In habits this species is shy, and
very easily frightened, and, owing to the matted and dense
nature of the thickets it haunts, it is almost impossible
at times to observe it, notwithstanding that the curious
guttural chatter (the preliminary to warbling) may be quite
audible ; and as during this performance it seems to be con-
stantly changing its position, the sound has somewhat the
effect of ventriloguism. Where its abode borders on a grass
field or other open space, by the exercise of a little patience a
good view may be obtained, as it has a knack of darting
suddenly out from the hedge or thicket, and settling on the
ground for a short space, at the same time expanding its rusty-
coloured tail, after the manner of the redstart. The robin, as
well as the last named, does exactly the same thing, and we
might add also the hedge-sparrow occasionally. Many curious
and absurd stories are fathered on the nightingale, but the
following specimen in illustration will suffice.
In a quaint old volume entitled ‘ The Ornithology of Francis
Willughby of Middleton, in the county of Warwick, Esq.,’
edited by Ray, and published in the year 1678, occurs a long
description of this species, both in a wild state and in cap-
tivity ; and among other literary tit-bits, the following tale is
told, on the authority of a still older ornithological writer
called Gesner, who, moreover, received the anecdote from a
friend. This said friend, in the year 1546, was lodging at an
inn in Ratisbon, where, owing to illness, he was confined to
bed, and, as he says himself, unable to sleep. In the room
were three nightingales in separate cages, and according to
this veracious individual, when all was quiet at dead of night,
two of them began, with what he calls “strange janglings and
emulations,” to talk to each other in imitation of the voices of
human beings. Their conversation must have been gratifying
to our invalid, and pleasing withal, as the topics discussed
were various. It appears from the context that the birds
incited each other to divulge all the tittle-tattle that went the
round of the tap-room during the day, and among other curio-
1887-88.] An Ornithological Visit to Warwickshire. 149
sities they prophesied what was going to take place in a war
against the Protestants, and also exposed a plot against the
Duke of Brunswick. What was perhaps more interesting, if
not so edifying, to the listener, was the apt manner in which
they recounted, word for word, the domestic squabblings of
the tapster and his wife, whose matrimonial relations seemed
to have been none of the happiest; and, as the writer naively
remarks, they repeated not only the ordinary recriminations,
but apparently with gusto all the bad language attendant
thereon. Having regard to the truth of this narrative, it is
perhaps as well that the narrator confesses he was incapa-
citated at the time of its occurrence, as the sceptical reader
may perhaps be excused for attributing the cause of his
malady to an over-indulgence in strong waters, which no
doubt had the effect of heightening his imagination.
Another very curious species common to Warwickshire, but,
except in isolated instances, non-resident in Scotland, is the
nuthatch. This is a smallish blue-coloured bird, about the
size of an ox-eye, and in certain respects not unlike it in
habits. Its forte is the ease with which it creeps upon tree
trunks or branches in any given direction, perpendicularly,
horizontally, or in a downward course—in this differing vastly
from the common creeper (or “ tree-speeler,” as it is called in
Scotland), which, as a rule, works its way upwards, and rarely
if ever downwards. The creeper also, while ascending, makes
use of its tail as a prop, and this is useful as a staying power,
while it is engaged poking its bill into crevices of the bark ;
but the nuthatch, again, relies upon nothing save its claws and
legs for a sure foothold, and it is truly wonderful with what
ease it runs in any fashion upon the surface of the bark, twist-
ing and turning like a gymnast devoid of bones. Its bill is
powerful, and well adapted for hammering purposes, such as
breaking hazel and beech nuts, upon which it feeds at certain
seasons. But its chief object in clambering up trees is to
secure the abundant larve, and insect life in various stages,
found concealed in the interstices of the bark. Although not
numerous, one could scarcely fail to meet with it now and
again; and I noticed a pair on the highroad from Warwick to
Kenilworth busily pecking at something on the ground, but
whether an edible substance, or mud to plaster up the entrance
150 An Ornithological Visit to Warwickshire. [Sess.
to a late or second nest, I am unable to say. It does not
strike one as being a timorous bird, as it permits a very near
approach, and at intervals utters a curious short note, easily
enough recognised, but difficult to describe on paper. For
further and fuller information regarding it, I cannot do better
than refer members to Mr Herbert’s interesting note in the
Society’s ‘ Transactions’ (vol. i. p. 184).
The stock-dove is another bird very numerous in Warwick-
shire, but scarce in Scotland—so much so, that one may
almost be excused for supposing that the writer of the beau-
tiful song, “ Afton Water,” wherein occurs the line, “ Thou
stock-dove whose echo resounds through the glen,” must have
mistaken the common ring-dove for this species. In general
habits it resembles the wood-pigeon or “ cushie,” but is not so
large, and wants the distinctive white patch on the sides of
the neck. Besides, the cooing-note is not so clear or loud,
and in various minor points it differs considerably from the
other. At Snitterfield, the favourite breeding-haunt was a
large clump of ivy-grown trees, whose great height was a
perfect safeguard against intrusion, and towards nightfall the
numbers of birds that flew in there from all directions were
astonishing. When startled they set off at great speed, snap-
ping their wings together with a sharp concussion, similar to
the tame pigeons known among fanciers as “smiters”; and,
like most of the Columbidw, the species is timid, and leaves
its resting-place on very slight occasion. Although found in
various parts of the county, the smaller turtle-dove does not
appear to inhabit the immediate neighbourhood around Strat-
ford, and I was unable to learn from any one in the Snitter-
field direction if it was ever identified there. While on the
subject of doves, I trust you will pardon me for once more
referring to Willughby’s work. Under the heading, “ Divers
sorts of tame pigeons,” the author takes occasion to indicate a
large number of diseases which may be cured, or at least alle-
viated, by the use of the flesh and blood of doves. Take one
quotation as a sample: “ A live pigeon cut asunder along the
backbone, and clapt hot upon the head, mitigates fierce humours,
and discusses melancholy sadness; hence it is a most proper
medicine in the phrenzie, headache, melancholy, and gout—
some add, also in the apoplexy.” It is, however, a moot-point
1887-88.] Az Ornithological Visit to Warwickshire. I51
whether the cure or the disease would be the worse to bear.
But not to weary you with further quotations, just let me
mention, in passing, a few of the more prominent disorders
that fly before this sovereign panacea: bleared and bloodshot
eyes, colics, vertigoes, lethargies, tumours, blood in the brain,
falling out of the hair, and numerous other ailments which
shall be nameless. After this varied category, one is inclined
to wonder if this same hot pigeon would cure hot tempers, as
if so, a stock of doves would be a valuable possession from a
commercial point of view.
The jay and the magpie abound in the bushes, the former
especially, and, notwithstanding the incessant persecutions of
the gamekeepers, contrive to flourish, both species having very
sound ideas on the subject of self-preservation. In spring the
jay is perhaps as wary a bird as one would wish to see. It
is not of much use hunting him: he is quite equal to the
occasion, and won’t allow himself to be caught napping. Yet
nevertheless, with all his caution, great numbers fall victims
to the gunner and poisoner, and it is really pitiable to see the
rows of these handsome birds hanging at the ends of the
keepers’ houses, and at the edges of woods, in all stages of
putrefaction. There is no blinking the fact that they are
destructive to the eggs of game-birds, and that, of course,
causes them to be “ anathema” in the eyes of the sportsman,
who, from his point of view, is justified in attempting to pre-
serve what he has purchased at considerable expenditure of
money. JBut to an outsider uninterested in the game mania,
it cannot fail to be a source of regret when beautiful species
like the present are exterminated. In many districts of
Scotland, where formerly plentiful, this bird is now extinct;
and at the present rate of progression it bids fair to become a
thing of the past in several English counties as well. On the
Welcombe estate they are not hunted down so relentlessly ;
but on that of Lord Leigh at Stoneleigh Park, if we are to
judge by the numbers of dead specimens hung in clusters
about the woods, systematic destruction seems to be the order
of the day. The note is very harsh and grating, falling on
the ear with alarming suddenness at times while wandering
through the woods. The extraordinary talent they display
in skulking through the thick bushes completely bafiles pur-
152 An Ornithological Visit to Warwickshire. [Sess.
suit, so that the only mode of observing them reasonably near
at hand is to sit quietly in one spot for an hour or two, on
the chance of their working round in the direction of the
place of concealment. What, perhaps, induces their slaughter
as much as any other motive, is the circumstance that the
blue feathers on the sides of the wings are much prized by
the fishing community for dressing fly-hooks; but this prac-
tice can hardly be characterised by any milder epithet than
that of cruelty, as it really seems a wanton act to kill orna-
mental birds of this kind for the sake of luring a few trout
out of a stream.
Among the rarer birds found in Warwickshire which may
be glanced at slightly in conclusion are the woodpecker, king-
fisher, goldfinch, and hawfinch. Of the former tribe, the green
woodpecker is the commonest, although the greater and lesser
spotted species are also found occasionally ; but unfortunately
I failed to get even a glimpse of any, notwithstanding that
the loud laughing sound could be distinctly heard in the
silence of the woods. This failure must be attributed to want
of acquaintance with the bird’s peculiar habits, as its shyness
and cunning are great, being proverbial in some parts of
England. It always manages, as a rule, to keep on the other
side of the tree from the observer ; and while you are earnestly
scanning the trunks in the direction from which the sound
proceeds, the bird has quietly flown off to a distance, only to
give vent to another laugh, which seems to be indulged in as
if in derision at your non-success. It is impossible to mis-
take the cry of the woodpecker ; but it is quite another matter
to describe: the same so as to render it recognisable to a
stranger. Perhaps the nearest approach in the way of com-
parison is to liken it to the laugh of a horse on a subdued
scale. In spring the missel-thrush makes a clucking sound,
somewhat resembling that of the present species; but no prac-
tised ear can possibly be deceived by it, as there is a fulness
and big-mouthedness about the cry of the woodpecker that
stamps its individuality at once. The strangest feature about
the Picide is the length of their tongues, which, when in use,
or when pulled out of a dead specimen, look like a long worm,
this elongated member being, as is well known, hard and bony
at the point—a wise provision on the part of Providence to
1887-88.] Ax Ornithological Visit to Warwickshire. 153
enable the birds to extract their food more readily from the
crevices and holes in the bark.
The kingfisher, thanks in a great measure to the Wild Birds
Protection Act, is not yet extinct, although a few years ago it
seemed to be on the highroad to annihilation, from the craze
among the vulgar of all classes to possess a stuffed specimen
as a chamber ornament, but perhaps more so from the equally
culpable desire on the part of the fair sex to add its brilliant
plumage to the already numerous adjuncts brought into requi-
sition in the manufacture of that wonderful work of art, the
modern “bonnet.” It is matter for great satisfaction, how-
ever, and, I venture to say, to no one more so than to all
ladies of right feeling themselves, to learn that this cruel
fashion is on the wane: let us hope it may die out so entirely
as only to be remembered among the barbarities of the past.
It would be unfair to put all the blame of its diminution on
the shoulders of the two aforesaid classes, as naturalists them-
selves have been considerable sinners in that respect; but the
extenuating circumstance in their case is that the birds are
sought after chiefly in the interests of science, whereas this
excuse cannot by any elasticity of conception be made in either
of the former instances. Although not nearly so plentiful as
formerly, yet a considerable number frequent the course of the
Avon and its tributary streams, and on many of our own Low-
land burns and rivers it appears again to be making headway.
On the Tweed and its tributaries it is not by any means a
chance straggler, as there are many parts it haunts regularly,
and in bird-life there are few more interesting sights than to
watch this gaudy-robed species darting up and down the
stream, following every bend and turning, uttering from time
to time its peculiar whistling note, reminding one to a certain
extent of the water-ousel and common sand-piper, which also
emit a shrill sharp whistle during the progress of flight.
Curiously enough, the cognomen “kingfisher” is occasionally
applied in Scotland to both of those birds, although quite
erroneously. The species in question, notwithstanding its
tropical costume, is a hardy bird, and would flourish excel-
lently well on our rivers, if only the same privilege was ac-
corded to it that our Roman Catholic brethren enjoy of “ rest-
ing in peace.” Those of us who have had the privilege of
154 An Ornithological Visit to Warwickshire. [Sess.
being soundly thrashed at school into the mysteries of ancient
mythology may have some recollection of the legend of Aleyone
or Haleyone, daughter of Aolus, the god of the winds, and her
husband Ceyx, who were changed into kinefishers, which cir-
cumstance gave rise to the belief that for seven days before
and after the shortest day, during the supposed breeding-time
of these birds, calm always prevailed at sea, rendering it safe
for mariners to embark. This superstition is the origin of our
familiar term “halcyon days.”
The goldfinch was tolerably plentiful on the Snitterfield
estate, numbers feeding daily in a garden adjoining the Park
House in the village, and in some parts of the outlying bushes
the pretty little song could be heard constantly. Next to the
chaffinch, no bird builds a prettier nest, and in appearance it
is not unlike that of the aforesaid, but considerably smaller,
and is commonly placed in the fork of a fruit-tree wherever
it builds near habitations. The zealous efforts of bird-catchers
have done more to deprive us of the presence of this beautiful
species than all other causes put together, although the greater
cultivation of waste lands, and consequent eradication of thistles,
eroundsel, dandelions, and similar weeds, on the seeds of which
they mainly subsist, has also had a disastrous effect. It is of
a most trusting disposition, and easily snared by means of a
call-bird, and, when once captured, with proper treatment is
readily tamed—hence, probably, the demand for it as a cage
pet. In most districts of Scotland it may practically be termed
extinct—more’s the pity, as it is a decided ornament and a
welcome addition to our native fauna. As an instance in
passing of how whole districts have been cleared, I may men-
tion that about twenty to twenty-five years ago it was quite
common in Glen Urquhart and the surrounding glens of Inver-
ness-shire ; but for one or two seasons a bevy of professional
bird-catchers turned up, and, by dint of steady application,
utterly decimated the country-side—so much so, that, unless
my informant is deceived, the entire specimens observed since
that deplorable period could be counted on the fingers of one
hand. Its natural song is sweet, and the progeny produced
by crossing with a canary seem to inherit the fine qualities of
both species, and turn out excellent and powerful songsters—
in fact, too much so for people of nervous temperaments, to
whom the noise is anything but agreeable.
1887-88.] Some Peculiar Occurrences in Natural History. 155
About the hawfinch a few words need only be said. I saw
it on two or three occasions; but being on the verge of the
incubating period, it was not so conspicuous as it would have
been in autumn or winter, when it roves about in small flocks.
Moreover, it is unusually shy, and seldom allows one to ap-
proach near enough to admit of more than a fleeting identifica-
tion. A pair inhabited a thick grove of laurels bordering the
roadside in the village; but so careful were they to conceal
their persons, that it was only at rare intervals that even a
glimpse could be obtained of them flying across the open field.
This bird visits Scotland now and then, and one was killed a
year or two ago quite close to Edinburgh, in the Corstorphine
direction.
It was my original intention to append a list of the birds
of Warwickshire to this paper, but in consideration of the fact
that it has already exceeded the bounds as to length, I refrain
from doing so—the more especially as this information can be
gleaned from almost any standard work on ornithology, such
as Yarrell, Morris, &c. Any further attempts in that direc-
tion, therefore, would be, to use a pet clerical phrase, “a mere
work of supererogation.” In conclusion, let me only add that,
in spite of bad weather, and consequent failure of the trip from
an ornithological point of view, the few pleasant days spent in
Warwickshire will always remain a green spot in my memory ;
and were it possible to repeat the same under better auspices,
I feel confident a more satisfactory account of the feathered
fauna could be placed before the members of the Edinburgh
Field Naturalists’ Club.
VIL—SOME PECULIAR OCCURRENCES IN
NATURAL HISTORY.
By Mr ROBERT STEWART, 8.8.C.
(Read March 28, 1888.)
Tue first “ peculiar occurrence ” to which I wish to call your
attention to-night is in connection with the bird which I
have here beside me, It is one of the terns or sea-
156 Some Peculiar Occurrences in Natural History. [Sess.
swallows, which was caught last summer in rather an odd
way. While a party of gentlemen were out in a boat, fish-
ing for sea-trout, some little way from the mouth of the river
Findhorn, and near the village of the same name, the bird
in question, which was passing the boat overhead at some
little altitude, made a sudden swoop, and in a second rose
again into the air carrying the line with it, having the hook
attached thereto firmly fixed in its bill. The lure used was
what is known as the india-rubber tube. Immediately all
was excitement in the boat, as the bird made frantic efforts
to break away, at the same time causing the line to run off
the reel at a great rate. The fortunate or unfortunate fisher
who made the unexpected capture played the tern in the
most approved style, so that gradually the poor bird’s
struggles became weaker and weaker, until ultimately, on the
line being bit by bit shortened, and pressure thus brought to
bear on the captive, it sank exhausted into the boat, when it
was found necessary to kill it before the hook could be
extracted. At the time the bird was hooked there appeared
to be no terns in the vicinity, but in response to the cry of
distress uttered by the captive, scores of terns came from all
quarters, so that when the bird was taken into the boat and
killed, the operation had to be performed in presence of quite
a “cloud of witnesses.” The tube is used in fishing in much
the same manner as the artificial fly, and is supposed to re-
present a sand-eel, but I have repeatedly caught trout and
finnock with it, at portions of the river where the tide
never reached, and where, consequently, sand-eels could not
exist. J remember once, in the vicinity of the sandhills of
Culbin, picking up a tern which had one of its wings
injured, and taking it with us into the boat, when we left
to cross to the other side of the bar. The bird was perfectly
fearless, and ran about among our feet, from one end of the
boat to the other. On nearing the pier we let down a line,
with the intention of catching a few “ podlies,” or “ queedies,”
as they are called in that district, and soon had one and then
another in the boat. On looking round, we found that our
friend the tern had bolted the first-caught “ queedie,” and to
a certain extent had disposed of the other also, only there
appeared to be a hitch somewhere, as the bird sat, apparently
1887-88.] Some Peculiar Occurrences in Natural History. 157
quite content that it should be so, with the tail-half of the fish
hanging eracefully out of its mouth. It is right to add, how-
ever, in the interests of the tern, that he had apparently not
overrated his own powers, as in a few minutes, by a process
known only to himself, he gradually prevailed upon the tail-
half of the “ queedie” to follow the head. Swallows and bats
have been known repeatedly to take fly-hooks, and ducks
occasionally take the worms on a night-line, to the horror of
many an ardent young disciple of old Izaak, who, braving the
discomforts of a raw spring morning, finds, on reaching the
place where he set his line, that he has unwittingly been the
destroyer of the pride of the neighbouring farmyard. Numer-
ous sea-birds are often taken on the fishermen’s lines, but it
is quite a unique occurrence to capture a bird with a fishing-
rod in the manner above described.
Some time ago we were walking along the beach between
Granton Quarry and Cramond, when we noticed a group of
rough-looking fellows, who were evidently enjoying what
seemed to be sport of some kind. We thought the attraction
must be a dog-fight, as the “ yelping ” of a dog was distinctly
heard, but on coming up to the group we discovered that the
combatants were—the one a rather large-sized Bedlington
terrier, and the other a common crab. It was some little
time ere we could realise that a fight was really in progress,
as the odds at first sight appeared to be all on the side of
the dog. But this was not so, for the crab, with pincers
raised, and face to the foe, was manifestly all excitement, and
warily watched every movement of the dog. The terrier
had evidently in previous rounds felt the strength of the
erab’s pinch, and seemed rather inclined to shirk any further
encounter, but his owner, with derisive laughter, hounded
him on. After one or two feints he at last made straight for
the crab, but we were glad to learn, by the yell which
followed, that the Bedlington had caught a Tartar, and it
was soon seen that the crab had got a firm hold of the dog
by the nose, so that the latter had a good deal of difficulty
in shaking himself free. The terrier evidently realised at
last that in a fair stand-up fight he had met his match, and
consequently he resorted to what may be termed the rough-
and-tumble style. His mode of attack was from this time
VOL. II, L
158 Some Peculiar Occurrences in Natural History. [Sess.
most unfair, and consisted of springing suddenly forward and
snapping viciously at the poor crab, which evidently had
great difficulty in keeping its feet, and the prolonged struggle
appeared at last to be telling severely upon it. In one of the
attacks the crab got upset, and before it could recover itself
the terrier had caught it gingerly in its mouth, and tossed it
high in the air. It fell among the broken rocks, and was so
stunned by the fall that the dog without difficulty munched
it to death. After this the fraternity proceeded leisurely
along the shore, looking apparently for a fresh combatant, and
the time and place gave a new reading to the lines—
““ Where every prospect pleases,
And only man is vile.”
For the past few months a robin-redbreast has taken entire
possession of what is called the “ Winter House” at the Royal
Botanic Garden. He has, so far as one can learn, no legal
right to occupy the said premises; but not only does
the robin keep and hold possession of the glass-house in
question, but he refuses to permit any feathered friend to do
more than pay him a passing call, and he chases and chastises
without mercy any “forlorn and shipwrecked brother” who,
constrained thereto by the late severe weather, desires to take
advantage for a short time of the heat and shelter afforded by
the Winter House. It has been left also to our friend to
dispel another of the fond illusions of our youth, in that he
has once and for ever reduced to the category of fables the
beautiful stories which old country-folks delight to repeat re-
garding the loving character of the robin, and particularly with
reference to his conduct to Jenny Wren when the little lady
was in trouble, and of the wonderful care and attention which
he in such circumstances lavished upon her. On two different
occasions has this nineteenth-century tenant chased, captured,
and killed wrens, who, trusting to the family traditions, called
at the Winter House, expecting to receive food and shelter,
but, alas! who only survived their visit long enough to realise
that even among friends, when it comes to be a struggle for
existence, the weakest must go to the wall. Mr Lindsay, the
Curator, tells me that the gardener in charge of this particular
house was on each occasion an eyewitness of the tragedy, and
1887-88. ] Optical Phenomenon seen in Glenure. 159
found, on examining the victims, that the robin had pecked a
small hole in the ladies’ skulls. Wishing to make the
acquaintance of the criminal, we at different times visited the
Winter House, in company with a couple of friends. On the
first occasion we were met at the door by the occupant, who
appeared exceedingly pleased to cultivate our acquaintance,
and did his very best to make himself agreeable; and though
we also dissembled, the observant eye of the robin must have
discovered our real sentiments regarding him, as on every
subsequent call he made a point of being “not at home.” We
were quite aware, however, that this was only a fashionable
fiction, and we knew well that on each visit he was quietly
watching us from some remote corner.
VIIL—OPTICAL PHENOMENON SEEN IN GLENURE.
By Mr WILLIAM COATS.
(Read March 28, 1888.)
Wate the Edinburgh Botanical Society’s Camp was being
held last August in Glenure, one of the detachments, con-
sisting of three individuals—viz., Mr Grieve (our President),
Mr Webb, and myself—had an opportunity of witnessing
under very favourable conditions an aérial optical phenomenon
somewhat rarely seen. A sentence or two at the outset re-
garding the locality of our camp may not be inappropriate.
Glenure is a wild, very slightly wooded glen, in the Appin
district of Argyleshire, lying almost at sea-level, and
surrounded on every side by high mountains whose bare
summits are but seldom without a covering of mist. It is situ-
ated about sixteen miles from Connal Ferry, and three miles
from the head of Loch Creran, an arm of Loch Linnhe. Its
western extremity lies due south from Ballahulish about eight
miles, while from its eastern end the head of Loch Etive can
be seen distant about six miles. The name signifies “the glen
of yew-trees,” and tradition has it that at one time a large
number of yews grew in the glen. This is to a small extent
borne out by the fact that at the present time a tall, stately,
160 Optical Phenomenon seen in Glenure. [Sess.
beautiful yew flourishes close to the house of Mr Mackay, the
present tenant of Glenure sheep-farm, and in whose house the
members of the camp had most comfortable quarters. Mr
Mackay, who is now over 65 years of age, also informed us
that about 40 years ago, when there were many more natives
about Glenure and Glen Creran—an adjacent glen—than
now, the young men of that day were seized with a mania for
bagpipe-playing. In order to make their pipes, they cut down
the yew-trees then existing, each one taking as much wood as
would make two sets of pipes. This extravagance is accounted
for by the fact that the wood for the second set formed the
payment, or part payment, they made to a turner who lived at
that time near the glen, and who made their pipes. Slowness
of growth and sombreness of foliage are the persistent
characteristics of the yew, and its extremely hard and
singularly close grain must have answered their purpose
admirably. But the times are changed, and there are now
neither young men nor yew-trees in this wild district. That
this must have been a beautifully wooded glen at one time is
evidenced by two facts—the first, that the bleached stumps of
many large trees yet remain about the mountain sides; the
second, that there are to be seen in one or two places
among the hills what resemble the remains of forts, but what
are in reality ruins of buildings formerly used for making
charcoal, which was afterwards taken to Bonaw and used in
smelting the minerals brought to the district for that purpose.
These buildings must have been erected where plenty of wood
was close at hand.
On the morning of Wednesday, the 3d August, our detach-
ment set out before 9 AM. Dr Macfarlane and Mr Allan,
the other members present, started before us in an opposite
direction. Our intention was to botanise over Beinn Fhionn-
laidh, a mountain 3139 feet in height. This height we had
to climb, starting as we did from sea-level. There had been
rain during the night, the morning did not look very
promising, and mist covered the tops of the surrounding
mountains, but by eleven in the forenoon the day had improved
considerably. At the base of the mountain we _ separated,
and soon lost sight of one another, each taking a different
course in order to cover as much ground as possible, with
1887-88. ] Optical Phenomenon seen in Glenure. I6L
the intention of meeting on the plateau shown on _ the
Ordnance Survey map at the 2000 feet level. This we
ultimately did. At this time—about 2 p.m—thin mist was
covering the whole top of the mountain. We soon got into it
without our progress being impeded. Above 2230 feet the
ground was very rough, with large detached granite boulders,
but very little vegetation of any kind. At 3.15 P.M. we
gained the summit, and sat down to rest ourselves by the edge
of a precipice overlooking a corrie of great depth. The mist
had now nearly cleared away from the summit, but was being
driven in large masses into the corrie far below. All at once
we saw our shadows distinctly thrown by the sun on the
mist away down in the abyss, in the centre of a brilliant
triple circular rainbow, a small segment of which was cut
off by the edge of the precipice where we were sitting. This
phenomenon, which was new to all of us, appeared and
disappeared at short intervals several times, after which the
sun’s light came out stronger than before, and it disappeared
altogether. The movements made by the party were of course
reproduced within this brilliant band of colour, the centre of
which appeared to be from 40 to 50 feet in diameter. There
was little wind at the time, but what there was, was blowing
in a circular manner, carrying the mist over the summit in
one direction, and up the valley leading to this corrie and over
an adjoining neck in exactly the opposite way. We were, of
course, considerably impressed with the spectacle, and noted
all the points as carefully as we could. At our President’s
request I wrote a letter regarding this phenomenon to the
‘Scotsman,’ and also asking whether in the Highlands these
occurrences were frequent. This letter appeared in the issue
of the 6th August last, but no replies were forthcoming. I
have been spoken to by a considerable number of people re-
garding this appearance, and have been told by most of them,
that “it must be quite common ;” but on asking the question,
as I invariably did, “ Have yow seen such a thing?” have as
often had “ No” for an answer.
Phenomena of this nature are classed together under the
name of Anthelia, from two Greek words meaning “ opposite
to the sun,” in contradistinction to those phenomena termed
Parhelia, meaning “near the sun.” The most common of all,
162 Optical Phenomenon seen in Glenure. [Sess.
coming under the former class, is the rainbow, which, speaking
in a very general way, is due to the refraction and reflection
of light on drops of water. Much more uncommon is the
lunar rainbow, which doubtless many of us have seen. This
comparatively rare but very beautiful phenomenon differs
from the solar simply in the source and intensity of the light
producing it; and being only visible at night, the distinction
of colours is very difficult to make out, and unless the circum-
stances are favourable, little else is seen than a pale gleam
of sickly white or yellow light. Anthelia proper are those
appearances consisting of a shadow surrounded by coloured
rings or bands thrown upon mist. Of these there are some
which, to the inhabitants of mountainous regions, possess the
characteristics of a supernatural intervention, and foster
superstitious cravings. Even now, when the days of legend
and superstition have passed away, and science has stripped
these phenomena of their marvellous character, and left their
names merely, minus their meaning, they are watched by the
traveller and the scientist as closely as when they were
attributed to a supernatural agency. The most widely known
of these is that named the “Spectre of the Brocken.” The
Brocken is the highest mountain of the Hartz chain, running
through Hanover. Its height is given as 3300 feet above
sea-level. It is stated that a traveller named Hane ascended
no less than thirty times to the summit before he contemplated
the object of his curiosity. In 1862 a French artist, M.
Stroobant, witnessed and carefully sketched this phenomenon.
He reached the summit just as the rising sun enabled him to
distinguish objects clearly at a distance. In his description
he says :—
My guide, who had for some time appeared to be walking in search of
something, suddenly led me to an elevation, whence I had the singular
privilege of contemplating for a few instants the magnificent effect of
mirage which is termed the Spectre of the Brocken. The appearance is most
striking. A thick mist, which seemed to emerge from the clouds like an
immense curtain, suddenly rose to the west of the mountain, a rainbow was
formed, then certain indistinct shapes were delineated. First, the large
tower of the inn was reproduced upon a gigantic scale ; after that we saw
our two selves in a more vague and less exact shape, and these shadows
were in each instance surrounded by the colours of the rainbow, which
served as a frame to this fairy picture.
1887-88. ] Optical Phenomenon seen in Glenure. 163
The phenomenon witnessed by us is, to my mind, that which
is known as the “Ulloa circle.” It is so named after the
Spanish traveller, Francisco Ulloa, who, accompanied by six
fellow-travellers, first observed and described it. The follow-
ing is his description :—
Suddenly each of the travellers beheld, in the opposite direction to where
the sun was rising, his own image reflected in the air as in a mirror, about
70 feet from where he was standing. The image was in the centre of three
rainbows of different colours, and surrounded at a certain distance by a
fourth bow with only one colour. The inside colour of each bow was
carnation or red, the next shade was violet, the third yellow, the fourth
straw colour, the last green. All these bows were perpendicular to the
horizon ; they moved in the direction of, and followed the image of, the
person whom they enveloped, as with a glory.
The most remarkable point here was, that although the
seven spectators were standing in a group, each only saw the
phenomenon in regard to his own person. The strangest
point about the appearance seen by us, but upon which I can
offer no explanation, was, that in one case the movements of
our arms alone were visible, while our lower extremities re-
mained stationary. This sae phenomenon has often been
seen in the Alps, and has also been observed by the Arctic
navigator Scoresby in the Polar regions. The phenomena,
however, observed two years ago by the Hon. Ralph Aber-
eromby—one of the foremost meteorologists of the present
time—at Adam’s Peak, in Ceylon, seem to surpass everything
hitherto recorded. The cone forming the summit of this
mountain, which is over 7300 feet above sea-level, is a naked
mass of granite, terminating in a narrow platform, in the
middle of which is a hollow five feet long, having a rude re-
semblance to a human footstep. Mohammedan tradition makes
this the scene of Adam’s penitence after his expulsion from
Paradise. He stood 1000 years on one foot, hence the mark !
A condensed description of what Abercromby there saw is as
follows: The party (himself and two scientific friends) reached
the summit on the night of the 21st February 1886, amid rain,
mist, and wind. Early next morning the fore-glow began to
brighten the under surface of the stratus-cloud ; patches of
white mist filled the hollows, and occasionally masses of mist
coming from the valley enveloped them with condensed vapour.
At 6.30 A.M. the sun peeped through a chink in the clouds,
164 Optical Phenomenon seen in Glenure. [Sess.
and they saw the pointed shadow of the peak lying on the
misty land. Soon a complete prismatic circle of about 8°
diameter, with the red outside, formed round the summit of the
peak as a centre. This meteorologist, knowing that with this
bow there ought to be spectral figures, waved his arms about,
and immediately found giant shadowy arms moving in the
centre of the rainbow. Two dark rays shot upwards and out-
wards on either side of the centre, and appeared to be nearly in
a prolongation of the lines of the slope of the peak below.
Three times within a quarter of an hour this appearance was
repeated as mist drove up in proper quantities, and fitful
glimpses of the sun gave sufficient light to throw a shadow and
form a circular rainbow. In every case the shadow and bow
were seen in front of land, and never against the sky. About
an hour later the sun again shone out, but much higher and
stronger than before, and then they saw a brighter, sharper
shadow of the peak, this time encircled by a double bow, and
their own spectral arms were again visible. The shadow, the
double bow, and the giant forms combined to make this phe-
nomenon a most remarkable one.
The question very naturally occurs, Are these phenomena
frequent in this country? Their production evidently de-
mands several atmospheric and physical conditions, not readily
found in combination except in mountainous regions — such
as sunlight; mist or fog; cloud (because this appearance has
been beautifully observed from a balloon) ; a considerable
elevation, such as a mountain-summit or a mast-head; a
valley up which mist may be driven by a light wind to the
desired height; and the necessary angle between the sun, the
observer, and the shadow. All the records of this phenomenon
I have seen give some or most of these conditions; and although
ours is a mountainous country, in which one would expect the
necessary conditions to be easily found, such phenomena do
not appear to be frequently recorded—more from the want of
observers, I believe, than from any other cause. We seem to be
getting more and more content to look at our mountains, evi-
dently satisfied that “distance lends enchantment to the view,”
which in such a case it certainly does not, never dreaming of the
glories to be observed on looking from their summits, when
they have been actually climbed.
1887-88. ] Note on Eucalyptus globulus, 165
IX.—NOTE ON EUCALYPTUS GLOBULUS.
By Mr HUGH FRASER.
(Read March 28, 1888.)
Tus plant is one of some 150 species, all, or nearly all,
natives of Australia, and belonging to the Natural Order of
the Myrtacee. Australia is the headquarters of the genus.
The majority of them are trees growing to an immense height,
and having proportionately thick trunks. The whole genus
supplies timber of a strong, durable quality, which is used very
largely throughout the southern hemisphere in shipbuilding,
implement-making, and engineering work. It is also cultivated
extensively in the malarious regions of many of the warmer
parts of the world, especially in the Mediterranean region and
in some districts of Italy. It will be in the recollection of
many of the members that it was very extensively planted a
few years ago on the island of Cyprus, with a view to correct
the malaria which was so fatal to Europeans, with, it is said,
the most happy results.
The most valuable species of the genus is E. globulus,
popularly known as the Blue-gum tree. It is abundant
naturally, and is also extensively cultivated. Of late years it
has become famous as a febrifuge, and a great many properties
of a medical kind have been ascribed to the various prepara-
tious of the leaves, the oil from which is said to be antiseptic,
while in a dried state, smoked in the form of cigars, they have
been recommended as a palliative inasthma. This plant ranks
among the fastest-growing and the tallest of all known trees.
I have known young plants two years from seed attaining a
height of 4 feet; and it has been known to reach the height of
120 feet, with a circumference of 9 feet in the trunk, in twelve
years. Specimens have been found in its native woods 400
feet high.
What suggested this communication was the curious change
which the leaves undergo in form and general appearance
as the tree advances in age. In young plants the leaves
are always opposite, destitute of footstalk, broadly ovate, and
covered with a white dust on both surfaces. At a height of
about 15 feet, however, a set of leaves of quite a different
166 Stoats and Weasels. [Sess.
character begin to develop themselves: these have long foot-
stalks, and are lanceolate in form, with a smooth surface.
When these two forms of leaves are placed alongside of each
other, they are so dissimilar in appearance as almost to con-
ceal their identity. Such instances of variation between im-
mature and mature forms are very curious, and well worthy
of investigation.
X—STOATS AND WEASELS: THEIR HAUNTS,
HABITS, AND PECULIARITIES.
fi By Mr TOM SPEEDY. Z ;
(Read April 25, 1888.)
THE idea of writing on weasels suggested itself to me in con-
sequence of my collecting and keeping a large number of these
animals, with the view of sending them out to New Zealand,
in order to form a natural check to the rabbits, which are there
increasing in inordinate numbers. It is a never-failing law of
nature that where animals which have a tendency to increase
rapidly have been placed, checks are also found by way of
counterbalance; but in the fauna of Australia and New Zea-
land, neither rabbits nor their natural enemies appear to have
been included. Man, however, who sometimes presumes to be
wiser than the Framer of natural law, has introduced rabbits
into these countries, and with the most ruinous results. JI am
not aware when they were first imported into these colonies,
but fifteen years ago they were confined to a small area of
20,000 acres in the extreme south of South Island, and were
at that time taken little notice of. In Southland and Otago
the ravages of rabbits became a serious matter about a dozen
years ago; and, notwithstanding the appeals of the Crown
tenants, the Provincial Government looked on with indiffer-
ence, until those engaged in agricultural and pastoral pursuits
were practically ruined. To illustrate the dimensions which
the rabbit pest has assumed, I may mention that Mr Brydon,
a friend of my own, who was examined before a Parliamentary
Committee last year, stated that “on a run of 100,000 acres
1887-88. ] Stoats and Weasels. 167
in the Queenstown district he had spent £7000 in the two
years 1884 and 1885 in rabbit extermination.” The Parlia-
mentary Committee referred to, in its report suggested that
“the least expensive and most certain remedy is that provided
by nature itself—viz., the distribution of the natural enemies
of the rabbit throughout the infested country. . . . That
stoats and weasels are extremely effective cannot be denied, as
it has been proved in every case where they have been turned
out that rabbits have been enormously reduced in numbers.”
As the consequence of the above report, I was asked to co-
operate in collecting a number of stoats and weasels to trans-
port to the colonies referred to. To collect three hundred of
these animals is no easy task, but where money is ungrudg-
ingly spent, it can be accomplished. In my boyish days I
often wondered how Samson caught the three hundred foxes
he turned among the corn of the Philistines, when it fre-
quently took the hounds of the Earl of Weinyss an entire day
to catch one; and, in like manner, I at first thought that the
collecting and transporting of three hundred stoats and weasels
would be by no means a simple accomplishment. We, how-
ever, got the machinery set in motion. Advertisements were
inserted in provincial newspapers, and circulars were sent to
gamekeepers all over Scotland, offering five shillings each for
every stoat or weasel forwarded alive. In due course they
began to arrive, and we have now collected over a hundred.
Tt will thus be seen that I have facilities afforded me for ob-
serving many of their habits and peculiarities which have
hitherto been denied to the closest observer.
In writing on the weasel tribe, it is as well to state at the.
outset that there are several species in this country. We have
the polecat and the marten, though these two are now so rare.
that it is useless enlarging on their characteristics, as only
once has a living specimen of each come under my observation.
The stoat and weasel are both still plentiful in all parts of the
country, and as it is these two species I have been collecting,
it is to them I wish now to direct your attention. The stoat:
and weasel are often confounded together, and by country
people both are very generally designated “ whaasels.” These
destructive animals have, as a rule, been always regarded as
pests, and hitherto war has been universally waged against.
168 Stoats and Weasels. [Sess.
them by gamekeepers and others. The Government of New
Zealand, however, now regards them in a very different light, and
is spending large sums in transporting them from this country.
An amusing conversation recently took place—so says one
of our comic papers—between two Cockneys who had been
reading an article on the exportation of stoats and weasels to
New Zealand. “ What,” asked one, “is the difference between
a stoat and a weasel?” “That, I should think,” replied the
other, “will not be so weasily explained.” “Oh yes,’ re-
marked his friend, “the one’s stotily different from the other.”
Though they differ from each other essentially, still it is true
that an affinity exists between them, many of their haunts,
habits, and peculiarities being identical. Weasels being smaller
than stoats, their hunting-ground is in a much more limited
area. Dry-stone dykes, cairns of stones, and hedgerows are
their favourite habitats. Their staple food, where there is no
young game, is mice. This I have clearly demonstrated by
examining the contents of the stomachs of those I have shot
in the vicinity of Edinburgh. Where young game is abun-
dant, the destruction caused by weasels is incalculable. Game-
keepers who have had experience in rearing young pheasants
are well aware of the havoc one weasel will commit if it should
obtrude its presence in the locality. So destructive are the
weasel tribe in their habits, that should one effect an entrance
where rabbits or chickens are being reared, everything that
partakes of life is ruthlessly destroyed. They are merciless
tyrants, meaningless murderers, shedding blood from mere
wantonness. In illustration of the bloodthirsty and ferocious
character of the weasel tribe, I may mention that a neighbour's
boys had a pair of rabbits confined in a house, with a brood of
eight young ones nearly half grown, and a second litter, seven
in number, about ten days old. Hearing a noise about seven
o’clock one evening in the rabbit-house, the boys went to ascer-
tain the cause. On opening the door, a “ whaasel” made his
exit by a small hole and effected his escape. It was, however,
discovered that the entire fifteen young rabbits had been
cruelly slaughtered, the speck of blood behind the ear reveal-
ing the spot where the weasel tribe, with unerring accuracy,
seize their prey and cut the artery, which in a few minutes
terminates the sufferings of their victims. The noise which
1887-88. ] Stoats and Weasels. 169
attracted attention was caused by the old pair of rabbits de-
fending themselves as they best could; but there is no doubt
that, had attention not been attracted, they would have shared
the same fate as their progeny.
A gruesome trait of the weasel tribe is their cannibalistic
tendencies. When one is shot or trapped in a district they
frequent, and is left lying about, it is quickly removed and
eaten by its kin. I have also observed that if a couple are
confined in the same box, the weaker is certain to be killed and
eaten by the stronger, even though an abundance of food is in
the box beside them. In their wild state nothing makes a
better bait for trapping weasels than one of their own species.
Receiving information from those who had previously trans-
ported weasels that, irrespective of sex, three were put in each
box, I, as a matter of course, adopted the same tactics. I soon
discovered, however, that this method would be most unprofi-
table, as in every case two of them were killed, and generally
the survivor died from his wounds, Acquiring knowledge by
experience, I got boxes made, and confined them separately,
with the most satisfactory results; and as I have kept them
many weeks, evidently in a thriving condition, I see no difficulty
whatever in transporting them to New Zealand, provided
cleanliness and fresh water are punctually attended to. All
carnivorous animals drink a large quantity of water.
It was also asserted, by those who are considered to be com-
petent authorities, that live pigeons had to be shipped along
with the weasels, in order to give them warm food, blood be-
ing deemed indispensable. This dictum I have also exploded,
having fed them for weeks on cold meat and eggs, with the
best possible results. In feeding them on pigeons, I dis-
covered that, as a rule, the head and neck were the first parts
eaten. I would therefore suggest, for the information of those
transporting weasels, that a large number of the heads and
necks of chickens, which can be got from poulterers at a
nominal price, should be put in the refrigerators, and these,
along with eggs, would constitute the best and cheapest food
that can be obtained. In a consignment of three hundred
weasels, fed on live pigeons, the expense is enormous. Allow-
ing a couple of months to collect them, and a voyage of six or
seven weeks’ duration, many thousands of pigeons are neces-
170 Stoats and Weasels. [Sess.
sary, three weasels requiring one pigeon per day. It is thus
easy to see that considerable expenditure would be incurred.
There are, besides, the purchasing of the pigeons; the quantity
of corn required to feed them; the freight of them on board
the ship, and a man to attend to them.
Though both stoats and weasels are largely endowed with
curiosity, the latter is much less shy than the former. I
have frequently observed their footprints in snow round a box
trap, and though they would run round it a good many times,
in most cases weasels ventured in and were secured. It is
otherwise with stoats. Known from their larger footprints
and longer strides, they would also run round the trap, which
they evidently regarded as dangerous, as in most cases they
did not venture in. The stoat, although a comparatively small
animal, is in the habit of travelling very considerable distances,
and will settle down at a spot several miles away from his
former dwelling-place. In such cases the first indication of
his presence is some unlooked-for depredation which attracts
the attention of the keeper. So recently as last year I was
spending a few days shooting in a district in Forfarshire, from
which stoats had been carefully excluded. One morning the
keeper called my attention to an exceptionally large stoat
which he, without hesitation, affirmed must have travelled
several miles. Upon interrogation, he satisfied me as to the
correctness of his surmise, for had it been otherwise he must
have had previous indications of the animal’s presence.
Having my gun in hand, I stood waiting his coming out from
a heap of stones, where unperceived he appeared to be amusing
himself. To my surprise I shortly thereafter saw him about
150 yards in advance posting up the side of a stone wall with
great speed. Knowing that he had not seen me, and had con-
sequently no apprehension of danger, I was curious to know
the motive by which he was impelled. I stealthily followed
in pursuit, and was interested to observe that he occasionally
raised his head in the air as if attracted by the scent of prey.
Having apparently measured his distance, he again pressed
on with increasing speed, as if impelled by some terrible
instinct. Hitherto, although familiar with the movements of
the stoat, I was not prepared for the alacrity with which he
kept in advance. Latterly he seemed to become desperate
1887-88. ] Stoats and Weasels. 171
with excitement, when I was interested to discover a brood
of partridges run screaming from the side of the old stone
fence right across the field and over a knoll. This movement
on the part of the partridges appeared to disappoint and sur-
prise the stoat, who halted as if in a difficulty as to his future
action. By this time I had got fairly within shot, as in his
anxiety to get among his prey he was oblivious of my having
been in pursuit. I fired, and no sooner had I done so than
I felt I had made a mistake, as I should have liked to have
seen how he would have met the unexpected contingency. As
it was, on going forward I found him to be a very old stoat,
who had doubtless done much mischief in his day: he was
certainly the largest of the species I have ever seen.
Though, as I have already remarked, stoats and weasels re-
semble each other in many respects, there is a difference between
them. I refer to the stoat changing his colour from dark
brown in summer to pure white in winter, with the exception
of the black tip on the tail, which never changes. We discover
here how wisely nature makes provision for enabling some
animals to capture their prey, and for others, such as the
mountain hare, to elude their enemies, Why the weasel
should form an exception to this law, so strikingly illustrated
in the stoat, is a point which I confess myself unable satis-
factorily to explain. In changing from their summer to their
winter coats, or vice versd, stoats do not become white or brown
all at once, but break out in white or brown patches or stripes,
and at times have a piebald appearance. It seems strange
that the stoat and weasel resemble each other in almost every
other respect, and yet the latter retains its brown colour in
winter as well as in summer. Mr Scot Skirving, in his ex-
cellent paper, contributed a few years ago to the Society, on
“The Stoat or Ermine Weasel” (‘ Transactions,’ vol. i. p. 130),
states that he should like to try the experiment of subjecting
a weasel to a cold of 30° below zero in order to see if it would
turn white. My opinion is that it would not. “Can the
Ethiopian change his skin, or the leopard his spots?” No
device of man can change the colour of any animal, unless
nature has willed it so. Weasels are not nearly so hardy as
stoats, and I venture to affirm that if subjected to a tempera-
ture of 30° below zero, they would succumb in a few hours,
172 Stoats and Weasels. [Sess..
This is no mere speculation, as I have had it again and again
verified that they die quickly from cold. In hard frosty
weather, should one be caught in a wooden box-trap, it will
very frequently be found dead, though the trap is looked reg-
ularly night and morning. If a wisp of hay be put in the
trap, the animal will be found cosily curled up in it, evidently
quite comfortable. In the spring of this year I had two
stoats and two weasels in separate boxes placed in a large wire-
net cage in front of my window, for the purpose of observing
their habits. Knowing that they are by no means possessed
of a social instinct, I allowed only one of them to run about
the cage at once. As you are all aware, we had some sudden
changes in the weather, and one night a fall of snow with hard
frost was experienced. Notwithstanding that each animal had
some hay to sleep in, I discovered in the morning that both
weasels had succumbed to the cold. The stoats, however,
seemed to be none the worse, but I took the precaution of
having them removed into a stable, in order to protect them
from further exposure. It may be asked, if weasels thus die
from cold, how is it that they live and thrive in places of
high altitude, such as Dalnaspidal in Perthshire, where the
winters are long and severe? My opinion is, that weasels spend
most of the time in hard weather in their nest, which is
frequently in a hole deep down below a tree-root or under a
rock. The nest is generally made of dried grass and lined
with feathers like a bird’s, where the winged tribe exist, and
where they are included in the weasel’s bill of fare. Even in
confinement they make a similar nest, provided a pigeon or
other bird is given them, from which they can pluck off the
feathers, and in which they curl themselves up as simply
and cosily as possible.
Weasels are frequently caught in traps set for moles, which
indicates that they hunt for these animals. In one instance
I knew of two weasels having met in a mole-run exactly in
the trap, which secured them both. When quite a lad, while
walking on the road at Ladykirk, in Berwickshire, a weasel
crossed in front of me and disappeared in a bank at the side
of the road. Going to the place, I saw the hole where it
entered, and that there would be no difficulty in digging it out.
Taking the precaution of pushing a stone into the hole, I went
1387-8 8.] Stoats and Weasels. 173
to a cottage some distance off and borrowed a spade. Com-
mencing to dig, I was not long in unearthing the vermin, and
was fortunate enough to crush it with the spade when trying
to make its exit. Examining it, I discovered that it was a
female, and that she had been nursing. Excavating a little
farther, I came upon the nest, which contained seven small,
blind, slate-coloured creatures, apparently a few days old. I
have stated that the creatures were blind, and it is perhaps
worthy of note that the period of gestation in the weasel tribe
is six weeks, and that the young ones are six weeks old before
their eyes are opened. It is no unusual thing to see young
ferrets out of their nest tearing away at a rabbit or other food
before they can see. Why the young of the weasel tribe
should be so long blind is difficult of explanation. I am not
aware of the young of any other animal having their eyes so
long closed. Rats are also born blind, but in fourteen days
begin to open their eyes, and, as every schoolboy knows, this
is longer than most animals.
Another peculiarity of the weasel tribe is a gland under
the tail, in which is secreted a strong and offensive odour,
which the animal emits at will when attacked by an enemy,
or when fighting with each other. If one should be shot
dead, or killed instantaneously by a trap, it has no smell
whatever ; but if trapped by the leg, or wounded by a gun-
shot, the strong effluvium is most disagreeable, and any person
who handles it has a difficulty in getting rid of the smell
Mr St John, in his admirable book, states that the smell can
never be got rid of, and that this renders the skins of stoats
useless. This I cannot accept; and the fact of their skins,
in the form of ermine fur, being so valuable, and worn not
only by ladies of rank and by the Judges of the Court of
Session, but even by royalty, thoroughly explodes this fallacy.
In Norway and Siberia their skins make a valuable article
of commerce ; and it is a notable fact that those killed in
this country are much inferior, having neither the thickness
of fur nor the beautiful whiteness of those killed in Northern
regions.
VOL. II.
174 List of Plants gathered in Switzerland. [Sess.
XL—LIST OF PLANTS GATHERED IN
SWITZERLAND.
By Mrs SPRAGUE.
(Read April 25, 1888.)
In the autumn of 1887 Mrs Sprague and party spent two
months in Switzerland, travelling about from place to place,
and noting the various plants observed by the way. An in-
teresting account of the places visited was read to the Society;
and there were also exhibited a collection of butterflies, several
photographs of Swiss scenery taken by one of the party, and a
number of herbarium specimens of plants. The following
plants were gathered during the tour at Lucerne, the Righi
Pass, Mt. Pilatus, the Briinig Pass, the Furca Pass, Mt.
Chamossaire, Villars-sur-Ollon, Montreux, &e. :—
Achillea Clusiana.
Aconitum commutatum.
" napellus
" ranunculifolium.
Adenostyles albifrons,
Allium foliosum,
Althzea officinalis.
Anemone alpina.
» sulphurea.
Anthericum ramosum,
Aposeris foetida.
Aquilegia atrata.
Arnica montana.
Aspidium Lonchitis.
Asplenium septentrionale.
Aster alpinus.
Astrantia carniolica.
" major.
" minor.
Biscutella levigata.
Bupleurum longifolium.
" stellatum.
Calamintha alpina.
" officinalis.
Campanula barbata.
" latifolia.
" rhomboidalis.
" rotundifolia,
" Trachelium.
Carlina acaulis.
Centaurea montana,
Cerastium arvense,
Chrysanthemum alpinum.
Circium spinosissimum.
Colchicum autumnale.
Crepis aurea.
Cyclamen europzeum.
Dianthus atrorubens.
1 frigida,
1 Superbus.
n sylvestris.
Digitalis grandiflora.
nu lutea.
Epilobium rosmarinifolium,
Erigeron alpinum.
Euphrasia minima.
Gentiana acaulis.
n _ asclepiadea,
un bavarica.
" " alba.
1 campestris.
" ciliata.
un eruciata (7).
1 imbricata.
n lutea.
" nivalis.
nu obtusifolia.
m punctata.
1: purpurea,
1 -verna.
Geum montanum.
Globularia cordifolia.
" vulgaris.
Gnaphalium dioicum.
1887-88.]
Hepatica triloba.
Hieracium alpinum.
Homogyne (Tussilago) alpina.
Impatiens noli-me-tangere.
Lathyrus heterophyllus.
1 Sylvestris.
Lilium Martagon.
Linaria alpina.
" " concolor.
» minor.
Lonicera alpigena.
" ccerulea.
" nigra,
Maianthemum (Smilacina) bifolia.
Mulgedium alpinum.
Narcissus poeticus.
Orchis ustulata,
Orobus luteus.
Paris quadrifolia.
Phyteuma orbiculare.
" scorzonerzfolium.
Polygala Chamebuxus.
Prenanthes purpurea.
Primula auricula.
n commutata,
u_ farinosa.
u spectabilis (?).
Pulmonaria angustifolium (?).
Fungus Folk-Lore. 175
Pyrola uniflora.
Ranunculus aconitifolius,
Rhododendron ferrugineum.
" hirsutum.
Salvia glutinosa,
"1 pratense.
Saxifraga aizoides,
" aizoon,
" ceesia.
nu euneifolia.
cotyledon.
n Yvotundifolia.
nu Stellaris.
Scrophularia Hoppii.
Sempervivum tectorum.
Silene acaulis.
"- rupestris.
n- Saxifraga (2).
Soldanella alpina.
" montana.
" pusilla.
Spireea aruncus.
Swertia perennis.
Tofieldia calyculata.
Trifolium alpinum.
Trollius europeus.
Verbascum blattaria.
Veronica saxatilis.
" montana. Vincetoxicum officinale,
Pyrola rotundifolia. Viola calearata.
nu secunda, grandiflora.
XIL—FUNGUS FOLK-LORE.
By Mr A. B. STEELE,
(Read Dec. 28, 1887.)
THE science of folk-lore, as defined by an American writer, is
“the comparison and identification of the survivals of archaic
beliefs, customs, and traditions in modern ages.” Although the
study of the subject has long been looked upon as a mere pas-
time, and as likely to be fraught with no useful results, it is
one which is rapidly increasing in general interest. In many
instances it is a valuable, if not the only, means of obtaining an
insight into the prehistoric period in the life of nations, and
176 Fungus Folk-Lore. [Sess.
may yet supply ethnologists and archeologists with material
for writing the unrecorded history of the various peoples of the
earth. :
Fungi have given rise to a not uninteresting, though com-
paratively small, contribution to folk-lore. The most common
form of fungi is the mushroom, in connection with which much
folk-lore is associated. Mushroom was formerly spelt “ mush-
rump,” and is said to be derived from the Welsh maes, a field,
and rhum, a knob or little head ; the French analogue, cham-
pignon, being similarly compounded of champ, a field, and
pignon, a little head. It is also said to be derived from
mousseron, the popular name in France of Agaricus prunulus,
because it grows in moss or grass. Dr Prior thinks that it
comes from the old French mousche, a fly —the fly-killing
Agaric being called mouscheron, from which our word mushroom
is derived. The proverbial expression, “ to come up like a
mushroom,” is as old as the days of Bacon. “Such as are up-
starts in state,” he says, “are called in reproach mushrooms.”
Lytton uses the word in a similar sense when he speaks of “a
certain mushroom usurper who had bought out this old, simple,
hospitable family.” Dwight, an American theologian of last
century, says, “ The origin of man, in the view of the atheist, is
the same with that of the mushroom ”—-expressing the popular
belief of the origin of the plant in his time. Gerarde calls
mushrooms “ earthie excrescences”; and the Greeks called them
earth-born plants, under the belief that the seeds came direct
from the earth. In Worcestershire, mushrooms are called
Abrahams, probably from a band of licensed beggars so called,
in imitation of whom so many impostors sprang up that, like
mushrooms, it was difficult to distinguish the genuine from the
false. Country folks regard a plentiful crop of mushrooms as
indicative of rain; and among mushroom-growers there is a
curious belief that they are more abundant when the moon is
waxing than when it wanes.
The origin of the name Toadstool is self-evident. In Eng-
land generally toadstools are called Toads’ hats or caps; in
Scotland, Paddock or Puddock stools—
“‘ May sprout like simmer puddock-stools in glen or shaw ;”—
in Lancashire, Toad-paddock ; in Berkshire, Toad’s cheese ; in
1887-88. ] Fungus Folk-Lore. 177
Dorset and Isle of Wight, Toad’s meat ; in Northampton, Frog’s
seat ; in Holland, Toadstool (Padde stoél) ; in Germany, Toad
fungus (Kréten schwamm) ; in France, Frog’s bread (Pain wu
crapaud) ; andin Belgium, Toadstool (Padden stoél). The idea
that toadstools were used as seats by toads is of ancient
origin—
“ The grisly toadstool grown there mought I see,
And loathed paddocks lording on the same.”
There is a very old myth about the “ snayle that crept out of
her shell, and was turned eftsoones into a toad, and thereby
was forced to make a stoole to sit on, disdaining her own house.”
It is said that the name arose from a belief that all fungi were
produced from the excrement of toads. In Wales, however,
these plants are named Fairy tables, and in Cornwall and Devon
Pixy stools. In Yorkshire they are called Cockstools. That
fungi have long been associated in the public mind with fairies
is proved by the names which have been given to the different
kinds, such as Fairy tables, Fairy baths, &e. What is popularly
known as fairy rings or circles has given rise to many curious
beliefs and sayings, and their marvellously rapid growth has
struck the uncultivated as a supernatural phenomenon. The
prevalent belief was that they were caused by the midnight
dancing and revelry of the fairies; and Shakespeare speaks of
the elves
“ Whose pastime
Is to make midnight mushrooms.”
In the west of England these rings are called Hags’ tracks.
In the myths and folk-lore of Sweden they are said to be en-
chanted circles made by fairies. The elves perform their
midnight stimm or dance, and the grass produced after the
dancing is called ailfexing. A belief prevails in some parts of
this country that any one treading within the magic circles
either loses consciousness or cannot retrace his steps. Many
absurd theories have been propounded as to the cause of these
rings. Aubrey, who wrote the ‘Natural History of Wiltshire’
in the 17th century, said that they were “ generated from the
breaking out of a fertile subterraneous vapour which comes
from a kind of conical concave, and endeavours to get out at a
harrow passage at the top, which forces it to make another
178 Fungus Folk-Lore. [Sess.
cone inversely situated to the other, the top of which is the
green circle.” Another remarkable theory by a writer, quoted
in Captain Brown’s notes to White’s ‘Selborne,’ attributed
these rings to the droppings of starlings, which, when in large
flights, frequently alight on the ground in circles, and are some-
times known to sit a considerable time in these annular con-
gregations. It was also thought that such circles were caused
by the effects of electricity, and for this belief the withered part
of the grass within the circles may have given foundation.
Priestley was a strong advocate of the electric theory, and was
supported by many eminent men of his time.
“ So from the clouds the playful lightning wings,
Rives the firm oak or prints the fairy rings,”
says Dr Darwin, and appends a note that “ flashes of lightning,
attracted by the moister part of grassy plains, are the actual
cause of fairy rings.” Archeeologists suggested that they might
be the remains of circles formed by the ancient inhabitants of
Britain in the celebration of their sports or the worship of their
deities. Naturalists of that period came to the conclusion
that the rings were caused by the underground workings of
insects. In the ‘ Transactions of the Woolhope Club,’ a few
years ago, a writer tries to prove that they are the result of the
underground workings of moles; and in the same ‘Transactions’
for 1870, Professor Buckman lays down the axiom that “ any-
thing which may tend to kill a given area of grass may be the
beginning of a fairy ring.” Several kinds of fungi form rings,
but the meadow rings are almost invariably formed by the
species Marasmius oreades, commonly known in England by
the name of Champignon or Scotch bonnets. St George’s
mushroom, which sometimes forms rings, is called Champeron
in Berkshire and Champilion in Cheshire—both names ap-
parently corrupted from the French. This mushroom is
believed to be a special gift from St George—a belief no doubt
arising from its making its appearance about the time fixed for
the celebration of that saint. Bluet or Blewit, the popular
name of Agaricus personatus, has puzzled etymologists. It is
supposed to be a corruption of blue hat, but why it should be ~
called so when its stem only is blue, raises a difficulty. The
Boletus is the toadstool par excellence of the English, who call
1887-88. ] Fungus Folk-Lore. 179
it the Devil’s cushion. The Romans compared it to the food
of the gods; and in Holland it is called Devil’s bread,
from a superstitious belief that that individual gets the best of
everything in this world.
Among the group popularly called Sapballs, the best known
is the Dry-rot. This name originated from its converting the
wood which it attacks into a dry powdery mass. Dr Prior,
however, thinks that the name is more probably derived from
tree, wood—A.S. treow—and rot. Like the fairy rings, a great
many strange reasons have been assigned as the cause of the
dry-rot in timber. It was supposed to be caused by a plant
like the vine, and wherever this fell plant touched it poisoned
the wood, and hydra-like sprouted when deemed dead. Last
century a writer stated that he had seen the leaves growing on
the plant. “They appear,” he said, “dead for many years, and
some crumble into dust, but fresh wood attracts a fresh growth
from the root.” In the ‘Gentleman’s Magazine’ last century it
was seriously asserted by a correspondent that dry-rot was the
Jewish leprosy in houses; and another held that it was the
result of putrefactive fermentation. A well-known species of
this group, and much esteemed as a food on the Continent, is
the Vegetable beef-steak, so called from a supposed resemblance
to a piece of fresh beef. It has other popular names, such as
Liver of the oak, Ox-tongue, or simply Tongue. It is so like
a tongue in shape and general appearance, that in the days of
enchanted trees it was never cut off for fear the knight to
whom it belonged should afterwards come to claim it. A
species which attacks the Canadian pines is an object of some
curious beliefs among the Indians of Lake Huron. They
believe that it lives and cries like a child, that it bleeds when
wounded, and does not fall unless killed. The famous Funeus-
stone, Pietra fungaia, of Italy, is regarded by the Neapoli-
tans with superstitious wonder. Parkinson quaintly describes
it as growing naturally among certain stones in Naples, and
that the stones being digged up and conveyed to Rome, where
they set them in their wine-cellars, covering them with a little
earth and sprinkling a little warm water thereon, mushrooms
are produced within four days. The stone is simply a ball of
hardened earth impregnated with the spawn of Polyporus
tuberaster. Another much-prized Continental species has the
180 Fungus Folk-Lore. [Sess.
popular name of the Hen-of-the-woods or Breeding-hen, from
a fancied resemblance to the female of the grey grouse sitting
on eggs. In Italy, rackrented tenants send specimens of this
fungus as surprise presents, by way of inducing the landlords
to reduce the rent.
Among the group which gets its name from the tremulous
gelatinous appearance of several species, there is some curious
folk-lore. It is their strange appearance which has given rise
to the many curious traditions about them. They are known
as Star-jellies or Fallen-stars, from a superstitious belief that
they were the remains of fallen stars. In Sweden they are
called Sky-falls. Dr J. Russell Lowell, commenting on one
of Lovelace’s poetic images, says it is based on the belief
that stars shooting from their places fell to the earth and
turned to jellies. Jamieson’s Scottish Dictionary explains
Shot-star as the meteoric substance often seen to shoot through
the atmosphere, or appearing in a gelatinous form on the
ground. The ‘Statistical Account of Scotland’ also explains
the substance called Shot-stars as “nothing else than frosted
potatoes. A night of hard frost in the end of autumn, in
which those meteors called falling-stars are seen, reduces the
potato to the consistence of a jelly or soft pulp, having no
resemblance to a potato except when parts of the skin of the
potato adhere below undissolved. This pulp remains soft and
fluid when all things else in nature are consolidated by frost,
for which reason it is greedily taken up by crows and other
fowls when no other sustenance is to be had, so that it is often
found by man in the actual circumstance of having fallen from
above, having its parts scattered and dispersed by the fall,
according to the law of falling bodies. This has given rise to
the name and vulgar opinion concerning it.” A great many
other curious sayings exist about fallen- or shot-stars, but they
have reference more particularly to an alga which was at one
time classed among the fungi, The term Witches’ butter or
Fairy butter is often generally applied to the yellow gelatinous
species, but most country folks, when they refer to Witches’
butter, mean a blackish fungus which feels on the under side
like black crape. In Atkinson’s ‘Glossary of the Cleveland
Dialect, it is stated that the belief is quite common in York-
1887-88. ] Fungus Folk-Lore. 18I
shire that fairies or witches make butter during the night, and
scatter it about on the ground. In Sweden there is a similar
belief ; and it is said that the witches milk the cows during the
night and make butter, or ¢roll smér, as it is called. There is
also a belief in that country that if nine kinds of wood be
heaped into a pile, and some of the ¢roll smér be thrown into
it, those who have been justly suspected as witches are in-
voluntarily compelled to adinit it.
Another species, the Jew’s ear, as it is commonly but in-
correctly called, was an object of superstition in the middle
ages. It is evidently a corruption of Judas’s ear. Rabelais
ealls it Judas’s ear, and says it is a form of fungus issuing from
old elder trees. There is a well-known tradition of the middle
ages that Judas hanged himself upon an elder tree, and that
the fungus sprouted out in consequence.
“ Judas he japed
With jewen silver,
And sithen on an eller
Hanged hymselve,”
says Langland in his ‘ Piers Plowman.’ Coles also mentions
the elder as “ being supposed that whereon Judas hanged him-
self, and that ever since these mushrooms like unto ears have
grown thereon.” Gerarde, however, says that the arbor Jude
is thought to be that upon which Judas hanged himself, and
not upon the elder, as it is vulgarly said. The tree called
Judas tree, known also in France and Germany under that
name, is a corruption of Kuamos tree (Cercis siliquastrum), the
Leguminous or Bean tree of the East, and the corrupt name
has probably given rise to the tradition that it was upon that
tree that the arch-traitor hanged himself. The old herbalists
believed that the virtues possessed by this fungus were in-
exhaustible. For sore throats it was a never-failing cure.
An allied species in New Zealand is exported annually in
large quantities to China, where it is highly valued for its
supposed curative powers. It forms one of the principal
ingredients of their favourite soup, on account of its gelatinous
properties and its rich delicious flavour.
Among the next division of Fungi, the most popular family
182 Fungus Folk-Lore. [Sess.
is the Puffballs—a name which needs no explanation. Puck
or Pouk fist, by which it was anciently called, and is still
commonly known by in some districts of England, is not so
self-evident. In Gloucester it is called Puckfoust; in Norfolk,
Bulfer and Bulfist—a corruption, perhaps, of the German
Bofist. The Irish name is Cos-a-phouka or Pouka’s foot; the
Saxon is Pulker-fist. The name Puckfist may be derived from
Puck—Robin Goodfellow, the celebrated fairy—and fist, a
corruption of foot. In Icelandic, however, Puck or Puke
means a wee devil; in Swedo-Gothic, the ancient language of
Sweden, it also means a devil; and in old English the devil is
called the pouke. Hence may have arisen the popular family
nickname of the Devil’s snuff-boxes, given to puffballs.
Gerarde informs us that it was a common belief that the
snuff from the Devil’s box was injurious to the eyes; and
Parkinson affirms that if the seeds are brought near the
eyes, they will cause blindness—a belief which has origi-
nated the names Blindman’s ball, Blindman’s bellows, and
Blindman’s een.
Another group in this division has attracted popular notice
by its fetid odours. It is most likely to one of its members,
called the Common Stinkhorn, that the Poet Laureate refers
in the line—
“ As one that smells a foul-fleshed Agaric in the holt.”
In Yorkshire it is called the Devil’s stinkpot ; in Cumberland,
Powcat or Polecat; in Norfolk it is called Devil’s horn; and
in other places, Wood witch and Stinking polecat. A Con-
tinental species, by its insupportable odour, has occasioned the
superstition among the peasants of the Landes that it produces
cancer. It gets the name of Cancer on that account, and they
cover it carefully over lest some one should chance to touch it
and become infected with that terrible disease. In the west
of England the name Canker is applied to poisonous fungi;
and in China and the Cape of Good Hope, species allied to
the French Cancer are employed as external applications for
cancerous sores. A member of this group, bearing some
resemblance to the last-mentioned plant, is a native of New
Zealand, where at one time it was economically of some im-
1887-88.] Remarks on the Genus Aulacodiscus Ehrb. 183
portance. The Maoris call it Thunder-dirt, a name apparently
derived from some savage superstition regarding its origin—a
superstition which can be traced back to the time of the
ancient Thracians, who named species of this group as if they
were produced by thunder. ‘There is a remarkably interesting
group of little fungi also belonging to this division, quite
curiosities in their way, and popularly known in some places
as Bird’s nests, from their resemblance to a small nest with
eggs. One species is found plentifully on bracken stems, but
the neatest and prettiest kind is seen growing on the ground,
mostly in stubble-fields, in spring. At the first glance they
represent miniature open purses filled with silver coins. In
England they are called Pixies’ purses, and in Scotland, Siller
eups. Scottish country-folks who chance to light upon these
fungi on their way to work or market, consider it a lucky
omen of the day’s success.
Among the other divisions of fungi, folk-lore is almost
confined to a small group whose striking appearance has
attracted popular notice. They are called Fairy cups, and the
loveliest and most striking of them, if not of all the fungi, is
the Scarlet cup, Fairy bath, or Whooping cup, as it is
variously called throughout the country.
XIL.—REMARKS ON THE GENUS AULA- :
CODISCUS Eure.
By JOHN RATTRAY, M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S.E.
(Read April 25, 1888.)
I RESPECTFULLY beg to submit the subjoined observations on
the genus Aulacodiscus Ehrb, to the members of the Edin-
burgh Field Naturalists’ Society, in the belief that not a few
of the working microscopists who have already found at once
pleasure and much material for reflection in the flinty micro-
organisms so abundant in every fresh- or salt-water pool, on the
184 Remarks on the Genus Aulacodiscus Ehrb. [Sess.
surface of the ocean waters as well as in their most profound
depths, may be induced to prosecute their observations still
more assiduously in this ample domain, to co-operate in the
earnest if humble attempts of the many home and foreign
workers now endeavouring to elucidate the story of their life,
their minute structure when alive or after death, the still un-
known mechanism of their movements, and the riddles of the
endo-parasites to whose ravages they, in common with the
highest of living organisms, are at all times exposed.
The genus Aulacodiscus embraces some of the most elegant
forms among the Diatomacez. Marine in its habitat, its species
are in part met with in fossil deposits only, but they are also
occasionally found in the vicinity of land—continental or insular
—in tropical or temperate waters. Among deposits its repre-
sentatives are to be found in that of Mors, Jutland; of Sim-
birsk and Sysran, Russia; of Barbadoes; of Monterey, Santa
Monica, Santa Marta, and Santa Maria, California; of Szent
Peter, Szakal, and Kékké, Hungary ; of Richmond and Peters-
burg, Virginia; of Calvert County, Nottingham, and Piscataway,
Maryland ; of Augarten ; and of Oamaru, New Zealand. From
oceanic deposits specimens have been procured in the Pacific
by the Challenger, and in the Indian Ocean by the Gazelle.
Guanos from Bolivia, Peru, Ichaboe, San Filipe, Patos Island,
Patagonia, and South Africa, may also be examined with
success. The shores of Great Britain and of the European
continent have yielded but a small harvest hitherto, but many
recent elegant valves have been procured from New Zealand,
New Caledonia, Sumatra, Java, Samoa, Celebes, Japan, the
Sandwich and Philippine Islands, Ceylon, Labuan, the Nicobak
Islands, King George’s Sound, California, Peru, San Francisco,
Sierra Leone, the river Congo in W. Africa, Teneriffe, and other
localities. It thus appears that whilst deposits afford the most
accessible hunting-ground, ballast of ships trading with foreign
ports may frequently be examined with a good hope of dis-
covering some of the choicest gems in this department of
research.
I must refer the members to the monograph which I have
recently had the privilege of submitting to the Royal Micro-
scopical Society of London for a systematic description of the
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1887-88. ] Remarks on the Genus Aulacodiscus Ehrb. 185
at present known species of the genus; in this, too, will be
found a guide to the relevant literature and to the synonymy
—here, fortunately, with few exceptions, less perplexing than
in some other genera; and I would also direct attention to
certain singularly instructive abnormalities which have been
published in the April (1888) issue of the ‘Journal of
Botany.’ But by way of supplement to, and extension of,
these papers, it has seemed to me desirable to present you
with a tabular view of the species as a guide to their natural
affinities, and as facilitating the identification of forms when
used with discrimination, in conjunction with the artificial
key that will be found in the first-mentioned paper. As ex-
planatory of this Table, I would point out that the forms
have a discoid shape, are sometimes almost flat or slightly con-
vex towards the centre, which may be depressed, and are often
provided with surface elevations, on the top of which, when
present, the large processes of very variable shape are placed.
The markings are generally absent from a small central area of
variable outline, but often circular, and outside of this are round
or polygonal areole arranged in substraight radial and often
secondary oblique decussating rows, resembling the markings
on the back of a watch. Double rows —— the primary rays—
of often more evident markings proceed from the central space
towards the border, but stop short of the latter, and for the
most part terminate in large and very elegant processes, which
vary in shape from a truncated cone to that of an hour-glass,
or even a round-headed staff. The markings are often of the
most exquisite pearly lustre, or constitute a faint delicate
tracery of marvellous regularity, and between them are fre-
quently found interspaces either of unornamented silica or bear-
ing minute mammillations, by the presence of which the colour
and lustre of the valves are often most pleasantly varied, and
sometimes greatly enhanced. To the forms possessing within
certain limits—depending on the judgment of the observer—
modifications of all or some of such characters the specific
names are attached; but it must be pointed out that here, as in
other departments, there is no absolute fixity of characters
within a species. In other words, no two valves from different
frustules will be found exactly the counterpart of one another,
186 Remarks on the Genus Aulacodiscus Ehrb. [Sess,
and thus it comes about that the species merge insensibly
into one another, through forms to which we may sometimes,
for convenience of reference, affix a varietal name (or the name
of a forma), and which may be associated with one or other of
two allied species, according to the “taste” of the observer,
without violating any law of natural relationship. The same
is applicable, too, to the case of allied genera. Such forms as
simple discs, devoid of primary rays or processes, to which we
give the name Coscinodiscus, seem at first sight far removed
from these Aulacodisci, but in the latter processes are sometimes
wanting, and so too are primary rays and inflated areas, whilst
the former may have a central area without markings (or, like
some Aulacodisci, a central rosette), and even submarginal pro-
cesses of considerable size, as in specimens of the so-called Eu-
podiscus jonesianus, which is associable with Coscinodiscus
concinnus W. Sm. as var. jonesiana, and in Coscinodiscus
doljensis, C. odontophorus, C. odontodiscus, C. Rothii, and speci-
mens belonging to the Cestodiscoid section of Coscinodiseus—
that is to say, to the old genus Cestodiscus, Similarly, no
sharp boundary lines can be drawn between forms associated
with the genus Auliscus and those that now rank among the
Glyphodisci, Pseudaulisci, or even Eupodisci; and so for other
genera.
In the construction of the Table, the guiding principle is
that of transition from the simple to the more complex. Thus
a flat or almost flat disc, such as Aulacodiscus suspectus, A.
exiguus, A. apedicellatus, occupies a lower position in the scale
than others provided with inflations like A. Petersii, A. car-
ruthersianus, A. Janischii, or with elevated ridge-bearing zones
like A. Lahuseni, or with coarse or delicate reticula like A.
Argus, A. Thumii, and A. Grunowii; specimens without distinct
primary rays are less evolved than others in which these are
sharply defined—contrast in this respect A. suspectus, A.
Beeveriz, with A. quadrans, A. margaritaceus, or A. sollittianus ;
valves with processes are higher than others devoid of these—
for example, A. formosus, A. spectabilis, A. orientalis, as
against A. suspectus, A. apedicellatus (in which they are
absent), or A. exiguus, A. barbadensis, A. cellulosus, A. septus,
A. probabilis (in which they are small); large coarse markings
1887-88.] Remarks on the Genus Aulacodiscus Ehrb. 187
indicate a lower position in the scale than delicate ones—for
example, compare A. gracilis, A. polygonus, and A. scaber, with
A. cinctus, A. concinnus, A. mammosus; whilst the polygonal
outline of A. polygonus is an advance upon the simple circular
of A. umbonatus, A. lucidus, A. aucklandicus, and the majority
of other species. It is important to point out that within a
single species extensive modifications may occur: the primary
rays may be absent or well developed, or a single ray may
have divided and be replaced by two now contiguous and nor-
mally straight or regularly curved rays, as in A. Kittoni; the
circular form may be replaced by the lobate, as in A. Petersii ;
- surface depressions typical of a species may be wanting from
the areas where their presence would naturally be looked for,
as in A. excavatus. A central clear area may become excen-
tric, with an association of modifications dependent directly on
this variation, or geminate valves may be met with, but I have
seen none having a triple arrangement of its central spaces or
primary rays: this genus seems not to yield triplets, though
twin forms are not uncommon among recent West African
specimens of A. Kittoni var. africana, and in recent Pisaguan
or Vera Cruz gatherings.
The known species range themselves naturally into the
following sections: (1) ComMPLANATI, embracing A. suspectus,
A. Beeveriz, A. simplex, A. probabilis, A. parvulus, A. Browneii,
A. Comberi, A. hyalinus, and A. minutus; (2) TENERRIMI—A.
exiguus, A. barbadensis; (3) Raprati— A. kilkellyanus, A.
decorus, A. spectabilis, A. quadrans, A. dispersus, A. angulatus,
A. rotulus, A. grevilleanus; (4) ArEoLATI—A. apedicellatus,
A. cellulosus, A. elegans, A. radiosus, A. crux, A. margaritaceus,
A. scaber, A. secedens, A. compactus, A. patens; (5) SzEPTaTI—
A. septus, A. Schmidtii; (6) Mirabines—A. archangelskianus,
A. superbus, A. attenuatus, A. anthoides; (7) SpecraTi—aA.
polygonus, A. amcenus, A. oregonus, A. intumescens, <A. affinis,
A. pulcher, A. orientalis; (8) Inriati—A. gracilis, A. for-
mosus, A. inflatus, A. mammosus, A. Janischii, A. carruthersi-
anus, A. aucklandicus, A. Wittii, A. cinctus, A. Petersii, A.
macraeanus, A. excavatus, A. acutus; (9) OrnaTI—A. Hut-
tonii, A. Lahuseni, A. Sturtii, A. radiatus, A. pallidus; (10)
RETIFORMES—A. reticulatus, A. Grunowii, <A. Rogersii, A.
188 Remarks on the Genus Aulacodiscus Ehrb. [Sess.
Argus, A. Thumii; (11) BLAnpITI—subsection a—A. con-
cinnus, A. prominens, A. Kittoni; subsection B—A. Rattrayii,
A. sollittianus ; (12) SpecIost—A. neglectus, A. umbonatus, A.
lucidus, A. coronatus.
The most natural and sharply circumscribed of these groups
are the Septati, Tenerrimi, Complanati, and Spectati. The
Areolati and Blanditi meet one another at A. radiosus and A.
concinnus ; the Inflati and Mirabiles at A. macraeanus and A.
archangelskianus ; the Speciosi and Spectati at A. umbonatus.
The entire series of forms may be regarded as springing from
the simplest form of the Complanati, namely, A. suspectus, and
through this directly from the Coscinodisci.
The specimens connected by the bars in the annexed list
(see Table) are those that must be looked upon as most
nearly of equivalent value in the evolutionary grade. In
young frustules of A. affinis and A. margaritaceus, the modifi-
cations in the convexity and proximity of the markings may be
studied with considerable ease, but no mathematical law is
determinable by which one may predict what the progeny of a
given mother-frustule may be as regards the number of
primary rays, processes, or markings in a given space (say .01
mm.), since the opposite valves of a single frustule are found
to vary in these respects, and so all the more may valves
resulting from fissiparous division vary, and yet more those
that are the product of conjugation.
The living frustules of this genus, though sometimes gathered,
remain undescribed, and in many instances quite unknown.
A wide field thus remains open for the fortunate observer who
chances to meet such forms. Young frustules, though found
occasionally, are for most of the species also still enshrouded
in darkness, and the getting at the history of the evolution of
their markings may be the reward of the careful worker in this
region. Fissiparous division is but inadequately understood,
and conjugation has never been seen. There is thus in this
small department still ample work to be accomplished, and the
same is applicable to most of the genera of this extensive
department of Botany.
1887-88.] Hreesing and Embedding Microtome. 189
XIV.—A NEW FORM OF FREEZING AND
EMBEDDING MICROTOME.
By Mr ALEX. FRAZER, M.A.,
SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENT MAKER,
(Read April 25, 1888.)
THIS instrument differs from the original Cathcart microtome
in the following points: (1) The principal screw is of larger
diameter than in the old form, and has a head of considerably
greater size; (2) the wooden frame is now made with a pro-
jecting part, by means of which the instrument may be
yy le
y
A |
ee
clamped on both sides, and two clamps are now supplied; (3)
the freezing-plate is now made of circular shape, is supported
on three pillars, and is provided with a ledge to prevent the
ether getting to the upper side of the plate; (4) the construc-
tion of the instrument has been so modified that it may be
VOL. II, N
190 A New Form of Freezing [Sess.
used both for specimens frozen in gum and those embedded in
paraffin or celloidin.
The increased size of the screw gives a more steady move-
ment than was possessed by the older and smaller microtome,
while the greater circumference of the screw-head enables an
operator to impart a finer movement to the screw. The re-
lation between the pitch of the screw and the circumference of
its head is such, that if the edge be moved forward a quarter
of an inch, an object will be raised one-thousandth of an inch ;
and if it be moved an eighth of an inch, the object will be
raised a two-thousandth of an inch.
It is found that, when the instrument is clamped on both
sides, less pressure need be applied at either side; and the
tendency which the instrument had to turn upon the point of
clamping, as on pivot, is quite done away with.
In the original instrument, the plate was supported on two
pillars, in order that as little heat as possible might be con-
veyed to the freezing-plate from the body of the instrument.
In the new instrument, the size of the three supporting pillars
and screws is so much reduced that
the conducting surface is not greater
than in the old microtome. The ar-
rangement for cutting embedded sec-
tions consists of a tube which fits the
principal well of the microtome, and
within which fits a hinged part similar
to an ordinary vice. With the in-
strument are provided the means of
preparing paraffin blocks for embedding sections.
When it is intended to use the microtome for embedding,
the ether spray, spray bellows, and ether bottle should be
removed, and the freezing tube, having been raised as far as
possible by means of the principal screw, should then be with-
drawn from the well. The embedding tube is now placed in
the well, and, having been pushed down until it rests upon
the point of the large screw, it may be lowered to a convenient
height by working the large screw backwards.
The following are Mr Cathcart’s directions for freezing :—
1, Place a few drops of mucilage (1 part gum to 3 parts water) on the
zinc plate,
1887-88. ] and Embedding Microtome. 1QT
2. Take a piece of the tissue to be cut, of about a quarter of an inch in
thickness, and press it into the gum.
3. Fili the ether bottle with Emly dvane methylated ether, and push the
spray points into their socket. AJl spirit must, of course, have been previ-
ously removed by soaking for a night in water. The tissue should after-
wards be soaked in gum for a like time before being cut.
4, Work the spray-bellows briskly until the gum begins to freeze ; after
this, work more gently. Be always careful to brush off the frozen vapour
which, in a moist atmosphere, may collect below the zinc plate. If the
ether should tend to collect in drops below the plate, work the bellows
slower.
5. Raise the tissue by turning the milled head, and cut by sliding the
knife along the glass plates.
6, After use, be careful to wipe the whole instrument clean.
7. Should the ether point become choked, clear by means of the fine wire
which is sent with the instrument.
8, The instrument is intended for use with methylated sulphuric ether.
9. In clamping the instrument to a table or other support, care should
be taken that the zinc plate is in a horizontal position. If the plate be not
horizontal, the gum will tend to run to one side.
The following are the directions for embedding in paraffin :—
1. Pieces of tissue, or other objects to be cut, should be freed from water ;
this may be effected by dipping an object to be embedded into spirit, and
then allowing it to dry.
2. The dried object should be dipped for a moment into melted paraffin
which is only slightly heated above its melting-point.
3. After paraffin has been poured into the ‘eee moulds, and has begun
to solidify, the tissue with its adhering layer should be pressed into the
cooling paraffin, and held in the position desired till the paraffin cools
around it.
4, During the process of “casting” the paraffin blocks, and embedding
the objects to be cut, the brass tubes should be placed upon a piece of glass
or other substance to which paraflin will not adhere.
5. When a paraffin block is quite cold, it should be expelled from the
brass tube by placing the tube into one of the holes in the wooden rest,
and driving it (the block) out by means of the wooden rod.
6. When the block is placed in the vice which holds it in the well of the
instrument, undue pressure should not be applied by the clamping screw ;
for if the block be held too tightly, the outer tube will tend to lose its
shape.
7. Full instructions in the methods of embedding both in paraflin and
celloidin may be found in the text-books which deal with the methods of
Histology. The above directions are only intended to explain @ process
which may be conveniently followed in using this microtome.
192 Meetings of Microscopic Section. [ Sess.
MEETINGS OF MICROSCOPIC SECTION.
THE work of the Microscopic Section during the past Session
consisted of a series of weekly meetings, which were held
from November till March. In the first part of the Session a
short course of six lectures was delivered by G. F. Scott Elliot,
Esq., M.A., of the Royal Botanic Garden, on “The Life-History
of a Plant, as shown by the Microscope.” In connection with
these lectures, which were profusely illustrated by specimens
and diagrams, demonstrations were given by the aid of a num-
ber of microscopes. The lectures were much appreciated by
the members of the Society who attended them, and Mr Scott
Elliot has been awarded a hearty vote of thanks by the Council
for his labours in connection with them.
During the months of January, February, and March of
the present year (1888) the study of Huxley and Martin’s
‘ Biology’ was undertaken by several members of the Biologi-
cal Section, when a considerable portion of this book was care-
fully gone over,and the accompanying laboratory work carried
out.
At some of the monthly meetings of the Society, papers
were read and apparatus exhibited bearing on the subject of
microscopy. Thus, Mr Penman read a paper, illustrated by
diagrams, on “Polarised Dark-ground Illumination,” which
will be found in the ‘ Transactions’ for the present Session
(ante, p. 127). Mr A. Frazer, M.A., Secretary of the Micro-
scopic Section, read a paper “On the Testing of Microscopic
Objectives: Part I, Low Powers.” This communication is
still unfinished, and will be printed in the ‘ Transactions’
when completed. Mr Frazer also read a paper explaining the
subject of “ Microscopic Measurement and Magnification,” and
described a “New Form of Freezing and Embedding Micro-
tome.” The latter communication will be found at p. 189 of
the ‘ Transactions’ for the present Session. Mr Frazer also
exhibited and explained the following—viz., “ A simple form
of injection apparatus,” “Swift's new fine adjustment,” and
“Moller’s Diatomaceen Typen-Platte.”
In lieu of the Annual Conversazione, a social meeting of
the members of the Society was held in the Society of Arts
1887-88. ] Annual Business Meeting. 193
Hall on the evening of the 11th April. At this meeting a
considerable number of interesting micro,-preparations were
exhibited, these being confined to “ the work of the members
themselves.” The preparations included animal and vegetable
tissues, parts of insects, rock-sections, crystals, diatoms, &c.
About one hundred members of the Society were present.
In connection with the social meeting, it may be here men-
tioned that Mr Symington Grieve, President, who occupied the
chair, delivered an address on the History of the Society, from
its foundation in June 1869 to the present time. Want of
space has unfortunately prevented this interesting address
from being included in the ‘Transactions’ for the current
Session.
ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING.
Tue Annual Business Meeting of the Society was held on the
evening of the 24th October 1888, in the Hall, 20 George
Street,—Mr Robert Stewart, S.S.C., one of the Vice-Presidents,
in the Chair.
The Secretary, in submitting his Annual Report, stated that
during the past Session there had been in all 16 meetings (not
including the meetings of the Microscopic Section), of which
6 were indoor and 10 were field meetings. The number of
field meetings was much smaller than usual, inasmuch as,
although the usual number had been arranged for, the wet
and inclement weather prevented several of them from
being held. The indoor meetings were, as usual, well
attended, but, with one or two exceptions, the field meetings
were poorly attended—no doubt, in consequence of the cold
and late summer. The following list gives the dates and
localities of the meetings—viz. :
Inpoor MeeEtines: (1) Ordinary Evening Meetings, 1887
—November 23, December 28; 1888—January 25, Feb-
ruary 22, March 28, April 25. (2) Social Meeting, April
11, 1888.
194 Annual Business Meeting. [Sess.
Frexp MEeEtincs: 1888—May 5, Craigmillar Castle; May
12, Hawthornden to Polton; May 19, Hailes Quarry; May
26, Beeslack; June 2, no excursion; June 6, Restalrig ;
June 9, no excursion; June 16, Dalmahoy Crags; June 20,
Caroline Park; June 23, Driving Excursion to Loganlee ;
June 30, Caribber Glen; July 4, no excursion; July 7, no
excursion; July 14, Driving Excursion to Gullane; July 18,
Blackford Quarry ; July 21, no excursion.
The Financial Statement showed that, including a balance
of £16, 8s. 9d. from last account, the income had been
£73, 18s. 9d., and the expenditure £64, 10s. 114d, leaving
a balance in favour of the Society of £9, 7s. 94d.
The election of Office-bearers for Session 1888-89 was
next proceeded with, when, after the vacancies were filled up,
the complete list stood as under :—
President.
Dr WILLIAM WATSON.
Vice-Presidents.
Robert Stewart, 8.8.C. | GrorcE Birp. | WILuiAM ForGAN.
Council.
JoHN ALLAN. Dr J. M. MAcFARLANE. AncHD. CRAG, jun.
J. D. Murray. JAMES TERRAS. Tom SPEEDY.
Joun Lrnpsay. F. G. PEARCEY. D. E. Youne.
Wm. PENMAN. WILLIAM COATS. JOHN TaIrT.
Secretary and Treasurer.
AnpDREW Morrar.
Auditors.
Hucu H. Prrnans; Joun ParrmAy, 8.8.C.
During the past Session 31 names have been withdrawn
from the roll, and 21 new names added, making a decrease of
10, and giving at the close of Session 1887-88 a total roll of
ordinary members of 223. During the year two members
have died—viz., the Rev. R. F. Colvin, President of the
Society from 1877 to 1879; and Alexander Dickson, M.D.,
1887-88. | Annual Business Meeting. 195
F.RS.E., Professor of Botany in the University of Edin-
burgh. At the meeting in January, Mr Symington Grieve,
President, paid a fitting tribute of respect to the memory of
these two honoured members of the Society.
On the recommendation of the Council, it was unanimously
agreed to that Rule VIII., as far as it relates to the number
of the field meetings, be abolished, and that it be left in the
hands of the Council to make arrangements annually for the
field meetings, in respect both to their number and dates of
meeting. The Meeting also unanimously adopted a recom-.
mendation of the Council to the effect that a Special Fund
be instituted for the purpose of assisting in the publication
of the ‘ Transactions —subscriptions for that purpose to be
handed to the Treasurer.
A unanimous vote of thanks was accorded to the retiring
President, Mr Symington Grieve, who had so ably filled that
office during the past three years, as also for the stirring and
interesting addresses delivered to the Society, and which have
helped to enrich the pages: of our ‘ Transactions’ from time to
time.
At the first excursion of the Society for the season—viz.,
to Craigmillar Castle, on May 5—Thos. Ross, Esq., of Messrs
M‘Gibbon & Ross, Architects, read a paper giving an account
of the history of the castle, and of the various events of which
it has been the scene, for several centuries past. The archi-
tectural features of the building, in particular, were carefully
described, and the different structural alterations which haye
been made from time to time were noted. In illustration of
this part of the paper, a large number of drawings and plans
were exhibited on the walls. Mr T. A. D. Wood, F.S.A.Scot.,
also read a paper bearing more especially on the archeology of
the castle. Both Mr Wood and Mr Ross received a hearty
vote of thanks from the large company who had gathered to
listen to their valuable and interesting papers. It should also
be mentioned here that, by the kindness of the proprietor,
Robert G. G. Gilmour, Esq. of Craigmillar, and of Mr and Mrs
Speedy, the members were afterwards supplied with refresh-
ments in the “Queen Mary Room” of the old pile. Before
separating, the company was photographed in front of the castle.
196 Annual Business Meeting. [Sess. 1887-88.
At the excursion to Hailes Quarry, on May 19, Mr John
Henderson, F.G.S., the leader of the party, explained the
geological features of the district, as well as of the strata
exposed at the quarry, in a lucid and interesting manner,
thereby earning the thanks of the members who accompanied
him.
It may finally be mentioned, in connection with the out-
door meetings, that at Gullane, to which a number of the
members drove on July 14, Mr and Mrs Clapperton enter-
tained the party to tea on the lawn in front of their house.
Lbet. OF PAST: Pitbol DENT S,
Dr Rost. Brown, 1869. Rey. R. F. Corvin 1877-1879
Mr R. Scor Sxirvine, 1869-1874. (deceased), fh
Mr Wm. Gorrie ) 1874-1877 Mr Joun WAtcor, 1879-1882.
(deceased), ; Mr A. B. Herpert, 1882-1885.
Mr Symineton Grieve, 1885-1888.
OFRPICE-BEARERS, 888-86,
President.
Dr WiLi1am WarTson.
Vice- Presidents.
Ropert Stewart, 8.8.C. | GEORGE Birp.
Wittiam ForGAN.
Gourncirl,
JOHN ALLAN. F. G. PEARCEY.
J. D. Murray. WILLIAM Coats.
Joun Linpsay. Arcup. Craic, Jun
Wm. PENMAN. Tom SPEEDY.
Dr J. M. MAcFARLANE. D. E. Youne.
JAMES TERRAS, Joun Tart.
doint-Gditors of ‘ Cransactions.’
ANDREW Morrat, JoHN LINDSAY.
Secretary and Crevsurer.
ANDREW Morrat.
Anditors.
Hue H. Pinuans; Joun Parrmay, §.S8.C.
LIST “OF; MEMBER'S; «1887-88.
Original Members marked thus*.
Honorary WMembers.
Brown, Rozert, Ph.D., F.L.S., London.
GRIEVE, Davip, F.R.S.E., 1 Lockharton Gardens, Slateford.
HENDERSON, Prof. Joun R., M.B., C.M., The College, Madras.
Corresponding Wembers.
ARCHIBALD, STEWART, Carroch, Kirriemuir.
BrorHerston, ANDREW, Kelso.
CruicksHANkK, T. M., South Ronaldshay.
Hosxirk, CHArRtes P., Huddersfield.
Hossack, B. H., Craigie Field, Kirkwall.
THomMsON, JOHN, Stobo.
XIV
10
30
List of Members, 1887-88.
Ordinary Members.
Adam, James, Comely Park, Dun-
fermline.
Adams, William, Royal Bank, St
Andrew Square.
Allan, John, 15 Rosefield Avenue,
Portobello.
Anderson, G. R., 33 Howard Place.
Archibald, Jas., 13 Clifton Terrace.
Arthur, Charles, Royal Infirmary.
Ayton, Alex., 43 N. Bruntsfield Pl.
Barbour, T. F., Chemical Laboratory,
University.
Bashford, W. T., Argyle House,
Portobello,
Bathgate, John, 8 Wardie Avenue.
Bell, John M., W.S., 554 Grange
Road.
Bird, George, 24 Queen Street.
Black, Wm., 8.S.C., 117 George St.
Boa, Peter, 119 George Street.
Bonnar, Wm., 8 Lauriston Park.
Brodie, J. A., Bonnington Iron
Foundry, Leith.
Brown, Thos., 1 Gillespie Street.
Bryden, Mrs, 72 Great King Street.
Bryden, Miss, 72 Great King Street.
Burn, C. M. P., Prestonfield House.
Cairns, Wm. M‘Gregor, 16 South
Charlotte Street.
Carter, A. E. J., 9 Argyle Crescent,
Portobello,
Carter, Wm. Allan, M.Inst.C.E., 5
St Andrew Square.
Clapperton, Mrs Wm., 9 Strathearn
Road.
Clark, Alex., S.S.C., 804 Princes St.
Clark, William, Greenside Cottage.
Coats, William, 21 Nelson Street.
Cooper, James, 31 Howe Street.
Cotton, Miss Maria, 26 Mayfield Ter.
Cowan, Alfred, 19 Rutland Square.
Cowan, Charles Wm., Valleyfield,
Penicuik,
Coyne, R. A. F. A., 21 Archibald Pl.
Craig, Archibald, jun., 16 Blacket
Place.
Crawford, Wm. C., M.A., 1 Lock-
harton Gardens, Slateford.
Crichton, George, 30 Restalrig Ter-
race,
Cuthbertson, Wm., 23 Dublin St.
40
50
60
Denson, E., 9 West Catherine Place.
Deuchar, Mrs, Harlaw, Hope Ter.
Dobbin, Leonard, Ph.D., F.R.S.E.,
4 Cobden Road.
Dobbin, Mrs Leonard, 4 Cobden
Road.
Dowell, Mrs, 13 Palmerston Place.
Dowell, Miss, 13 Palmerston Place.
Duncan, Esdaile, Dean Public
School.
Dunn, Malcolm, Palace Gardens,
Dalkeith.
Eld, Thos. W., 50 South Bruntsfield
Place.
Elliot, G. F. Scott, M.A., Royal
Botanic Garden.
Ewart, James, 1 Dundas Street.
Farquharson, Miss, Roseville,
Catherine’s Place, Grange.
Farquharson, Thos. Ker, Roseville,
St Catherine’s Place, Grange.
Ferguson, John, 15 Brighton Place,
Portobello.
Forbes, Miss Mary, 5 Brunstane
Road, Joppa.
Forgan, William, 3 Warriston Cres.
Foulis, James, M.D., 34 Heriot Row.
Fraser, Dr Angus, 232 Union Street,
Aberdeen.
Fraser, Charles, 13 Greenhill Place.
Fraser, Mrs, 13 Greenhill Place.
Fraser, Hugh, Leith Walk Nurseries.
*Fraser, P. Neill, Rockville, Murray-
field.
Frazer, Alex., M.A., 22 Teviot Pl.
Galloway, James, St Fillans, Trinity.
Gibb, Philip B., M.A., 14 Picardy
Place.
Gloag, David, 9 Barnton Terrace.
Gordon, James, Royal Institution,
Mound.
Grant, James R., 12 Howard Place.
Gray, Jos. T., M.A., Parkside.
Grieve, Miss Amelia, Salisbury View,
Dalkeith Road.
St
Grieve, Somerville, 159 Dalkeith
Road.
Grieve, Symington, 1 Burgess Ter-
race.
Grieve, Mrs Symington, 1 Burgess
Terrace.
List of Members, 1887-88.
70 Grosert, Robert, So. Oswald Road.
80
90
100
Groves, Charles H., M.D., 36 Inver-
leith Row.
Guthrie, Mrs, West Grange.
Hardie, William, 49 Morningside
Road.
Hart, James, M.A., Dean Public
School.
Hately, W., 12 Bruntstield Place,
Heggie, John, 1 Greenbank Terrace.
Henderson, John, 10 Salisbury St.
Henderson, Miss J. essie, 17 W.
Preston Street.
Herbert, A. B., 13 Polwarth Terrace,
Horne, Oswald, 21 Leith Street.
Hoyle, W. E., M.A., M.R.C.S.,
F.R.S.E., Chiswick.
Hume, William, 1 Lothian Street,
Hunter, James, 7 Melgund Terrace,
Hurry, Miss, 56 India Street,
Hutchison, Robert, F.R.S, E., 29
Chester Street.
Inches, Miss Ella M., Strathearn
House, Strathearn Road.
Jamieson, P., Natural History La-
boratory, University.
Jenner, Charles, F.R. S.E., Easter
Duddingston Lodge.
Johnstone, Alex., 38 Lady Menzies
Place.
Johnstone, J. A., 30 Haddington
Place.
Johnstone,
Roslin.
Keith, Sydney, 69 So. Clerk Street.
Keith, Miss Catherine, 16 Mentone
Terrace.
Kerr, J. G., Eskbank.
Key, Rev. D. Ritchie, M.A, 5 iy
Elm Row.
Kilgour, Thos. W., 4 East Brighton
Crescent, Portobello,
King, J. Falconer, Minto House,
King, Mark, 120 Pitt Street, Leith,
Knight, Donald, 33 Regent Place.
Landels, W., 5A Devon Place.
Laughton, Wm., So. Darenth, Kent.
Law, Mrs John, 41 Heriot Row.
Law, Miss, 41 Heriot Row.
Lee, William, 15 Craiglea Drive.
Lennie, Joseph C., Rose Park,
Trinity Road.
Lewis, David, 32 Findhorn Place.
Lindsay, John, 43 James St., Pilrig.
Livingstone, Matthew, 108 Gilmore
Place.
Miss Annie, Eskhill,
110
120
130
140
XV
Lockie, John, C.E., 39 Restalrig Ter.
Lorimer, Miss, 16 Mayfield Terrace.
MacAdam, W. Ivison, F.C.8., FI. C.,
Surgeons’ Hall.
M‘Craith, Miss, 26 Haddington PI.
MacDougall, W.., Woodburn, Mor-
ningside,
Macfarlane, J. M., D.Sc., F.R.S.E.,
1 Wardie Avenue.
M‘Glashan, D., 12 West End Place.
M‘Glashen, Robert L., 1 Brandon St.
M‘Intosh, James, 42 Queen Street.
Mackay, Miss, 69 Northumberland
Street.
M‘Laren, J. R.,
Street.
M‘Kean, James, 3 Warrender Park
Terrace.
M‘Kean, Miss J., 1 Inverleith Ter,
M‘Kean, Miss Minnie, 1 Inverleith
Terrace.
M‘Kechnie, Campbell, 60 Northum-
berland Street.
Macpherson, C. E. Wes. Aw os
St Andrew Square.
Macpherson, John C., 3 Warrender
Park Terrace.
Marshall, Hugh, B.Se., 1 Lorne Ter,
Marshall, Ralph, 1 Lorne Terrace.
Maxwell, John, 125 George Street.
Melvin, Alex., 40 Warrender Park
Road.
Methven, John, 6 Bellevue Crescent.
Millar, R. C., C.A., 8 Broughton Pl.
Millar, Thomas John, M.A., §
Broughton Place.
Miller, Rev. Robert, M.A., Canaan
Lane.
Miller, R. K., 13 Lennox Street.
Moffat, Andrew, 5 Scone Gardens,
Mossman, Robert, 10 Blacket Place.
Muir, John, 115 Warrender Park Rd.
Murray, Chas. G., 68 Haymarket Ter,
Murray, J. D., 68 Haymarket Ter,
Murray, Wm., 8 Clifton Terrace,
Naismith, R. T., 2 Ethel Terrace.
Nash, W. S. (present address un-
known).
Neill, John, 3 Sylvan Place.
Nelson, W. F., Salisbury Green.
M.A., 9 Gt. King
Nesbit, John, 162 High Street,
Portobello.
Nisbet, Miss, 28 E. Claremomt St.
Norfor, Robt. T., C.A., 47 So.
Bruntsfield Place.
Ogilvie, Miss, 18 Buckingham Ter,
Oliphant, J. C., M.A., 23 Charlotte
Square.
150 Oliver, Chas. M., 9 8.-E. Cireus PI.
Oliver, G. E., 4 Mostyn Terrace.
Oliver, John S., 12 Greenhill Park.
Pairman, John, 8.8.C., 50 George St.
Paton, Henry, 15 Myrtle Terrace.
Peach, B. N., 13 Dalrymple Cres.
Peach, Mrs, 13 Dalrymple Crescent.
Peacock, Alex., 9 M‘Laren Road.
Pearcey, F. G., 37 Raeburn Place.
Penman, William, M.Inst.C.E., 8
Lauriston Park.
160 Philip, James, 5 Argyle Place.
Pillans, Hugh H., 12 Dryden Place.
Pillans, Miss, 12 Dryden Place,
Purves, Samuel, 70 Haymarket Ter.
Ranken, William, 11 Spence Street.
Reid, Andrew, 1 East Trinity Road.
Richardson, A. D., Royal Botanic
Garden.
Robertson, C. F., 54 Blacket Place.
Robertson, George, Lothian Road
Public School.
Sanderson, Dr Alfred, Lixmount,
Trinity.
170 Scott, Alex., 27 Heriot Row.
Semple, Andrew, Deputy Surgeon
General H.M.S., Caledonian
United Service Club.
Shaw, JohnO., Beauly, Victoria Park,
Trinity.
Simpson, James, 4 Middlefield, Leith
Walk.
Skinner, Jas., 8.S.C., 14 Frederick
Street.
*Skirving, R. Scot, 29 Drummond Pl.
Smith, Miss, 34 Dublin Street.
Smith, Mrs Geo., 25 East Claremont
Street.
Smith, Rupert, 7 Leopold Place.
Smith, Walter A., Falcon Lodge,
Murrayfield.
180 Somerville, Alex., B.Sc., F.L.S., 34
Granby Ter., Hillhead, Glasgow.
Speedy, Tom, The Inch, Liberton.
Sprague, T. B., M.A., F.R.S.E., 29
Buckingham Terrace.
Sprague, Mrs T. B., 29 Buckingham
Terrace.
Steele, Adam B., 10 Comely Bank.
190
200
210
220
List of Members, 1887-88.
Steele, Miss, 16 Upper Gray Street.
Stewart, James R., 10 Salisbury Rd.
Stewart, Miss, 53 Lothian Street.
Stewart, Robert, S8.8.C., 21 Warris-
ton Crescent
Stevenson, Miss, 2 Albert Place.
Storrie, James, 5 Bowhill Terrace.
Summers, Miss Maggie, 32 Craig-
millar Park.
Sutherland, John, 12 Caledonian Rd.
Tait, John, High School, Leith.
Tait, John Scott, C.A., 8 Claremont
Terrace.
Taylor, William, M.D., 12 Melville
Street.
Terras, James, 34 Findhorn Place.
Thomson, Mrs, 6A Bruntsfield Place.
Thomson, Thos., 16 Glen Street.
Torrie, Robert, 3 Gibson Street,
Broughton Road.
Turnbull, George, 16 Thistle Street.
Turner, Daniel, 8.L., 25 York Pl.
Usher, Andrew, Blackford House.
Walcot, John, 50 Northumberland
Street.
Walker, David, 2 Bellevue Terrace.
Wallace, William, Jessfield Terrace,
Newhaven Road.
Wardlaw, Geo., 14 St John’s Hill.
Waters, James, 3 St Andrew Sq.
Watson, Dr Wm., Lockharton,
Slateford.
Watson, Mrs, Lockharton, Slateford.
Weir, James Lind, 3 Beechwood Ter.
White, Miss, 9 Bernard Terrace.
Williams, Caradoc, 58 Madeira St.,
Leith.
Wilson, Geo. A., 46 Queensferry St.
Wilson, T., 121 George Street.
Wilson, James T., Restalrig House.
Wilson, Miss Katie, 2 Archibald PI.
Wood, Alex., 4 Avondale Place.
Wood, T. A. D., Viewforth, Brun-
stane Road, Joppa.
Woodhead, Dr G. Sims, 6 Marchhall
Crescent.
Wright, Hilda, Ravensrood, Craig-
lockhart.
Wright, Thomas, 6 Greenside Place.
Young, David E., 131 Mayfield Rd.
Yule, Robert, 6 Mansfield Place.
OJAN 9)
|
PART III. LZ,
TRANSACTIONS
OF
| Sie Gdinturgh Field Maturalists’ and
P Mirroscopiral Soriety
SESSION 1888-89
e CONTENTS.
I. Notes on Natural History in India—Dr Watson, President, .
II. A Sporting Tour in Norway._Mr Tom Speedy,. . . . .
III. Kintail and Glenelg, with Notices of the Brochs (with Illustrations).
i SURE Ac PEPSI gf 8 a! ora Moe cee thane Ser oS eee ree Tee Me
[Ve On'Dry-rof._-Mr AB. Steele, , 9.05 0s we ee we
‘V. The Genus Colletia.—Mr H. Fraser, . . Bok eet ts
VL The Ichneumon or Mungoos.—Mr R. Stewart, S.S.C., ete
VII. A Few Notes on Bird Life, &c.—Mr A. B, Herbert, . . ‘ ?
VIII. In Memoriam: John Allan.—Mr J. Lindsay, Sacge ee aN oe
_ Meetings of Microscopic Section, . 3 : E : e <
$ - Annual Business Meeting, tate F ye 2 ‘° Slats .
' List of Members, 1888-89, . . . : -
Published for the Society
By
WILLIAM BLACKWOOD & SONS
MDCCCLXXXIX
Price to N on-Members, Half-a-Crown.
I1—NOTES ON NATURAL HISTORY IN INDIA.
By Dr WILLIAM WATSON, PreEsIDEnt.
(Read Nov. 28, 1888.)
I HAVE to thank you for the honour you have done me in
electing me as your President. My claims to the honour
are slender. They principally consist in my having more
leisure than other*members of the Society—not a very im-
portant qualification in itself, but it has apparently had some
weight with your Council. I have accepted solely for that
reason, believing that as I am probably the only member of your
Society who has absolutely nothing to do, I am in that respect,
at least, the fittest person to undertake the onerous duties of
President. With regard to a presidential address, I have had
some difficulty ; but as the only subject I know much about is
India, I have resolved to give you a brief sketch of that country,
from a natural history point of view. There is additional pro-
priety in my choosing this subject to-night, inasmuch as our late
President, Mr Symington Grieve, is sailing at present to “India’s
coral strand,” and by this time will have passed Ceylon, with
its “spicy breezes,” as Bishop Heber puts it, where—
“¢ The heathen in his blindness
Bows down to wood and stone.”
All this, by the way, may be beautiful poetry, but it is not
altogether correct, from a natural history point of view. In
' the first place, the shores of India are alluvial or volcanic, not
coral. Next, “spicy breezes” do not blow over Ceylon; and
when breezes do blow, they certainly do not, as a rule, blow
softly. Lastly, whatever the people, of India may do, the
Singalese, or inhabitants of Ceylon, certainly never “ bow down
to wood and stone.” It is the very last thing a Buddhist would
do, more especially a Buddhist of the Southern sect, to which
the people of Ceylon belong—a sect which has always protested
VOL. Il. )
198 Notes on Natural History in India. [Sess,
against the slightest approach to idolatry. All the same, Bishop
Heber’s ‘ Travels in India’ is the most interesting book which
has ever been written on that country, and I would advise every
one to read it. The only man of greater genius who has
written on India is Colonel Sleeman; but his books are addressed
to the Anglo-Indian resident, not to one who has never seen
the country.
To return to Science,—India is made up geologically of four
great provinces, very unlike each other: (1.) The southern
volcanic table-land, of which the most common rock is basalt,
often capped with laterite. Below the basalt lies stratified
sandstone, and still lower, granite; but these are only ex-
posed in a few places. (2.) The great alluvial plains along
the courses of the Indus and the Ganges. This is not the
largest division, but it is by far the richest and most important,
and when people talk of India, it is generally the Indus or
Ganges valleys they are thinking of. All the common descrip-
tions of India are only true of these great alluvial plains. (3.)
The waterless district of Rajpootana, a barren wilderness of sand.
(4.) The Himalayan mountains, of crystalline schists, limestone,
and granite. These mountains are inhabited nearly up to the
snow-line, which on the southern face, where the air is moist,
is about 13,000 feet above the sea. On the northern face,
where the air is dry, perpetual snow is not found till you ascend
to nearly 16,000 feet. This is the very reverse of what one
would at first thought expect. It seems strange that the south
aspect, turned to the equator, should be colder than the north
aspect, turned away from the equator. But the amount of
snow is determined more by the amount of moisture than by
the temperature. The south face is always the moist one, owing
to the hot winds blowing up from the plains. Not only does
more snow fall on the south side in winter, but less melts in
summer. Another peculiarity of the Himalayas is, that the
lower hills are generally well wooded on the north face, but
bare and sterile on the south face. This is owing partly to
the fierce winds blowing up from the plains, but partly also
to the continual changes of temperature killing plants. On the
north face, the climate is much less variable. We have thus
four regions: 1st, The basalt table-land; 2d, The alluvial |
plains; 3d, The Rajpootana desert; and 4th, The Himalayan
1888-89. ] Notes on Natural History in India. 199
mountains. JBotanically, they may be characterised by the
staple food of the inhabitants. In the largest province, the
southern table-land, the inhabitants live chiefly on various
species of millet. Millets are grasses belonging to the genus
Panicum, or some of its near allies. Panicum is characterised
by having rigid cartilaginous paleze investing the seed, but not
adhering to it. The chief millets are—Panicum miliaceum, P.
italicum, P. fruamentaceum, Paspalum scrobiculatum, and Penicil-
laria spicata. Another grass seed is also eaten, Sorghum vulgare,
belonging to quite a different botanical family, but popularly
classed as a millet. The nourishment afforded by these millets
is poor compared with that afforded by wheat, or even barley ;
but they grow better on barren, rocky soil. The second region
is the alluvial plain, but this region it is necessary to divide
into two, owing to the difference in the amount of rainfall, not
to the nature of the soil. The west side of India has very
little rainfall, in some places not more than two or three inches
annually. The east side is perhaps the wettest country in
the world. In the Cossya hills the rainfall is 600 inches
annually. The difference of rainfall determines the nature
of the plants cultivated for food. In the dry west there are
wheat and barley; in the damp east, rice. The whole of the
Indus and the upper part of the Ganges valley belong to the
wheat country; the lower part of the Ganges valley to the
rice country. With regard to the third region, that of the Raj-
pootana desert, no cereals grow there, and the people import
their vegetable food from other provinces. In the fourth region,
that of the Himalayas, and in the higher parts of that region
especially, the common plants grown for food are two: Eleusine
corocana, a grass of the Chlorid family, characterised by a cluster
of secund spikes; and Fagopyrum, or buckwheat—not a grass
at all, but a plant allied to our native Polygonum. With
regard to the population using these articles, it may be said
generally that about sixty million are millet eaters, sixty
million rice eaters, sixty million wheat and barley eaters, and
three or four million Eleusine and Fagopyrum eaters. Of
course, it must be: understood that these statements are only
true in a vague and general way. It is often necessary to
content one’s self with a general outline of a subject, without
filling in all the details, and this is all I aim at giving you.
200 Notes on Natural History in [ndia. [Sess.
It is much as if I were to describe the north of Scotland as
being geologically a primary country, Ireland a secondary one,
and England a tertiary one; or were to say that in the
eighteenth century the Scotch lived on oatmeal, the English
on wheat, and the Irish on potatoes. This is, of course, not
the case now, since the repeal of the corn laws; but it was
essentially true when I was a boy, and there may be other old
people still alive who remember the time when the Scotch
lived on oatmeal. I rather regret the old days, and believe
that if the Scotch of the present day lived, like their ancestors,
on oatmeal and home-brewed beer, instead of tea and white
bread, they would have better teeth, and more correct religious
and political opinions. Samuel Johnson, in the first edition of
his dictionary, defined oats as “the food of horses in England
and of men in Scotland.” Most Scotchmen know Lord Eh-
bank’s commentary on this, “ And where will you find such
horses or such men?” There is a German proverb, “ What a
man eats, that he is;” and I would warn the Scotchman who,
instead of taking oatmeal porridge to breakfast and a gigot of
mutton to dinner, eats, like an Englishman, ham to breakfast
and roast-beef to dinner, that he is simply turning himself into
an Englishman. We—those of us who are Lowlanders, at least
—are English by descent and language ; difference of diet was
the only real difference between us. Bruce and Wallace fought
and conquered, that oatmeal-eaters should not be ruled over by
beef-eaters. It is true the people of the county of Aberdeen
have always lived on beef, but they have always been Episco-
palian and anti-Presbyterian in their sympathies. In a county
fitted for rearing cattle, and not for rearing sheep, they could
not be anything else.
Having given this sketch of the botany and geology of India
generally, I propose to take up one county and describe it
more in detail. Of course, I must take a county with which
I myself am acquainted; and of these, the county of Banda,
on the south bank of the Jumna, is, on the whole, best suited
for my purpose. I may mention that British India is divided
into counties, each governed by an English magistrate. Thus,
the great province known by the name of the North-West
Provinces and Oudh, which has a population of 44 millions,
is divided into 49 counties; so that each county has, on an
1888-89. | Notes on Natural History in India. 201
average, nearly a million of inhabitants. The county of Banda
is about eighty miles long and thirty miles broad, and consists
of two distinct tracts. The southern part of the county
belongs to the southern uplands, and the northern part of
the county to the alluvial plains; but both present excep-
tional characters. With regard to the southern part, as it
belongs to the southern uplands, the surface rock should be
basalt, and so no doubt it once was; but all the basalt has
been removed by denudation, and what one now sees is granite,
covered by a thin layer of sandstone. Nothing can be more
picturesque than the scenery at the point where the southern
upland passes into the alluvial plain. The upper thin layer
of sandstone is scarped as if cut perpendicularly with a knife,
while the granite beneath slopes down to the plain like the
glacis of a fort. The alluvial plain itself, near the point of
junction, is dotted all over with enormous boulders of granite,
often piled one on the top of another. Many of the outer
hills are natural strongholds, and were utilised as such in the
troubled times, before the British conquest. One of the most
famous of these, the ruined hill-fort of Callinger, is in the
county of Banda. I¢ is a detached rock, syenite at the base,
sandstone above, and is now overgrown with custard-apple—
a plant not indigenous to India. The alluvial part of Banda
county is also peculiar. Generally speaking, the alluvial
plains of the Indus and Ganges are composed of substances
washed down from the Himalayas—that is to say, granite,
mica-schist, and limestone. The Banda part of the alluvial
plain is essentially composed of basalt from the southern up-
lands. The Himalayan alluvium forms a light-coloured soil,
admirably adapted for cereals and sugar-cane. The basalt
alluvium suits cereals well, but it suits cotton and the pulses
better. Sugar-cane it does not suit at all. This basalt al-
luvium is of a black colour, and very retentive of moisture.
In dry weather it splits up into lumps, which are very hard,
and when force is used, break with a conchoidal fracture. It
is generally named the black cotton soil, because it is so well
suited for growing cotton; but it might also be called the
black lentil soil. The surface is everywhere furrowed by deep
ravines, running north and south from the southern hills to
the river Jumna, and forming the drainage system of the
202 Notes on Natural History in India. [Sess.
country ; but all the land not occupied by the great transverse
furrows is, at most seasons of the year, a sea of cultivation.
In October or November the following plants are sown:
wheat, barley, Cicer arietinum, and Ervum lens. The wheat
and barley are almost identical with those grown in Britain.
Cicer arietinum is a low herb with pinnate toothed leaves.
The pod contains one or two seeds, which are fancifully com-
pared to a ram’s head. -Ervum lens is the ervalenta and
revalenta of the shops. It also is a herb, but has pinnate
leaves ending in a tendril, and two or rarely three seeds.
Both are much eaten in India, Italy, Greece, and Palestine.
They are mentioned together in 2 Sam. xvii. 28—“ Beans,
and lentiles, and parched pulse.” In India they are grown to
perfection in Banda county, and large quantities are exported
across the Jumna to districts where the alluvial soil is of
Himalayan origin, and therefore better suited for cereals than
for pulses. In the Banda district the crops mentioned above
—wheat, barley, pulse, and lentils—are reaped in April.
Sometimes a crop of cucumbers is taken from the ground in
May and early June; but in all cases, as soon as the autumnal
rains begin, which fall in July, August, and September, advan-
tage is taken of the first temporary break to sow cotton and
the millets, which are reaped at varying periods from Septem-
ber to February, the last reaped being Penicillaria in February.
Both in spring and autumn the cultivation is a sight for a
farmer. Not a weed is ever to be seen: not even East Lothian
wheat is as clean as are all the crops in Banda. No manure
is required, and no irrigation is obtainable. If, as now and
then happens, the autumn rains are deficient, the result is
famine. In reaping the wheat and barley, the farmers of
Banda do not cut it like farmers in Europe, or in the rest of
India. They do not shear the corn—they merely cut off the
ears, and leave the stalks to wither. They then burn the
stalks, and plough them into the land. This is the only
manure given to the soil. Very frequently two plants are
sown together, in Belgian fashion—generally wheat and pulse,
or barley and pulse. They are supposed not to interfere with
each other’s growth, and thus to enable the land, in the same
season, to yield two crops instead of one. The most con-
spicuous crop of Banda has not yet been mentioned — the
1888-809. | Notes on Natural History in India. 203
pigeon - pea ( Cajanus flavus or C. bicolor). This is a legu-
minous shrub, growing sometimes ten feet high. It is sown
in June, and not reaped till March or April, so that it is
nearly the whole year in the ground. The twigs are used for
making baskets, and the seeds of the pod are much eaten.
Each pod contains four or five spotted seeds. All through
the winter, fields of this tall shrub, with its brilliant yellow
flowers, are conspicuous on the Banda plains. Another plant
extensively cultivated is the Sesamum orientale, mentioned in
the story “Open Sesame” in the ‘ Arabian Nights.’ This is
generally sown along with cotton. It is a herb with a white
irregular flower and many small seeds. These seeds yield an
oil nearly equal to olive-oil. They are also eaten scattered on
bread or made into sweetmeats. Sugar-cane, one of the most
important crops in most parts of India, is not cultivated in
Banda. Perhaps the soil is not suitable for it, but more
probably the objection to its cultivation is the deficiency
of water, or the number of white ants. As far as I know,
rice is not cultivated at all. I never saw a single field of it
in Banda.
The uplands in the southern part of Banda are very differ-
ent from the plains in the north of it. The sandstone plateaux
are almost entirely covered with magnificent forests; but here
and there there are clearances in the forest where Paspalum
scrobiculatum, Panicum miliaceum, and Lathyrus sativus are
cultivated. If the seeds of the last-mentioned plant are much
eaten for any length of time, paralysis is apt to occur. This
observation has been made both in Greece and in India. In
India I have myself seen hundreds of cases. One strange
circumstance connected with this disease, which has never
been explained, is that males undoubtedly suffer more than
females. Judging from my own experience, I should say that
the male paralytics were, to the females, about five to one.
The cultivated ground in the uplands is, however, of small
extent compared with the forest and moorland. The forests
are composed of tall, noble trees, especially the Nauclea, a
sacred tree in Hindi mythology, the Pentaptera, the Allan-
gium, the Schrebera, and the ebony tree. Then there is the
Bassia tree, from the flowers of which an intoxicating drink is
made, very nasty to the taste, but very cheap and very intoxi-
204. Notes on Natural History in India. [Sess,
cating. A man in my time could easily get drunk on a
pennyworth. Perhaps the price is higher now, when the
British Government has put a duty on intoxicating drinks.
Another tree is the Buchanania, the flesh of whose fruit is
delightful, and the kernel of whose stone is as good as pis-
tachios. The native name of this fruit is “ chirongee,” and
this is about the most common name of a girl in the Banda
county, it being presumed that she is as nice and sweet as the
fruit of the Buchanania. The forest stretches for miles north,
south, east, and west, and one can ride the whole day under
dense shade, only every now and then coming to a deep ravine
formed by a water-course. Each water-course has a waterfall
somewhere, for the water has to get down from the uplands to
the alluvial plain. Originally these waterfalls must have been
at the very edge of the upland, where it joined the plain; but
centuries of erosion have now carried them far back into the
very heart of the forest. The waterfalls are, on an average,
about 300 feet high, and the deep sunless ravine below the
fall is luxuriant with ferns and mosses and fungi. Of the
many falls I have seen, the two most beautiful were those of
Keuti and Galrampore. Here and there, in the forest itself,
there is an open space green with grass, or blue with Evol-
vulus alsinoides, a plant allied to convolvulus ; or one may come
on a little lake or tank covered with Nelumbium speciosum
(the lotus),—the flower emblematic of India, peculiar to it, and
one of the most beautiful of its many flowers. Herodotus
mentions it as growing in the Nile, but it certainly does not
grow there now, and it is not found among the flowers pre-
served in the tombs of the early Egyptian kings. Most of these
flowers have been identified, and there is plenty of Nymphea
cerulea and N. lotus, but no Nelumbium has ever been found
It is almost certain, therefore, that the later Egyptian kings
had it brought from India, and that it was cultivated there,
when it was seen in the Nile by Herodotus. It must have
died out when the Egyptian monarchy fell. That Herodotus
saw it, there is no doubt. No other plant answers his descrip-
tion—“ a lily like a rose, growing in the water, the fruit like
a wasp’s nest, and containing edible seeds the size of olive
stones.” Even in India it is not a very common plant. It is
not found in Western India, owing to the frosts in winter. It
1888-89.] Notes on Natural History in India. 205
does not thrive in any place where the winter temperature
falls below 32°. Two other trees may be mentioned—Butea
frondosa, which in April is leafless, but covered with scarlet
blossoms; and the Albizzia speciosa, with fragrant white
flowers. Altogether, Southern Banda is a botanical paradise,
but there are botanical evils even there. The worst one is a
grass, Heteropogon contortus, with a long, twisted, barbed awn,
which it sends through the trousers of the passer-by into his
legs. Then there are the carpels of Sterculia urens and Mu-
cuna pruriens, covered with stinging hairs, which cause the
most intolerable itching. But as these last grow on trees at
some height from the ground, they are only troublesome to
inquisitive botanists or to the lower animals—they do not
annoy the ordinary European traveller. The grass, however,
torments all three—botanists, tourists, and beasts.
With regard to animals in the Banda district, we may com-
mence with bimana. As the people are vegetarians, they are,
compared with Europeans, a weak, short-lived race—the lat-
ter even more decidedly than the former. That the shortness
of life does not depend mainly on the heat of the climate is
shown by contrasting the Indians with the Chinese, who are
physically the strongest and longest-lived race in the world.
But then they eat not only beef, mutton, and pork, but also
dogs, rats, and lizards. With much practical wisdom, they
never touch fresh milk, butter, nor cheese, though a prepar-
ation of milk and sugar, curdled with vinegar, is greatly ap-
_preciated by them.! In India itself, the Mohammedans, who
occasionally eat animal food, are certainly longer lived than
the purely vegetarian Hindoos. That they are stronger as
young men, I am not prepared to assert or deny positively ;
but they are certainly longer lived. It is strange that the
modern Hindoos should be such strict vegetarians, for their
ancestors, the old Aryans, when they first came from Afghan-
istan into India, were beef-eaters. The total change of diet
is strange, but the same change occurred in ancient Greece,
though not to quite the same extent. The Homeric Greeks
were beef-eaters; the Greeks of Pericles’ time, fish and vege-
table eaters, rarely touching butcher-meat.
With regard to the lower animals, the tiger is rare in
1 See Miss Gordon Cumming’s ‘ Wanderings in China,’ p, 155.
206 Notes on Natural History in India. [Sess.
Banda, having of late years retired to the denser forests
farther south ; but leopards, hyenas, and wolves are very com-
mon, and very destructive. Wild pigs are also exceedingly
common. Of the deer tribe, the two most common species
are the Indian antelope and the gazelle; but spotted deer and
the magnificent elk of Southern India are occasionally met
with. Then the nilghau, a splendid animal, half deer and
half cow, is common. The male is of a beautiful blue colour,
and is called the blue bull by Europeans. Of the quadru-
mana, only two species are met with in Banda—the blackfaced,
black-handed, Entellus monkey, with a very long tail; and the
Rhesus monkey, with cheek-pouches, red callosities, and a
moderately long tail. The number of individuals, however,
more than makes up for the small number of species. Many
thousands are met with in Banda. ‘The sacred town of Kir-
wee, and the sacred groves of Chitterkot, in the Banda county,
are monkey paradises. Thousands of worshippers come from
all parts of India to feed the sacred monkeys of Chitterkot.
The Hindoos of the Vaishnav sect have a legend, that when
their supreme deity, Rama, was incarnate on earth, he was
banished from his native city, Ajudya, by his father and his
step-mother. He retired with his wife to the Chitterkot woods,
and there his wife was stolen from him by the demon-king of
Ceylon. The god had no human armies to help him, but the
monkeys of Chitterkot at once offered their services, and at
the head of a monkey army the god marched to Ceylon, con-
quered the island, killed the demon-king, and recovered his.
wife. Ever since then Chitterkot has been one of the holiest
places in India in the eyes of all Hindoos of the Vaishnav
sect, and no more pious deed can be done than feeding the
descendants of the monkey army which fought under the
orders of the god Rama.
With regard to other mammals, hares, porcupines, ichneu-
mons, rats, and mice are all very common. To describe
the birds would take hours. There are no pheasants, but
the trees swarm with peacocks, and thousands of cranes,
of three species (the European, the Demoiselle, and the
Sarus), plunder the fields, assisted in winter by many species
of geese, which go in summer to breed in the Thibet lakes.
The species of ducks seen in the Banda lakes are also
1888-89. | Notes on Natural History in India. 207
innumerable. They, too, go to breed in summer in Thibet.
Then in every pool there are storks, herons, and egrets, the
characteristic birds of India. It is hardly possible to walk a
mile in Banda, and indeed in any part of India, without see-
ing vultures feeding on carrion, especially dead cows, eagles
on the outlook for hares or lizards or mice, and black-eyed
falcons or yellow-eyed hawks on the outlook for small birds.
I do not know if it is the case in Britain, but in India the
dark-eyed falcons generally decapitate their prey, while the
light-eyed hawks strangle it—in both cases, of course, catch-
ing it first with their feet. Of all the raptorial birds, the one
I noticed oftenest in Banda was the harrier (Circus Swain-
sonit), with the solitary exception of the kite (Milvus govinda),
which, however, is hardly a true bird of prey. It is named
in India the scavenger kite, as it has taken to frequenting
towns and living on refuse and offal. It is assisted in this
useful employment by the scavenger vulture (WMeophron perec-
nopterus). The latter, also, is one of the commonest birds in
India. After these, I think the most common raptorial bird
is the white-eyed buzzard (Poliornis Teesa), The song-birds
of Banda are not equal to those of the Himalayas, or those
found south of the Nerbudda. The best singing-birds I
heard in Banda were the Leucocerca albofrontata, a fly-
catcher, which whistles very distinctly a descending diatonic
scale, but only six notes, not seven; and three warblers, the
Copsychus saularis, the Thamnobia cambaiensis, and the
Carpotacus erythrinus—which last says very distinctly, “Nubbi
ji bhejo,” meaning in Hindostanee, “Send the holy prophet.”
Larks are also very common, especially the Alauda gulgula,
which has a note exactly like our British lark. Other larks
found are the Mirafra cantillans, very common in Banda ;
and the Galerida cristata, a crested lark which is a splendid
mimic, but its own natural note is not nearly so fine as that
of the common lark. In the early May mornings I some-
times heard a beautiful note, which I believed to be the
breeding note of the king-crow (Dierurus macrocercus), which,
as its ordinary note, repeats every now and then, all day and
often all night, a somewhat monotonous “ thakur ji,” mean-
ing “Respected sir.” This bird, though only twelve inches
long, is exceedingly combative, and often attacks crows
208 Notes on Natural Aitstory in India, [Sess.
eighteen or twenty inches long, or kites twenty-five inches
long. It isa shrike, and feeds chiefly on grasshoppers and
crickets.
Banda is inferior to the Himalayas and the south of India
in its number of pretty common birds, just as it is in its
number of sweet-singing birds. In Banda, the prettiest are
the bee-eater (Merops viridis) and the roller (Coracias indica),
a near ally of which has lately been shot in Mull, and a
paper on it was read at the last meeting of the Physical
Society. The bird shot in Mull, the Coracias garrula, is
common in Western India. It is not found in Banda. The
common Indian species, Coracias indica, is a sacred bird all
over India, for the following reason: Once on a time the
earth was covered all over with some poisonous fluid. The
great god, Mahadao, assumed the form of a Coracias indica,
which up to that time was a bird of ordinary plumage, and
drank up all the poison, The only inconvenience that
resulted was that the bird became of a blue colour, which
colour it still retains. One of the most meritorious actions
a Hindoo can do is to buy one of these birds from a bird-
catcher, and let it loose in honour of the god Mahadao,
Birds for this purpose are generally for sale in most large
towns. It is very lucky to see this bird when you are out
walking, unless it crosses your path.
With regard to reptiles, snakes are exceedingly common—
more so than in any part of India I have ever visited. I
have myself killed in Banda many cobras, one carpet viper,
and one keeled viper, the last allied to the British adder.
Lizards and frogs are exceedingly common. With regard to
insects, mosquitoes and flies are abundant at all times; and
every year or two a flight of locusts comes from Rajpootana,
and lays waste all the fields where they happen to alight.
Silkworms are found in the southern uplands. The true
silkworm, which feeds on mulberries, is not met with, but
there are four other species of silk- making caterpillars:
(1) the Atlas moth caterpillar; (2) the Ailanthus-feeding
caterpillar; (3) the Castor-oil tree caterpillar; (4) the Ter-
minalia tree caterpillar. This last yields the tussar silk, which
is much imported into Britain. It is stronger than true silk,
but it does not dye well. Of myriapods, the centipede, and
1888-80. | A Sporting Tour in Norway. 209
of arachnides, the scorpion, are both common. Their stings
are exceedingly painful, but never, I think, fatal to a healthy
adult. .
I shall end with the story of a centipede. One evening,
when I was sitting at dinner in Banda at the regimental
mess, a centipede made its appearance on the table. In spite
of my warning, the doctor of the regiment, a young and
healthy man, seized hold of it by the middle of its body. It
managed to screw itself round, and drove its many legs into
his hand. Of these many legs, the two front ones contain a
virulent poison. My friend did not utter any sound, but it
was a strange sight to see his face. In an instant all the
colour had faded out of it, and it was as pale and ghastly
as the face of a corpse. I crushed the centipede with the
candle-snuffers, which lay convenient, and then scarified the
sting wounds in my friend’s hand, and applied ammonia and
laudanum ; but he never slept a wink that night, and was not
himself for many days, if not weeks, So Banda contains
worse things than even spear-grass,
Il—A SPORTING TOUR IN NORWAY.
By Mr TOM SPEEDY.
(Read Dec. 26, 1888.)
I sAILeD from Leith for N orway, with a small and select com-
pany of naturalists, on the s.s. Sverre Sigurdssgn, on the 24th’
of August last. After passing the Isle of May, we proceeded
to steer our way into the North Sea, the dread of all seafaring
men, and even of tourists during the summer months, After
a voyage of over thirty hours, memorable for nothing but that
horrible sensation of sea-sickness, which, for the time being,
renders all earthly considerations—wife and children, and
even life itself{—to be of small account, we got into smooth
water, and sailed up the Hardanger F Jord, an ever-varying
panorama of mountain and lake scenery, till we dropped anchor
210 A Sporting Tour in Norway. [Sess.
at Odde. As it was Sunday, I was interested in watching boats
filled with men and women rowing to and from the church.
The variegated attire of the girls, generally with blue or white
skirts and bodices of bright red, had a pleasing and pictur-
esque appearance. I observed that women were adepts at
rowing as well as men. At Odde, the principal place of
interest is the Folgefond glacier —an enormous expanse of
snow, covering an area of forty miles by ten, and rising from
3000 to 5000 feet in height. The remarkable thing about
this glacier is its growth. In 1870 it advanced 260 feet,
and in 1871 it grew twelve feet in a week, forcing itself
down the glen. On intimating our desire to visit this glacier,
we were informed that the snow was of a blue colour. This
interested me much, as in all my experience I had never seen
blue snow. On approaching the ice mountain, however, I soon
discovered the cause of this strange phenomenon. What is
called eternal snow is simply ice, which, as is well known, is
of a blue colour. With some difficulty I scrambled close to
it, and with my knife cut out a piece, which I can testify to
being hard ice. From the fact of its very frequently getting
fresh coats, it has in the distance a white appearance, but on
close inspection it, as already indicated, is like blue snow.
This is explained by the severity of the intense frost, which
transforms the snow into hard granite-like ice, as one coating
continues to descend upon another for six months in un-
interrupted succession. A river of considerable size rises no
one knows where, but emerges from beneath the glacier, and
rumbles down its rocky bed till it flows into Sandven lake.
Norway, as is well known, has long been regarded as the
angler’s paradise. Having had the precaution to take with
me a fishing-rod, I was anxious to have a few hours’ angling.
As a beautiful river flows down the glen, through Lake Sand-
ven, and empties itself into the fjord at Odde, a number of
us started full of anticipation of filling our baskets. The
result was that one trout, half a pound in weight, was the
entire catch, the luck not being mine. No one who saw the
clear limpid stream and the white chalky bottom, with a
blazing sun overhead, would require an explanation for the
utter lack of success. There was in this case a real valid
excuse, only too potent to be questioned. Had our visit been
1888-89. | A Sporting Tour in Norway. Zur
preceded by a day’s rain, and the water somewhat swollen and
coloured, we had evidence sufficient, from the large number of
fish discernible, that the efforts of even the most inexperienced
of our party would have been crowned with a well - filled
basket. I was much struck with the absence of bird life.
With the exception of birds of prey, ryper, wagtails, and a few
other species, birds are by no means numerous. The first
named are in great abundance, hoodie-crows and magpies
sitting on the tops of the houses apparently quite tame. It
is therefore not to be wondered at that the smaller birds are
scarce, as, notwithstanding the Norwegians putting artificial
nests in the trees, and doing everything they can to foster
and encourage them to breed, they do not seem to understand
that the eggs and young are destroyed through the predatory
instincts of the birds of prey referred to. Ryper, a species of
grouse, are found in all parts of the country, and contribute
largely to the food of the people. I learned that red grouse
had on more than one occasion been introduced from this
country, but in consequence of the severity of the winters
they very soon disappear. It must not be supposed that they
succumb to the weather, as our grouse are the most hardy of
the feathered tribe; but their dark plumage, during the pro-
tracted snowstorms peculiar to Norway, attracts the attention
of every passing bird of prey. It is otherwise with the
native ryper, as they, like the ptarmigan, change their plumage
with the season, which vies with the snow in whiteness.
Weighing anchor again, we sailed up the fjord, calling at
Eide. Four of us went on shore here, put up at the hotel for
the night, and crossed the country for a distance of fifty miles,
joining the steamer again at Gudvangen. The drive took us
through some of the wildest and most picturesque scenery in
Norway. Reaching Stalheim Hotel after dark, in a downpour
of rain, we staid there for the night. As it had rained for
twenty-four hours, we found, after breakfast the following
morning, that the Nerddal river was rather high for fishing.
Still, we resolved to try our luck. For myself, I had deter-
mined to have a cast for a salmon, and to test the defensive
capabilities of a fish in the Norwegian waters with that of
the silvery model salmon on the waters of the Tweed or Tay.
Walking down the river a couple of miles ahead of my com-
212 A Sporting Tour in Norway. [Sess.
panions, I commenced to fish, and tried for a time without
the slightest shadow of success. Coming to a splendid pool
close to the road, I cast in, and at once succeeded in hooking
a fish of enormous size. I distinctly saw his tail, which was
nine or ten inches across, indicating a thirty- or forty-pounder.
Here was a predicament, as I had neither gaff nor assistance,
and at a most difficult place to land a fish. Knowing, how-
ever, that my tackle was good, and having abundance of line
upon my reel, I felt I was on equal terms with my adversary.
With rod bent almost double, I hung on to him till my
shoulders ached, and the perspiration flowed from every pore.
Three-quarters of an hour passed without making any per-
ceptible progress, when a stolkjerre, containing two of our
fellow-passengers from the steamer, came forward. It turned
out that all the passengers, as well as those from other
two steamers, left the ships at Bergen, took the train to
Vossevangen, and then drove to join the steamers at Gud-
vangen in carrioles, stolkjerres, and vehicles of a nondescript
character, some of them being of a crude and primitive de-
scription. As each party drove up, they were obliged to stop,
the road not being wide enough at the place to admit of
passing, till a train of fifty or sixty vehicles accumulated,
those coming up in the rear thinking some accident had oc-
curred. Very soon I was surrounded by an excited crowd,
which, in spite of remonstrances, packed so closely around me
that I scarcely could get elbow-room. Among the passengers
were tourists from England, Scotland, Ireland, and France,
with their Norwegian drivers, and very soon well-meant but
stupid suggestions were shouted in different languages from
dozens of different throats, till the “ hue-and-cry ” would have
rivalled the builders of Babel. By this time another half-hour
had passed, and the fish for some time having coursed up and
down the pool, went into deep water and “sulked.” For
about ten minutes I pulled at him as hard as I could without
breaking my tackle, changing my hands alternately in order
to give them a rest, but could not induce him to move. I
eventually asked one of the onlookers to throw in a stone a
little below the fish, and in response fifty stones were thrown
below, above, and all around him, fortunately without breaking
the line. This, however, had the desired effect, as off he
1888-89. | A Sporting Tour in Norway. 213
darted across the river, but gave unmistakable signs of going
down the rapid to the pool below. This was a serious busi-
ness, as a number of high alder bushes overhung the bank,
and the great depth of water rendered wading impossible.
Holding the rod as high as I could in the air, I tried to carry
the line over the tops of the trees, but, alas! it caught on the
first one. Calling out for some one to try and break the
branch, a Norwegian sprang up, knife in hand, and cut the
top, allowing the line to pass over. Following his example,
numbers of willing hands seized the remaining eight or ten
trees, breaking and bending them so as to afford facilities for
getting the line safely over. With a sigh of relief I again
got into open ground, and speedily wound up the line, the fish
being so accommodating as to come within a few feet of the
bank. My companions, who had been fishing higher up the
river, had arrived by this time, and one of them, gaff in hand,
waited for the fish to show himself. The excitement among
the onlookers was intense, as they peered down into the
depths, vainly endeavouring to get a view of the fish. I was
by no means sanguine of success, as, though an hour and three-
quarters had elapsed since the fish was hooked, I felt I had
no more control over him than I had at the beginning. I
also viewed with apprehension the rapid af the bottom of the
pool, and the tall trees that overhung the bank, their branches
spreading far into the water, rendering pursuit impossible
- should he go downwards. After taking a few short runs, he
got into the middle of the current, and I feared my apprehen-
sions were to be realised. Slowly but surely he went down-
wards, allowing himself, however, to be pulled towards the
side into the deep water. We were now close upon the trees,
and I felt the testing moment had arrived. On he went
below the branches, the music of the reel indicating that the
end could not be far off. Standing with one leg on the bank
and the other on a stone, up to the knee in water, I glanced
hurriedly at the reel, and saw that the climax had come.
For a moment I felt like a culprit at the bar on sentence
being about to be pronounced, when the reel stopped, the rod
was pulled straight down-stream towards the fish, and with
a “twang” the gut gave way, and the captive had escaped.
When the top of the rod sprang straight, and struck up
VOL. II. P
214 A Sporting Tour in Norway. [Sess.
among the branches, I experienced that bitter moment of in-
expressible disappointment which none but the genuine dis-
ciple of Izaak Walton can understand. Turning round, I
glanced at the blank look on the faces of the tourists, some
of whom gave vent to their disappointment by indulging in
language more expressive than parliamentary. Getting into
their respective vehicles, the crowd speedily dispersed; and
as the river was rapidly rising, putting an end to any fur-
ther chance of success, I also wended my way to join the
steamer.
Sailing through the narrow Sognefjord, with high, preci-
pitous, rocky mountains on each side, I was much interested
with the wild grandeur of the scenery. Waterfalls poured
over the sides of precipices thousands of feet in height, which,
augmented by the recent rains, were truly magnificent. High
up on the almost perpendicular sides of the mountains, which
appeared from the stream to be totally inaccessible, small
hamlets were discernible, where I was informed the hardy
inhabitants live the entire year. I was also informed that
children born and brought up in these dangerous places have,
when they first run about, to be tethered lke goats to a
stake, lest they should fall over into the fjord below. Can-
nons were here fired from the steamer, in order to let the
passengers hear the reports, which reverberate from one
mountain - side to the other for a very considerable time.
Having gone below to change my boots, I hurried up in my
slippers, and ran along the deck to see the fun. It had been
raining, which made the boards very slippery, so my feet
went from me, and I fell with great violence on my right
shoulder. I was lifted, taken below, and stripped, my shoulder
being much swollen, and so painful that I could not move
my arm. ‘The captain very kindly stopped the steamer at a
village, and sent ashore for a doctor. He stated there were
no bones broken, but that I had received a severe contusion and
rupture of the muscle-fibre, and to use a gun or fishing-rod
for three weeks or a month was simply out of the question.
Imagine my feelings! Here was I in the land of wild beasts,
with a gun, rifle, and no end of cartridges; and what I anti-
cipated would be an interesting chapter in my life’s history
was now converted into pain, annoyance, and disappointment.
1888-80. | A Sporting Tour in Norway. 215
My shoulder was so painful that we thought it prudent to go
ashore at Molde, in order to have it properly attended to at
the hospital. The two doctors there only corroborated the
opinion of the first, that it would be several weeks before I
would be able to shoot or fish. During our sojourn at
Molde, news came in to the village that sixteen sheep had
been killed, and a bear with two cubs had been seen a few
miles distant. A party went off in pursuit, and it was with
feelings of the deepest regret I was unable to accompany
them. Bruin, however, was too wide-awake, and had evidently
left the district.
Molde is a beautiful place, its environs being among the
most picturesque in Norway. What interested me most at
this place was the leper hospital, which stood in close proxim-
ity to the one I attended. This most terrible of all diseases
was at one time very common in our own country. Thanks,
however, to medical science and sanitary laws, this dreadful
malady has been almost eradicated in Britain; and even
in Norway it is disappearing, there not being half the
number of cases that there were thirty years ago. Through
the courtesy of the doctor, I was permitted to see through the
leper hospital, and a more repulsive or distressing spectacle
I never witnessed. I was informed that when persons are
first seized the pain is acute, but after the disease is fully
developed the patient suffers very little, and ‘could have his
leg or arm taken off almost without feeling it. Leprosy is
quite incurable, but in no way contagious if proper precautions
are taken. Some persons assert it is only prevalent on the
west coast of Norway, in consequence of the peasants living
almost exclusively on fish. Be that as it may, it is at Bergen,
Throndhjem, and Molde, on the west coast, that the leper
hospitals are.
As I was quite able to walk about with my arm in a sling,
we set sail for the island of Hitteren. Reaching Havn, we
staid over night, and the following day drove across the island.
It took us seven hours to drive twenty-one miles, the road
reminding me of a switchback railway. Arriving at our des-
timation, where we were kindly and hospitably entertained,
we spent the night there, a messenger having been despatched
Some miles for a hunter to pioneer us over the mountains, my
216 A Sporting Tour in Norway. [Sess.
special mission being to explore the suitability of the island
as sporting-ground. Being from home, the guide did not turn
up till the following afternoon, when we at once started for
the hills. Though shooting was out of the question, I asked
our courier to carry my rifle, as I thought it possible with a
lean to try a shot off my left shoulder. After walking about
an hour and a half, the hunter—* Donald” I called him—
informed the courier that he saw a deer. Getting my tele-
scope drawn out for me, I leant it over a rock, and saw a
splendid stag lymg about 400 yards off, the cups on the tops
of his antlers indicating a “royal.” I at once forgot all about
my shoulder, and became “eager for the fray.” I never saw
any one in such a state of excitement as the courier; so order-
ing him to sit down and not to move till he heard the shot,
I started with “ Donald” for the scene of action, and had no
difficulty in getting behind a small rock within 130 yards of
his majesty. “Donald” loaded the rifle for me, and signalled
me to shoot. I shook my head, and by signs indicated that
I would wait till the stag rose and began to feed. He took
in the situation, whispering “Ja, ja,” and nodding assent. We
sat down with our backs against the rock, and “ Donald,” putting
about a finger-leneth of tobacco into his mouth, began dili-
gently to chew. Looking to where we had first spied the
deer, what did I see but the black turban of the courier over
the light-coloured rock, moving up and down, and finally bob-
bing out of sight! I sprang to my feet and looked for the
stag, but he was gone. I, however, got sight of him a little
farther off, taking what I thought a last look at the movements
of the black cap on the rock. I threw up the rifle, hurriedly
aimed as I best could, and fired, but without any apparent
result other than making the stag scuttle off at a rapid pace.
The courier came running forward in a state of great excite-
ment, shouting in half English, half Norwegian, denouncing
me for having “missed ze buck.” It will scarcely be credited,
but I kept my temper. I did not even indulge in the unpar-
liamentary language that crowded to my lips. I merely sug-
gested that, as the day was far spent, we had better go home.
My reputation as a sportsman was on the wane, for had I not
missed a stag within 150 yards, and lost a salmon under the
gaze of a hundred eyes? Determined, however, to retrieve my
1888-89. | A Sporting Tour in Norway. 217
laurels, I started with “Donald” the following morning at
peep of day. As I could not use the telescope with one arm,
I left matters entirely in his hands; and as we were unable
to converse, I walked behind in silence. In due course we
sighted deer, and after a deal. of manceuvring crawled to a
moss-covered rock within a hundred yards of a stag, which
was feeding on a patch of green. “Donald” laid the rifle on
the rock, and I prepared to shoot. Keeping the points of the
antlers in view, I looked through the sights of the rifle, but
felt so awkward with the left hand that I resolved to try the
right. I thereupon got “Donald” to remove the sling, but
found I had to use the left hand to bring the right one to the
trigger-guard. This accomplished, I raised myself a little
higher, and saw the noble animal quietly feeding quite uncon-
scious of our presence; so, drawing a bead upon his heart, I
pressed the trigger. I was then called upon to pay the penalty
of my indiscretion for disregarding medical instructions. The
recoil of the .500 Express was too much for my injured shoul-
der, and I nearly fainted. Strange to say, the stag never
moved off the spot, but I could hear the blood gurgling in his
throat, and knew that the messenger of death had done its
work. Motioning my companion to take the rifle and despatch
him, he went up and terminated his sufferings. After perform-
ing the usual obsequies, we wended our way towards home,
which we reached in time for breakfast, and for once in my
life I felt that I had had enough of deer-stalking. Spending
a couple more days on the island, I saw numbers of deer, but did
not take the rifle.
Innumerable flocks of eider-ducks breed round this island,
and in fact all round the north-west coast of Norway. Nor-
Wegian law very properly protects these birds, as from them
the eider-down of commerce is obtained. The eider-duck
plucks the down from her own breast to line her nest, and
about a quarter of a pound of this valuable product is found
at each nest. Strange to say, if the birds are shot and the
down plucked off, it has not the same elasticity, and is con-
sequently not so valuable, as when removed by the bird itself.
To such an extent is eider-down used in Norway, that during
my sojourn in that country I never once had a blanket to cover
me, blankets being entirely superseded by eider-down quilts.
218 A Sporting Tour in Norway. [Sess.
Leaving Hitteren, we took one of the coasting-steamers and
sailed to Throndhjem, which is so far north that it is on a line
with the south coast of Iceland. After visiting the cathedral,
erected in the 12th century, and other places of interest, we
took the train en route for Sweden. On this line we stopped
at a station with a name familiar to us all. As we proceeded
I was engaged perusing the pages of a “ Baedeker,” and at p.
220, where the route is described, I read, “The train now
passes through a short tunnel, and reaches Hell.” I must
confess I thought it strange to see HELL printed in large
letters on the station-house, and to hear the porter in a dis-
tinct voice calling out the name as he passed the cars.
Having some time to wait at this station—as was the rule,
indeed, at many stations—lI despatched a post-card to a friend
at home, beginning thus: “ My dear friend, you will see from
the post-mark where I have got to at last!”
Reaching Storlien, where we staid for some days, a party of
us arranged to cross the mountains, a journey of five hours, in
order to visit a Lapp village. Obtaining a guide, and starting
at daybreak, we ascended the hill, wading through bog and
morass till we reached the fjeld above. We then pursued our
course in a northerly direction, through barren wastes, for a
couple of hours, till we came to a small lake from which a flock
of wild geese took their departure when we appeared in sight.
On some soft mud by the side of the lake we saw what we
thought was the track of a large dog, but on getting his eyes
on it our guide ejaculated “stor wolf,” meaning large wolf. It
appears that wherever there is a Lapp village, with their large
herds grazing on the surrounding fjelds, a pack of wolves fre-
quent the district, the gravid reindeer and the feeble calf falling
victims to their rapacity. In these circumstances the Lapps,
wrapped in skins and accompanied by their dogs, are obliged
to stay out at nights in all weathers for the protection of the
herd. When the wolves make an attack, the Lapps on watch
are apprised by the violent ringing of bells, a number of the
deer having them secured round their necks. Guided by the
sound, the Lapps hurry with their dogs to the rescue, and in
this manner protect in a great measure their deer from the
depredation of wolves. Pushing on, we ascended another hill,
and crossed some large patches of eternal snow. By this time
1888-809. ] A Sporting Tour in Norway. 219
I could tell by my nasal organ that we were now getting near
the village. It was situated on an elevated position in a birch
wood, and, with the exception of seeing smoke issuing from
among the trees, there were no indications of people in the
district. The objects in having their camp on a knoll are, in
order that they may have a view of their deer, and to avoid
being drifted up with snow. As we approached we heard a
peculiar snorting, like the grunting of pigs, and soon discovered
this was caused by about a thousand deer being milked in a kraal.
The kraal, which was fenced with birch trees about six feet
high, covered an area nearly the size of Royal Circus Gardens,
in Edinburgh. When the wood had been cleared off it, stumps
were left three and four feet high, to which the deer are tethered
while being milked. It is a popular notion that the deer are
tame, and that they are milked like cows in this country. This
is not so. The men throw a lasso over their antlers, and drag
them to one of the stumps referred to. They then put a twitch
on their nose, which in many cases cuts into the flesh, causing
the blood to trickle down. Were such cruelty practised in
this country, the perpetrators would very soon have a visit
from the officers of the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty
to Animals. The women then milk the deer with one hand,
while with the other they hold the most primitive wooden
bowl, in which they catch the milk. Each deer, I observed,
gives only a small quantity. They strain the milk through
a sieve made of rushes or dried grass. They make cheese
of the milk, but not butter—for the reason, I presume, that
they have no bread to put it on! Their staple food is all got
from the deer—flesh, blood, milk, and cheese. Most of the
other necessaries of life—and even death—are derived from
the same source. Their clothes, their beds, their blankets,
their cradles, and their coffins are all made of deer-skins.
One of our party, who had visited the encampment a few days
previous, informed me that a sick child was lying in a small
deer’s skin, suspended by the four corners from the rafters
of the wigwam. On my visit I found that the child was
dead, wrapped in a skin, and stuck up in a tree. This, of
course, was only a temporary arrangement till the body was
buried.
When the grass and reindeer-moss become scarce in a
220 A Sporting Tour in Norway. [Sess.
district, the Lapps change their quarters to fresh ground. This,
I was informed, they do thrice a-year, their grazing extending
to a radius of eighty or ninety miles. As the ground is of so
sterile and barren a character, it necessarily requires a large
area to feed the deer, the herd in question numbering between
3000 and 4000. Lapps never change their quarters in summer,
in consequence of their being unable to travel on the soft and
uneven ground. In winter it is otherwise, as they drive their
sledges on the snow; and as the lakes are all frozen, they tra-
vel as much as possible on ice. The Lapps are a diminutive race,
none of them being much over five feet in height. As already
observed, their clothes are made of deer-skin, the hair being
worn inside. Men and women both use trousers, wearing them
tight like leather leggings. They are the dirtiest creatures I
ever beheld—so much so, that I was of opinion they never
wash themselves at all! Both men and women are inveterate
smokers, and my companions supplied them copiously with
tobacco to fill their pipes. As I do not indulge in the “weed”
myself, I could not offer them tobacco; but I was of opinion
that a present of a liberal supply of soap would be much
more suitable. Should I ever revisit them, I shall keep this
in mind !
Returning to Throndhjem, we travelled by rail to Koppang,
and visited Messelt, in the centre of Norway, where we were
the guests of a large proprietor, who kindly offered us reindeer
and elk shooting. We rode ponies many miles up into the
mountains, and spent a few days in a seter, in the hope of
getting a shot at reindeer. In consequence, however, of the
mildness of the weather, and the migratory habits of the deer
referred to, we failed in getting a shot, and left the szxter,
turning our attention to elk shooting.
To the lover of the canine race, nothing can be more inter-
esting than following a well-trained elk-hound and watching
the skill and sagacity displayed, as it sometimes for many
hours dogs the tracks of the object of its pursuit. Accom-
panied by an excellent Norwegian sportsman, with his two
dogs, “ Nor” and “ Bjune,” we started at five o’clock in the
morning, and shortly thereafter were, as I supposed, lost in
the labyrinths of a large pine-wood. Carrying a pocket-com-
pass, I took bearings before starting; but this, 1 was informed,
1888-809. | A Sporting Tour in Norway. 221
was unnecessary, as Helge, the keeper, who had spent his life
in the district, was thoroughly conversant with the geography
of the wood. For several hours we proceeded, the walking
being most difficult, in consequence of the uneven character
of the ground, and large trees with upturned roots frequently
obstructing our passage. But for coming across tracks of elk,
our walk was becoming tiresome and monotonous, though none
of these were fresh enough for the dogs to take up the scent.
At last Nor put down his nose, pulled in his harness, and,
whining in an excited manner, gave unmistakable signs that
he had discovered a fresh spoor. The character of the
ground at the place, which was rock and dry moss, prevented
our seeing the footprints—the only means by which we could
form an idea of the size of the animal. I had already indi-
cated that I would not shoot a cow or a small bull, but only
a large-sized one, and consequently it was most desirable that
we should see the track as soon as possible. We were at a
considerable altitude, and the ground unfavourable for seeing
footprints, so that we had no alternative but to follow the dog,
which was pulling in his harness like a steam-engine. Bjune
was kept “to heel” till we determined that the tracks were
those of a bull. Coming to a bit of marshy ground, we were
chagrined to discover that the spoor was that of a cow, the
round shape with the hoofs close together differing from those
of a bull by the hoofs usually being a little separate. This
was disappointing ; but we were fortunate soon after in finding
the tracks of a bull, the dimensions of the hoof-prints indicat-
ing an exceptionally large animal. Now we were all excite-
ment, as Nor took up the scent, and pulled the keeper onward
ata rapid pace. Before finding the track, I was beginning to
feel tired, but this feeling was soon forgot in my eagerness to
press onward. Sometimes the spoor was uphill, downhill,
across rocky boulders, or over fallen trees, all of which ren-
dered walking most difficult. It would be impossible to
determine the pace at which we proceeded, but of one thing
I have no doubt, that it was as fast as we were able. Though
the thick wood protected us from the blazing sun overhead,
there was not a breath of air; so, panting with fatigue and
wet with perspiration, we struggled onwards. We were now
going downhill, and the roar of a foss indicated that we were
222 A Sporting Tour in Norway. [Sess.
near ariver. Here the Elden is of considerable size, and as
the tracks led forward to it, there was nothing for us but to
plunge in. Helge crossed first with Nor, I following; and
though the water was about three feet deep and very rapid,
we got safely across. The dog at once took up the tracks
again, and we pushed on as before. Bjune was let loose and
sent on, but returned in about ten minutes, indicating that
the elk was far ahead. After crossing the river the spoor led
us uphill, which took the breath out of us; and as we had
breakfasted at 4.30, I felt very hungry and much fatigued.
Coming to a streamlet, we halted, secured Nor to a tree, and
the keeper in a few minutes kindled a fire. Unpacking his
knapsack, I was surprised to see him turn out a small brass
tea-kettle, which, after emptying of its varied contents, he
filled with water and put on the fire to boil. Ina Norwegian
forest there is always an abundance of decayed wood admir-
ably adapted for fuel, and in a short time tea was made, which
we enjoyed to the full. After a refreshing lunch, not forget-
ting the dogs, we started with renewed vigour, and followed
on the trail. How long, I wondered, was it going to last?
Surely even an elk must get tired, and halt to rest, so that we
might be able to get near him. Still there were no indica-
tions of his having eaten anything or lain down, and for
several more hours we followed on, Nor sticking to the trail
with amazing accuracy. As the sun had disappeared, and the
shadows of the mountains were creeping over the landscape,
we abandoned the chase, and wended our way homeward, which
we reached at eight o’clock, after fifteen hours as hard walk-
ing as I ever indulged in. Daylight was breaking the next
morning when a knock at my bedroom door announced that it
was time to get up; and, stiff and wearied as I was, it required
a considerable amount of self-denial on my part to respond to
the call. After a hurried breakfast, we crossed the Glom-
men—the largest river in Norway—and at once got into a
wood which, I was informed, was the habitat of elk. For an
hour we ascended the mountain, frequently seeing old tracks ;
and so wearied was I with the toils of the previous day, that I
felt walking uphill most difficult. Very soon, however, I for-
got all about being tired, as Nor suddenly wheeled at right
angles, put down his nose, and pulled in his harness, the
1888-89. A Sporting Tour in Norway. 223
result of crossing a fresh spoor. I need not again describe
the hunt, further than to say that we observed the elk had
been feeding from side to side, tearing off the leaves of birch
and mountain-ash as he had passed, and that in a short time
we came to the bed where he had lain down for the day, and
where no doubt we had aroused him in his slumbers. The
spoor indicated a large bull, and as he had crossed some wet
ground, we saw that the water was still muddy in his tracks.
Knowing, therefore, he could not be many minutes in advance,
we slipped Bjune, who went off in pursuit at a rapid pace.
As we were going upwind, Nor, now with his head in the air,
pulled the keeper on, as if impelled by some irresistible
instinct. Following on for half an hour, we heard in the dis-
tance the pleasing music of Bjune, and knew that at last the
elk was at bay. Loading my rifle, and guided by the sound,
we ran on as fast as we were able, leaving Helge to follow the
trail with Nor. Fortunately it was downhill, and the ground
not being very rough, we were able to proceed at a rapid pace.
When within a few hundred yards the elk broke bay and
made off, though, judging by the barking of the dog, only at
a walk. By this time we were going up an incline, and,
panting with fatigue, we hurried on as hard as our limbs and
lungs would allow. Fortunately the chase continued little
over a mile, when we knew by the altered bark of the dog
that he again had the elk at bay. Getting near, great caution
was necessary, as if the elk got sight of us, or heard the snap
of a stick beneath our feet, he would again break, and possibly
add miles to the chase. Observing that Bjune barked for
about twenty seconds, then stopped to take a breath and
began again, we took advantage of his noise, and stealthily
approached. Anticipating his becoming quiet, we stood mo-
tionless till the noise again began, and in this manner got
within about a hundred yards of the object of our pursuit.
Peering through among the trees, for the first time in my life
I got my eyes on a living elk in his native solitude. What a
monster! He reminded me of Jumbo, and I could not but
admire him. “Shoot, shoot!” whispered my companion, and
I silently cocked the rifle. With heaving chest, occasioned
by the long run, I put the rifle to my shoulder and tried to
take an aim. The dog was right between the elk and me, and
224 A Sporting Tour in Norway. [Sess.
I could not get a shot except at his head, which I specially
wished to avoid striking, as already I anticipated with pride
showing it to my friends as an ornament in my lobby! I
could not help observing how difficult he was to see, so closely
has Nature assimilated the colour of his skin to his natural
surroundings, the trunks of the trees. Turning his head to the
side to keep off the dog, which was barking round in front of
him, he exposed his neck and shoulder, and I took aim. To
hold steady after such a run was impossible, but I brought the
rifle slowly up, and when passing the broadest part of his
neck, pressed the trigger. I could not tell the result, and ran
to the spot as fast as I was able, but no elk was to be seen.
Surely I could not have missed such a mark. Impossible!
Still, a fear crept over me that, after such a terrible run, and
perhaps a slight attack of elk fever, it was possible. I hardly
knew what to think, when the barking of Bjune a few hundred
yards off made it clear that the elk was again at bay. “He
is all right,” shouted my companion behind me, and again I
hastened to the scene of action. Having reloaded the empty
barrel, I ran on with the rifle at full cock, but did not get
sight of the elk till within forty yards of him, when I observed
he was on his knees. Directly he saw me, he got on his feet,
and was making off; but as he was broadside on, I sent a
bullet through his heart, and he dropped dead. Running
forward utterly exhausted, I threw myself on the body of my
victim till I regained my breath. Helge soon came up with
Nor, and we lost no time in returning home, in order that
men, ponies, and a sleigh might be sent to bring back the
trophy. It was dusk before the men arrived with the elk,
when it was found that it weighed 960 lb. Getting the head
and skin, I started the following morning for Christiania,
when I sent them to a stuffer to be preserved.
After viewing the principal sights of the Norwegian capital,
I set sail for Bergen, which I reached in three days; my com-
panions leaving me at Christiansand, en rowte for England.
Reaching Bergen in a downpour of rain, I travelled by rail to
Vossevangen. Though only a distance of sixty-five English
miles, the train passed through fifty-five tunnels between these
places, many parts of the line being cut out of the solid rock.
Staying all night at the Vossevangen Hotel, I started the
1888-809. | A Sporting Tour in Norway. 225
following morning with two hunters for a mountain szter
some ten or twelve miles distant—the surrounding mountains
being the well-known haunts of reindeer. After leaving the
road, we clambered up a mountain-steep in order to reach the
seeter on the fjeld above. No time was lost in getting un-
packed, and with my rifle and telescope I took a walk in the
hope of being able to see some deer. In this I was disap-
pointed, but saw numerous fresh tracks, and anticipated good
sport the following day. Returning to the seter, my com-
panions, Ole and Sjur, had supper ready, of which we partook,
and prepared to go to bed. Small preparations, however,
were necessary, as after divesting myself of my boots only,
I turned in. There were no down quilts here, my only
covering being my waterproof and rug, and my bed some
dried grass and birch leaves. I could have put up with that,
but my bed, which was a wooden one, was only five feet long,
and as I stand six feet in my stockings, I was by no means
comfortable. To make matters worse, I had not been long in
bed when I made the discovery that I had companions; and
I strongly recommend any who purpose visiting Norway, and
have any chance of sleeping in a mountain seter, to take
with them a packet of Keating’s insect-destroying powder.
As a naturalist, interested in the study of insect life, I may
say that I have no animosity or unkindly feeling towards
these creatures; but on that occasion, at least, I did most
solemnly protest against the means by which they obtained
their supper. Starting as soon as we could see, in the hope
of discovering deer, we wandered over rocky mountains and
patches of eternal snow, but returned to the seter at dusk
without ever having spied one. The second and third day
passed with similar results, and our provisions ran done.
Having seen large numbers of fresh tracks, I was very un-
willing to leave without getting a shot, and we arranged to
take a last look the following morning before returning to the
village. A pound-tin of salt beef and some tea was all we
had for supper, after travelling a long day on the mountains;
so I opened the tin, and divided it equally into three, and for
hungry men it was a scanty enough repast. It must not be
supposed that we had bread along with it, as we had none—
not even milk or sugar in the tea. Starting breakfastless the
226 A Sporting Tour in Norway. [Sess.
following morning, we again saw numerous fresh tracks; and,
full of anticipation, we pushed forward. For long weary
hours we travelled over rock, snow, and barren wastes, till
that terrible hunger-craving warned me in unmistakable
language to retrace my steps towards the seter, and thence
back to the village. Still we persevered till after mid-day,
and were circling round the summit of a rocky mountain to
make straight for the seter, when, far down below us, I got
my eyes on some moving objects, which, on applying the
telescope, I discovered to be deer. Fried liver and venison
steak were uppermost in my mind, and no time was lost in
stalking them. The wind was by no means steady; but we
managed to get within two hundred yards, when I perceived
that they became uneasy, some of them getting up and looking
suspiciously around. The remainder were quickly on their
feet, sniffing in all directions, evidently suspicious of the pres-
ence of enemies. They seemed unable to discover in what
direction the danger lay, but they made off, and I prepared to
shoot. Picking out the largest I could see, I brought the rifle
to my shoulder and quickly fired. Not having the proper use
of my right arm, I unintentionally let both barrels off at once,
but the stag kept on. The killing of a deer was, under the
circumstances, a work of necessity, as I was now feeling weak
with hunger; so, opening the breech of the rifle, I quickly
reloaded, and on looking up saw two large stags, which,
hitherto unperceived, had risen from behind a knoll, and
were galloping past me broadside-on at a distance of eighty
or ninety yards. Never in all my previous experience did I
get such a chance, and I was fortunate in rolling them both
over. With a grateful heart I ran up, admiring the dimen-
sions of the antlered heads. My two companions also running
forward, exclaimed, “Stor bocks!” or big bucks. In a trice
one of them got out his knife, and thrust it into the chest of
one of the stags; and the other, taking from his knapsack a
metal cup, caught the blood as it gurgled out, and drank it
off. Both of them drank several cupfuls; but I must con-
fess that I felt a sort of sickening sensation, and, hungry
as I was, could not brook the idea of tasting warm blood.
Turning away, I got my eyes on the retreating herd of deer,
now far up the mountain-side, and one a long way behind the
1888-809. | A Sporting Tour in Norway. 227
others, hardly able to crawl. Starting in pursuit, I was not
long in getting sufficiently near, and despatched him with
another shot. We soon skinned and cut them to pieces;
and after tying bits of paper with string to the antlers,
which flutter in the breeze and prevent birds and _ beasts
of prey from approaching, we hurried to the seter with
a lump of venison. The stove was quickly lighted; the
flesh, which was never allowed time to get cold, was put
into the pot; and, long before it was even underdone, we
had it out and commenced supper. We had no tablecloth,
no knives and forks, no bread, potatoes, or salt. Carrying a
bit on a pointed stick outside, in order that it might cool
quickly, and seasoned by a splendid appetite, I made a hearty
though somewhat unceremonious supper. Leaving my com-
panions to bring home the deer, I walked back to the village
in the morning, when I was glad to get a wash and change
of linen. The hunters turned up in the evening in two
stolkjzerres, and after getting the heads and skins, I made them
a present of the venison, of which they seemed immensely
proud. Returning to Bergen, I learned that the summer
boats had ceased running, and that I would be unable to
return to England for a week. I therefore had an oppor-
tunity of seeing Bergen, the Natural History Museum in-
teresting me very much. Rather than wait longer, however,
I soon made arrangements with the captain of a cargo steamer,
who was returning empty to Sunderland; and getting on board,
I reached home in due course.
This paper might very properly be regarded as imperfect
were I to fail in indicating, however briefly, some of the
leading features in the character of the Norwegians. During
my sojourn amongst them, I found them in many respects a
most likeable people, resembling, in many of their features,
the more remote of our own Celtic race. Large numbers of
them are living in comparative seclusion, far away from the
forces of civilisation. They exhibit human nature in its un-
sophisticated condition, and form a striking contrast to the poor
and neglected in the “ civilised” cities of our own country.
They are just in all their transactions, kind and considerate in
their relations to each other, and accommodating and courte-
ous to strangers, there being an utter want of that suspicion
228 A Sporting Tour in Norway. [Sess.
and distrust which unfortunately prevails so largely among our
civilised communities. They are at the same time a religious
people—religious not in a formalistic manner, but in the
highest sense of the word. As an example of their strict
honesty, I may relate an incident from my own experience.
One day, while out angling, I left my book, with a large
number of most expensive casts and flies, upon the bank of a
river. It was only on stepping on board the steamer that I,
for the first time, discovered my loss. Just as the anchor was
about to be raised, a Norwegian peasant was discovered row-
ing in haste towards the steamer. It turned out that but
two hours had elapsed since he had found my missing fly-
book on the bank of the river, and knowing that it must
belong to one of the anglers on board, he had crossed the
country, a distance of six miles, to return the lost property.
The honesty of this humble peasant is the more strikingly
exemplified when we remember that, living as he did on the
banks of the river in question, the temptation to retain the
book, with its splendid stock of tackle, was very great. On
consulting the captain, I rewarded him for his honesty, but
he took the sum with reluctance, on the ground that it was
“too much.” Now for the contrast. Some seven or eight
years ago I had accepted an invitation from a gentleman for
a day’s salmon-fishing on the Tweed, near Coldstream. On
leaving for the station, I was, as I thought at the time,
fortunate enough to catch the ’bus at the end of the road,
just opposite my own house. I sprang up to the front, and
had got comfortably seated, but had not proceeded many
hundred yards until I discovered that my fly-book, with
hooks and tackle worth several pounds, had dropped from
my ulster pocket. I lost not a moment in hurrying back,
but found that, notwithstanding the brief period that had
elapsed, it had been picked up by some passer-by. I adver-
tised in the local newspapers, offering a handsome reward ;
and although my name and address were also printed on
the book in large letters, there was no response, and I have
never seen it again. My only regret is that it was not
picked up by some Norwegian tramp, instead of by one of
the more intelligent of my own locality —lI shall not venture
to say, of my own parish !
1888-89.] Aintail and Glenelg, with Notices of the Brochs. 229
Norway I found to have been at one time sadly cursed,
in its more populous centres, by excessive drinking. By firm
and beneficent legislation, the traffic in drink has been exten-
sively prohibited, and the craving for liquor among the
natives has now, to a large extent, become a thing of the
past. Latterly, however, British and German traders have
been working sad havoc among the Norwegians, more espe-
cially at their seaports, by the introduction of their own
drinking habits. It would be well if those by whose praise-
worthy efforts the Gospel has been so largely disseminated in
Norway were to keep in view the fact that, by the dis-
couragement of the traffic in drink, the local government has
contributed immensely to the sobriety and elevation of their
people, and they ought to do nothing which would tend to
counteract the good that has thereby been accomplished.
While the English-speaking race, especially, is able to confer
great and inestimable blessings, by commerce and otherwise,
upon the Norwegian people, I cannot conclude without say-
ing that, for industry, honesty, and virtue, they may in return
find much that is worthy of imitation among that hospitable
and interesting people who constitute the Scandinavian race.
[In illustration of the above paper, a large number of lime- light views
were exhibited on the screen by Mr Geo. A. Wilson.]
IWIl—KINTAIL AND GLENELG, WITH NOTICES
OF THE BROCHS.
By Mr ARCH. CRAIG, Jun.
(Read Jan. 23, 1889.)
THE picturesque village of Dornie is our headquarters; and
the purpose of the following remarks is—/irstly, to glance
briefly at the amenity of this most romantic part of Scotland;
and, secondly, to devote the remaining and larger portion of the
paper to a description of those curious and interesting stone
VOL, Il. Q
230 Kintail and Glenelg, with Notices of the Brochs. [Sess.
buildings known variously as Brochs, Duns, Burghs, and
Pictish Towers.
Dornie is situated in the parish of Kintail, Ross-shire, and
lies on a flat strip of ground, almost at the point where Loch
Alsh loses its identity by merging into the wilder Loch Duich,
which in turn throws off another offshoot in the shape of a
sinuous arm of the sea, called Loch Long. Accurately speak-
ing, the village is built on the eastern shore of the latter loch,
and consists of a long row of substantial houses, some slated,
others thatched, but displaying on close inspection a more or
less decayed and battered look, that seems to betoken departed
ereatness. In a measure this is correct, as in the palmy days
of the Loch Duich herring-fishing Dornie was a_ bustling,
thriving little township; but since these erratic inhabitants of
the deep have vanished Dornie’s prosperity has gone likewise,
and now both village and inhabitants show unmistakable signs
of having run to seed. The main and in fact only street lies
between the houses and the sea-shore, but bordering the latter
are plots of garden-ground, protected from the rising tide by
strong, roughly built stone walls; and immediately behind the
dwellings little irregular patches of cultivated ground, alter-
nately green or yellow according to the crop, and reminding
one of a badly made chess-board where no two squares are the
same size or shape, fill up the gap between the village and the
base of steep mountains that rise to a considerable height, and
gradually swell into immense masses that culminate in the
giant peaks of Ben Attow, Scour Ouran, and the Five Sisters
of Kintail. At the east end stands the handsome Roman
Catholic convent, chapel, and priest’s house, built by the
Duchess of Leeds, principally from stone quarried in Wales—
a circumstance that strikes one as savouring slightly of ab-
surdity, considering the vast quantity of equally serviceable
material that is to be had in the vicinity. At intervals along
the shores of Loch Long, which is narrow and tortuous, are
scattered little fishing and crofting townships, most of them,
from their tumble-down, weather-beaten appearance, objects of
interest to the artistic eye. Carelessly-kept scraps of vege-
table gardens, with here and there a few flowers and trees
scattered in desultory fashion ; small fields of oats and pota-
toes, divided by broken-down, overgrown dykes; great rows of
1888-89.] Kzxtail and Glenelg, with Notices of the Brochs. 231
lythe and other fish hung up to dry, and festooning the walls
of the huts ; tall, scraggy-looking frameworks of sticks, upon
which the nets are stretched; outhouses formed of dry-stone
walls, with an inverted boat for a roof—these and many
other signs are sufficient to indicate the various occupations of
the inhabitants, who by turns are fishermen, crofters, or labour-
ers, according to the season and the exigencies of existence.
Several miles inland from the head of Loch Long, above Kil-
elan, are the famous Falls of Glomach, 370 feet high, the
gorge into which the cataract descends being in many parts
fully 500 feet of sheer precipice, and probably the wildest and
most savage bit of scenery that Scotland can produce. To
give anything like adequate delineation of this wonderful
locality would, however, necessitate a paper solely devoted to
the subject, so mere mention of the name must suffice.
Within a short distance of Dornie, on a little rocky islet,
approachable at low tide from the eastern shore, stands the
ancient castle of Eilan Donan, long a stronghold of the Mac-
kenzies of Seaforth, and the arena of many stormy and ofttimes
bloody deeds. This historical structure, which forms so strik-
ing an object in the landscape, is now in a sad state of dilapi-
dation, and consists of long, gaunt, isolated pieces of masonry
standing erect on the summit of the rock, which bear a resem-
blance to the decayed teeth of some old witch-like Highland
beldame, whose curses and prognosticatious of evil were such
a potent source of dread in days gone by. While clearing out
a large well lately inside the building, the workmen discovered
several memorials of the past in the shape of swords and two
old cannons; and I myself saw in a cottage at Dornie a
curiously shaped cutlass-looking implement that was evidently
the remains of one of those quaint-fashioned short swords,
such as seamen carried in the olden times. This relic was
picked up on the shore of Loch Duich, and may not improb-
ably have belonged to some member of the Spanish troop that
figured in the skirmish of Glenshiel during the abortive re-
-bellion of 1719. Itis strange to think that Spaniards found
their way into this outlandish district ; but if we consult his-
tory we will find that many years prior to this episode the
same race appeared on the ¢apis in even more out-of-the-world
localities farther north, and under much more disastrous cir-
232 Kintail and Glenelg, with Notices of the Brochs. (Sess.
cumstances, when the ill-fated Armada was, providentially for
Great Britain, broken in sunder by the stormy elements. Those
interested in the Spanish nation may even yet have an oppor-
tunity of making the acquaintance of one individual of that
sunny land, as the ghost of a victim still haunts the néighbour-
-hood of Glenshiel, to the evident disquietude of the supersti-
tious native. The mention of Glenshiel may bring to the
recollection of some the amusing incident in the Tour of Dr
Samuel Johnson and Boswell, 1773, when the former, jaded
and tired out by the long day’s ride from Glenmorriston to
Glenelg, especially when having to cross the wonderful but
hilly road of Mam Rattachan, allowed his temper to fairly
master him, and in the most childish way quarrelled with
his faithful companion, who at all times was willing to
grovel in the very dust before the great man,—this outburst
of spleen originating in the simple circumstance that poor
Boswell desired to ride ahead in order to secure accommoda-
tion at the inn. The great Doctor showed up badly on this
occasion ; but he seems to have been ultimately consoled for
all his fatigues and deprived of his bad humours by the pre-
sent of a bottle of rum and some sugar, sent to him at the
wretched hostelry by a Mr Murchison, factor for Macleod of
Glenelg. If report speaks truth (but on this point I have no
accurate information), this “ good Samaritan ” was an ancestor
of Sir Roderick, the eminent geologist, who, as is well known,
was connected with the district of Loch Alsh, close at hand.
From a scenic point of view, the most magnificent part of
this truly impressive region is Loch Duich. Here the moun-
tains are higher, the outlines bolder, the little clachans more
picturesque, and altogether there is a charm about this inland
sea that inclines one to assert that no prospect on the varied
west coast of Scotland can vie with it, and this is saying a
great deal, considering the marvellous scenery of which it can
boast. What, perhaps, is the main feature of Loch Duich, is
the stupendous appearance of the mountains that encircle the
upper waters, and form a sort of cup-like hollow, known as
the Fold of Kintail. The southern side is not so bold as the
northern, the hills sloping upwards from the former, and being
erass-covered and tamer altogether; but on the north rocky
promontories jut out into the loch, and their ruggedness of
1888-89.] Kéntail and Glenelg, with Notices of the Brochs. 233
contour is continued to the summits of the ranges whose
bases they form. Here and there along the coast are little
townships scattered in promiscuous order, or rather want of
order, as if they had been dropped at haphazard from the
heavens, or kicked into position by a giant foot that might
have adorned the person of Fingal or some other equally
powerful member of his phantom fraternity; and inter-
mingling with these are trees of varied kinds, clinging tena-
ciously to the clefts in the rocks wherever foothold is at-
tainable.
In a mountainous region like this, the effects of light and
shade, cloud and sunshine, rain and mist, constantly transform
the picture, and therein lies its greatest attraction. At one
moment you have a brilliant blink of sunshine that burnishes
the surface of the water, and plainly reveals every gully and
fissure, but at the same time dwarfs the height of the moun-
tains: presently a cloud creeps slowly across the sky, darken-
ing the landscape while increasing its solemnity,—the hills
seem vaster, the valleys deeper and more awesome, and before
the storm fairly bursts and obliterates every outline, the pre-
vailing stillness is intensified, so that every sound forces itself
on the ear with greater prominence. The rustling of the leaves
on the trees, or the sighing of the brawling burns that run
down the distant glens, unheeded before, suddenly claim our
attention by contrast with the death-like silence that precedes
the blast. When the squall swoops down in real earnest and
churns the sea into foam, you can see the mist driving along
the hill-face at a furious rate, obscuring the view entirely,
until some cross-current of wind, tearing down a gorge,
scatters it for the time being, and unmasks the rocks that,
blackened by the wet, look more gigantic and grim propor-
tionately to the short time they are visible. In late autumn
such atmospheric vagaries can be witnessed a dozen times
a-day, but in many instances the brilliancy of the concluding
sunset more than compensates for the disturbed state of the
elements. To attempt a description of a gorgeous West
Highland autumnal sunset, with its rapid change of colours
and varied phases, is about as hopeless a task as converting
a Jew, and I for one would not insult you by trying. My
advice is to go and make acquaintance with one, and you will
234 Kintail and Glenelg, with Notices of the Brochs. [Sess.
be brought face to face with the finest thing in nature. From
the top of a hill above Ardintoul, Loch Alsh, there is an
almost uninterrupted view of the Skye coast from Raasay to
the point of Sleat; and far beyond that the island of Higg
with its wonderful “ Scuir,” and Rum with its peaked moun-
tains, are plainly visible on a clear day. Right in front the
dark mass of Ben-na-Caileach in Skye, dipping down towards
Kyle Akin and its ancient Castle of Moil, rises from the shore
of the narrow Kyle Rhea strait, and behind it again tower
the majestic Coolins, with their long line of jagged summits,
that look in the setting sun like a huge saw from which teeth
had been broken by long use and decay. The subject of
Highland scenery is capable of such extension that, once a
commencement has been made, the difficulty of condensing
one’s remarks into anything like reasonable compass is prob-
ably as great a tax upon the writer as his lucubrations are
upon the patience of the audience; so fearing lest that dictum
may be applied to the present case, enough has probably been
said to give you a rough idea of the country. Therefore,
without further digression, permit me to call your attention
to the Brochs.
Within an easy day’s journey of Dornie there are four ex-
amples of brochs, three of them being in Glenbeg, a lovely little
valley near Glenelg village, Inverness-shire ; but before touch-
ing upon these, I should like to bring under your notice an-
other, situated within half a mile of Totaig, just at the junc-
tion of Loch Alsh and Loch Duich. Locally designated
“ Caisteal Grugaig” (see Plate No. 1), this edifice is certainly
worthy of more than passing notice, and scarcely deserves to
have been so much ignored by writers on prehistoric remains
as has been its fate. True, indeed, a concise account of its
principal features has been given by Dr Joseph Anderson, in
. his fascinating work, ‘ Scotland in Pagan Times’; but with
that exception, few other detailed notices have been published,
which must be the excuse for going into the matter more
minutely than would otherwise have been deemed necessary.
Lying on the southern shore of the loch, almost at the foot of
a green hollow, whose edges are lapped by the tide at its flow,
and down the centre of which rushes a noisy little stream, at
a distance the tower seems to be part and parcel of a huge
‘aurHs-ssoyf ‘Horac[ Hoo ‘Olvonug Iwaisiv} ton
1888-89.] Kintail and Glenelg, with Notices of the Brochs. 235
disordered mass of broken rocks fallen from the hill above.
The latter rises abruptly to a considerable height, for the most
part tree-covered save where the bare and rugged face is too
precipitous for even those hardy tenants to obtain a footing.
The view commanded is most comprehensive, but we have no
reason for supposing that the founders of the broch selected
the site for any other purpose than that of security, scenic
advantages not being likely to bulk largely in the minds of
a rude people whose existence was probably a daily struggle ;
yet to our modern notions, the old building is all the more
interesting when combined with this adjunct. At the pres-
ent day, what with the ravages of *time and the assiduous
efforts of a vandalistic farmer, who found in the ancient relic
an easy quarry from which to filch material for dyke-building,
the tower has suffered severely. But much yet remains of
interest ; and were a small sum of money expended judici-
ously in removing the fallen débris, clearing out the chambers,
and ridding the interior of the trees and earth that have accu-
mulated therein, a most valuable relic would yet be preserved
to link the present generation with a race about whose very
origin, manners, and mode: of living absolutely nothing is
known, save what may be conjectured from the meagre re-
mains of their handiwork that have survived the tumult of
centuries. The masonry of this broch is of a larger type
than those in Glenelg, but the design is virtually the same.
Portions of several chambers still exist, but the upper gal-
leries are gone, as at no point does the height of the outside
wall exceed 9 feet. The wall itself, as measured in several
places, shows a thickness of a little over 11 feet; the diam-
eter of the interior space, about 53 feet; and the outside
circumference, taken 6 feet from the ground, as accurately as
the broken-down parts and surrounding obstacles of trees, &c.,
would permit, proves to be roughly 180 feet. From these
measurements it will be inferred that in its original state the
broch was a large and substantial structure, many of the un-
hewn blocks imbedded in its walls being of great size, none
more so than the massive triangular stone placed over the
doorway that faces the north-east. This lintel is a marked
feature in its construction, and measures 3 feet 2 inches from
the apex to the base, 3 feet 6 inches on one of the sides, and
236 Kintail and Glenelg, with Notices of the Brochs. (Sess.
4 feet on the other. It tops an entrance of about 4 feet 8
inches in height, although originally this may have been more,
as soil and rubbish have largely collected since it became a
ruin; moreover, a short distance in, the height is 6 feet 6
inches. The width of the entrance-passage until the door-
checks are reached is barely 3 feet, but widens on the inte-
rior side of those to 4 feet 3 inches. The length is 12 feet
6 inches, being about a foot more than the thickness of the
wall, but this may be accounted for by a large flag which pro-
jects from the roof of the passage into the interior. The
door-checks, consisting of two upright slabs, are placed at a
distance of 4 feet from the exterior, and immediately behind
these are two small spaces which in all probability were used
as sockets to admit the ends of a strong bar (generally sup-
posed to have been of wood), with the view of securing a door
which may have been of the same material, although in the
opinion of competent authorities stone flags are conjectured to
have been applied to this purpose. At a distance of 7 feet 6
inches from the outer doorway, on the left-hand side as one
enters, occurs a small opening, 2 feet 7 inches in height by 18
inches in breadth, which was a means of entrance into the
euard-chamber formed in the thickness of the wall. This
chamber, 10 feet 6 inches or so in length, with a width of 4
to 5 feet, is considerably destroyed, a part of the roof having
collapsed, and several of the large binding-stones removed: still,
enough exists to show the original formation and substantial
character of the fabric, though, in reality, the tower is a mere
wreck of its former self. Of the lower chambers on the
ground-floor four portions are apparent, with an average width
of 3 feet 3 inches, or thereby, one of them tolerably perfect,
and showing, in a marked degree, that peculiar mode of over-
lapping the stones whereby the builders, to whom the arch
was evidently unknown, brought the two walls close enough
together at the top to admit of their being spanned by im-
mense flat beam-like slabs that formed the roof of the lower
chambers and the floor of the gallery above. On the north-
east and west sides the tower is most perfect, that facing the
north-west being most dilapidated, as this was the point last
assailed by the dyke-building boor. All traces of the interior
windows have long vanished, but from the position of some of
1888-89.] Kzntail and Glenelg, with Notices of the Brochs. 237
the binding-stones, I am inclined to assume that they repre-
sent a fragment of the original stair which served as a some-
what rude means of communication between the various
galleries. This supposition would, however, require the con-
firmation of an expert in archzeological matters.
It will readily be assumed that an erection like this could
hardly exist in a district where superstition was of yore, and
is yet to a certain extent, rampant, without being the subject
of many traditions and anecdotes, and Grugaig forms no excep-
tion to this hypothesis. The bulk of these are of the usual
silly and unreliable type, and indeed are barely worthy of
record, save as showing to what depths of imbecility some
folks can descend. The following will suffice as an example.
The word “ Grugaig” in Gaelic is said to mean “a surly or
ill-conditioned woman,’ and the broch derived its cognomen
from being at one period of its history the residence of a
cankered old female, who, from all accounts, must have been
anything but a desirable neighbour—in fact, quite the reverse.
It seems to have been the custom of this ancient party to lie
in bed rather late in the morning—a habit not unknown or
uncommon even in modern times—and on those occasions
having by her sloth allowed the fire to become extinguished,
she calmly stepped across the loch to Ardelve, a distance of
more than a mile, helped herself to a lighted peat from the
fire of some more provident housewife, and returned to the
tower in the same fashion. Another version of this veracious
tale does not even give her credit tor so much activity, but
states that she merely turned in her couch and stretched her
arm across the sea, thus abstracting the peat with a maximum
of ease and a minimum of exertion. The only incongruity
that seems to impair the truth of this tradition—at least, to
us benighted Sassenachs—is the marked discrepancy between
the size of the broch and its inmate. If her limbs were of
such an unusual length as to be capable of stretching more
than a mile at will, the question naturally arises, how did she
dispose of these in the narrow galleries of the tower? Unless
she had powers of expansion and contraction such as are
possessed by that hideous creature the octopus, it is difficult
to understand how they were stowed away. Strange to say,
a detracting circumstance like this never seemed to militate
238 <Kintail and Glenelg, with Notices of the Brochs. [Sess.
against a firm belief in the legend; but we can hardly wonder
that a rude illiterate people believed such a tale, when in the
present enlightened age there are those who will credit any-
thing, however absurd, so long as it is tinged by superstition
or surrounded by a halo of the supernatural.
Adverting to the better known examples in Glenbeg,
several miles to the south of Grugaig, and over the border-
line of Inverness-shire, let us glance for a moment or two at
some of the earlier records of these. The furthest back of
any great importance appears to be that of Gordon, who, in his
‘Itinerarium Septentrionale, published in 1727, gives a full
description of two, and a casual mention of four. Two of
these, even in his time, were almost totally demolished, the
third half fallen down, and the fourth was comparatively perfect.
Since then the latter have been still further destroyed, and one
only lives in tradition, as I failed to find it anywhere, and can
discover no description of it in any more modern work than
the above. The third and farthest up Glenbeg still exists ina
dilapidated condition, but, curiously enough, has been totally
ignored by succeeding writers, such as Pennant, Cordiner,
Macculloch, and Dr Anderson, although for picturesqueness of
site it throws the others completely into the shade. Gordon
transinits the local names of these strongholds (or “ stupendous
fabricks,” as he calls them), which are as follows: Caisteal
Chalamine or Malcomb’s Castle, Caisteal Chonil, Caisteal
Tellve, and Caisteal Troddan;* and those designations he
learnt from scraps of Gaelic poetry recited to him by an old
Highlander, who said they were built by a mother for her four
sons. This latter piece of information does not seem to have
impressed him either with much faith in its truth or respect for
Celtic lore, as he characterises it and the other verses by the
epithet of “ barbarous Irish rhymes,” and in illustration of the
latter he appends a Gaelic stanza of which the translation is as
follows :—
“My four sons, a fair clan,
I left on the strath of one glen ;
My Malcomb, my lovely Chonil,
My Tellve, my Troddan.”
1 Logan, in his work, ‘The Scottish Gaél,’ spells the names as follows:
**Calman,” ‘‘Conal,” ‘‘ Telve,” ‘‘ Troddan.”
1888-89.] AKintazl aud Glenelg, with Notices of the Brochs. 239
The theory propounded in this literary gem must be received
with great caution, and indeed is quite untenable. Macculloch,
in his caustic style, scouts at the very idea, and suggests that
“it is just as likely that Fingal built St Paul’s,”’—a flight of
imagination that will hardly find a corroborative echo in the
breast of the most ardent stickler for Celtic importance. <A
Gaeli¢ name applied to these brochs is “ bathaichean,’ meaning
“byres”; but this appellation, when contrasted with the great
antiquity of these buildings, is evidently of comparatively
modern date, and probably refers to a time when, the original
function gone, the towers, more or less ruinous, may have been
used as shelters for cattle. But that they were primarily
intended for such an object is absurd, the mere fact that the
only external opening was too low to admit of the passage of
cattle being sufficient of itself to condemn the assumption.
Gordon’s account is a careful one, but much too long to
transcribe here. Only one other remark he makes strikes me
as important, and is contained in the following sentence:
“There are several of these fabricks in the north parts of
Scotland, particularly two in the same valley with the barracks
of Glenelg.” Now, if this is correct, there must have been
other two brochs in the neighbouring valley of Glen More;
but of these only slight traces seem to be left. If we include
Grugaig in the category, no less than seven were within an
easy day’s walk of each other, which clearly points to the fact
that at one time those buildings must have been very numerous
in the north, as indeed their remains are even at the present
day, according to Dr Anderson’s elaborate statistics. It is
very difficult, indeed, to get any reliable information from the
natives on the subject; but one old man at Dornie, who had
a considerable interest in antiquities, told me that he distinctly
remembered seeing some years ago the remains of one in Glen
More, which proves that Gordon’s statement was true. If I
mistake not, the foundation outline can still be seen not far
from the school-house in Glenelg. This same individual
instanced another near Arnisdale, Loch Hourn, but, owing to
the great distance, I had not time to explore that locality, so
cannot verify his statement. Old Highland traditions, as
exemplified in the usual dim and hazy rumours, strike one as
being analogous to the thoughts that rush through our brains
240 Kintail and Glenelg, with Notices of the Brochs. (Sess.
when in a state of dreamy sleep,—there is such a want of
coherence and substantiality about them, no two narrations
agreeing in the particulars, although the main features of the
anecdote may pervade the whole and be not dissimilar; but
this may no doubt be accounted for by their being to a great
extent handed down orally, and not in a written form.
When Pennant visited Glenelg in 1772, a considerable
amount of damage had been done to the Tellve and Troddan
towers, and he seems to have taken for granted that the other
two were entirely demolished, although he repeats all the
legends concerning the mythical mother and her four hopeful
sons, with the addition that he says the brochs were known
as “ Caisteal Teilbab,” or the Castles of Teilba. Among later
writers, Macculloch’s description is perhaps the most interest-
ing and independent ; but it is scarcely necessary to recapitulate
any more of these accounts, as many are evidently transcripts
of Gordon or Pennant. It will be more to the purpose to give
a rough sketch of what these ancient monuments are like at
the present day.
Passing up Glenbeg, at a distance of a mile or so from
Eilan Reoch House, the first ruin observed is “ Caisteal
Tellve” (see Plate No. 2), which, along with Troddan, is now
preserved by Government under the Ancient Monuments’ Act,
so that further spoliation on the part of vandals will be at-
tended with risk to themselves. Owing to its insecure con-
dition, it was found necessary to prop it up with huge beams,
and these, while certainly not adding to its picturesqueness,
may be the means of conserving the fabric for the gratification
of future generations. About a third of the circle is left, and
this contains the doorway, which is extremely low, and was
so in Gordon’s time as well, necessitating his crawling in
on hands and knees: now it is even lower, owing to the
accumulation of fallen rubbish. Part of the guard-chamber
is still in existence, and portions of four galleries remain, but
owing to the subsidence of the concentric walls in some parts,
entrance is unsafe. Close to what is now the top, though
the tower must once have been much higher, is a series of
projecting stones, running round like a cornice. At first sight
this seems to be accounted for by the binding flags being too
long, and jutting out in consequence of the gradual convergence
No. 2, PAISTEAL JELLVE, GLEN BEG, JNVERNESS-SHIRE,
1888-89.] Kznxtail and Glenelg, with Notices of the Brochs. 241
of the two walls; but as both Gordon and Pennant take par-
ticular notice of this coping-lke arrangement, and the latter
states his theory of its use, it is pardonable to suppose that
some definite purpose was intended by the builders. Upon
what this was it would be imprudent to speculate, It may
be as well to mention, however, a suggestion often made, that
those stones were the supports of a temporary roof; but as our
most eminent archzologists seem now to be pretty well agreed
upon the point that those buildings never had a top covering,
probably the first-named theory may be correct, especially as
the upper parts would be considerably strengthened by such
a disposal of the flags. Two rows of internal window open-
ings for the admission of light and air into the galleries are
still visible, and the complete circular foundation may yet be
traced. There is a popular notion that part of this broch was
utilised to build the neighbouring barracks of Bernera, erected
by the Hanoverian Government in 1722 to quell the Jacobite
clans,—whether true or not would be hard to say." The state-
ment seems open to doubt, as plenty material could be got
nearer hand; but on one point there need be no dubiety—
viz., the stones must have been purloined for some object, as
they are not found in a fallen state close by, and considering
the compact and solid nature of the structure, there was little
chance of its crumbling away if left unharmed. In neigh-
bouring cottages, dykes, drains, and probably in road-metal,
we may seek for the stones that were once incorporated in
this ancient erection. About a quarter of a mile farther up
the glen, on a slight eminence close to the road, stands
“ Caisteal Troddan ” (see Plate No. 3), more interesting perhaps
than the other from its being in better condition, and strong
enough to admit of passage through the three galleries. The
part containing the doorway and guard-chamber has disap-
1 Logan, quoting the ‘‘learned Mr Grant of Corrimony,” perpetuates this tale,
but there seems to be confusion on the point, as the two which he says were
destroyed for the purpose would seem to be Chalamine and Chonil, the first and
last in order, so that the builders of the barracks put themselves to a deal of
unnecessary trouble in passing two other towers to lift material from Chonil,
the most inaccessible of all. If there is any truth whatever in the account, it
is more than likely that, in addition to Chalamine, the supposed one in Glen
More supplied the masonry, its proximity to the site of the barracks being too
tempting to be overlooked.
242 Kintail and Glenelg, with Notices of the Brochs. [Sess.
peared, but an excellent idea of the gallery and window
arrangement is yet presented. Roughly speaking, the base-
ment walls of both towers average 11 to 12 feet in thickness,
the internal diameter 30 to 33 feet, so that they must have
been about the same size as Grugaig, although the stones used
in their construction are not nearly so large as those in the
last-mentioned. This difference is noticeable all over the
districts where brochs once abounded, and may be accounted
for simply enough by inferring that the founders used the
materials readiest to hand; and the conjecture might perhaps
be added, that in localities where greater danger was to be
apprehended, the towers would be built in more massive form,
so as successfully to resist attack. Concerning this broch,
Pennant makes a remark very difficult to comprehend and
still more to believe, to the effect that at the east end there
was an aperture, “once of such extent that the goats which
sheltered in it were often lost.” One would conclude from
this that something resembling the “pit of Tophet,” on a
diminished scale, existed in this now peaceful and smiling
vale: if it ever did, it certainly cannot be discovered now,
happily for the resident population. There is one row of
internal windows running from the bottom to the top, and a
smaller duplicate at the east side, beginning about 18 to 20
feet from the ground, and this would give light to the upper
galleries only. Like its neighbour, the hand of the Goth has
pressed heavily here also. But not to prolong description of
those two well-known examples, we will push on to the third,
which, as already indicated, has attracted such comparatively
trifling notice from antiquaries.
About a mile to the east stands the farmhouse of Baile
Braghad, where the road ends; and striking up the rough slope
at a distance of another half mile, Caisteal Chonil is descried
crowning the top of a precipitous knoll formed largely of solid
rock. From its position this broch in olden times must have
been absolutely impregnable, as on the south side it rests on
the brink of a steep declivity washed at the foot by a brawl-
ing mountain-torrent. Access from that quarter would be
attended with considerable danger, while the other sides, more
1 Tradition says that a passage existed leading from the tower to the river,
this aperture being the entrance to the same,
No.3
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1888-89.] Kintail and Glenelg, with Notices of the Brochs. 243
or less sloping, could easily be defended if necessary. As at
Grugaig, huge masses of fallen rock cover the hillside to the
south, and all around the scenery is of a wild and most
attractive character; in fact, it is safe to say that no other
broch in Scotland occupies a more striking or picturesque
site. Certainly a more commanding situation, either from a
strategic or scenic point of view, could scarcely be conceived
—the deep ravine at the side separating it from the steep hill
to the south, and the abrupt descent of the hillock to the north
and west; while the romantic and lonely glen that dies away
among the high mountains to the east adds to its interest ina
ratio to which the other two towers cannot attain. Judging
from the moss-covered masonry and general overgrown appear-
ance of the surroundings, many years must have elapsed since
the structure was destroyed, and in all probability a large
section of it may have tumbled into the burn below, as for
many a long day little inducement for spoliation could be
found, since neither dykes nor houses are common in its
vicinity. The eastern side still shows a height of 18 to 20
feet, but the southern portion facing the stream is gone, and
only fragments are left of those which faced the other two
points of the compass. Sufficient remains, however, to trace
the foundations, which partake more of an oval than a purely
circular form, the founders being forced to follow the configur-
ation of the ground to a certain extent, as the tower occupies
the whole space available on the summit. Only one chamber
is visible, about 2 feet wide by 20 feet long, the binding-
stones forming the roof being still intact. The doorway would
appear to have been on the east side, just at the entrance to
this cavity, so we may with something like probability con-
clude that the latter represents the guard-chamber. No
traces of interior openings appear save on the north side,
where, amidst a mass of fallen débris, is partially concealed
a large flagstone, which may have formed part of the roof
of the entrance to a chamber, or the lowest tier of window
apertures. It is. not at all unlikely that when at its full
height, communication might have been made by signal with
the Troddan broch, which in turn was in sight of Tellve, and
the latter again with Chalamine ; but in its present state of
decay it is impossible to observe the first named, owing to an
244 Kintail and Glenelg, with Notices of the Brochs. (Sess.
intervening spur of the mountain. A few feet more masonry
would, however, make all the difference, and enable one to
attain a point of vantage sufficient to overlook the obstructing
ridge. It must not be inferred from this that it was a neces-
sary part of the economy of these erections to be always in
sight of each other, as such a theory will not stand the test
of examination; but, at the same time, it is probable that
where so many occurred in one short space, and all seemingly
for defensive purposes, the additional safeguard of rapid inter-
change of communication would not be neglected by the
builders.
In penning the foregoing remarks, I have gone upon the
assumption that most of you have either seen or read accounts
of those earliest known stone buildings in Scotland; but
should this not be the case, permit me in conclusion, and very
briefly, to give a cursory sketch of what we might suppose a
perfect broch to be. Composed entirely of unhewn stone,
with no lime or cement, in outward appearance it is circular,
and slopes gradually upwards like the base of a lighthouse, or
a kiln in a glass-work, this peculiar form being called by old
writers a “truncated cone.” There is no outward opening
save a narrow doorway about three feet wide and five or six
feet high, and this passage leads through the wall into the inner
area. Passing a few feet into this entrance, we reach a point
where are upright slabs jutting out, and here the door was
placed, supposed to have been also of stone, and flanked by a
cavity left in the thickness of the wall, known as the guard-
chamber. Now consider the wisdom of this arrangement. Had
the door been placed on the outside periphery, it could have
been readily stormed by a number of men clustering round ; but
being four or five feet inside the narrow passage, only one man,
or at most two, could attack it at a time, so that a determined
handful behind could keep an army at bay. For several feet
above the ground the wall is solid, except at intervals in the
circle where there are cavities left that appear to have been
rooms, on a small and very rough scale. ‘The arch, as already
remarked, being evidently unknown at that period, the stones
overlap each other, and gradually narrow the space at the top,
so as to admit of huge flat slabs being laid across, to serve the
triple purpose of binding the walls together, and of forming
a?
1888-89.] Kintail and Glenelg, with Notices of the Brochs. 245
a roof for the chamber and a flooring for the gallery above.
Entrance to these chambers is obtained by open spaces facing
the interior of the tower, and above these are other square-
looking openings running one above the other, almost to the
top of the building, to take the place of modern windows, for
the admission of light and air. Above the ground-chambers
the walls are carried up separately, the interior one being
perpendicular and the outer sloping inwards, so that when
taken up forty feet or so they join together. At regular inter-
vals these walls are spanned and bound together by the same
style of flat slabs, each tier naturally getting smaller and
smaller until the higher ones are almost too small to admit
anything larger than a dog or cat. Having no internal ob-
structions, these passages run right round the whole circum-
ference of the fabric. The lower ones would be capable of
containing a good many people, as well as a quantity of goods ;
but to what purpose the higher ones were applied it is diffi-
cult to say. Probably they were not used at all, but were
only a necessary part of the original design. Communication
was had between the various tiers by means of a rough-and-
ready sort of stair, formed also of flat stones.
Taken as a whole, if, as is believed, the object of these
buildings was to ensure a place of temporary refuge in times
of trouble, we must acknowledge that the device was admir-
able. From the outside they were absolutely impregnable to
a people who had no artillery; and even granting that the
assailants were able to shower stones and other missiles over
the wall, they would fall harmlessly into the interior, and all
the while this camisade was in progress the inhabitants would
be enjoying their otiwm cum dignitate inside the galleries,
no doubt laughing in their sleeves ‘at the futility of the
attack.
As regards the race who built these curious edifices, the
most modern theory—the result of laborious investigation by
eminent archzologists—is that they were Celtic, and not Scan-
dinavian as was formerly believed; and that they are abso-
lutely confined to Scottish territory is now proved beyond a
doubt. For further and more reliable information as to their
history, construction, &c., I cannot do better than refer those
desirous of increasing their knowledge of these interesting
VOL. II. R
246 On Dry-Rot. [Sess.
structures to the work already mentioned as written by Dr
Joseph Anderson—the best and most exhaustive yet published.
At this meeting Mr J. C. Oliphant, M.A., gave a most in-
teresting account of Bermuda, and exhibited specimens of
shells, corals, sea-weeds, &c., gathered during a residence on the
island.
IV.—0O NSN. DY ROT
_By Mr A. B. STEELE.
(Read Feb. 27, 1889.)
Dry-rot is the popular name applied to all fungi injurious
to wrought timber. The best-known dry-rot fungus in this
country is Merulius lachrymans, which produces such serious
effects in the woodwork of domestic architecture. The genus
belongs to the group of spore-bearing fungi, and is distin-
guished from the other genera of the group by its soft
hymenium forming porous, sinuous, toothed depressions. It
contains only twelve British species, from which Merulius
lachrymans can easily be determined by the ferruginous colour
of its spores, and by the drops of moisture with which it is
covered when ripe. The generic name is apparently a corrup-
tion of metulius, from meta, a cone or pyramid,—so called
originally from several of the species producing pendent pro-
cesses like inverted cones. The specific name “ lachrymans,”
or tearful, has arisen from the drops of water which cover its
fructification. This fungus attacks the timber of coniferous
trees, but is not confined to such, and will prey upon any kind
of timber that comes in its way. The conditions necessary
for its growth are darkness, warmth, and stagnant air. Prof.
Hartig has discovered that ammonia (which may arise from
the soil, defective drains, or even bad mortar) is an essential
element. A spore lodging in damp timber under such con-
ditions soon begins to germinate. The prolongations or
1888-80. | On Dry-Rot. 247
hyphz which it sends forth penetrate the wood. They soon
exhaust the cells of the medullary rays of their contents, the
nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus of which are essential for
the growth of the fungus. They permeate the wood in all
directions, breaking up the substances, and appropriating those
required for the development of the plant. On the surface of
the timber little round patches like jewellers’ wool first make
their appearance. These increase in size, and, meeting, form
a dense mass of interlaced material like felt, which covers the
beam like a carpet. This is the mycelium or vegetative part
of the fungus, and corresponds to the spawn of the mushroom.
The part analogous to the pileus or cap is of a stiff corky
nature, and lies next the beam. When the plant begins to
fructify, the mycelium takes a more definite outline ; it becomes
wrinkled and pitted on the surface, and of a spongy charac-
ter, having the walls of the depressions indented and zigzag.
These depressions form the hymenium, and correspond to the
gills of the mushroom. It now assumes a yellowish-brown
colour, distils drops of clear water, and sheds a ferruginous
powdery mass (the spores or seeds), A single fructification
will produce hundreds of millions of spores, each of which is
calculated to be about a 3000th part of an inch in diameter.
Dry-rot prefers unpolished deal as a substratum on which
to develop itself. From wood the spawn spreads to walls of
stone and brick. It will go through the mortar, and develop
itself both inside and outside the wall. It has been observed
growing on plate-glass, maintaining itself there by means of
nourishment drawn from the wood. It is frequently found in
wine-cellars, from the woodwork of which it creeps along the
sawdust. It penetrates between the cork and the neck of
the bottle, imparting a “corky” flavour to the wine. Dry-
rot commits such rapid and deadly havoc in buildings, that it
is not inappropriately termed the Jewish leprosy in houses.
If the conditions are favourable when it attacks the wood-
work of buildings, it continues to grow till the supporting
wood is completely exhausted, causing the floors and the roofs
sometimes to fall in. Cases of dry-rot in Edinburgh are more
common than people have any conception of. Shortly after
the opening of the Royal Infirmary, dry-rot attacked the wood-
work of the wards, and the floors had to be replaced at great
248 On Dry-Rot. [Sess.
expense. Many of the banks and large workshops in town
have suffered from its ravages, and even the sacred precincts
of the church are not exempt from its attacks. Before it was
expelled from the Board schools, it had made more “ progress ”
under the masters than the pupils had done. Many owners
of handsome villas know to their cost the destructive properties
of this fungus. When the outgrowth makes its appearance, it
is a sure sign that there is havoc going on within. The wood
becomes discoloured and cracks, and has all the appearance of
being burnt. It gives a dead sound when tapped, and becomes
so soft and light that it can be crumbled to tinder between
the fingers. Having lost all its strength, it may give rise at
any moment to serious accidents. It is said that families
have been suddenly alarmed by feeling the floor giving way
beneath them. In dry air the fungus soon withers and dies,
for the failure of moisture is more injurious to it than the
want of nourishment. The plant requires an enormous
quantity of water, which bulks fully one-half in the weight of
the fungus.
It is stated on the authority of a German builder that the
germs of dry-rot may exist in the living tree, and instances
are given by him where dry and sound wood has been
attacked. It is also said that there are whole forests of pine
in Russia from which no building wood is now taken, as it
has always been attacked by dry-rot. But little faith can be
put in these statements, for the germs are so insidious that
they baffle every precaution taken to keep the wood from
being infected. Sound timber cut by a saw which had been
used upon infected wood has been attacked, and beams have
been injured by being placed near infected wood. As a rule,
however, thoroughly seasoned wood is not liable to the attacks
of the germ.
It has long been known that there is a proper time and
manner of felling trees. Vitruvius, a Roman architect, who
lived about 70 B.c., knew that good sound timber could
only be had by cutting the tree to the pith, so as to allow
the sap to escape, which, by drying in the wood, would injure
its quality. He directed that felling should take place from
early autumn till the end of winter. In Scotland, during the
reign of James I., there was a close time for felling trees—
1888-80. | On Dry-Rot. 249
viz., from the beginning of April to the end of June. “ Fell
not the tree,” says Evelyn, “ till the sap is at rest, as it com-
monly is about November and December, after the frost has
well nipped them; the very saplings thus cut will continue
without decay as long as the heart of the tree.” The use
of sapwood and of insufficiently seasoned timber are the chief
causes of dry-rot. Young trees have too much proportion of
sapwood to heartwood, and should not be felled till they arrive
at maturity. The winter is the best time for cutting, and
various experiments have been recently tried to discover
whether germs of dry-rot would develop in wood felled
during that season. Sections of fir and pine trees felled in
January were taken in March of the same year, and germs
of dry-rot sown in them. They were kept in covered vessels
in a dark room, at an average temperature of 60° Fahrenheit.
The spawn of the fungus showed itself in July. Sections of
similar woods felled during the previous winter were found
unsuitable for such experiments. A careful analysis of the
wood showed that there was from four to nine per cent more
potassium and phosphoric acid in the wood of the latter
season than in that of the previous. Wood where experi-
ments completely failed was found to have been previously
immersed in water. To get thoroughly seasoned wood, the
tree should be cut up, slowly and thoroughly dried, and then
completely immersed in water. It was an ancient practice in
England to place timber intended for dwelling-houses in run-
ning water to season it. Experiments have also lately been
tried to determine whether wood felled in the summer could
be rendered safe against dry-rot by the removal of the bark,
and protracted drying and steeping in water, but with what
result is not yet known.
It is easier to prevent the disease than to cure it. The
timber should be perfectly sound and dry, and the basements
of the building thoroughly well ventilated and free from damp,
for the fungus cannot exist without stagnant air and wood
saturated with moisture. When the mycelium has only pene-
trated a short distance, Professor Hillhouse recommends paint-
ing with corrosive sublimate dissolved in methyl alcohol ;
but nothing is more difficult to discover than how far the
woodwork is infected, and it is safest to remove entirely an
250 On Dry-Rot. [Sess.
infected beam and burn it. Professor Fasky discovered that a
certain quantity of a solution of salicylic acid in alcohol was
sufficiently efficacious to protect a flooring of 800 square feet
from the spread of dry-rot, and to remove it from the places
where it had appeared. Rough salicylic acid can be used, and
the action of this antiseptic agent can be heightened by a
slight admixture of carbolic acid. The cures that have been
suggested, and the patents taken out for destroying this
fungus, are numerous. Burnet’s method, or the application
of chloride of zinc; Kyan’s method, or “kyanising,” as it is
called—the use of corrosive sublimate, which can only be
applied effectively to dry timber; Margary’s method, or
“ margarising ”—the application of sulphate or other salts of
copper; and Bethel’s method, or “ creosoting,’ are some of the
best remedies. Bethel’s method is considered by practical
men to be the most effective. In this process the timber is
first made dry by extracting the water and replacing it under
heavy pressure by oil of tar, which does not get driven out of
timber by moisture like all the salts of metal. Professor
Hartig recommends all joints and timber-ends built into walls
to be previously creosoted, so as to protect them during the
time when the walls are drying. Petroleum has been tried,
and said to be both a cure and preventive, but it is very dan-
gerous; and a concentrated solution of common salt is also
said to be effective when applied to the beams in a boiling
state. Airing with dry air is also recommended ; but hot-lime
wash, which is most commonly applied in cases of dry-rot, is
found to be useless. In a paper read before the Architectural
Association of London last winter, it was pointed out that the
woodwork should not only be dry but kept dry, which is
impossible if the air of the chamber in which it is built is
damp, as it condenses and absorbs moisture, and various means
are open to builders to prevent moisture, but chiefly by secur-
ing thorough ventilation, so that there is no corner where the
air can stagnate. Mrs Hussey, writing on this subject, says,
that once on a visit to an old mansion-house in England, she
expressed her admiration to the housekeeper of the splendid
condition of the oaken floors and panelling. “ Yes,” said the
housekeeper, “ but you can’t carry a lighted candle through
these rooms.” The horror of draughts nowadays is the life
of dry-rot. It is also necessary that all vegetable soil be
1888-89. ] On Dry-Rot. 251
removed from the site, that the drains be sound, and the
wood not painted unless thoroughly dry, as it imprisons the
moisture. For a similar reason, linoleum on floors is also
objectionable. A few years ago the flooring of the telling-
room in one of the branch banks in town was completely
destroyed by dry-rot, which, in the builder’s opinion, was
caused by the laying down of linoleum. Practical men are
now taking every precaution to prevent the spread of this
disease. A builder of twenty-five years’ experience depre-
cates the risk run of communicating dry-rot to sound timber
through the practice of using dry sawdust as “filling” in
framed partitions, and between flooring and sound-boarding
for the purpose of deadening sound. The sawdust contains
particles of all kinds of timber, some of which may carry a
germ of the fungus, which only requires the specified con-
ditions to begin its havoc on the surrounding timber. No
instance of dry-rot, according to the editor of ‘The Builder,
arising from such a cause, has ever been recorded; but saw-
dust so used should be stove-dried, and, if heated to the
highest temperature it will bear without burning, would
prevent any spores of dry-rot or other disease from germinat-
ing. But without stove-drying the danger is a real one, and
slag-wool should be used instead of sawdust.
From the life-history of this endophyte we have seen the
refined and insidious nature of the germ, as well as the
destructive properties of the spawn. Dry-rot is one of the
most distressing of vegetable diseases, and the more highly
cultivated the plants useful to man are, the more liable are
they to the attacks of parasites. All kinds of parasitic and
destructive fungi are rapidly multiplying, for their means
of existence have been more largely increased. A thorough
acquaintance, therefore, by practical men, with the details
in the life-history of these vegetable parasites would pro-
bably be a more effective means for their suppression than
all the cures and patents hitherto invented.
[The above paper was illustrated by diagrams, as well as by pieces of
timber attacked by dry-rot. ]
At this meeting a paper was read by Mr J. W. Tait on
“Embedding and Cutting Animal Tissues,” illustrated by
microscopic preparations.
252 The Genus Colletia. [Sess.
V.—THE GENUS COLLETIA.
By Mr HUGH FRASER.
(Read Feb. 27, 1889.)
THIS genus—named in honour of M. Collet, a celebrated French
botanist—forms a part of the Natural Order of the Rhamnacee,
which consists of about 40 genera and 260 species of small
trees and shrubs, distributed over the greater part of the globe,
and varying very much in habit of growth and general appear-
ance. Many of them contribute to the convenience and neces-
sities of man by their woods, barks, and fruits. The order is
represented in this country by two species—the one Rhamnus
frangula, which supplies the charcoal so much used in the
manufacture of the finest gunpowder ; the other R. catharticus,
which is used in medicine. Chili and Peru are the homes of -
the Colletias, though the Discarias of Australia and New
Zealand, according to some authorities, should be merged in
the genus, as they have certainly close affinities with these,
both botanically and in general characteristics. In this country
Colletias can only be regarded as half-hardy, and consist of
small trees and dwarf shrubs, varying in height from about
two feet to twelve feet. In some districts, however, they
withstand the rigours of our winter, and grow fairly well in
sheltered situations, and especially when enjoying the shelter
of a wall with a warm aspect. In our own Botanic Garden
several of the forms grow wonderfully well; and on a recent
visit to the beautiful and highly interesting garden of Charles
Jenner, Esq., Easter Duddingstone, I found two specimens,
the one being C. spinosa and the other C. cruciata, in robust
health, from eight to ten feet high. In Dublin, however, and
notably at Trinity College Botanic Gardens, I noticed several
plants which seemed to be quite at home.
Among the peculiarities of this very interesting group of
plants may be noted the small development of leaves. They
do produce leaves on their young growth, but soon shed them,
so that for practical leaf-functions their real leaves are useless.
Another curious feature of the Colletias is their spines, with
which all are armed with a profusion rarely seen in other
1888-809. | The Ichneumon or Mungoos. 253
shrubs, and forming formidable obstacles to the traveller in
those regions where they abound, as well as to the animals
which find their food on branches and other herbage. These
spines were doubtless developed for protection; but it does
not seem so clear why the Discarias of Australia and New
Zealand are so armed, when there are no native browsing
mammals in these countries. But the most extraordinary
feature of these plants is the tendency they possess to change
their characters. The late Dr Lindley records a case, on the
authority of Mr Barnes of Bicton, in 1849, of a seedling from
C. spinosa taking the form of C. cruciata, which latter is now
generally known as C. Bictonensis. In the Botanic Garden
of our own city there is a plant of C. cruciata with a dimorphic
branch agreeing with C. spinosa; but there is no evidence of
C. spinosa ever producing C. cruciata. Thus though a number
of so-called species have been named, the probability is that
they are for the most part wide phases or forms of one or two
real species. Of the Discarias, one species, D. serratifolia, is
found associated with the Colletias in Chili and Peru, and the
other two are confined to Australia and New Zealand. The
following is a list of the known forms of Colletia, with their
synonyms :—
. armata, syn. C. spinosa.
. Bictonensis, syn. C. cruciata.
. ferox, syn. C. spinosa.
. horrida, syn. C. spinosa.
. polyacantha, syn. C. spinosa.
. ulicina, syn. C. Benthamiana.
. Valdiviana, syn. C. spinosa.
elie eve) eee
VI—THE ICHNEUMON OR MUNGOOS.
By Mr ROBERT STEWART, S.S.C.
(Read March 27, 1889.)
On the banks of the river Findhorn, a few miles above the
pretty town of Forres, a number of herons had taken up their
abode, until some years ago a colony of jackdaws set up a
254 The Ichneumon or Mungoos. [Sess.
rival establishment close by, with the result that the herons,
disgusted at having such a noisy and mischievous set of
neighbours, broke up their establishment and winged their
royal flight—following the rule in like fashionable society—
to a more aristocratic centre. This portion of the river where
the herons bred and mustered was called the “heronry,” and
many persons came from far distances to see these beautiful
birds in their native habitat ; for the heron, though ungainly
in appearance when the surroundings are uncongenial, is an
elegant bird when seen standing knee-deep near the edge of
some lone, rocky pool, and its presence used to add an
additional charm to what is acknowledged to be the finest
river scenery in Scotland. The herons built their nests in
some old and decayed trees which grew out of the face of
what appeared, to any one unacquainted with the high value
set upon his existence by the average schoolboy, to be a wholly
inaccessible cliff. That this was not the case, however, is
evident from the fact that several heron’s eggs were freely
bartered in the district, and I myself have now in my possession
one of the large blue eggs of the bird, taken from a nest at
the heronry. Shortly before the departure of the herons,
a company of ladies and gentlemen hired a machine in Forres,
for what may be called the chief end of visitors to the district,
namely, a drive up the banks of the Findhorn. As the party
drove past the heronry, the birds took wing, and flew, or
rather sailed, in all directions round their nests, to the great
delight of the visitors, not one of whom, however, knew what .
the birds were, and the driver was in consequence eagerly
appealed to. With a patronising wave of his whip, he thus
addressed the leading lady: “Them’s the gooses, mum !”
A few months ago, I had a call from a friend who resides in
London, and in the course of conversation he mentioned
incidentally that he had lately come into possession of a most
entertaining pet, namely, a mungoos. I have to confess that
visions of my old friends the herons, mixed up with the well-
remembered rubicund face of the said driver, flitted across my
imagination, and it was only by carefully sticking to general-
ities that I managed to preserve the respect of my friend.
Luckily, however, for my slight reputation as a lover and
friend of animals, the mungoos took shape and substance, and
1888-809. | The Ichneumon or Mungoos. 255
I soon found that the pet referred to was the ichneumon.
Since that time I have collected some information regarding
this animal, and as I found the subject an extremely interest-
ing one, I have ventured to bring it before the Society.
Of the ichneumon (erpestes) there are, it would appear,
twenty-two species in all; but the Egyptian and Indian
ichneumons are the forms best known. The ichneumon is of
the family Viverridz, and resembles in appearance the civet or
ferret. It is nocturnal in its habits, and is the unrelenting foe
of birds, reptiles, rats, and mice. It is a very pretty animal,
and being cleanly and easily tamed, it is in great demand in
the countries which it inhabits, where it is used for the pur-
pose of keeping the houses free from vermin. One great draw-
back it has, however, namely, that it is impossible to get it to
give its undivided attention to vermin, and it invariably plays
havoc in the poultry-yard whenever opportunity offers. The
ichneumon was one of the animals proposed to be sent to
New Zealand for the purpose of lessening, or, as some of its
admirers prophesied, stamping out altogether, the rabbit pest,
* with which that colony has suffered so much lately. It was
considered that being so readily domesticated, the same danger
might not apply to its introduction as in the case of other
recognised enemies of the rabbit, of the remedy ultimately
proving worse than the disease. I do not think that any
permanent good is ever accomplished by the interference to
any great extent in the distribution of animals, whether by
the extermination of one species or the forced increase of
others. Witness the result of the raids which are made
periodically against certain classes of so-called vermin. So
surely as the balance which is seen everywhere in the animal
world is upset by, say for instance, the extirpation of any one
species, so surely do the executioners suffer by the abnormal
increase of another species which it was the province of the
exterminated animals to hold in check. When one, therefore,
hears gamekeepers who, after indiscriminately trapping and
killing all manner of furred and feathered vermin, complain of
weak and unhealthy birds; or gardeners who, after shooting
without mercy our feathered friends, bewail the damage done
by grubs and insects to their fruit-trees; or farmers who,
after destroying the entire rooks in their neighbourhood,
256 The Ichneumon or Mungoos. [Sess.
bemoan the ravages of slugs, wire-worms, &c.—one is inclined
to reply to one and all, “ Who began it, my friend ?”
But to return to our mungoos. The Egyptian ichneumon
is, as its name implies, an inhabitant of Egypt and the north
of Africa, and is known there as Pharaoh’s rat. This species,
when full grown, is about the size of a domestic cat. The fur
is a mixture of chestnut brown and yellow, while the feet and
muzzle are black. Among the ancient Egyptians these animals
were considered sacred, and were after death buried in “ holy
repositories.” The mungoos feeds on rats and mice, birds and
reptiles, and its fondness for eggs leads it to search for those
of the crocodile, and scratch up the sand under which they
deposit their eggs. It is in this way they do good, in checking
the too great multiplication of these disagreeable animals; but
there is no truth whatever in the belief, entertained at one
time, that the mungoos destroyed the crocodile by springing
into its open mouth when that animal was having a stesta, or
lying gorged after a heavy meal, and, to put it mildly, “ upset-
ting its internal arrangements.”
The Indian ichneumon or mungoos is much smaller than its
Egyptian brother, and is of a beautiful, freckled, grey colour.
It is often brought to this country for the purpose of destroy-
ing rats, and thrives well in confinement. Mr Bennet tells
of one kept in the Tower, which killed no fewer than a dozen
full-grown rats, which had been turned out before it in a room
sixteen feet square, in less than a minute and a half. It is
stated that in Jamaica alone the introduction of the mungoos
has resulted in a saving of from £100,000 to £150,000
annually, owing to the decrease of rats, which destroy the
sugar-cane. It is, however, especially appreciated in India
as a serpent-killer, and it never hesitates to attack even full-
erown venomous snakes. The fact that the mungoos survived
these encounters led to the belief that it was impervious to
the bite of the snake, and that the poison had no injurious
effect upon it, and this was explained by the fact that the
mungoos, when bitten, searched for and ate an herb or root
known in India as munguswail, which was said to prove an
infallible antidote to snake poison. This belief, however, has
not stood the test of experiment, for it has been found that
when fairly bitten by a venomous snake, the mungoos has no
1888-89. | The Ichneumon or Mungoos. 257
charmed existence, but succumbs to the effects of the poison ;
though, at the same time, it may be that it is less susceptible
to a snake-bite than most other animals. The truth really is,
however, that the mungoos is so quick and active in its move-
ments that it is impossible for the snake to touch it; and so
confident is the little animal in its own powers, that it appears
to delight in tormenting the poor reptile—dodging out of the
way of its fangs at the very time when it looked as thongh
escape was impossible. In these encounters with the snake,
the mungoos quietly waits his opportunity, and when the
reptile has tired himself by lashing out at his opponent, the
little animal, pouncing suddenly on the serpent, seizes it by
the head, and shakes it as a terrier does a rat until it is killed.
So much for the mungoos abroad; now for a short account
of him in captivity. The mungoos in question was of the
Indian species, and was brought to this country by an
engineer on board one of the P. and O. steamers. His owner
seldom came into port without having in his possession a
regular menagerie of animals of one kind or another, and
he was often hurt at the doubtful manner in which his gifts
were received on the cccasions of the breaking up of his
collections by the arrival of the ship at its destination. On
one occasion he called upon a friend and left with him a
couple of monkeys, a cockatoo, two parakeets, and several
curious-looking animals in a cage, with an intimation that he
would call back and see to their disposal in the course of the
afternoon. To his friend’s intense horror, however, day after
day passed without the owner of the animals turning up ;
and, as one may well suppose, the responsibility of keeping
a couple of monkeys, loose, in a room full of furniture, made
life a burden, so that in self-defence a cab was procured,
and the whole collection transferred bodily to the Zoological
Gardens. The mungoos on the voyage home had the run
of the ship, but always shared his master’s berth when the
hour for retiring to rest arrived. When the presentation
took place, my friend confesses that he was rather afraid of
the mungoos, but the animal’s master buttoned it up in his
coat front, and carried it in this way to the railway station.
It may, however, be better now to let my friend tell his story
in his own way. He says: “When I got home with the
258 The Ichneumon or Mungoos. [Sess.
animal, I was in a fix what to do with him, as my wife could
not bear his look, and imagined all manner of horrible possi-
bilities in connection with him. I thought, however, little
harm could be done by him in one night, but I determined
for safety to tie him up outside the bedroom door, so that we
might hear if anything went wrong. I accordingly put a piece
of string round his neck, and so secured him. In the morning,
when I got outside the bedroom to go down-stairs, I found the
mungoos quite safe; but I had not been many minutes away
when I heard loud cries of distress, and on hastening up-stairs,
I found that the animal had slipped the string and invaded the
bedroom, and, what made matters worse, I could not find him
for some time, as he had gone into the wash-basket and
covered himself over with clothes. This exploit of his meant
banishment from the house, and as I had peremptory orders to
take him away then and there, and not knowing what else to
do, I took him to the office, where he soon made himself at
home. After examining every nook and corner, he found a
hole under the floor where he used to sleep, coming out
occasionally to warm himself at the stove. I had a small
box made for him, which I filled with fine hay, and put it in
a dark corner. The entrance was by a small hole in the side,
just large enough to allow the mungoos to squeeze himself
through. He found it out almost immediately, pulled every
straw out of it through the hole with his fore-feet, which he
could use like hands, and then took possession, never after-
wards sleeping anywhere else. He used to hunt for mice
outside and then inside a large coal-box. His movements
were as quick as lightning, and when he caught a mouse,
which he often did, it was just one crunch and over it went—
bolted in a second. The men used to bring mice alive in
small wooden traps, and on whistling or calling him, he
would come out of his box, and they would let them loose
in front of him, when he never failed to make short work of
them. Though he was ordinarily tame as a cat, and went over
all the place in very much the same manner as these animals
do in a house, he was occasionally subject to savage fits. One
of the men brought a large rat in a cage and let it out na
room in front of the mungoos, but he did not seem to take
much notice of it at first. As soon, however, as he missed it,
1888-89.] The Ichneumon or Mungoos. 259
he hunted round the room, and the rat, coming in the opposite
direction, ran into him, when he gave it one bite across the head
and settled it. The rat was then taken from him and thrown
out of the window, when he went all over the place hunting
for more, and presently his tail began to swell and his hair to
stick out, and he gave two or three screams that had the effect
of making one and all beat a hasty retreat; so it was thought
better in future not to arouse the savage part of his nature.
He used to be fed principally on cat’s meat, as he preferred it
to any sort of cooked food, and it was his custom to wait for
me every morning at the top of the stairs for his breakfast.
In fact, he used to come out once or twice a-day and stand
looking at me with his head twisted on one side, when I
would go to my pockets and see what I had got for him. He
could, however, pretty well tell by smell what was there, as
he was always sure to be around if I brought any bread and
jam for tea. Jam he was very fond of, and esteemed it such
a delicacy that it was never safe even in my pocket, as, if
opportunity offered, he invariably helped himself. He knew
well that he had done wrong on such occasions, and never put
in an appearance till he thought the offence was forgotten.
At dinner-time and tea-time he was always on the look-out.
As soon as he heard the arrival of the tea-man and the cups
begin to rattle, he came out of his box ; and instead of coming
in a direct line to where I was sitting, he would make a
complete circuit of the room, and end by jumping into my
lap, turn himself on his back, and commence snapping and
biting like a puppy. I would lift him by the ear, the fore-
feet, and the tail, when he would catch hold of my fingers in
his mouth in play. It sometimes happened, however, that
when I pinched him too hard he returned the compliment
with interest, and gave me a good bite, when he immediately
made for his box. It was in this connection that I particu-
larly admired the sagacity of the animal, for, besides keeping
out of the way for a day or two afterwards, he would, when
he ultimately came out, stand at a distance watching me with
his head turned on one side to see on what terms we were,
and if I put on an angry expression, without moving hand or
foot, he was into his box again like a shot. He was very
affectionate, and would come and hold up his head to have his
260 A Few Notes on Bird Life, &e. [Sess,
neck rubbed and other attentions paid him. I had him for
nearly three years, and was very sorry indeed to part with
him; but as I could not leave him in the office during the
recess, and daren’t take him home, he was given to one of
the boys, box and all, He was taken by him to a tea-ware-
house, but he felt the cold there so much that he used to get
into the oven whenever he had the chance, no matter how hot
it was at the time. As might be expected, he did not long sur-
vive in his new situation, the cold ultimately proving too much
for him. I was very grieved to hear of his death, as in my large
circle of pets he was, I think, one of the most interesting.”
Here endeth my friend’s letter, and I have only to add that
the history of this mungoos exemplifies in a striking manner
the irony of fate. Instead of living in the odour of sanctity,
and being laid in sacred repository like his kindred, he
shuffled off this mortal coil in a London tea-warehouse, and
his last resting-place is unknown to history. Let us, how-
ever, hope that his trials are ended, and that he has now
passed to some happy hunting-ground where mice and rats
and every manner of reptiles abound, and where the tem-
perature is hot enough to satisfy even the constitution of a
mungoos.
[In illustration of the above paper, a stuffed specimen of the ichneumon
or mungoos was kindly lent by Mr Small, bird-stuffer, George Street. ]
VIL—A FEW NOTES ON BIRD LIFE, Ere.
By Mr A. B. HERBERT.
(Read March 27, 1889.)
Many of you are aware that it is my custom to pay an annual
summer visit to a country house in the centre of England
where bird life of all kinds is strictly protected, and which
on this account, among others, has to me peculiar attractions,
and it has been thought that a few notes from observations
there might not be altogether uninteresting. I never make
1888-89] A Few Notes on Bird Life, &c. 261
any claim to deep scientific knowledge, and you will there-
fore be kind enough to consider these remarks as merely a
little bird-gossip.
On arriving at my native “cycle town,” as it is now called,
on the 1st of August last, as an experiment I told a cabman that
I wished to go to the residence of the man most esteemed and
respected in that neighbourhood, and asked where he proposed
to put me down. He smiled, thought for a moment, and
then named correctly my destination—for I may mention that
my old friend and host, besides being a great lover and pro-
tector of birds, is not unmindful of the wants and desires of
his fellow-creatures, but is actuated by a wide philanthropy,
and is consequently well known to all. Among many acts of
benevolence, he has provided a drill-hall for the volunteers ;
and a few years ago he bought a disused jail and converted it
into a free library, to which he is now adding a large refer-
ence library." I happened to mention this curious mutation
in the uses of property to that large-hearted man amongst us,
Dr Walter C. Smith, who made an observation highly charac-
teristic of him, and which I know will meet with a warm
response from you all. He said, “Oh that we could convert
all our jails into free libraries!” When residing with my
greatly valued old friend, who is much my senior, I always
sleep with an open window, in order that I may listen to the
birds in the early morning—for, in the words of Richard
Jefferies, “it is sweet, on awaking in the early morn, to
listen to the small bird singing on the tree.” One of the first
sounds is usually the very pleasing twittering warble, followed
by that long-drawn-out cadence of the swallow—notes always
associated with bright summer days. These are followed
by the cooing of three species of wild pigeons, all of which
breed in or near the garden. There is the universally
known note of the cushat, then the short jerking coo of the
stock-dove, and at intervals the low murmuring or purring
coo of the turtle-dove. The latter always reminds me in
some degree of what is called “the Dutchman’s organ ”—that
? A similar case has just occurred in the town of Selkirk, where Mr T. Craig
Brown, the historian of Selkirkshire, has bought the old town jail, fitted it up
as a library and reading-room, and presented it to the inhabitants on the con-
dition that it should be upheld under the Free Libraries’ Act.
VOL. Il. 8
262 A Few Notes on Bird Life, &c. [Sess.
is, the croaking of frogs—except that if you stand beside a
pond where a concert of these creatures is taking place, you
find they do not all croak in the same key, and therefore there
is a certain want of harmony, while the low murmur of the
turtle is always pleasing. I was not aware till recently that
this bird often builds very near the ground. I saw a nest
last year in a thick hedge not higher than five feet; and I
see that the Rev. Richard Lubbock, author of ‘The Fauna of
Norfolk, calls attention to this habit, saying, “It is content
to place its nest much nearer the ground and in a much
smaller tree than the ring-dove affects.” The turtle is readily
distinguished in its flight from all the other Columbide by the
white tips to all the tail-feathers: when the bird spreads out
its tail on settling, this white line is very conspicuous. The
most common bird about the house in the summer is the fly-
catcher: there are always several nests of them in the garden.
Magpies strut about in the fields near the house as though the
place belonged to them; and so it does, as far as all usufruct
goes, for they are not interfered with, | Willow-warblers,
chiffchaffs, garden - warblers, four species of tit, and most
other common birds, abound; and a very favourite bird with
my friend is the blackcap, whose song is inferior only to that
of the nightingale. I saw a blackcap in the garden last year
making a hearty meal on the ripe red berries of the honey-
suckle. Iam sorry to say the nightingale is seldom heard
there now, though some years ago, when I lived on the adjoin-
ing property, one reared three young birds in my garden, and
I well remember that the nest was made almost exclusively
of bits of matting used by gardeners for tying up trees. I
gave the nest, after the young birds had flown, to our surgeon,
Mr Troughton—the gentleman mentioned by Mr 8. Grieve in
his book, ‘The Great Auk or Garefowl ’—who wished to have
it for his collection. The little tree-creeper had her nest
behind an ivy bough growing up one of my friend’s avenue
trees. I stood close to her as she passed in several times
with food for her young: this seemed to consist mainly of
small black flies. The long-tailed tit had her beautiful
domed nest in a hedge within twenty yards of the front door.
But the birds to which I propose to direct your attention by
a few remarks this evening are the gold-crested regulus, the
1888-89. | A Few Notes on Bird Life, &e. 263
cuckoo, the hawfinch, the kingfisher, the crested grebe, and the
green woodpecker.
The gold-crest,—* that mere shadow of a bird,” as Gilbert
White calls it,—which braves our severest winter, is a frequent
visitor to my friend’s forty-feet-high Wellingtonia and the
large deodar near the house, and I have no doubt builds there.
There was once in my garden a nest of these birds in an
arbor-vitze, when a violent gale blew the nest to pieces. The
parent birds were in great distress, and the poor little help-
less young, only about half-fledged, were clinging with their
small claws to the shreds of their habitation, When I wit-
nessed the disaster, I ran into the house for a very small
basket, and in this collected as neatly as possible the frag-
ments of the nest, and placed the little creatures in the
centre. I fixed the basket in the tree, and had the satisfac-
tion of seeing the parent birds come close to me with food for
the brood, which were successfully reared without further
mishap. The gold-crest is one of our earliest spring song-
birds, and has, as Yarrell says, a soft and pleasing song.
Last month, while resting in the Botanic Garden of our own
city, one came very near me, and sat singing on a fir bough
for some time. I know no bird so fearless of mankind, and
yet it is the smallest bird indigenous to these islands. Gold-
crests are supposed to be more numerous in England in winter
than in the summer, very large migrations of them coming to
our shores in the autumn. The nest is generally suspended
very cleverly from a fir bough. Colonel Montagu records
having kept a nest of eight young ones in his room for some
time, and noticed that the female came with food to them on
an average thirty-six times in the hour, and this continued for
sixteen hours. The male would not venture into the room,
yet the female would feed her young while the nest was held
in the hand. I once found a young gold-crest fluttering along
the ground, but unable to raise itself out of the reach of cats,
so for safety I took it into the dining-room and placed it near
the open window. The old bird came fearlessly into the room
and fed it all afternoon, and in the evening I placed it at
some elevation on a fir bough outside. The accounts of the
migrations of these diminutive birds are very interesting.
The late Mr Robert Gray states that large flights of them
264 A Few Notes on Bird Life, &e. [Sess.
make their appearance suddenly in April, and actually swarm
in some parts of Haddingtonshire. He had seen them arrive
at Dunbar about daybreak, and on reaching the shore cling
to the rocks and walls in search of insects. They were
exceedingly tame after their long flight, and on one occasion he
caught one with his hat. He further states that in autumn
similar flights are observable coming from the surrounding
country coastwards; and in 1847 a large flock of these little
creatures took possession of a cabbage-plot, and looked more
like a swarm of bees than a crowd of birds. On every plant
there were half-a-dozen or more perched, some busied looking
for insects, others bathing in the rain-water collected on the
broad leaves. He walked through the plot, and with a
butterfly-net caught ten or twelve specimens: some of these
lived in confinement for a fortnight, and were supplied regu-
larly with insects. They became tame almost immediately,
and were allowed the full use of an attic facing the sea which
they had intended crossing. They frequently perched on his
hand, and were most interesting pets; but a ‘single night’s
frost killed them all. In the report of the Migration Com-
mittee of the British Association there is an account of the
enormous numbers of these birds appearing at various times
at Heligoland. They are described as being seen there by
hundreds upon hundreds, sitting about on every available spot
on the lantern of the lighthouse, and preening their feathers
in the glare of the lamp. It must be a matter of wonder
how these and other birds, to whom, when in captivity, frost is
so inevitably fatal, manage to exist in our severe winters when
at liberty, and where they get shelter during night. I have
observed that bullfinches in captivity often perish from cold,
while the goldfinch appears not to be in the least affected by
a frost which covers his drinking-water with ice. We should
have thought the bullfinch the hardier bird of the two. Ina
long life of seventy years, I have only once met that rare and
beautiful bird, so nearly allied to the gold-crest, the fire-
crested regulus (Regulus ignicapillus), and this was at Allesley,
in Warwickshire. The crest is a brilliant red, and I thought
the bird rather larger than its congener.
I shall now make a few remarks on the cuckoo. At a short
distance from the damaged gold-crest’s nest before mentioned,
1888-809. | A Few Notes on Bird Life, &e. 265
I found a young cuckoo in a hedge-sparrow’s nest in a thick
holly hedge. When I first discovered it, the bird just filled
the cavity of the nest, but as it grew the nest would not hold
it, and became a small platform on which the bird sat. I
think there never could be a more exacting and troublesome
offspring: it was whining all day for food, and kept the poor
little accentors very hard at work to supply its cravings, and
I was not sorry to see it one day fly across the lawn, and to
know that their labours were nearly over. My friend is in
the habit of inserting in the local papers what he terms his
monthly weather letter, giving a report of temperatures, rain-
fall, &c., and in this he introduces any peculiarities in bird
life which come under his notice. In this letter of last
December is a curious incident regarding the cuckoo, told him
by a mutual friend of ours upon whose veracity we can rely,
which, with your permission, I shall read. It shows that the
instinct of the cuckoo in selecting a nest for her egg is not
always unerring. He says: “I may venture to repeat a
curious case of the involuntary detention of a cuckoo which
was related to me by the late David Smith. In the month
of October David was surprised to see a couple of redstarts,
which should have taken their departure long ago. He
stayed to watch them. They were taking food to a hole in
an old willow, which they entered as though they had a nest
and were feeding their young. Approaching this hole, he
was still more surprised by an extraordinary hissing sound,
which he could not make out. Determined to solve the
mystery, he fetched some tools and cut open the stump. He
found an imprisoned cuckoo, which had grown too large to
allow of the possibility of escape by the hole which formed
the entrance to the nest. The bird had become crushed and
deformed, having no more room to grow, and completely filled
its narrow home. The poor little redstarts had stayed to feed
the thankless prisoner, which never got the use of its limbs,
and did not long survive its release.” We naturally wonder
how the egg which produced this young cuckoo was laid in
this limited space in the willow, as it was utterly impossible
for the old cuckoo to have got in there; but it is now gener-
ally admitted by close observers of the habits of birds that
the cuckoo frequently, if not always, lays her egg on the
266 A Few Notes on Bird Life, &e. [Sess.
ground, and carrying it in her mouth, deposits it in a nest;
and there is a case recorded where a cuckoo was shot while so
conveying her egg. The only cuckoo’s egg I ever found was
in a hedge-sparrow’s nest in a very dense bush. I do not
say in this instance that it would have been absolutely im-
possible for the parent bird to have got into the nest, but it
would certainly have been with very great difficulty. Young
cuckoos are very unlike the mature birds in colour: they are
brown, of a shade somewhat like that of the woodcock, and do
not obtain the bluish-grey colour till their first moult. My
favourite place for reading and observation at Stoke, during
the absence of my friend on magisterial or other business, is
a summer-house facing a long gravel-walk in the garden—a
quiet, retired spot among the trees, having on either side a
very large Pinus pinaster. In front of the summer-house I
always scatter in the walk hemp and other seeds to attract
the birds, so that I am seldom there without company. One
day in August, while reading there, a squirrel came down
one of the pines close to me and trotted off straight to the
fruit-garden, where he would doubtless find plenty of suitable
food. Preparatory to another visit from him, I put a number
of nuts in a low fork of the pine, and sitting there the next
day, I heard the well-known call of the nuthatch, and soon
saw the bird creep down the tree and stick a nut in the rough
bark, and cleverly open it in the manner mentioned by me in
a former communication to our Club.’| This bird came daily
for nuts during my visit, and I showed my friend the nut-
shells studded about in the bark crevices. The nuthatches
are great favourites with both of us, being always so peculiar
in their habits, and so active and cheerful; and they are un-
likely to leave that locality while there are so many fine filberts
in the Baronet’s garden close at hand. I have never found
the nest of the nuthatch, but it is said that they often breed
in holes made by woodpeckers, and if the entrance is large
they partially fill it up with clay.
I shall now speak of the hawfinch. On my first walk last
year with my friend through the vegetable garden, I noticed
that some pea-pods were split open in a manner peculiar to
the operations of the hawfinch, and I soon saw that a pair of
1 See ‘Transactions,’ vol. i. p. 184 (Sess. 1883-84).
1888-89. ] A Few Notes on Bird Life, &e. 267
these birds paid daily visits there. Most birds which eat peas
are content to peck a hole in the pod and extract the pea, but
the hawfinch proceeds in a far more wholesale and effective
manner. With his powerful bill he tears the pod from end
to end, and clears out all the contents, the pod having the
appearance of being cut open with a blunt pair of scissors.
Now many persons, on seeing these pods, would at once say,
“Oh, these birds are very destructive, and must be de-
stroyed.” Not so with my kind host: his principle is, “ Live,
and let live;” and while we could have daily any quantity of
fine marrow-peas for dinner, we could see no reason why the
beautiful hawfinches should not participate in the luxury.
The hawfinch, like the turtle-dove, is readily distinguished
from all other finches, while flying, by the conspicuous white
tips to the tail-feathers. Its mode of flight much resembles
that of the chaffinch. They are very shy birds, and on the
least alarm usually fly to high trees. They remain in England
throughout the year, but are of very rare occurrence in Scot-
land. They used to breed in my garden in Warwickshire,
and fed much in the winter on laurel berries, the stones of
which they readily broke with their powerful bills.
I must now say a few words on kingfishers, the most bril-
liant of all our British birds. They are not uncommon in
Warwickshire. There is a small stream running through the
garden at Stoke, in which I have successfully introduced the
Cape pondweed (Aponogeton distachyon). The rich almond
scent of the flowers of this plant many of you may know as
so delicious in the pond at the Royal Botanic Garden. This
stream abounds with minnows, and consequently is much fre-
quented by kingfishers. One year there was a nest of them
in a gravel-pit on the property, at some distance from water.
These birds are well protected on the Combe Abbey estate,
only three miles distant, and build regularly near the decoy
there, and I was informed that they often have two broods in
the year, and as many as six young at a time. I scarcely
know any bird of more rapid flight than the kingfisher; and
when we consider their dartlike flight, we cannot wonder at
the sad fatal accident which befell one of them at Stoke last
August, a few days after I left. My friend gives the details
in his monthly letter to the papers, thus: “Last Sunday a
268 A Few Notes on Bird Life, &e. [Sess.
pair of kingfishers, probably one pursuing the other, dashed
themselves against my dining-room window at Stoke. One
was picked up quite dead, and the other so completely stunned
as to be nearly incapable of moving or showing signs of life.
I laid him on the grass, and in about a quarter of an hour he
recovered sufficiently to fly away. They were both young
birds, but in very good plumage. A kingfisher once similarly
dashed itself against my dining-room window in Priory Row”
—i.ec., in the very centre of the town. “In each case there is
another window in the room, so that the birds would see the
daylight, and might suppose there was a passage through.” I
well remember the incident in the town to which my friend
alludes, and that the bird recovered, and he carried it out of
the town and restored it to liberty. It adds somewhat to the
pleasure of our frequent rambles together along the river Sowe
in that neighbourhood, to know that we are certain to see one
or more of these splendid birds dart by us, or hover over the
stream in the bright sunshine. Kingfishers, I need scarcely
say, are rare in Scotland. I have seen only two in twenty-
three years—one between Roslin and Polton, and another on
the Keltie, near Callander. Mr Speedy informs me that
two years ago a pair frequented the Pow burn, but were
cruelly shot, much to his regret and annoyance.
In the winter of 1887-88 a few pheasants appeared fre-
quently in the garden at Stoke, and the gardener reported
that they had pecked up many crocus roots; but we agreed
that a fine cock-pheasant strutting on the lawn was a beauti-
ful object to look upon, even if the crocuses were consequently
less numerous: so the birds were not scared, and some Indian
corn was scattered about, as being more attractive to them
than the bulbs, and a hen-pheasant evinced her confidence in
the protection afforded by hatching her young, last summer,
in the bank of the garden hedge, and I learn that the birds
were there again during last winter.
We went occasionally for a few hours’ fishing in the lake
in Combe Park. It is a large sheet of water, extending for
about half a mile from the Abbey walls, having the deer-park
on one side and plantations on the other; and the bird life
there under strict protection is always interesting. There is a
heronry on an island, and I was glad to learn that the birds
1888-89. ] A Few Notes on Bird Life, &e. 269
have of late so much increased in numbers that the trees on
the island are insufficient for them, and nests are now built in
trees on the mainland. You may often see as many as thirty
or forty of these handsome birds together there. Combe Pool
is the only large expanse of water situated just in the middle
of England. Warwickshire is often designated the heart, and
Corley Hill in it the backbone, of England; and though this
hill is only some 550 feet above sea-level, it is a singular
fact that two small streams, not a mile apart, have their ori-
gin there, one of which, taking a north-easterly course, finds
its way into the Humber; while the other, running in a south-
westerly direction, flows into Shakespeare’s Avon, and on to
the Bristol Channel. The whole district forms part of the
ancient and extensive forest of Arden, and many large old
pollard oaks are yet standing—
““ Whose boughs are mossed with age,
And high tops bald with dry antiquity,”—
which are believed to have formed part of this forest. The
name is still retained in the two villages of Hampton-in-Arden
and Henley-in-Arden—places some twenty miles apart. No
doubt Shakespeare was well acquainted with the latter. The
“ woodmen of Arden” still exist in the form of a well-known
county toxophilite society, who hold their annual ward-mote in
Packington Park, near Meriden. In the summer of 1887 the
High Sheriff of the county conceived the happy idea of hav-
ing the play of “ As You Like It” performed on the actual
site of the forest, at his residence near Stratford. A first-rate
company was engaged, and most of the county families were
invited. The audience attended in gay summer dresses; the
stage was a spacious lawn ; the performers emerged as required
from glades among the shrubs and trees; and the tout en-
semble was, I believe, most enchanting, and extremely pictur-
esque.
Combe Pool being so central, forms a temporary resting-
place to many sea-birds crossing England, gulls occasionally
visiting it. I have often regretted I did not obtain from the
late head-keeper, who lived there all his life, some account of
the rare birds at various times shot or seen by him; but I
well remember his account of an osprey, which, as a stuffed
270 A Few Notes on Bird Life, &e. [Sess.
specimen, ornamented his room. He was crossing the Pool
with his gun when this strange bird flew over him. He fired
and broke its wing, and it fell into the water. On getting it
into the boat, he threw a handkerchief over its head to prevent
being pecked ; and holding it in one arm, he commenced pad-
dling the boat to shore with the other. But he soon found
the bird had other offensive weapons besides its beak, for he
had not proceeded far before he felt the talons of one foot
penetrate his thigh, and on moving a little, in went the claws
of the other foot into his other thigh, and the blood soon
began to ooze through his trousers. In this peculiar fix he
paddled to the shore and obtained assistance. He tried to
keep the osprey alive, but was unsuccessful, and it was after
this adventure with the osprey that the keepers were forbid-
den by the noble owner of the estate to kill any strange birds
appearing on the property. This prohibition has continued
up to the present time, and I know that subsequently, for
several years in succession, a pair of peregrine falcons regu-
larly spent the winter there, feeding on the wild ducks and
coots, &e., frequenting the pool. On our fishing excursions
to Combe we always took a field-glass; and one day last
August we saw five birds on the water which we were
certain were none of the ordinary wild-fowl. We soon
made out that they were a family of crested grebes (Podiceps
cristatus), two old and three young ones, the latter more than
half-crown. While we were noticing them through our glass,
one of the parents, after several long dives, came up near us
carrying a small fish. He looked about for his family, and
after several long dives, still retaining the fish in his bill, he
emerged close to them, and placing the fish in a young one’s
bill, who bolted it whole, went off again for more sport. We
did not see these birds fly or swim far on the surface—indeed
they seldom either fly or walk, and there can be no doubt
that diving is their natural mode of progression. In flying,
they would have the exertion of supporting their body on
short and not very powerful wings, and could use wings
alone; on the surface, the legs only could be used; but in
diving, both legs and wings are brought into action. The
nest where the young grebes were hatched was curious. It
was made of reeds and rushes, and floated on the surface, but
1888-89. | A Few Notes on Bird Life, &e. 271
was kept from sailing away by being intertwined with the
thin twigs of an oak bough which hung into the water, the
upper overhanging branches of the tree forming a screen from
sun and rain. It was an ingenious structure, and well put
together. I have never before seen crested grebes in the
county, though I once shot a little grebe or dabchick (Podi-
ceps minor) in a tributary to the Avon, and have on several
occasions seen them in that river between Leamington and
Warwick.
One Sunday afternoon we walked over for a ramble in
the Abbey Gardens, where flowers, fruit, and vegetables are
grown in the greatest perfection, the grapes almost rivalling
those at Clovenfords. On our way across the deer-park we
came upon a flock of more than fifty Canada geese; and as
I always enjoy the sight of their rising in the air, we walked
towards them. They let us get very near, and then rose in
a body, uttering their strange, musical, clarion-like notes, so
different from the call of any other of the anser tribe, and
taking a long circuit round, settled on the pool. I noticed a
plant in the gardens which much interested me: it was by far
the finest specimen I have ever seen of the Japanese brier
(Rosa rugosa). It must be ten or twelve feet high, and
covering a larger space in diameter, and had a great pro-
fusion of its large-petalled, handsome, single, crimson flowers.
These are followed by large, orange-coloured, globular fruit ;
and its glossy, rich green foliage, I think, surpasses that of any
other rose. I have often thought what beautiful hedges these
roses would make, and from their very thorny nature they
might perhaps be a good fence against sheep. Two years ago
a member of our Club sowed a row of the seeds for a hedge
across his garden, and I see the plants are now about eighteen
inches high, and making excellent growth. These seeds are
now articles of commerce, and are advertised for sale.
We noticed one day a strange coincidence between animals
of very different natures. It was a very hot day, and we were
standing in the avenue admiring two fine heifers lying in the
shade, when I remarked how terribly they were tormented
with flies, which were in large clusters at the corners of their
eyes, and evidently causing the creatures much annoyance.
After a few minutes we saw two young cocks walk up from the
272 A Few Notes on Bird Life, &c. [Sess.
farm, and one went to each animal and commenced at once to
peck off the clusters, and from their deliberate manner of pro-
ceeding we believed it was not the first operation of the kind.
The cows remained perfectly still, and it struck us as a strange
instance of mutual benefit. The birds got a good meal of
insect food, and the cows were relieved of an intolerable pest.
My friend wished to see some pictures and sculpture at the
Italian Exhibition, being himself an artist of no mean ability ;
so we went together for two or three days’ sight-seeing in
London, visiting the Zoological Gardens, Kensington Museum,
&e. I then went on a visit to my nephew in Somersetshire—
a county quite a terra incognita to me. I was there told to
look out at my bedroom window in the morning, when I
should probably see some interesting birds; and accordingly,
while dressing, a fine green woodpecker came on to the tennis-
court, followed by a nearly full-grown young one. The old
bird at once began to thrust her long beak into the turf and
wriggle it about: this brought up numbers of ants, which
she very adroitly picked up and gave to her offspring, tra-
versing the whole length of the edge of the court, and
this she did regularly every morning during my visit. I
chanced to find a flower- pot full of soil in which was a
strong colony of ants, many in their winged stage. In the
evening I turned the whole contents out in the form of a
pyramid on the court, ready for the woodpeckers’ breakfast,
but when I looked out in the morning I saw a starling very
busy upsetting my pyramid. He was not, however, allowed
to remain there many minutes; the woodpecker came soon
and drove him off, and had a hearty meal. The gardener
complained of the unsightliness of the perforations from the
birds’ beaks on the lawn, but as these would disappear after
a shower of rain and rolling, we would not have the birds
disturbed. There can be no doubt that ants enter largely into
the ordinary diet of woodpeckers ; but you may see them often
settle against the stem of a tree, and after giving it several
sharp raps, remain perfectly motionless, waiting for the ap-
pearance on the bark of any insects they have disturbed.
Green woodpeckers—“ yaffles,” as they are called—are not
“uncommon in Warwickshire, Worcestershire, or Somerset-
shire. In a lady’s garden near Temple Cloud I met with a
1888-809. | A Few Notes on Bird Life, &. 273
shrub quite new to me: it formed a large bush about ten feet
high, with a stem about eight inches in diameter, and covered
all over with pendent nuts enclosed in a thin envelope, very
like the Cape gooseberry. The owner did not know the
specific name, so I brought a bough to Mr Lindsay, Cura-
tor of the Royal Botanic Garden, who at once pronounced
it the Staphylea pinnata, or five-leaved bladder-nut, indigen-
ous to the South of Europe. I learn that the nuts, being
hard and smooth, are strung for beads, and used by the
poor in Roman Catholic countries in their devotions.
Parkinson says, “It groweth in many places in this land,
as at Ashford in Kent and at Milton near Cambridge.” I
hoped to have driven over to Cheddar Cliffs, and procured
some plants of the pink (Dianthus cesius) peculiar to that
locality. A botanist whom I met told me it had one advan-
tage over our D. deltoides in being very sweet-scented. But
the day fixed for our excursion there proved a perfect deluge,
so my nephew consoled me by stating that both cliffs and
pinks would keep till my next visit! I found Somerset a
most charming county, and I would strongly advise any
one going to the South-west of England, by all means to
take the new Severn tunnel route. You turn off to the right
at Crewe, and pass through a fine country thence all the way
to Bristol, the counties being Cheshire, Shropshire, Mon-
mouth, Hereford, and Gloucester—getting into the valleys of
the Severn, the Teme, the Wye, the Lug, and the Usk, going
by a long tunnel under the Severn as you approach Bristol.
My recent visit to Bristol brought to my remembrance my
former journey to that ancient city, as nearly as I can remem-
ber just half a century ago, and with a few remarks on that
visit I will conclude these rambling notes. It was a visit
remembered from two incidents—one, as to my travelling
companion ; and the other, as fixing an important date in the
history of steam navigation. It was during my legal clerk-
ship at Worcester that I was sent on professional business to
Bristol in the night-mail. I had only one travelling com-
panion, rather a stout man, who, wrapping himself in his
cloak, went fast asleep. I alighted to see the horses changed
at Tewkesbury, when I noticed a man with some letter-bags
look into the coach, and then go to the guard and remark, “I
274 A Few Notes on Bird Life, &e. [Sess.
see you've got the Devil with you to-night.” “Oh, yes,” the
guard replied, “we're taking him down to Bristol.” These
remarks naturally excited my curiosity, as I had not observed
anything super- or rather infra-human in my companion.
However, the mystery was solved a few months afterwards,
when the guard of the Aberystwith mail got into difficulties
through dishonesty, and I was sent to have an interview with
Mr John Bull, the Government inspector of mails, on the
subject, and in Mr Bull I at once recognised my quondam
fellow-traveller. I can only say I found this “prince of dark-
ness” civil, even courteous, and, as he is proverbially said to
be, “a gentleman,” though the erring guard whom he dismissed
from the service might not coincide with my opinion. The
other incident was, that I found a crowd on the quay at
Bristol looking at and discussing a steamer just arrived, which
proved to be the Great Western—the first steamer which ever
crossed the Atlantic, and then just returned from her first
voyage. Some were sanguine enough to prophesy that a
regular monthly steam communication might be established
between the two countries, while others held the utopian idea
that it might even be weekly ; but look what is the case now,
and who can say what may happen in another half-century ?
The power employed will probably not be the direct action of
steam: it may be compressed air, or a series of gas explosions,
or electricity, or some other as yet unknown or undeveloped
power. I do not suppose the passage will be submarine—it
may still be on the surface, or perhaps a pleasant aérial
voyage, terminating in a Baldwin landing!
The last indoor meeting for the Session, held in the Hall,
20 George Street, on the evening of Wednesday, the 24th
April, was almost wholly taken up with a Lecture delivered
to the members of the Society and their friends by Dr Alex.
Edington, Lecturer on Bacteriology, on “ Bacteria—what they
are, what they do, and what they may suffer.” This lecture,
which was illustrated by diagrams and by numerous “ cultiva-
tions,” was much appreciated by all present, and a hearty vote
of thanks was accorded to Dr Edington for his kindness and
courtesy in delivering it, and for the trouble taken to illustrate
it in such an interesting manner.
1888-89. | In Memoriam: ¥ohn Allan, 275
VUIL—{n fMemoriam : JOHN ALLAN.
By Mr JOHN LINDSAY,
(Read Jan. 23, 1889.)
It was with a painful sense of surprise that, a few days after
our first meeting for this Session, the members of the Society
read in the daily papers the announcement of the sudden
death of our fellow-member and Councillor, Mr John Allan.
He was with us on Wednesday, the 28th of November last,
when the President delivered his opening address: on the
Saturday following he went to Easter Middleton, near Gore-
bridge, where his wife was an invalid at the house of her
parents:* while there he was suddenly prostrated by sickness,
on the evening of his arrival, and died the next day, after a
few hours’ illness, of acute inflammation of the brain. On
Wednesday, December 5—one short week after our meeting
—Dr Macfarlane and IT accompanied the relatives to Carluke,
where loving hands laid him to rest side by side with his kith
and kin in the quiet village churchyard,
John Allan was born on J uly 12, 1845, at Carluke, Lan-
arkshire.” His father, John Allan, was a farmer, and owned
the farms of Tanhill and Windyha’, near Carluke. Shortly
after the birth of a younger child—a girl, who died in early
life—his father died, and the widow was left alone in the
world with her boy. He was sent to the parish school at
Carluke, then taught by a Mr Barrie; and on that gentleman
being appointed head-master of the Grammar-school at Dal-
keith, John Allan proceeded thither, boarding in the school-
master’s house, While here his boyish love for Nature was
much quickened by new scenes and surroundings, and the
Saturdays were generally spent in roaming about the banks of
the Esk, or in excursions to some of the picturesque places
in the neighbourhood. Returning home when school days
were over, a profession had to be decided upon, Seeing he
came of a race of farmers, and that his father’s farms (to
1 Mrs Allan died, after a long illness, on August 2, 1889,
* For the facts in this short memoir regarding the early life of Mr John Allan,
I am much indebted to Mr Thomas Walker, Middlehouse, Carluke—a relative
of Mr Allan, and his companion in many a botanical ramble,
276 In Memoriam: Fohn Allan. [Sess.
which the adjoining farm of Middlehouse was added in after
years) were his by inheritance, one would have naturally ex-
pected that the young lad would now have adopted the life of
a farmer. But, for some reason, the legal profession was
chosen instead, and accordingly he became a law-apprentice
in the office of Mr Davidson, solicitor at Lanark, when, after
remaining there a few years, he left to push his fortune in
Edinburgh. He secured a place in the office of Messrs
Macallan & Chancellor, which firm was subsequently merged
in that of Messrs J. & F. Anderson. Mr Allan now began
attendance on the law-classes of the University, in order the
better to fit himself for the duties of his profession, and con-
tinued a member of these classes for three years. When
Messrs Drummond and Reid withdrew from the firm of Messrs
Hill, Reid, & Drummond, to found a new firm, Mr Allan
joined them; and here he continued for the remainder of his
life, highly respected by his employers, and filling positions
of trust in the firm.
The summer and autumn holidays of each year were spent
by Mr Allan, before his marriage, in excursions to distant
places at home or abroad. Various parts of Scotland, Eng-
land, and Ireland were thus visited, while longer journeys
were also made to France, Germany, Holland, Belgium, and
Norway. Many pleasant recollections of these places were
stored up in his memory, and it was his great wish to revisit
some of them. Paris was seen after the havoc wrought by
the Commune, and when order had just been restored ; and
he would have liked to see it again, when the evidences of the
perils it had passed through were all effaced. To spend a
second holiday in Norway was specially desired by him, so
much had the wild and romantic natural features of that
country impressed him by their charms. But the death of
his first wife, and the care of three young children, chiefly
prevented the carrying out of these designs.
John Allan’s love of the country, including especially his
passion for flowers, dated, as I have said, from his school
days. Indeed to such a sensitive nature it could hardly have
been otherwise, reared in this upland district, in the retired
little cottage, with its large and beautiful garden where
numerous ferns and alpine plants were carefully tended,
1888-80. | Ln Memoriam: Fohn Allan, 277
and where he possessed the finest collection of roses for miles
around. Until he left home to settle in Edinburgh, he was
a frequent exhibitor at the Carluke annual flower-shows, often
taking prizes. It was always a great delight to him to visit
famed gardens or conservatories, at home or abroad. His
own little greenhouse at Portobello was a perennial source of
pleasure to him; while the garden there contained several of
our rarer native flowers and ferns, gathered in botanical ex-
cursions. He had a wide and accurate knowledge of the
British flora, and felt that keen sense of enjoyment in
searching for plants which only a true botanist can experi-
ence. On two occasions lately he joined a few of the mem-
bers of the Botanical Society (of which he was also a member)
in their summer camp,—first at Applecross, Wester Ross, in
1886, and next at Glenure, Argyllshire, in 1887. <A paper
on the former of these, entitled “Jottings on a Ramble in
Wester Ross,’ was read by him to this Society in Session
1886-87 ;* while the Report to the Botanical Society on the
results of the same visit was the product of his pen. Both
of these summer holiday-excursions were keenly enjoyed by
him,—especially the former, to Applecross, where mountain,
loch, and seashore were alike laid under contribution, and not
only flowering-plants, but desmids, diatoms, the larger algze, and
zoophytes, were all collected and brought home, to form after-
wards, as prepared microscopic objects, a source of constant de-
light. Living at Portobello, the seashore, with its characteristic
botany and zoology, soon attracted him; and to the Report
of the Botanical Society’s summer camp at Wester Ross,
above mentioned, a “ Note on the Alge” is appended, most
of the fifty species then collected having been gathered by
himself. It was largely owing to his enthusiasm in this
branch of natural history that several members of this Society
were induced to give some attention to it. In Session
1885-86 two marine excursions were made, one to Granton
and the other to Joppa, when Mr Allan drew up a short ac-
count of the latter, which is now printed in the first volume
of our ‘ Transactions.’® Other marine excursions were after-
wards made under Mr Allan’s leadership; and it is to be
1¢ Transactions,’ vol. ii. p. 23. 2 ‘Trans. Bot. Soc.,’ vol. xvii. p. 117.
3 « Marine Excursions : Joppa ”—‘ Transactions,’ vol. i. p. 315.
VOL. II. HL
278 In Memoriam: Fohn Allan. [Sess.
hoped that, with our Jong stretch of coast-line close at hand,
marine botany and zoology will not henceforth be neglected
by the Society.
Of all that Mr John Allan was in private life I can hardly
venture to speak. A kind husband and a loving father, he
was also, to those who were privileged to know him intimately,
a true and warm-hearted friend, high-souled in principle, with
a feeling of aversion akin to contempt for all that was mean
or self-seeking. As a companion in outdoor rambles, his
acute and trained observation of natural objects was very
marked; and those of us who shared these country walks
with him, or wandered in his company by the sea-shore, or
hunted in the rock-pools—now and then sitting down beside
him afterwards over the microscope when home had been
reached, to examine more carefully the treasures gathered—
will not soon forget these pleasant hours. Alas! that they
are all now but memories of the past.
I cannot close this short biographical sketch without
observing that Mr Allan’s connection with the Society fur-
nishes a good illustration of the raison d’étre of such societies
as this. Everything pertaining to the observation and study
of Nature is included in the rules of our constitution; and all
who in any way have a love for Nature, and are actuated by
a desire to become better acquainted with any of its manifold
aspects, are welcomed as members. Thus many of our number
are engaged daily in avocations which lie wholly outside of
these studies; but by taking them up simply as a pastime,
and as a relief from the daily routine of business, the health
and vigour of both mind and body alike are sustained, and a
pleasure in life is acquired which knows no satiety and never
becomes uninteresting, but which often helps to brighten what
might otherwise prove dull periods in existence. While the
members of this Society owe a debt of gratitude to John
Allan for the enthusiasm for the study of Nature, in some of
its departments, which he helped to increase amongst us during
the years that he was a member of it, there can be no doubt
that he, on the other hand, was largely indebted to the Society
for help and guidance in his scientific pursuits, and he would
have been the first himself to acknowledge this indebtedness.
Indeed it is this pleasant bond of helpful fellowship which
1888-89. | Annual Business Meeting. 279
gives half the charm to the work of the Society, and it is
earnestly to be desired that such a spirit, which “blesseth
him that gives and him that takes,” may lone be dominant
in it.
MEETINGS OF MICROSCOPIC SECTION.
Durine the past Session the members of the Microscopic
Section met on the first and third Friday of each month, “ for
the examination of slides and micro. apparatus, and the dis-
cussion of different methods of work.” It is much to be
regretted that these meetings were not taken more advantage
of by the members interested in Microscopy ; and it is
hoped that the resolution come to at the Annual Business
Meeting, to consign the charge of the Microscopic work to
the Secretary and Council of the Society, will prove advan-
tageous. At the monthly meetings of the Society, microscopic
preparations were exhibited throughout the Session by the
following members: The Secretary, and Messrs Coats, Forgan,
A. Fraser, Lindsay, Penman, Tait, and Wright. Mr Tait also
contributed a paper of a practical nature on “ Embedding and
Cutting Animal Tissues.”
ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING.
THE Annual Business Meeting of the Society was held in the
Hall, 20 George Street, on the evening of 23d October 1889,
—Dr William Watson, President, in the Chair. The Secre-
tary submitted the usual Report, from which it appeared that
in all 15 meetings had been held during the past Session, 6
of these being indoor and 9 field meetings. The following are
the dates and localities of these meetings—viz. :
Inpoor MEETINGS: 1888——-November 28, December 26;
1889 — January 23, February 27, March 27, April 24.
FietD Mererincs: 1889—-May 4, Pepper Wood, Kirkliston ;
May 18, Palace Gardens, Dalkeith; May 29, Arthur Seat;
June 1, Peebles; June 15, Elie; June 26, Duddingston
Loch; June 29, Gordon Moss; July 13, Ben Ledi; Septem-
ber 7, Polton and Roslin.
280 Annual Business Meeting. — [Sess. 1888-89.
The Treasurer’s Statement showed that, including a balance
from last account and special contributions made towards the
Publication Fund, the income had been £80, 4s. 1$d., and the
expenditure £70, 9s. 8d. leaving a balance of £9, 14s. 53d.
in favour of the Society. During the past Session 46 names
have been withdrawn from the roll and 13 new names added,
making a net decrease of 33, and giving a total of ordinary
members at the close of Session 1888-89 of 190.
The election of Office-bearers was next proceeded with,
when, after vacancies had been filled up, the complete list
stood as under :—
President.
Dr WILLIAM WATSON.
Vice-Presidents.
GeEoRGE Birp. H WILLIAM ForRGAN. | ArcHD. CRAIG; Jun.
Council.
Dr J. M. MACFARLANE. SOMERVILLE GRIEVE. THOMAS WRIGHT.
JAMES TERRAS. ToM SPEEDY. RurPerT SMITH.
WILLIAM Bonnar. Davip E. Youne. Rosert Stewart, §.S8.C.
WILLIAM COATS. JoHN W. Tarr. JoHN A, JOHNSTON.
Editor of ‘ Transactions.’
JOHN LINDSAY.
Secretary and Treasurer.
ANDREW MOFFAT.
Librarian.
JoHN LINDSAY.
Auditors.
Hucu H. Prruans; JoHn PArrMAy, §.8.C.
The bye-law passed during the Session to admit life mem-
bers to the Society on payment of £3, 3s. was confirmed, and
made a law of the Society. It was agreed to merge the
Microscopic Section in the general work of the Society, to be
managed by the ordinary office-bearers—viz., the Secretary
and Council. It was also remitted to the Council to revise
the Laws of the Society, and to issue a copy annually to each
member with the ‘ Transactions.’ 4 uw?
LIST OF PAST PRESIDENTS:
Mr R. Scor Sxrrvine, 1869-1874.
Mr Wm. GorRRIE
Mr A. B. Herpert, 1882-1885.
Dr Rost. Brown, 1869. | Mr Joun Watcor, 1879-1882.
1874-1877.
a ee | Mr Symrneton GRIEVE, 1885-1888.
ev. R. F. Cotvin we a
eer 1877-1879, | Dr Wuitt1am Warsoy, 1888-1889.
OFFICE-BEARERS, 1889-90.
President.
Dr WILLIAM WATSON.
Vice-Presidents.
GEORGE Birp. | Witiram Foreay, | ARcHD. Craic, Jun,
Council,
Dr J. M. MAcFARLANE, Davip E. Youne.
JAMES TERRAS. Joun W. Tarr.
WILLIAM BonNAR. THomas WRIGHT,
WILLIAM Coats. Rourert SMITH.
SOMERVILLE GRIEVE. Rogpert Stewart, 8.8.C.
Tom SPEEDY. JoHN A, JOHNSTON.
Gditor of ‘ Transactions.’
JoHNnN LInpDSsAY.
Seeretarp and Crensurer.
AnpREW Morrat.
Pibrarian.
Joun Linpsay.
Auditors.
Hues H. Pintans; Jonn Parrmay, §.8.C.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 1888-8o9.
(Original Members marked thus*, Life Members marked thus +.)
Honorary Members.
Brown, Ropert, Ph.D., F.L.S., London.
Grirve, Davin, F.R.S.E., 1 Lockharton Gardens, Slateford.
HENDERSON, Prof, Joun R., M.B., C.M., The College, Madras.
Corresponding Wembers.
_ ARCHIBALD, STEWART, Carroch, Kirriemuir.
BRoTHERSTON, ANDREW, Kelso.
CruicksHANK, T. M., South Ronaldshay.
Hoxskirk, CHarues P., Huddersfield.
Hossack, B. H., Craigie Field, Kirkwall.
THomson, JoHN, Stobo.
XViil
10
20
30
Ordinary
Adam, James, Comely Park, Dun-
fermline.
Adams, William, 20 Melville Ter-
race.
Alexander, Miss Tina, 25 Gillespie
Crescent.
Anderson, G. R., 33 Howard Place.
Anderson, Miss, 3 Gladstone Place.
Archibald, Jas., 13 Clifton Terrace.
Arthur, Charles, Royal Infirmary.
Ayton, Alex., 43 N. Bruntsfield PI.
Barbour, T. F., Chemical Laboratory,
University.
Bashford, W. T., Argyle House,
Portobello.
Bathgate, John, 8 Wardie Avenue.
Bell, George, 11 Dundonald Street
Bell, John M., W.S., 554 Grange
Road.
Bird, George, 24 Queen Street.
Black, Wm., 8.8.C., 117 George St.
Blyth, John, 18 Livingstone Place.
Boa, Peter, 119 George Street.
Bonnar, Wm., 8 Lauriston Park.
Brodie, J. A., Bonnington Iron
Foundry, Leith.
Bryden, Mrs, 72 Great King Street.
Bryden, Miss, 72 Great King Street.
Burn, C. M. P., Prestonfield House.
Cairns, Wm. M‘Gregor, 16 South
Charlotte Street.
Carter, A. E. J., 9 Argyle Crescent,
Portobello,
Carter, Wm. Allan, M.Inst.C.E., 5
St Andrew Square.
Chapman, Mungo, Easter Dudding-
stone Lodge, Portobello.
Clapperton, Mrs Wm., 9 Strathearn
. Road.
Clark, Alex., §.8.C., 804 Princes St.
Clark, William, Greenside Cottage.
Coats, William, 21 Nelson Street.
Cochran, Henry, 4 Fingal Place.
Cooper, James, 31 Howe Street.
Cotton, Miss Maria, 26 Mayfield Ter.
Cowan, Charles Wm., Valleyfield,
Penicuik.
Coyne, R. A. F. A., 7 Greenbank
Terrace.
Craig, Archibald, jun., 16 Blacket
Place.
List of Members, 1888-89.
Wembers.
40
Crawford, Wm. C., M.A., 1 Lock-
harton Gardens, Slateford.
Crichton, George, 30 Restalrig Ter-
race,
Davies, Arthur Ellson, Ph.D., F.L.S.,
9 Durham Road, Portobello.
Denson, E., 9 West Catherine Place.
Deuchar, Mrs, Harlaw, Hope Ter-
race.
Dobbin, Leonard, Ph.D., F.R.S.E.,
4 Cobden Road.
Dobbin, Mrs Leonard, 4 Cobden
Road.
Dowell, Mrs, 13 Palmerston Place.
Dowell, Miss, 13 Palmerston Place.
Duncan, Esdaile, Dean Public
School.
Dunn, Malcolm, Palace Gardens,
Dalkeith.
Eld, Thos. W., 50 South Brunts-
field Place.
Ewart, James, 1 Dundas Street.
Farquharson, Miss, Roseville,
Catherine’s Place, Grange.
Farquharson, Thos. Ker, Roseville,
St Catherine’s Place, Grange.
Ferguson, John, 15 Brighton Place,
Portobello.
Forbes, Miss Mary, 5 Brunstane
Road, Joppa.
Forgan, William, 3 Warriston Cres,
Foulis, James, M.D., 34 Heriot Row.
Fraser, Dr Angus, 232 Union Street,
Aberdeen.
Fraser, Charles, 13 Greenhill Place.
Fraser, Mrs, 13 Greenhill Place.
Fraser, Hugh, Leith Walk Nurseries.
St
60*Fraser, P. Neill, Rockville, Murray-
field.
Frazer, Alex., M.A., 22 Teviot PI.
Gardiner, Herbert L., 10 Meadow
Place.
Gibb, Philip B., M.A., 14 Picardy
Place.
Gloag, David, 9 Barnton Terrace.
Gordon, James, Royal Institution,
Mound.
Grant, James R., 12 Howard Place.
Gray, Jos. T., M.A., Parkside.
Grieve, Miss Amelia, Salisbury View,
Dalkeith Road.
70
_ 80
t+tJenner, Charles,
90
100
List of Members, 1888-89.
Grieve, Somerville, 159 Dalkeith
Road.
Grieve, Symington, 1 Burgess Ter-
race,
Grieve, Mrs Symington, 1 Burgess
Terrace.
Groves, Charles H., M.D., 36 Inver-
leith Row.
Guthrie, Mrs, West Grange.
Hardie, William, 49 Morningside
Road.
Hart, James, M.A., Dean Public
School.
Hately, W., 12 Bruntsfield Place.
Heggie, John, 1 Greenbank Terrace.
Henderson, John, 10 Salisbury St.
Henderson, Miss Jessie, 17 W.
Preston Street.
Herbert, A. B., 13 Polwarth Terrace.
Horne, Oswald, 21 Leith Street.
Hume, William, 1 Lothian Street.
Hutchison, Robert, F.R.S.E.,
Chester Street.
Inches, Miss Ella M., Strathearn
House, Strathearn Road.
Jamieson, P., Natural History La-
boratory, University.
F.R.S.E., Easter
Duddingston Lodge.
29
Johnstone, Alex., 38 Lady Menzies’
Place.
Johnstone,
Roslin.
Johnston, John A., 30 Haddington
Place.
Keith, Sydney, 69 So. Clerk Street.
Kilgour, Thos. W., 4 East Brighton
Crescent, Portobello.
King, J. Falconer, Minto House,
King, Mark, 120 Pitt Street, Leith.
Knight, Donald, 33 Regent Place.
Laidlaw, Thomas, 9 So. St Andrew
Street.
Laughton, Wm., So. Darenth, Kent.
Law, Mrs John, 41 Heriot Row.
Lee, William, 9 Granby Road, W.
Craigmillar Park.
Lennie, Joseph C.,
Trinity Road.
Lewis, David, 32 Findhorn Place.
Lindsay, John, 43 James St., Pilrig.
Livingstone, Matthew, 108 Gilmore
Place.
Lockie, John, C.E., 39 Restalrig Ter.
Macadam, W. Ivison, F.C.S., F.I.C.,
Surgeons’ Hall.
Miss Eskhill,
Annie,
Rose Park,
110
120
130
140
Xix
M‘Craith, Miss, 26 Haddington Pl.
Macfarlane, J. M., D.Sc., F.R.S.E.,
15 Scotland Street,
M‘Glashen, Robert L,, 1 Brandon St.
M‘Intosh, James, 42 Queen Street.
M‘Laren, J. R., M.A., 9 Gt. King
Street.
M‘Kean, James, 3 Warrender Park
Terrace.
M‘Kechnie, Campbell, 60 Northum-
berland Street.
Maconochie, Arthur, 30 Warrender
Park Terrace,
Macpherson, C. E. W., C.A., 28
St Andrew Square.
Methven, John, 6 Bellevue Crescent.
Millar, R. C., C.A., 8 Broughton Pl.
Millar, Thomas John, M.A., 8
Broughton Place.
Miller, Rey. Robert, M.A., Canaan
Lane.
Miller, R. K., 13 Lennox Street.
Moffat, Andrew, 5 Scone Gardens.
Mossman, Robert, 10 Blacket Place.
Muir, John, 115 Warrender Park Rd.
Murray, Chas. G., 68 Haymarket Ter.
Murray, J. D., 68 Haymarket Ter.
Neill, John, 3 Sylvan Place.
Nelson, W. F., Salisbury Green.
Nesbit, John, 162 High Street,
Portobello.
Nisbet, Miss, 28 E. Claremont St.
Norfor, Robt. T., C.A., 47 So.
Bruntsfield Place.
Ogilvie, Miss, 18 Buckingham Ter.
Oliphant, J. C., M.A., 23 Charlotte
Square.
Oliver, Chas. M., 9 S.-E. Cireus Pl.
Oliver, John 8., 12 Greenhill Park.
Pairman, John, 8.8.C., 50 George St.
Paton, Henry, 15 Myrtle Terrace.
Peach, B. N., 13 Dalrymple Cres.
Peach, Mrs, 13 Dalrymple Crescent.
Penman, William, M.Inst.C.E., 8
Lauriston Park.
Philip, James, 5 Argyle Place.
Pillans, Hugh H., 12 Dryden Place.
Pillans, Miss, 12 Dryden Place,
Purves, Samuel, 70 Haymarket Ter.
Raeburn, John, 13 Mayfield Gardens.
Ranken, William, 11 Spence Street,
Reid, Andrew, 1 East Trinity Road.
Richardson, A. D., Royal Botanic
Garden,
Robertson, George, Lothian Road
Public School,
Sanderson, Dr Alfred, Lixmount,
Trinity.
Scott, Alex., 27 Heriot Row.
Semple, Andrew, Deputy Surgeon
General H.M.S., Caledonian
United Service Club.
150 Simpson, James, 4 Middlefield, Leith
Walk.
* Skirving, R. Scot, 29 Drummond PI.
Smith, Harry W., 4 Suffolk Road.
Smith, Dr James, 1 Parsons Green
Terrace.
Smith, Rupert, 7 Leopold Place.
Smith, Walter A., Falcon Lodge,
Murrayfield.
Somerville, Alex., B.Sc., F.L.8., 4
Bute Mansions, Hillhead, Glasgow.
Speedy, Tom, The Inch, Liberton.
Sprague, T. B., M.A., F.R.S.E., 29
Buckingham Terrace.
Sprague, Mrs T. B., 29 Buckingham
Terrace.
160 Steele, Adam B., 10.Comely Bank.
Steele, Miss, 16 Upper Gray Street.
Stewart, James R., 10 Salisbury Rd.
Stewart, Miss, 7 Gt. Stuart Street.
Stewart, Robert, 8.S8.C., 7 East
Claremont Street.
Stevenson, Miss, 2 Albert Place.
Sutherland, John, 21 Brougham St,
Tait, John W., High School, Leith.
170
180
190
List of Members, 1888-89.
Tait, John Scott, C.A., 8 Claremont
Terrace.
Taylor, William, M.D., 12 Melville
Street.
Terras, James, 34 Findhorn Place,
Thomson, Thos., 16 Glen Street.
Turnbull, George, 16 Thistle Street.
Turner, Daniel, 8.L., 25 York Pl.
Usher, Andrew, Blackford House.
Walcot, John, 50 Northumberland
Street.
Walker, David, 2 Bellevue Terrace.
Wallace, William, Jessfield Terrace,
Newhaven Road.
Watson, Dr Wm.,
Slateford.
Watson, Mrs, Lockharton, Slateford.
White, Miss, 15 Bernard Terrace.
Williams, Caradoc, 58 Madeira St.,
Leith...
Wilson, Geo. A., 46 Queensferry St.
Wilson, T., 121 George Street.
Wilson, James T., Restalrig House.
Wilson, Miss Katie, 2 Archibald Pl.
Wood, T. A. D., Viewforth, Brun-
stane Road, Joppa.
Woodhead, Dr G. Sims, 6 Marchhall
Crescent.
Wright, Thomas, 6 Greenside Place.
Young, David E., 131 Mayfield Rd.
Yule, Robert, 6 Mansfield Place.
Lockharton,
‘ys
cor)
VOL. II. 3 PART IV.
TRANSACTIONS
OF
Ge Gdinturgh Field Waturalists’ and
Wirrosropiral Sorietp
SESSION 1889-90
CONTENTS.
e
. An Account of Gurhwal, a District in the Himalayas.—Dr Wm.
| _ Watson, President, ,
ia 4 II. The Hoopoe in Westmoreland.— Bailie Walcot, : zi
ih III. A Few Notes on a Journey from Bombay to Jeypore, Baia:
—Mr §. Grieve,
IV. Rats and the Balance of Nature, _Mr T. Speedy, ‘ ‘
'V. The Garden-Spider (Zpeciva diadema) as an Architect. _r R.
Stewart, S.S.C.,
VI. On the Echinoidea or Spa Unetiiae, Mr J. Tindaay. :
VII. The Kaurie Pine (Dammara australis).—Mr H. Fraser,
, ’ VIII. Stray Notes on the Birds of Anglesea.—Mr A. Craig, jun.,
_ IX. Round about the Northern Cliffs.—Mr J. ‘Sutherland,
X. On Sclerenchymatous Cells.—Mr W. Coais, .
_ XI. The Tufted Duck (Puligula cristata).—Mr A. B. Herbert,
‘XII. The Magpie—Mr T. Speedy, .
Annual Business Meeting, Saati z ° A , : 3
List of Members, 1889-90, .
Published for the Society
BY
WiihIAM BLACKWOOD & SONS
MDCCCXC
Price to Non-Members, Half-a-Crown.
Il—AN ACCOUNT OF GURHWAL, A DISTRICT
IN THE HIMALAYAS.
By Dr WILLIAM WATSON, PresipEnt.
(Read Nov. 27, 1889.)
I HAVE chosen, as the subject of my introductory address, an
account of Gurhwal, a country in the heart of the Himalayas.
It is a district not often visited by Europeans, though the
town of Naini Tal, the summer capital of the Lieutenant-
Governor of the North-West Provinces, lies not far from it on
the east, and the town of Mussourie, a favourite sanitarium,
not far from it on the west.
Gurhwal, meaning “the land of forts” or “the land of
streams ”—both derivations are possible—is about a hundred
miles long by some fifty miles broad. It practically consists
of the drainage-area of the great river Alaknanda, one of the
two great streams which unite to form the Ganges river. The
drainage-area of the other stream, the Bagirathi, belongs to
the native principality of Tehri, sometimes called Independent
Gurhwal. British Gurhwal, of which alone I treat, is in the
central part of the Himalayas, where the mountains are not
so high as they are farther east; but it has many peaks in it
over 22,000 feet. The best known are—Trisul, 23,382 feet;
Nundadebi, 25,661 feet; Budrienath, 22,901 feet; and Kid-
arnath, 22,853 feet. Before the conquest of India by the
East India Company, Gurhwal was a Hindoo principality,
tributary to the Emperor of India at Delhi. During the
period of confusion, when the Delhi empire was falling to
pieces, and a new empire, whose capital was at Calcutta, was
rising in its place, Gurhwal was conquered by the Goorkhas,
a semi-savage tribe of Mongolian origin.
The King of Gurhwal was killed in 1803, and his family
fled, to live in exile in the plains. In 1815 the army of the
East India Company, consisting of three regiments of native
VOL. II. U
282 An Account of Gurhwal, [Sess.
infantry, with some irregular troops, drove out the Goorkhas,
to the great delight of the inhabitants. The East India Com-
pany kept to itself the greater part of Gurhwal, including the
old capital, but restored the western part of the country to
the representative of the old royal family. The evil days
of the Goorkha government are still well remembered in
Gurhwal. The common phrase for oppression is “ Goorkha
rule”; and when a man thinks himself injured, he generally
says, “ Have the days of the Goorkhas returned, that I should
be so treated?” The natives are of mixed origin, partly
Hindoo, partly Thibetan—the Hindoo element predominating
in the south and centre, the Thibetan in the extreme north.
There may also be an infusion of Mongol blood, but there is
not, I think, much.
The language is almost everywhere Indian, Thibetan being
only spoken in a few villages on the northern frontier. The
dialect of Hindi spoken is called Nepauli, or more usually
Hill language, and is a well-marked dialect of the great
Aryan language, which is spoken across Northern India from
sea to sea. Curiously enough, the words used in the hills are
for the most part those of Western India, while the pronunci-
ation is distinctly that of Bengali, as spoken near Calcutta.
This is a strong argument in favour of regarding Hindi, Pun-
jabi, Bengali, and the hill language, as being in reality only
four dialects, not four languages. The only one, of the five
daughters of Sanscrit, which has diverged so much from the
others as to be entitled to be considered a distinct language,
is Maharatti, the language of the south, though most people
consider Bengali also to be a distinct language.
There are no towns in Gurhwal. The two largest places
are the villages of Sreenugger, with 562 inhabited houses,
and Joshimut, with 119 inhabited houses.
Sreenugger, the old capital, built on the banks of the great
river, is a ruined city, chiefly remarkable for the four-storied
stone palace of the old Rajas, built in 1358, the stone walls of
which are curiously carved with Hindoo mythological subjects.
Sreenugger has still, however, a traditional reputation as a seat
of learning, and Dya Nand Shastri, one of the greatest of
modern Hindoo thinkers, spent some years here studying
Sanscrit. Poetry also is cultivated. When I was in the
1889-90. | a District in the Himatayas. 283
village, a local poet of considerable reputation and great merit
was singing the praises of a lady named Dhana Barula, and
vowing that if she would not love him he would leave his
native hills and settle in Bareilly—exactly like a Highland
poet threatening to leave Lochaber and go to settle in
Glasgow.
Joshimut is the winter residence of the high priest of
Budrienath temple. The temple is in the region of the eter-
nal snows, and has to be shut up in winter, so the high
priest has to go down to a palace, which stands about thirty
miles down the stream from the temple. The village is an
exceedingly beautiful one, built half-way between the river
and a great forest of hazel-trees (Corylus colurna), called
by the natives Kapasi. In the forest are quantities of the
beautiful Kapasi bird (Nucifraga hemispila). Like most hill-
men, the people of Joshimut have a good conceit of themselves
and their village, and are constantly quoting a rhyme, “ There
is no water on earth like that of the Dandhara spring; there
are no girls on earth like the girls of Joshimut.”
In Gurhwal, five great rivers and many smaller streams join
the main river, Alaknanda; and at each of the great junctions,
called “ preag,” there is a sacred bathing-place much resorted
to by Hindoos, both natives of Gurhwal and pilgrims from
the plains. The five bathing-places are named going down
—vVishnupreag, Nandpreag, Kurnpreag, Ruderpreag, and
Deopreag. The whole land is a network of big rivers, the
drainage coming into it from the east and west, as well as its
fair share from the north. In order to cross these many
rivers, the British have built a number of iron bridges, but
in most places, rivers have to be crossed by native bridges.
The most common of these is the jhula, which is made as
follows: two strong ropes are stretched across the river, and
a roadway is suspended from them. The traveller has to
walk on this roadway a long distance, with the roaring torrent
far below him. If he misses his foot and falls into the river,
he is certain to be drowned. The strongest swimmer would
perish in a torrent of ice-cold water, rushing along at a
furious pace. As a rule, if a man falls in he is never seen
again. The current sucks him in and he does not even once
rise to the surface, however good a swimmer he may be.
284 An Account of Gurhwal, [Sess.
Even in a calm day it requires some nerve to cross such a
bridge. In a windy day, when the two ropes swing back-
wards and forwards with the breeze, it is something terrible
to have to cross. The traveller, to ensure his safety, may
try to lay hold of the main ropes with his hands; but this is
only possible, or, at all events, only easy, in part of the
journey. The two ropes, close to either bank, are too high
above his head for his arms to reach them, and in the middle
they are too low down—too close to his feet. In the better
form of jhula there are four cables instead of two, the upper
ropes being used as guiding-ropes, the lower to support the
roadway. The ropes are frequently made of a grass named
Andropogon involutus, but other materials are sometimes used.
A second way of crossing rivers is in a basket called a chinka.
One single cable is stretched across the river, and a basket is
suspended from it. The traveller gets into the basket, and a
man on the opposite bank hauls him across by pulling a
string or thin rope attached to the basket. The basket, of
course, runs along the cable. A third way of crossing rivers
is by a bridge called a sanga. On each bank a series of
planks are put,—one above the other,—each projecting a little
beyond the one below it, till the two series nearly meet in the
middle of the river, and then a single plank is thrown across
to unite them. The ends of the projecting planks are fixed
in stone piers, built on each side of the river. Usually the
sanga is two or three planks wide, and sometimes it has a
railing on each side. Cattle and sheep can cross it much more
easily than they can cross a rope-bridge. The fourth kind
of bridge is a tree, or a single plank, laid across a stream.
Nothing surprised me so much as to see the fearless way
with which the people of Gurhwal—men, women, and children
—crossed these bridges. Of course many accidents occur,
but nobody seems to think anything about the danger.
The inhabitants are not divided into many castes, like the
people of the plais. In Gurhwal, there are only three
castes—(1.) The Brahmins, who alone can be priests in the
temples, and who also have got possession of all the Govern-
ment posts. They are the local judges, magistrates, doctors,
schoolmasters, and postmasters. (2.) The agriculturists, who call
themselves Bishts, and who are called by Europeans Lajpoots.
1889-90. | a District in the Himalayas. 285
They form the bulk of the community, and include almost all
those who own land and farm it. (3.) The Domes, which in-
cludes thé tailors, shoemakers, blacksmiths, workers in the
iron and other mines, and, in short, everybody except the
priests and the agriculturists. It is quite absurd the con-
tempt with which Brahmins and Rajpoots look down upon
Domes. They actually hate and despise them. In every
village there are two wells, one for the Brahmins and Raj-
poots, the other for the Domes; and in olden times it was
a capital crime for a Dome to take water from the well
which belonged to the higher classes. Even yet, the Domes
must build their houses at a distance from the cluster of
Brahmin and Rajpoot houses. Under our Government some
few Domes have become rich, and have built themselves good
houses. Seeing such a house always makes a Brahmin or
Rajpoot very angry. I was often told that our Government
spoilt the Domes, and that it was a disgrace to the British
Government that such wretches should be able to accumulate
money, and actually live in better houses than Rajpoots.
Physically, the Domes are inferior to the Rajpoots, and they
are possibly of non-Aryan origin—at all events, they have
less Aryan blood in their veins than the Rajpoots have.
Among themselves, the Rajpoot inhabitants of Gurhwal—in
other words, the bulk of the population—are an amiable,
kindly, and singularly honest race of people. Theft is almost
unknown, crimes of violence are rare, and there is very little
immorality. Year after year, generation after generation, they
plough their fields, sow and reap their rice and mandua, and
herd their cows, buffaloes, goats, and sheep—keeping them
near the village all winter, and driving them in the summer
to pasture in the high hills, just as is done in the Alps and
in Norway. The annual migration in spring, from the village
near the river to the kharak on the mountain-top, and back
again to the village in autumn, is the great incident in Gurh-
wal life. It breaks the monotony, and gives a romantic
colour to their rural life. Nobody is fonder of flowers than
a Gurhwali. He is seldom seen without a flower stuck in
his hair above his ear; and when herding his cattle, he is often
singing to himself some village song, or playing on a pipe
made of the vingal bamboo (Arundinaria falcata). There are
286 An Account of Gurhwal, [Sess.
three kinds of songs: (1) Bharav—songs in praise of local
gods and demigods; (2) Josa—comic songs on local events ;
(3) Bairi—love-songs, generally put into the form of a duet,
to be sung alternately by a man and a woman, like the Scotch
song “ Huntingtower.” It is a proverb that no female heart
can resist a young man who sings bairis well.
Dancing is a great institution. Once every year, at least,
the local idol is brought into the open air, and everybody
dances round him. He is made to dance himself by being
put on to a sort of bed, held at the four corners by four men,
who then jerk the bed up and down, as high as possible, to the
sound of drums and pipes—taking care, of course, that the
god does not tumble off. Intellectually, the Rajpoot does not
stand high. He dances and sings and composes poetry, but
does not read much, and dislikes new ideas. Like some of
the members of the Art Congress who lately visited Edinburgh,
he loves beauty, but does not care for science, with its array
of factory chimneys, telegraph wires, and Darwinian theories.
With regard to Board of Manufacture schools and female
education, I am afraid the Gurhwal peasant-proprietor would
agree with Mr J. E. Hodson and Mr J. C. Horsley in con-
demning them. If he had the same command of the English
language, he would agree with the latter in saying that women
should not aspire to the higher walks of art. He might,
perhaps, go further even than Mr Horsley, and exclude them
from the decorative arts also, and maintain that painting idols
of a blue or red colour can be better done by men than it can
be by women. I had an illustration of this at Niti, the most
northern village of Gurhwal, which is one of the highest in-
habited places in the world. I was there on a festival day,
and saw all the men (boys, adults, and greybeards) dancing
round the local idol, but I noticed no women were present.
I asked the reason, and was told that the local idol of Niti liked
to see men dancing in his honour, but as regards women, he
liked to see them working in the fields. Men should dance
and women should work—such was the Horsleyan view of
life taken by the Niti deity. With regard to another burning
question of the day, prohibition of the sale of alcoholic liquors,
the state of things in Gurhwal is extremely satisfactory.
In this great province, 5000 miles square, there are only
1889-90. | a District in the Himalayas. 287
three shops where alcoholic liquors are sold—-one at the
capital, another at Kotdwara, and a third at Gaurighaut.
One great institution of the past is now rarely seen—rope-
dancing in honour of the god Mahadao. This used to be
practised once a-year in every large village, and with great
éclat at the capital. One part of the performance consisted in
stretching a very long rope from a mountain-peak to a strong
stake driven into the ground in the valley beneath. After
sacrificing a kid on the hill-top to the god, the performer was
tied firmly to a sort of wooden saddle, and bags of sand were
attached to his feet to secure his keeping his balance. The
saddle was then put on the great rope, and it slid along it,
carrying the man with it a distance of 1000 to 3000 feet.
The saddle was well greased, but the pace was so tremendous,
and the friction along the ropes so great, that it was apt to
catch fire. This ceremony was supposed to please the god,
and ensure favourable harvests. If the performer arrived
safely at the bottom, he was remunerated by getting a rupee
for every 150 feet he had passed over in his perilous journey.
He was also entitled to a specified amount of grain from every
landholder in the township, on whose behoof he had thus
propitiated the god.
In all parts of India there is a superstitious belief in the
evil eye—a belief common to ancient Greece and Rome, and
to modern Italy, where it was believed, for instance, that if
the late Pope Pius IX. looked at a child, he brought it bad
luck. In addition to this belief, common to Gurhwal with
the rest of India, there is a peculiar superstition, imported
perhaps from China, which attributes to some inanimate
object the same power for evil. This is called bedh. For
instance, if a new house is built in a village and any sickness
subsequently breaks out in the village, this is attributed to
the new house, which has affected the old houses with the
mysterious curse of bedh. Of course, the more common forms
of superstition are rife in Gurhwal: ghosts abound, and often
take the shape of animals. The chief varieties are: MJasdn,
the ghosts of infants, which are peculiarly fond of taking the
shape of bears; Zola, the ghosts of old bachelors, appearing
as will-o’-the-wisps in marshes, and much dreaded; <Acherz,
the ghosts of girls who die unmarried—(these are chiefly to
288 An Account of Gurhwal, [ Sess.
be feared if you happen to be wearing any red article of dress,
the ghosts of unmarried young ladies having a peculiar
antipathy to that colour); Bhut, the ghosts of those who
have died a violent death, the most dreaded of all. You may
have noticed that after the discovery of the body of the
unfortunate English gentleman Mr Rose, who was murdered
lately in Arran, his boots were carefully buried below high-
water mark. I mention this to illustrate the fact that
mountaineers seem, in all countries, to be more superstitious
than those who inhabit plains.
I have not yet touched on the aspect in which Gurhwal is
best known to the people of India generally. This is asa
sacred country, as a land of pilgrimage. Every year, on the
12th of April, the greatest of all the sacred fairs of India is
held at the point where the Ganges leaves the hills and enters
the plains. This place is called Hurdwar, or the gate of the
gods. On an average, more than a million people assemble
there every year to bathe in the Ganges on the holy day.
Some years there have been three millions, or even four
millions, of bathers. This bathing festival is called the
“ Vernal Equinox Festival,” and was arranged by the Hindoo
astronomers to be held when the sun entered the constellation
Aries. Unfortunately, these astronomers did not allow for the
precession of the equinoxes. The vernal equinox—the 20th
March—is now a long way from the 12th April, the day
when the sun enters the constellation Aries; but the Hindoos
have adhered to the date of stars and sun, and disregarded the
date when the day and night are equal. One advantage there
is, however—the date of the institution can easily be calcu-
lated. It must have been instituted when the vernal equinox
coincided with the entrance of the sun into Aries—that is,
about the year 500 AD.
After their bath on the 12th April most of the pilgrims
from the plains trudge back home, or, in modern times, take
third-class railway tickets; but some of the bolder spirits—
some 10,000 or 20,000 men and women—venture to enter
the mountains, and struggle through fearful mountain-passes,
to visit two temples which have been built inside the eternal
snows,—one named Budrienath, to the god Vishnu; the other
named Kidarnath, to the god Mahadao. It is easy for a well-
le
1889-90. | a District in the Himalayas. 289
fed, well-clothed European to visit these places; but it is a
terrible thing for the half-starved pilerims from the plains,
dressed in cotton clothes. The mortality is something awful.
All along the road the Government has built hospitals for the
use of these pilerims, and it was as superintendent of these
hospitals that my visits to Gurhwal were chiefly made. Walk-
ing along from one hospital to another, I often found pilgrims
lying dying on the road, and had to carry them on to the hos-
pital to which I was myself going.
The easiest, though not the most comfortable, way for a
pilgrim from the plains to visit the two temples, is to have
himself or herself carried in a basket. At Hurdwar, on the
12th April, any number of stalwart mountaineers are to be
seen, offering to carry a pilgrim, with a preference to a feeble
old man or woman, from the plains to Kidarnath and Budrie-
nath and back, for the ridiculously low charge of 16 rupees,
equal to 32s., paid in advance. If the man or woman who
is carried in the basket die en route from cold, as is too often
the case, the carrier of the basket is able to make a new con-
tract with some pilgrim who has gone part of the way on
foot, and who is not able or willing to walk any farther.
Generally the mountaineer does some twenty miles a-day
with his basket and the passenger in it. There is, of course,
not much fear of Ais dying on the road. He is well clad in
blanket clothing, not in cotton, like the woman he carries ;
and he is accustomed to the hill food, and it agrees with him,
which is not the case with the pilgrims from the plains.
The temples open in the end of April, when their respective
high priests go up to them. During winter, the high priest
of Budrienath, with all his assistant priests, resides at Joshi-
mut; the high priest of Kidarnath, with his assistant priests,
at the village of Okiemuth. Their winter palaces are large
buildings. The temples in the eternal snows are small. The
high priests are very wealthy and influential persons, and I
used always to consider them as the Indian representatives of
our Archbishops of Canterbury and York. The Archbishop
of Canterbury, or High Priest of Budrienath, is always a
Nimburi Brahmin, from Kirat Malwar, in Southern India.
The Archbishop of York, or High Priest of Kidarnath, is
always a Jungam Brahmin from Maisur, also in Southern
290 An Account of Gurhwal, Sess.
India. Each of them has always with him a deputy, who
succeeds him when he dies. When this occurs, a new deputy
is at once sent up from the convents in Southern India,
which have held from time immemorial the patronage of the
appointments. Once sent up, the priest never returns to the
sunny south, but lives and dies in the mountains. He has,
however, a brilliant position, especially the high priest of
Budrienath. The greatest native princes of India kneel before
him, and almost worship him as a divinity.
In the plains of India, among the adherents of the Vaish-
nav sect, a fanatic devotee often takes a vow to visit four
ereat temples at the four corners of India—1st, the temple
of Juggernath in the east; 2d, the temple of Dwarka in the
west ; 3d, the temple of Cape Comorin in the south; and 4th,
the temple of Budrienath in the Himalayas. Owing to this,
the Vaishnav pilgrims in Gurhwal are more numerous than the
Sivite ones. It is easy to know them, as the two sects mark
their foreheads with chalk of different colours, and in a differ-
ent way. The followers of Vishnu mark their foreheads with
three perpendicular lines, the centre one being red and the
lateral ones white. The followers of Mahadao use white chalk
only, and mark their foreheads with horizontal lines, not per-
pendicular. Imagine this being introduced into Scotland—
Episcopalians putting horizontal lines in white chalk on their
foreheads, and Presbyterians perpendicular lines. English
travellers sometimes absurdly call these marks caste-marks.
They have nothing whatever to do with caste, since a Brahmin
and a low-caste man who belong to the same religious sect,
wear exactly the same mark on their forehead. I repeatedly
called on the high priests, and found them very pleasant and
intelligent men; but I used to wonder whether they would
not have been happier if they had remained poor monks in
their convent in the warm south, instead of becoming high
priests in the cold bleak mountains, living practically their
whole life in the region of perpetual snow.
Close to the temple of Kidarnath is a famous precipice,
from which, in former times, pilgrims used to throw themselves
down, believing that by so doing they would go straight to
heaven. This has been forbidden by the British Govern-
ment, and one of the duties of the high priest of Kidarnath,
1889-90. | a District in the Himalayas. 291
imposed on him by the British Government, is to prevent any
pilgrims going near the precipice for fear of their trying to
commit suicide. This precipice is famous in Hindoo legend,
as the place from which the five Pandu heroes ascended to
heaven. But the mere fact of the pilgrims coming up from
the plains is a species of suicide, so many of them die before
they quit the mountains. One day when I was at Vishnu-
preag, an incident occurred. An old pilgrim and his old wife,
a childless couple, had been to visit Kidarnath and Budrie-
nath. On their way back, the woman became ill; was taken
to the hospital, and died there. Her husband, as is the cus-
tom, committed her body to the sacred river. He then gave
a great feast to all the Brahmins of the place—as much
wheat, flour, and rice, and clarified butter, and sweetmeats,
as the little money he had left would pay for. Rising from
the feast, where he had presided as host, but had eaten noth-
ing, he went down to the river bank, and, with something
like a smile on his old wrinkled face, walked deliberately into
the roaring torrent. In an instant, the mighty waves had
beaten him down, and he was never seen more. His life had
not been a wasted one. He had had a wife whom he had
loved. In his youth, while ploughing his fields, he had
often had dreams of some day visiting the Himalayan
mountains. Now, in his old age, he had seen the eternal
snows, and the two holy temples of Kidarnath and Budrienath,
and he was not going back to live alone in his Bundelcund
village.
I shall now proceed to speak more particularly of the fauna
and flora of Gurhwal, and shall take up first in order the
ANIMALS.
In Gurhwal only two spécies of monkeys are found, but
both are abundant. They are Presbytes entellus and Macacus
rhesus. The same two are found all over the northern plains
of India, except that the black-faced monkey, Presbytes en-
tellus, has, in the plains, the hands also black. In the hills
it has only a black face, and the hands are body-coloured—a
difference not sufficient to make it a separate species. It is
292 An Account of Gurhwal, [Sess.
curious that these two monkeys should be found all over the
country where dialects derived: from Sanscrit are spoken—no
other monkeys occurring there—and that they should be found
nowhere else. It looks as if identical causes sometimes
determined things apparently so distinct as the fauna of a
country and the language spoken by its inhabitants.
Of Insectivora, the most common is the musk-rat, Sorex, sev-
eral species of which are common, and most useful in destroy-
ing noxious insects. They have, however, an abominable smell,
which is very offensive to Europeans. Of the Carnivora, the
black bear (Ursus tibetanus) is exceedingly common. It seldom
attacks man unprovoked, except in the case of a female with
cubs; but when the natives try to drive a bear out of their
fields, it often shows fight, and inflicts fearful injuries with
its claws, sometimes tearing off all the skin of a man’s face.
I have often had patients in hospital, frightfully disfigured by
attacks from bears, and numbers of people are killed annually.
The white snow-bear (Ursus isabellinus) is found, but only in
the highest mountains. Allied to the bear, but much smaller,
is the long-tailed bear-squirrel, which Cuvier calls the most
beautiful of quadrupeds. Of the weasel tribe two are found
—Martes flavigula, a most inveterate destroyer of poultry, as
I more than once experienced, and a beautiful Mustela. Of
otters, Lutra monticola is common. I have sat watching it
hunting for fish, floating down one of the great rivers, swept
along by the current, and then returning up-stream by land.
Of the true Felines, the tiger is met with, but can hardly be
called common. Every now and then, however, an old tiger
or tigress, no longer able for the hard work of catching deer
and cattle in the plains, makes its way up to the hills in
summer, and takes to the easier occupation of killing the
village women, who are employed cutting grass on the hill-
sides. It does not so often attack men. The reason probably
is, that it is the custom for the village women to go every day
to the hills, and there cut grass, and bring home a load of it
for their cattle, while the men are employed ploughing, or
working in the fields, near the village. Thus the women
wandering about the hillsides, often far from each other, fall
an easy prey to a tiger. The number of tigers is not, how-
ever, very great, and practically they are confined to South
ea «tt
1889-90. | a District in the Himalayas. _ 203
Gurhwal, the part nearest the plains. Bishop Heber says
that tigers make their way up to the snowy range, and other
writers have copied his statement. This is possible, but I
never heard of such a thing, and do not believe it occurs
oftener than once perhaps in a century. With regard to
leopards, the case is very different. They are common every-
where, and are great destroyers of dogs. In the plains of
India, every village swarms with dogs. In Gurhwal, village
dogs are rare, being generally soon eaten by leopards. Euro-
pean travellers in Gurhwal often bring up dogs with them
from the plains, but they are very apt to lose them. Some
day, generally some evening about dusk, when the dog is
running along, it may be only a few feet from his master, the
noise of a spring is heard, and a leopard is seen, but only for
one second; the next, it disappears behind the bushes with
the dog in its mouth. Next to dogs, the favourite food of
leopards is monkeys. Another interesting animal, much
dreaded by the natives, but fortunately not very common,
is the wild dog (Cuon rutilans), differing from the true dog
somewhat in its dentition. This creature hunts in packs, like
the wolves of Siberia, but it does so normally, while they only
do it occasionally. Owing to the systematic way in which
a pack work together, the wild dog is dreaded by all other
animals. Once it has chosen its prey, escape is all but im-
possible. Fortunately it is rare. I have more than once
heard from natives about packs they had seen, but I have
never myself seen a wild dog. Jackals are common, but are
not dangerous, as they do not combine in packs. Wolves,
which are so common in the plains of India, are, curiously
enough, unknown, or at least exceedingly rare, in the hills.
Of Rodents, squirrels are common, especially the flying squirrel
(Pteromys inornatus). The marmot is common in lofty moun-
tains. I killed one at 16,000 feet. Mice, rats, and field-mice
are very common, and the curious tailless Lagomys Roylei is
found, but is not common. The porcupine (Hystrix longi-
cauda) is common. This animal is the pest of gardens. It
burrows under the enclosing walls, and, once in, makes short
work of all the vegetables growing inside. The beast itself
is good to eat. Porcupine flesh is very nice indeed, but beasts
of prey avoid an animal so protected by sharp spines. A
204 An Account of Gurhwal, [ Sess.
tiger sometimes ventures to eat one. Once on the borders of
Kumaon and Gurhwal a sick tiger was seen wandering about
helpless, and emaciated to the last degree. It was easily
killed by a friend of mine, who had killed many tigers far
more formidable than it was. After it was killed, the cause
of its illness was discovered. It had swallowed a porcupine,
and the spines of the porcupine had made their way through
the tiger’s stomach into its flesh, causing the poor tiger hor-
rible torture. Of Ruminants, many are found. Indeed the
chief reason why European travellers visit Gurhwal is in
order to shoot these animals. In the lower or southern hills
the most common are the barking deer (Cervulus awreus),
which has a call exactly like the barking of a dog, and the
pig-donkey (Nemorhedus goral), whose native name of Ghuror
occurs in a common Gurhwal proverb, “Ghuror khani chant
piyar ”—“ The goral loves the broken ground,” equivalent to
“There is no place like home.” Less common and much
bigger beasts are the Nemorhzdus bubalina, or cow-goat, and
the Rusa Aristotelis or jarao, called Sambur in the plains,
where it also occurs. This animal is supposed by some to be
Aristotle’s horse-stag.
In the higher or northern hills the common ruminants are
the wild goat, which is, however, occasionally found pretty low
down; the wild sheep, confined to the snowy ranges; and the
musk-deer, which yields the valuable scent musk, which is
so costly that even in Northern Gurhwal it is from ten to
twenty times its weight in silver. Of the Edentata, only one
is found, and that even is doubtful, but it is certainly found
in parts of the Himalayas, and the natives believe in its ex-
istence in Gurhwal. This is the manis, or ant-eater. If all
tales of it are true, it is a most unpleasant animal to meet
after nightfall, as it has a habit of addressing travellers with
a voice apparently human. If the traveller speaks back, he
infallibly dies. In the neighbouring province of Kumaon, a
friend of mine fell from a precipice one evening and broke
his ankle. The place where he fell was close to the road,
and the natives heard him calling for help, but they would
not go to his assistance, or even answer him a word, fearing
that he might be a nish-chur, or night-walker—the name
they give to the ant-eater. A similar superstition is referred
ee
1889-90. | a District in the Himalayas. 295
to in Shakespeare. Sir John Falstaff says, in “The Merry
Wives of Windsor”: “They are fairies; he that speaks to
them shall die.”
Of Gurhwal birds, the first place undoubtedly belongs to
the pheasants. Five of these are common—Lophophorus
Impeyanus, Ceriornis melanocephala, Pucrasia macrolopha,
Gallophasis albocristatus, and Phasianus Wallichii. No birds
except the humming-birds can equal the beauty of the two
first-named. To see them in their native hills is alone almost
worth a journey to Gurhwal. It is, however, only the males
that are beautiful. The females are sombre coloured, and far
less attractive. Near the snows I saw numbers of two beauti-
ful birds, the black and white snow-pigeon, and the Cornish
chough, or a bird nearly allied to it. Of the other birds I
saw in Gurhwal, the most interesting were the white-spotted
serpent eagle, with its fine black-and-white crest, the Him-
alayan osprey, and the purple-tailed honey-sucker. I shall
leave the other birds of Gurhwal for a future paper—should
I ever write one—on the birds of Kumaon and Gurhwal;
but I cannot conclude this section about birds without men-
tioning that most beautiful singer, the yellow-billed whistling
thrush (Myiophonus Temmenckii). In the early dawn, long
before sunrise, the glorious notes of this bird used to pour in
through the canvas walls of my tent, waking me with music
—yjust as I had been lulled to sleep some hours before by the
soft double note of the owl (Ephialtes pennatus). No human
music could be softer and more soothing than the sweet low
murmur of the owl; no music more arousing and enlivening
than the rich, full, strong notes of the thrush.
Of lizards, two are exceedingly common—Calotes versicolor
and Stellio tuberculata, both belonging to the thick-tongued
section. Both are insectivorous; but they also eat grass and
garden plants. One day, coming along a road, one of these
little creatures attacked me, apparently for the purpose of
protecting her eggs, which she was watching over, having
very stupidly made her nest on the side of the public road.
They themselves are preyed on by snakes. Of snakes, by far
the most common is the pretty, non-venomous, little Simotes
Russellii, but three venomous ones are abundant —two of
them, the cobra and the Russell’s viper, being met with from
296 An Account of Gurhwal, [Sess.
the plains up to as high as 6000 feet. The third, Halys
himalayanus, is only seen at great heights—I have never seen
it below 10,000 feet. Above that height it is common.
One day a friend and I killed two in the course of five
minutes. Two other poisonous snakes are found, but are
rare—Bungarus ceruleus and Trimeresures gramineus. I
was only able to get one specimen of each. The boa-con-
strictor, or python, is not uncommon, and is said to grow to
20, or even to 30, feet. The only specimen I ever pos-
sessed was 14 feet long, and was shot in Gurhwal by a
friend, Mr Batten, who presented the skin to me. A python
is a very thick heavy snake, not a slim one, like most of the
poisonous snakes. When this one was first shot, it took four
men to carry it to Mr Batten’s house. A python has no
poisonous fangs, but if a large one could get a coil round a
man’s body, it would kill him instantly. On one occasion,
when riding with my wife in Northern Gurhwal, at a height
of about 9000 feet, an enormous python rolled across the
road, and so terrified my wife's pony that it nearly jumped
over a precipice.
Of Amphibians, frogs are very common, especially Rana
tigrina, and they are the favourite prey of the common
snakes. In the higher hills I often saw a beautiful tree-
frog, which I believe is named Rhacophorus maximus, but I
had no good book on the Amphibia. There is not, as far as
I know, any good book on the Amphibia like my friend Mr
Theobald’s ‘ Descriptive Catalogue of the Reptiles of British
India ’—a most valuable work, and of portable size, which I
always carried about with me everywhere.
Of fishes I can say little. The common ones in Gurhwal
are a silurus, called “ gonch” by the natives, and three species
of Cyprinus—“ ashala,” “ paprua,” and “ patua.” I tried to
identify them by means of Dr Day’s book on Indian fishes,
but could make nothing of them. Of butterflies I made a
considerable collection, but giving a list of their names would
have no interest. One moth, Bombyx atlas, is often noticed
by travellers in Gurhwal, on account of its great size. Every
traveller also notices two other insects,—the Cicada pulchella,
which sings all day long in the trees, as the cicadas did in
ancient Greece; and the homopterous insect called Psylla,
cael le
1889-90. | a District in the Himalayas, 297
which secretes a white cottony substance in flakes, with which
it covers itself all over. The people of Gurhwal call it the
“debri insect,” because it is generally found on the debri
shrub (Zlaodendron Roxburgh).
As for the biting flies, the traveller has not to search for
them—they come to search for him. Last century, at Upsala,
Linneus drew up what he called “A Watch of Flora,” or
floral dial telling the hours of the day by the opening and
closing of the corollas of the common wild-flowers. In imi-
tation of him, I composed a somewhat similar entomological
dial for Gurhwal, to enable the traveller to tell the hour of
the day by the insect which was biting him, As drawn up
by me in 1866, it stands as follows :—
Before sunrise. Midges.
Sunrise to 8 a.m. Black flies, called by the natives mura. Bite remains
painful for about a week.
8 A.M. to noon, Horse flies—native name, moniya, Bites bleed, and
are painful, but only at first.
Noon to 3 P.M. Another species which creeps under traveller's
clothes and bites him—dans fly. Pain temporary.
3P.M.to4pP.M. Small black-and-white fly with green head. Bites
smart unpleasantly.
4pmM.to6P.M. Mura flies reappear.
6p.M.to7p.M. Midges reappear.
7PM.to9P.M, Fleas and daddy-long-legs,
Though this sketch could be much improved, it is, I believe,
correct, as far as it goes—at all events, for the month of May.
Some other nasty biting flies appear in June and July. Then
there are the land leeches of damp soil, but these bite you all
day long, and keep to no particular hour of the day, In the
hot weather they are only found in damp places, but during
the autumn rainy weather they are almost everywhere. In
some Gurhwal villages the inhabitants spread wood-ashes all
round the village, to keep out the land leeches. European
travellers often dip their stockings in salt-and-water before
putting them on. This, to a certain extent, keeps off leeches.
For protection against the mura fly, they sometimes wear veils.
The natives, to keep off this fly, nearly always carry a leafy
twig in their hands, and use it as a sort of fan. With regard
to land leeches, the natives of Gurhwal simply look down
every now and then at their bare legs, and pick off any leeches
VOL, I. x
298 _ An Account of Gurhwal, [Sess,
that may be clinging to their ankles, or their feet above their
sandals. I need scarcely add that, in winter, there are no
biting flies, and no leeches. This would, therefore, seem to be
the best season to visit Gurhwal; but unfortunately it is very
cold at that season, especially in the narrow sunless valleys.
Then there is the absence of the beautiful butterflies and
flowers, though there are some fine flowers even in winter,
such as the lovely tree convolvulus with white flowers
(Porana paniculata), the Acanth (Heaxacentris coccinea) with
deep red flowers; and the cherry is in full bloom during
winter.
The mention of these Gurhwal winter flowers leads me next
to speak of
PLANTS.
Gurhwal was the first place in the Himalayas of which the
botany was investigated. This was done so long ago as 1796.
The father of Himalayan botany, Major-General Hardwick,
spent the months of April and May of that year plant-collect-
ing in Gurhwal. This was before the Goorkha conquest.
After that event, Gurhwal was practically closed to the visits
of European travellers. Many of his plants seem to have
been named for him by the great Calcutta botanist, Wallich ;
and Roxburgh, of Madras, named after him one of the finest
trees of Central India, calling it Hardwickia binata. His
collection is, of course, enumerated in Linnean order, but it
was the only local flora I had when I visited Gurhwal, and
I will follow it in this paper. I must add the autumn flowers,
as he only gives the spring ones, and gives them in many
cases with names different from those now employed. In all
such cases I will adopt the modern names, not those given by
General Hardwick. The first plant he mentions was also the
first that caught my eye, growing on the green banks of the
smaller rivers—Curcuma angustifolia, with yellow flowers and
beautiful rosy-red bracts. Then follow in his list three species
of jasmine, and the little, pink, perennial Androsace rotundifolia,
so named by Wallich, but confounded in Europe with Wallich’s
white-flowering annual Androsace incisa. Next follow two
common Gurhwal shrubs—the white, purple-spotted Leycesteria
1889-90. | a District in the Himalayas. 299
formosa, and the yellow Linum trigynum, both highly ornamen-
tal shrubs. Chiretta is not mentioned by the General, as it
is an autumn plant. Chiretta, or “the bitter plant,’ is a
name given to various species of the two genera, Ophelia and
Agathodes, which agree in yielding a tonic infusion, much used
in Indian medicine. They are allied to the gentians of the
Alps, but differ in having glandular pores at the base of the
petals. These pores are naked in Ophelia, but covered with
a fimbriate scale in Agathodes. Asa tonic, few plants surpass
them. When required as a medicine, they are simply pulled
up by the root and dried in the sun. The infusion is prepared
in an equally simple manner. Fragments of the stem, with
the dried leaves and flowers on it, are put into a vessel, and
hot water is poured over them. The infusion is then allowed
to cool, and is drunk exactly like tea. Mothers in India
sometimes give delicate children a morning cup of chiretta to
breakfast, instead of a cup of tea. Of the berberries, the
General only mentions one species, but in reality two species
are common — Berberis asiatica, with short racemes, and
Berberis aristata, with long compound racemes. They have
different Hindustani names, so it is strange that the General
confounded them, Their properties are, however, similar.
Their berries are eaten, and the dried extract of their roots
is perhaps the best, and certainly the oldest, of all known
remedies for ophthalmia. Buried under the lava of
Herculaneum, jars have been found containing Berberry
extract, and labelled by some old Greek or Campanian
druggist, “Best Himalayan light-giver,’ or Lycium. The
species of Berberis found in the western Himalayas has been
properly named Berberis Lycium. It very much resembles
the Gurhwal Berberis asiatica.
In the class Decandria, two Bauhinias are mentioned.
One of these, Bauhinia Vahlii, is a very common and very
interesting plant. It is a gigantic climber, growing in the
valleys chiefly, covering large trees, and often smothering
them. It is particularly injurious to Shorea robusta, the
most valuable ‘ef Indian timber - trees, and it is therefore
mercilessly destroyed by the officers of the Forest Department,
in the forests, at the foot of the hills, where Shorea robusta
grows. In the lower hills it still holds its own. The natives
300 An Account of Gurhwal, [Sess.
of Gurhwal have a fancy that the poison of malaria ascends
as high up a hill as the Bauhinia grows, and that you are
quite safe anywhere above the Bauhinia level. The natives
of Gurhwal also say that the green-eyed cattle-fly only ap-
pears when the Bauhinia flowers, which it does in April.
This fly is rather peculiar in its habits, as the male feeds on
flowers, while the female bites cattle, driving them nearly to
distraction. In sunny weather the cattle are only safe from its
attacks by lying down in water. It also bites horses and
human beings. Of Rhododendrons, the General only mentions
the most common one, the scarlet R. arboreum; but three
others are found in the northern part of the country, which he
did not visit—the white R. campanulatum, the dingy-red R.
barbatum, and the sulphur-yellow R. anthopogon. He also
mentioned Oxalis acetosella, identical with the British plant.
This, I myself never succeeded in finding in Gurhwal. The
next interesting plant mentioned is the tree, Aigle marmelos,
from the specific name of which is derived the word marmalade.
It belongs to the orange family. From the tenacious pulp of
the fruit of this tree a medicine is prepared, which in India is
much used in diarrhcea and dysentery, and which, for these
diseases, is superior to any medicine I know. The three most
useful plants in Anglo-Indian medicine are all natives of
Gurhwal—Chiretta, Berberry, and ele marmelos.
In Icosandria, the General mentions the pomegranate—a
most anomalous genus, which has been referred to many
natural orders. The fruit is eaten, though, as met with wild
in Gurhwal, it is not particularly good to eat. The bark of
the root is an excellent vermifuge, and the rind of the fruit is
used in dying, and in tanning leather. Though a native of Asia,
it was known in very early times to the Greeks and Romans.
The Romans called it “ Punica,” because they first saw it
growing at Carthage—naturalised, however, not wild. So
much did the Romans think of this plant, that the adjective
puniceus, Meaning coloured like the pomegranate, became the
common word for the colour red. Next in the list follows
the common Indian hill-cherry (Prunus paddam)—not identical
with our cherry. The Indian cherry flowers in October or
November; the leaves appear soon after, and the fruit ripens
in the succeeding April. Its active life is during the eight
ee
we Aw)
1889-90. | a District in the Himalayas. 301
dry months, and it rests during the four months of the
autumn rains. Several other species of Prunus occur in
Gurhwal, but mostly in the upper country, where the autumn
rains are less severely felt. The most important of these is
the apricot, which ripens its fruit up to a height of 10,000
feet, and which is an important article of food in the high
hills of Northern Gurhwal. The common wild pear, Pyrus
variolosa, is found all over Gurhwal, but the fruit is so harsh
that it is little eaten, except by children and bears. The
common rose of Gurhwal is the very strongly scented white
rose, Rosa moschata, which grows along the banks of every
stream, forming dense thickets which are good covert for
leopards. Higher up the country, I have found three other
species of roses—Rosa sericea, with four white petals; Rosa
Webbiana, a pink flower, climber; and.a red rose, Rosa
macrophylla—an unfortunate name, as the leaves are not
very large. It should have been called “ macrosepala” or
“polyphylla.” Of brambles, two are mentioned by Hardwick
—Rubus ellipticus, with yellow fruit, much eaten by the
natives and by European travellers; and Rubus lasiocarpus,
with black fruit, which he calls Rubus ideus. Many others
are found, but these two are by far the most common. Of
strawberries, the only one he mentions is one with yellow
flowers, and tasteless insipid fruit; but above 8000 feet I
found abundance of a white-flowering species, the fruit of
which is nearly as good as that of the wild Scotch strawberry.
Of leguminous plants, the most conspicuous in Lower
Gurhwal is the lovely climber, Pueraria tuberosa, with blue-
and-white flowers. Of Composite, the General only men-
tions four—Leontodon taraxacum, identical with the British
dandelion; Lactuca obtusa, Tragopogon gracile, and a very
conspicuous shrub with white flowers, Leucomeris spectabilis,
belonging to the Mutisacez section. These are the common
spring composites. If he had visited Gurhwal in autumn, he
would have found the country covered with many species of
Anaphelis, allied to our Gnaphaliums, but differing in being .
dicecious, thus resembling the edelweiss of the Alps. The
edelweiss has been found in Gurhwal above 12,000 feet, but I
never got it. I found, however, at 13,000 feet, another very
rare plant, Phagnalon niveum, of which I sent specimens to
*
302 An Account of Gurhwal, [Sess.
Kew. It had only been once discovered before, probably at
the very place where I found it, on the banks of the Alak-
nanda river, near its source. It is a species quite distinct
from the well-known Phagnalon denticulatum, a common plant
in Afghanistan. I found, at similar elevations, quantities of
various species of Saussurea plants, which have a musky smell.
They are presented, as offerings to the gods, by pilgrims when
they visit the temples of Budrienath and Kidarnath: the gods
are supposed to like the smell of musk. The two most com-
mon species are 8. obvallata, with a large coloured bract, and
S. gossypina, covered with wool. Of the birch family, the
only one common in Lower Gurhwal is the Alnus nepalensis ;
but in Upper Gurhwal, true birches are very common, and
from their bark Thibet paper is made, on which are written
Thibetan books. -Maples are common in Central Gurhwal,
and from maple-wood dishes are made, and used instead of
crockery. When travelling in Gurhwal, I often ate my dinner
off maple-wood dishes. Elm-trees are also common, and still
more so the allied tree, Celtis tetrandra, which is often planted
round villages. Another village favourite is the Olea fragrans,
—a tree probably not indigenous, and possibly an importation
all the way from Japan. Hooker and Bentham call it an
Olea, though it has an imbricate corolla and ex-albuminous
seeds, which made me take it for a jasmine. The scent of
the flowers is delicious, and it is often planted in the centre
of a village, and stone seats arranged all round it under its
shade. It is what in old Scotland was called a “ covin tree.”
Such stone circles of seats are mentioned in Homer—
“ of O& yépovTes
elar’ émt Eeototar Atos tep@ evt KiKAw” —
but Homer does not mention the. tree in the centre. In
Gurhwal, the greybeards of the village assemble in the sum-
mer evenings, and smoke their pipes, and discuss the price of
rice and mandua, or the mischief recently done by the ravages
of bears, or perhaps the hardship of the custom, handed down
from ancient times, which forces every peasant - proprietor,
when he kills a goat, to send, as a present, a fore-quarter to
the thokdar, or lord of the manor. This, in most places, is still
1 The Iliad, Book XVIII., ll. 503, 504.
1889-90. | a District in the Himalayas. 303
always done, even by the padhan or leading peasant-proprietor
of the village, although nowadays the ¢hokdars, or hereditary
representatives of the old lords of the manor, are generally
mere peasants, like their neighbours. They have, however,
as may be imagined, an ample supply of fore-quarters of kid,
and do not require to kill their own goats for food.
Of oaks, four species are common in Gurhwal, belonging to
two of Aersted’s sub-genera—Euquercus and Cyclobalanus.
Judging them by their leaves, they belong to the sections with
entire, and with dentate leaves; none of them to the sinuate-
leaved section, to which British oaks belong. Of willows, the
most common species is Salix tetrasperma, but many others
are found.
One of the most common and most useful of Gurhwal
plants is the Indian hemp (Cannabis indica). It is called
“Bhang” in Gurhwal. It grows sometimes to a height of
ten or twelve feet, and flourishes best at elevations of from
6000 to 7000 feet. A resinous juice exudes from, and
concretes on, the leaves, stem, and flowers. This juice is
collected, and is the most popular intoxicant drug of Northern
India, more used than any of its four rivals—(1) spirit made
from rice; (2) spirit made from palm-trees; (3) spirit made
from bassia flowers; (4) opium. This is the famous drug
“ Hatchis,” used by the sect called the “ Assassins,” who
flourished on the shores of the Caspian Sea in the time of
the Crusades. There is also a long account of this drug in
Dumas’ well-known novel, ‘Monte Christo.’ Very probably
it, not opium, is the “ Nepenthe” of Homer. In Gurhwal
this plant is used in another and less objectionable manner.
From its strong fibres clothes are made, and it is generally
easy to distinguish a native of Gurhwal from a native of the
adjoining province of Kumaon by his dress. The Kumaoni
always wears a woollen plaid, or blanket; the Ghurwali
generally a hemp one, called a bhangela, from the word bhang,
being the name of the plant. This hemp blanket or plaid is
worn as an upper garment by both men and women, but it is
fastened differently. The men fasten it with a pin or brooch
on the breast, the women fasten it with a girdle round the
waist.
Allied to the hemp, and even more abundant, is the nettle,
304 An Account of Gurhwal, [ Sess.
a plant much eaten in Gurhwal. The young shoots are
boiled, and are most palatable. I have often eaten them
myself, so speak from experience. According to a Gurhwal
proverb, a poor man’s dinner is
“ Mandua ka roti,
Shishauna ka sag”—
which means bread made from millet (Zleusine coracana), with
nothing for kitchen but nettles. The poet who composed this
verse had apparently forgotten the existence of ferns, which
are even more eaten by the poor than nettles are. The
young fronds of two species, called by the people “ Lingra”
and “ Kutra,’ are most eaten. Both are very common.
“Lingra” probably is Nephrodium polymorphum ; “ Kutra ”
probably Nephrodium odoratum. These, at least, are my
identifications of them, but I may have been mistaken. My
difficulty was that the natives showed me “Lingra” and
“ Kutra” in the young state, without spores on the back of
the leaves, whereas it was only after the spores appeared that
it was possible to name the plants from Hooker’s ‘ Synopsis
Filicum, or any other scientific book.
Of the edible fruits growing wild, by far the best are
Myrica sapida and Eleagnus ghiwain. Both are delicious.
I should think there are few nicer wild fruits in the world.
They are far superior to the raspberries mentioned above.
Of the pine family, by far the most common in Lower Gurhwal
is Pinus longifolia, with three leaves in each sheath. Pinus
excelsa, with five leaves in a sheath, I found only at one
place, Kunol, at a height of 10,000 feet above the sea, but
there, it was abundant. Along with it I found Abies Smithiana,
which is also rare. Picea Pindrow, Picea Webbiana, and
Taxus baccata are all common. They are the three most
common trees of Upper Gurhwal, as Pinus longifolia, Quercus
incana, and Rhododendron arboreum are of Lower Gurhwal.
Cupressus torulosa is fairly common. Cedrus deodara is
planted round every temple, and is abundant, wild in the
north-western part of the country. The river Alaknanda,
near its source, runs through a magnificent deodar forest.
The junipers grow all over the northern part of Gurhwal, and
grow nearer to the line of perpetual snow than any other
a
— sy
1889-90. | a District in the Himalayas. 305
woody plant. In Thibet, juniper is used to burn as incense
in the temples; and it is planted round every temple in
Thibet, in the same way as Cedrus deodara is planted round
every temple in Gurhwal.
I shall now speak, very shortly, of a few of the common
diseases I met with in Gurhwal, more especially of the
plague.
DISEASES.
The common diseases of Gurhwal differ much from those of
Britain. Phthisis and cancer are comparatively rare. On the
other hand, goitre, calculus, ague, rheumatism, leprosy, cholera,
and plague are common. Goitre one of course expects in a
mountainous country. Juvenal long ago wrote: “ Quis tumi-
dum guttur miratur in Alpibus.” The only one of the other
diseases I will notice is plague—a disease which, in the middle
ages, appeared in Europe,—at Florence in 1348, and at London
in 1563-64, and which was common in Egypt last century.
In recent times, it is met with, so far as I know, only in the
Himalayas, in the mountainous province of Yunan in China,
and in Mesopotamia. In Gurhwal, scarcely a year passes
without an outbreak; but in some years these are much more
severe than in others. The first sign of its appearance is,
that all the rats and mice in a house are found lying dead.
If the inhabitants do not immediately quit the house, many
of them are struck down, a day or two after, with burning
fever, and great prostration of strength ; but without diarrhcea,
pain, or rash on the skin. The majority of those attacked die
before the third day of their illness. Those who do not die
begin, after the third day, to feel pains in the groin, the arm-
pit, or under the ear. A large boil or carbuncle forms at the
painful place, and soon bursts, after which the patient gener-
ally recovers pretty quickly. The native name of the disease
is gola rog, which means “ ball disease ”—the boil being com-
pared to a ball or gola. According to the universal belief, a
person who has recovered from this disease is absolutely safe
from a second attack. This is most important, for the dis-
ease is very infectious, and people dread to nurse, or even
remain near, a sick relative. The only people who can safely
300 An Account of Gurhwal, [Sess.
attend to the sick are the fortunate persons who have already
had the disease, and have recovered.
The worst epidemic I saw was in 1877. It was a terrible
disease to have to treat, as no medicines I gave seemed to do
any good. In other diseases—even in cholera—I myself
believed in the remedies I administered, and the friends of
the patients, and the patients themselves, were most anxious
to get medicine from me; but in this disease they protested
that all medicine was absolutely useless. Twice I had quoted
to me a sad couplet of verse, which I felt was only too
true :—
“ Aukhade Ganga toyam,
Baidyo Narain Hari”—
“ All medicine is useless; no one can save us but God.”
When I went to see a village where plague was said to have
broken out, I used to start from my tent, pitched on the bank
of the river, and take a guide from some healthy village.
This man guided me to a hill-top, a mile or two from the
infected village, but within sight of it, and pointing out to
me the cluster of houses, took his departure. Nothing would
have tempted him to go with me to the entrance of the village.
On one occasion, my guide pointed out to me a hamlet, named
Kherki, where he said all the inhabitants were dead. As I,
and the native doctor who was with me, approached nearer
the village, we found the village cattle wandering about in
the grain fields; and a poor dog—the only living inhabitant
of the village—barked furiously at us, from the top of one of
the houses. On reaching the group of houses, and going in,
we found all the people lying dead, some on their beds, some
on the floors of the rooms. Probably a month had elapsed,
and during all that time no one from any neighbouring village
had ventured to go within a mile of the plague-stricken place.
The native doctor and I drove the cattle and the dog away
from the place; and then, as the best means of disposing of
the dead, I set fire to the village, and burned the whole of it
down—cottages, cattle-sheds, and barns full of grain.
On another occasion, about three weeks after, nearly a
quarter of a mile from a plague-stricken and deserted house,
the native doctor and I found the dead body of a woman.
= ee eee
ood Ai ee
1889-90. | a District in the Himalayas. 307
The neighbours had told us that this woman had buried all the
other inhabitants of her house—her husband, her mother, and
her sister. Last of all, she herself had sickened and died. We
buried her on the spot where she was lying. As before, no
villager from any other place would go with us nearer than
about a mile from the house.
I was told that at a village called Balt there were sixty-
four inhabitants when the disease broke out,—that of these,
sixty died, three recovered, and one was supposed to have
remained unaffected. I believe this account to be substan-
tially true, but I did not visit Balt till a long time after
the epidemic was over. In another smaller village I found
that of the whole population, only one man and one woman
had survived. The man had lost his wife and children,
the woman her husband and children. In the other houses
in the village, all had died—men, women, and children.
One more story to conclude with. When I was returning
home, after the epidemic was practically over, and was
marching down the bank of the great river, a native
pointed out a cave to me, and told me that two little girls,
about ten and eight years of age, had taken refuge there.
Their parents had died of the plague. No village would
allow these children to enter it, for fear of their bringing
infection ; but the neighbouring villagers daily carried food to
a place near the cave, where these children could find it. I
walked to a large village near, where I purchased blankets,
carried them up to the cave, and gave them to the girls. I
then went to a rich native gentleman who lived near, and
asked him to see that the children continued to get food reg-
ularly. I afterwards heard that the children survived their
life in the cave, and were taken back to village life again.
All the neighbours told me they were girls of good family,
and rich. I mention this to show that it was not a case of
poverty. It was terror of infection, and that alone, which
kept these children out of the shelter of a house, and forced
them to take refuge in a cave.
308° The Hoopoe in Westmoreland. [Sess,
Il—THE HOOPOE IN WESTMORELAND.
By BarLt1—E WALCOT.
(Read Dec. 26, 1889.)
On September 16 of the present year I sent the following
letter to the ‘ Scotsman ’ :—
Srr,—Last Saturday morning, the 14th inst., while enjoying a ramble
on the hills near the Shap Wells Hotel, Westmoreland, five or six of the
hotel visitors were fortunate enough to see a fine specimen of the hoopoe.
The size, back, crest, and markings on back and tail were distinctly seen
by us all, and their correspondence with the hoopoe characteristics is
beyond all doubt. When first seen it was picking up food along the
banks of the roadway, and apparently so unsuspicious of danger that we
were able to get within three or four yards of it. Ina short time it rose,
and leisurely flew twenty or thirty yards on the moorland. This it did
several times, each time allowing us to follow it and get another view.
Finally it took a stronger flight towards the beacon, as if disapproving our
attentions, and bidding us a decisive farewell. As this migratory bird is
only occasionally seen in this country, the above incident is, I think,
worthy of being recorded, and will be read with interest by those who
have a “ passion” for bird-life.
This letter gave rise to considerable correspondence, all of
which showed that the number of these attractive birds which
visit the British Isles is exceedingly small, and that to see
one of them alive is to become the object of congratulation
and envy. One of these correspondents was the Rev. Mr
Macpherson of Carlisle, a distinguished ornithologist, and
author of a book entitled ‘The Birds of Cumberland.’ In his
letter, dated October 12, he informed me that a farmer had
just brought him for identification a hoopoe, taken acciden-
tally in a rabbit-trap the previous Wednesday. He added
that in his book just referred to, only about half-a-dozen
Cumbrian hoopoes are included, and that he only knew of
one shot in Westmoreland, which is preserved at Kendal. As
I was extremely anxious to know whether this bird caught
in the rabbit-trap might be the mate of the bird I saw on
Shap Fells, I immediately wrote inquiring where it was
caught. The reply received at once dispelled the idea, as it
ee eae a
wit he
1889-90. | The Hoopoe in Westmoreland. 309
was caught on the coast of Cumberland, some miles farther
north, and about a month later in the season.
Macgillivray’s description of the hoopoe is brief, and
singularly clear: “ Head and neck light red, crest feathers
tipped with black, fore part of back light purplish red, middle
part barred with black and reddish white; rump white, tail
coverts black, barred with white; wings and tail black—the
former with several bands, the latter with a single band of
white.” As the female bird differs from the male mainly in
having a somewhat’ shorter bill and crest, and the plumage
paler, I have no doubt that the bird we saw in Westmoreland
was a female bird. The time during which at intervals we
were able to examine it was about fifteen or twenty minutes.
As it did not condescend to lift up its voice during this time,
we were not able to form any opinion on the disputed
question whether its common name originated in the
appearance of its crest, or in its ordinary cry “up-up” or
“ pu-pu.”
It is somewhat interesting to note that in the revised
version of the Bible the word “ lapwing,” in Levit. xi. 19,
has given place to the word “ hoopoe,—a translation justified
by the original, and now generally accepted as the proper
one. Thus we learn that this “bird of beauty” existed
early in the Mosaic period, and has been an attraction to
the human eye through all the ages that have since then
elapsed. It is a somewhat humiliating thing to know that
the hoopoe is classed among “unclean birds” forbidden as
food. Some say it has a disagreeable odour which arises
from a substance secreted by the glands of its tail, while
others affirm that it has the habit of selecting disagreeable
materials for its nest, and so try to explain and justify the
Scripture prohibition. But whichever may be the correct
theory, we cannot avoid the natural inference that beauty
may have its dangers and unpleasantnesses as well as its
attractions.
310 A Fourney from Bombay to Feypore. [Sess.
Ill.—A FEW NOTES ON A JOURNEY FROM
BOMBAY TO JEYPORE, RAJPUTANA.
By Mr SYMINGTON GRIEVE.
(Read Dec. 26, 1889.)
I HAVE been requested to give you a few extracts from the
diary of my recent tour round the world. As I visited part
of Western, Northern, and Central India, also Ceylon, Aus-
tralia, Tasmania, New Zealand, Samoan and Sandwich Islands,
California, Oregon, Washington State, Vancouver Island, and
the mainland of British Columbia, the Selkirk and Rocky
Mountains, thence the prairies and Winnipeg by the Canadian
Pacific Railway, a considerable part of the Central and East-
ern States, as well as Canada,—you will be able to appreciate
the difficulty I feel in knowing what to present for your con-
sideration this evening. I am aware that to most of you
there would be little pleasure in hearing about the voyage to
Bombay, with its triflimg incidents, and, in our case, incon-
veniences; so I do not intend to refer to that part of my
tour. Nor is there time to tell you of the many and wonder-
ful sights we saw in Bombay, with its teeming multitudes of
natives, who make its streets one of the most interesting and
instructive sights in the world.
We reached the metropolis of Western India before the hot
season was over, and were glad, after a few days’ stay, to
make a trip to Poona, visiting Khandala and the caves of
Karli en route. The cool breezes and fine scenery of the
Ghauts was delightful after the steaming heat of Bombay.
It was almost with a feeling of regret that we had to retrace
our steps to the great city before starting northwards towards
Rajputana. I say we, as I was not alone; and it may be as
well you should be introduced to the other members of my
party. There were two European ladies, myself, and our
native servant. The ladies were my wife, and a young Qua-
keress who had been introduced to us on the voyage, and had
asked to join my wife and myself, as she otherwise would
have had to travel alone, with an ayah and native man-ser-
1889-90.| <A Fourney from Bombay to Feypore. art
vant—not a very pleasant prospect in India. This young
lady, however, is a born traveller, and well acquainted with
the methods of dealing with orientals, as she had visited
Egypt, the Soudan, Palestine, and Asia Minor, although this
was her first trip to India. We were exceedingly lucky in
securing the services of our man-servant, as he proved a very
superior person ; and altogether our experiences with servants
were much more favourable than those of most visitors we met.
It is my intention merely to read to you a few extracts
from my diary, which was written under great difficulties, as
we travelled so constantly that unless it was kept up to date
from day to day, it would soon have been hopelessly in arrears.
No doubt many things we saw were not described in detail as
they should have been; but that, perhaps, is not to be re-
gretted, as everything in India is so difficult to understand
properly, that we should probably have fallen into even more
mistakes than we in all likelihood have done.
The first extract is regarding the Towers of Silence at Bom-
bay. Having received a permit through the kindness of
friends, we drove to the Towers of Silence—the place where
the Parsees dispose of their dead. Our drive took us past
many private gardens, brilliant with poinsettias and red and
yellow crotons; and every now and again the eye was diverted
by the movements of the beautiful little striped squirrels that
rushed across the road and up the trees, or sat on walls look-
ing at us, quite fearless from being continually unmolested.
At length, having gradually ascended Malabar Hill, we began
to look down upon the groves of palm-trees and bananas on
the lower ground, with hardly a breath of air to rustle their
tufted foliage or relieve the oppressive heat. I almost felt
inclined to get out and walk when I thought of the poor
horses, as there were three of us inside the carriage and four
natives outside—not a bad load. As all the natives were
dressed in full costume, our equipage was most picturesque,
and would certainly have caused a sensation if it had appeared
in Edinburgh. There was the driver and his syce or footman,
our native servant Lhalla, and the head butler of the friends
who had kindly given us the permit.
When we had reached within about 100 feet from the top
of Malabar Hill the carriage turned into a private road, and
312 A Fourney from Bombay to Feypore. [Sess.
in a minute more we found ourselves at a large iron gate,
and were told that we would now have to leave the carriage,
as we were about to enter the grounds connected with the
Towers of Silence. Passing through the gateway, we found we
were on the upper part of a long causewayed road leading from
the valley below, with many flights of steps on the way up.
Below us this approach to the top of the hill was a beautiful
shady walk, as the foliage of the trees met overhead. We
were told we must ascend, and, gasping as we were without
any exertion, it did not improve our sensations having now to
go in for a climb up several long flights of steps. As there
was no way of evading the difficulty, we had just to face it,
and in a short time found ourselves at another gate, where an
official met us and examined our pass. As it was in order,
he called one of the attendants, who took us round and told
us the limits beyond which no persons except the nasasalar,
or official corpse-bearers, are allowed to go. Our guide first
took us to the three sagris, or houses of prayer, the principal
of which contains the sacred fire, which is fed day and night
with incense and fragrant sandal-wood, and never extinguished.
The three sagris are close to each other, and in them we saw
several priests engaged in prayer. We were next taken to a
place in the grounds where there is erected a small model of
one of the towers, so that visitors may understand the internal
structure of these buildings, as no one is allowed to enter
their precincts,—not even Parsees, but only the corpse-bearers
already referred to. Having examined the model—a duplicate
of which, I think, is in the Museum of Science and Art, or at
least in South Kensington—we went forward until near the
first of the towers. Great numbers of vultures were sitting
round the circular wall, and as we approached a few made a
slight movement ; but seeing there was no funeral, they imme-
diately relapsed into’a kind of torpid state, and seemed fixed
like a horrid vision before our eyes. The scene at the other
four circular towers and the one square tower was much the
same, only the square tower seemed least in favour, owing, no
doubt, to its being seldom used. It stands apart from the
rest, and is for the purpose of disposing of the bodies of per-
sons who have suffered death for heinous crimes. One at
least, and perhaps both, of the smaller circular towers belong
EE ee
1889-90.] A Fourney from Bombay to Feypore. 313
to private families, while the two large circular towers are for
the general use of the Parsee community.
The arrangements connected with the construction of these
buildings are with a view to the prevention of mother earth
being contaminated by dead humanity: thus sound sanitary
laws have been kept in view. The towers are built of the
hardest black granite, plastered over with white chwnam.
There are no roofs upon the towers, which are thus quite
open above. There is a pit in the centre of the building to
receive the bones of the bodies, which have been in the first
instance laid upon one or other of the circular tiers of the
sloping gallery above the sides of the pit which are separately
provided for men, women, and children. From the bottom of
the central pit are drains which carry off any rain-water into
wells filled with charcoal, through which it is filtered and puri-
fied. When a funeral approaches the enclosure in which these
buildings are situated, there is immediately a stir created
among the multitude of vultures sitting round the top of
the walls. They seem to waken up from their lethargy in
anticipation of the sickening feast in store for them. We
shall suppose a funeral has arrived at the gateway of the
sacred enclosure. It is there met by the priests who per-
form the sacred rites, and then the company, preceded by the
nasasalar or corpse-bearers, proceed to within a prescribed
distance of the door of the tower in which the body is to be
placed. The mourners then stop while the corpse-bearers go
on to the buildings, and, having unlocked the door, go inside,
taking the body with them. After a few minutes of suspense
they return without the body, and by this time the vultures
are holding high revelry behind the wall of the tower. A
Parsee believes that if the right eye of the body is plucked
out first by the vultures, the soul goes to heaven; but if the
left is taken out first, the soul goes to the place of woe. Con-
sequently a good deal depends upon the amount paid to the
corpse-bearers as to where the soul of the deceased is sup-
posed to go. The corpse-bearers are highly paid, as they are
supposed to contract impurity in the discharge of their duties,
and are compelled to live apart from the rest of the community.
It is said that these peculiar funeral rites are observed by no
other people than the Parsees, and this makes the Towers of
VOL, 11, %
314 A Fourney from Bombay to Feypore. [Sess,
Silence specially interesting. As far as I am aware, the only
other place where Towers of Silence exist is near Poona; and
as these are seldom used compared to those at Bombay, they
have less interest to the ordinary visitor—especially as they
are on a much smaller scale. The advantages of having a
residence in the neighbourhood of these places of funerals and
vultures, even although the locality may be beautiful, is not
without its drawbacks. The birds of prey do not always end
their feast within the Towers, and we heard stories of such things
as severed fingers and toes being occasionally found in gardens
or upon the verandahs in the morning. In answer to our in-
quiries, the attendant who took us round stated that it was
thirty years since a young vulture had been seen at the
Towers. He said it was not supposed that the vultures bred
at any place in the neighbourhood, but went a long distance for
that purpose. However, there was always such a large number
in attendance, that any that might leave for nidification were
not missed.
It was almost with a feeling of relief that we turned to
leave this remarkable place, with its approaches, and enclosing
wall and buildings, all so strongly built as to remind one more
of a fortress than a house of the dead. As we descended the
road leading back to where we had left our carriage, my eyes
caught sight of a thin dark line that moved along the path.
I saw it was an army of ants. They marched two deep, and
appeared to have officers in command. They brought to my
recollection the refrain of the familiar song, “ March, march,
march in good order.” It was a wonderful sight. I walked
on until I reached the head of the column, with advanced
parties thrown out to reconnoitre. I then followed back
along the line until I reached its rear, and martial order
seemed to reign everywhere. We watched them for some
time until their line of route led them into the long grass,
where they disappeared.
Time will not permit of my saying anything more about
Bombay and its vicinity, so I must ask you to try and travel
in fancy with me for two nights in the train. We spent the
intervening day at Ahmedabad and neighbourhood busy sight-
seeing ; but to rehearse to you the beauties of its Jain temple,
or the marvellous tracery of palm-trees in the white marble
1889-90.] <A Fourney from Bombay to Feypore. 315
windows of the Sidi Syed mosque, or its wonderful tombs
and other Mohammedan buildings, would only be a weariness
to the flesh, so I won’t trouble you. ‘Try and think you are
with us in the train, which goes jolting along at from fifteen to
twenty-five miles an hour. It is daybreak, and we can see
we are approaching a range of mountains. On each side of
the railway is a great plain, arid and uninviting, with dense
clumps of the high jungle-grass in which wild beasts find a
hiding-place. Now and again we pass a few trees with great
numbers of monkeys chattering in them, and quite fearless.
Who dare touch them ?—for we are now in Rajputana, where
the lives of most animals are held sacred. We are entering
a broad valley, with the Arvalli hills to the east, and the
high, rugged, forest-clad spurs of Mount Abu to the north-
west. At 7.40 A.M. we arrived at Abu Road station, where
there is a refreshment-room to which we had telegraphed to
have breakfast ready for us, and also ponies, as we had re-
solved to attempt an expedition to Mount Abu and the cele-
brated Jain temples at Delwada or Devalwada. Dusty travel-
lers we truly were when we reached Abu Road, and you can
hardly understand the intense enjoyment of a bath under
such circumstances. We were therefore overjoyed to find that
there were bath-rooms at the station, and we soon were en-
joying the luxury, and forgot the fatigues of two nights’ travel
in the train. We had a comfortable breakfast, made inquiries
about the track we were to follow, and found we were likely
to have a much more arduous journey than we had supposed.
The distance through the jungle and over the mountain to the
temples by the rough path is a little over twenty miles by the
route we took; and as our time compelled us to do the double
journey in one day, it was rather plucky of the ladies to
attempt it.
Breakfast over, we found the ponies were waiting, and we
mounted. Besides the two ladies, myself, and our native
courier, who was also mounted on a pony, we had a wild-
looking Gujarati syce, who was also to act as guide. He was
not troubled with much clothing, which was fortunate, as,
poor fellow, he had to run the whole distance of over forty
miles. His remuneration, no doubt, he considered very hand-
some, as the tariff fixed by Government enabled him to earn
316 A Journey from Bombay to Feypore. [Sess.
about 2s. for his day’s work. We had the usual difficulties
in starting. with our steeds; and when we came upon a
Government elephant just outside the station, we had no time
almost to look at the huge beast, we were so much engaged
trying to keep our saddles. However, we soon got fairly on
the way, and had time to look around us. We were on a
great plain which stretched away to the south and south-west
as far as the eye could reach. There was much sand, with
patches of long rank grass, and altogether the scene was
typical of what was associated in our minds as like India.
About a mile from Abu Road we crossed the Banas river by
a long wooden bridge of rather rickety construction. We
kept on over the plain toward the wooded spurs of the
mountain, about three miles to the north. As we approached
them more verdure appeared, then a few trees, and close to
the foot of the ascent we entered the dense forest and jungle.
The sun had now got high in the heavens, and we were
grateful for the shade. We had hardly got beneath the trees
when several wild peacocks strutted across the path in front
of us, quite fearless, and almost seemed to resent our in-
trusion. A short distance farther on, a crashing sound
arrested. our attention, and as it came nearer I at first
thought it must be a whirlwind. Our ponies got restless,
but the natives only smiled, so I knew we need not excite
ourselves. I rode towards the noise, and soon heard a
chattering, and saw the boughs of the trees bending in an
extraordinary way. It was a great troop of monkeys that
had come to inspect us. How they crowded the branches
that bent with their weight as if they would break! There
were some so inquisitive that they sat on the trees within a
few feet of our heads, and pulled the foliage aside to have
a good look at us. Mother monkeys came to the front with
their children clinging to them, to see the strange white faces
and unusual costumes of the visitors. No doubt they asked
questions and passed remarks as if we were wild beasts in
a menagerie, but they offered us no nuts, and after much
animated discussion in monkey language they ceased following,
and we hurried on our way.
The path now became rougher and narrower as we ascended
the spur of the mountain, The tropical vegetation became
1889-90.] A Fourney from Bombay to Feypore. 317
denser, and we knew we were not far off the lurking-places
of numerous wild animals that we did not wish to meet
unarmed. The region abounds with big game, and is the
yearly rendezvous of many sportsmen. There are tigers,
panthers, leopards, lynx, bears, and several varieties of deer,
and a few lions, the latter being now a scarce animal in
India. We could only go along at a snail’s pace, the track
was so steep; and as the path was cut out of the precipitous
side of the mountain, we were sometimes on the brink of
an abyss, the dangers of which were only partially obscured
by the dense jungle. It is very curious that ponies seem
always to prefer going as close to the dangerous edge as pos-
sible. At first it causes alarm to an unaccustomed rider:
however, the feeling of danger soon passes off, and one is able
to enjoy themselves. I had a most curious experience, which
I have no wish to repeat. The pony on which I was mounted
behaved so strangely whenever I loosened the reins to look
about, that I got down and examined it, and found it had
entirely lost the sight of the left eye, which happened to be
_ the one next the precipice. At first, whenever we got into
dangerous places I tried to keep my steed as far back from
the outer edge as possible, but the beast was so determined to
walk close to the brink that I gave up the struggle in despair.
Many a time we were in perilous positions, but my one-eyed
pony took me safely through it all.
As the day advanced the heat became intense, and all
nature seemed hushed. The birds appeared to be taking
their siesta, and beyond the movements of numerous squirrels,
and the dancing flight of butterflies, nothing stirred. We
plodded on, as we knew we would have to fast until we got
to Mount Abu, and the long journey we had made up our
minds to perform in one day permitted of no delay. Every
now and again we got glimpses of the valley below, the plain
stretching away in the direction from which we had come,
and the scenery was very grand, looking towards the rocky
peaks of the mountain spurs. About 3000 feet above the
plain we reached the summit of the first ridge. I shall never
forget the view. It is quite beyond the power of pen to
describe it. From our elevated position we looked along the
tops of the spurs and down into the valleys on each side of
318 A Fourney from Bombay to Feypore. [Sess.
us, filled with rich tropical vegetation. In strange contrast
to the vegetation were the sandy plains stretching to the
distant horizon. Some miles after descending from this ridge,
on its north side, we struck the main carriage-road for Mount
Abu. It is a splendid road, and its construction along the
side of tremendous precipices is a great work of engineering.
It reminded me of the railway through Glen Ogle, only there
can be no real comparison, as the valley leading to Mount
Abu is much larger in every way, with dense forest, great
bare rocks, burnt-brown vegetation, and little of the verdure
of our Highland hills. Having reached this good road, we
soon got over the few miles to the hill-station or sanitarium,
and arrived at the Mount Abu Hotel, a clean but poor house,
at 12.45 pm. While we were resting, and tiffin being pre-
pared, I sent our native servant with my card to the Com-
missioner, whose residence was near, requesting to be obliged
with a permit for myself and party to visit the Jain temples
at Delwada. He very kindly granted my request, and by the
time our servant returned we were enjoying our tiffin. Our
repast over, we remounted our ponies, as we had still to go
1} mile. The bridle-path went along a small valley near the
centre of the cluster of peaks forming Mount Abu. On the
rising ground at the end of this valley we saw the four Jain
temples; and farther down the hill, and just outside their
enclosing wall, a village of miserable huts, in strange contrast
to the magnificence of the temples, which are among the most
exquisite buildings in the world. It is said that it cost 56
lakhs of rupees, or £560,000, to level the site, and 18 crores
of rupees, or £18,000,000, to build these temples. We were
told they were constructed in the form of a cross, but owing
to the high enclosing walls we could not make that out.
Arrived at the entrance, we found a large crowd of pilgrims,
men, women, and children, who seemed quiet-looking people.
In answer to our inquiries, each group told us from where
they came, and we found most of them had travelled on foot
several hundred miles, and some far greater distances. I am
afraid few of us would care to go to church so far, but these
people have faith, and faith abundantly. Having presented
our permit, we were admitted to the temples, which, by the
way, are only open to visitors between noon and 6 P.M. We
1889-90.] <A Fourney from Bombay to Feypore. 319
had come to see something wonderful, but our expectations
were far more than realised. Such beautiful buildings, com-
posed of marvellous designs in carved white marble, we did
not think it possible to construct. They are quite beyond
any power of mine to describe, but a few photographs I now
show may convey a faint impression to your minds of what
some parts of the buildings are like, What is perhaps as
extraordinary about these structures as anything, is that the
nearest place at which the white marble of which they are
built is to be obtained is at Jeypore, nearly 300 miles away.
How the large blocks of this stone could be conveyed such a
distance, through a wild and mountainous country without
roads, is a marvel. The temples are dedicated to Parswanath,
the chief of the deified men whom the Jains worship. Two
of the sacred buildings are specially beautiful. The older of
them is said to have been built by Vimala Sah in 1032
A.D., and the more modern one by Tej Pal and Vasta Pal in
1177 ap.
We had to remount our ponies with regret, and after visit-
ing the Nakhi Lake, a sheet of muddy water surrounded by
wooded hills, and prettily situated, got back to the hotel at
4,25 P.M. Our ponies were quite done up, so we got a change
of steeds, and this time I had a fine charger—hardly the kind
of animal for mountain paths. It had to be led for the first
two miles by its groom until we got past a large tank, as it
had, I was informed, a bad habit of rushing into the water,
and leaving its riders there. We got past the tank all right,
but then my charger knew it was going away from home, and
it was only after a series of violent efforts that I overcame it,
and got it fairly in hand. It afterwards was as quiet as pos-
sible, and gave me no difficulty. We pushed on as fast as
we could so long as we had the carriage-road, as we began to
realise that we would be only beginning the most dangerous
part of the journey through the jungle when darkness would
set in. I had been told that the risk we ran was considerable,
as there happened at the time to be a great many wild hillmen
wandering about, who were not to be trusted. In the next
place, monkeys were apt to frighten our horses at night, owing
to the noise they make; and last, but no doubt least likely to
trouble us, were the big game, that probably would be more
320 A Fourney from Bombay to Feypore. [Sess.
afraid of us than we were of them. We were still riding
along the main road when we heard the tinkling of bells in
the distance, such as might be caused by an approaching pair
of bell-hung circus horses. In a minute more a native rushed
past, dressed in a peculiar costume, with.a bag on his back,
and a stick about four feet long in his hands, with lateral
branches, on which the small bells were hung. He saluted
us as he went by, and we asked who he was. He was the
Government letter-carrier, and the stick with the bells his
staff of office. We heard he had to run to Abu Road and
back each day with the mails, which, if true, is a wonderful
feat for any man to perform regularly in such a climate.
We had left the driving road and were a considerable
distance up the rugged mountain path, and were passing
through a portion of the forest that was more open than
most other places. A troop of monkeys were on the boughs,
evidently watching our movements, when suddenly there was
a noise overhead, and a large flock of mynahs (a bird about
the size of our blackbirds) flew past, and settled in a tree
with dense foliage that grew apart in an open glade. The
ereat chirping and chattering made by the birds immediately
attracted the attention of the monkeys. It was amusing to
see them looking at each other; then they seemed to resolve
upon a plan to satisfy their inquisitiveness, for one of their
number came down from a tree, ran quietly across the path
in front of us, and stopped beneath the tree in which the
mynahs were. Its presence was immediately discovered, the
chattering ceased, there were a few spasmodic chirps, then all
was silent. We had just reached the top of the ridge when
the guide discovered he had taken the wrong path. He
knew, however, how to regain the right one, and I knew from
the mountain-peaks that we had not gone very far astray.
Following a track in the direction we knew we must go, we
came upon a large number of armed hillmen with their
families, who were just preparing to encamp for the night.
They had a number of camp-fires burning, and were busy erecting
tents and arbours to sleep in. The men came to have a look
at us, but the women and children kept in the background.
They seemed of a morose nature, as, although I saluted them,
they did not return the compliment. The shades of night
were falling by the time we regained the right track. With
1889-90. A Fourney from Bombay to Feypore. 321
9-9 y Ly
the waning light every tree appeared suddenly to become full
of life, and the teeming multitudes of living things making
themselves heard all around was amazing. It soon got so
dark as we descended the mountain that we had to allow our
horses to have their reins loose. They picked their way very
well, although there was always the danger of some wild
animal crossing our path, or lying near in the jungle. Horses
become restive under such circumstances, and one false step
on the narrow path meant a tumble over a precipice. The
moon was up, but for some time we got no benefit from it,
as we were in the shadow of the mountain spur. It was an
ever-to-be-remembered sight—the weird illumination of the
deep wooded valley, the opposite mountain-spur with its bare
rocks, and in the distance the view of the plain as if we saw
it through a film of smoke. As we descended we got out of
the shadow, and the silvery light gave to everything an extra-
ordinary beauty, in strange contrast to what we had seen in
the daylight. It must have been a curious sight to view our
cavalcade: first rode my wife, her pony led by our wild-look-
ing Gujerati syce; then Miss S.; next myself, followed by
our servant Lhalla. Every now and again the leaves would
rustle, as some small animal startled by our presence rushed
off into the forest, but none of the larger beasts of prey or
monkeys troubled us.
When we reached the foot of the mountain, I told our
servant to ride on to Abu Road station, and order some
refreshment to be got ready for us. Miss S. and I galloped
with him, to stretch our limbs after the long walk down hill,
but had only got about 150 yards when the violent cries of
terror of the Gujerati syce made us hurry back. We found
he was in great fear of being killed by wild beasts, and his
excited state had rather alarmed my wife. We remained
close together until we were well out of the plain. About a
mile from our destination I again went ahead a short distance,
when, hearing a cry, I looked round and saw a riderless pony
making towards me. I rode up to it, and after some difficulty
seized its bridle, but in the struggle that ensued the bridle
gave way, and the bit came out of its mouth. It galloped off,
leaving the bridle in my hands. I knew it was the animal
Miss 8. rode, so I returned to the ladies as quickly as possible,
and was glad to find that although the pony had stumbled
322 A Fourney from Bombay to Feypore. [Sess.
and she had been thrown, she was in no way injured beyond
a cut hand and a contused face. I desired her to get on my
horse and I would walk, but I could not persuade her to’
adopt this course. The next difficulty was with my wife,
who also determined to get off her pony for fear of an accident
to herself; and as it was no use trying to convince the two
ladies, I had nothing for it but to let them have their way.
The ladies walked, the Gujerati led my wife’s pony, and I
rode. ‘Tired, pained, and hungry, we must have formed a
comical picture, in marked contrast to that we afforded on-
lookers at our departure. Fortunately, in the pale moonlight
our features were dimly visible. The riderless pony galloped
to the station, where its arrival caused alarm, as the natives
thought one of us had been taken out of the saddle by a wild
beast. A number of men came rushing along the road, as
they knew from our servant that we could not be far off.
The manager of the contractor for the ponies first came in
sight, and we could see him with his outstretched right arm
trying to count us, to see who was amissing. He seemed
anxious to keep his distance from us; but as our own servant
immediately arrived and informed us who he was, I desired
him to ask the manager to come to me. He evidently was
frightened, so I went forward while he was hesitating, and
holding up the broken bridle I gave him clearly to understand
that if Miss 8. cared to bring an action for damages against
his master, he might be ruined, and I told him that I would
consider whether or not I should report the matter to the
authorities. Whether this lecture has had any effect in
causing the contractor to improve the harness of his ponies
I know not, but suspect that with our departure in the train
‘it would be a case of “out of sight, out of mind.” We had
only proceeded about a hundred yards after meeting the men,
when we found ourselves in the midst of a troop of between
thirty and forty Government elephants that were feeding
upon great heaps of cut sugar-cane. They scarcely took any
notice of us, but it was a remarkable sight to watch the huge
animals by the light of the moon, in what might have been
their native wilds. We reached the station without further
adventure, and, after a comfortable dinner, caught the train
for Ajmere at 10.39 P.M.
1889-90. } Rats and the Balance of Nature. 323
IV.— RATS AND THE BALANCE OF NATURE.
By Mr TOM SPEEDY.
(Read Jan. 22, 1890.)
THE subject of rats and their enemies was, as you are all aware,
recently discussed at great length in the columns of the ‘ Scots-
man’ and other newspapers. As one of those who took part
in that discussion, I regarded the subject not merely in the
aspect of its general interest, but as more far-reaching in
importance than many would at first sight believe. It is a
subject not merely affecting the industrial returns of the agri-
culturist, but if not checked must at no distant date affect our
future food-supplies. Apart altogether from this important
aspect of the subject, I felt interested in the discussion as a
lover of natural history, and was therefore induced to read all
the correspondence which appeared in the columns of the daily
press, so far as these came under my notice. It will not, I
am sure, be deemed discourteous or hypercritical to state that
there was imported into that discussion very much that was
irrelevant, and not a little that had no better foundation than
that of pure speculation.
The rat pest, as is generally known, is pressing itself on the
attention of agriculturists in most parts of the country. Within
a circuit of some forty or fifty miles of Edinburgh it has been
severely felt ; while south of the Tweed, especially in Lincoln-
shire, the mischievous visitation has been keenly experienced.
Some estimate of the extent of the rat pest may be formed
when it is stated that as many as from 2000 to 3000 rats
have been killed in some places in little more than a fortnight.
In a brief sporting excursion in Berwickshire for a couple of
days last autumn, I observed, in passing, certain corn-stacks
which had been built in the open fields that were literally
riddled and honeycombed from top to bottom by rats. Why
these stacks had not been thrashed, and the grain turned to
account before falling a prey to the “rat plague,” was to me
unaccountable. That, however, was the farmer’s concern, and
not mine.
Why rats are increasing; why they are betaking themselves
324 Rats and the Balance of Nature. [Sess.
to fields and hedgerows, and burrowing like rabbits; and what
are the best means of getting rid of them—are questions de-
manding immediate attention. Thirty years ago, at the age
of thirteen, I began life as a gamekeeper in one of the finest
agricultural districts in Berwickshire. My principal duty was
that of kennel boy, but the trapping of rats and other vermin
filled up my spare time. I frequently observed, on going into
the boiler-house with a light, that a large number of rats
always scuttled into the holes, or into the furnace and up the
chimney. The first time I saw them go into the latter place,
I thought I would make short work of some of them by put-
ting in a wisp of straw and setting fire to it. This, however,
was a failure, as the rats evidently had an exit from the chim-
ney to more congenial quarters. Besides the furnace there
were about a dozen holes in the boiler-house, and I thought
that if by some process the holes could be simultaneously
stopped up when the rats were out, a rare capture would be
made. By an ingenious contrivance I was able so to arrange
certain boards operating by communication with a cord outside,
which, being properly set, could, by pulling the cord at the out-
side—pretty much as country boys are in the habit of catching
birds during a snowstorm by the use of a riddle—fall down
close to the wall, thereby cutting off the rats’ possible retreat.
The experiment on the first occasion was a perfect success.
After pulling the cord, I obtained a lantern and gently opened
the door a short distance, and discovered that there were several
dozens of rats running about the floor in wild excitement.
Having secured the door, I obtained the co-operation of one
of the keepers, and taking with us a fox-terrier we went inside,
and in an incredible short space of time upwards of fifty rats
were killed. This incident quickly established my reputation
as a rat-catcher, although I must confess my next experiment
was by no means other than a failure. This incident reveals
a peculiarity in the rat tribe, and one with which all rat-
catchers are familiar. You may on the first experiment at rat-
catching be very successful, but it will invariably be found that
such are the instincts of the rat, that however well conceived
the device, it is not a game that can be played twice in the
same quarter with the same amount of success. On such
occasions the rats immediately betake themselves to other
1889-90. | Rats and the Balance of Nature. 325
localities, and sometimes to a considerable distance. This will
lead me to have something to say further on as to the neces-
sity for simultaneous action, covering a considerable area, in
order to meet this remarkable instinct in the rat tribe.
So long ago as the period just referred to I found that rats
burrowed and bred out in hedgerows then as now, but never
at a great distance from houses, to which they repaired on the
approach of winter. The wholesale slaughter in the boiler-
house had so terrified the remaining rats, that I found a few
days after that they had migrated to a hedgerow, and burrowed
in the banks at the root of the hedge. As this incident had
opened up to me a new field of sport, I followed it up with
ferrets and terriers, and by the use of a spade was able to
diminish their number again very considerably. Subsequent
experience taught me that one of the greatest difficulties in
rat-killing was to combat successfully this migratory instinct.
However, by the use of ferrets I was able to have them ejected
from the numerous holes in which they had literally under-
mined some of the outhouses close by.
There were some old houses a short distance off which were
also infested with rats, and I discovered that they travelled
backwards and forwards. Observing their track, which came
up through a garden, I resolved to try and trap one on the
track. The “run” passed through between the stalk of a
hollyhock and the wall, and there I planted the trap. Cut-
ting out some of the soil and setting the trap as “kittle” as
possible, I covered it with the finest earth I could get, threw
a few dead hedge leaves on the disturbed ground, and
sprinkled water with a branch over the place in order to take
away the smell of my hands. On the following morning I
found a heap of dead leaves at the spot, but on minute in-
spection I observed a pair of dark eyes peering out from among
the leaves. With the aid of a stick I removed the leaves,
and found a large rat secured by a hind leg. Finding it was
impossible to get away, this wary animal collected all the
leaves within his reach, and completely covered himself and
the trap from view. Having heard that besmearing a rat
with tar and turning him away again would banish rats from
the locality, I resolved to utilise the one in the trap as a test
experiment. I therefore attempted to put him in a bag, but
326 Rats and the Balance of Nature. [Sess.
in doing so he got hold of the centre finger of my left hand
and gave me a severe bite, hanging on for a second or two.
Managing to shake him off, he scuttled away, and in the
confusion escaped. My finger festered, and was very painful
for a long time. I have been bitten by dogs, foxes, stoats,
weasels, and ferrets, but these soon healed up. With the rat,
however, it is otherwise, as their yellow cankered chisel-teeth
inflict a severe wound, which is difficult to heal. The teeth
of the weasel tribe are clean, and though the bite is severe at
the time, it heals as quickly as if punctured by a surgical
instrument. I am therefore of opinion that in a combat with
a rat, though the weasel generally gets the mastery, yet, ex-
cept in confinement, we know not what is the result of their
wounds. In an experiment I made by putting a large stoat
and rat together, the rat commenced the attack, but after a
determined fight the stoat succeeded in killing him. The fol-
lowing day, however, I found the stoat had died from his
wounds. Notwithstanding their ferocity, weasels are delicate
creatures, and succumb to the slightest injury. This I dis-
covered while having many hundreds of them in captivity,
when collecting them to transport to New Zealand.
There are two kinds of rats which have successively been
introduced into this country—the black rat (Mus rattus) and
the brown rat (us decumanus). The vole, though popularly
known as the water-rat, yet belongs to a different genus.
It appears to me to be a sort of miniature beaver, and is
fond of gnawing wood. This I discovered by planting a large
number of young osiers on the banks of the Braid burn,
where voles are very plentiful, and found to my annoyance
that many of them were cut asunder by the animals in ques-
tion. As far as I have observed by dissecting them, they are
strictly vegetarians.
Both the black and the brown rat seem to have been
natives of Central Asia, and did not appear in Europe till com-
paratively recent times—the black variety at the beginning of
the sixteenth century, and the brown about the middle of the
eighteenth century. Specimens of the black rat are still to
be seen in our museums, while living ones are occasionally
found in unloading ships from foreign ports. I have never
seen one of them alive, and I think I am correct in saying
a eee errr —
1889-90. ] Rats and the Balance of Nature. 327
that they are practically extinct in this country, except in the
places referred to. The brown rat was the principal factor in
exterminating his less powerful cousins, numerous instances
being recorded of his killing and devouring them. Having
got rid of the black rats, the brown ones have multiplied to
an alarming extent—so much so that, as already remarked, the
columns of our newspapers have recently been deluged with
articles, letters, and paragraphs, treating the rat pest as a
modern plague. The notion that the brown rat came to
Britain from Norway is of course a fiction, as it was known
in our own country long before it was seen in Norway. An-
other notion, that it came with the House of Hanover, is
equally ridiculous, though this was a long-standing taunt and
reproach with the Jacobites.
The fecundity of rats is amazing. Commencing to breed at
between three and four months, old rats produce from four to
sixteen young ones at a litter. In fourteen days they open
their eyes, and soon after become exceedingly active and
playful. At six weeks’ old they are compelled to fend for
themselves, being supplanted by another brood. In open
winters, and in places where their food-supplies are easily
acquired, they are found to breed almost the entire year.
I have heard it stated that, by a wise provision of Nature, there
are a great many more males than females. The same remark
I have heard applied to deer, foxes, and other animals, but
neither comports with my experience, as I have found males
and females in about equal proportion, and I think the rapid
increase of rats amply corroborates my observations. This is
a theory I cannot accept, as it is contrary to my experience.
Most animals have some one to speak or write in their
behalf. Hawks, owls, stoats, weasels, and cats have recently
had their virtues extolled in the columns of our leading
journals, but in all circumstances no animal has so few to say
anything in its defence as the rat. Man, their relentless enemy,
utilises every expedient which human ingenuity can devise to
keep them down; and even with the counteracting forces of
nature, rats hold their own against their numerous enemies
combined. It is therefore not to be wondered at that they
are cunning; and the most superficial observer must have
noticed the knowing and wide-awake appearance which
328 Rats and the Balance of Nature. [ Sess,
characterises the race of “Mus.” It matters not what part
of the world man may choose for his habitation, it is certain
he will be followed by rats. The distance they travel is
remarkable ; and, as I lately pointed out in a letter to the
‘Scotsman,’ they annually made their appearance at Dalna-
spidal in Perthshire when the shooting-lodge became tenanted.
To those who know this wild mountainous region, and the
distance of barren waste-land that intervenes between it and
other habitations, it must seem manifest that they are endowed
with a marvellous instinct. Rats, as a rule, make their
appearance wherever man takes up his abode, and act the
part of scavengers by picking up and devouring refuse that
finds its way into drains, or is thrown out in the neighbour-
hood, and which when in a state of decomposition engenders
disease. In this respect rats seem to have been destined to
play an important part in the operation of economic laws.
Indeed it has been asserted that “the visits of the plague to
western Europe and to Britain have ceased from the very time
when rats became plentiful.”
Rats, like all animals that eat flesh, drink a large quantity
of water, and sometimes travel a long distance in search of it.
It is interesting to see them drinking—lapping water with
their tongues like dogs. Seeing this is their normal habit
when on land, it has often struck me as remarkable how they
manage to live in the iron holds of ships without water during
long voyages. Notwithstanding the filthy character of their
surroundings, rats are exceptionally clean animals, and are
continually licking themselves with their tongues. Strange to
say, while almost every bird and beast has a parasite, I never
found one of any description on a rat.'_ I find, however, that
rats are very subject to tumours of the skin. In a recent
experiment I introduced a large rat in a cage trap into the
presence of four cats, and he seemed a great deal more
interested in licking his feet than in taking the slightest
notice of his natural enemies—so much so that the owner of
the cats declared he was a tame one.
While the amount of mischief done to the agriculturist, the
game-preserver, and others, by the increase of rats, admits of
1 7 now learn that a parasite is also present on the rat, though sparingly.
Mr Wm. Forgan has found one of these parasites, and has sent me a photo-
micrograph of it.
ll ————E——E———— << Le
1889-90. | Rats and the Balance of Nature. 329
no dispute, the cause and cure, although freely discussed,
appear in a great measure to be only a matter of surmise and
conflicting speculation. I have read with interest the various
theories that have been submitted from day to day, and with-
out any wish to dogmatise, or to lay claim to any superior
knowledge further than that which is implied by lengthened
personal observation and a close and careful study of the
subject, I feel satisfied that few of these theories will stand
the test of close criticism, while some of them are transparently
absurd. Let us look at a few of the most popular and
reasonable explanations which are being given for the origin
of the pest, and the best means of getting rid of it.
Warm weather and the scarcity of water about farm
“toons, when the vermin betake themselves to the fields
and woods, where they are allowed to breed without molesta-
tion, have been assigned as the cause of the nuisance. This
may have been the case in some farm “toons,” but about
many others there is abundance of water, so that the reason
here submitted is inadmissible except in some very exceptional
cases. No doubt rats, like fashionable people in towns, like
to rusticate in warm weather, and once having taken up their
abode, will scarcely leave it so long as food - supplies are
obtainable. The method of snaring and not trapping rabbits
has also been submitted as a cause of the rapid increase of
rats in the fields. A writer in the ‘Scotsman’ asserts that
since the passing of the Ground Game Act, snaring rabbits
has come more into vogue than trapping. Where snaring
has been substituted for trapping, it is certain that many rats
will be allowed to live that would have been caught in the
rabbit-traps. A large East Lothian Seale the late
Mr Dudgeon of Upper Keith, told me Eten before his death
that on his farm the previous winter two hundred rats had
been caught in the hedgerows round his fields in the rabbit-
traps. Had his rabbits been snared instead of trapped, it is
easy to see how the following summer his fields would have
been overrun with rats. A few weasels were also taken,
which, of course, is inevitable in trapping, as they continually
run in and out of holes. One objector blames the destruction
of weasels by gamekeepers; while another, as we have seen,
asserts it is because rabbits are not trapped that rats are
allowed to increase. Nothing, I affirm, kills down stoats
VOL, Il. : Z
330 Rats and the Balance of Nature. [Sess,
and weasels —and, let me add, rats—so much as rabbit-
trapping. Those who have watched the habits of weasels
must have been struck with the alacrity with which they
run into one hole and make their appearance at another
a considerable distance off. As they are not suspicious like
rats, they overrun traps without dread of danger, and as a
consequence become decimated in those parts of the country
where rabbit- trapping is practised. The result is that a
certain class of naturalists denounce gamekeepers as ignorant,
who know a great deal more of practical natural history than
those who denounce them, One thing must seem clear, that
the trapping of rabbits and the destruction of weasels are
identical, and I ask in all seriousness, Has trapping to be
abolished in the interests of weasels? I answer, No!
I know no subject upon which more nonsense is apt to
be written than that of natural history. Let a man once
get it into his head that he is a naturalist, and he seems
to regard himself as licensed to revel in nonsensical specula-
tion and superstitious folly. Let no one say that this is
either uncharitable or exaggerated in view of a letter which
appeared recently in the ‘Scotsman, wherein, with the
ereatest amount of sincerity, it is stated as an established
fact that by the playing of bagpipes the rat plague can be
“ effectually overcome.” Seeing that this letter is signed by
“an old Highland minister,” it may comport with Highland
theology, but I submit that it is at variance with the facts
of natural history.
As I have no desire unnecessarily to prolong this paper, I
will now come to that theory which has been so much ad-
vanced by writers, some of them members of this Society. I
refer to the alleged disturbance of those laws in the animal
kingdom whereby the balance of nature is subverted by the
destruction of vermin by gamekeepers and others. I need not
recapitulate here what I recently wrote to the ‘ Scotsman,’
but let a few words suffice.
Twenty years ago, on the Craigmillar property, game was
strictly preserved, and vermin, including rats, trapped down
with scrupulous care. Circumstances arose when it was deemed
desirable to stop preserving. The result has been that vermin
-has increased, and so have rats. Being a thickly populated
eet
1889-90. | Rats and the Balance of Nature. 331
district, cats are exceedingly numerous, and in snow their
tracks are seen everywhere. Weasels are also numerous, and
are frequently seen in close proximity to where rats are bur-
rowing in dozens. One writer in the ‘Scotsman’ gave a
graphic description of a fight between a weasel and a rat on
the property referred to, and added that he had “ often seen
specimens of these animals in that locality.” He stated that
the rat was an “ unusually large one” (which means about a
pound and a quarter), and “the weasel of the ordinary size”
(under a quarter of a pound). The battle was evidently a
mutual one, the attack having been renewed after they were
disturbed. The rat acted on the offensive, as was the case
with the one I had shut beside a stoat in a large cage. In
both cases the rat was killed; but in my experiment the stoat
was severely bitten, and died from his wounds. How the
weasel fared after the fight we have no means of knowing;
but this I do know, that rats are as plentiful on the identical
spot as ever they were before.
Only once in my life have I seen a combat between a rat
and one of the weasel tribe in their normal condition ; but as
it was a small rat and a large stoat, the battle was of short
duration. One writer stated he saw a weasel hunt a number
of half-grown rats, and kill one in “ two seconds or less.” This
Ido not believe. Recently I was walking with two friends,
when we heard a young rabbit squealing a short distance from
the road. Borrowing a stick, I crept noiselessly forward, and
observed a weasel hanging on to the neck of a small rabbit,
which was struggling to escape. So much was the weasel
engaged with its prey that it never observed me, and with a
stroke of the stick I killed both it and its victim. Fully a
minute must have elapsed from the time we first heard the
squealing of the rabbit until I interfered; and the statement
of half-grown rats—which are over half a pound in weight—
being killed in “ two seconds or less” may safely be consigned
to the region of romance. I do not overlook the fact that
while the instinct of the rat leads to its seizing its prey by
any part which it may think vulnerable, it is otherwise with
the weasel and the stoat. By a remarkable and terribly fatal
instinct they strike only, and with unerring accuracy, at the
leading artery at the back of the neck, which is death.
332 Rats and the Balance of Nature. [Sess.
“ J. H. Corballis,” who wrote at considerable length in the
‘Scotsman,’ stated “ that the natural destroyers of rats are the
hen-harrier, the long-eared owl, tawny owl, cats, weasels, stoats,
kestrels, eagles, sparrow-hawks, lanner, saker, and goshawk.”
This, I submit, is a mere trifling with the subject. As rats are
nocturnal in their habits, it appears to me that, with the ex-
ception of owls, it is the extreme of folly to characterise the
hawk tribe as the “ natural destroyers of rats.” In promul-
gating his balance-of-nature theory, this writer states that
“some keepers will, no doubt, remain incredulous.” He is
quite right there, as I for one not only remain incredulous but
resolutely oppose his theory. I oppose it—first, because it is
inaccurate ; and, second, because it is more far-reaching in its
mischievous results than appears at first sight. This balance-
of-nature theory, however plausible and popular, I regard as
simply nonsense. Not only so, it is mischievous and most
prejudicial to the substantial interests of landed proprietors
who are foolish enough to believe it, and carry it out on their
property. I know a large estate of over 15,000 acres on the
west coast of Inverness-shire where the balance-of-nature
theory is most scrupulously carried out. The result is that, in
so far as ground or winged game is concerned (deer excepted),
the shootings are comparatively valueless. This is not because
the external and geographical conditions for an abundance of
grouse, black-game, and partridges do not exist. For black-
game the conditions are excellent, while for grouse and
partridges they are fairly good. Now I venture to say that
on these 15,000 acres it would baffle a couple of the best
sportsmen to kill more than 100 or 150 brace of grouse dur-
ing the entire season. Why? Simply because the balance
of nature is preserved, and the hawks, ravens, and hoodie-
crows are ten times more numerous than the winged game.
Had I the control of that property for a few years, I feel
assured that by killing down the winged vermin the shooting-
rent would be increased at least 200 per cent. So much, then,
for the economic policy of maintaining the balance of nature
undisturbed. This advocate for maintaining the balance of
nature asks incredulous gamekeepers and others to consult
men who have shot game in Africa, China, Canada, &c., where
the balance of nature is unmolested. But transferring his field
1889-90. | Rats and the Balance of Nature. 333
of illustration to foreign countries by no means improves his
position. In foreign countries you may have a change of
climate, and the hours which constitute day and night may
produce a marked change in the climatic environments, but
not so in the operation of nature’s laws. Nature is ever true
and unchanging when left to herself. But what of this
foreign experience? JI have never shot in either of the
countries referred to, but the season before last I had a most
enjoyable sporting tour all over Norway, where the balance of
nature has not been seriously interfered with. The balance
there shows a great deal more vermin than game,—hoodie-
crows being in thousands, and magpies breeding on the tops of
the houses, the peasantry being too superstitious to disturb
them. The Norwegian Government are becoming alive to the
destruction of game and farm stock by vermin, and are now
giving rewards to those who kill certain birds and beasts of
prey, including bears, wolves, eagles, hawks, &c.
While staying at Molde, a party of us were driving on the
road a few miles to the east of the village, and when passing
a peasant’s house we observed a large hawk swoop down among
some domestic poultry. The cock, having no chance of
escape, stood his ground, but the hawk clutched a large num-
ber of feathers from his back, and doubtless would have killed
him had an old woman not ran to the rescue with a heather
besom. To have shot that hawk would have been disturbing
the balance of nature, and to my mind it would have been a
sensible act. During the same week news came in to the
village that sixteen sheep had been killed, and a bear with
two cubs had been seen within three miles’ distance. A party
of volunteers went off in pursuit to disturb the balance of
nature, but in consequence of an accident I was unable to
accompany them, much to my regret. Bruin, however, was
too wide awake for them.
In a short sojourn among the Laps, I discovered that the
greatest difficulties they have to encounter is in trying to
disturb the balance of nature in the protection of their herds
of reindeer from the depredation of wolves. Every device is
resorted to in their primitive fashion to kill the wolves, and
their destruction is as essential for the wellbeing of the
334 Rats and the Balance of Nature. [Sess.
reindeer as is the killing of hawks and weasels in this country
for the preservation of game.
In traversing the fjelds or mountain plateaux with pointers
for ryper—the native grouse—I found them exceedingly
scarce, and on hundreds of thousands of acres poor sport is
to be had. And why? Simply because their eggs are
destroyed by predatory birds, and hawks are ever hovering
in the air ready to make a quarry. A sportsman with good
dogs may kill from ten to twenty brace in a day, but if game
preservation was better understood, a hundred brace might
easily be acquired. Those who have sailed round the west
coast of Norway must have been struck with the beautiful
eider-ducks which are to be seen everywhere in the fjords.
After a week’s sailing last summer in a small boat round the
islands of Hitteren, Scarso, Ertvaago, and others, during the
breeding season, I was unable to find the eggs of the birds
referred to, though a party of us went frequently on shore and
made a diligent search. Of course the reason was not far to
seek, but curiosity prompted me to ask some of the peasant-
farmers on the coast, who replied that “the crows ate them all.”
It is easy to see how, if hoodie-crows and hawks were killed
down to within reasonable limits, ryper, which contributes so
largely to the food-supplies of the nation, and eider-ducks,
from which that valuable commercial product, eider-down,
is obtained, would be found in far greater abundance. This
certainly does not comport with a statement made by our
fellow-member, Mr Scot Skirving, to a Select Committee of
the House of Commons in 1873, that “no bird would be a
nuisance if man had not interfered with them.”
Reverting to the rat pest, most of the writers in the
‘Scotsman’ assert that the increase of rats is due to game-
keepers exterminating birds of prey. This I deny, because,
as I have shown, the only birds of prey that can destroy rats
to any extent are those which are nocturnal in their habits,
and which are confined to the owl species. Assuming that
owls are destructive to rats——which I shall subsequently
question,—have they been exterminated by gamekeepers ?
My answer is, they have not. I was a gamekeeper for nearly
twenty years, and ‘never destroyed owls as vermin. I am
acquainted with sportsmen all over England and Scotland,
———<&<xx<«_sINO——— -
1889-90. | Rats and the Balance of Nature. 335
and I do not know one who destroys owls. In recent
years I have been at many cover-shootings, even in East
Lothian, and have seen numbers of owls flying out of the thick
woods before the beaters, but never knew any one lift a gun
to them. Let those who write denouncing the destruction of
owls in the papers state their authority, where they were
destroyed, and by whom, before rushing into print and making
statements which I believe to be rash, unwarrantable, and
erroneous. Since the rat question came into such prominence,
I have written to a large number of gamekeepers in different
parts of the country, requesting them to send me their obser-
vations regarding what was the staple food of owls. As I
have never known them to feed on rats myself—except dead
ones in confinement—TI was anxious to have the testimony of
others whose veracity, I knew, could not be called in question.
Some of them, like myself, have never seen any indication of
rats having been carried to the nest of owls; but some, I
must be frank enough to confess, have. Mr Thompson, head-
keeper to Colonel Trotter of Charter Hall, in Berwickshire, a
most intelligent observer, writes: “I have never known a hawk
kill a rat. Kestrels may sometimes kill a young one, but,
hunting during the day, their chance of killing rats is very
small. I have seen the remains of young rats near an owl’s
nest.”
Mr Martin, head-keeper to His Grace the Duke of Buc-
cleuch at Bowhill, also writes: “I have never seen the remains
of rats at owls’ nests in the woods, but it is right to mention
that for several consecutive years an owl’s nest was in the
pigeon-house beside the joiner’s shop, sawmill, &c., in connec-
tion with the Bowhill estate. When the young birds were
hatched, great interest was taken as to what was carried to
feed them. It was observed that the old birds commenced
to carry food between three and four o’clock in the afternoon,
and it was discovered that young pigeons, both wild and tame,
young pheasants, and other young birds, such as thrushes and
blackbirds, young rabbits, a great number of mice, and a few
rats—none of the latter except very small ones—were included
in the bill of fare. One day the owl was observed carrying
something unusual into the pigeon-house, and a ladder being
procured, a young wild duck, not quite dead, was found at the
336 Rats and the Balance of Nature. [ Sess.
nest. We never kill owls here, but as they destroyed all the
young pigeons in the dovecot, they eventually had to be ejected.”
What is the practical application of all this? First, as to
the cause of the increase of rats, so generally complained
of. There may be minor causes which have contributed to
it, but I affirm that there are three outstanding causes which
ought to be patent to every thoughtful observer. (1.) There
is the modern improvement in our sanitary conditions in towns,
and even farm-steadings. There is nothing which the rat finds
more uncongenial to his comfort than sewer-pipes, with an
occasional Buchan trap, and the introduction of cement, now
being largely used for barn-floors, byres, and stable-yards.
(2.) Another cause contributing to the increase of the rat
pest is the remarkable dry summers and open winters ex-
perienced in this country during the last few years. Arising
out of this, we have had heavy crops, and a superabundance
of grain of all kinds left upon the stubble-fields, which no
efforts of the husbandman could utilise without having recourse
to the sickle. The effect of this exceptionally open winter, with
abundance of food, has been to increase the number of rats.
Like rabbits, as every schoolboy knows, its breeding-season is
abridged or prolonged very much according to the external con-
ditions in which it exists. (3.) There is, finally, the operation
of the Ground Game Act, which, while pressing more heavily
upon hares and rabbits, has operated in an adverse direction
upon rats. Farmers may be disposed to question this, but it
is nevertheless a truth which, in view of the interests involved,
must be stated—viz., that since the passing of the Act in
question, they have been much more zealous in killing hares
and rabbits than they have been in the destruction of rats.
Before the passing of the Ground Game Act, farmers and their
servants were uniformly vigilant in killing rats as time and
opportunity offered. Now I am libelling no one when I affirm
that that vigilance has up till lately been very generally
relaxed.
Second, as to the remedy. In view of the danger of water
being poisoned, and of dogs being destroyed, by the administra-
tion of poison, I am reluctant to recommend its use, altogether
apart from the question as to its illegality when openly exposed.
I say nothing of the intolerable and unhealthy smell emitted
Se <«xaiIa|
a
1889-90. | The Garden-Spider as an Architect. 337
-where poisoned rats find their way under floors, or into the
partitions of inhabited dwellings. There is no need of having
recourse to this doubtful expedient where there is an industrious
effort in the application of measures which are well known to
have hitherto proved successful. The use of traps, snares,
ferrets, dogs, spades, and guns properly applied are perfectly
competent to stamp out the rat plague if sufficiently persisted
in. At the same time, it is well to state that no spasmodic
effort, ever and again suspended and periodically renewed, will
meet the necessities of the case. Neither will any or all of
these applications combined meet the exigencies of the case,
where they are merely local in their application. Rats, as I
have indicated, are quick in their instincts to apprehend
danger, and prompt in their action to fly from it. Hence,
being attacked on one farm, they will in most cases not be
slow in making themselves scarce by flying to find refuge
somewhere else; and, being able to travel long distances, will
be found suddenly to make their appearance in large numbers,
it may be several miles distant. It will thus be seen that
simultaneous action must be taken in each district if the war
against this disgusting pest 1s to be successful. Let the policy
here recommended be generally adopted, and industriously and
patiently prosecuted, and there is no reason why we should
not shortly hear the last of the rat plague.
V.—THE GARDEN-SPIDER (EPEIRA DIADEMA)
AS AN ARCHITECT.
By Mr ROBERT STEWART, §.8.C.
(Read Feb. 26, 1890.)
At the present time spiders are looked upon with aversion
by nearly everybody, and consequently few people can tell
one spider from another. How to account for this is perhaps
not difficult, if we recollect that one of our earliest accom-
plishments consisted in being able to repeat, before a select
338 The Garden-Spider as an Architect. [Sess.
company of uncles and aunts, the legend of the awful catas-.
trophe which overtook that nice little lady Miss Muffet, when
“There came a little spider,
Who sat down beside her.”
We never appear to get over the lesson so ingrained ; and,
though we would hardly care to acknowledge it, yet even
when we have arrived at years of discretion, and possibly
have young “ Miss Muffets” of our own, most of us would
sooner face a mad bull than allow a spider to run over our
face, or even our hands. In ancient times, however, justice
was done to the spider. The wise man enumerates it amongst
the “four things which are little upon the earth,” yet are
“exceeding wise.” By the formation of such societies as ours,
however, throughout the country, an intelligent interest has
been developed regarding the habits of a number of the lower
animals, with the result that some of those which were at one
time looked upon with the greatest aversion by certain indi-
viduals, are now the cherished pets of these very people.
There are about a hundred kinds of spiders, and most
interesting they are, one and all. Some of them are very
beautiful, while the manner in which they weave their webs
is truly wonderful, that of the garden-spider being so exquisite
in design and workmanship as to earn for the framer the title
of the “Geometric” spider. In hot climates spiders attain
a great size, and spin webs strong enough to ensnare small
birds; and there is a well-authenticated case of a spider cap-
turing a black snake more than a foot long, and thereafter
lifting it into the air a helpless prisoner. It is also said that
spiders are the most weather-wise of all creatures, and that
by a careful study of their movements, impending changes in
the weather can be foretold with great certainty for days
previous. They are also exceedingly ingenious, in proof of
which a gentleman frequently placed one on a small upright
stick, and surrounded the base with water. When the little
creature found that he could not escape by the ordinary route,
he ascended to the point of the stick and ejected a thread
into the air, which soon attached itself to some of the sur-
rounding objects, and along this line the spider effected his
escape.
1889-90. | The Garden-Spider as an Architect. 339
The threads of the spider are produced from small knobs
at the extremity of the body, termed “ spinnerets.” The threads
are woven of thousands of delicate films, which, after being
forced out of the body in a semi-liquid state, and hardened
by the action of the air, are united in one single line by the
feet of the spider, and thus great strength is obtained by
making the line compound instead of single. My object
this evening, however, is not to speak of spiders as a whole,
but to record an interesting fact which was noted in con-
nection with a garden-spider who took up his abode and plied
his calling on the gatekeeper’s box at the entrance to the
Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. Naturalists have re-
peatedly found pieces of wood, and even small pebbles, on
the net of the garden-spider—placed there, it was supposed,
for the purpose of steadying the web—so that what I have
to record is nothing new. But as the little creature in the
present instance was observed during the whole process, there,
is some excuse for bringing the occurrence under your notice.
The roof of the box in question projects slightly all round,
and on the edge of the projection facing the walk a garden-
spider had its floating habitation. The web was quite un-
attached at the lower extremity, and consequently was
affected by every breeze that blew; but the sagacity of the
spider in selecting this site was apparent to any one looking
into the matter, as not only did the spider secure his own
share of those insects doomed to perish in the orthodox
manner, but he also secured a large augmentation to his larder
in the shape of numbers of small insects which, dropping
from the tree overhead on to the top of the box, rolled from
thence into the web below. The spider, however, while
realising the advantages of the site, appears to have felt
that the position had its drawbacks as well, the chief
one being a little too much airiness. In what particular
manner this defect militated against the interests of the
spider we cannot determine with any degree of certainty.
It is a well-known fact that if you gently touch a spider's
web with anything light, the owner at once puts in an
animated appearance; so it may be that the web, prior to
the improvement hereinafter narrated, was so airy that the
slight tremor caused by a summer breeze may have appeared
340 The Garden-Spider as an Architect. [ Sess:
to the anxious watcher as the capture of a gnat, while the
advent of a common fly may have raised visions in the
spider’s mind of full-grown “ blue-bottles.” To provide
against such false alarms, the spider resolved to remedy the
defect complained of—but how? We can imagine him
strengthening a band here and there, and thereafter carefully
testing the result. Such methods all ended in failure; and
in this, as in other cases, necessity was the mother of inven-
tion. The spider evidently thought that if he could get a
weight of some kind attached to the outside of the web, the
defect might be cured; but how this was to be done must
have occasioned a deal of thought. Ultimately, however, he
determined on getting one of the small stones lying about on
the walk below lifted to his abode on high, and with this
view he let himself down by a rope to the ground, and
selected a stone suitable for his purpose. To this stone he
made the line fast by attaching a small thread to each end
of the pebble, in exactly the same manner as masons fasten a
stone with the “shears” attached to a crane. This done, the
spider clambered up to his web. He next proceeded to lift
the stone into the web, and, when first observed on the
morning of the 3d September last, the stone was hanging
about three inches from the ground. In less than an hour,
however, the distance was increased to over three feet; and
before the middle of the day the spider had the pebble drawn
up to within about a foot or eighteen inches of his web, when
he ceased operations for the day. There it hung the whole
afternoon, suspended by the two small threads; and as there
was a good stiff breeze blowing, the stone swung backwards
and forwards like the pendulum of a clock. Next morning
the spider had the stone drawn into the centre of the floating
portion of the web, and made fast there.
During the whole of that day the spider had cause for
congratulation, as the position of the stone appeared to give
the web a certain solidity which was before absent. This
satisfaction was short-lived, however, as, like all “castles in
the air,” this one too was of short duration. That night
there was a heavy mist, with slight rain, which, settling on
the web, rendered it so fragile that the mere weight of the
stone broke it loose from its fastenings, and it accordingly
1889-90. | On the Echinoidea or Sea-Urchins. 341
dropped to the ground. Keen must have been the disap-
pointment of the spider in the morning to find that his in-
genuity and labour had come to nought. On realising the
situation he appears to have finally given up all idea of using
stones in the construction of his web. He, however, of new
put his house in order, by making his web considerably
smaller, and so perhaps in this way remedied the defect in
its structure which the presence of the stone was intended
to counteract. The spider continued to occupy the same
premises till about the middle of October, when it disap-
peared from view; but a small coating of tough webbing,
about the size of a shilling, in a corner of the box, marks the
spot where the spider has retired for the winter, to issue
forth when the warm weather brings about the reappearance
of the insects on which he feeds. It will be interesting to
note how he constructs this season’s web, and we may obtain
from an observation of his movements some additional light
on the vexed question as to whether the ingenuity displayed
by so many of the inferior creatures is on their part instinct
or reason.
VI—ON THE ECHINOIDEA OR SEA-URCHINS.
(WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THOSE OF THE FIRTH OF FORTH.)
By Mr JOHN LINDSAY.
(Read Feb. 26, 1890.)
SUMMER visitors to our coast-towns sometimes observe, in
the “cottage by the sea” which forms their temporary quar-
ters, a quaint chimney-piece ornament, in shape somewhat
like a melon, divided into vertical zones, and marked all over
with numerous lines and dots. This ornament is generally
regarded with a certain degree of wonder by the city-dweller,
when seen for the first time; and on inquiry at its possessor,
the information may be hazarded that it “once lived in the
sea,” but beyond that elementary fact, little or nothing to
342 On the Echinotdea or Sea-Urchins. [ Sess.
elucidate its history is usually forthcoming. This “ shell,”
however, is simply the “test” or covering of a sea-urchin,
after all the “internal arrangements” of the animal have
been ruthlessly scooped out, and the exterior surface of the
shell has been stripped of its spines, and then, mayhap,
scraped, smoothed, and varnished. In this state it has very
little resemblance to the strange and uncanny looking animal
itself, when fresh from its native element, with its sharp
spines all set on end and in their lovely hues of pink and
crimson and rosy-purple. Round the coasts of the Isle of
Man the common egg-urchin is very plentiful, and the fisher-
men eke out their scanty living by collecting them, cleaning
them out, and stripping off the spines, when the shells find
a ready sale amongst the crowds of tourists who annually
visit the island.
Most modern scientific writers on the sea-urchins surround
the subject with a mass of technicalities, which renders an
otherwise interesting theme almost unintelligible except to
the initiated. Having had the opportunity lately of exam-
ining and studying a considerable number of these curious
marine animals, it has occurred to me that a paper dealing
with them in a popular yet accurate manner, and including
the results of the latest investigations on the subject, might
not be without interest to the members of the Society.
In treating of the sea-urchins, and especially those of the
Firth of Forth, I shall first take as a type-specimen the
species which is most easily obtainable in our locality, and
which yet combines in itself all the important features of the
class—viz., the common egg-urchin (Hcehinus sphera). This
species may be said to be plentiful in the Firth of Forth,
while a few others, to be afterwards mentioned, are more
sparingly found. Let us take a glance at the structure and
life-history of the common egg-urchin, and we shall then be
in a position to compare it with other Echinoids, as well
as with other members of the Echinodermata to which it
belongs.
The group of the Echinodermata, or “thorny-skins,” in-
cludes among its living forms the Asteroidea or Star-fishes,
the Ophiuroidea or Brittle-stars and Sand-stars, the Crinoidea
or Feather-stars, the Holothuroidea or Sea-cucumbers, as well
1889-90. | On the Echinoidea or Sea-Urchins. 343
as the Echinoidea or Sea-urchins—in many respects the most
highly developed members of the group. The name “ urchin ”
is often applied to that familiar animal the hedgehog, the
old Scottish form of the word being “hurcheoun,” French
hérisson, from hérisser, to bristle, to stand up on end. The
sea-urchin is therefore known also as the sea-hedgehog, as
well as the sea-egg. In Prof. Edward Forbes’s interesting book
on ‘ British Star-fishes and other Animals of the Class Echino-
dermata, amongst the humorous drawings from his own pencil
in which the author so greatly delighted, there is a most amus-
ing sketch of two boys at the sea-beach setting a hedgehog at
an echinus. The amazement of the two animals, strangers to
each other yet with a certain kinship in appearance, is evi-
dently mutual, as each sets its spines on end and prepares
cautiously for the fray. Beginning with the external structure
of the sea-urchin, the covering or box containing the animal
first claims attention. The problem has to be here solved of
a living creature, thus enclosed, constantly increasing in size,
and therefore requiring a house which shall continue to fit
its ever-altering conditions. The hermit-crab, as is well
known, under such circumstances simply “conveys” the
abode of another animal to suit its own needs, but the sea-
urchin is far too much “attached” to its early home to permit
it to pursue such tactics. Its shell must therefore grow with
it, and remain with it during the whole period of its exist-
ence—never being cast or moulted like the shell of a crab,
for instance. This regular systematic growth is effected by
the shell being composed of numerous pentagonal plates,
accurately dovetailed together. The thin muscular coats which
line the interior and exterior of the shell cross and recross
between the joints or sutures of the plates, and secrete from
the sea-water the carbonate of lime which composes these
plates, and which is constantly being added in a regular man-
ner round the edges of each plate. New plates are also in-
serted at certain parts of the shell during the process of
growth. In one family of living urchins, however (the
Echinothuridz), and in some extinct forms, the plates are not
firmly attached by their edges, but are imbricated or over-
lapping, thus rendering the shell flexible. In the living
condition, the whole structure of the common ege-urchin’s
344 On the Echinoidea or Sea-Urchins. [Sess.
shell or box is found to be perfectly water-tight, having stood
the test of a hydraulic pressure brought to bear on it which
only stopped short of the bursting point, yet without showing
the slightest leakage. At the Royal Botanic Garden of our
city the experiment has been made of utilising the shells, by
turning them into flower-pots for hanging-plants; but in a
comparatively short time these improvised pots always fell to
pieces, separating at the joints of the plates. In the English
translation of a popular scientific work entitled ‘The World of
the Sea, by the French naturalist M. Moquin Tandon, the
astounding statement is made that in the shell of the edible
sea-urchin (Psammechinus (£.) esculentus), a near ally of the
common egg-urchin, there are 10,000 plates. One can only
make the charitable suggestion that in this case a “nought”
has been added by mistake, otherwise the statement is simply
absurd. I have, however, counted as many as 800 plates in
the shell of a well-grown ege-urchin.
A glance at the test of an echinus further reveals the fact
that it is arranged in meridional zones or rays, thus evidencing
its affinity with the star-fishes,—with which animals there
are, indeed, other points of resemblance or identity, to be after-
wards noted. These zones are composed of twenty single
rows of plates, or ten double rows—five of the double rows
being made up of large plates and five of small plates, so that
the zones are of unequal size. The large and small zones
occur alternately, while the latter are perforated at their
margins by minute openings or pores. These pores in the
small rows of plates are for the emission of the tube-feet, or
ambulacra, which the animal has the power of protruding and
retracting at pleasure. The small zones are therefore known ~
as the “ ambulacral areas,” while the alternating larger zones
are styled the “interambulacral areas.” By looking through
the empty shell of a sea-urchin from the outside at the oral
aperture, and towards the light, these areas and perforations
are easily distinguishable. In the common egg-urchin there
are three pairs of pores in each row, each pair carrying one
tube-foot ; while in the edible sea-urchin of the Mediterranean,
jour pairs of pores are present in each row. There are other
points of distinction between these two species, yet they are
frequently confounded ; and I notice that in one of the “ price-
Cae
1889-90. | On the Echinoidea or Sea-Urchins. 345
lists ” issued in connection with the Marine Station at Gran-
ton, E. sphzera, which, as already said, is plentiful in the Firth
of Forth, is absent, while Psammechinus (E.) esculentus, which
is not found there, is included. It will be noticed, also, in
connection with the pore-bearing zones, that in the egg-urchins
these pass from pole to pole of the shell; but in another large
group, of which the purple heart-urchin (Spatangus purpureus)
of the Firth of Forth is an example, they are not continuous,
but form a rosette, resembling a five-petalled flower, on the
upper surface of the shell.
Besides the pentagonal plates which go to make up the
covering of a sea-urchin, two special circular rows of plates
are found on the summit of the shell, surrounding the anal
aperture—viz., the genital and the ocular plates. The genital
plates carry the external openings of the reproductive organs,
—large racemose bodies, very similar in appearance in the two
sexes. It was not till 1840 that the different sexes of the
Echinoidea were discovered, it being previously believed that
the various individuals composing the class of the Echinoder-
mata were all either bisexual or solely female. The ova are
fecundated in the water, the spermatozoa moving rapidly about
by means of their vibratile filaments. One of the five genital
plates, besides carrying a duct or opening like the others, has
undergone a curious modification, being larger than the rest,
and studded with minute perforations like the fine “ rose” of
a small watering-pot. This modified genital plate is known
as the madreporite—a structure also found in the star-fishes,
and generally supposed to serve the purpose of filtering the
sea-water before it enters the water-vascular system of the
animal. This supposition has been strengthened, if not con-
firmed, by the following experiment. A coloured fluid was
injected for several hours, at a high pressure, into part of the
ambulacral system of a sea-urchin, when the fluid ultimately
passed into the tube or “stone-canal” connected with the
madreporite, and issued from the perforations of the latter ina
finely divided coloured stream. Wedged in between the five
genital plates are the five ocular plates, smaller than the
genital plates, and each bearing a pore from which a tentacle
is extruded. This tentacle was at one time thought to have
1 See on this point Van der Hoeven’s ‘Handbook of Zoology,’ vol. i. p. 133 et seq.
VOL. Il, 2a
346 On the Echinotdea or Sea-Urchins. [Sess.
at its base an eye-spot or organ of vision, but the whole ten-
tacle is now regarded as an organ of touch. I have prepared
an egg-urchin shell by painting in distinctive colours the
ambulacral and interambulacral zones, the genital and ocular
plates, and the madreporite, thus permitting these exterior parts
of the structure to be seen at a glance.
Still dealing with the test or covering of the sea-urchin, the
spines next claim attention. These are of various sizes and
thicknesses—from a mere thread of less than half-an-inch in
length, to several inches, with corresponding thickness. In
section, many of the spines show rings similar to the annual
growths of an exogenous stem, though, of course, their mode
of growth is entirely different. These rings vary in number—
not, as one would have expected, according to the dimensions
of the spine, but by the distance from the base at which the
section is made. The disposition of the rings and rays, and
the other ornamentation of the spines, give rise to many
beautiful combinations. Taking advantage of the beauty and
variety of these spine-sections, preparers of objects for the
microscope have in some cases produced “ type-slides ” which
are truly works of art, but, owing to the labour involved, they
are usually rather costly. In the third volume of the
“Challenger Reports,” some seventy different forms of spines
are figured in section, besides many others which are shown in
profile. Spine-sections, when large, are not very difficult to
prepare for the microscope, being treated very much in the
same way as sections of bone, or mineral sections; but when
the spines are small, as in the egg-urchin, considerable care
and patience are required. After repeated failures, I hit on
the plan of cutting a number of spines and fixing them
together by their sides with strong gum. The mass was then
held by the fingers and ground fine at one end, and when
reduced to about one-eighth of an inch this smooth end was
fixed to a glass slip, and the rough end polished on a fine slate
till the whole was quite transparent. The slide was then
placed in warm water and the sections separated, when each
could be examined and the best specimens mounted in balsam.
This process gave very good results, as may be seen from the
slides now exhibited under the microscope.
The spines of the sea-urchin are found in greatest number
—_——_—_————————— Cr
1889-90. | On the Echinoidea or Sea-Urchins. 347
on the interambulacral zones, and are moved by an ingenious
ball-and-socket arrangement or universal joint. Dots or
tubercles, hemispherical in shape, are scattered over the shell,
and upon the summit of these the spines revolve at their
hollowed-out extremity, being attached to the muscular coat-
ing of the test by a thin flexible membrane. While the tube-
feet can only be used under water, the spines are called into
play to aid progression on land; but they also, no doubt, serve
as organs of defence, as well as help in scooping out the sand,
or even the hard rock, where some species live. The purple
ego-urchin (Toxopneustes (#.) lividus), common in some parts
of Ireland, is found in great numbers living in holes scooped
out of rocky ledges covered by the tide at high water. The
points of the spines in many species are very sharp, and in
the egg-urchins have a reprehensible habit of breaking off and
burying themselves in the skin of the hands or feet, to the
special discomfort of bathers. One of our members, who lived
for some time at Gibraltar, where sea-urchins are very common
in the surrounding waters, informs me that he has often seen
a number of soldiers, after they got back to barracks from
their “ dip” in the sea, sitting in a row with knife or needle,
busily operating on the soles of their feet, in order to extract
the sharp tips of the spines that had penetrated so far as to
be almost invisible. The sea-urchins are gregarious in their
habits ; and members of the Society who have accompanied our
dredging excursions will remember that when any appeared
in the trawl, there was generally found to be a goodly number
of them. It has been calculated that an adult sea-urchin will
possess fully 4000 spines ; so that when bathers come upon a
shoal of them in the sea-bottom, they have to run the gauntlet
of a perfect forest of these tiny spears.
During the last few months I have examined a considerable
number of sea-urchins, brought up by the trawl near the Isle
of May, and have been struck by the variety of form assumed
by the common egg-urchin. Many were distinctly glob-
ular in shape, but others were much flattened at the poles.
The colour of the shell, too, varied considerably, ranging from
a dull white to a deep orange. While the size and colour of
the shell thus varied, there was a similar variation in the
Spines. Some were long and sharp-pointed, with a very pale
348 On the Echinoidea or Sea-Urchins. [Sess.
red tint; others were short, somewhat blunt, and of a deep
rosy-purple hue. Indeed there seemed to be enough of
variation from the normal type to warrant the inclusion of
some in sub-species or varieties.
Scattered about among the spines of the great majority of
sea-urchins are found two minute appendages, on which a few
words may be said. The first of these appendages are the
pedicellarize or pincers, which have been known to naturalists
for over half-a-century, and yet their true function has only
lately been determined. They are, in form, small pincer-like
organs, scattered all over the shell, though perhaps most
numerous near the oral aperture. Each _ pedicellaria is
mounted on a long flexible stalk, capable of swaying to and
fro. In some species there are two blades in each pedi-
cellaria, in others four, but three seems to be the normal
number. These bodies are also found on the star-fishes,
though smaller in size; and Miiller, who first described them,
regarded them as parasitic animals. Prof. Louis Agassiz at
one time thought they were “infant echini, which after their
exclusion affix themselves to the skin of their mother.”
Again, while regarding the pedicellarie as organs of the
animal, Prof. A. Agassiz and others held that they were used
for getting rid of excrementitious particles which had become
entangled in the spines, and which were handed on, as it
were, by one pedicellaria to another until got rid of. Prof.
Edward Forbes said of them: “I can by no means consider
the question of their nature to be settled, and find myself
quite undecided as to whether they are organs of the Echino-
dermata or parasitic creatures, though inclined to the former
opinion.” These words were written in 1841, and very little
of a more definite nature regarding them was discovered until
1881, when there was read before the Royal Society of
London a paper by Dr Romanes, the present Rosebery lecturer,
and Prof. J. Cossar Ewart,—‘“ Observations on the Locomotor
System of Echinodermata,’—where it is affirmed that the true
function of the pedicellarie is at length established? In 1884
Dr Romanes published a work entitled ‘ Jelly-fish, Star-fish,
and Sea-urchins, in which the same conclusions regarding the
1This valuable paper (the “Croonian Lecture”) is now included in the
‘Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London’ for 1881,
1889-90. | On the Echinoidea or Sea-Urchins. 349
pedicellarize are given. These authorities assert their main
function to be that of laying hold of pieces of sea-weed, in order
to aid progression while the animal is climbing perpendicular
or inclined rock-surfaces. This assertion is fortified by the
result of many experiments, and other observers have since
confirmed its truth. The blades or mandibles of the pedicel-
lariz are exceedingly sensitive, the slightest touch on the
interior surface of any one blade causing the whole mechanism
to close instantly. They vary considerably in shape, different
forms being found even on the same animal. In the third
volume of the “Challenger Reports,’—the ‘Report on the
Echinoidea,’ by Prof. A. Agassiz,—numerous forms are figured.
The largest of the pedicellarize on the sea-urchins are about
one-eighth of an inch in length. What seems to be but a
modified form of the pedicellariz is found on the Spatangidee.
These bodies have been named “clavule,” and are “minute
spines with expanded head and a calcareous pedicel covered
by ciliated epithelium, attached to minute tubercles which
form regular bands known as fascioles or semite.” }
The other curious appendages of the “test” of a sea-urchin
are the spheridia, or sphérides,—so called by Prof. .Lovén,
who has issued a beautiful quarto on the Echinoidea, in which.
various forms of spheeridia are figured. They are minute glob-
ular bodies, said to be covered with cilia, and mounted, like the
pedicellariz, on long stalks. Spheridia are found on all living
sea-urchins except the genus Cidaris, and yet it is only very
lately that they were noticed at all. What their function is
has not yet been absolutely determined, though Prof. Lovén
conjectures them to be organs of taste. He bases this sup-
position on their being found in greatest numbers around the
oral aperture. Prof. Lovén says: “ Disposés, comme ils le
sont, d’une manicre constante, aux approches de la bouche et
le plus souvent 4 la base des grands tentacules buccaux, on
est done conduit 4 leur supposer la fonction de faire connaitre
la nature des substances que l’eau ambiante tient en solution,
et de servir, de cette maniere, 4 guider l’animal dans la
recherche de sa nourriture. Ils méritent bien, avec tant
dautres points de l’organisation des Echinoidées, d’étre étudiés
1 ‘Forms of Animal Life,’ by G. Rolleston and W. H. Jackson, second edition
(1888), p. 558.
350 On the Echinoidea or Sea-Urchins. ess:
dune maniére approfondie.”* The calcareous skeleton of the
spheeridia, as well as of the pedicellarie, is beautifully reticu-
lated in structure, resembling in its lace-like character the
spines of Spatangus purpureus, so well known to most micros-
copists. This reticulated structure is peculiar, indeed, to the
calcareous parts of the whole group of the Echinodermata, so
that even in fossil fragments there is usually little difficulty
in determining which belong to this group.
Before leaving the subject of the test of the sea-urchins,
and taking a glance at their internal structure, it may be
interesting to note that the calcareous shell is covered, as
already said, both on its exterior and interior surface, by a
thin and highly sensitive membrane,—the interior lining
membrane being also richly ciliated, presumably for the
purpose of respiration. Both of these lining membranes
have been carefully examined by Prof. Ewart and Dr
Romanes, with the result that an internal nerve plexus
or network is found to be spread over their entire surface.
Prof. Ewart, who devoted his attention specially to the lining
of the interior surface, found, “ after a great deal of trouble,”
that “the internal plexus spreads all over the inside of the
shell, and is everywhere in communication with the external
plexus by means of fibres which pass between the sides of
the hexagonal plates of which the shell of the animal is com-
posed.” By this discovery the remarkable phenomenon is
explained of all the external appendages—feet, spines, and
pincers—moving in sympathetic unison whenever a stimulus
is applied to any one of these organs, seeing they are thus all
connected with one common network of nerve fibres.
The tube-feet have been already noticed when speaking of
the minute openings or pores of the ambulacral zones. The feet
are used as feelers, as anchors, and as organs of progression ;
and they can be stretched out to over-top the longest spines of
the animal. The ambulacral system of the whole group of the
Echinodermata, which is similar in all its members, is doubly
interesting—firstly, because of the ingenuity of its structure ;
and secondly, because it is found nowhere else in the animal
1 ¢ Etudes sur les Echinoidées,’ par S. Lovén, p. 10.
2 <Jelly-fish, Star-fish, and Sea-urchins,’ p. 305 (International Scientific
Series, vol. 50).
1889-90. | | On the Echinoidea or Sea-Urchins. 351
kingdom. The modus operandi of the ambulacra is well
described by Dr Romanes in the work already referred to.
In the animals which compose the group, the functions of the
tube-feet are found to be developed in an inverse ratio to
the functions of the rays. That is to say, in the sea-urchin,
where the rays are fixed, the tube-feet are most highly de-
veloped; in the Brittle-stars, where the rays are extremely
mobile, permitting these creatures to indulge in all sorts of
acrobatic feats impossible to a sea-urchin, the tube-feet are
mostly rudimentary ; while between these two extremes are
the common star-fishes, where the rays are beginning to
assume a mobile character, and the tube-feet are consequently
neither so long nor so powerful as in an echinus. The tube-
feet of a sea-urchin are extremely serviceable as anchors;
and when we remember the globular shape of the animal,
and how it is very much at the mercy of waves and currents,
we can easily understand how such an anchoring apparatus
is necessary. So firmly does it hold on by the tube-feet,
when the attachment is properly formed, that it will permit
the sucker-discs to be torn away rather than let go its hold.
This a star-fish will never do, but will permit itself to be
tossed to and fro by the waves, knowing by instinct, so to
speak, that it can easily right itself again by means of its rays.
Besides the powerful muscular rings present in the tube-foot
of an echinus, the tube-walls are strengthened by numerous
spicules, shaped like the letter C. The suctorial disc, again,
is composed of plates with waved margins, from five to eight
in number, which form interesting micro-preparations, and
can easily be dissolved out in caustic potash. Prof. Forbes
calculated that a full-sized sea-urchin would carry 1860 tube-
feet.
As to the internal structure of a sea-urchin, the masticatory
or dental apparatus first claims attention. The pentamerous
arrangement already observed in the structure of the shell
again appears here, for the masticatory apparatus is made up,
in all, of twenty pieces, arranged thus: Five sharp-pointed
triangular teeth; five sheaths or alveoli, in which the teeth
are laid, and in which they move freely up and down by
means of powerful muscles ; five wheel-pieces or rotulz, which
stretch from one sheath to the next, and form a circle; and
352 On the Echinoidea or Sea-Urchins. [Sess.
five pieces, called the “ compasses,” which spring from one end
of the wheel-pieces, and at their bifurcated ends carry the
muscular ligaments which bind the whole apparatus firmly to
the five staples set round the interior orifice of the mouth.
The whole forms a most ingenious piece of mechanism, and is
popularly known as “Aristotle’s lantern.” As the teeth wear
away at their sharp edges they are renewed from the basal
end, which gradually loses its soft spongy structure, and
hardens as it nears the summit. A similar mode of growth is
found in the teeth of the Rodentia. The echini are believed
to be mostly “ vegetable” feeders, browsing on marine alge.
From the mouth of the sea-urchin a gullet and stomach
conduct to a large convoluted intestine, which winds and
doubles round the inside of the shell, and ends in an opening
on some part of its surface,—in the egg-urchins, at the ab-
oral pole. The oral aperture is always on the inferior surface
of the test, but is central only in the “ regular” group of the
‘Echinoids, to which the egg-urchins belong. The anal aper-
ture, also, which is in the centre of the genital disc, opposite
the oral aperture, in the egg-urchins, is found in various posi-
tions in the “irregular” group, as in the pea-urchin of the
Firth of Forth, where the oral and anal apertures are both on
the inferior surface. A so-called blood-vascular system and
heart are also present in the sea-urchins, as well as a complex
nervous system, already referred to—a perfection of organisa-
tion which we would hardly have expected to find in such a
lowly creature in the scale of creation. The interior of the
shell is always filled with a fluid which must be something
more than sea-water, as it is found to be richly corpusculated,
and coagulates when exposed to the air, so that it may repre-
sent the blood of higher animals.
The young of the sea-urchins pass through a strange meta-
morphosis. As in the case of the crab the larval form was
long thought to be a distinct animal, and was known as a
“ Zoéa,’ so the embryo of the sea-urchins, as well as of the
star-fishes, was at one time placed under a separate group of
animals, under the name of a “ Pluteus.” Joh. Miiller was
the first to notice these singular larval forms, and the name
“ Pluteus” was applied by him to the embryo—* from its re-
semblance,” it has been said, “to a painter’s easel with his
1889-90. | On the Echinoidea or Sea-Urchins. 353
work upon it.” This simile gives a very fair idea of the
appearance of a pluteus; and it may be added to it that the
embryo is very transparent, and only about the one-fortieth of
an inch in size, so that although the plutei may swarm in the
sea during the months of August and September, they are not
easily recognised. Strange to say, it is only in warm and
temperate waters that this mode of growth by means of a
pluteus obtains; for Sir Wyville Thomson has found that in
cold Arctic seas the young echini are produced viviparously
from ova, and live as tiny sea-urchins on the body of the
mother, by a sort of commensal arrangement, until they are
able to fend for themselves. By the kindness of Dr G. Car-
rington Purvis, there is shown to-night under the microscope
the plutei of a sea-urchin, from the marine-station at Naples.
Having thus glanced at the general structure of the Echin-
oidea, as exhibited by the common egg-urchin of the Firth of
Forth and other waters, we may now compare the sea-urchins
with the more familiar star-fishes. Taking the common “ Five-
fingers ” (Asterias (Uraster) rubens), we note the following points
regarding its structure. There is first a disc and five radiating
arms, and on the upper surface of these arms numerous cal-
careous nodules which support short spines. One of these
nodules is larger than the others, being the madreporite or
strainer which is also found on the test of the sea-urchin ;
while scattered about amongst the spines of our star-fish will
be found the pedicellarie or pincers already described. On
the under surface of the disc, and in its centre, is the mouth ;
and from it five grooves extend to the tips of the rays, which
carry on each side rows of tube-feet. There is here a remark-
able similarity to the structure of the sea-urchin ; and we are
forced to admit the truth of the remark made by Dr Romanes,
though at first blush it may be a little startling, that “in all
its main features an echinus is merely a star-fish, with its five
rays calcified and soldered together, so as to constitute a rigid
box.”
Passing from the common egg-urchin, I shall now notice
briefly the other sea-urchins generally found:in or near the
1See ‘Jour. Linn. Soc.,’ vol. xiii., 1876 (Zoology), Art., “‘ Notice of Some
Peculiarities in the Mode of Propagation of certain Echinoderms of the Southern
Seas,” by Sir Wyville Thomson.
354 On the Echinotdea or Sea-Urchins. [ Sess.
area of the Firth of Forth. The first is the purple-tipped
egg-urchin (#. miliaris), always a small creature, and often
mistaken for the young of E. sphera. It has a rose-coloured
body with white tubercles, and the primary spines are often
much longer than the others. The shell, when stripped of its
spines, presents a beautifully radiated appearance, on account
of the tubercles of the primary spines being so prominent. Its
madreporite is extremely porous, and its pedicellariz numerous
and peculiarly shaped. These features may always help to
distinguish it from E. sphera. Our next genus is the green
pea-urchin (Hehinocyamus pusillus), the smallest of all the egg-
urchins, and forming the link between the echini and spatangi,
having the dental apparatus of the former with the spines of
the latter. The specimens exhibited were recently taken from
the stomach of a haddock, in which out-of-the-way place I
have frequently found them. From amongst a heap of star-
fish remains and small shells there were picked out on this
particular occasion no fewer than fifty-five pea-urchins in a
perfect condition. When alive, the colour of the shell is a
bright metallic green, which gradually becomes a dull white
after the death of the animal. Specimens of the pea-urchin
may often be found amongst the shell-sand on the beach, but
the creature is so tiny, and so like a small water-worn stone,
that it may easily be overlooked.
The only other sea-urchin ordinarily found in the Firth of
Forth is the purple heart-urchin (Spatangus purpureus)—the
largest and handsomest of all our British spatangi. In this
class of sea-urchins there is no masticatory apparatus, and the
animal burrows by means of its spines amongst the sand, and
is also generally found to be filled with this unsavoury sub-
stance. The spines of the spatangus, as already said, are
well known to microscopists as lovely opaque objects; but it
may not be generally known that amongst the sand of the
body-cavity there is frequently to be found a wealth of micro-
scopic material. These include minute crystals and portions
of quartz and felspar, which often polarise beautifully ; frag-
ments of shells; numbers of sponge-spicules and foraminifera ;
and various well-preserved forms of diatoms. Without
knowing anything of the nature of this microscopist’s treasury,
I lately examined the contents of several spatangi, and felt
1889-90. | On the Echinoidea or Sea-Urchins. 355
well rewarded for the trouble. In a few slides which I sent
to Mr William Penman, F.R.M.S., for examination, he has
identified species belonging to the following genera of the
Diatomaceze : (1) Pleurosigma; (2) Rhabdonema ; (3) Coscino-
discus ; (4) Melosira; and (5) Heliopelta. These were all found
among a few particles of sand taken at random from the interior
of a spatangus shell, so that a more careful inspection would
no doubt result in the discovery of many others.
The species of sea-urchins found in tropical seas are both
numerous and varied in form, while many are extremely
beautiful. The splendid collection of the Echinoidea brought
home by the Challenger, and now described by Prof. A.
Agassiz in the third volume of the “Challenger Reports,”
includes no fewer than forty-nine deep-sea species hitherto
unknown to science. The wonderful diversity in their
appearance strikes one very forcibly in looking over the
numerous plates appended to the volume. The same remark-
able diversity, indeed, may be seen in any good museum
collection. JI have had the good fortune to receive from a
friend in Australia, lately a member of this Society, a specimen
of what is certainly one of the most curious forms amongst
the sea-urchins. In this species the spines have decreased
in number, and the primary spines have become much
thickened and lengthened, while their colour is frequently a
pale brown, lightened up with red at the extremities. This
singular appearance of the spines has suggested the name by
which the animal is locally known of “cigar-fish.” The
Specimen now shown was captured by my friend on Lady
Elliot Island, and afterwards taken to the Curator of the
Natural History Museum at Brisbane, who pronounced it to
be Heterocentrotus mamillatus of Brandt, and the largest
specimen of it he had ever seen. Professor A. Agassiz, in his
‘Revision of the Echini, gives as many as fifteen synonyms
for this species, so that it must have proved somewhat of a
puzzle to the classifiers. The “ cigar-fish” is a native of the
Red Sea, and of the Sandwich, Fiji, Philippine, and other
islands.
Several species of the Echinoidea were well known to the
ancients, being mentioned by Horace, Martial, Aristophanes, and
356 On the Echinoidea or Sea-Urchins. [ Sess.
other classical authors." They even seem to have been early
regarded as a luxury or delicacy, and were used at table
both raw and cooked. Pennant says that in his time they
were eaten by the poor in many parts of England, and they
are still so used on the Continent. EE. sphera and its con-
gener Psammechinus (E.) esculentus are the species mostly in
favour. The parts selected for food are the ovaries, which
are full of eggs in spring, when the ova are matured, and are
said to equal the best fish-roe.
I can only refer, in a sentence or two in conclusion, to the
extinct forms of the sea-urchins. These are numerous, and
at the same time well preserved. There are nearly 2000
extinct species in all. Prof. Geikie remarks that they
“have been so abundantly preserved, that their geological
history and development are better known than those of most
classes of invertebrates.” While marine life is always more
abundantly conserved than terrestrial, those animals with hard
parts, like the sea-urchins, have, of course, a great advantage in
this respect over soft-bodied animals. The Echinoidea cover a
very wide area in the geological record, ranging “from the
Ordovician period to the present day.” It is in the Oolite
and the Chalk, however, that they are found in greatest
numbers, and these later fossils resemble living genera, while
the Paleozoic forms differ considerably from those now exist-
ing. Many “quaint and curious” examples, must have
burrowed in the sandy bottoms or scooped out the rocky
margins of ancient seas. Regarded as a whole, living and
extinct, the Echinoidea furnish abundant material for patient
study and investigation; and after having made even a slight
1 Thus Plautus, in one of his Comedies, incidentally mentions the food
gathered from the sea-shore, and eaten presumably by the poorer classes,
amongst the number being sea-urchins. In the “Rudens,” a fisherman, be-
wailing his wretched condition in a curiously modern fashion, says :—
““Cotidie ex urbe ad mare hue prodimus pabulatum.
Pro exercitu gymnastico et palestrico hoc habemus:
Echinos, lopadas, ostreas, balanos captamus, conchas,
Marinam urticam, musculos, plagusias striatas.”
Thus translated by Riley—“ Each day from the city do we come out hither to the
sea to seek for forage. Instead of exertion in the wrestling-school and the place
for exercise, we have this: sea-urchins, rock-mussels, oysters, limpets, cockles,
sea-nettles, sea-mussels, and spotted crabs, we catch.”—“ The Fisherman’s Rope,”
Act ii. se. 1,
1889-90. | The Kaurie Pine. 357
acquaintance with them, we feel ready to exclaim, with
Prof. Edward Forbes, “Truly the skill of the Great Architect
of Nature is not less displayed in the construction of a sea-
urchin than in the building up of a world!”
In illustration of the above paper, the following preparations were
shown under the microscope :—
(a) Trans. sect. of spine of Echinus sphera.
(0) " " un Flemingit.
(c) " " Heterocentrotus mamillatus.
(d) " " Acrocladia hastifera.
(¢) Spines of Spatangus purpureus.
(f) Pedicellarize of Hchinus Flemingii.
(9) " " sphera.
(h) Spheeridia of " "
(t) Ambulacrum and suctorial dise of Echinus Flemingit.
(k) Plates from suctorial dise of " "
(1) Plates from ambulacral zone of n — Spheera.
(m) Plutei of an echinus, eleven days old,
VIL—THE KAURIE PINE (DAMMARA AUSTRALIS).
By Mr HUGH FRASER.
(Read Feb. 26, 1890.)
THis genus forms one of the large. group of trees and shrubs
which are scientifically classed in the order Conifer, the
members of which are found distributed over every region of
the world. The four or five species with their varieties at
present known to botanists are exclusively confined to the
Southern Hemisphere, and representatives are found in several
of the East Indian islands, New Guinea, and New Zealand.
They are all lofty evergreen trees, more or less valued for their
timber, and for the useful gums which all the species produce
in singular abundance, and which form important articles of
commerce. The generic name is that applied by the natives
of Amboyna, and adopted on the introduction of Dammara
358 The Kaurie Pine. [Sess.
orientalis in the early part of this century. It may be noted,
however, that some authorities have since then classed the
whole genus under the name “ Agathis ”—a change for which
I have not as yet discovered a reason.
In these notes I confine myself to the New Zealand
species, Dammara australis, called by the natives “ Kaurie,”
and by the settlers “Cowrie,” as being specially interesting
to us from the fact that we have had recently importations
of its timber, which is being used for cabinet work and
panelling, and which will in all probability be in greater
demand as its merits become more widely known and
tested. Jn its native wilds, its principal habitats are in the
northern parts of the colony, where it is found chiefly in
rocky or stony situations, either associated with other trees
or forming the prevailing trees in very extensive forests.
In order to give an idea of the appearance of these trees as
seen at home, I cannot do better than quote a few sentences
from a remarkable book recently published by the Govern-
ment of the colony, written by Mr T. Kirk, and entitled
‘The Forest Flora of New Zealand’ Mr Kirk is an accom-
plished botanist, and writes very graphically. He remarks
that “the Kaurie is the monarch of the New Zealand woods,”
and that “though it does not attain the extreme heights and
circumference of the Sequoias of California, it rivals them in
the excellence of its timber, which possesses a larger number
of good qualities than any other pine known to commerce.”
“The interior of a large Kaurie forest,” he goes on to say,
“affords one of the most impressive scenes in the colony.
Smooth grey trunks rise on all sides like massive columns,
perfectly straight and symmetrical, to a height of 80 or even
100 feet, with a diameter of 4 feet to 12 feet or upwards.
If growing in close proximity to each other, they attain a
greater height, but the trunk is less massive, and tapers
eradually into a small head. If growing some distance apart,
the trunk is of large diameter, with but little difference
between the base and the crown. The head of solitary trees is
large and spreading, the main arms being sometimes two feet
in diameter. The broad, leathery green leaves have a most
refreshing appearance in the driest weather, and bear no resem-
blance to the needle-like leaves which characterise the pines
——————
a
1889-90. ] The Kaurie Pine. 359
of the northern hemisphere. The glaucous or cinereous hue
of the bark under certain atmospheric conditions appears to
surround the trunks with an undefined haze, an effect which
is only to be found in a Kaurie forest. The bark scales off in
large flat flakes, and as it decays forms a mound of humus
surrounding the base of each tree, and is highly charged with
resin, Which exudes from the slightest wound on the trunk
or leaves, all parts of the plant being excessively resinous.”
Though from 80 to 100 feet is the average height of these
trees, specimens are to be found here and there very much
higher. Some are recorded as being 150 and even 200
feet, with trunks varying from 20 to 60 feet in circum-
ference.
Along with its great value as a timber tree, the Kaurie is
important for the immense quantity of gum which it produces,
and this is obtained by a different process from that we are
accustomed to associate with other trees of a similar character.
Instead of tapping as the only mode of obtaining the precious
article, Mr Kirk informs us that large quantities are also dug
up at a depth of from six to seven feet from the ground once
covered by primeval forests of this tree. “Gum digging,” he
says, “is a standard resource for the industrious, and the
Auckland gum-fields have proved, it is said, far more beneficial
to the district than its gold-fields, no capital or machinery
being required beyond a gum spear or spade.” As regards
the gum itself, it is described as similar but far superior to
copal, which is the produce of the Rhus coppalina, a North
American tree.
I may add that in this country the Kaurie can only be
cultivated under the shelter of a conservatory, and there it
forms a peculiarly graceful evergreen specimen, quite distinct
from the other shrubs and trees usually seen in such struc-
tures.
360 — Stray Notes on the Birds of Anglesea. [Sess.
VUL—STRAY NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF
ANGLESEA.
By Mr ARCH. CRAIG, Jun.
(Read March 26, 1890.)
Ir was with considerable pleasure that, last May (1889), I
found myself able to accept of a kind invitation from a friend
to spend a few days in the island of Anglesea, the more readily
as his account of the bird life of that locality had aroused my
interest in no small degree, many of the species mentioned by
him being uncommon, and in some instances very rare, to
Scotland. The prettily situated town of Bangor was the ter-
minus of our railway journey, but the ultimate destination was
an old-fashioned farmhouse on the opposite side of the Menai
Strait. Crossing what was at one time considered to be the
greatest engineering feat of the age—the Menai Suspension
Bridge—but which is now dwarfed and rendered insignificant
by the completion of that wonder of the world so close to our
own doors, our road ascended in very tortuous fashion up the
sloping side of the island, running through a country to a great
extent broken up by irregular-shaped knolls that barely rose
to the dignity of hills, yet sufficiently pretty to render this
part of the journey both pleasant and interesting. Great
quantities of whins in full blow grew everywhere, but amidst
these quaint-looking snug farmhouses cropped up now and
again, surrounded by patches of cultivated land, these in turn
divided by stone dykes much in the same style as prevails in
Scotland. If we exclude the sea prospect, the whole aspect
of this part of the island, with its broken hummocky ground,
its crofting-looking plots, and its distant view of the high
mountain-ranges of Carnarvon and Denbigh shires, brought
one forcibly in mind of similar scenes in the Lennox and
various districts of Perth and Argyle shires, where much the
same character of scenery is found intervening betwixt the
rich agricultural land of the Lowlands and the truly typical
mountainous Highland country. The road, like most of those
in the island, was very narrow, and bordered on each side by
1889-90.]_ Stray Notes on the Birds of Anglesea. 361
high, straggling-looking, ill-kept hedges, that added, neverthe-
less, to the picturesqueness of the landscape; and, after turn-
ing and twisting in most unexpected fashion, brought us in
sight of a small sheet of water, on the edge of which stood the
house which was to be our home for the next few days. The
house itself was most peculiar, being enclosed at the side next
the road with a high whitewashed wall, and blocked up also by
the outer portions of another smaller building, which proved to
be the dairy. The door, unlike most other houses, did not open
into a passage, but led into the kitchen direct ; and in order to
reach the upper storey, it was necessary to climb a steep trap-
like stair that required rather skilful navigation and some
little practice to ascend or descend in safety: in fact, while
performing the latter operation, if great care was not exercised,
an individual would find his head come in contact with the hard
brick-floor of the kitchen before he was aware that his feet
’ had left the upper landing. It is no part of the present pur-
pose, however, to occupy time with further description of the
house, or any lengthened account of the scenery of the island,
as the latter will be briefly touched upon here and there while
referring to the various species of birds to which your atten-
tion is to be drawn.
Numerous coots and moor-hens frequented the pond;
and towards evening the snipe flew round and round so
high in the air as to be undiscernible in the dim light,
the only guide to his presence being the strange booming
sound that he makes with apparent satisfaction to himself,
and no doubt also to his mate sitting upon her eggs amongst
the marshy ground beneath. Although there is not much
music in this performance, it has by no means an unpleas-
ant effect, particularly upon a calm still night, ere the last
lingering touches of the sun’s rays have ceased to illumine
the surface of the water, and darkness has taken the place
of the uncertain twilight. At such a time, whether from a
predisposition to take heed to any noise, or from the fact that,
most animals and birds having retired for the night, the fewer
sounds emitted attract our attention in a greater degree by
reason of their scarcity, certain it is that birds’ notes in par-
ticular seem to be carried to much greater distances than
VOL, II. 2B
362 Stray Notes on the Birds of Anglesea. [Sess.
during the day, and consequently force themselves upon our
notice with greater prominence. The strange gurgling notes
of the coot, the quivering cry of the curlew, the plaintive and
melancholy calls of the peewit and golden plover, the whistle
of the woodcock, and the many wild calls of the sea-birds
flying overhead, carry with them after dusk a weird and
“eerie” feeling that is not easily explained,—any more than
we can account for the difference between a person wandering
through an empty house during the day, and the same indi-
vidual repeating the performance after nightfall. In the
former case he perambulates the rooms without fear, whereas
in the latter he does so with considerable reluctance, often
trembling at the sound of his own footsteps; yet if asked to
give a reason for the change, there are a hundred chances to
one he fails to give even a shadow of such. To return to the
snipe. It is always a difficult task to describe a sound, so
that another unacquainted with it can form any idea of its
likeness; and in the case of the present species, the nearest
approach I can think of is as follows. Imagine the distant bleat-
ing of a goat, the hum of the nocturnal beetle while on the wing,
add to these the sound produced by one of those primitive little
instruments that street boys affect so much, called, I think,
“mouth harmonicons,” mix them all up, and you have some
distant sort of notion of the booming of the snipe. This you will
no doubt consider a heterogeneous conglomeration, and so it is ;
but it only exemplifies what has already been hinted, of the difti-
culty in making any essay to delineate what is wellnigh an im-
possibility. Before proceeding, it is necessary to remark that
the peculiar drumming sound is believed by almost all our emi-
nent ornithologists to be produced by the action of the wings
or tail, or both combined, and not by the throat: the ordinary
alarm-note is, of course, produced by the latter. The other birds
observed as haunting the pool were the little grebe or “ dooker”
as it is sometimes called, the common mallard or wild duck,
an occasional pair of widgeons, besides sundry stray species that
flew up from the sea, including a variety of gulls and other
maritime wanderers. The whin-covered undulating country
was a “happy hunting-ground” for cuckoos—in fact, I never
recollect seeing or hearing so many of those birds in a short
time in any one district, not even in Perthshire where they
i i ee ere eee
1889-90.] Stray Notes on the Birds of Anglesea. 363
abound. Although hardly so plentiful as to justify comparison
with Milton’s description of Satan’s legions, who lay
“Thick as autumnal leaves that strow the brooks
In Vallombrosa ”—
yet their numbers were sufficiently great as almost to become
monotonous, the familiar call being audible everywhere, and
continuing practically all night, as well as during the hours of
sunshine. It would be superfluous to enter into any descrip-
tion of the curious habits of this species,—the parasitical tenden-
cies by which it shifts the burden of rearing its own young upon
its willing dupes, in the shape of titlarks, hedge-accentors, &c.,
being now matter of notoriety to every school child.* Long
ago many strange fictions were in vogue regarding its ways,
one of those being the conviction that it preyed solely upon
the eggs of other species,—a very silly notion indeed, and quite
Baicehable, as no attempt seems to have been made to indicate
the food upon which the bird subsisted for the several months
after other species had done laying. Another statement, com-
monly promulgated and credited, was that it hibernated in
Britain (a fable, it is regrettable to think, not yet exploded as
regards the swallow tribe), retirmg into caverns, holes in the
ground, or the hollows of trees, there to lie dormant during
the long winter, until the advent of genial spring called it
forth once more. In illustration of this, a tale is told by Aldro-
vandus, a very old ornithological writer, of a countryman
who lived at Zurich, in Switzerland, who, after casting a large
log of wood upon the fire, was surprised shortly to hear the
well-known call of the cuckoo issue from a cavity in the
wood, the presumption being that the heat had awakened ‘the
torpid inmate, and made him imagine summer had returned.
At night the cuckoo varies his usual répertoire by another and
totally different call, which, however, having regard to the fail-
ure of the endeavour to portray that of the snipe, need not be
inflicted upon you.
In addition to the birds already mentioned, a great hee
of common species could be seen more or less ‘all over the
country—landrails, rooks, jackdaws, ring-doves, but, strangely
1 Mr Harting, in his work ‘Our Summer Migrants,’ gives a list of over fifty
species in whose nests the cuckoo’s egg has been discovered.
364 Stray Notes on the Birds of Anglesea. [Sess.
enough, no stock-doves, although the locality seemed fayour-
able, common and yellow buntings, linnets, the various species
of swallows and warblers, pipits, skylarks, finches, besides
many others too numerous to particularise. Without making a
list of all these, it may be better just to crave your attention
in detail to a few of the more uncommon species; and the
first to be noticed is the sprightly little stonechat. This
beautiful lively creature, unlike its congeners the wheatear
and whinchat, is found in Britain all the year round, although
many, no doubt, migrate in autumn, as they are never seen
during winter in such numbers, save, perhaps, in certain fav-
oured localities near the sea-shore. If reference is made to
most standard works on ornithology, you will doubtless read
that this species is common all over Scotland. This state-
ment I humbly beg to differ from, as one may wander for days
without seeing a solitary specimen except in isolated quarters,
where, perhaps, the surroundings are suitable to their mode of
life. The migratory whinchat is often confused with this bird,
as at a distance they are not readily distinguished, more espe-
cially as the notes are not dissimilar; but in my experience I
have always found the Saxicola rubetra to be the more numer-
ous of the two. In Anglesea there was no dubiety about the
matter, as in almost any direction—excluding, of course, the
thick woods—the stonechat was to be seen flirting and
dodging about, now swinging on the top spray of a whin, or
sitting upon a fence or rock, uttering the peculiar clicking
note that resembles two pebbles knocked sharply against
each other. This metallic sound is diversified by a clear
liquid whistle, and the song, such as it is, is sweet, though
rather short. This bird inherits a fashion—peculiar to all
the chats, such as the robin, redstart, &c.—of suddenly diving
down from its perch, only to reappear after a low flight, with
a confident demeanour, at some considerable distance, as if in
triumph at having outwitted the onlooker. The male bird in
his nuptial plumage is a pretty object when viewed close at
hand, and withal seems a trifle conceited, if we are to judge
from the airs he assumes when dallying with his lady-love.
Waste commons where gorse and stunted bushes abound, open
heaths and links by the sea-shore, are favourite habitats; but
it by no means confines itself to marine neighbourhoods, as it
er a eee
1889-90. Stray Notes on the Birds of Anglesea. 36
og iS 5
may be observed in odd pairs in the very centre of Perth and
other shires far removed from the sea—but, it is safe to say,
not to anything like the same extent as its relations the wheat-
ear and whinchat. One of the most beautiful parts in Angle-
sea is the estate of Baron Hill, belonging to Sir R. B. Wil-
lams-Bulkeley, the representative of an old Welsh family who
at one time held a great amount of property on the opposite
shore of the Menai Strait, now in possession of Lord Penrhyn
and other proprietors. The grounds attached to the mansion-
house are laid out with great taste, and, from the immense
size and diversity of the woods, harbour a considerable variety
of birds, including most of the warbler fraternity, always
excepting the nightingale and a few other uncommon species
that do not visit North Wales. Starlings flew about in great
numbers, working with a will to gather food for their ever
hungry broods, which for the most part were concealed in the
hollows of huge trees, of which the estate could boast an
enormous number. It is extremely doubtful if any species,
save the rook, toils so hard and so constantly as the starling:
from earliest dawn till darkness sets in he seems always to be
busy; and whatever failings and peccadilloes may be laid to
his charge, these are indeed trifling in comparison with the
good he does in devouring grubs and other harmful insects,
which, but for the efforts of the feathered fauna, would ulti-
mately prove anything but a blessing to the agriculturist. In
a large clump of trees, close to Baron Hill house, a small
colony of blue rock-doves had taken up their abode—the only
instance of the kind that has come under my own knowledge,
their usual haunts being caves and rocks on the sea-shore ;
but it seems that this is not uncommon, as they, in confor-
mity with many other species, suit themselves to circum-
stances. Perhaps the rarest bird that frequented the policy
was the green woodpecker. A favourite haunt of this inter-
esting species was a small lawn opposite the door of the
house, which was surrounded by a clump of immense trees,
whose trunks offered strong temptations to this climbing
acrobat. This is a shy bird, and not so readily noticed as
one would imagine, considering his size and brilliant plumage,
his modus operandi being to keep on the other side of the
trunk from the spectator, ever and anon taking a sly glance
366 Stray Notes on the Birds of Anglesea. [Sess.
round the corner or over the top of a branch; and should he
consider your presence as likely to be attended with danger,
off he flies silently to a safe distance, which having gained,
he frequently gives vent to a strange horse-like laugh, as
much as to say, “Chacun & son godt—but as our tastes
differ, I had better give you a wide berth.” Taken as a whole,
it is an ageravating bird, and rather trying to the temper of
one who is desirous of getting to close quarters so as to watch
and admire its habits. Other species of Picidee are rare, and
only occur as occasional visitants. One of the keepers, in a
distant part of the island, shot what was to him and others an
unknown species ; and although it was described as correctly
as possible, it was not for several weeks afterwards, while on
a visit to Peeblesshire, where the specimen was sent, that I
had an opportunity of identifying the same. The bird in
question was a red-backed shrike—a somewhat sparse visitor
to Anglesea, although found in various counties of England.
The titmouse and thrush families were well represented by
the great, blue, cole, marsh, and long-tailed tits, by the black-
bird, missel, and song thrushes; but one missed many favour-
ites, such as the ring- and water-ousels, crossbills, siskins, &c.,
which, as far as could be learned, either did not inhabit the
island, or, at best, only occurred at rare intervals as stragglers.
The Hirundinide, or swallows, existed in considerable num-
bers, great quantities of house- and sand-martins breeding in
the banks by the sea-shore. But by far the most interesting
bird of all was one, sometimes said, although problemat-
ically so, to be allied to the genus Hirundo—viz., the night-
jar, which is deserving of a fuller description than can be
given to others with which we are tolerably familiar.
No more curious bird visits the British Isles than the night-
jar, arriving about the middle of May and departing south-
wards again in September or October. On the whole it is
nocturnal, or rather crepuscular, in its habits, seldom seen in
numbers until the shades of evening are beginning to fall,
although in localities where they abound one frequently dis-
turbs them in broad daylight from their resting-place among
the fern or heather, but on these occasions they as a rule glide
silently off, and settle down again at no great distance. As
can be observed from the example exhibited, the plumage
1889-90.] Stray Notes on the Birds of Anglesea. 307
resembles the colours of a moth, and from its combination
of tints is most admirably adapted for screening purposes, as
when squatted flat on the ground among heather, brushwood,
or bracken, they maybe passed within a few feet unnoticed.
So remarkably close, indeed, do they lie during the day, that
one almost treads upon them before they will rise; and on
several occasions, while wandering through a straggling sort of
covert, at a place pronounced “ Voty,” divers pairs flew up so
suddenly under foot as to be rather trying to the nerves from
the unexpectedness of their appearance. Night-jars seldom
make any noise until evening arrives, and when they do
deviate from the usual rule the sound is not so loud, and
seems only to be uttered in a half-hearted way, very different
from their bold efforts at night, about which something falls
to be said later on. The wings are long and pointed, giving
the bird somewhat the appearance of a hawk, and the flight
is almost absolutely noiseless, like that of an owl, save when
they crack their wings over their back, like the tame pigeons
known as “smiters.” This latter performance seems to be
resorted to when disturbed from their perch, and may be a
means of venting their annoyance at intrusion; yet they cannot
be said to be timid, as they fly within a few feet of one’s head,
and will often alight upon a tree or wall in close proximity
to human beings. Their hawk-like and owl-like resemblance
when flying has been the means of giving them a bad reputa-
tion among a certain class to whom the preservation of game
is the swnmum bonum of life; consequently for many years
they were subjected to persecution as destroyers of young
pheasants, &c. But of all the baseless and absurd notions ever
indulged in, or made the vehicle of useless destruction, this
_is surely one of the weakest and least defensible, as night-jars
are utterly incapable of injuring game, unless cockchafers
and moths can be designated as coming under that category.
Their food consists almost entirely of the last mentioned,
besides other insects that appear in the evening. The mouth
when opened is so big as to be capable of swallowing entire
large nocturnal beetles, one of which you will observe accom-
panies the specimen here exhibited. This was found in his
stomach, and from its perfect state must have been newly
caught before the bird was shot. The sides of the mouth are
368 Stray Notes on the Birds of Anglesea. [ Sess.
armed with curious bristles, which are supposed to aid the
species in capturing its prey ; and in common with some other
birds, it possesses a quantity of sticky saliva in the glands
at the sides of the throat, to which smaller insects adhere in
such a manner as to render escape impossible. Various names
are applied to this species, as, for example, night-jar, churn-
owl, fern-owl, night-hawk, goatsucker, and many other local
epithets which it is unnecessary to recapitulate. The two first
named evidently derive their origin from the sound emitted
by the bird; the fern-owl and night-hawk, from the similarity
of flight and appearance to the birds of prey already noted ;
and now it only remains to explain the meaning of goat-
sucker. The Latin name caprimulgus literally means a goat-
milker, and the title originated in the following manner.
When skimming over the fields in search of moths, &c., it
very often approaches so close to the goats and cattle lying
there, as to have given rise to the belief among the ignorant
peasantry, aided no doubt by the uncertain light, that its
object was to avail itself of the recumbent position of the
animals to extract the milk from their udders,—an idea just
about as silly as that it fed upon game; so what between the
animosity of illiterate agriculturists and irate keepers, the
poor bird was frequently “between the de’il and the deep
sea.” Happily now, save among the grossly ignorant, these
superstitions are things of the past, and I hardly think we
will write “resurgam” over their ashes.
There is yet another strange belief worth mentioning, now
also wellnigh discredited. From the position of its eyes, it
was supposed that when flying with the gape open it looked
through the roof of its mouth, and to enable it to do so the
more readily, the upper part was composed of a thin trans-
parent film. This idea seems erroneous, and about as credible
as the veracious American story of the negro, the hue of whose
skin was so intensely black that charcoal made a white mark
upon him. Some authors maintain that it flies always with
its mouth open ; others again that it only gapes when necessary
to capture the flying insect. The latter is likely to be the
more correct of the two theories; but when we consider the
matter for a moment, both are found to be purely conjectural,
as how is it possible for any person to decide such a point
“
‘1889-90.] Stray Notes on the Birds of Anglesea. 369
unless he could fly alongside and follow every erratic motion
of the bird? The vicinity of the pond afore-mentioned was
perhaps about the best place to view the night-jar to advan-
tage, and on favourable nights, when many insects were on
the wing, the whole country-side seemed to swarm with the
birds. This latter impression was, however, more apparent
than real, as the numbers were in reality not great, only as
they were constantly shifting their quarters, the sound came
from so many different directions as to lead one to suppose that
the birds were entirely separate, whereas in all probability
four or five pairs at most frequented the immediate surround-
ings. The note is most peculiar, and perfectly unique of its
kind, resembling nothing so much as the “ birling” noise made
by a threshing-machine, or the droning vibration caused by
various kinds of machinery in motion. It has a most pene-
trating effect, and on a calm night is perfectly audible at a
distance of half a mile; but when near at hand it seems to
rise and fall, becoming intense at one moment, only to be
modulated the next by a sort of cadence, but all the time the
vibration accompanies the performance. The note seems to
be made only when the bird is sitting, but whether solely
confined to that period or also exercised when in flight, is a
point upon which I do not feel competent to give an opinion.
To be appreciated it should be heard on a still evening just
at the darkening, and if for the first time, the result is almost
startling, more especially as the sound has the effect of ventri-
loquism, probably caused by the bird moving its head about
while singing, if such a noise can be dignified by that name.
In addition to this well-known vocalism, the night-jar gives
utterance to a shrill scream, but, judging from somewhat
limited experience, I am inclined to believe this is not resorted
to save in cases of fear, as it rarely, if ever, vents this note
except when approached unexpectedly, and in such a manner
as to cause fright.
A very few words about the position of the bird when
perched will finish this cursory sketch of an interesting
species. Unlike other birds to which we are accustomed in
this country, it does not sit across a branch or rail, but squats
lengthwise, consequently it is at all times, but more particu-
larly in the twilight, most difficult to observe, as it lies very
370 Stray Notes on the Birds of Anglesea. [Sess.
flat upon its resting-place, and appears to be part and parcel
of the same. It alights without the slightest noise, elevating
the wings before perching, apparently to steady itself, but
when once the wings are lowered the bird seems to disappear
altogether. Just to show how difficult it is to locate them
under such circumstances, I may instance the fact that for a
number of nights I took up my quarters for two hours at a
time close to a solitary bare tree upon which the birds were
in the habit of settling, and although they must have perched
within fifteen yards of the spot selected upwards of twenty
times, only on two occasions could it be said positively that
the bird was discernible on the branch. Any one present
who has really taken the trouble to study the night-jar’s habits
will, I feel certain, corroborate this statement. A very great
deal more might be said concerning this species, but time
would not permit, the only remark now to be made being that
the males are distinguished from the females by the two white
spots on the outer feathers of the tail.
Another species comparatively numerous in Anglesea was
the water-rail,—a very shy retiring bird, and not so often seen
as its numbers would lead us to expect ; but this circumstance
is easy to account for, from the fact of its resorting to swampy
and marshy ground, ditches, and suchlike, where the thick
herbage, reeds, and long grasses effectually conceal it from the
casual view. Add to this a natural timidity, a disinclination
to take to flight, a skulking habit (features common also to
the land-rail), and it will be conceded that it is not an easy
task to observe its habits. There were several ponds and
marshes where it nested, but very few came actually under
my own observation, the accompanying specimen being secured
with difficulty, and that while the bird was under water, the
bill and upper part of the head only being left above the
surface to enable it to breathe through its nostrils. Water-
rails are found in many districts of Scotland—such as Dud-
dingston at our own doors, Peeblesshire, Inverness-shire, and
in most localities suitable to its habits, although it is much
more common in Lincolnshire and other flat fenny parts of
England.
1 The ‘‘pectinated” claw is a peculiar feature of this species, but as I am
unable to offer any theory upon its use, mention of it has been avoided.
1889-90.] Stray Notes on the Birds of Anglesea. 371
Before concluding these random notes it would be well to
eall your attention, and that shortly, to one of the most inter-
esting parts of the Baron Hill estate—viz., Puffin Island.
This rock, for it is not of great extent, lies about a quarter
to half a mile from the shore, opposite the lighthouse at Pen-
mon deer-park, and not very far distant from the partial
ruins of Penmon Priory, a curious old edifice which has great
attractions for the archeologist. The Priory is said to be of
ancient date, but is now partly used as a church and also as
a gamekeeper’s house, the walls of the latter being panelled
with very old oak, to which, however, a somewhat fictitious
age is given. We were unable to examine this interesting
place thoroughly, as the gamekeeper’s wife was dangerously
ill, and not expected to recover; and it was with much sorrow
that I heard quite lately that the keeper himself, along with
three other employees on the estate, were drowned in the
Menai Strait by the capsizing of their boat during a squall.
The Priory possesses, along with many other similar religious
houses, what is known as a “ wishing well ”—a clear sparkling
pool, surrounded by a little chamber cut out of the solid rock ;
and until lately it was the custom for folks to come and drop
a trifling offering into the water, at the same time repeating
some wish aloud—the bulk of those, so far as the fair sex
were concerned, having reference to matrimonial aspirations.
The coast-line at this point of the island is rugged and pre-
cipitous, but the cliffs are not of any great height, and give
shelter chiefly to gulls and oyster-catchers, but on crossing the
narrow channel to the island we find a much greater variety
of sea-birds. Puffins sat in rows on the rugged ledges, or
darted out from crevices as if they had been shot from a can-
non; guillemots and razor-bills were very numerous, besides
herring-gulls, kittiwakes, and oyster-catchers. Among the
smaller species were the ringed plover and common sandpiper,
rock- and meadow-pipits, while house-martins built their clay
habitations under the overhanging crags. A day or two could
be pleasantly and profitably spent here, as in addition to the
above-mentioned, all of which were observed during a short
half-hour, numerous other sea-birds occur. It may interest
members of our Society to know that this island is leased by
a biological society in Liverpool, the members of which come
372 Round about the Northern Cliffs. [Sess.
down periodically to dredge for specimens. A steam-launch,
besides small boats, are kept for their use, and a man in their
employ lives constantly on the rock to look after their interests.
This, you will acknowledge, is working up natural history
on a grand scale. In winter the feathered fauna receive large
accessions to their numbers, chiefly in the shape of marine
species, such as divers, ducks, geese, sandpipers, &c.; but hav-
ing regard to the length this paper has already assumed, I
shall not detain you longer, but conclude with the remark that
while the district, ornithologically speaking, is a rich one, it is
matter of regret that it has been found impossible, with the
limited time at my disposal, to do even the scantiest justice to
the numerous interesting fauna that have made it their home.
IX.—ROUND ABOUT THE NORTHERN CLIFFS.
By Mr JOHN SUTHERLAND.
(Read March 26, 1890.)
READERS of Dr Smiles’s delightful biography, ‘ Robert Dick,
Geologist and Botanist, need not be told that the mainland
of the extreme North affords a “happy hunting-ground ” for
the scientific observer, whether his studies deal with the
transformations and inhabitants of the world in remote ages,
or with its aspects as seen to-day. Caithness is particularly
rich in botany and animal life, especially birds; while its
pavements, said to be marked with the footprints of pre-
historic man, floor a great part of the civilised globe. Thurso,
the centre of this industry, is further distinguished by leading
the way in the emancipation of women, as here one of the
sex beards the ravenous lion, man, in her own if not in his
den—she is a barber! For rod-fishing the river is one of the
best in Scotland, an angler being known to catch as many as
twenty-one salmon in a single day. There is a ruined castle
on each side of the town, which stands on a bay hemmed in
by precipitous cliffs that terminate in the bluff promontories
of Holburn and Dunnet Heads. The sea sometimes rages
with such terrific fury on the coast that spray is sent flying
eae <x --~—-—-—
. eet
1889-90. | Round about the Northern Cliffs. 373
over the tops of these rocks, which are more than four hundred
feet high. At Wick there is painful evidence of its vehemence
furnished by the remains of a pier demolished while in course
of construction, blocks of stone weighing hundreds of tons
having been conveyed to a considerable distance, where they
now lie, to the disfigurement of the bay and the danger of
shipping. The seaward view from Thurso commands the pro-
digious western precipices of Hoy in the distance, perhaps the
finest cliff scenery in Britain, with the Orkney hills beyond. At
Holburn Head a noticeable object is the Clett, a huge detached
pillar of rock, which stands sentinel-like and crowned with grey
—nmore, however, the result of sea-bird indignities than the
natural hoary-headedness of age. Indeed around the northern
cliffs there is much to delight the artist’s eye and to worthily
employ his hand; while the naturalist, sportsman, and ordinary
holiday-maker can each and all find something to suit their
respective tastes. Even children may be congenially occupied
in gathering the beautiful cowries and other shells met with
in the neighbourhood.
A cruise round the cliffs, especially about July, the bird-
nesting season, is an experience that must impress any one,
however free from ornithological leanings,—for to be indifferent
to nature as seen here in her moods of grandest wildness, her
frowning face fanned by countless hosts of varied attendants,
would be impossible. The small boats of the North are
chiefly remarkable for heaviness and breadth of beam, so there
is no danger of getting upset; and their consequent slowness of
progression, instead of being a fault, is perhaps an advantage,
allowing one plenty of time to gaze on the many sights claim-
ing attention. If a person is his own boatman, the case is
otherwise, for he is likely to raise his temperature, his temper,
and blisters on his hands, before going far. Having done so,
he cannot do better than lay the oars aside for a while to
peer into the clear depths below, where the sand is formed
into small ridges like wavelets, interspersed with clumps of
different kinds of sea-weeds and subterranean forests of dense
ever-changing olive foliage, that wave in the water as if shaken
by a gentle breeze. He may see flounders, coal-fish, and
other inhabitants of the ocean; and if not inclined to fish, he
can watch a number of feathered fishers, including, at least
374 Round about the Northern Cliffs. [Sess.
occasionally, that large beautiful bird, the great northern
diver. Seals, though not so common as formerly, have still
a few representatives left, one of which may thrust its round
head above water a short distance from the boat, and fix its
intelligent gaze on the occupants for a second or two, to dis-
appear upon gratifying what seems to be a natural curiosity
characteristic of the animal. Should the weather be warm,
a shoal of porpoises may be seen disporting themselves by
tumbling over on the surface of the water in a series of short
dives. If you are armed with a gun, neither they nor seals,
it must be admitted, are liable to appear; and, for similar
reasons, should you during a short stay be very anxious to
see a whale, you may be disappointed, although they, too, pay
flying visits to the vicinity, which by fishermen are regarded
as an indication that herrings abound in the course they follow.
On approaching the cliffs, it has often been remarked that
they inspire a person with feelings of awe and solitariness,
the solitary feeling being as strange as it is unaccountable, for
no one could expect such a company of its kind as appears
along the route. The welcome accorded is lively in the
extreme, if not altogether expressive of good-will,—a thousand
throats, each of which gives out its own peculiar guttural
sound, joining in chorus at the same time. The teeming com-
munity lodges in every fissure and on every ledge, wherever
there is a foothold, and the croaks of some can be heard that
are themselves invisible. But the numbers seen of different
kinds are amazing enough: they are perched everywhere, and
in their passage to and from the sea remind one of populous
beehives on a hot sunny day. Wherever they are, the place
is conspicuous, because there the cliff is stained a chalky
white. You were struck by a strong smell of guano as you
drew near the noisy region; and if you are allowed to return
without being struck by anything more disagreeable, you may
consider yourself lucky. Already there is a cloud of sea-gulls
wheeling overhead in clamorous complaint, protesting against
having their seclusion invaded; but they alone, unless a few -
crows occasionally, demonstrate in this fashion. The diver
tribes—cormorants, razor-bills, guillemots, &c.—show perfect
indifference to your presence, and keep the even tenor of
their way. Gulls, however, have more to dread, their nests
1889-90. } Round about the Northern Cliffs. 375
being frequently in accessible places, while the divers choose
situations that would baffle the most skilful climber, and
generally beyond gun-shot. At a great altitude razor-bills
are ranged along narrow ledges, as close as they can comfort-
ably pack themselves, where in the distance, bolt upright
with long narrow bodies and white breasts, dazed and dude-
like, they resemble rows of bottles bearing white labels that
have been shelved by human hands. In flying down they
tilt themselves over with great rapidity, and fall for a foot
or two like an inanimate object, before expanding wings that
are extremely small for the size and still more so for the
weight of the bird. MRazor-bills, and indeed all the diver
tribes, spend their entire existence in and between the sea
and the face of the cliff. They never appear inland, nor even
on the summit of the rock. The distance between the water
and the cliff is covered in a straight flight at a recular angle,
for they seem incapable of making gyrations. Most of them
build no nest, nor hatch more than one egg in a season, which
is large in proportion to their size. They would, indeed, have
difficulty in keeping a second or third warm, their legs being
situated so near the extremity of the body that they lie or
rather sit over the egg on this part, propped up as it were by
the tail. Consequently, when alarmed by any extraordinary
noise, such as the report of a gun, which re-echoes from rock
to rock and makes a terrific sound, the tail as they leave the
nest hurriedly catches the egg, and draws it over the ledge.
In this way a shower of eggs may be brought down in the
proper, or rather the improper, season. The shells, while
extremely thick in some cases, are, as might be expected, in-
variably smashed, even when eggs fall into the sea.
It is interesting to observe the several customs of the various
kinds of birds in their colonies. In the nesting-season many
of them seem to reverse the usual order of things,—the ere-
garious, as crows and starlings, for example, displaying a solitary
disposition, while the solitary often build in companies, with
the advantage that where a single couple would grievously
fail, they are able to repel the attacks of enemies. Among
such there is the peregrine falcon, the neighbourhood of whose
nest under a projecting ledge at a great height is avoided as a
plague spot. Nearly all these rock- and cave-dwellers regard
376 Round about the Northern Cliffs. [Sess.
murder with becoming horror; but robbery, which is of course
an offence of less magnitude, they engage in frequently.
Gulls unable to dive and catch fish for themselves watch the
professional divers, until one has brought up a fish so big
as not to be swallowed without preliminaries, when with
larcenous intent they pounce upon the honest fisher, and
sometimes deprive him of his prey. He perhaps eludes them
for a while by diving from time to time when sorely pressed,
his tormentors meanwhile increasing in numbers. After
manceuvring against hope as long as possible, the fish is ulti-
mately snatched away by a greedy gull, that is immediately
pursued by the whole host of its fellows. There may be a
hundred competitors for the fish, and the prize must go to one,
so it is amusing to watch the scramble as to which shall carry
it off. Although the thieves disagree, the honest diver has no
chance of recovering his own, for the struggle is now conducted
in mid-air. The gull, holding the fish, endeavours to fly higher
and higher, but unimpeded rivals hamper his progress. In
the heat of the battle the fish is dropped, to be caught by
another gull before it has reached the water. The same tactics
are pursued over again, and the fish may have figured in
several bills before the matter is settled. When at last a gull
with a larger receptive capacity than the rest seems to have
ended the contention by taking the fish into its stomach, the
others proceed quietly on their course. But all is not over
yet. Attracted by the quick shrill cries peculiar to their
struggle for food, another robber, not unlike a grey gull in
appearance, though much larger, comes upon the scene. This
is the skua, who makes a livelihood, oddly enough, by picking
up second-hand, or, to be strictly correct, “second-stomach ”
food, as we shall see. Overtaking the recipient of the ill-
gotten fish, the skua proceeds to belabour it unmercifully
with its wings, and continues this treatment as long as
necessary, which means till the gull has disgorged, when the
skua in turn obtains the fish.
Towards the end of August a great many birds disappear
from the cliffs: the gulls nearly all go, and practically the ©
whole of the divers. Whether they leave for another country
or spend the time at sea appears to be uncertain. Gulls in
diminished numbers visit the cliffs all the year round, and
a few divers may be observed in the water during any month.
1889-90. | Round about the Northern Cliffs. 377
Possibly while keeping out of sight, the great body of them
may not be very far away. But it is never safe to express
opinions on the haunts of birds unless we have certain know-
ledge for our guide. In proof of this, who would have
imagined that the blue rock-pigeon, one of the shyest of the
feathered family, should make its home in the roof of low
water-washed caves, in which the waves rise and fall with a
booming sound, that even on a calm day reverberates through
the place like a succession of distant thunder-peals. Yet this
is the favourite abode of the blue rock, and here it builds,
while its food is wholly procured inland. In the fields the
bird is wary, and a person intent upon pigeon-pie finds it
almost impossible to get within range, as they rise so soon.
When they are in the caves, on the other hand, the great
trouble is to get them to rise at all. After some shouting
and knocking of oars against the rowlocks, perhaps a single
pigeon darts out in your face—the only occupant of the cave,
you decide; but only fire, and a number of others will appear
simultaneously. Pigeon-shooting from the boat is excellent
sport, which has become fashionable of late, the lessees of —
moors having now sometimes a boat and boatman engaged for
the season, to take them round the cliffs two or three times a
week on their leisure days.
Probably before one is aware, the last rays of the setting
sun illuminate the sea, and sloping over the tops of the cliffs,
they are cast into shadow and deep gloom. It is then that
the mighty wall—here perpendicular and bare, there over-
hanging and threatening, and at another place rented and torn,
with its base carved and honeycombed with caves—stands
arrayed in all its terrible majesty. But it is already time to
return, for dusk has set in, and then you think of the lines
with four or five white flies apiece, which generally yield
extraordinary results at this time of day. With one end
fastened to the stern, the lines are thrown out, and the boat
rowed slowly. If the fish are taking on this particular even-
ing, they may keep you drawing them in as fast as you can
draw, a fish on every hook of a line being not uncommon.
Coal-fish weighing a pound or two form the bulk of those
caught, but sometimes there are very much larger fish among
them, while codlings and mackerels are also taken occasionally.
VOL. II. 2c
378 On Sclerenchymatous Cells. [Sess.
X—ON SCLERENCHYMATOUS CELLS.
By Mr WILLIAM COATS.
(Read March 26, 1890.)
WHILE examining the epidermis of the leaves of the Kaurie
pine (Dammara australis), after Mr Hugh Fraser’s interesting
observations on that tree, I noticed that certain scleren-
chymatous cells, which had become isolated through macer-
ation, existed in considerable numbers in the laminz of the
leaves ; and the hope that some of the members interested in
the intimate structure of plants might care to see these and
one or two allied forms under the microscope, is my reason
for now bringing this subject under the notice of the Society.
On the night of our last meeting, I placed some leaves of
the Kaurie pine in a strong solution of caustic potash, in
which they remained for three and a half days; and as they
were then showing signs of being sufficiently macerated, I
boiled them in the solution for fully a quarter of an hour,
the result being that the epidermis was loosened from the
underlying tissue, and the cells in question, on splitting up
the leaves and shaking them well in a tube, were detached as
they are now seen, apparently unaltered, except that they
are stained with aniline green. The epidermis of the leaf
showed what, from its hard and horny character, would be
expected—viz., that the stomata were in hundreds on the
under surface, arranged mostly in parallel rows, while on the
upper surface there was only one to be seen here and there.
Sachs gives the name “ idioblasts”” to those individual cells
occurring in a tissue which, otherwise homogeneous, become
developed in a manner strikingly different from their neigh-
bours. These “idioblasts” he divides into “simple glands”
when they contain resin, oil, or gum; into “lithocysts ” when
they contain crystals or raphides; and into “scleroblasts”
when the cavity of the cell becomes reduced to a narrow
canal or a small central hollow. When these scleroblasts
are associated in groups or layers, they form the tissue known
as “sclerenchyma.” Scleroblasts are especially characterised
1889-90.] On Sclerenchymatous Cells. ) 379
by outgrowths or irregularity of form, The term “scleren-
chyma,” introduced by Mettenius, and derived from the two
Greek words skleros, hard, and enchyma, an infusion, indicates
those tissue elements which have not only thickened their
walls at the expense of the cell-cavity, but have also lost the
cell-quality, or the power to assist in assimilation and nutri-
tion. The structure of the walls is in general that of strongly
thickened cell-membranes, with their numerous modifications.
As thickening and ultimate lignification proceed, the proto-
plasmic body and nucleus disappear, and of these, and the
products resulting from their activity, only remnants are felt,
together with watery fluid, partly as undefined granular
contents.
De Bary divides sclerenchyma into two main forms, which,
however, are not always sharply differentiated from each
other—viz., (1), short sclerenchymatous elements; and, (2),
elongated elements or sclerenchymatous fibres. “Short
sclerenchymatous elements” is the term applied to all forms
which have not pointed or tapering ends. Under this term
come the “stone elements” or stone-cells—the hard con-
eretions that are found in the succulent tissue of pears, or in
groups in the root-tuber of dahlia and in the pith of Hoya
carnosa. Plums, cherries, &c., owe their name of “stone-
fruit” to the fact that the fundamental tissue of the pericarp
—that is, the transformed wall of the ovary—becomes separ-
ated into two layers, or often three, of which the innermost
is the so-called “stone.” Although consisting at first of thin-
walled parenchymatous cells, they become, by the time they
are ripened, strongly lignified. Sclerenchymatous fibres of
elongated spindle-like shape, with sharp ends, simple or
branched, are the form of strengthening tissue, on the other
hand, which is universal in Phanerogams. These are fre-
quently called “bast-fibres,” from the definite region of the
- cortex in which they occur in dicotyledons. In transverse
ow 7
section these fibres are acutely angular when they are closely
united into bundles. In those occurring singly, or found in
intercellular spaces or in leathery leaves, they are round or
nearly so. In Phanerogams they are freely branched, and
their form appears to vary with the special tissue in which
they occur, the most varied shapes being met with. The
.
380 On Sclerenchymatous Cells. [Sess.
much branched kinds occur in lacunar tissue, known as
spongy parenchyma, from its loose texture—their branches,
like so many horns, being pushed into the cellular interstices.
According to the best authorities, their main purpose is that
of imparting strength and rigidity to the tissue in which they
lie, from their evident power of binding it together, and in
many instances giving also great elasticity. In the long, slender,
yet very elastic and firm flowering-scapes of rushes (Juncus,
Scirpus, &c.), and in plants not properly forming wood other-
wise, lignified sclerenchymatous strands either run close be-
neath the epidermis, or a closed ring of that tissue lies near the
periphery, and gives the thin column the necessary rigidity,
at the same time imparting that wonderful elasticity which
enables such plants, on being almost bent into a semicircle by
wind-pressure, to recover themselves. In the Nymphacez
they project like many-branched stellate hairs into the wide
intercellular spaces. They are stellate-branched in the leaves
of the umbrella pine (Sciadopitys) and the araucaria. They
are well seen as dark-brown bands in transverse sections of
the common bracken. In the leaves of the Kaurie pine they
look in many instances like the antlers of a stag. One point
is observable between these cells in the Kaurie pine leaf and
those in Nymphea—viz., that in the former the branches
spring from the body of the cell at any point, whereas in the
latter there are only three poles or points from which they
spring. In the former they are much more numerous, and
obviously from their shape, or rather want of shape, bind the
tissue elements together in which they lie. In the latter,
whatever may be their purpose, they do not look like support-
ing elements. They have been thought to have in this case
an excretory function, being studded with numerous small
particles of calcium oxalate, which, from its physiological sig-
nificance, is a metabolic product, and no longer of use in the
economy of the plant.
In the willow-leaved Hakea (Z. saligna) there is on both
the upper and under surfaces of the leaf, and lying immedi-
ately under the epidermis, a regular network of thick-walled
cells. In transverse section, however, it is seen that this net-
work results from the entwining of the long arms or prolon-
gations of erect, oblong, rod-like, very thick-walled cells, dis-
1889-90. | On Sclerenchymatous Cells. 381
tributed regularly through the entire leaf-surface, and standing
at right angles to it, like so many pit-props. When a few of
these cells are detached by maceration, they remind one of
nothing so much as a barred gate, with both ends of the bars
putting out branches and forming an interlacing network.
Much elongated forms of these sclerenchymatous elements
also occur, the longest of which, from measurements made by
Mohl, Weisner, and others, for bast fibres, are found in the
Urticacez.
While the cell-wall itself is increasing in extent and thick-
ness, a further structure becomes visible—viz., the internal
thickening deposited in layers in the cell, termed “ stratifica-
tion” and “striation.” This is the result of a regularly alter-
nating distribution of water and solid material within the
cell-wall. Dense layers are deposited, alternating with thin-
ner or clearer layers. These layers are thus concentric, form-
ing a band nearly equal all round, and leaving a small cavity
or narrow canal in the centre. In other cases this thickening
is laid down irregularly, being broader at some points than
others. In one of the slides shown (sclerenchymatous cells
from Kaurie pine), and with the power used (4 inch), the
thickening or stratification appears as alternate dark and
light lines.
The lignification of the sclerenchymatous elements marks,
along with other changes, a phase of growth in the life of a
plant, as it does not occur till the organs and their parts have
attained their mature size and form. These thickened walls
are perforated frequently by numerous pit-canals, in many cases
branched, and in others by slit-like pits. By means of these
pores or pits direct communication is kept up between the
cell-cavity and the cell-wall. Sachs, in his ‘ Lectures on the
Physiology of Plants, holds, with regard to the ascent of
water in monocotyledons, that the sclerenchymatous bundle-
sheaths are the principal water-conducting organs. He says:
“In view of their considerable diameter, it seems probable
that the large quantity of water evaporating in the leaf-crown
ascends in them;” and that, if this assumption is established
—which he holds as more than probable—the sclerenchy-
matous vascular bundle-sheaths in the stem and leaf-stalks of
large ferns must be regarded in the same manner.
382 Ox Sclerenchymatous Cells. [Sess.
With regard to the occurrence of crystals of calcium oxal-
ate, Sachs states that these are absent from, among others,
Dammara australis. De Bary, on the other hand, states that
the branched sclerenchymatous fibres in the laminz of the
leaves of Sciadopitys, Dammara, Araucaria, and Nymphea are
characterised by numerous crystals of calcium oxalate, which
are imbedded in the outer wall. These crystals are seen in
some of the specimens shown. In another group, as in the
spicular cells of Gymnosperms, crystals are usually found in
the cell-wall. A notable example is to be found in the
spicular cells from Welwitschia mirabilis.
One object of this note is to show that the intimate or
microscopic structure of groups of plants, as well as their out-
ward and visible characters, ought, within certain limits, to
correspond. In illustration of the foregoing remarks, I have
shown the following preparations under the microscope :—
1. Isolated sclerenchymatous cells from leaf of Kaurie pine (Dammara
australis).
2. Sclerenchymatous cell in trans. sect. of leaf of Umbrella pine (Scia-
dopitys verticillata).
3. Stellate-branched scleroblasts in trans. sect. of petiole of Water-lily
(Nuphar lutea).
4, Stomata in epidermis of leaf of Kaurie pine.
5. Trans. sect. of Bracken (Pteris aquilina), showing bands of dark-brown
sclerenchyma.
6. Sclerenchymatous cells embedded in pith in trans. sect. of stem of
Hoya carnosa.
XI—THE TUFTED DUCK (FULIGULA CRISTATA).
By Mr A. B. HERBERT.
(Read March 26, 1890.)
Tue tufted duck, tufted pochard, or, as it is sometimes de-
signated, the black widgeon, has usually been considered
merely a winter visitor to this country; but it is now well
known that many pairs breed regularly on islands in some of
the Scottish inland lakes. In the drake, the iris is of a
brilliant golden colour, and his head is of a dark purple and
1889-90. | The Tufted Duck. 383
green shade, having a few feathers from the occiput prolonged,
and forming a graceful pendent crest or tuft. The back is
brownish black, and the under part a clear white. The
feathers on the back are delicately pencilled, a portion of
each of the secondaries of the wing white, forming a white
bar or speculum tipped with black. The duck is uniformly
dark-brown, except the under part, which is of a lighter
shade, the speculum of the wings white, as in the male.
The tuft in the duck is merely rudimentary. In this species
the feet are inordinately large for the size of the birds, the
body is very wide, and when on the water forms almost a
circle. They are rather clumsy walkers, but very expert
divers. The pair which I exhibit were hatched on the 22d
July last, and are therefore now eight months old, and have
attained nearly their mature growth. They are rather diffi-
cult to rear, but I have watched their progress with much
interest. Their food consists of worms, soaked bread, and
meal and barley; and the drake is very fond of peas, which
the duck will not touch. They are kept in a walled garden,
and have one wing clipped. Their pond is a wooden box
5 feet by 4, and 6 inches deep. It was amusing to watch
them when very young on worms being thrown into their
pond. Both birds were instantly under water, and you could
see them searching the bottom till every vestige of worm was
eaten. They have become very tame, and will take worms
from my hand. I am almost daily in the habit of thrusting
a fork into the lawn and shaking it about to bring up worms
for them, and they have become so accustomed to this pro-
ceeding that when they see me with the fork they follow me
immediately, and sit close to it watching for the appearance
of the worms. These and slugs, beetles, wood-lice, and ear-
wigs are with them favourite articles of diet, so that they are
really useful in a garden. The duck when feeding utters
occasionally a low guttural croak; the drake, as far as I have
observed, is perfectly mute. I noticed one peculiarity in their
habits soon after they were hatched—namely, a strong desire
to sit on the back of their foster-mother, a small decoy duck ;
and it was by no means unusual to see the duck sitting in the
sunshine on the lawn, with four little black downy creatures
asleep on her back. It occurred to me that probably in a wild
384. The Tufted Duck. [Sess.
state they may nestle on the back of the parent when on the
water in a similar manner to cygnets. I have always thought
it a pleasing sight to notice cygnets, when they are first hatched,
snugly ensconced in the down on the back of their mother as
she swims about, her arched wings guarding them from the
wind, and to see with what anxious maternal care she fre-
quently turns her head round to make sure that her precious
young are safe.
Tufted ducks pinioned breed regularly in the London
Zoological Gardens; and I hope this pair may also breed in
the summer, though at present I have observed no indication
of their going to nest.!
At this meeting Mr Thomas Wright exhibited a number
of “fairy stones,’ or claystone nodules, when he remarked
that “at one time these stones were worn as charms by the
superstitious, and frequently mounted in silver. Their odd
shapes had puzzled the country people, and so they, for lack
of a rational theory, had set them down as fairy products.
They are found only in clay deposits, in streams, or river-
beds, and have been shaped by pressure and the action of
water.” The specimens shown were obtained at Wetheral, near
Carlisle.
XIL—THEHE MAGPIE.
By Mr TOM SPEEDY.
(Read April 23, 1890.)
AmonG the many and varied species of birds to be found in the
environs of Edinburgh, not the least interesting is the magpie.
Though this bird has suffered much persecution at the hands
of gamekeepers because of its predatory instincts, considerable
numbers are still to be found in Mid-Lothian, and notably at
Liberton. How they manage to escape utter extermination
1 Up to this time (November 1890) the birds have shown no inclination to go
to nest.
1889-90. | The Magpie. 385
in this thickly populated district seems a mystery. Notwith-
standing the number shot and trapped by game-preservers,
and the nests destroyed by schoolboys and idle persons, a
good many broods are still hatched every year. These may
occasionally be seen in flocks of from half-a-dozen to a dozen
in the autumn and winter months. Magpies are regarded by
some country people as unlucky birds, and certain numbers of
them together are considered ominous of good or evil. Having
been brought up in Berwickshire, I recollect when a boy being
impressed with a rhyme which was usually applied when a
brood of magpies was seen in the district. Mr Muirhead, in
his recent work on ‘The Birds of Berwickshire, refers to it
thus :—
“ One’s mirth, two’s grief,
Three’s a wedding, four’s death,
Five is heaven, six is hell,
Seven the devil’s ain sel’.”
A version of it may be heard among the school children in
many parts of the country, varying in different localities. In
the kingdom of Fife it runs thus :—
“ Ane’s nane, twa’s some,
Three’s a fiddle, four’s a drum,
And five’s a curly bogie.”
Why magpies and some other birds are regarded with super-
stition among the ignorant is difficult of explanation. Last
summer a pied blackbird, which frequented the neighbourhood,
appeared daily in a friend’s garden in the suburbs of Edinburgh,
where crumbs were regularly put out for it to feed on. It was
watched from the windows with much interest by the different
members of the family, and a servant girl from Badenoch was
asked to look at it. On observing the beautiful bird she whis-
pered with great solemnity, “Something is sure to happen
whateffer, with that black-and-white bird coming so near.”
About thirty-five years ago Mary Lorraine, an old nurse in the
service of Mr Clay, tenant of Winfield farm in Berwickshire,
saw seven magpies together on returning from church, and
told her mistress immediately on reaching home that some-
thing serious was sure to happen. Within a few days there-
after the stackyard was burned, and the nurse till the day of
her death believed that the “birds of evil omen” had foretold
386 The Magpie. [Sess.
the misfortune. The same superstition pervades the countries
of Norway and Sweden, where magpies are allowed to harbour
and breed without restraint, it being quite common 'to see
their nests on the roofs of the wooden houses of the peasantry,
secured between the primitive rhones and the eaves.
Considering their size, magpies make a very large nest,
which they cover over with a dome of sticks, consisting chiefly
of thorn, with a hole at the side for ingress and egress. From
the large size of the nest, which is generally at the top of one
of the highest trees, it is easily seen at a distance, and conse-
quently attracts the attention of schoolboys and egg-collectors.
The eggs, generally seven or eight in number, are a bluish
colour, mottled with greenish-brown. Most of the early nests
are thus robbed, but when the foliage of the trees is thickest
they make another nest, which frequently escapes the notice
of their enemies. Few British birds possess such a rich glow
of colour, the brilliancy of the plumage on the tail and wings
being of metallic splendour, while the body is a marked con-
trast of black and white. Magpies in the pairing season are
very pugnacious, and determined combats occasionally take
place, lasting for a considerable time. Last year I was witness
to such an encounter among the large beech-trees in front of
Kingston Grange House. My attention was attracted by an
excited chattering among a number of the birds in question,
high in the air. On looking up I observed two of them
attacking each other, while the remainder kept a considerable
distance off. Descending among the trees the fight continued,
and eventually the combatants came to the ground hanging
on to each other like game-cocks, regardless of my presence
within twenty-five yards’ distance. A noisy chattering was
kept up among the branches by the other magpies, who were
evidently watching the duel under great excitement. Not-
withstanding that the fight continued over a quarter of an
hour, neither could be said to have gained any advantage over
the other. Both, however, seemed utterly exhausted as they
lay on their sides, with their beaks wide open. After getting
their breath they evidently had no desire to renew the combat,
but flew up and joined their noisy companions overhead.
During the present nesting season I knew of a couple of
magpies’ nests in places safe from the invasion of boys, and on
, =
1889-90. | The Magpie. 387
these I had resolved to try some experiments. The one was
in a tall holly-tree in the garden at the Inch, and the other
in the ‘policies of Southfield, the property of Mrs Croall.
Strange to say, in both cases the birds were attacked by about
a dozen rooks, who, after a determined fight, drove the mag-
pies away, tore the dome of sticks from the top of the nest,
which was taken possession of by a pair of the rooks, into
which they dropped their eggs, and have now entered upon
the process of hatching. From a nest in the same holly, in
the Inch garden last year, I took the eggs of the magpie and
transferred them to a starling’s nest in a dovecot. I was ex-
ceedingly interested in watching the starling return and sit
down, seemingly quite contented, on the eggs, notwithstanding
their larger size. As the period of incubation of magpies’
eggs is longer than that of starlings, the bird evidently dis-
covered that something was wrong, and ejected the eggs from
the nest, substituting four of her own, which she eventually
hatched.
In a letter I received lately from Mr Scot Skirving, he
says: “I once saw a magpie fly off her nest in a wood in
East Lothian, and I climbed the tree, when to my astonish-
ment I found she had flown off six starling’s eggs! I was
most anxious to see what would be the result, for a magpie
could perfectly bring up a starling, but when I next went
to the tree I found the feathers of the magpie on the ground,
and saw that a keeper had sent a shot through the nest. I
regretted I had not asked my friend Sir Alexander Kinloch
to order the protection of the nest.” Like some of the hawk
tribe, should a magpie be shot when hatching, the male very
frequently within a day or two brings another mate to the
nest. This I have had frequent opportunities of observing.
More than once I have shot two female magpies off the same
nest within a week of each other.
The food of the magpie varies considerably, as on dissecting
them I have found in the gizzard insects, slugs, snails, lizards,
mice, grain, eggs, and flesh. It is very destructive to the eggs
and young of winged game, and it robs the nests of all small
birds, for which it is ever on the look out. I once had a brood
of twelve Polish chickens in which I took great interest,
having had some difficulty in procuring the eggs. Before
388 The Magpie. [Sess.
they were a week old nine of them were lifted one day by a
magpie, and had I not been fortunate enough to shoot him in
the act, the remaining three would have shared a similar fate.
Magpies are easily tamed, and make interesting though
mischievous pets. I have brought a tame one with me to-
night in a cage, and as his history is a rather remarkable one,
I shall now relate it. In the spring of 1881 Mr Kerr, the
postmaster at Liberton, found a young bird which had dropped
from a nest in the Kingston Grange wood, and was unable to
fly. Taking it home, he attempted to feed it, but for two
days it could not be induced to open its mouth. On the
third day it was compelled by hunger to accept the proffered
food, and after partaking of it seemed at once to become
reconciled to its somewhat anomalous position. In a short
time it became very tame, and much attached to the post-
master’s son. It followed him about wherever he went, and
he being a joiner, it was his constant companion in the work-
shop. By-and-by “ Jacky,’ as he is called, became very
mischievous, and stole everything he was able to lift. All
the small tools disappeared, but by watching his movements
the hiding-place was found, and the stolen articles recovered.
For some time the boys in the village had proved to be a
source of annoyance by playing marbles on the road in the
centre of the village. “Jacky,” however, soon put a stop to
this. As quick as lightning he would dart down among the
boys, pick up a marble, and fly off with it to his hiding-place.
Enraged at the loss of their marbles, “ Jacky ” was subjected
to revengeful treatment, as stones were thrown at him when-
ever an opportunity offered, with the result that he has had
many narrow escapes, and, as can be seen, one of his legs has
been broken in two places. In spite of this, however, he has
been the means of entirely putting a stop to boys playing
marbles on the street.
“Jacky’s” bill of fare is a varied one. Bits of meat,
cheese, ham, potatoes, and rice, he seems to relish, and every-
thing that creeps or flies which he is able to kill is devoured,
with the exception of earthworms. Unless very hungry he
invariably hides his food, burying it in the earth, and after it
is carefully covered, he puts as large a stick or stone over the
place as he is able to carry. When hungry, he returns, and
bi.
1889-90. | The Magpie. 389
with unerring accuracy finds, disinters, and regales himself on
his hidden treasure. He devours a large number of wasps ;
and one day a swarm of bees settled in the woodyard, which
afforded a fine day’s enjoyment for “Jacky.” Not contented
with feeding on the bees, he seemed to take special delight
in killing them, and every one he discovered crawling about
was speedily destroyed. It is somewhat surprising how he
manages to swallow wasps and bees without being stung,
Young sparrows and other birds which happen to come into
the yard meet with a similar fate, and are quickly torn to
pieces. Mice seem to afford him great amusement, as he
watches and pounces on them with greater dexterity than a
cat. When he secures a mouse he begins at the tail and
turns the skin up towards the head, completely removing it
prior to devouring the carcass. This is at variance’ with
their normal habit when wild, as on dissecting them I have
found that mice had been swallowed whole. “Jacky” does
not seem to relish a rat, as he only picks out the eyes and
brains, and leaves the flesh untouched.
A large retriever dog is kept as a watch in the woodyard,
and it is most amusing to see the adroitness with which
“ Jacky ” can take a bone from him. When the dog is eating
anything which “Jacky” covets, he flies noiselessly behind
him and nips his tail. The dog generally replies by a growl,
but after waiting a second or two he gives it another nip,
which must be painful, as the dog jumps round, and, with
open mouth, seems bent on the destruction of “Jacky.” This
is what the wary bird has been watching for, and quick as
lightning he flies over the dog, seizes the bone, and carries it
off in triumph.
Like the wild Indian warrior, “Jacky” takes great delight
in bedaubing himself with paint—white, red, or green, as it
may happen to be about, when a greenhouse, a fence, or cart-
wheels are being painted. Mistaking a pot of melted glue for
paint, he one day bedaubed himself with it, which resulted in
his feathers all sticking together, and the only remedy was
the aid of a pair of scissors.
When plants—either flowers or vegetables—are being
bedded out, unless “Jacky” is first secured, it is labour in vain,
as he pulls them up as fast as any gardener can plant them.
390 The Magpie. [Sess.
Pansies, daisies, or other flowers that may attract attention,
and be examined by any one, are sure to be nipped off. The
slightest change in anything immediately attracts the atten-
tion of “Jacky.” Mr Kerr having suffered severely from a
corn on his foot, commenced with a sharp knife to cut it,
with the view of obtaining relief. As frequently happens,
the knife went too deep, which caused it to bleed. As a con-
sequence, he could not bear the pressure of his boot for some
days, and in order to minimise the pain, cut a hole in the boot
opposite the injured part, through which his light-grey Shet-
land sock contrasted strongly with his blackened boot. This
was quickly taken notice of by “Jacky,” who flew softly
down and gave an unmerciful peck on the tender part, causing
him to dance and scream with pain.
“ Jacky ” robs all the birds’ nests in proximity to his pre-
mises, and is often besieged by blackbirds, thrushes, and other
small birds, while he is amusing himself in tearing their nests
to pieces or regaling himself on their eggs. Sometimes
several of his own species appear within sight, when he
instantly attacks them, and frequently returns ruffled both
in feathers and temper. The only member of the feathered
tribe with which “ Jacky ” seems to fraternise is a rook. For
hours they may be seen together sitting on the high trees
that overhang the woodyard, or flying about apparently with-
out other aim than the enjoyment of each other’s company.
“Jacky” has long been the terror of the village children,
and does not fail to attack them when they annoy him.
Even grown-up people suffer from his shameless impudence.
Any one he takes a dislike to he darts at, and generally suc-
ceeds in drawing blood from the neck or cheek. Like the
Irish assassin, he is cowardly in his mode of attack, as he
invariably strikes unexpectedly from behind. Those who are
well dressed or of respectable appearance he does not meddle
with, unless they annoy him; but if beggars or poorly dressed
persons enter the yard, he never fails to attack them.
“Jacky’s” mischievous tricks became so serious that he
was at one time condemned to death. He had long been in
the habit of flying at boys and grown-up people, but never in-
terfered with helpless children. One day, however, he flew at
a child, and on the little fellow falling forward, he pecked the
1889-90. | Annual Business Meeting. 391
back of his head till the piteous screams brought the mother
to the rescue. Such conduct could not be tolerated, and
“ Jacky,” as already said, was condemned to suffer capital
punishment. Hearing of the circumstance, I interceded in
his behalf, with the result that his sentence was commuted
to a couple of months’ imprisonment in a cage. Whether his
confinement had a beneficial result, or that, as he grows older,
he is becoming endowed with more sense, I am unable to
state, but he has now given up attacking children unless they
molest him.
At this meeting Mr J. W. Tait gave a demonstration on
“The Development of the Embryo in a Flowering Plant,”
aided by diagrams and the blackboard, and was awarded a
cordial vote of thanks for his succinct and lucid treatment of
the subject.
ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING.
THE Annual Business Meeting of the Society was held in the
Hall, 20 George Street, on the evening of Wednesday, 29th
October 1890,—Dr William Watson, President, in the Chair.
The Secretary reported that 17 general meetings of the Society
had been held during the past Session—of which 6 had been
indoor and 11 field meetings. The following are the dates
and localities of these meetings—viz. :
Inpoor Meretines: 1889—27th November, 26th Decem-
ber; 1890—22d January, 26th February, 26th March, 23d
April Fre.p Meertines: 1890—26th April, Craigmillar
Castle; 3d May, Polton and Roslin; 24th May, Colinton;
31st May, Melrose; 7th June, Lochleven; 14th June, West
Linton; 21st June, Inverkeithing and Ferry Hills; 28th
June, Lochleven (second excursion); 5th July, Caribber Glen ;
12th July, Gosford and Aberlady ; 19th July, Balerno.
The Treasurer reported that, including a balance from last
account and several contributions to the Publication Fund,
the income had been £60, 6s. 84d. and the expenditure
392 Annual Business Meeting. [Sess. 1889-90.
£54, 5s. 7d., leaving a balance in favour of the Society of
£6, 1s. 14d.
The election of Office-bearers was then proceeded with, and
the various vacancies filled up, when the complete list for
Session 1890-91 stood as follows :—
President.
Dr WILLIAM WATSON.
Vice-Presidents.
Witt1amM ForGan. | ARCHD. CRAIG. | Wm. Bonnar.
Council.
SOMERVILLE GRIEVE. THOMAS WRIGHT. Dr Davigs.
Tom SPEEDY. RvuPERT SMITH. GEORGE BirpD.
Davip E. Youne. Rosert Stewart, §.S.C. E. DENSON.
JoHN W. Tair. JoHn A, JOHNSTON. J. Mack,
Editor of ‘Transactions.’
JOHN LINDSAY.
Secretary and Treasurer.
ANDREW MOFFAT.
Librarian.
JOHN LINDSAY.
Auditors.
Huex H. Pituans; Jonn Parrmay, §.8.C.
It was reported that the membership of the Society was
this year 186, as against 190 last year,—23 members having
withdrawn and 19 members been added to the list during
the year, thus showing a decrease of 4. While there was a
general expression of satisfaction with the condition of the
Society, it was resolved that the members should make it
their endeavour to bring its advantages before their friends,
and thus help to yet further increase its membership and its
usefulness.
EIST ‘OF “PAST. PRESVDENT S.
Dr Rost. Brown, 1869.
Mr R. Scor Sxrrvine, 1869-1874.
Mr Wm. GorRIE
Mr Joun WaALtcorT, 1879-1882.
Mr A. B. Herpert, 1882-1885.
(deceased), 1874-1877, Mr SymMIneTon GRIEVE, 1885-1888.
Rev. R. F. Cotvin u
Reteaneed); ! 1877-1879. Dr Witt1am Watson, 1888-1890.
OFFICE-BEARERS, 1890-91.
President.
Dr Witi1am WATSON,
Vice- Presidents,
Witu1am Forcan. | Arcup. Craig. | Witriam Bonnar.
Council,
SOMERVILLE GRIEVE.
Tom SPEEDY.
Davip KE. Youne.
JoHN W. Tal.
THomas WRIGHT.
Rurert SMITH.
Rogpert Stewart, 8.8.C.
JoHn A. JOHNSTON.
Dr Davies.
GEORGE Brrp.
EK. DrEnson.
J. Mack.
Gditor of ‘ Transactions.’
JoHN LINDSAY.
Seeretarp and Crevsurer.
ANDREW MoFrat.
Librarian.
JOHN LINDSAY,
Auditors.
Huen H. Pittans; Joun Parrmay, 8.8.C.
brST -O.F MEMBERS: nsie9-g5;
(Original Members marked thus*. Life Members marked thus *.)
Honorary
Members.
Brown, Ropert, Ph.D., F.L.S8., London.
HeEnpErson, Prof, Joun R., M.B., C.M., The College, Madras.
Corresponding Members.
ARCHIBALD, STEWART, Carroch, Kirriemuir.
BrorHErston, ANDREW, Kelso.
CrvuicKsHANK, T. M., South Ronaldshay.
Hosxirk, CHarues P., Huddersfield.
Hossack, B. H., Craigie Field, Kirkwall.
THomson, JoHN, Stobo.
XXii
10
30
Ordinary
Adam, James, Comely Park, Dun-
fermline.
Alexander, Miss Tina, 25 Gillespie
Crescent.
Anderson, Miss, 3 Gladstone Place.
Archibald, Jas., 13 Clifton Terrace.
Ayton, Alex., 43 N. Bruntsfield Pl.
Bashford, W. T., Argyle House,
Portobello.
Bathgate, John, 8 Wardie Avenue.
Baxter, Mrs, Ballina, Ireland.
Bell, George, 11 Dundonald Street
Bell, John M., W.S., 554 Grange
Road.
Bieberstedt, August, 6 Bank Street,
Leith.
Bird, George, 24 Queen Street.
Black, Wm., 8.8.C., 38 Hanover St.
Blyth, John, 18 Livingstone Place.
Boa, Peter, 119 George Street.
Bonnar, Wm., 8 Lauriston Park.
Brodie, J. A., Bonnington Iron
Foundry, Leith.
Bruce, F. R. C., 27 Inverleith Row.
Bryden, Mrs, 72 Great King Street.
Bryden, Miss, 72 Great King Street.
Buncle, James, Hope Street.
Burn, C. M. P., Prestonfield House.
Cairns, Wm. M‘Gregor, 16 South
Charlotte Street.
Carter, A. E. J., 9 Argyle Crescent,
Portobello,
Carter, Wm. Allan, M.Inst.C.E., 5
St Andrew Square.
Chapman, Mungo, Easter Dudding-
stone Lodge, Portobello.
Clapperton, Mrs Wm., 9 Strathearn
Road.
Clark, Alex., 8.S.C., 80a Princes St.
Clark, William, Greenside Cottage.
Coats, William, 21 Nelson Street.
Cochran, Henry, 4 Fingal Place.
Cooper, James, 31 Howe Street.
Cowan, Charles Wm., Valleyfield,
Penicuik.
Coyne, R. A. F. A., 7 Greenbank
Terrace.
Craig, Archibald, 13 M‘Laren Road.
Craig, Mrs Arch., 13 M‘Laren Road.
Crawford, Wm. C., M.A., 1 Lock-
harton Gardens, Slateford.
List of Members, 1889-90.
Members.
40
60
70
Crichton, George, 30 Restalrig Ter.
Davies, Arthur Ellson, Ph. D., F.L.S.,
9 Durham Road, Portobello.
Denson, E., 9 West Catherine Place.
Deuchar, Mrs, Harlaw, Hope Ter-
race.
Dobbin, Leonard, Ph.D., F.R.S.E.,
16 Kilmaurs Road.
Dobbin, Mrs Leonard, 16 Kilmaurs
Road.
Dowell, Mrs, 13 Palmerston Place.
Dowell, Miss, 13 Palmerston Place.
Duncan, Esdaile, Dean Public
School.
Dunn, Malcolm, Palace Gardens,
Dalkeith.
Eld, Thos. W., 20 Warrender Park
Crescent.
Ewart, James, 1 Dundas Street.
Farquharson, Miss, Roseville,
Catherine’s Place, Grange.
Farquharson, Thos. Ker, Roseville,
St Catherine’s Place, Grange.
Ferguson, John, 15 Brighton Place,
Portobello.
Flett, John 8., 52 Elm Row.
Forbes, Miss Mary, 5 Brunstane
Road, Joppa.
Forgan, William, 3 Warriston Cres,
Forster, Miss Dora, 1 Moredun Cres.
Fraser, Dr Angus, 232 Union Street,
Aberdeen.
Fraser, Charles, 13 Greenhill Place.
Fraser, Mrs, 13 Greenhill Place.
Fraser, Hugh, Leith Walk Nurseries,
Fraser, Jas., 1 Duncan Place, Leith,
*Fraser, P. Neill, Rockville, Murray-
field,
Frazer, Alexander, M.A., 22 Teviot
Place.
Gardiner, Herbert L., 25 India St.
Gibb, Philip B., M.A., 14 Picardy
Place.
Gloag, David, 9 Barnton Terrace.
Goodchild, Herbert, 18 Dalhousie
Terrace.
Gordon, James, Royal Institution,
Mound.
Gray, Jos, T., M.A., Parkside.
Grieve, Miss Amelia, Salisbury View,
Dalkeith Road.
St
80
List of Members, 1889-90.
Grieve, Somerville, 159 Dalkeith
Road.
Grieve, Symington, 1 Burgess Ter.
Grieve, Mrs Symington, 1 Burgess
Terrace.
Groves, Charles H., M.D., 36 Inver-
leith Row.
Guthrie, Mrs, West Grange.
Hardie, William, 49 Morningside
Road.
Hart, James, M.A., Dean Public
School.
Hately, W., 5 Admiral Terrace.
Heggie, John, 1 Greenbank Terrace.
Henderson, John, 10 Salisbury St.
Herbert, A. B., 13 Polwarth Terrace,
Horne, Oswald, 6 Queen Street.
Hume, William, 1 Lothian Street.
Hunter, Robert, 23. Pitt St., Porto-
bello.
Hutchison, Robert,
Bellevue Crescent.
Inches, Miss Ella M., Strathearn
House, Strathearn Road.
Inglis, Alexander, Northbank, Bow-
den, St Boswells.
tJenner, Charles, F.R.S.E., Easter
Duddingston Lodge.
Johnston, George P., 33 George St.
F.R.S.E., 11
90 Johnston, John A., 2 Haddington
100
Place.
Johnstone,
Roslin.
Keith, Sydney, 69 So. Clerk Street.
Kilgour, Thos, W., 4 East Brighton
Crescent, Portobello.
King, J. Falconer, Minto House.
King, Mark, 120 Pitt Street, Leith.
Laidlaw, Thomas, 9 So. St Andrew
Street.
Laughton, Wm., So. Darenth, Kent.
Law, Mrs John, 41 Heriot Row.
Lee, William, 9 Granby Road, W.
Craigmillar Park.
Lennie, Joseph C., Rose
Trinity Road.
Lewis, David, 32 Findhorn Place.
Lindsay, John, 43 James St., Pilrig.
Livingstone, Matthew, 108 Gilmore
Place.
Lockie, John, C.E., 39 Restalrig Ter.
Macadam, W. Ivison, F.C.S., F.L.C.,
F.R.S.E., Surgeons’ Hall.
M‘Craith, Miss, 26 Haddington Pl.
Macdonald, J. J., 7 West Catherine
Place.
Miss Annie, Eskhill,
Park,
110
130
XXili
Macfarlane, J. M., D.Sc., F.R.S.E.,
15 Scotland Street.
M‘Intosh, James, 42 Queen Street.
Mack, J., Office of Fishery Board
for Scotland.
M‘Laren, J. R., M.A., 9 Gt. King St.
Maconochie, Arthur, 30 Warrender
Park Terrace.
Macpherson, C. E. W., C.A., 28
St Andrew Square.
Methven, John, 6 Bellevue Crescent.
Millar, R. C., C.A., 8 Broughton Pl,
Millar, Thomas John, M.A., 8
Broughton Place.
Miller, R. K., 13 Lennox Street.
Moffat, Andrew, 5 Scone Gardens.
Moffat, Geo. L., 5 Scone Gardens.
Mossman, Robert, 10 Blacket Place,
Muir, John, 115 Warrender Park Rd.
Neill, John, 3 Sylvan Place.
Nelson, W. F., Salisbury Green.
Nesbit, John, 162 High Street,
Portobello.
Nisbet, Miss, 28 E. Claremont St.
Norfor,> Robt.-T.,, @.Al.) 47 So,
Bruntsfield Place.
Ogilvie, Miss, 18 Buckingham Ter.
Oliphant, J. C., M.A., 23 Charlotte
Square.
Oliver, John §., 12 Greenhill Park.
Pairman, Jn., 8.S.C., 130 George St.
Paton, Henry, 15 Myrtle Terrace,
Peach, B. N., 13 Dalrymple Cres.
Peach, Mrs, 13 Dalrymple Crescent,
Penman, William, M.Inst.C.E., 5
St Andrew Square.
Pillans, Hugh H., 12 Dryden Place,
Purves, Samuel, 70 Haymarket Ter,
Raeburn, John, 13 Maytield Gardens.
Ranken, William, 11 Spence Street,
Reid, Andrew, 1 East Trinity Road.
140 Robertson, George, Lothian Road
Public School,
Sanderson, Dr Alfred, Lixmount,
Trinity.
Saxby, Charles F., Regina, Canada,
Scott, Alex., 27 Heriot Row.
Semple, Andrew, Deputy Surgeon
General H.M.S., Caledonian
United Service Club.
Simpson, James, 4 Middlefield, Leith
Walk.
* Skirving, R. Scot, 29 Drummond Pl,
Smith, Harry W., 4 Oswald Road.
Smith, Dr James, 1 Parsons Green
Terrace.
XXIV
150
160
Smith, Rupert, 7 Leopold Place.
Smith, Walter A., Falcon Lodge,
Murrayfield.
Somerville, Alex., B.Sc., F.LS., 4
Bute Mansions, Hillhead, Glasgow.
Speedy, Tom, The Inch, Liberton.
Sprague, T. B., M.A., F.R.S.E., 29
Buckingham Terrace.
Sprague, Mrs T, B., 29 Buckingham
Terrace.
Steele, Adam B., 10 Comely Bank.
Steele, Miss, 33 Upper Gray Street.
Stevenson, Miss, 2 Albert Place.
Stewart, Miss, 7 Gt. Stuart Street.
Stewart, Robert, 8.8.C., 7 East
Claremont Street.
Stewart, William D., 62 Princes
Street.
Stiell, William, 9 Royal Circus.
Sutherland, John, 21 Brougham St.
Tait, John Scott, C.A., 8 Claremont
Terrace.
Tait, John W., 23 Ashville Terrace,
Leith.
Taylor, William, M.D., 12 Melville
Street.
Terras, James, 34 Findhorn Place.
180
List of Members, 1889-90.
Thomson, Thos., 16 Glen Street.
Turnbull, George, 16 Thistle Street.
Usher, Andrew, Blackford House.
Walcot, John, 50 Northumberland
Street.
Walker, David, 2 Bellevue Terrace.
Wallace, Prof. Robert, University,
Edinburgh.
Wallace, William, Jessfield Terrace,
Newhaven Road. ’
Walton, Frederick, 40 Frederick St.
Watson, Dr Wm., Lockharton,
Slateford.
Watson, Mrs, Lockharton, Slateford.
White, Miss, 27 East Preston Street.
Williams, Caradoc, 25 Dryden St.
Wilson, Geo. A., 46 Queensferry St.
Wilson, James T., Restalrig House.
Wilson, Miss Katie, 2 Archibald Pl,
Wood, T. A. D., Viewforth, Brun-
stane Road, Joppa.
Woodhead, Dr G. Sims, 6 Marchhall
Crescent.
Wright, Thomas, 6 Greenside Place.
Yorkston, James, 17 West Preston
Street.
186 Young, David H., 131 Mayfield Rd.
VOL. II. PART V.
%
TRANSACTEIONS
OF
Ghe Gdinturgh Field Waturalists’ and
Mirrosropical Society
. 3 SESSION 1890-91
ee CONTENTS.
-
. A Description of Kumaon, in the Central Himalayas.—Dr Wm.
Watson, President,
_ II. The Kingfisher.—Mr T. Speedy,
Ill. The Common Lump-fish.—_Mr Sommerville Grieve,
IV. Plant Multiplication.—Mr M. King,
_ V. The “Green Balls” of Loch Kildonan.—Mr T. B. Spraeie, FR. 8. E..
VI. Natural History Notes.—Mr R. Stewart, S.S.C., 3
_ VII. The Structure and Life-History of a Sponge. _Mr J. Lindsay,
VIII. Birds of the Great Glen—Mr A. Craig,
_ IX. The Andromeda Family.—Mr H. Fraser,
‘X. On Vegetable Ivory (with Plate).—Mr T. Wright,
‘XI. How I Robbed the Eagle’s Nest, and Why.—Mr T. Speedy,
. On a Peculiar Mode of Fishing in the Estuary of the Thames.—
Mr A. B. Herbert,
. A “Colonial” Warbarium Sheamney — Mir J. H. Wilson, DSe.,
F.R.S.E.,
XIV. Bear and Wolf Children. wr Sa aiertin Grieve, ° ‘
XV. List of Plants gathered at Excursions, 1890.—The Secretary, .
. Annual Business Meeting,
Index to Volume, ‘
- List of Members, 1890-91, .
Publishes tor the Society
BY
WILLIAM BLACKWOOD & SONS
~-MDCCCXCI
Price to Non-Members, Half-a-Crown.
ee — ———————<—_——<_—— ~~
Il—A DESCRIPTION OF KUMAON, IN THE
CENTRAL HIMALAYAS.
By Dr WILLIAM WATSON, PresIpent.
(Read Nov. 26, 1890.)
I PROPOSE to give an account of Kumaon, a province of the
Central Himalayas, and especially of its capital, Almora. I
lived for a number of years at Almora, which is built on a
hill about 5500 feet above the level of the sea, and surrounded
on all sides by higher hills. To the north, Almora has the
oak-crowned summit of Binsur; to the south, the mountains
of the outer range, where are the military stations of Naini
Tal and Ranikhet, the latter garrisoned by two English regi-
ments. To the east is a hill which has on it a temple of
Brinda Bashini Devi,— Our Lady of Dawn;* and to the
west a hill with a temple to Shama Devi—Our Lady of Dark-
ness. The crest of the Almora hill is occupied by the main
street, half a mile long. The houses along it are generally
two-storey ones, the lower storey being usually of stone, and
the upper of wood, often picturesquely carved. On either
side of the main street are parallel streets of poorer houses,
and farther down the hill are many villas belonging to English
residents and to the richer natives.
Like many other places in the Himalayas, Almora gets its
name from a plant, the Rumex hastatum, called in Hindustani
“ Almora,” which covers the hillsides in great profusion. In
the same way Simla, where the Viceroy resides, is named after
the cotton-tree (Bombax malabaricum), called in Hindustani
“Semal”; while Mussourie, the most popular of the Hima-
layan hill-stations, derives its name from the shrub Cor-
iaria nepalensis, the native “Mussourie.” Everybody knows
that the Himalayas are the highest mountains in the world,
1 Literally, “ Our Lady of the plant Basil,”—that plant being associated with,
and a poetical synonym for, the dawn.
VOL. II. 2D
304 A Description of Kumaon, [Sess.
but all are not aware that the scenery of the Himalayas is far
inferior to that of the Alps or of our own Highlands. The
view of the snowy range, seen from the plains of India, is
indeed one of the grandest sights of the world; but once inside
the hills, the traveller is disappointed. This is partly owing
to everything being on too vast a scale, but chiefly to the
absence of lakes and small streams. The cause of the absence
of lakes in the Himalayas may here be noticed. Our Scotch
lakes are divided by Geikie into four classes: 1st, Lakes of
the plains, of glacier origin; 2d, Moraine tarns, such as those
round Ben Macdhui, also of glacier origin; 3d, Rock tarns,
like Coruisk, also glacial; and 4th, Glen lakes, generally sup-
posed to be owing to local subsidence, connected with a fault
in the strata, but possibly, like the other three, really of glacier
origin. In Italy we have examples of a fifth kind of lake,
that formed by the crater of a volcano; and a sixth kind of
lake is sometimes formed by a landslip damming up a stream,
of which Mulwa Tal in the Himalayas is supposed to be an
example. From this enumeration it may be seen that the
ereat majority of lakes are probably of glacier origin. Now
the last glacial period in the northern hemisphere ended some
12,000 years ago. No doubt it left many glacier lakes in the
Himalayas, as it did in Scotland, but in Scotland most of these
lakes remain to the present day, owing to the comparatively
light rainfall. In the Himalayas, on the other hand, the lake
barriers have been swept away by the enormous tropical rain-
fall. Instead of lakes we have now large rivers, far apart
from each other, and at a great depth below the average sur-
face of the country. It is easy to understand how the lakes
have disappeared. No moraine lake-barrier could stand long
against the tremendous rainfall of the months of July, August,
and September. A rock tarn would hold out much longer,
but in course of time it too would disappear. There are,
however, few rules without an exception, and there are still
six rock tarns left in the province of Kumaon, though there
are none anywhere else in the whole Himalayas, Such, at
least, is the opinion of my friend Mr Theobald, of the Indian
Geological Survey. It is true that there is around these lakes
no other sign of glaciation—no perched blocks, no roaches
moutonnées, no glacial striation ; all these have been long ago
1890-91.] in the Central Himalayas. 395
washed away by the tropical rains. But the fact remains
that Naini Tal is a true rock tarn. It cannot have been
caused by a landslip, and it is not the crater of an old
voleano. It is, of course,a very difficult thing to say why
there are glacier lakes in Kumaon and nowhere else in the
Himalayas; but the difficulty would not be got rid of by sup-
posing them to be landslip lakes or volcanic craters. I would
suggest that some light may be thrown on the problem by a
phenomenon which occurs in the plains, at the base of the
Kumaon hills. I refer to what is called the Kumaon bhabur.
This is a Kumaon word which has been adopted into scientific
phraseology as a name for a thing which occurs more conspic-
uously there than anywhere else in the world. When a
precipice rises abruptly from a plain, fragments of the preci-
pice, detached by frost, tend to fall on the plain, and these
fragments may either be carried away by streams or may be
left lying where they fall. If they are left lying, in process
of time a terrace of débris accumulates some height above the
plain. Any rain which falls on it at once passes through, just
as if it were a rubble-drain, and sinks into the plain beneath.
Such a terrace is called by the people of Kumaon bhabur.
There are, of course, neither wells nor springs in it, but after
long ages soil forms on it, and it is taken possession of by the
saul-tree (Shorea robusta), the most valuable tree in India. On
leaving the Kumaon hills, you everywhere pass through this
bhabur land, covered with magnificent saul-trees. Going a
little farther from the hills, you arrive at a swamp, called the
terat or wet land. This swamp is caused by the rain which
fell on the bhabur, and soaked through it, being here able to
make its way to the surface. There are never any trees in
the ¢erai swamps—nothing but tall grasses, the favourite lair
of the tiger. Now there is a bhabur country and a teraz
country all along the foot of the Himalayas, except in the
extreme east; but nowhere is the bhabur so broad and so well
marked as it is in Kumaon. I believe, therefore, that the
same causes which produced the great breadth of the bhabur
at the foot of the Kumaon hills, caused the persistence of the
glacier lakes which are situated only a few miles off in their
interior, What that was—whether their geological struc-
ture or their greater height—I am not prepared to say; but
396 A Description of Kumaon, [Sess.
the outer range of Kumaon—that is, the hills nearest to
the plains—are certainly higher than the outer range is any-
where else in the Himalayas.
I mentioned that the teraz is the favourite haunt of tigers.
This is where they pass the day sleeping, but at night they
visit the bhabur and the lower hills. About thirty years ago,
at Haldwani, a village in the biabur, there lived a poor widow
with two sons. Tigers were then far more common than they
are now. The elder son became a letter-carrier or postal-
runner between Haldwani and Kathgodam, a place six miles
off in the lower hills. One night a tiger killed and ate him.
Strange to say, his brother applied for and got the vacant
appointment. I suppose the family had no other means of
earning a livelihood. Before long he, too, was devoured by
the same tiger, almost at the very spot where his brother had
been killed. The poor widow, left alone in the world, never
hesitated as to what she ought to do. The night after her
second son was carried off, she seated herself on the fatal spot,
saying to the neighbours, “ The tiger has taken my two boys;
let him take me too.” She had to wait a week: for seven
weary nights she sat alone by the roadside, wrapped up in
her tattered blanket. But the tiger came at last; and there
was an end of the Haldwani family. I have often walked
from Haldwani to Kathgodam, and tried to find out the exact
spot where the old woman sat; but no one I met could tell
me with certainty, and there were many likely places for tigers
along the gloomy road running between a mountain torrent
on one side and the high wood-clad precipices on the other.
Besides Almora there is another town in Kumaon—viz.,
Naini Tal, the summer residence of the Lieutenant-Governor
of the North-West Provinces. Naini Tal is built round a
lake of the same name. Till 1840 no European knew of the
existence of this lake, though there had been a considerable
English population in Almora for nearly forty years. The
natives concealed the fact of its existence because it was
considered a holy lake, being sacred to the goddess Naini
Devi—Our Lady of the Beautiful Eyes. One traveller came
upon it by accident in 1840, and described it in a newspaper
which was then published at Mussourie; but another corres-
pondent of the paper wrote that the story was a fabrication,
1890-91. ] in the Central Himalayas. 397
as it was well known that there was only one lake in the
whole range of the Himalayas, meaning by this Lake
Bhimtal. Mr Batten, the then Commissioner of Kumaon,
wishing to find out the truth, ordered a native to guide him
to the sacred lake. The native replied that no such place
existed. Mr Batten picked up a large stone, and, handing it
to the man, told him that as he had made a vow to throw
a stone into the lake, he (the native) would have to carry it
there for him. The native, caught in a trap, replied, “It is
no use carrying this big stone all the way from Almora to
Naini Tal, for there are far larger stones than this on the
edge of the lake.” “Then such a place really exists!” was
Mr Batten’s triumphant exclamation. The Commissioner got
to the lake, and built a house there, in which I afterwards
lived. In a few years Naini Tal became one of the most
popular health-resorts in India. The lake is 6000 feet above
the sea, one mile long, a quarter of a mile broad, and eighty
feet deep. The water is beautifully clear, and several species
of carp (Barbus) swim in the lake, and give capital sport to
fly-fishers. Every third or fourth year the lake is visited by
swarms of locusts from Rajpootana. They fall into it, and
the lake becomes covered with their dead bodies. On several
occasions I have seen the lake discoloured by Peridineum, a
species of infusorian; but after a few days the water again
becomes clear. On the 18th September 1880 there was a
terrible landslip, which destroyed part of the town and killed
many people. It had rained continuously for forty hours,
and in that time twenty-five inches of rain had already fallen,
when, early in the forenoon of the fatal day, a portion of the
hill fell on the ground behind the principal hotel, burying
alive a native nurse and an English baby she had in her
arms, besides four natives who lived in cottages above the
hotel. The Assistant Commissioner of Kumaon was a Mr
Leonard Taylor,—one of the finest young fellows that ever
entered that noble service, the Bengal Civil Service, and one
of the most lovable men I have ever known. He at once
organised a digging-party, consisting of gentlemen volunteers,
private soldiers from the barracks, and a number of natives.
For four hours they worked on in the pitiless rain—for one inch
of rain continued falling every hour throughout the day. It
398 A Description of Kumaon, [Sess.
was by this time known that all the victims of the first land-
slip must be dead, and most of the soldiers returned to
barracks; but Mr Taylor, Lieutenant Sullivan, Mr Noad,
three brothers named Shiels, with others, went on digging to
get out the dead bodies. Suddenly, without a moment’s
notice, the whole hillside slipped down and fell into the lake,
burying for ever the working-party. Thirty brave men passed
in one instant from time into eternity. Two years afterwards
the ground was consecrated as a cemetery, and there, fifty feet
below the surface, lie the bodies of the Assistant Commissioner
of Kumaon and his band of volunteers, white men and black
together. His superior, the Commissioner of Kumaon, Sir
Henry Ramsay, had a narrow escape. While his Assistant
was digging at the upper end of the lake, he was at the lower
end, superintending a party who were deepening the outlet,
with a view to letting its swollen waters escape. When the
hill fell into the top of the lake it sent down a great wave,
which swept over the party working at the outlet. Three
men were drowned, and the Commissioner’s life was only
saved by a private soldier, who pulled him up the bank, not a
moment too soon. Besides these, many other people were
killed, either on the main road or inside five buildings which
were buried by the landslip. These buildings were the
Victoria Hotel; the principal shop, called Bell’s shop; the
Volunteers’ orderly room; the public library and assembly
rooms; and the Hindoo temple, sacred to the goddess of the
lake. The total number who perished in this terrible calamity
was 151—43 British and 108 natives.
In describing further the district of Kumaon, I shall now
proceed to speak of its
DISEASES.
Plague, which I mentioned in my account of Gurhwal,’
is more common there than it is in Kumaon. Goitre, leprosy,
and cholera are equally common. Goitre is generally met
with in limestone countries, as was first proved by Dr Cleland
of the Bengal Medical Service. Of leprosy I had great
experience, as I had medical charge of the Almora Leper
1 See ante, p. 305 (Sess. 1889-90).
1890-91. | in the Central Himalayas. 399
Asylum for nearly ten years. The average number of lepers
in this asylum was over one hundred. I treated the lepers
at first with cashew-nut oil, the South-American treatment,
and latterly with Gurjun oil (Dipterocarpus turbinatus), as
recommended by Surgeon-Major Dugald, who was the medical
officer of the Andaman Islands Hospital, but without much
success. With regard to the origin of the disease, I entirely
agree with the great London surgeon, Jonathan Hutchinson,
who lately lectured on this subject in Edinburgh, in attribut-
ing it mainly to the use of a too exclusive fish diet. The
fact that the heroic Father Damian became a leper is gener-
ally regarded as a proof that leprosy is contagious; but it
should be remembered that at Molokai, the Sandwich Island
leper-settlement, he had to share the poor food of the lepers,
aud that, as a Roman Catholic, he would live during Lent
exclusively on a fish diet.
The origin of cholera has been fully explained by Koch
and others, though the explanation has not yet been generally
accepted. In popular language, it may be stated as follows:
Cholera is a non-infectious disease. Nobody gets cholera in
any way except by swallowing cholera germs; but, curiously
enough, even if one does swallow cholera germs, he is none
the worse if a sufficient quantity of gastric juice is present
in his stomach. The gastric juice kills the germs. For all
practical purposes, therefore, a man is pretty safe during a
cholera epidemic, provided he never drinks a large quantity
of water when his stomach is empty ; but, of course, this is
the very thing one is tempted to do in the hot weather in a
tropical country like India. The risk is increased if he puts
any brandy or other alcoholic spirit in the water. I have
seen a case which apparently originated in a single glass of
brandy taken in a tumblerful of water by a man who was
tired, and who had eaten nothing for some time. Possibly
the same effect would have been produced by the water alone,
but of two risks it is wise to chose the lesser; and if a man
is very thirsty he is safer, when cholera is about, if he drinks
the water plain than if he mixes it with alcohol. Of course,
if he can possibly help it, he should do neither. It is thirty
years since I came to the conclusion that cholera was not
infectious through the air, and I was satisfied of it in the
400 A Description of Kumaon, [Sess.
following way. At that time the army in India was very
numerous, and cholera cases were common. I found from
the statistics that the average number of medical officers and
hospital attendants who died of cholera was not greater than
the average of military officers and soldiers. When I pointed
this out nobody listened to me, and everybody repeated the
parrot-cry, “Cholera is very infectious.” The one sensible
man who opposed my views was the Commissioner of Kumaon,
one of the greatest and best men in India. He recognised
the fact that medical officers do not die of cholera more often .
than other people, but explained it by saying that a special
providence protected medical officers in the discharge of their
duty. I did not at first know how to answer him, till it
occurred to me to consult the statistics of deaths. There I
found that medical officers died from typhoid fever more than
other officers, and from plague very much more than other
officers. My conclusion, therefore, on the whole, was, not that
there is any special interference in the case of cholera, but
simply that cholera is not an infectious disease, and that
typhoid fever probably, and plague certainly, are infectious
diseases.
In September 1873 there was an epidemic of cholera in
Eastern Kumaon. A medical missionary was very fortunately
travelling at the time in that district, and reported to Govern-
ment the necessity of a Government medical officer being sent
to treat the numerous cases. I was sent at once. There was
in the centre of the infected district a military cantonment
where a European officer, a bachelor, and a company of
Sepoys was posted, and I hoped to be allowed to live in one
of the houses, of which there were several near the regi-
mental barracks. But the officer wrote me that as I was
engaged in cholera duty, and as there was no cholera among
the Sepoys, he could not allow me to enter the cantonments ;
so I had to pitch my tent under a tree, about a mile from
the barracks. I found the epidemic a very bad one, many
deaths occurring daily in the scattered villages. The history
of its origin, as given me by the inhabitants, was as follows:
“Some time previously the goddess of cholera, tired of the
plains, had resolved to visit the snowy range, probably with the
view of going as a pilgrim to the sacred lake of Mansarover.
1890-91. | in the Central Himalayas. 401
Finding that a party of Thibetans were returning from India
to Thibet, she accompanied their camp. But when about
one-third of the way from the outer range to the snowy
range, the Thibetans were robbed by the villagers; and the
goddess, being angry, established herself in the country, instead
of going on to Mansarover. I hinted that this was very
weak and capricious conduct on the part of the goddess, but
the villagers saw no difficulty in it. They said, “ Women are
always doing unaccountable things”! Being now satisfied as
to the origin of the disease, I began my treatment, which I
need not inflict on you. People took my medicines, but
medicine was not what they chiefly trusted in. All over
the infected district prayers were constantly going on, and
goats were being sacrificed in all directions to the goddess
herself, and to the innumerable .local deities, especially to the
god Symdeo, the chief local god in Kumaon,—a deity not
known in the Hindoo pantheon, and utterly repudiated by
the Brahmins. All was in vain. Medicine was only a
partial success, and the prayers and goat sacrifices were a
total failure. All at once a deliverer appeared. One day
a crowd of suppliants had assembled before a temple of
Symdeo which had fallen into ruins, and which they intended
to rebuild to propitiate the god. A woman suddenly stepped
forward and addressed the crowd in vehement tones. Her
name was Harli, and she was twenty-eight years of age, the
wife of the village postal-runner,—a poor man, and of no
social importance. Harli informed the crowd that it was
useless rebuilding the temple or sacrificing any more goats ;
that the goddess of cholera had appeared to her, and told her
what ought to be done: She herself was to be dressed in
red and carried in state from village to village, and wherever
she went cholera would cease. This the goddess had prom-
ised. The plan was adopted with enthusiasm. A sedan-
chair was procured, and Harli, seated in it, and carried by ten
or twelve men, commenced her round of visits to the dead
and dying. I met her next day entering a village which I
was leaving. In front was a band of musicians, and behind
a long train of people carrying red and white flags. Harli
was reclining in her sedan-chair, and took no notice of me as ©
I stood aside to let her pass. Never was prophetess more
402 A Description of Kumaon, [Sess.
successful. The cold weather was coming on, and cholera
disappeared as if by magic. Three days after, I packed up
my things and started for home. I heard subsequently that
when the cholera had completely disappeared, Harli returned
to her old village life and her obscure position. I never saw
her again.
While resident in Kumaon, the bird-life of the district was
to me a most interesting study: I shall therefore now go on
to notice somewhat particularly the
BrirDs.
In Britain, in olden times, one of the most popular amuse-
ments was hawking; but this sport is now so completely
forgotten in these islands that few people know anything
about it, beyond, perhaps, what they may have read in Sir
Walter Scott’s charming novel, ‘The Abbot. In India, how-
ever, hawking is still as popular as it was in our own country
in the middle ages. Every Indian noble, whether Nawab or
Rajah, Mohammedan or Hindu, keeps hawks, and in the
days of the East India Company many English officers also
kept them. Most of the hawks are brought from Afghan-
istan, but a considerable number are caught in the Himalayas.
Indian faleoners divide these birds into two groups: (1),
“Siyah Chashm,” or black-eyed—the falcons; (2), “ Goolab
Chashm,” or red-eyed—the hawks. Of the falcons the pere-
grine is most esteemed. There are two species of peregrine,
the common and the royal, which are trained to hunt herons,
egrets, storks, cranes, and partridges. Next to the peregrine
in value is the lanner, with a longer tail than the former.
It is chiefly trained to hunt crows, egrets, partridges, and
florikin. Among the smaller falcons there are three common
species: (1), the hobby, with dark plumage; (2), the merlin,
with light plumage; (3), the claret-coloured kestrel. Of
these, the merlin is the only one much used for hawking
purposes. It is flown at quails, partridges, minas, and the
Indian jay. The Indian species is called the red-headed
merlin, and is a little larger than the English merlin. Of
the hawks there are two great groups—the large hawks, re-
1890-91.| zn the Central Himalayas. 403
presented by the goshawk; and the small ones, represented by
the sparrow-hawk. The goshawk is the best of all birds in
falconry. It is trained to strike bustards, ducks, cormorants,
and herons; and, above all, it is used for catching hares. Of
sparrow-hawks there are three kinds: (1), the “shikra,” with
short tarsus and toes; (2), the “besra,” with long tarsus and
toes; and (3), the “ basha,” the European sparrow-hawk. Of
eagles, the golden eagle, one of the dark-eyed section, is also
trained by the Tartars to catch antelopes. The price of a
trained bird is said to be two camels. Besides the golden
eagle, twenty-seven other species of eagles are found in India,
as well as six species of buzzard and five species of harriers.
Of all these I will only allude to one, a species of eagle—the
ring-tailed fish eagle (Halictus fulviventer). A pair of these
birds have established themselves on each of the Kumaon lakes,
feeding chiefly on fish, but they are fond of carrying off a
wounded duck shot by a sportsman. Dividing the owls in the
same fashion, there are in India seven species of dark-eyed
owls and fourteen species of light-eyed owls. They are all birds
of ill omen, though the cries of many of them are exceedingly
beautiful. Of the Fissirostral birds, Hirundo erythropygia is
the most conspicuous, and the wire-tailed Hirundo filifera.
Of the swifts, the most common is Cypselus affinis, called by
Europeans the “pagoda swift,’ because it often builds in
temples; but in Kumaon it builds in verandahs, making a
nest of straw, feathers, and bits of paper, glued together by
its saliva. An allied bird is the goatsucker, whose cry, heard
chiefly at night, is like the sound of a stone scudding over
ice. This bird causes as much terror to the hill-men of
Kumaon as its congener causes to the Highlanders of Scot-
land. The next group of birds is the hornbills, remarkable
for the appendage on their upper mandibles, and for the fact
that the male builds the female into her nest, leaving only
a tiny opening, and feeds her with fruits, while she is sitting
on eggs. The cry of this bird is said by the natives to be a
sure sign of rain. They think that, owing to the appendage
on its bill, it cannot drink from streams, and can only swallow
rain-drops. It is therefore often very thirsty, and cries out
for joy when rain is coming. The green parrots of India are
well known. They were the only parrots known to the
404 A Description of Kumaon, [ Sess.
ancients, and were first sent from India to Greece by Alex-
ander the Great and his generals. Another characteristic
group are the barbets. The great barbet (Megalaima virens)
cries all summer in the Kumaon forest. Its loud, continuous
wailing cry is, according to the natives, not owing to a love
disappointment, as one would expect, but to its having lost
a lawsuit. The blue-throated barbet (Cyanops asiatica) is
equally noisy, but in the bhabur forests, not the hill forests.
Its cry is syllabicated by Mr Blyth as “Kuru wuk, kuru
wuk.” To me it sounded like “Put her out, put her out.”
Next come the cuckoos, which are very numerous in India,
both in species and in individuals. There are fifteen species
at least in India, but I will only mention the Kumaon ones.
These are—(1), Cuculus canorus, the European cuckoo ; (2), C.
himalayanus ; (3), C. poliocephala; (4), C. micropterus, known
to every native in Kumaon, because it says most distinctly
“Kaphul pako,” meaning, “The kaphul” (Myrica sapida) “is
ripe,” and it says this just when the fruit really is ripe; (5),
Hierococcyx sparveroides, which says “ Pi kahan ?” “ Where is
my sweetheart ?”—-exactly the same cry as the Hierococcyx
varius of the plains, but it is a bigger bird. In the forest
these five birds may often be heard calling within a few
minutes of each other, as also the so-called plaintive cuckoo
(Polyphasia nigra)—a humbug of a bird, whose cry is a poor
imitation of that of Hierococcyx sparveroides. Lastly, the
ereen-billed Eudynamis orientalis, or “koil,” so called from
its cry. It has, however, another cry, sounding exactly like
the English words, “ Who are you?” which it repeats persist-
ently. The male is black, the female green spotted and
banded with white. This bird deposits its eggs in the nests
of crows—generally of the common crow, more rarely of the
carrion-crow. I had a nest of the common crow, with a
young cuckoo in it, taken from a tree, and carried to a ver-
andah. The parent crows were quite fearless, and fed their
spurious offspring most diligently till it was able to provide
for itself.
With reference to crows, I may here notice one great dif-
ference between British and Indian ideas. In a delightful
book, ‘ Birds of Iona and Mull,’ recently published, there are
the following passages: “ The hoodie-crow has got a terribly
Ao
1890-91.] zn the Central Himalayas. 405
bad name, and his best friend could not say much in his
favour, supposing he ever had a friend, which I do not sup-
pose is possible. . . . A greedy, cowardly, destructive crea-
ture, with an ugly look and a hateful voice.” Such is a Brit-
ish naturalist’s opinion of crows. In India it is very different.
To a native the crow is the type of moral excellence, as the
ctickoo is of selfishness. The crow is the anyabhrit, the
nourisher of others; the cuckoo is the anyabhritus, the para-
site, the mean accepter of other people’s charity. The crow is
also the type of propriety, decency, morality, and religion.
The Persian poet Sadi, writing on the misery which the good
experience when compelled to associate with the wicked, de-
scribes it under the image of a crow shut up in the same cage
with a parrot. The crow exclaims: “It is bad enough for a
holy man to be in prison, but it is worse to be in the same
cell with a parrot. Would that I were back on a garden
wall, where I could talk seriously with some reverend brother
dressed like myself in black, instead of having to listen to the
silly prattling of this green-mantled fop !”
A beautiful group of Kumaon birds is the sun-birds, some-
times erroneously called humming-birds ; but they have strong
feet, and are modified passerine birds, not modified swifts.
The most common is the purple honeysucker, with a red-and-
yellow epaulette. Next come the creepers. The Certhia
himalayana, one of them, is, I think, the most common bird
in Almora. Not so common, but pretty abundant, is the
Tichodroma muraria, which looks more like a butterfly than a
bird. The hoopoe isa common bird in Kumaon. It is ven-
erated by Mohammedans on account of its having been the
messenger of Solomon; but it is rather dirty in its habits, as
it spends most of its time searching for beetles and grubs
among cow-dung. Of fly-catchers, the most common and
most beautiful is the Paradise fly-catcher. The adults are
pure white, with two very long tail-feathers. The young
birds are black and chestnut. Not very common, though
figured by Royle, is the “now-rang” or nine-coloured bird
(Pitta bengalensis). This bird is not only conspicuous by its
beauty ; it has also a very well-marked cry, saying distinctly,
“ Ayittam, ayittam ”—-“ My dress, my dress.” It seems that
it formerly had a fine train, as well as a pretty bodice, but
406 A Description of Kumaon, [Sess.
the peacock stole its train. Why it speaks Cingalese, and not
Hindustani, I cannot say. Another common thrush is the
brown water-ousel (Hydrobata asiatica), which plunges into
water in search of water insects. I used to call it the curtsy-
ing bird, for it has a habit of sitting on a stone in the river,
and making a series of very pretty curtseys. I mentioned
last year the yellow-billed whistling thrush (Myzophonus Tem-
menckit), so shall say no more about it now.
Of the Crateropod family, Malacocircus, one of the most
common birds in the plains, is rarely seen in Kumaon. Here
the commonest Crateropod is the white-crested laughing thrush
(Garrulax leucolophus). It assembles in flocks of twenty or
more, and receives the astonished visitor to its forest haunts
with roars of laughter which are extremely infectious, for one
can hardly help laughing one’s self. Another common and
familiar Crateropod is the streaked laughing thrush (Zrochal-
opteron lineatum), which, however, does not laugh at all—at
_ least, I never heard it. Its note is like that of two pebbles
struck together. It often builds under the eaves of houses in
Naini Tal.
Of the short-legged thrushes, the most conspicuous is the
“ouldum”’ (Otocompsa lewcogenys)—a lovely bird, with bright yel-
low under its tail, which sings, “ Speak to me, speak,” the refrain
of a once well-known English ballad. Common, but not nearly
so common, is the green iora, which says “ ioree ” not “ iora,” as
it should say, and has also for its note a double C—the low
C with its octave. Next come the joyous orioles. Of all
birds I know, these have, I think, the most exhilarating and
joyous ery. The note of the laughing thrush inclines you to
laugh ; the wail of the green pigeon almost makes you weep ;
but the cry of the oriole causes you to reck little of the steep
ascent before you. Every pedestrian in the Himalayas must
love the oriole. Of the warblers, the most conspicuous is an
aquatic form, the plumbeous water-robin or plumbeous red-tail,
which lives on the wet rocks in the streams, and passes a
great part of its life in fighting with a wagtail (Znicuwrus
Scoulerit) which has similar habits. I have often sat watching
them at war. They are well matched, but the robin has
generally the best of it. The true wagtails, called by the
1 See ante, p, 295 (Sess, 1889-90).
-_
1890-91. ] in the Central Himalayas. 407
natives “dhobins” or “ washerwomen,” are fairly common up
to 4000 feet. They are apparently anxious about what they
are to have for dinner, as their cry has been syllabicated,
“ Aj to nahin rasil ?”—“ Is it enough cooked to-day?” Of the
tits, the most conspicuous is the white-eyed tit (Zosterops
palpebrarum), found everywhere in Kumaon. Equally common
is the Parus monticola, distinguished by its wearing a Gladstone
collar. The common crows are Corvus culminatus and Corvus
splendens. The latter, as before mentioned, is the favourite
victim of the “ koil,” though the crow is perhaps the wisest bird
in India. This is not to be wondered at. Among the human
race, the wise and good are the favourite prey of charlatans,
and why should it not be so among birds ?
I pass over the many jays, mentioning only the Indian
magpie, which is very common, dressed in black hat, brown
coat, and grey trousers, with a cry like the scraping of a pan.
Hearing this bird cry is an omen that you will soon have a
visit from a beggar, wanting food or money from you. The
hill mina (Zulabes intermedia), the most articulate speaker of
all birds, far excelling even the parrots, is unfortunately not a
Kumaon bird; but it is abundant in the neighbouring province
of Nepal, on the other bank of the river Surjoo. It is caught
there, and sent all over India. In Naini Tal in 1881 I had a
mina in a cage. It had been taught to say “ Pray to Rama.”
A poor blind woman had come to beg. When she heard
the bird shouting out “ Pray to Rama!” she stopped, and,
turning her sightless eyes to where the sound came from, she
said, “ O great king, I have prayed to Rama.” The bird, hearing
her voice and footsteps, got more and more excited, and kept
shouting out louder and louder,“Pray to Rama! pray to Rama!”
while every now and then the poor old woman said, in a soft
low voice, “ O king, I have prayed to Rama.” We gave the
old woman a small coin and sent her away. I do not believe
she had the least idea it was a bird that had been speaking to
her, yet I do not know whether she supposed it to be a human
or a supernatural voice,—probably she thought it was the
latter. Of the larks, the only one common in Kumaon is the
Alauda gulgula, almost identical with the British skylark. I
have already alluded to the plaintive wail of the green wood-
pigeon (Sphenocercus sphenurus). To my ear this is the most
408 A Description of Kumaon, [Sess.
beautiful, and at the same time the saddest, cry of any bird
on earth. Of all my remembrances of Kumaon, the wailing
cry of this bird is most deeply impressed on my memory.
Last year I described the pheasants at sufficient length. Of
the partridges, two species are the most common. The first is
the black partridge (Francolinus vulgaris), which, according to
the Mohammedans, says, “Subhan teri kudrut,’ meaning,
“Great is thy power ”—supposed to be an address to the deity.
The other species is Caccabis chucor, allied to C. greeca. Both
these partridges are excellent eating, and are shot in great
numbers by hill sportsmen. There is also a tiny partridge,
the “ peura” (Arboricola torqueola), which is also very good to
eat, though small. It is often captured in nets by the natives,
who imitate its whistling call. Of the lapwings, the red-
wattled lapwing (Lobivanellus goensis) is ubiquitous, and is
even more vociferous than the European lapwing. It appeared
to me to speak broad Aberdonian, saying, “ Fat did he dee 0’ ?”
Curiously, a very different bird, Sibia capistrata, a Crateropod,
has to my ear a similar cry, but whispered, not shouted, and
quickly answered by its mate. It lives in the forest, not upon
the ground like the lapwing. The common snipe and the
painted snipe are well known as birds of passage. They make
a stay of a few days on their way up and down from Thibet,
especially the return journey. They are then shot in great
numbers ; but the snipe-shooting season is a short one. Geese
and ducks seldom stop in Kumaon, but make their way from
the plains to Thibet and back, without halting. <A few are,
however, occasionally shot in the lakes and elsewhere.
The characteristic bird of the Kumaon lakes is the bald-
coot (Fulica atra), which, according to my friend, Dr Walker,
author of a book on fishing in the Kumaon lakes, has a ery
exactly like the click of an angler’s reel. This often surprises
a fisherman on the Kumaon lakes, who fancies he has the lake
all to himself, and who could not hear a more disagreeable
noise than the sound of another man’s fishing-reel running out
at the rate of fifty miles an hour.
Regarding the people of Kumaon, I must now, in conclu-
sion, say something. As a whole they are inferior, physically
and morally, though not intellectually, to the people of Gurh-
1890-91. | in the Central Himalayas. 409
wal to the west, and to those of Nepal to the east. Many of
them are polygamists. In the plains of India polygamy is
lawful, but it is so exceedingly rare that I only once knew a
man who had two wives. In Kumaon, however, I knew many
men who had two wives, and one man who had as many as
seven. In the temples, also, they have women called Paturs,
or hereditary temple slaves—a thing unheard of in the rest
of Northern India. In Britain the fact is not sufficiently
recognised that there are different races in India. A native
of Kumaon is unlike a native of the plains of the North-West
Provinces in many ways. One thing particularly struck me
in my experience of the two races as vaccinators. When a
hill vaccinator did anything wrong, I soon heard of it, as his
brethren were all ready and anxious to tell tales against him.
In the plains it was very different: vaccinators generally tried
to shield each other, and would tell any number of lies to get
a friend or neighbour out of a scrape. When a hill-man told
lies, it was to get a neighbour into a scrape, not to get him
out of one. Faction fights were, until lately, very common in
Kumaon. At fairs and markets the people divided themselves
into two parties, called “Mahar” and “ Fartial,’ and fought
for hours with sticks and stones. ‘This practice also is South
Indian, not North Indian; and I think it may safely be in-
ferred that there is more Turanian than Aryan blood in the
veins of the people of Kumaon, for in everything but language
they agree with the Tamul races, not with the Hindu. One
single fact, which alone is almost sufficient to prove this, is
the practice, only recently put down by the English Govern-
ment, of men who were rich, or at all events well off, actually
selling their own daughters as slaves to be taken to the plains.
To a Hindu of the plains this appears worse even than it does
to an Englishman. The poorest Hindu would infinitely prefer
death to committing such a crime. He might kill his daughter
to save her from disgrace, but he never would sell her into
slavery. However, if the people of Kumaon have little pride
and self-respect, they have plenty of vanity and self-conceit.
As sanitary commissioner, I had a clerk a native of Kumaon.
This man, on a salary of £60 a-year, thought himself defiled
by having to sit in the same room with me. Before going
home from the office at night, he always went to a Brahmin
VOL, II. 25
410 A Description of Kumaon. [Sess.
and had some prayers said and holy water sprinkled over him,
in order that he might not carry defilement to his wife and
family. It is sad to think how little we are appreciated in
India. All other conquering races have treated the vanquished
as slaves: Athens, Carthage, Rome, and Holland are examples.
England has treated India, not as a master treats a slave, but
as a mother treats a child. When the English first landed in
India, the country was in a state of terrible misery, owing to
the total breaking down of the corrupt Mohammedan rule.
Life and property were everywhere unsafe. We have made
India peaceful and prosperous, and yet among all the millions
of India there is not a man who loves our rule or wishes it
to continue. Not only is the Government unpopular, but
individuals also are too often disliked. The missionaries are
beloved, and they well deserve it; and possibly some, or
even many, of the civil administrators are liked; but the mili-
tary and trading classes are hated. It is inevitable that the
black man should dislike the white, and the conquered the
conqueror. Perhaps the Hindus are right, and the time has
come, or nearly come, for us to quit India. We have done
our appointed work, and it may be time for us to loose the
leading-strings and leave India to walk alone. That India
should be free ought to be the desire of every lover of liberty
—unfortunately I cannot say of every Liberal, for that name
is now claimed by the friends of mob tyranny and priestly
superstition. Many will say, India is unfit for freedom, and
if we abandon her she would either be conquered by some
other European Power or would fall a prey to intestine an-
archy. This is what our fathers were told would happen to
Italy, and what our grandfathers were told would happen to
Greece. In both instances the prediction has proved false.
I venture to hope that our sons, or at least our grandsons, will
know that the prediction has proved equally false with regard
to India. If we have to withdraw from the great peninsula
and allow it to govern itself, it may partly console us that
there are few brighter pages in history than the story of the
century of British rule in India, from 1760 to 1860; few
names in all history more worthy of reverence than those of
Cornwallis, Bentinck, Malcolm, Sleeman, and Outram.
1890-91. | The Kingfisher. AII
Il—THE KINGFISHER.
By Mr TOM SPEEDY.
(Read Dec. 24, 1890.)
THE kingfisher is the gaudiest of British birds. To many
such brilliant plumage is associated only with the tropics ;
but no country can produce amongst its birds a more re-
splendent azure and other beautiful tints than we find in the
kingfisher, living at our own doors. The kingfisher is mixed
up with a deal of superstition. It is supposed to be the “ hal-
cyon” of the Greeks, of which bird many curious stories have
been told. The kingfisher may be found on the banks of almost
every stream in the south of Scotland, but I have never seen
it in the Highlands. Mr St John, however, in his admirable
book, ‘ Wild Sports and Natural History of the Highlands,’
records having twice seen one in Morayshire, remarking that
their visits to the northern parts of our country are very rare.
The kingfisher generally constructs its nest in a hole on
the bank of a stream. Whether it also makes this hole itself,
or takes possession of that of a water-rat, I am not prepared
to state, but I am inclined to think that the latter is its
normal habit. A section of a river-bank, showing the nest
of a kingfisher, is to be seen in the South Kensington
Museum, and is very interesting. The floor of the hole
where kingfishers make their nest is always covered with the
disgorged bones of the small fish which constitute their food.
It appears that they are incapable of digesting the bones and
scales of fish, which they throw up again in the same manner
as owls are known to eject pellets of fur and other indigest-
ible substances. It has frequently been asserted that the nest
is made of fish-bones. This, however, is not the case. The
bones and scales of fish are found in profusion in the hole,
_ but that they are put there for the purpose of building the
nest I do not believe. The nest is lined with a sort of down,
apparently derived from some plant such as the cotton-grass.
The eggs, of a pinkish tint, are from five to seven in number.
When bird-nesting in my boyhood, I one day observed a
412 The Kingfisher. [Sess.
kingfisher, with a small fish in its bill, frequently flying up the
brook which divides the Ladykirk and Milne-Graden estates,
in Berwickshire. Following the stream, I saw the bird dis-
appear under a large tree, the roots of which grew down out-
side the bank, forming a kind of arbour. Observing a hole in
the bank under the roots, I thrust in my arm, and found half-
a-dozen birds nearly fledged. Having examined them, I re-
turned them to the nest, which appeared to be in strange
contrast to the beautiful plumage of the birds. The stench
was intolerable, and it was days ere I could get rid of it on
my hands and clothes. The excrement of kinefishers being of
a liquid consistency, the parent birds are unable to carry it
out, as is the habit with water-ousels and some other birds
which breed in holes; and this, along with the bones and
scales of fish which constitute the castings, decomposes, and
emits a most obnoxious effluvium.
During the last twenty years I have taken a great interest
in observing kingfishers beside the brook which flows past my
cottage. After the severe winter of 1880-81 they disappeared
for some years; but, much to my delight, they have again re-
turned. It is only in winter that they may be said to dwell with
us at Liberton, as in spring they migrate to more secluded locali-
ties to breed. Notwithstanding the shortness of their wings,
the velocity of their flight is very great, their brilliant hues
flashing in the sun, as they dart past, like a “ living emerald.”
Sometimes I have seen one sit for a long time on a twig of a
hedge or bush, or on the grassy bank a few yards from the
stream, till sighting some small fish, when he would dart like
lightning into the water, remaining a second below the surface,
but returning, if unsuccessful, to the same spot, to await an-
other opportunity. At other times I have seen them hovering
in the air like an osprey, then swooping down in an instant
on perceiving a fish. Most naturalists assert that they are
generally unerring in their aim, and seldom fail in making a
capture. This, however, does not comport with my own ob-
servation, as I have seen them over and over again unsuc-
cessful. When they do catch a fish, they fly to a post or
stone—at The Inch a water-gate is a favourite resort—when
they seize the fish firmly, beat it violently till they kill it,
when it disappears head first down their throat. When feed-
1890-91. The Common Lump-fish. 413
ip
ing, they invariably beat the fish, in order to kill it before
swallowing it, according to hereditary instinct; and it is most
amusing to see my pet bird beating a bit of beef in the same
manner as a live fish. Minnows, sticklebacks, small parr, and
trout constitute the staple food of the kingfisher, though I
am of opinion that they also eat aquatic insects. It has fre-
quently been asserted that they devour ova, and consequently
are destructive to salmon. This I do not believe, as while the
bird which I now exhibit will eat fish, flesh, or fowl, it cannot
be induced to eat salmon-roe. It is, however, extremely dan-
gerous to rest any theory upon an experiment when dissociat-
ing birds from their natural environments, and placing them
in captivity; and as I have never killed kingfishers for the
purpose of dissecting them to discover what the gizzard con-
tained, I shall not dogmatise on this point.
[Mr Speedy then proceeded to show a tame kingfisher in the
act of killing and swallowing sticklebacks, as above described.
It may be added that this pet bird died a few weeks after
being thus exhibited to the members of the Society, having
succumbed to the effects of a sudden and intense frost. ]
At this meeting a number of interesting microscopic objects
were exhibited by the following members of the Society: Dr
Arthur E. Davies; Messrs Coats, Crawford, Forgan, Lindsay,
Wright, and A. Moffat, secretary. Mr A. B. Herbert also
exhibited a viper and a live slow-worm.
Ill—T7THE COMMON LUMP-FISH.
By Mr SOMMERVILLE GRIEVE.
(Read Jan. 28, 1891.)
THE lump-fish (Cyclopterus lumpus), locally known as “ cock
paddle ” and “lump-sucker,” is a native of the northern seas,
It is an odd and clumsy fish, with a deep body covered by
spinous processes, and has its sides adorned with bony scales,
414 The Common Lump-fish. [Sess.
giving it a very antiquated appearance. The colour of the
body is a brownish black, but it varies slightly according to
the season. From three to five pounds may be considered its
average weight, although it has been known to attain much
greater proportions. A very singular provision of nature is
found in the arrangement of the ventral fins. It might
indeed at first sight be thought that they were entirely
absent, from the way in which they are modified. Couch
says: “The pectoral fins are continued to the ventrals, the
latter encircling a dise which is organised in such a manner
as to enable these fishes to adhere firmly to a solid substance.”
This sucking-organ will therefore be seen to be of much use
to this inert and awkward fish when close to shore in stormy
weather. As an instance of the power of its sucker, one
writer mentions that “on placing a fish of this species just
caught into a pail of water, it fixed itself so firmly to the
bottom that on taking it by the tail the whole pail by that
means was lifted, though it held some gallons, and that without
removing the fish from its hold.” The food of the lump-fish
is partly animal and partly vegetable. Small crustaceans
have been found in their stomach, and from the physiological
nature of their internal organs it is evident that a portion of
their nutriment is also derived from marine alge.
During a visit to Fife last June, I was surprised to find the
remains of this fish scattered in considerable quantities along
the shore. At first I was at a loss to account for the singular
abundance of the dead forms of the lump-fish, until I ques-
tioned one of the local fishermen. He said they were a source
of great annoyance and trouble to the men who had charge of
the salmon stake-nets. The numbers caught during the early
summer were great, and of course were destroyed. One writer
mentions that in the northern seas the lump-fish is much
preyed on by seals and large fish, which swallow all but the
skins, quantities of which are found floating about. This fact
is also chronicled by a naturalist who observed skins of the
lump-fish floating off the west coast of Scotland. The stake-
nets may, however, be considered to be undoubtedly the cause
of the numbers found along the Fife shore.
The majority of fish deposit their ova and then leave it to
take its chance of development, without any further solicitude
1890-9 1] The Common Lump-jish. 415
for its welfare: not so with the lump-fish. I was fortunate
in observing a beautiful exemplification of this trait in a small
but deep pool in the rocks near Elie. This pool was close to
low-water mark, and would be only a couple of hours or so
out of the twenty-four uncovered by the sea. The water in
this depression of the rock was beautifully clear, and on
peering into it I was rewarded by the variety of marine life
brought under my eyes. There were many lovely forms of
algze, and the bottom of the pool was alive with myriads of
shell-fish slowly moving to and fro. In this natural aquarium
my attention was directed to a lump-fish, that appeared as if
it were under some hypnotic influence. My approach did not
awaken, so far as I could judge, any fear; and even the gentle
contact of a walking-stick to the side of its body did not in-
duce the fish to change its position. My curiosity was accord-
ingly further quickened, and after a minute examination of
the pool I discovered the cause in a slight depression on the
side of the rock, near the surface of the water. This was filled
by a tough gelatinous substance, which I found to be the ova
of the lump-fish. It was evidently being carefully guarded,
as when I dipped my hand into the water and approached
the ova, the fish at once rose. Doubting its good in-
tentions, I gently introduced into its open mouth the end of
my walking-stick, thereby preventing a practical demonstra-
tion of its power to protect its ova. I was fortunate by this
means in bringing away a small portion of its charge, which I
now exhibit. The ova, as I have said, was placed in a slight
depression of the rock near the surface of the water, and out
of reach of crabs and such ground cannibals.
Couch states that after the deposition of the ova it swells,
and that a cavity, which has been termed a nest, is then
formed for the reception of this treasure. It is not improbable
that the sucking-organ is of some service in this important
operation. Being anxious to observe the development of the
ova, as well as to watch the parental solicitude evinced by this
lump-fish, I visited the pool after the lapse of two days, and
found the fish and its belongings just as before. Three days
passed, and again I went to the pool, but only to find that the
lump-fish and its charge had disappeared. The ova had evi-
dently attained maturity, and then vanished with its guardian,
416 Plant Multiplication. [Sess.
as a great multitude, into the world of waters. The lump-fish,
according to Yarrell, makes a very speedy escape from the egg ;
and that authority further states that the young after birth fix
themselves to the sides and back of their male parent, who
launches forth, thus loaded, into deeper and safer retreats.
IV.—PLANT MULTIPLICATION.
By Mr MARK KING.
(Read Jan. 28, 1891.)
THERE are two ways in which plants may be multiplied or
propagated—(1) the artificial and (2) the natural method.
In the first, a portion of the mother-plant containing a leaf-
bud is placed under conditions suitable to make it develop
into an individual in every respect resembling the parent
plant. These detached parts have various names, such as
cutting, graft, bud, or layer; while a modification of grafting
is known as inarching. A cutting, when properly selected,
and placed under such favourable circumstances, emits roots ;
in this way a plant may be multiplied to any extent corres-
ponding to the number of parts suitable for division. The
art of grafting is of great antiquity, but by whom it was
invented is not known. It is mentioned by Pliny, Virgil,
and other ancient authors. The Chinese are adepts at this
contrivance: its introduction among them is ascribed to
Roman Catholic missionaries. In our own country the monks
for ages were the only gardeners, and among the many de- .
partments of the gardener’s skill, grafting in its various modes
was successfully practised by them. I now exhibit several
examples of these methods of plant multiplication, for which
I am indebted to Mr James Grieve, of Messrs Dicksons & Co.
In budding, the manner of performing the operation varies,
but the mode generally chosen is by making a T-shaped slit
in the bark and inserting the bud underneath. The operation
can only be performed successfully when the sap is in full
1890-91. | Plant Multiplication. 417
circulation. Moist warm weather greatly facilitates the union
of the bud with the stock. Layering consists in a branch or
shoot being bent into the soil and held in position by pegs:
there are ‘several ways of performing the operation, the
principal being by twisting, by tonguing, by strangulation,
by ringing, and by circumposition. Inarching, sometimes
called grafting by approach, is also accomplished in various
ways, but in every case both parts are nourished by their own
roots, and thus co-operate in forming a union. oot division
is another method of plant multiplication. I believe the
greater number of the plants of ipecacuanha now growing in
certain parts of India were originally propagated in this
manner by Mr Robert Lindsay, curator of the Royal Botanic
Garden, Edinburgh. The weeping willow (Salix babylonica)
is distributed over a large area, both in the British Isles and
in North America, by its shoots or buds. Only the female
plant has yet been recognised. It is supposed that all the
individuals of this willow have originated from a single parent
tree. Some plants extend themselves by their own inherent
tendency to multiplication. I would refer in this connection
to that singular plant, Anacharis alsinastrum, which was
originally discovered in this country by the late Dr George
Johnston, of Berwick-on-Tweed, in the lake of Duns Castle
in 1842. It was again found by a lady botanist in 1849 in
a canal in Leicestershire. Later, it was noticed in other
localities, till now there is scarcely a stream or lake in the
country which is not infested with it. The plant is too well
known to need description. The male flowers were first
noticed by the late Mr Douglas in a pond on the Braid Hills,
in 1880, and were described by him in ‘Science Gossip’ for
that year; while Mr Tait Kinnear recorded their continued
flowering in the same locality in a note which will be
found in the first volume of this Society’s ‘Transactions.’ ?
Aquatic birds are frequently the involuntary agents in the
dissemination of water-plants, by carrying detached parts of
the plants from one part of the country to another attached
to their plumage or feet. The universality of the duckweed
(Lemna minor), the smallest flowering-plant known, may be
thus accounted for. Wherever there is standing water, this
1 See ‘Trans. Edin. Nat. Field Club,’ vol. i. p, 81.
418 Plant Multiplication. [Sess.
tiny representative of the vegetable kingdom will be found:
in this case, however, the entire plant is carried away.
I now take up the second part of my communication—
viz., the natural multiplication of plants, or their propagation
by sexual reproduction. The seed is, in fact, a living plant
in suspended vitality, until fitting circumstances occur to call
it into active life. The examination of seed-vessels and their
included seeds will show the great differences presented by
them in size and form—such as large, medium, and small ;
some with hooks, and others with gland-tipped hairs ; many
smooth, and some viscid or glutinous. Now there is a reason
for all these peculiarities. Many seeds require protection, for
instance, from birds or insects; hence the shell or pericarp
of the walnut and filbert are composed of a firm hard substance.
The burdock (Arectiwm majus) has a wonderful mechanism for
the dispersion of its seeds. The scales of the involucre all
end in minute firm hooks, which seize hold of everything that
passes by. Goose-grass (Galiwm aparine) has weak stems
several feet long, adhering by their hooked prickles to every
object in their way. The seed of the beech (Fagus sylvatica)
is enclosed in a spiny four-lobed capsule. In many of our
wild roses the fruit and stalk are furnished with glandular
hairs. Various plants of humble growth have the calyx
closed over the seed-vessel when the flower fades, and open
when the seeds are ripe. In the coltsfoot (Tussilago farfara)
the stalk is upright when the flowers have just expanded,
is close to the ground after the flowers have faded, and rises
again when the seeds are ripe. In the poppy the calyx falls
off immediately on the expansion of the petals. To compensate
for this, the capsule is furnished with a star-shaped lid pro-
jecting over the seed-vessel, with a series of apertures at
regular intervals somewhat like a pepper-box——with holes
not on the top, however, where rain might get in, but under
the rim, to keep the contained seeds dry, when every breeze
that blows scatters them about. The stalk of the screw moss
(Funaria hygrometrica) has the remarkable property of twist-
ing like a wire-spring in dry weather, and again unwinding
when moistened by dew or rain—evidently for the dis-
persion of the spores. In the genus Cyclamen, the flower-
stalk curls itself up into a spiral after the flower has faded,
1890-91. | Plant Multiplication. 419
burying the capsule in the ground. The broom (Sarothamnus
scoparius) and whin (Ulex ewropewus) have their seeds projected
from the parent by the sudden bursting and spring-like twist-
ing of the valves of the pod. The squirting cucumber becomes
distended with mucus, and when ripe expels the seeds
through the aperture where the stalk was inserted with
amazing force. In some species of balsam the capsule bursts
elastically, and throws the seeds from three to four feet. The
common wood-sorrel (Oxalis acetosella) scatters its seeds in a
similar way.
All our native geraniums have their seed-vessels pointed
and clothed with short hairs: if the capsule falls to the
ground in dry weather it remains still, but as soon as it gets
wet the seed-vessel commences to move, and, raising the cap-
sule into an upright position with its point downwards, forces
the seed into the ground. Sometimes the whole plant is
blown about—like the celebrated Rose of Jericho, tossed about
by the wind in the desert—till it is deposited in a damp place,
when the pods open and allow the seed to escape. The seeds
of a South African plant are said even to destroy lions. In
rolling about the sandy plain, seed-vessels of this plant often
become attached to the lion’s skin, causing great pain, when
the animal tries to tear them off. In this way the prickly
seed-vessels often get into the lion’s mouth, causing a wound
which may prove fatal. In this connection a common British
grass, the wall-barley (Hordewm murinum), the spikelets of
which are rough, and readily adhere to the passing traveller or
animal, is transported from one part of the country to another
miles apart. In the Composite there are three species of
eroundsels which have a curious distribution in our country.
Senecio vulgaris is everywhere found; S. sylvaticus is abun-
dant in many situations ; while 8S, viscosus has a more limited
diffusion—a fact which is both interesting and peculiar, when
we take into consideration that this species is provided with
the crest on the seed similar to its congeners. Once more,
the crocus exhibits efficient means of perfecting its seed at the
proper season. This plant has the ovary underground, with a
long slender style. As growth proceeds, and the soil stores
up warmth, the ovary with its contained seeds arises from its
subterranean concealment and ripens the seeds. The cocoa-
420 The “Green Balls” of Loch Kildonan. [ Sess.
nut has been found on the shores of the west coast of Scot-
land, transported by ocean currents from the tropics. The
fruit of the mahogany tree has been known to perform long
voyages without injury to its vitality. The capsule of the
sycamore, on becoming detached from the parent tree, falls to
the earth with a series of revolving motions similar to the
propeller of a steamer, fixing the seed-vessel, with its con-
tained seeds, in the earth. In Trifolium subterraneum, the
pods burrow in the earth when ripening their seeds, and in
that manner make sure of a succession of individuals of their
own kind. A peculiar phenomenon of plant multiplication is
“mimicry.” In some of the pod-bearing tribes the seed-
vessels look so exactly like caterpillars that birds are induced
to peck at them, and thereby scatter their seeds. A few
species of flowering-plants are viviparous—the seeds sprouting
within the ovarian cavity, and falling to the ground in every
respect the same as the parent. This wonderful provision is
obviously both for the propagation and spread of the species,
as it is only in alpine and exposed situations that this pro-
pensity is developed. Lastly, in several instances plants pro-
duce numerous seeds, yet never open their flowers. Lamium
amplexicaule and Viola canina are familiar examples.
It will be seen, from the few scattered examples which I
have given—first, that the natural contrivances for the propa-
gation and dispersion of plants are nearly as numerous as the
plants themselves ; and, second, that we everywhere find cer-
tain laws in operation which indicate special adaptations of
means to end.
V—THE “GREEN BALIS” OF LOCH KILDONAN.
By Mr T. B. SPRAGUE, M.A, F.R.S.E.
(Feb. 25, 1891.)
Mr T. B. SPRAGUE brought under the notice of the members
of the Society several specimens of “green balls” gathered
from the bottom of Lower Kildonan Loch, in South Uist.
1890-91.] Zhe “Green Balls” of Loch Kildonan. 421
Extracts were also read from letters which had passed be-
tween Mrs Sprague, the Rev. Dr Stewart, Ballachulish, Pro-
fessor Spence Moore, and others, regarding these balls; and a
résumé was given of a paper in the ‘ Proceedings of the Royal
Society of Edinburgh’ for Session 1885-86, by G. W. W.
Barclay, Esq., F.R.S.E., in which the algoid nature of these
lake-balls was shown. Professor Moore identified those sent
to him from Loch Kildonan as Cladophora Aigagropila, Kiitz.,
figured and described by Cooke, Hassel, and Dillwyn in their
respective works on British fresh-water alge. The balls were
described as “lying in a depth of two to three feet, and
covering areas of many square yards, showing conspicuously
by their dark colour against the light sandy bottom. They
lie alongside of one another in great numbers, and vary in
size from about a quarter of an inch to three or four inches
in diameter. In some cases a complete small ball is found
inside a large one,’ as in the specimens exhibited. It is
supposed that these balls are formed by the long filamentous
alea of which they are composed being rolled by wind-cur-
rents along the bottom of the shallow water in which they
are found. So far as yet known, they are not present in any
Scottish loch except that of Lower Kildonan; but, according
to Professor Fischer of Berne, they are met with in several
European lakes, chiefly in Sweden, Norway, Northern Ger-
many, Austria, and Upper Italy. Professor Fischer states
that he also possesses an English specimen, from Ellesmere,
in Shropshire." The interior of the balls, when examined
under the microscope, is sometimes found to be filled with
diatomaceze. Dr Stewart has sent three specimens to the
Inverness Museum, with instructions that they should be
labelled thus: “ Cladophora A®gagropila, from Loch Kildonan,
South Uist, 1890. Presented by Nether-Lochaber.”
1 These ‘‘ green balls” are also found in several of the other Shropshire meres.
The following passage refers to Colemere, in the same district as Ellesmere, where
some specimens seem to be very large: ‘‘They saw that the bottom”—about
three feet in depth—‘ was covered with balls of various sizes, from that of a nut
to some eighteen inches in diameter. . . . It is supposed that there are eddies
and currents at the bottom of the mere that roll up the sunken moss and leaves
into these balls, and sweep them all to the side of the mere,”—‘ Rambles and
Adventures of our School Field-Club,’ by G. Christopher Davies, p, 81 (second
edition, 1881: C. Kegan Paul & Co, )—Ep.
422 Natural History Notes. [Sess.
VI—NATURAL HISTORY NOTES.
By Mr ROBERT STEWART, §.8.C.
(Read Feb, 25, 1891.)
AT this season of the year, when blackbirds, mavises, and
starlings visit our back-greens, and pick up the early worm ;
when robins disappear from our ken, and when the ubiquitous
sparrow keeps up an incessant medley in the solitary evergreen
—we naturally look back with longing to the time when
business cares were an unknown quantity, and when we were
so situated that we could transport ourselves at pleasure to the
open country, and there experience all the delights of a nest-
hunting expedition. Though this pleasure is now impossible
to most of us, still it is quite practicable to revisit in spirit the
scenes of our former exploits, and for a few minutes, therefore,
let us try the experiment.
Leaving the town, we get without difficulty to a real old-
fashioned country road, flanked on either side by a thorn
hedge. We climb over a gate into one of the adjacent fields,
with the view of searching the hedge from the field side, being
aware that the well-known ingenuity of the nest-builders will
have been principally concerned in protecting their habitations
from the gaze of those passing along the highway. We have
hardly gone a few steps before a nest is observed, and without
much trouble it is reached, and found to contain four small
blue eggs, while the owner thereof, a hedge-sparrow, hops
fussily among the twigs almost within our reach. Proceeding
a little farther, we come to a dry ditch, out of which a bird
gets up unexpectedly, and it is only after a search, which we
had almost given up as hopeless, that the nest of the yellow-
hammer is found, cunningly hid amongst the long grass at the
side, and containing two eggs, with their peculiar pencil-like
markings. The “deil’s bird” is in no favour with country
people, and consequently many nests are wantonly destroyed,
but in this instance we leave the nest undisturbed, to the great
relief of the owner, who flits anxiously around. There are
several old and decayed trees growing by the side of the road
1890-91. | Natural History Notes. 423
which next claim our attention, in a hole in one of which we
find the nest of the redstart with its beautiful eggs, in colour
resembling the hedge-sparrow’s, but smaller and finer in every
way ; and as this is a rare find, our collection is enhanced by
the addition of a specimen. While engaged examining the
redstart’s nest, we observe a bird like a blackbird coming out
of the fork of a large ash-tree a short distance ahead, and on
examination we find a nest with three light-coloured blue eggs,
but the entrance to the nest is so narrow that to examine its
contents will necessitate another visit, when, provided with a
spoon tied to the end of a stick, we may become the proud
possessor of our first starling’s egg. Though these birds are
now so common everywhere, we well remember the time when
—in some districts, at all events—the finding of a starling’s
nest was something to be proud of.
The recent gale has blown down one of the large trees at
the side of the plantation which we have just reached, and a
search among the hanging roots discloses a small hole which
proves to be the entrance to the dome-shaped nest of the com-
mon wren. We have room only to insert a finger, and at first
it appears there are no eggs in the nest; but this afterwards
proves to be a mistake, for what we took for the feather
lining of the nest turns out to have been the owner herself,
who quickly makes her exit the moment the finger is with-
drawn. We then find that in the nest there are seven or
eight tiny eggs of a whitish colour, plentifully speckled all
over with small red spots. Almost within reach from where
we stand, snugly ensconced near the end, and beneath the
spreading branch of a spruce fir-tree, we find one of the most
beautiful nests possible—namely, that of the golden-crested
wren—containing several of the smallest of all British birds’
eggs. One has a difficulty in even handling these tiny
curiosities ; and when it comes to be a question of preparing
a specimen for our collection, the very greatest care is re-
quired. Every bush and tree here seems to be vocal, each
songster appearing to claim a preference for its own lay,
while the smell of the fir-trees makes the mere fact of living
a real pleasure. We now come to a road leading down to
large farm-offices, and as there is a fine beech-hedge on either
side thereof, a search there well repays our trouble. Every
424 Natural History Notes. [Sess.
few steps we come upon a nest of one kind or another, but
principally green-finches, who appear to have a liking for this
kind of hedge. What we see now, however, is something
very different. We have come to the hedge round the fruit-
garden, and here we find the nest of the bullfinch, beautifully
built of tiny twigs interlaced with one another and the sur-
rounding supports. The hen is sitting on the nest, so we
shall not disturb her, but we have leisure to admire her
elossy black head and bright intelligent eye; while the male
bird, sitting on an adjacent apple-tree, looks as though he was
quite aware of the fact that he is perhaps the handsomest of
British birds. At the same time, it must be confessed that
a good deal can be said for the view held by his neighbour
the cock chaffinch, namely that, whatever may be thought by
others, he knows a bird every bit as good-looking as Mr
Bullfinch. While watching the two male birds we observe
the nest of the chaffinch, quite exposed to the view of any
one passing underneath the branch on which it is placed,
but the little builders have been so cunning in the selection
of the materials employed by them that one might look and
look again without the nest catching the eye.
Why hen birds should, as a rule, be so modest in their
apparel, in comparison with their male companions, is perhaps
difficult to account for; and they also fall far short of their
lords and masters in the way of accomplishments. The fact,
however, which is undoubted and easy of proof, might be ap-
plied with some force in connection with the much-debated
question of woman’s proper sphere. But we have no wish to
touch such debatable ground. Mather let us follow the mill-
lade which we here cross, and see if we cannot come upon
something new in the way of nests. A quantity of brushwood
lies in the yard to our right, and it may be worth our while to
try here for the nest of the blackbird—though in all proba-
bility we will find that we are too late in the season. A few
minutes’ search discloses a nest of young blackbirds, but ere
we are aware they scatter here and there, and are lost to sight.
Getting back on to the road, and following the mill-lade, we
see some dry grass protruding from among the ivy on the wall,
and quickly ascertain that we have come upon the nest of the
yellow wagtail, who puts in an animated appearance, bobbing
_-” ~~~
1890-91. | Natural History Notes. 425
up and down, and protesting against any interference with its
dwelling. The nest is composed of straw, and nicely lined
with hair. It contains only one egg, which we leave un-
touched, though the desire is great to add it to our collection.
As we pass the sluice at the mill, we carelessly pitch a stone
into the burn, and are astonished that this results in the ap-
pearance of a dipper, who flits a certain way down the stream,
and then perches on a stone in the middle. We cannot find
any nest in the bank on either side, though certain hollows
between the piles suggest that the bird might have been pros-
pecting. We take the liberty, however, of interfering with
the miller’s arrangements for a couple of minutes, by putting
down the sluice, and so shutting off the water, when, strange
to say, a search discloses the dipper’s nest behind what was a
minute ago a heavy fall of water, through which the birds
would have to pass and repass every time they visited the
nest. The inside of the nest is dry and warm, though a por-
tion of the covered roof is quite wet, but the dome was so
made that no damp could find its way into the interior. The
egos are about the size of a blackbird’s egg, and quite white.
Taking now a short cut through some waste land, we
nearly put our foot upon the nest of the skylark, neatly
placed in a small tuft of grass, and containing three dark-
marked eggs. Farther on we come upon the nest of the
peewit, if the hollow where the four eggs are placed can be
so called. The eges taper very much, and are placed with
the large end towards the outside of the nest. They thus
occupy very little space, and harmonise so beautifully with
the surroundings that the nest is difficult of detection. Not-
withstanding the stimulus given by the cry of the lapwing,—
“Peewit, peewit, harry my nest and awa’ wi’t,’—we leave the
contents undisturbed, not having then acquired a taste for
plovers’ eggs. In some marshy ground we come upon a
snipe’s nest, and find also on a fallen tree, the top of which
rests upon a small pool of water, the nest of the water-hen,
built of rushes, and filled with its reddish-coloured eggs.
While further exploring the long grass and rushes, we almost
tread upon a duck, which appears to have a wing broken, and
to which, in consequence, we turn our attention. A stern
_ chase is proverbially a long one, and this is no exception to
VOL. II, QF
426 Natural History Notes. [Sess.
the rule. The first rush finds us dripping wet from head to
foot, and the result is ni/, unless we can call the possession of
a tail-feather anything. Our blood is now up, however, and
for the next five minutes it is hot work. Twenty times
we thought we had that duck, and as often we were dis-
appointed, until, thoroughly worn out, we ceased operations
for a while. Imagine our feelings, then, when the bird,
finding itself unmolested, and its purpose now served, takes to
itself wings and flies away—not, however, before disclosing
its true character in its parting “quack, quack,’ in which
description we cordially agree.
It is a curious fact that when one finds himself in a ridicu-
lous position at any time, he may rely on the presence of a
spectator. Such was the case here; and the “orra loon,”
whose present duty appears to be the herding of some cattle
as rough-looking as himself, proceeds, before we can recover
our breath, to read us a lecture on natural history, with special
reference to the habits of the wild-duck when a stranger ap-
proaches too near its nest. The wound is still too fresh to
bear touching, however; so we adroitly turn our friend’s at-
tention to the fact that the adjacent heap of stones is occupied
by a weasel or weasels, who appear and reappear with start-
ling suddenness. This immediately leads to a discussion on
“ whuttrets,” and we learn that in the previous autumn, when
harvest operations were in full swing and all hands at work,
he and some of the others employed were alarmed by the loud
cries of a child of one of the women engaged in harvesting
operations, which had been placed by his mother on a shawl,
and laid on the bank at the side of the field. A rush was made
for the child, who continued to cry loudly, all the time hold-
ing his hands in a frightened manner before his face. The
cause of the child’s fright was soon apparent ; for on the boy’s
bare knee, and looking as though it might at any time spring
at his throat, sat a weasel, and so angry was the animal at
being disturbed, that it appeared as though it meant to dis-
pute the right of the new-comers to interfere. A short chase
at last ended in the death of the weasel; and the curious
sequel was, that when presented to the child, the boy took the
dead animal in his hand without hesitation, never apparently
realising that it was the same beast which had so territied him
a
1890-91. | Natural History Notes. 427
only a few minutes before. The distracted mother, therefore,
on hurrying to the spot, found the boy with the dead weasel
in his lap, and he fondling and caressing it.
Having done justice to our friend’s descriptive powers, we
next learn the interesting fact that “‘whuttrets’ are no @ bad.”
This is deduced from the fact that one summer he came upon
a weasel carrying a young one in her mouth. He is ex-
ceedingly hazy as to how the young one got killed, and does
not appear to care to go into particulars, so that we take it
he is not proud of his own share in the transaction. The
young one, however, was killed somehow, and, when taken in
the hand, felt, as our friend expresses it, “ for a’ the world like
a butter-ba’.”. The weasel, which had stuck to her young one
as long as possible, had ultimately to take refuge in a hole,
from which she presently emerged, and fearlessly ran up to
within a few feet of the narrator, who, not exactly relishing
the aspect of things, threw the dead young one to the mother.
She at once took it tenderly in her mouth, and proceeded to
carry it away. It was now very evident that she had much
ereater difficulty in managing the dead body than when the
little creature was in life, and our friend’s courage having once
more returned, she had soon to drop it again, as a mere act of
self-preservation, and take refuge in an old stone-dyke. But
she immediately reappeared, and followed the boy again, when
he, not liking the look of the “whuttret,” finally gave up the
dead. “So you see,” he concludes, “‘ whuttrets’ are no a’ bad.”
As our friend at this stage exhibits a tendency to return once
more to his interrupted lecture on the habits of the wild duck,
we think it best to bid him a hurried farewell, and retrace
our steps to the town. The young naturalist calls after us
to look in at the keeper’s cottage in passing, and examine a
funny rabbit’s head he has there. This we do, and find that,
owing to a malformation of two of the front teeth in the upper
jaw, which appear to have grown backwards into the ani-
mal’s mouth, the two corresponding front teeth in the lower
jaw have grown straight out, giving the animal the appearance
of possessing tusks. It then occurs to us that if the upper
teeth grew at the same rate backwards as the lower ones
outwards, the death of the animal in a short time would
result. We examine the head more carefully, and find that
428 The Structure and Life-History of a Sponge. [Sess.
the upper teeth, from some cause or another, after having
erown so far into the mouth, turned outwards again, and then
backwards, until at last they formed a complete circle. We
arrange with the keeper for the head, and take it with us for
exhibition to the members of the Edinburgh Field Naturalists’
and Microscopical Society; and now produce it to convince
them that there is a substratum of fact in our short imagina-
tive expedition into the country.
VIL—T7THE STRUCTURE AND LIFE-HISTORY
OF A SPONGE.
By Ma JOHN LINDSAY.
(Read Feb. 25, 1891.)
THE various species of sponges throughout the globe that have
been classified and described up to the present time are very
numerous. The Challenger Expedition alone has added a
large number hitherto unknown to science, and many more,
no doubt, will yet be discovered. Even the number of
British marine and fresh-water forms now known is consider-
able. As evidencing the advance which has been made in
our knowledge of this single group of animals during the last
half century, it may be mentioned that while Dr George
Johnston, in his ‘ History of British Sponges and Lithophytes,’
only enumerates some sixty species, the fourth or supple-
mentary volume of Bowerbank’s ‘Monograph of the British
Spongiade,’ published by the Ray Society in 1882,—after the
author’s lamented death,—under the editorship of the Rev.
A. M. Norman, contains a list of no fewer than 284 species.
While such advances have been made at home during that
period, there have been corresponding additions to the number
of foreign species. Amongst so many forms,—ranging from
our native burrowing-sponge (Cliona celata), a mere dot of a
creature, which bores its way into oyster and other shells, to
the large tropical species known as Neptune’s drinking-cup
1890-91.] The Structure and Life-History of a Sponge. 429
(Poterion Neptuni), measuring from three to four feet across,
—there is a corresponding variety of habit, structure, and
appearance. Sponges are usually not very interesting objects
to an unscientific observer, with their pale-green or Isabel-
white hues; yet some possess beautiful tints in the living
state, as in the genus Halisarca, where we find such colours
as blue, carmine, purple, and rosy red. Again, as regards
their mode of growth, some spread over the surface in lichen-
like patches; others grow in large amorphous masses; while
the characteristic forms of northern latitudes throw out branches
or large finger-like processes, as in the well-known “ Mermaid’s
glove” (Chalinula oculata) of the Shetlanders. But there
is withal a certain similarity in their outstanding features,
sufficient to enable even the non-scientific observer to say with
confidence, “7hat is a sponge!” What is now attempted is
to give an outline of the typical structure and life-history of
these lowly and familiar objects, referring to the accompanying
microscopic preparations in illustration of most of the state-
ments made. Such an outline may, it is hoped, at once give
a fair idea of the subject, and prove interesting to members of
the Society who have not yet paid much attention to this
branch of natural history. ;
A glance may first be taken at the place which sponges
occupy in the wide realm of nature. From the apparent sim-
plicity of their structure, and the fact that they are always
found, in the living condition, attached or rooted to some
foreign object, it was for long a moot-point whether sponges
were to be regarded as plants or animals; and they were fre-
quently hustled backwards and forwards across the border-line
which is generally believed to divide these two great groups.
Not only have different authorities held conflicting opinions
regarding them, but the same naturalists, at different periods,
have inclined now to one side,’ now to the other. Thus
Linneus, in the earlier editions of his ‘Systema Nature,’
classed them amongst the cryptogamic aleve, but in the twelfth
edition of that work, published in 1767, he ranked them with
the zoophytes. Though Aristotle, 2000 years ago, placed
them in the animal kingdom, it is plain he too regarded
sponges and some other bizarre forms as partaking also of the
nature of plants—for which nondescripts, indeed, the convenient
430 The Structure and Life-History of a Sponge. |Sess.
term of zoophytes, or “ animal-plants,” was invented. Follow-
ing on the careful scientific methods of modern times, sponges
have now been conclusively relegated to the animal kingdom,
though a few obscure forms of life among the Infusoria, to some
of which sponges are closely allied in their minute structure,
remain as yet very much of a puzzle to zoologists. Still, modern
scientific research has supplied us with indubitable evidence of
the true nature and affinities of this large family of the sponges.
The elements of the sarcode or sponge-flesh, for example, with
which the fibrous or mineral skeleton is invested and filled up
during life, and which are also the active agents in building up
these horny and solid parts, are found to be identical morpho-
logically with the fresh-water amceba, or the gelatinous con-
tents of the Polycistina, the Foraminifera, and allied forms.
The further fact, that for the first time in the animal kingdom
true differentiated tissues are here met with, has removed the
sponges from the simple unicellular Protozoa to the higher
Metazoa or multicellular animals. But here a new difficulty
has arisen, for some are still inclined to include sponges among
the Ccelenterata, or “ Zoophyte ” group, in the modern scientific
meaning of that term. Most naturalists, however, have agreed
to place them, provisionally, in a separate class, between the
Protozoa and the Ceelenterata, and at the bottom of the Metazoan
sub-kingdom, under the class-name of Porifera or pore-bearers.
Having thus glanced at the true affinities of the sponges,
and the position which they occupy in the scheme of nature,
we may now go on to consider briefly their structure.
Workers with the microscope among “ pond-life ” are familiar
with a curious tiny creature, commonly present in stagnant
water, which seems to be little more than a speck of ani-
mated jelly. The various shapes which this creature assumes
as it glides over the field of the microscope are very amusing,
here throwing out a foot or a hand and there elaborating a
mouth from any part of its surface indifferently. This
Ameeba, or Proteus Animalcule, as it is termed, is structurally
identical, as already said, with the fundamental tissue or vital
element of the sponges, by whose aid the whole superstructure
is built up. It is remarkable, indeed, that in nature beautiful
structures are so often reared by apparently insignificant
causes, as exemplified in the Diatomaceze, where the contained
ll i hice
3
1890-91.] Zhe Structure and Life-History of a Sponge. 431
protoplasmic dot executes the delicate fairy-like sculpturing
of the frustules; or in the Polycistina and the Foraminifera,
where the amceboid gelatinous speck just referred to elaborates
the varied forms of beauty to be found among the “ shells ” or
coverings of these minute organisms. How it is done will,
no doubt, for ever remain one of the mysteries of life. The
protoplasmic mass which forms the basis of sponge structure
is morphologically a collection of these amceboid cells set in a
living matrix, each cell possessing its nucleus and granular
contents. The whole mesoderm or middle layer of a sponge
is made up of this gelatinous mass, the imbedded cells vary-
ing in appearance and performing different offices. Thus,
while some are stationary, and combine to subserve the func-
tions of muscular fibres or connective tissue, being connected
by their pseudopodia, there are others which “ wander in the
tissue, and frequently contain large granules, looking like fat
or starch, serving no doubt as food reserves.” Any one who
has collected our commoner sponges must have observed their
slimy appearance while growing, and the quantity of this
gelatinous substance which sometimes pours from them when
they are gathered. The constituent cells of this viscid fluid,
when seen under the microscope, behave in exactly the same
way as the fresh-water amceba, throwing out their pseudopodia
in all directions. Besides these amceboid cells of the meso-
derm, there are found on examination the flattened polygonal
pavement-cells of the ectoderm or outer layer, which cells,
besides, line the inhalant canals, to be presently noticed ; and
also the cells of the endoderm or inner layer, which line the
exhalant canals, and, with one exception, are of the same
structure as the epithelial cells of the ectoderm.
The sponges of commerce have made every one familiar
with the ramifying and interlacing horny fibres which con-
stitute the framework of a sponge, and the numerous canals
and passages thus formed. But by far the greater number of
sponges have other skeletal features, in the shape of mineral
particles, which are imbedded in the sponge-flesh and in the
horny fibres in varying numbers,—sometimes almost super-
seding the fibrous framework, as in the case of the common
British forms, Halichondria, Grantia, and Tethya. Some
sponges, again, have their framework wholly composed of
432 The Structure and Life-History of a Sponge. [Sess.
silicious particles or spicules; while in another type, calcareous
spicules make up the entire skeleton. Professor Grant was
the first to point out this fact, that while the spicules in some
sponges were silicious, in others they were composed of car-
bonate of lime. We are thus furnished with a natural and
convenient grouping of the sponges into four well-marked
divisions—viz.: 1st, where the sponge-skeleton is composed
of horny fibres, and where spicules are entirely absent, as in
the economic sponges; 2d, where the skeleton is composed
extensively of silicious or flinty elements, but where the
horny fibres are still present; 3d, where no horny framework
is found, and the skeleton is made up wholly of silicious par-
ticles ; and, 4th, where the horny framework is still absent,
but the skeleton is wholly composed of calcareous spicules.
The various shapes of these spicules have also been made
use of in classifying the sponges. They are generally very
minute, though varying as much in size as they do in shape,
reaching their largest dimensions in the now well-known
hexactinellid sponge, Euplectella aspergillum, where the
spicules, at first free, become ultimately cemented together
or vitrified, and form the lovely interlacing network popularly
known as “ Venus’s Flower-basket.”
As spicules are favourite objects with many microscopists,
a short description of them may be interesting. They are
amongst the earliest developed organs of the sponge, and are
“ composed of an organic basis (spiculin), densely impregnated
or chemically combined with a mineral salt—carbonate of
lime in the case of calcareous spicules, silica in that of sili-
cious spicules.” Over two hundred forms are figured by Dr
Bowerbank in his ‘Monograph of the British Spongiadee,’
erouped under a natural classification—viz., spicules of the
skeleton, of the membranes, and of the ovaries and gemmules.
To enumerate the diverse shapes of sponge-spicules would be
a difficult task. While many are needle-shaped or rod-like,
others are variously radiate, hooked, anchorate, globular,
branched, and so on in numberless modifications. Those
present in the mesoderm are smaller, and show a greater com-
plexity of shape, than those which aid either in forming or in
strengthening the framework. The vast number of spicules
found in some sponges, as already mentioned, is astonish-
1890-91.| Zhe Structure and Life-History of a Sponge. 433
ing. A good example is furnished by the well-known British
sponge, Grantia compressa, found on so many parts of our
coast, and named by Professor Fleming in honour of Professor
Robert Grant. The spicules in this sponge are calcareous, and
are of two forms, clavate and tri-radiate, the latter predomi-
nating. The whole of the sponge-body is crowded with these
spicules, as may be seen in the section shown under the micro-
scope. Another example is the “ crumb-of-bread sponge”
(Halichondria or Amorphina panicea), common in the rock-
pools of both shores of the Firth of Forth, and many other
parts of the British coast. The needle-shaped silicious spicules
of this sponge are also so numerous as to form nearly its
entire mass." But it is not only amongst the sponges that
these spicular elements are found, for they are present as well
among the related forms of the Ccelenterata and Echinoder-
mata, as in Gorgonia, Plexaura, Alecyonia, and Synapta. The
calcareous spicules or sclerites imbedded in the soft parts of
these animals also assume beautiful and varied forms, and are
often of brilliant colouring, forming lovely objects when seen
under the microscope. The bihamate or double-hooked shape
of spicule is found in several sponges, and reappears again in
the tube-feet of the echini, as mentioned last session in my
paper on the Sea-urchins.”. Thus, as has been well remarked,
“we find in the spicula only, a series of links in the chain of
animal development, immediately connecting the Spongiadie
with the higher tribes of animals.”
The water-system of the sponges, which may now be
noticed, forms a very interesting study. Professor Grant, in
1825, was the first to witness the beautiful phenomenon of
1 Vide Note on “‘Sea-fyke,” at the end of this paper, p. 437. The late P.
H. Gosse, in one of his extremely interesting popular works on natural history,
describes the spicules in the living sponge in such a simple yet apposite manner,
that I am tempted to quote the passage here. He says: ‘‘If you have ever
shaken up a box of dressing-pins, and have then endeavoured to take one out,
you know how by their mere interlacement they adhere together in a mass, so
that by taking hold of one you may lift a bristling group of scores. Somewhat
on the same principle are the calcareous and silicious pins (spieu/a) of a sponge
held together by mutual interlacement. Yet their cohesion is aided by the ten-
acity of the living sarcode which invests them; for I have found that specimens
of Grantia, . . . when long macerated in water, so that the sarcode is dissolved,
have very slight power of cohesion among their spicula.”—‘ Evenings at the
Microscope,’ by Philip Henry Gosse, F.R.S., pp. 385, 386 (ed. 1884: S.P.C.K.)
9
2“ On the Echinoidea or Sea-urchins,” ante, p. 351.
434 The Structure and Life-History of a Sponge. (Sess.
the incurrent and excurrent streams of water in a sponge,
and his account of what he then observed has been often
quoted. The apertures on the surface of a bath sponge, for
example, may be readily seen not to be all of the same size,
the smaller being the pores opening into the inhalant canals,
and the larger the “oscula,” or mouths, carrying off the
water after it has penetrated the sponge mass, and had
extracted from it what was necessary to build up the living
structure and repair waste. The oscula are often raised
above the general surface of the sponge, as if to prevent any
of the expelled water, with its waste products, finding its
way back through the pores. The mechanism by which
this constant circulation is kept up in the interior of a
sponge was for long a mystery, but has now, thanks to the
aid of the microscope, been clearly established. Professor Grant,
indeed, had, by a kind of “happy guessing,” arrived at some
knowledge of the true solution, when he said that he considered
it “very probable that the pores and canals are lined with
minute vibratile cilia”; but though he made diligent search
for these, with the help of the best objectives then obtain-
able, he never was able to detect the presence of such cilia,
though still of the belief that they were present. Dr John-
ston, however, entirely missed the explanation of this won-
derful phenomenon, ascribing it to Dutrochet’s law of osmosis,
then promulgated for the first time. In accordance with
this law, Dr Johnston argued that, “ from the unequal densities
of the mucilaginous secretion of the sponge and the circum-
fluent water, there must be unceasingly going on an oozing
out of the one and an entrance inwards of the other.” One
cannot help feeling sorry, somehow, that these two enthusi-
astic early workers among the sponges never witnessed the
exceedingly interesting sight of the monad-like cells clustered
in the flagellated chambers of a sponge, by whose movements
this unceasing ebb and flow is carried on. When speaking
of the endoderm, it was remarked that it exhibited the same
structure of polygonal epithelial cells as the ectoderm, with
one exception. The exception consists of these cells of the
inner tissue, known as the “flagellated chambers.” The
exhalant canals where they begin to widen out are lined with
these flagellated cells, seated on the fundamental tissue in
oes ee ee
1890-91.] Zhe Structure and Life-History of a Sponge. 435
cup-like cavities, and with their circle of flagella all pointing
inwards, and driving forwards the currents of water till they
are finally discharged by the oscula. The “ crumb-of-bread
sponge,” already referred to, shows these flagellated chambers
particularly well when a small piece of the sponge is taken
from its native rock-pool and immediately plunged in osmic
acid in order to be hardened, and then sectioned. This
sponge also shows the incurrent and excurrent streams of
water very clearly, even in the rock-pool by careful observa-
tion, or under the microscope in a zoophyte-trough or watch-
glass among a little sea-water. The flagellated cells have a
striking structural resemblance to certain monads known as
the collared flagellate infusoria, as was first pointed out by
Professor James Clark in 1866. So close is the resemblance
that, according to Professor Sollas of Dublin University, they in
all probability “feed in the same way, and we may con-
sequently describe the feeding of the sponge-cell after that
of the infusorian. The flagellum of each sponge-cell creates
currents in the water towards itself, and the floating particles
borne along with these come in contact with, and adhere to,
a delicate film which surrounds the lone neck of the cell like
a collar; the protoplasm of the collar is in a state of active
circulation, streaming up one side and down the other like
an endless band; the adherent food-particles are thus carried
by it to its base, where they come in contact with the neck,
sink into its substance, and find their way into the basal
part of the cell.”* Here, according to Professor Sollas, digestion
is carried on, and the waste residue is ultimately eliminated
by the outflowing currents. An interesting discovery has
recently been made, in connection with the flagellate cells,
in the presence of a fenestrated or porous membrane uniting
the rims or collars in a circle, and serving, it is believed, as
a filter or trap to catch food-particles. The membrane in
question has been named “Sollas’s membrane,’ after its
discoverer.
It has been already stated that the mesoderm or middle layer
of a sponge is largely made up of a mass of amceba-like cells:
we have here, therefore, the unique occurrence of two distinct
forms of life combining together to construct, as it were, a
1 Cassell’s ‘ Natural History,’ vol. vi. p. 8315—“‘ The Group Spongiz.”
436 The Structure and Life-History of a Sponge. |Sess.
new and more complex organism. It has been happily re-
marked, on this point, that “perhaps no more striking illus-
tration could be found of the truth of the adage that ‘union
is strength, than here in these two lowly, and, in their
isolated individuality, helpless beings, yet who, in their com-
bination, raise themselves in the scale of life; . . . having no
stomach, yet perfect digestion and assimilation ; no heart, yet
free and full circulation; no lungs or gills, yet complete
aération and respiration ; no manipulatory organs, yet building
up a structure combining all the requisites of strength and
endurance, with the most wonderful lightness and flexibility.”*
The process of reproduction in the sponges is effected in
two ways—sexually and non-sexually. In winter the meso-
derm is usually found filled with small, yellow, oval bodies,
known. as the winter-eges or gemmules. These are launched
forth in spring into the water, when they swim about in a
lively manner by means of the cilia with which each gemmule
is provided, ultimately settling down on a rock or stone, or on
a piece of growing alga, when the eggs burst at the hilum or
pore-like opening, and the contained granules, thus scattered,
form a new sponge colony. This is the asexual or non-sexual
mode of reproduction. These winter-eggs were first noticed
in Spongilla fluviatilis, and were thought by Dr Johnston and
others to be confined to fresh-water species, but they have
now been found also in marine forms. In the sexual method
of reproduction, certain cells of the mesoderm are converted
into ova, and others into spermatozoa, when the impreg-
nated ovum undergoes segmentation in the usual manner, and
ultimately develops into a free-swimming embryo, before
becoming fixed like the winter-eggs. In this latter case,
however, each embryo is of course a perfect individual. Ova
and spermatozoa have not yet been observed in the same
sponge-mass, and it is hence concluded that the ova are
fertilised by spermatozoa which gain admission with the
inflowing currents of water. Some very interesting observa-
tions on this head are to be found in the ‘ Quarterly Journal
of Microscopical Science’ for Jan. 1891, in No. III. of a
series of papers by Mr Arthur Dendy, of Melbourne University,
on “Studies in the Comparative Anatomy of Sponges.” Mr
1 ‘Vignettes from Invisible Life,’ by John Badcock, F.R.M.S., p. 151.
1890-91.) Zhe Structure and Life-History of a Sponge. 437
Dendy says: “It is probably a general rule in sponges that
the ova are fertilised while hanging from the walls of the
canal system, and that they migrate first of all through the
canal-wall to be fertilised, and then back again into the
gelatinous ground-substance to undergo development; hence
the necessity for the amceboid movement so characteristic of
sponge ova.”
Before leaving the subject of reproduction in the sponges,
it may be interesting to state that besides the natural modes,
there is a method of artificial reproduction, somewhat after
the manner of plant-cuttings, which has been pursued in the
case of the bath sponges, as follows: “The sponge is cut into
pieces, about an inch cube, care being taken to preserve as
much of the skin and to squeeze out as little of the flesh as
possible. The cuttings are then skewered on a strip of cane,
and fastened into a wooden frame, constructed to preserve
them from the access of mud and excess of light: they are
then sunk in the sea at a depth of five to seven yards. In
about seven years’ time a crop of fine regularly globular
sponges is ready for the market.”
I have thus attempted, as stated at the beginning of this
paper, to give an outline of a large subject—the structure and
life-history of a sponge. Now that I have finished, I am
deeply conscious that it is, in reality, but a meagre outline that
I have been able to give. Yet it may prove sufficient to
incite some one to study more particularly this humble and
commonly despised form of animal life, a sponge, with all its
busy activities, suggesting the name which Professor Huxley
has applied to it of “a subaqueous city.”
Note on “Ses-FYKE.”
A curious use has been made by our juvenile population of some of the
silicious sponges, under the name of “sea-fyke,” which deserves passing
notice. In the ‘ Life of James Clerk Maxwell, by Professors Lewis Camp-
bell and William Garnett, two schoolboy letters of the great scientist are
given, in which reference is made to this mysterious substance. One of
these letters contains the following passage: “There was a boy that
brought sea-fyke to the school, and put it down the boys’ backs, for which
he was condemned to learn 12 lines for 3 days.” The school referred
to is Edinburgh Academy ; and in a footnote the learned authors describe
the substance as ‘often found on the sea-shore.” They go on to say: “It is
438 The Structure and Life-History of a Sponge. [Sess.
of a honeycombed structure, and consists, in fact, of the egg-capsules of the
common whelk (Buccinum undatum). When dried and pulverised, it has
an irritating effect upon the skin. Hence the local name—‘ fyke’= fidget.”
We have here a curious mixture of truth and error, for sea-fyke, while it
undoubtedly has the effect here attributed to it, does not consist of the
ege-capsules of the whelk, but is a sponge of the genus Halichondria !
A racy book entitled ‘Chronicles of the Cumming Club, and Memories of
Old Academy Days,’ by Lieut.-Col. Fergusson, was privately printed a short
time ago, in which the dire effects of sea-fyke among the Edinburgh
Academy boys are duly chronicled ; and it is stated that Professor P. G. Tait,
himself an old Academy boy, had sent a specimen, procured from a New- -
haven fisherman, to the Edinburgh University experts, who pronounced it
to be Halichondria coralloides. A portion of this specimen, duly labelled,
was afterwards “ deposited in the chest containing the archives of the Cum-
ming Club, and is at the disposal of whatever competent scholar may show
evidence of a desire to approach the subject in a proper spirit.” H. coral- .
loides, however, though found in the Firth of Forth, is a deep-sea sponge,
not “ found on the sea-shore,” as the biographers of Professor Clerk Maxwell
assert sea-fyke to be, and not at all common as a British species ; whereas
the ubiquitous H. panicea is equally valuable for the purpose specified, and
is more easily got, being a rock-pool dweller. Dr Johnston, in his ‘ History
of British Sponges and Lithophytes,’ gives for this latter species the syn-
onyms of “Spongia urens, Ellis, vel urtica, Risso,” and adds: “ When dry, °
the sponge is friable, and the powder has the property of producing an in-
tolerable itching when rubbed on the skin, as is well known to mischievy-
ous boys.” The youth of Newhaven, however, do not seem to be aware of
the fact that the easily procurable “ crumb-of-bread sponge ” possesses this
valuable property, as I find that those of them who know anything of
“ sea-fyke” are of the opinion that, according to the traditions of the village,
the only genuine article “ comes out of the deep sea,” and is got from the
fishermen’s lines. Perhaps it might be a humane act not to disturb this
ancient belief !
In illustration of the above paper, a large number of sponge spicules
were shown under the microscope, as well as spicules from Gorgonia,
Alcyonaria, Plexaura, &e. The following preparations of British sponges
were also exhibited :—
1. Section of Pachymatisma Johnstonia, named in honour of Dr George
Johnston, showing needle-shaped and radiate silicious spicules, with
gemmules scattered through the tissue.
2. Section of Grantia compressa, showing clavate and tri-radiate calear-
eous spicules.
3. Section of Tethya Lyncurium, Lamarck, showing needle-shaped
silicious spicules in bundles, and also the beautiful stellate spicules
of the ectoderm.
4. Section of Sycon ciliatum, showing the flagellated cells lining the ex-
halant canals.
5. Gemmules or winter-eggs, from Geodia sp.
1890-91. | Lirds of the Great Glen. 439
VIIL—BIRDS OF THE GREAT GLEN.
By Mr ARCHD: CRAIG.
(Read March 25, 1891.)
THE Great Glen, as is well known, is that long and lovely
valley that runs diagonally across part of Inverness-shire from
the capital town to Fort William, where the three lochs—
Ness, Oich, and Lochy—have been united and made to serve
as a highway for vessels by means of the Caledonian Canal,
an undertaking of considerable magnitude, and in its day
thought of sufficient importance to aspire to the title of won-
derful. Description of the canal or the tourist route is, how-
ever, no part of the present purpose; and as the attempt to
grapple in a single paper with the ornithology of such a wide
area would be impossible, I purpose, with your kind permis-
sion, rather to draw attention to the bird life of a portion,
and that the richest—viz., the vicinity of Loch Ness, with
Glen Urquhart as a centre. Other glens branch off—Loch
Ness, including Glen Moriston, Pass of Inverfarigaig, &e. ; but
by far the most varied, alike in scenery as in interest to the
naturalist, is Glen Urquhart. From long acquaintance with
this favoured spot I can fearlessly say that, taking the year
all over, so as to embrace both summer and winter migrants,
there is no part of Scotland where such a number of‘ species
can be observed; and further, as it is hoped the sequel will
show, there are few localities so admirably suited to the shelter
and upbringing of the smaller fauna. A very few sentences
will roughly delineate the outstanding characteristics that
make it so conducive to bird life. At the entrance Loch
Ness recedes in the form of a small bay, the only break in its
long line of twenty-four miles—the high hills during the rest
of its leneth dipping straight down to the water’s edge, and
giving little or no scope for the formation of marshy ground
that is such a sine qua non to many species. Two rivers—the
Enerick and Coiltie—here empty their contents into the loch ;
but in course of time, through the intervention of spates and
bursting of banks, many new channels have been formed, and
440 Birds of the Great Glen. [ Sess,
in consequence the surrounding parts are wet and swampy,
clumps of alder and rushes springing up here and there
amidst the erratic wanderings of the rivers, like bits of dry
eround in a peat-moss, adding not a little to the picturesque
aspect. Here, then, we have an area suited to the habits
of the coot, the moor-hen, the teal, the mallard, and many
other aquatic families, besides the sedge-warbler, black-headed
bunting, and others to be mentioned later on.
The valley is divided into two sections, the glen and the
strath. The glen proper runs westward for about nine miles
to Corrimony, where it begins to dip down into the romantic
Strath Glass with its magnificent background of high moun-
tains, including the giants Mam Soul and Ben Attow. The
strath, again, with its richly cultivated farms, interspersed
with dense clumps of wood, only stretches for about four
miles to the base of a line of swelling hills that gradually rise
in brown moorland, ultimately to culminate in Mealfourvounie,
the highest mountain in the Loch Ness basin, and forming a
portion of the extensive deer-forest of the Seafield family. It
is currently reported that this Mealfourvounie is the first land
sighted by mariners when entering the Moray Firth from
Scandinavia, but whether this is a fact or a tradition prompted
by the vanity of the natives is more than I can tell. Taken
as a whole, both glen and strath form a most extraordinary
combination of different kinds of scenery. In the low
erounds we have the well-tilled fields of the apparently suc-
cessful farmer, saved, however, from monotony by the scat-
tered trees and thickets. On the slopes of the hills, at many
parts, may be seen the curiously irregular crofting plots, run-
ning upwards for several hundred feet, divided from each other
by, in some cases, dilapidated lichen-covered dykes, speaking
to great amount of labour and expense in reclaiming what
must at one time have been virgin soil, covered in all likeli-
hood with peat bog or forest. Again the eye rests on great
ranges of natural wood, hazel or birch, that fringe the rivers
and run up for varying distances on the hill-sides, only to
give place to the more symmetrical but decidedly less pictur-
esque plantations of firs, which of late provident proprietors
have found it to their advantage to cultivate. Far above the
woods is a vast expanse of barren ground covered with heather,
1890-91. ] Birds of the Great Glen. 441
bog-myrtle, coarse grasses, &c., that seems to extend endlessly
‘in waves upon waves, each one higher than the last, until the
undulations die away dimly in the distance and merge into
the great peaks of Glen Affaric and distant Ross, enveloped in
haze or mist. Amidst these barren wastes lie numerous tarns,
and from them issue tiny streams that ultimately reach to the
dignity of burns, and, in winter or heavy rainfall, to roaring
torrents. Such localities give ample scope for the breeding
of peewits, golden plovers, snipes, curlews, various kinds of
eulls, redshanks, ducks, and so on. Come lower down and
you find the clumps of whins and junipers tenanted by the
common and mountain linnets, ring-ousels, and other small
species, while in the depth of winter the snow-bunting revels
amidst those sterile and deserted wilds. Lower down still we
observe, in summer, the wheatear haunting the dry - stone
dykes, the titlark chirping uneasily on the open moor, hence
its Scottish patronymic of moss-cheeper ; while in the portions
nearer the glen yellow buntings, chaffinches, corn-buntings,
robins, and whinchats are by no means rarities.
The glen is populous: several fair-sized villages exist ; and,
in fact, almost everywhere cottages crop up singly or in
eroups, called in Gaelic “ bailtean,” many of them in situa-
tions to charm the eye of the artist, although it is proble-
matical if any idea of esthetic effect ever entered into the
heads of the builders when choosing their respective sites.
Being almost completely surrounded by high mountains, this
valley escapes to a great extent those biting easterly and nor-
therly winds that are so detrimental to tree and plant life,
and, as a natural result, birds find a greater corresponding
wealth of shelter and facility for rearing their. young com-
pared with many less favoured localities. Having regard,
however, to the fact that this paper is intended to illustrate
the ornithology of the district, and not to be devoted to its
amenity, nothing more need be said by way of prelude, as
half-a-dozen papers, at least, would hardly suffice to adequately
portray the beauties of the glen.
To recapitulate separately all the various species would be
wearisome, so instead of that I propose to append at the end
of the paper a complete list of all those that have actually
come under my own observation, including, in addition, all
VOL, II. 26
442 Birds of the Great Glen. [ Sess.
others whose existence can be vouched for by competent
parties. Meanwhile, let us glance more particularly at any
of the more uncommon species which may naturally be
expected to have greater interest for a body of naturalists
like our Field Club.
To begin, as in duty bound, with what are called the
nobler species—viz., Raptores or birds of prey—so far as
this part of the country is concerned, one might cry
“Tchabod !” with something like reason, as what with shoot-
ing, trapping, and relentless persecution in general, the num-
bers are sadly reduced, and in some instances certain species
are now extinct. In fact, it is almost no exaggeration to say
that it would be as difficult for a hawk or other bird that the
sporting fraternity are pleased to designate “vermin,” to get
rest for the sole of its foot as it was for the poor dove that Noah
let out of the Ark. It would be unwise to enter upon the
vexed question of hawk versus grouse, as so much evidence
can be adduced on both sides in favour of their extirpation or
preservation ; but one may perhaps be pardoned if a remark
be made in passing to the effect that I fancy there are few
lovers of nature, worthy of the name, who would not prefer
to watch the graceful falcon or hawk sailing or hovering in
the air, than to have the opportunity of seeing a set of hen-
reared pheasants prowling about the woods like tame chickens
waiting to be slaughtered. In despite of shooting-tenant and
keeper, however, many species show face now and then. The
golden eagles bred for some years on the precipitous slope of
one of the spurs of Mealfourvounie, and to tle credit of the
then Earl of Seafield be it said, they were forbidden to be
disturbed; but unfortunately one of the pair got killed in a
trap set for a fox or wild cat, and the remaining bird, con-
trary to the usual custom, did not return to the eyrie with
another mate. This happened a good many years ago, but my
information is not of so recent a date as to say for certain
whether any of those birds still rear their young in the old
locality. The kite, before the mania for game preservation
took such a hold upon the local magnates, was not so uncom-
mon a resident as to be thought a rara avis; but from the
most authentic reports the last pair were ruthlessly shot off
the nest a year or two prior to 1865. I knew the man well
————
1890-91. | Birds of the Great Glen. 443
who shot them: he is dead now, so we need not comment
upon his conduct. The buzzard, if allowed ordinary peace,
would not be rare, and, even with the drawback of inveterate
enmity to its presence, still continues to put in an appearance,
but unfortunately it seldom does so without falling a prey to
the watchful guardian of the precious game.
Another buzzard has been observed at odd intervals, which
I take to be the rough-legged buzzard, judging from the some-
what vague descriptions vouchsafed. A much commoner
visitor, and even occasional resident, is the peregrine falcon.
It has bred in the vicinity of Mealfourvounie, and also in a
wild district to the north of Loch Meikley, among the hills
trending towards Strath Glass. The remaining hawks most
commonly met with are the merlin, kestrel, and sparrow-
hawk. The former is rare, but builds not unfrequently in the
Abriachan district—a beautiful rocky country, about which
something falls to be said subsequently. The two latter are
almost able to hold their ground, the kestrel being by no
means so detrimental to game as either of the other two, and
not so uniformly harassed. The sparrow-hawk lacks nothing if
boldness will attain its object. You may observe it sitting on
the high part of a tree commanding a good survey of the
pheasantry, until, deeming the moment favourable and the
coast clear, down it flies with great velocity, and leaves the
pheasant-rearer minus a chick, from which performance there
is a certain amount of satisfaction to be derived by an
onlooker other than a sportsman.
Turning for a moment to the Strigidz or owls, four species
have undoubtedly occurred, and another is reported, although
on somewhat slender authority. Both the short and long-
eared birds have been noticed, but needless to say they are
far from numerous. The barn-owl again, at one time, was not
unusually found, though never so often as the tawny species.
The last refuge of the barn or white owl seems to be Craig-
Mony,—one of those strange conglomerate masses that rise
abruptly out of a thick pine-wood, and on the summit of which
are traces, indistinct however, of an ancient hill-fort. The
rock at the top stands out precipitously from the wood, and
amidst the dark masses of pine-tree along the base this owl
finds a comparatively safe retreat. A curious tradition, of
444 Birds of the Great Glen. [Sess.
which there are several versions, lingers around this hill,
perhaps as veracious as the most of similar tales, of some
young lady who either was or was not in love, it does not
matter much either way, who preferred to make her bed on
the rough rock face to sleeping more comfortably in the glen
below. The ledge upon which she reclined is pointed out,
but only the most romantic and quixotic imagination could
believe that it was possible for any human being, far less a
lady, to repose in such an inaccessible, not to say draughty
situation. The barn-owl is now so scarce, that a visitor
might almost be excused for inferring that its existence was
as mythical as the female with the peculiar notions about
sleeping accommodation. This owl makes at times a hideous
screech, somewhat trying to the nerves when passing along
a dark tree-skirted road, and in the days of superstition many
evil omens were construed out of its weird-lke cry. I must
candidly confess not to have been altogether free from those
myself when a boy of eleven or twelve years old, having ex-
perienced the greatest fright that ever occurred in my life
from one of those nocturnal gentry, when sent upon some
pressing errand late at night along one of the blackest roads
in this very glen. The tawny owl is common pretty well all
over the wooded parts, in despite of pole-traps and other
engines of destruction, and on the still calm nights of autumn
their melancholy hooting can be heard for miles around.
Some people dislike this sound, but to my mind there is a
peculiar charm attaching to its eerie call that accords admir-
ably with the appropriate surroundings. A not unfrequent
resting-place during the day is the clump of alder already
mentioned as growing in the Urquhart Bay, but they are
oftener to be met with in a long expanse of forest that covers
part of the southern slopes of the strath. The other owl
supposed to have been identified is the snowy species. The
sole authority for its existence is a friend of mine whose
general accuracy of statement on ornithological matters there
is no reason to impugn, but in this particular instance he
may have been mistaken. He says that when passing through
a very wild part of Abriachan a white owl of unusual size
started out of a tree and glided quickly into a dense thicket
out of sight, and that he had no doubt whatever that it must
1890-91. ] Birds of the Great Glen. 445
be the snowy bird, as it was so much larger than the barn-
owl. This assertion is only given for what it is worth, as I
cannot guarantee it further than by quoting his report.
The next in order to be taken are the Corvide or crows.
The largest example, the raven, is not so often seen as in
some other parts of Scotland; but still it crops up now and
then, and a few years ago a pair were believed to be breeding
about Mealfourvounie: let us hope they are there still. Last
year, when in Ross-shire, I had an opportunity of seeing a
pair of those interesting and scarce birds. While crossing
the muir near Strome Ferry with a friend, our attention was
attracted by a hoarse croak, and looking up a pair of ravens
were noticed winging their way towards Loch Alsh, but at
such a height that they looked no larger than blackbirds; and
were it not for the harsh sound, they might have passed
unobserved. They breed somewhere in the unfrequented
country about the head of Loch Long, a district not much
penetrated save by pedestrians desirous of viewing the famous
Falls of Glomach, the highest and, in some respects, grandest
waterfall in Scotland. The carrion crow is not so numerous
as the hooded or grey species. The latter manages to survive
the constant warfare waged against it, and continues annually
to build somewhere about the glen. Far up among the hills
that swell around Mealfourvounie is a little loch called Aslich,
and upon some stunted trees that partially cover a rocky
island in the midst of the water, this bird used to breed
recularly. There is a shooting bothy on the rock, where the
deer-stalkers sleep overnight ; and latterly the crows deserted
the nest, as they found to their cost that, so far as their
young was concerned, the site was in too close proximity to
the keeper to be altogether pleasant. In the choice of a
situation for its habitation this crow displays an extraordinary
amount of cunning, the tree fixed upon usually commanding a
view of every possible approach, so that the female sitting
upon the eggs has plenty of time to glide off before the
intruder can get within range. Except when the young are
newly hatched, it is almost impossible to get within firing
distance ; but under the former circumstances she sits rather
close, and keepers occasionally shoot both old and young
through the bottom of the nest. The exterior of this is very
446 Birds of the Great Glen. [Sess.
coarse and rough looking, but not so the interior, which is
warmly lined with feathers, wool, and other soft substances,
forming a marked contrast in this respect to the dwelling of
its congener the rook, who seems not to have so much notion
of personal comfort as his friend with the grey jacket. I
sometimes think, though it may be imagination, that this bird
fabricates the outside of its nest so as to give it the appearance
of being an old and disused structure. At least I have often
been deceived into believing the same to be deserted, when
shortly after, on passing the spot again, the bird has flown
off. The number of eggs is usually four, and sometimes
no two of them are of the same shape, some being conical,
and others short and thick. Although there is now no
rookery in Glen Urquhart, those birds are exceedingly
numerous, and apparently come from the Beauly district,
where there are several colonies.
The jackdaw or kae, to give it its Lowland Scotch appella-
tion, inhabits one of the wildest gorges in Abriachan, about
which a few words may be said at this juncture. The road
from Inverness runs through this locality, skirting the shore
of Loch Ness, now rising, now falling, according as the en-
gineers had to cope with the inequalities of the ground, and
forming one of the most lovely and romantic highways of
which the Highlands can boast. At some parts the hills are
covered with natural wood—birch, hazel, gean, bird-cherry, holly,
&c.; while at others, immense masses of broken rock lie piled
one upon another, and threaten at every moment to tumble
down upon the passer-by. Numerous burns tear down the
declivity, and in course of ages have formed deep gullies, a
description of one of which will suffice for all. About four
miles from the entrance to Glen Urquhart proper, there is a
narrow ravine that ascends for about 1800 feet, only to cul-
minate in a deep wild gorge, the sides of which are as perpendi-
cular as the walls of a house, and apparently, to form a guess,
about 200 feet in height. A noisy waterfall plunges from
the more level ground above into this dark hole, and you can
hear the waters churning and chafing below amidst an accum-
ulation of fallen débris, loosened by rain and storm from the
sides of the precipice. In the clefts of the rock a few trees
struggle for existence, while in crevices graceful ferns and
1890-91. | Birds of the Great Glen. 447
creeping plants have taken root, and, with their lovely tints,
go far to subdue the cold and stern aspect of the surrounding
rock. Here the jackdaw, with his usual “’cuteness,” has
elected to fix his abode, and a safer asylum from the inroads
of predacious boys, on egg-hunting thoughts intent, could
scarcely be found. Few urchins, however bold, could scale
this chasm, and even if they could, there is no possibility of
reaching the nests, as they are placed in holes under the
overhanging shelves, as safe from intrusion as if they were
built on the snow-capped summits of the Himalayas. A gun
fired into the abyss makes a reverberation almost deafening,
and brings out the sable inhabitants en masse, to fill the air
with a perfect storm of caws. It is pleasant to sit upon the
edge of the gully and watch their habits. For a time there
is perfect silence save for the rushing of the burn as it tum-
bles over the cliff, or the sighing of the wind among the trees
overhead: then one individual contributes a solo, consisting
of two or three caws; another follows suit, then silence pre-
vails again, when, without the slightest warning or apparent
premeditation, uprise the entire inhabitants, vying with each
other who shall make the greatest noise, cawing away as if
their very existence depended upon it, to sink as suddenly as
they arose, only to repeat the performance at apparently stated
intervals. A friend and I went one day to this spot to shoot
a jackdaw for the sake of its skin: we might as well have
attempted to annihilate an elephant with a pea-shooter !
The last of the tribe to be mentioned are the magpie and
jay, now both virtually extinct. The last-named beautiful
species has not been seen for years, but was resident once, as
is evidenced by the stuffed specimens in the mansion-house of
Balmacaan. The former yet occurs as a straggler.
We arrive now at the smaller fauna, and begin with the
Paride or titmice. Having already devoted an entire paper
to this interesting family,’ nothing need be added but to
mention the names of the species that exist in Glen-Urquhart
and other glens of the district. The great, blue, cole, and
long-tailed members are all numerous, but the marsh tit
(Parus palustris) is scarce. Personally I never saw it here,
although it is quite common in many parts of England ; but it
1 See ‘ Transactions,’ vol. ii. pp. 41-51 (Sess, 1886-87).
448 Birds of the Great Glen. [Sess.
was identified in 1866 and 1867 by Mr George Muirhead,
factor for the Earl of Aberdeen, and a well-known naturalist.
The crested tit does not exist, but, curiously enough, is fairly
plentiful on another of the Seafield estates—viz., Castle Grant,
in Strathspey. Not far from Balmacaan House there is a
lonely little burial-ground, surrounded by a few dark spruces,
and the whole hidden in a birch wood, where repose sundry
members of the Grant clan; and close beside is a stagnant pool
of water edged by dwarfed bushes and rank vegetation, bear-
ing a Gaelic name that, when literally translated, is not such
as we would use in polite society, but for present purposes
may be rendered the Pool of Blood. Around this linger
lecends of some desperate fights between rival clans, such as
disgraced the annals of ancient Scotland, and it is supposed
that the blood of the victims originally formed the pool. To-
day the scene is changed, and hallowed as the place is by the
near presence of the dead, not to mention historic associations,
there is no spot in the whole district where the ornithologist
can pursue his favourite study to such advantage. In early
morning and towards evening great numbers of small birds
come to drink or perform their ablutions, and one has nothing
to do but sit quietly down and watch the stream of lively
little beings constantly changing—halting for a few minutes
to flirt about the trees or descend to slake their thirst, only to
fly off and be succeeded by another batch on the same errand.
It is not overestimating the numbers to say that on a favour-
able day over forty species may be counted, and this does not
take into account the odd birds that might happen to pass
casually. Tits, creepers, finches, goldcrests, siskins, bull-
finches, greenfinches, warblers, all take their turn, besides red-
poles, swallows, buntings, and others that it is needless to
recapitulate.
A very common species here is the siskin—a most engaging
bird, and exceedingly easy to tame in confinement. Some
seasons great numbers incubate in the glen among the fir
plantations, but the nest is hard to find, being usually laid
upon the upper portion of a spruce branch, so that it is com-
pletely concealed from below by the density of the needle-like
foliage, and unless one can reach a point where the tree may
be looked down upon, search is mostly unavailing. No
1890-91. | Birds of the Great Glen. 449
species, save perhaps the bullfinch, seems to be such a favour-
ite cage-bird with the natives, perhaps because in spring they
are easily captured by means of a call-bird and limed twigs.
This process is rather interesting to watch. Should the call-
bird be a female, the male who is attracted by her cry gyrates
round and round overhead with wings outspread and quivering,
pouring out his song with his utmost power, gradually narrow-
ing the circle, only to alight occasionally upon a tree or wall
where he continues to sing. Then off he sets again, until
finally he settles upon the cage or twigs, in the latter case to
lose his liberty. Sometimes he runs round the cage at con-
siderable speed, whistling with energy and making vain en-
deavours to find an entrance through the bars. So readily do
siskins take to confinement, that with careful and kindly treat-
ment I have managed to familiarise a bird with its altered
circumstances to such an extent, that it ate off the finger a
few hours after capture. The otherwise sweet warbling is
marred to a certain extent by an interjected harsh screech,
which readily distinguishes it from any other small bird.
Bands of siskins and redpoles often accompany the crossbills
in their wanderings among the conifer, no doubt profiting by
the latter’s superior facilities for opening the cones to extract
the seed from those that are left unfinished by the larger and
stronger species. Crossbills abound in some years, but are
scarce in others, the years 1880-81 being exceptionally
favourable for observing their habits. As in the case of the
titmice, nothing more need be said anent this species, the
subject having been already discussed in a previous paper
now included in our ‘ Transactions’; and while referring to
this, it may be as well to state that I purpose as far as
possible avoiding a description of any particular species that
has already been brought under your notice in former years,
which decision will materially assist in limiting the length of
the present paper. The beautifully plumaged bullfinch used
to be, and still is, fairly frequent, but a few severe winters
thinned their numbers grievously. Another cause for dimin-
ution, outside the bird-catcher, is the hostility displayed by
gardeners, who in some respects are as inimical to bird-life as
the game-preserver. The bullfinches certainly have a parti-
ality for fruit-buds, and although some authorities attempt to
450 Birds of the Great Glen. [ Sess.
defend their conduct by asserting that every bud attacked
contains an insect, yet it is to be feared this is not absolutely
correct, and that the little fellows are sinners in this respect,
undoubtedly doing some damage to fruit. In consequence of
this many are annually shot, although it is a moot-point
whether it is worth while to sacrifice such pretty creatures for
the sake of a few sour apples that in many instances are not
worth the trouble of pulling. Even granting that this accu-
sation is correct, the results are not nearly so serious as
horticulturists would have us_ believe, otherwise how do
geans, sloes, &c., flourish and bear fruit, for it is notorious
that the bullfinch is fond of those buds for a viand? Preju-
dice dies very hard with some folks, and I remember a
gardener who systematically tore down the nests and broke
the eggs of hedge-sparrows, as he conceived that they ate his
vegetables. Being to a large extent an insectivorous bird,
this operation had neither reason nor justification for its en-
forcement ; but argument with a person of this kind was out
of the question, so nothing could be done but to let him rest
in the enjoyment of his ignorance.
The linnets are represented by the common linnet, the twite
or mountain linnet, and the redpole. The first is by far the
scarcest, but the other two may be met with constantly. The
twite frequents the higher and more muirland districts, and is
distinguished from the ordinary species by the fact that it has
no red or carmine on the breast or head during the period of
incubation, the only trace of this colour being upon the rump,
but it is not so bright as that on the breast of the other.
The names grey, brown, yellow, rose, and whin linnet all
refer to one bird—viz., Linota cannabina—the different desig-
nations having originated, in the four first mentioned, from the
circumstance of the plumage varying at different seasons and
ages, and the last from its fondness for gorse as a haunt and
nesting-place. The twite or “heather lintie,” as it is dubbed
in Scotland, is a gentle and withal a sociable bird, as even at
the breeding-time little bands of six or more may be seen
playing and feeding together.
Before passing on to the remainder of the fauna, the follow-
ing may be of interest to some of our ornithological members.
While upon the muir one day in the month of May, about ten
1890-91. | Birds of the Great Glen. 451
years ago, I noticed a pair of twites building their nest on a
steep brae covered with heather, and while watching them
through a field-glass, another pair came up, and all four
apparently began to assist in raising the fabric. Unless
entirely deceived, this seems rather a curious incident, as one
would almost infer that it was a habit with this species. Of
course it may only have been an isolated instance, but being
able to produce another witness to the transaction, I deemed
it worth recording at any rate. Instances, besides, are on
record where two female twites laid their eges in the same
nest, and after hatching, all four birds assisted in feeding the
young.
Of the migratory warblers, the following may be included
in the list of summer visitors: blackcaps (scarce), garden
warbler, wood warbler, sedge warbler, whitethroat, and willow
warbler. For years back it never could be ascertained de-
finitely if the chiff-chaff had been noticed as a resident or
occasional visitant, but all doubts upon the point were set at
rest last June (1890), and this identification I consider the
most important item recorded this evening from an ornitho-
logical point of view. The chiff-chaff, so like the willow
warbler in outward aspect, has an entirely different and un-
mistakable note; and although numerous in England, is ex-
ceedingly rare in the north of Scotland. It was with great
pleasure, therefore, that, when walking through the Pass of
Inverfarigaig during the month of June last, I both saw and
heard a pair. They were among a flock of tits and goldcrests
haunting a small fir-wood not very far from the spot where Dr
Bryce, the geologist, was killed, while upon an expedition
among the rocks of this most grand and picturesque of High-
land defiles. The pass runs inland to Strath-Errick from the
east side of Loch Ness, and is crossed at the entrance by the
old military road attributed to General Wade and his body of
engineers. Although possessing all the advantages of rock,
wood, and water, with an almost entire absence of human
dwellings, the variety of birds, though considerable, is as
nothing to what may be found in the more diversified glen
opposite, to which reference has been principally made.
Mention may now be made of a few odd species that assist
in forming the list of feathered fauna. The spotted flycatcher
452 birds of the Great Glen. [Sess.
is in summer a familiar object on the dykes and wire fences
which enclose the fields, and readily marked by its curious
habit of darting out a few yards into the air after an insect,
and as quickly returning to its perch when the capture is
completed. If near enough, on a calm day the snapping to-
gether of the mandibles is quite audible. The other flycatcher,
known as the pied, cannot be included, though of late years it
seems to have become a more regular visitor to the Lowland
counties, having bred several times in Peeblesshire, Berwick-
shire, &c: The kingfisher, from the statements of many
residents, would appear to have at one time frequented the
river Ennerick. This, however, is one of those cases where
dubiety exists, as the water-ousel often goes among country
people by that name, and it is pardonable to suppose that
this may be the species referred to, and not Alcedo ispida.
A pair of hoopoes were seen a good many years ago by a
gentleman while fishing in the river Glass, near Beauly, but it
is superfluous to say they can only come under the category of
infrequent wanderers. The tiny little creeper is no stranger,
and that favourite with poets, the cuckoo, abounds chiefly
among the higher slopes of Abriachan, though observed more
or less everywhere in the neighbourhood. The nightjar
occurs almost every season, but is by no means so plentiful as
in many parts of the West Coast, such as Argyleshire or
Dumbartonshire. The Hirundinide are represented by the
swift, chimney swallow, house- martin, and sand - martin.
The house-martin builds among the ruins of old Urquhart
Castle, locally known as Strone Castle, and one of the land-
marks of the place. This venerable pile is now fearfully
dilapidated, and stands upon a rocky knoll jutting out into
Loch Ness. There are traces of a deep fosse and drawbridge
spanning the same, so that when the ditch was full of water
the whole was converted into an island, and, judging from the
extent of the battered remains, when in its glory it must have
been a hold of exceptional size and strength. An able
pamphlet was written upon its history by a well-known
citizen of Inverness, in which its foundation was traced back
to so remote a period that, to the unfortunate wight to whom
Gaelic literature is a sealed book, it seemed to be contemporary
with the days of Joshua, the son of Nun. Without relegating
1890-91. | Birds of the Great Glen. 453
its origin to such an early era, suffice it to say that it is of
great antiquity, and was a place of strength long prior to the
days of Wallace and Bruce. There is a certain amount of
dreamy pleasure to be derived from sitting amidst the broken
ruins of such a castle, and to ruminate upon the stirring
events of which its walls have been witnesses ; but when we
remember the cruel acts and deeds of blood perpetrated, we
cannot help thanking heaven that we live in happier days,
and in a country where a recurrence of similar scenes is well-
nigh impossible. Of the wagtail and pipit brotherhood only
five can be accounted as habitual sojourners. Those are the
pied and grey wagtails, and the meadow, rock, and tree pipits.
Another wagtail, known as the white, has beyond doubt been
recognised, but not often, although it may be more frequent in
its visits than one would suppose, considering its similarity to
Motacilla lugubris. That it is a distinct species there can be
no shadow of doubt, but it must be acknowledged that unless
two fully matured specimens of each are compared close to-
gether, it is not an easy matter to distinguish them, especially
when young, and at a distance. The rock pipit is a constant
resident on the sea-shores, but a few appear among the up-
lands—sparsely distributed, however, in comparison with the
meadow pipit. The last named is always a pleasing little
object, despite its unpretending dress. You can hardly fail to
knock up many pairs while walking on the grassy hill-slopes
or wide muirs, and as they rise with a jerking sort of motion
_they utter a peculiarly plaintive chirp as a protest against
intrusion, but this sound always seems to me to have more of
the piteous complaining than of the angry querulousness com-
mon to many birds when disturbed by strangers. It possesses
a similar habit to the tree pipit of sailing down from a height
in a slanting direction with outspread wings, and singing with
gusto until it reaches the ground, with this difference that the
arboreal species alights upon a tree, whereas the titlark lands
upon terra firma. The tree pipit is a summer migrant only,
while the other inhabits Scotland all the year round.
Time would not permit of doing more than glancing rapidly
at the remaining number of small species before finishing up
with the water and game birds. The following are fairly
abundant: the skylark, corn bunting, yellow bunting, reed
454 Lirds of the Great Glen. [Sess.
bunting, about the marshy swamps of Urquhart Bay, snow
bunting on the high grounds during severe winters, chaffinch,
mountain finch during the winter months, greenfinch, and of
course our old and somewhat impudent friend the house-
sparrow. As to the tree-sparrow (Passer montanus), this
rarer bird may with safety be scheduled, as I am perfectly
positive I saw a pair at a place called Pitkerrald, near Drum-
nadrochit village, the slightly smaller size, and different wing
and cheek markings, being easily recognisable, and stamping
them at once as being clearly not the common variety. Over
the brightly plumaged goldfinch the wail of the coronach might
well arise: it no longer exists, and this is all the more to be
reeretted, as from. twenty to twenty-five years ago it was a
constant source of delight to the lover of nature. No doubt
the improved farming, and consequent destruction of thistles
and other weeds upon which it partially fed, had much to do
with the diminution in its ranks; but the crowning stroke
was perpetrated by a band of professional bird-catchers, who,
by their mercenary and wholesale clearance, deserved to be
consigned to a choice nook in Dante’s Purgatorio in order to
expiate their sins. Though practically unknown now in
Glen Urquhart itself, a few may be met with in other
offshoots from the Great Glen, hence its inclusion in the
list. Running rapidly over the rest, we have the starling
eradually increasing, and, from being a rarity, becoming a
numerous species, nesting in holes of trees, roofs of houses,
and among rocks. The dipper, or water-ousel, is sparingly
scattered here in comparison with our Lowland burns and rivers,
and it does not seem to be upon the increase. The Turdidee
or thrushes are typified by the stay-at-home missel thrush,
mavis, and blackbird; as also by the partial dwellers, the
fieldfare, redwing, and ring-ousel,—the latter summer visitor
being far and away the most interesting. We must not omit
to mention the sober little hedge-sparrow, the self-satisfied
robin, the brightly plumaged but somewhat wary redstart, and
the lively wren. The last-named, in addition to the woods,
seems to have a great hankering after solitary places be-
side the river, and among jumbled rocks, far removed from
human habitation ; and it is sometimes startling, when sitting
quietly amidst such surroundings, to hear this little creature
1890-91. | birds of the Great Glen. 455
suddenly wake the echoes with his loud sweet song—a sound
out of all proportion to the size of his body, and reminding
one, to a certain extent, of a powerful-voiced canary. The
only two Saxicolinz are the whinchat and wheatear, the latter
about the first migrant to appear in spring. Strange to say,
the black-headed, red-breasted stonechat does not exist, not-
withstanding that many portions of Glen Urquhart are suited
to its tastes and habits; but among the whin- and broom-
covered parts nearer Fort Augustus it may be observed.
Nevertheless, there is no blinking the fact that, take it all
over, this is a much scarcer bird than the two former. Last of
the minor woodland birds is the goldcrest, the smallest native
European species, so difficult to discover amongst the thick
spruces, and so baffling in its feeble mouse-squeaking sort of
note as almost to lead to the belief that it possesses ventri-
loquial powers. The latter assumption, however excusable, is
hardly correct, as the effect is produced more by the bird
shifting its quarters unobserved, than by any special gift in
the nature of polyphonism.
The corn-crake in summer makes himself heard, though
not seen, by his unmusical and strident voice; and the wood-
pigeons are, of course, familiar objects, greatly to the delight
of the agriculturist, whose grain suffers from their depreda-
tions in corresponding ratio to the size of the fields and the
number of the robbers. Game birds, as might be inferred
from the systematic onslaught on so-called “vermin,” are
not the least conspicuous of the winged tribe. Black grouse
and red grouse are on the muirs, ptarmigan upon the upper
reaches of Mealfourvounie, partridges and woodcock in the
lower parts of the glen, snipe in the bogs, and any number
of pheasants in the woods. Reeves’s pheasant, with its mag-
nificent long tail, was numerous some years ago, and various
other varieties of the ordinary species were met with, includ-
ing the piebald and Bohemian, as also a bird crossed between
the golden pheasant and Phasianus colchicus. The caper-
cailzie or cock of the wood, so far as the indigenous race is
concerned, is a thing of the past, some of the last survivors
having been killed in Glen Moriston; but the imported bird
was attempted to be domesticated by Lord Tweedmouth in
the vicinity of Guisachan, his residence in Strath Glass, with
what success at the present time I am not aware.
456 Birds of the Great Glen. [Sess.
It would be simply impossible at this late stage to do
justice to the numerous aquatic and moorland species that
yet remain to be mentioned, or to call your attention to the
marshy swamps and the silent and lonesome muirland where
they haunt; so I shall not attempt to tax your patience fur-
ther at present, but will merely conclude with the remark,
which perhaps you will endorse, that a district which can
boast of almost 120 species may truly be styled an elysian
field for the ornithologist.
List OF THE BIRDS OF THE GREAT GLEN.
(The nomenclature of the latest edition of Yarrell’s ‘British Birds’ is used.)
Golden eagle, Aquila chrysetus.
Kite, Milvus ictinus (almost extinct).
Buzzard, Buteo vulgaris.
Rough-legged buzzard, Buteo lagopus.
Peregrine falcon, Falco peregrinus.
Merlin, Falco esalon.
Kestrel, Falco tinnunculus.
Sparrow-hawk, Accipiter nisus.
Short-eared owl, Asio accipitrinus.
Long-eared owl, Asio otus.
Barn-owl, Aluco flammeus.
Tawny owl, Strix aluco.
Snowy owl, Wyctea scandiaca (doubt-
ful).
Raven, Corvus coraz.
Carrion crow, Corvus corone.
Hooded crow, Corvus cornix,
Rook, Corvus frugilegus.
Jackdaw, Corvus monedula.
Magpie, Pica rustica.
Jay, Garrulus glandarius (almost ex-
tinct).
Great tit, Parus major.
Blue tit, Parus cwruleus.
Cole tit, Parus ater.
Marsh tit, Parus palustris (scarce).
Long-tailed tit, Acredula caudata.
Spotted flycatcher, Muscicapa grisola.
Kingfisher, Alcedo ispida (doubtful).
Hoopoe, Upupa epops (very rare).
Creeper, Certhia familiaris.
Cuckoo, Cuculus canorus.
Nightjar, Caprimulgus ewropeus.
Swift, Cypselus apus.
Chimney swallow, Hirundo rustica.
House-martin, Chelidon urbica.
Sand-martin, Cotile riparia.
Pied wagtail, Motacilla lugubris,
White wagtail, Wotacilla alba (doubt-
ful).
Grey wagtail, Motacilla sulphurea.
Rock pipit, Anthus obscurus (scarce).
Meadow pipit, Anthus pratensis.
Tree pipit, Anthus trivialis.
Skylark, Alauda arvensis.
Corn bunting, Hmberiza miliaria.
Reed bunting, Hmberiza scheniclus.
Yellow bunting, Lmberiza citrinella.
Snow bunting, Plectrophanes niv-
alis.
Chaffinch, F’ringilla celebs.
Mountain finch, Fringilla montifrin-
gulla.
Tree - sparrow,
(scarce).
House-sparrow, Passer domesticus.
Greenfinch, Coccothraustes chloris.
Goldfinch, Carduelis elegans (very
scarce).
Siskin, Carduelis spinus.
Common linnet, Linota cannabina.
Mountain linnet, Linota flavirostris.
Redpole, Linota rufescens.
Bullfinch, Pyrrhula europea.
Crossbill, Loxia curvirostra.
Starling, Sturnus vulgaris.
Water-ousel, Cinclus aquaticus.
Missel thrush, V'wrdus viscivorus.
Fieldfare, Turdus pilaris,
Redwing, Turdus iliacus.
Mavis, Turdus musicus.
Blackbird, Turdus merula.
Ring-ousel, Z’urdus torquatus.
Hedge-sparrow, Accentor modularis.
Robin, Hrithacus rubecula.
Redstart, Ruticilla phenicurus.
Passer montanus
a
1890-91. |}
Stonechat, Saxicola rubicola (uncom-
mon),
Whinchat, Sazxicola rubetra.
Wheatear, Saxicola enanthe,
Blackeap warbler, Sylvia atricapilla
(scarce),
Sedge warbler, Acrocephalus schwno-
benus.
Garden warbler, Sylvia salicaria,
Wood warbler, Phylloscopus sibilatriz,
Whitethroat, Sylvia rufa.
Willow warbler, Phylloscopus troch-
ius.
Chiff-chaff, Phylloscopus
(very scarce).
Wren, Troglodytes parvulus.
Golderest, Regulus cristatus,
Wood pigeon, Columba palumbus.
Capercailzie, Tetrauo urogallus.
Common pheasant, Phasianus colchi-
cus,
Piebald pheasant (var.)
Bohemian pheasant (var.)
Reeves’s pheasant, Phasianus Reevesii,
Black grouse, Tetrao tetrix.
Red grouse, Layopus scoticus,
collybita
The Andromeda Family.
457
Ptarmigan, Layopus mutus.
Partridge, Perdizx cinerea,
Woodcock, Scolopax rusticula.
Snipe, Gallinago cwlestis,
Land-rail, Crex pratensis,
Golden plover, Charadrius pluvialis,
Peewit, Vanellus vulgaris,
Curlew, Numenius arquata,
Heron, Ardea cinerea,
Common sandpiper, Totanus hypoleu-
cus,
Ringed plover, Zyilitis hiaticula
(scarce),
Redshank, Totanus calidris,
Widgeon, Mareca penelope.
Mallard, Anas boschas.
Teal, Anas crecca.
Tufted duck, Fuligula cristata (very
scarce),
Water-hen, Gallinula chloropus,
| Coot, Fulica atra,
| Black-headed gull, Larus ridibundus,
| Common gull, Larus canus,
| Kittiwake, Rissa tridactyla.
Herring gull, Larus argentatus.
Mention has been avoided of the various geese, ducks, gulls, divers, and
other maritime species that may have been occasionally driven inland by
Stress of weather, as those can hardly be accounted even partial residents,
IX—THE ANDROMEDA FAMILY.
By Mk HUGH FRASER.
(Read March 25, 1891.)
BELONGING to the Natural Order Ericacee, and consequently
allied to the heaths, arbutus, kalmias, rhododendrons, and
many other families of interesting trees and shrubs, the
Andromedas exhibit a rare combination of those qualities
which are most desirable in hardy flowering-shrubs. The
neat and for the most part dwarf bushy habits of growth,
elegant foliage, and showy flowers of the various species have
long been appreciated, and have secured for them prominent
positions in most collections of peat-soil shrubs. The various
VOL, II. 24
458 The Andromeda Family. [Sess.
species are widely distributed over the colder regions of
Europe, Asia, and America, our own island possessing in its
native flora one of the prettiest of them. The genus was
named by Linneus in allusion to the fabled Princess Andro-
meda bound to a rock, and exposed to the attacks of a sea
monster; and it may be interesting to quote a few sentences
from his ‘Lachesis Lapponica, as translated by Sir J. E.
Smith, to illustrate the fact that the great naturalist was not
only a devoted scientist, but a man who could look upon the
beautiful with all the enthusiasm of a poet. Speaking of
Andromeda polifolia, the species on which the genus was
founded, Linnzus says:— —
Andromeda polifolia was in its highest beauty, decorating the marshy
erounds in a most agreeable manner. The flowers are quite blocd-red be-
fore they expand, but when full-grown the corolla is of a flesh-colour.
Scarcely any painter’s art can so happily imitate the beauty of a fine female
complexion, still less could any artificial colour upon the face itself bear a
comparison with this lovely blossom. As I contemplated it, I could not
help thinking of Andromeda as described by the poets; and the more I
meditated upon their description, the more they seemed applicable to the
little plant before me, so that if these writers had it in view they could
scarcely have contrived a more apposite fable. Andromeda is represented
by them of most exquisite and unrivalled charms, but these charms remain
in perfection only so long as she retains her virgin purity—which is also
applicable to the plant now preparing to celebrate its nuptials. The plant
is always found on some little turfy hillock in the midst of the swamps,
as Andromeda herself was chained to a rock in the sea, which bathed her
feet as the fresh water does the roots of this plant. Dragons and veno-
mous serpents surround her, as toads and other reptiles frequent the abode
of her vegetable resembler, and when they pair in the spring throw mud
and dirt over its leaves and branches. As the distressed virgin cast down
her blushing face through excessive affliction, so does this rosy crimson
flower hang its head, growing paler and paler till it withers away. Hence
as this plant forms a new genus, I have chosen for it the name of Andro-
meda. . . . At length comes Perseus in the shape of summer, dries up the
surrounding water, and destroys the monsters, rendering the damsel a fruit-
ful mother, who then carries her head [the capsule] erect.
Some thirty species of Andromeda have been introduced
from time to time to this country, and, with very few ex-
ceptions, these have proved hardy enough for cultivation in
the open air. They are for the most part evergreen, and
produce their lovely, wax-like, bell-shaped blossoms in spring
and summer with the greatest profusion. As regards their
1890-91. ] On Vegetable Ivory. 459
culture and general management, little more need be said
than that, along with a moderate allowance of peaty soil, they
should have a greater amount of root-moisture than most
other peat-soil plants. They luxuriate in a marshy, swampy
situation, in which rhododendrons and azaleas could not
exist for any length of time. . It is therefore important to
keep this peculiarity in view when it is intended to plant
them in beds or clumps by themselves—an arrangement
which, though not very generally adopted, is nevertheless
very effective, from the great diversity in foliage, height, and
general appearance of the plants. This preference for a
damp situation need not, however, deter any one from as-
sociating them in mixed borders with the other peat-soil
shrubs. They adapt themselves to such circumstances with
the greatest facility, though their vigour will be promoted,
and they will flower much more freely, if supplied with water
when the situation is naturally dry, especially during the
growing season.
All the species being interesting, and well worthy of cul-
tivation, especially to those who are lovers of hardy shrubs,
it is somewhat difficult to make a selection of what are
usually termed the most desirable varieties. I would there-
fore recommend those who intend planting, and who have the
necessary accommodation, to grow as many different sorts as
they can procure, fully assured that no more ornamental and
pleasing hardy flowering-shrub can be introduced into a
garden or pleasure-ground than the Andromeda, under what-
ever specific name it may be known.
X—ON VEGETABLE IVORY.
By Mr THOMAS WRIGHT.
(Read March 25, 1891.)
VEGETABLE Ivory is obtained from the fruit of a palm-lke
tree, Phytelephas macrocarpa, a native of the north-eastern
460 On Vegetable Ivory. [Sess.
district of South America. The tree is described as very
handsome in appearance. ‘The stem is somewhat procumbent,
due partly to its own weight and partly to its aérial roots, and
thus forms a creeping caudex, which is frequently 20 feet
long, but seldom higher than 6 feet. A magnificent cluster
of light-green pinnatifid leaves, used by Indians for thatching
huts, crowns the tree top; and being of an exclusive habit,
erowing only in clumps quite separate from other plants, a
Phytelephas grove forms an outstanding feature in the land-
scape. The tree is found near the sea-coast in Darien, and
reaches an altitude of more than 3000 feet in New Granada,
but grows most abundantly on the banks of the river Magda-
lena, in Columbia. A damp soil seems to be necessary for its
culture.
Botanists differ as to the position of the ivory palm in the
vegetable kingdom. By several it has been classed with the
palms, by others with the screw pines, while later authorities
accord it a place midway between these two orders. The male
and female flowers grow on separate trees. Male plants have
higher, more erect, and more robust trunks; but in both sexes
the inflorescence consists of flowers without a perianth arranged
ona fleshy spadix. The fruit is formed of six or seven drupes
clustered together in a mass as large as a man’s head. As
each drupe contains from six to nine seeds, and a tree usually
bears from six to eight heads, this gives a total of from 200
to 300 nuts as the produce of each tree. The drupes are
covered outside with hard woody protuberances. In its very
young state the seed contains a clear insipid fluid, which trav-
ellers drink. As it advances in growth, the fluid becomes
sweet and milky, and at this stage bears and hogs eat the nuts
greedily. (By the way, hogs are particularly fond of nuts. A
friend in Ireland has two walnut trees in a park some hun-
dreds of yards from his farm. When the nuts ripen and drop
to the ground, itis a sight to see the pigs scampering across
the park as soon as the gate is opened. It will be remembered
that in Germany pigs wander at large in the forest in autumn,
subsisting on the fallen beech-mast.) In course of time the
endosperm gradually hardens until it acquires a consistency
almost as dense as ivory. A mature seed measures about 2
inches in length by 14 inch in breadth, and is roughly triangular
1890-91.] On Vegetable Ivory. 461
in shape, or rather like the quarter of a sphere. It is protected
by a dark-brown testa, very dense and hard, measuring 1-30th
of an inch in thickness or thereby, and broadening out to half
an inch at the hilum, where it is perforated by mucilage pores.
There is an almond-shaped cavity near the centre of each nut
which detracts from its commercial value, but serves an im-
portant purpose in the life-history of the plant. When the
embryo, which is small and situated near the hilum, begins to
germinate, the cotyledon finds room for growth inside the
cavity ; it absorbs the endosperm for its first nourishment, and
while this absorption of stored-up albumen is going on, the
radicle and plumule find their way through a fracture in the
testa, and begin the strugele for existence. The extreme
hardness of the seed frequently causes an observer to remark
that germination cannot be possible; but it has to be borne
in mind that in their native soil dispersion must take place
while the albumen is in a comparatively pulpy condition, and
soaking in water has a softening effect even on very old
fruit.
Microscopic examination of the endosperm shows that it is
built up of polygonal cells radially arranged, having lignified
walls and radiating pores, with a sucker-like expansion next
the cell-wall but no intercellular spaces. Their structure is
best seen when the section is mounted dry. If a seed be cut
in halves, and the flat surface well polished, one can easily
see with the naked eye a series of circular markings, which
somewhat resemble dentine, and so justify its popular name
of vegetable ivory. These circles seem to-indicate that the
endosperm is built up of concentric spheres; but microscopic
preparations show, as already stated, that the cells are laid
down radially, and the rings are probably due to the thicken-
ing of the transverse cell-walls.
The testa is deserving of careful examination, as it exhibits
various forms of well-developed sclerenchyma. It will be re-
membered that Mr Coats read a paper last session, entitled
“On Sclerenchymatous Cells,” and I would refer members to
that communication for an account of their structure and
functions; but it may be repeated here that these cells are
never directly concerned in the living processes of plant-life—
they form a purely mechanical tissue. The relative positions
462 On Vegetable Ivory. [Sess.
of the various layers of tissue in the testa will be best under-
stood by referring to the accompanying illustration (fig. 1).
Prominent among these tissues is the layer of columnar cells.
This .form shows polygonal cells, with much lignified walls,
numerous radiating pores, and the central canal occupied by
small hexagonal cones (fig. 2). I have not been able to find
a description of these curious cones in any work on structural
botany. They fit into an expansion of the canal at the outer
end of the columnar cell, and if the testa is macerated in
strong potash, the cones drop out easily on the application of
pressure. By grinding a very thin section of the testa a ver-
tical view is obtained, and this shows the radiating pores and
polygonal cell-walls (fig. 3). Preparations from the hilum
show strongly developed scleroid. When the endosperm
solidifies it contracts a little, and becomes detached from
the testa. The rupture takes place in the middle of the
fibrous layer, and a complete coat of the latter adheres to the
endosperm. A network of veins may readily be observed
traversing this tissue. It consists either of fibro-vascular
bundles, or of the grooves formerly occupied by them. In
the latter case, the fibro-vascular bundles have adhered to .
the testa.
Seeds of Phytelephas macrocarpa are imported in large
quantities by London merchants under the name of “ Corrozo
nuts,” a Central American name, and numbers of them are
forwarded to the button-makers of Birmingham. The ingenious
mechanics of that busy town convert the nuts into buttons,
trinkets, drawer-knobs, umbrella-handles, dominoes, chess-men,
and other articles where a hard white material, susceptible of
taking on a high polish, can be used to advantage. They
were first imported to this country in 1826. The present
market price varies from £15 to £25 per ton, according to
quality. Another palm-nut, from Attalea funifera, is known
among turners as “Coquilla shell,’ and used by them for
similar purposes; but the colour is light mottled-brown in-
stead of white.
A recent number of the ‘ English Mechanic’ contains an
article describing a process now being carried on in Paris for
the production of artificial ivory. It is obtained by mixing
phosphate of lime, carbonate of lime, magnesia, alumina,
————
MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF VEGETABLE IVORY.
(Phytelephas macrocarpa.)
Fic. 1.—Radial section of testa and endosperm. xX 120.
A. Outside layer of seed coat composed of thin-walled parenchyima.
B. Columnar sclerenchymatous cells.
C. Thin layer of yellow tissue, apparently homogeneous.
). Thin layer of kidney-shaped indurated cells.
. Broad band of fibrous layers much warped and intererossed.
(Rupture between testa and endosperm occurs in middle of 2.)
F,. Endosperm.
Fic, 2.—Hexagonal cones from columnar cells, (Fig. 1 B.) x 1060.
Fic. 3.—Transverse section of columnar cells. (Fig. 1B.) x 160.
fic. 4.—Tangential section of endosperm. (Fig. 1F.) x 160.
From a drawing by Mr William Coats. W£a K Johnston. Rdinburgh.and London
1890-91.] How I Robbed the Eagle’s Nest, and Why. 463
gelatin, and albumen in definite proportions. The mixture is
dried and finely ground, then placed in a heated mould and
subjected to a pressure of two tons to the square inch. This
product is said to be an excellent substitute-for ivory ; and if
it proves suitable for billiard-balls, combs, brush backs, bell-
pull handles, and articles of ornament, it will command a
ready sale, and very soon bring a fortune to the manufacturer.
XI—HOW I ROBBED THE EAGLES NEST,
AND WHY.
By Mr TOM SPEEDY.
(Read April 22, 1891.)
In the spring of 1890, while spending a few days with a friend
in Ross-shire, I learnt that a pair of eagles had their eyrie in
a rock in the centre of the deer-forest. As a number of
lambs had disappeared from a neighbouring farm the previous
year, and an eagle had been seen in the act of carrying one
off, the farmer vowed vengeance against these robbers of his
flock. After a series of complaints, it was reluctantly agreed
to destroy the eagles. Being consulted in the matter, I
suggested that, as it is only when the birds have to provide
food for their progeny that they carry off ‘lambs, if we could
manage to rob the nest the parents might be spared. The
keeper feared this was impossible, as the eyrie was in an
inaccessible rock ; but borrowing a cart-rope from the farmer,
and taking with us a gun and cartridges, we wended our way
towards the place. A couple of hours’ walking took us to the
bottom of the rock, which we carefully scrutinised with the
telescope. We discovered that a birch-tree grew out about
twenty-five or thirty feet above the eyrie, which we thought
it possible to reach. We accordingly started to go a long
way round on this mission, and with very considerable diffi-
culty reached the birch-tree, my companion carrying the gun
and rope, and I a stout walking-stick. On arriving at the tree,
464 How I Robbed the Eagle's Nest, and Why. [Sess.
we sat down to consider our position. Where we sat was a
heathery steep sloping bank, eight or ten feet wide, and from
the centre of it grew the birch-tree already referred to, which
we found to be strong and deeply rooted. Far above us was
the steep, rugged, almost perpendicular mountain of rock, in-
termingled here and there with patches of heather and other
hardy shrubs, which caused us to wonder how we ever
managed to descend to where we sat. Immediately below us
was the birch-tree, and a few feet beyond that was the edge
of the precipice, which went sheer down sixty or seventy feet,
in the centre of which was the eyrie. At the bottom of
this perpendicular part the ground was steep and rocky,
similar to that above us already described. Up to this time
we had made no arrangements which of us was to go over;
but as my companion weighed over fourteen stone, and I
under twelve, there was no difficulty in deciding. We threw
over some stones, and with giant wings the eagle flew out
from the rock. The gun was loaded and put safely down
where it could be easily picked up. I then tied the rope
carefully round my waist and prepared to descend. Donald
put the rope round the tree with the view of relieving him of
the strain of my entire weight. I did not look over before
starting, or I certainly never would have made the descent.
Crawling feet foremost, I at once got out of sight of my
companion, and looking down, my experience was anything
but pleasant. I have already stated that the precipice was
only sixty or seventy feet to the bottom, but the ground
below was so steep and rocky for many hundreds of yards
far away down into the valley, that it was difficult to know
where the precipice ended and the “climbable” ground
began. My weight drew the rope up under my armpits, and
somehow or other my beard got entangled in the knot of the
cord, my head being held tight in an awkward position,
which was extremely painful, and prevented me from crying
up to give instructions. Not knowing that anything was
wrong, Donald lowered away till I got a place to rest my
foot. Directly he felt relieved of the strain, he cried over,
“Are you at the nest?” For some time I was unable to
speak, but getting my beard clear of the rope, I informed him
that it was seven or eight feet lower. JI could see the sticks
1890-91.] How J Robbed the Eagle’s Nest, and Why. 465
on the outer edge of the nest, but a projecting rock was
between me and the centre of it. “Lower away!” I cried,
and again, like Mohammed’s coffin, [ was suspended between
heaven and earth.
In a few seconds I got my feet on another ledge, and had
little difficulty in getting along to a platform eight or ten feet
wide. On the centre of it was a great number of sticks, some
of them of large dimensions, being fully six feet long, and as
thick as a man’s wrist. As some of them were Scots fir,
they must have been carried a long distance. Among the
sticks was entwined the antler of a stag which had five points.
The lining of the nest was composed of, heather, grass, and
wool, in the centre of which, closely cuddled together, were
two little downy eaglets, evidently only very recently hatched.
“You will go with me to Liberton, my little friends,” I
mentally exclaimed ; but getting my eyes on the parent birds
coming in aérial circles towards the eyrie, I cried up to Donald
to be ready with the gun. I also took the precaution of
seizing one of the largest sticks and the antler of the stag,
and put myself in an attitude of defence. I have never
believed in eagles attacking nian, but, to tell the truth, I had
no desire to risk an encounter in such a position, on the edge
of a dizzy precipice. One of the birds came so near that
Donald fired a shot at it, which had the effect of making them
keep a respectable distance off. Seeing the eagles had no
intention of coming nearer, I explored the ledge, which went
backwards a considerable distance, and being overhung, formed
a sort of cavern. At the back of it I discovered from the
excrements that one of the birds had been in the habit of
roosting there, while the other was engaged in the process of
incubation. A few yards off I saw what evidently was the
larder of previous years, as the bleached remains of lambs,
fawns, hares, rabbits, grouse, blackgame, ducks, &c., lay around
in profusion, while a grouse plucked and partly devoured lay
nearer the nest, evidently intended as the rusks of eagle
babyhood.
Putting an eaglet in each coat-pocket, I cried to Donald to
“haul me up.” I felt the rope tighten and pull upwards,
but it would not have lifted half my weight. “I cannot move
you!” he cried down, “and I am pulling with all my might.”
466 Flow I Robbed the Eagle's Nest, and Why. [ Sess.
Here was a predicament! What was to be done? The
reason, however, of his inability to draw me up was obvious.
Above was the overhanging rock, and all the way to where
the keeper sat the rope was subjected to severe friction, so
that to lift my weight was simply impossible. “I will have
to go to the farm for assistance,’ Donald cried down. “ All
right,” I replied; “be as quick as you can,”—and I was now
fated to be left for three hours at least in the eagle’s eyrie. I
took the eaglets from my pockets, put them again into the
nest, and sat down in the farthest corner of the cavern. I
thought that as I was partly out of sight, the eagles might
come to their young without observing me, and especially as
they had seen the keeper leave the place. This, however,
they did not do, being evidently aware that I was concealed
in the eyrie.
As may be supposed, the hours seemed like days; and as
it became very cold, my imprisonment in such uncongenial
quarters was anything but pleasant. At last Donald and
two shepherds appeared, and when they came close enough
for me to shout to them, I expressed my intention of going
down to the bottom instead of ascending to the top. It
appeared that no more rope was obtainable, and worsted was
the only thing that could be got, so they brought several balls
in their pockets. The two shepherds remained below, while
Donald went away round in order to regain the summit. It
took him half an hour to get round, when he lowered a small
stone to me tied to double worsted. This I let down in order
to see if the rope was long enough to reach the bottom.
Discovering it was only thirty feet, I cried to let go the rope at
the top, which I pulled down, and let one end drop to the
bottom. I now set about securing the other end of it in the
eyrie, which was no easy task. Tying it round a huge piece
of rock and using two balls of worsted—which I drew up
from below—to warp it securely, in order to prevent it from
slipping, I prepared to descend.
To go down a rope thirty feet is a simple matter to those
accustomed to it, but having ruptured the muscles of my
shoulder in Norway eighteen months before, I had not re-
gained the proper use of it, which consequently made it
much more difficult. I threw over the stag’s antler, pocketed
1890-91.) A Peculiar Mode of Fishing in the Thames. 467
the two eaglets, and commenced to descend. Simple as it
may look, I had great difficulty in getting down. My hands
were rubbed and bleeding ; my clothes were torn ; my limbs
were bruised and cut, and I could feel the blood trickling
down; and I was several times roughly jolted against the
rock. J however got down, but my poor little eaglets were
crushed to death, which I very much regretted. I however
brought them home, and they are now to be seen stuffed in
the Museum of Science and Art. Donald having come
round, we had some refreshment, which they thoughtfully
brought with them. The trope was left hanging on the face
of the rock, and there, I venture to affirm, it is hanging
still.
XTII—ON A PECULIAR MODE OF FISHING IN
THE ESTUARY OF THR THAMES.
By Mr A. B. HERBERT
(Read April 22, 1891 )
My attention has recently been directed to a peculiar and
very primitive mode of fishing which is still practised at
Southend and other places in the estuary of the Thames, and
this may perhaps be interesting to some of our members, It
is what we might expect to find among savage tribes, and not
in use among the most civilised of nations in the nineteenth
century. It has probably been adopted in the locality named
from a very remote period. It is at once simple and ingeni-
ous, and, I am informed, also very effective. You will see
from what I exhibit that it consists of a long line, to which
are attached at intervals thinner lines of two strands about
Six inches long, having at their ends, instead of hooks,
thorns of the blackthorn (Prunus spinosa). A piece of the
twig about the same length as the thorn is left at its base,
where the line is fixed in a very simple manner by a loop.
The long lines with baited thorns are pegged down in the mud
468 A Peculiar Mode of Fishing in the Thames. (Sess.
at low water. The farmers allow the fishermen to cut these
thorns from the hedges, and women are employed to bait them
at the rate of one halfpenny per hundred, and they earn about
sevenpence a-day. The baits used are pieces of thick sand-
worms; and the fish taken are flounders, plaice, whiting, cod-
lings, and many other species. You will see that the bait can
be swallowed with either the point of the thorn or the other
end foremost ; but the traction being at the base of the thorn,
the moment a strain is put on the line the wood becomes
fixed across the gullet of the fish, and the penetrating thorn
keeps it immovably in place. The fishermen maintain that
the thorns are quite as efficient as hooks, and cost them
nothing beyond the trouble of cutting,
A somewhat similar form of gorge-hook is still used in
France for taking eels and other kinds of fish. It consists of
a needle sharpened at both ends, with the line fixed in the
middle. A worm is spitted on the needle, a little of the line
being covered by the bait. Going back to remote dates, in
the lacustrine dwellings in the Swiss lakes, among many
implements discovered, are fish-gorges made of bronze wire
called “ bricoles.” Going back to a still earlier date, we have
the stone fish-gorge, found in the valley of the Somme in
France, in a peat-bed twenty-two feet below the surface. The
age of this peat-bed has been variously estimated,—M.
Boucher de Perthes says 30,000 years. The late Sir Charles
Lyell and Sir John Lubbock, without too strict an adherence
to date, believed that this peat-bed represented in its forma-
tion “that vast lapse of time which began with the commence-
ment of the neolithic period.” Later authorities deem it not
older than 7000 years B.c. In the centre a groove has been
cut, the ends of the stone rising slightly from the middle. It
must have been tied to a line, and this stone gorge was
covered with a bait: the fish swallowed it, and the gorge
coming crosswise in the gullet, the fish was captured. There
can be little doubt that this is the oldest form of fish-gorge
ever discovered.
1890-91. | A “Colonial” Herbarium Specimen. 469
XII.—A “COLONIAL” HERBARIUM SPECIMEN.
By JOHN H. WILSON, D.Sc., F.R.S.E.
(Read April 22, 1891.)
To many people a herbarium specimen is the symbol of soul-
lessness: it pertains to the osteology of botany. Recently a
German author spoke of such specimens as “Mumien des
Herbars.” I hope, however, to show that the epithet is mis-
applied,—that one may vitalise the “mummies ” of the herbar-
ium, and find material for stimulating research and far-reaching
reflection.
The specimen now to be described measures only an inch
and a half in height, and about the same across, and was
recently added to the Herbarium at the Royal Botanic Garden
from a private collection. The locality it was gathered in is
not given, but for the purposes of this paper it may well be
considered British. It bears evidence of some antiquity;
indeed it may safely be set down as fifty years since it
assumed the handy flat form characteristic of herbarium
specimens in general. Age is a minor matter with these,
further altering their form and texture very little indeed.
It will be remembered that Robert Dick had pleasure
in thinking of the preservation of one specimen for a much
longer period than fifty years, thereby perpetuating to a cor-
responding degree the memory of his friend, Charles W.
Peach, long a respected member of this Society :—
“ Oh, gin ye were an alpine plant
That grew upon the mountains high,
Aw I a-wanderin’ found the plant
The little mossy burnie by!
How I wad joy, if ye did ’scape
The wintry winds and storms severe,—
I’d pw’ and put ye in my cap,
Aw’ dry ye, for a thousand year !”
Our specimen will be found to present a more complicated
economy than the poetic naturalist’s alpine plant. It is
470 A “Colonial” Herbarium Specimen. [Sess.
labelled “ Isthmia,” and is thus intended to be classified with
diatoms, — but a very casual inspection discloses the fact
that it illustrates more than one organised form. The first
glance conveys the impression that it is meant to go with the
sea-weeds, seeing that what is actually fixed to the paper, and
is conspicuously the seat of the “colony,” is one of the red
algze, Delesseria alata. First let us look at this most pro-
minent element of our specimen. In all probability the
Delesseria grew on some larger sea-weed, from which it was
forcibly removed by a storm, or by the hand of the sure-
footed prying collector. Its position on another sea-weed
does not imply parasitism, even although its tissues are
intimately in conjunction with those of the obliging host.
Commensalism, of which this is an example, is very common
among marine alge, and very striking in many cases it is.
Our Delesseria is one of the great family of the red sea-weeds,
so named on account of their colour, which is due to the
presence of a substance called phycoérythrine. The group
includes those with shades of colour varying from rose to
violet. The red colour-stuff can be dissolved out by cold
fresh water, in which it will appear carmine-red in transmitted
light, and yellow or green in reflected light. It must be
borne in mind that chlorophyll is also present in the plant,
but that it is so mixed with and concealed by the red material
as to be invisible till the latter is removed. Our species
branches copiously in a dichotomous and interruptedly pinnate
fashion to form a bilateral thallus. Thickened mesial and
oblique lines look like midribs and nerves, but of course these
are not to be thought analogous to the structures so termed
in an ordinary leaf, seeing that in our sea-weed there are no
vascular tissues such as go to form the strengthening elements
of higher plants. Two methods of propagation exist in
Delesseria. One is by tetraspores, which are developed in
sporangia occurring imbedded irregularly in the thallus along
the midrib of the end segments or terminations of the pinne,
and on special small “leaflets.” The tetraspores are not
endowed with means of locomotion, and are dependent on cur-
rents for their distribution. The other method is by carpo-
spores, which develop in special receptacles — cystocarps —
as a consequence of fertilisation by spermatia. The cysto-
1890-91. | A “Colonial” Herbarium S, specimen. 471
carps, mostly single, occur attached to the midribs of the ter-
minal segments, and on wart-like swellings of the “leaflets.”
The carpospores, like the asexual tetraspores, are not endowed
with motion.
Attached to the Delesseria at two points one can see small
specimens of Ulva—representatives of the great division of the
green sea-weeds, such as have the chlorophyll unmixed with
red material. Ulva is a green strap-like sea:weed, tapering at
the base, where it is attached by a small disc to its support.
Propagation takes place by various methods. One is by
swarmspores — green round or oval bodies provided with
cilia, by which they are propelled through the water. Two
of them meet and fuse, the result being a body capable of
growing up into a new thallus. Another method is by zoo-
spores, which appear in specially modified cells of the thallus.
Lastly, certain cells resembling Protococcus or Palmella are
set free by degeneration of the tissues, and these either grow
directly into the normal thallus, or they develop zoospores
which produce the thallus. Minute examples of two other red
sea-weeds were discovered—viz., Plocamium and Polysiphonia
—into the life-history of which we need not enter.
We now come to look at the organism for whose sake the
specimen had been kept. The individual examples of Isthmia
are, like other diatoms, very minute. It is possible to detect
them with the naked eye as mere shiny specks. Collectively
they form greenish tufts at the extremities of the branches of
the Delesseria. They attach themselves to this and to each
other by an exudation of mucus (protoplasm), which preserves
tenacity enough to enable the observer to lift them about in
bunches. Their outline and method of attachment are quite
characteristic, and familiar to microscopists. As is well
known to most naturalists, the framework of the diatom is of
silicic acid (flint), and it is very surprising to see how beauti-
fully geometric that structure is, and how faithfully a specific
pattern is followed. One is apt to forget, when viewing the
delicate markings of prepared diatoms under a high power,
that these are the outcome of vital influences at work in the
protoplasm of the plant, and not in any sense carvings,—a
notion which asserts itself very naturally. The mode of
propagation is peculiarly interesting. In construction the
472 A “Colonial” Herbarium Specimen. [Sess.
flinty skeleton of the diatom—the frustule—reminds one of
the condition of two joints of a closed telescope, the margins
or lateral walls of one half completely overlapping those of
the other. Under the vital action of the protoplasm the inner
half slips out of the embrace of the outer, and both acquire a
new wall at their unprotected face. The inflected edge of the
new walls are embraced by and telescope with the existing
margins of the respective halves. It thus follows that the
individuals of succeeding generations derived from the series of
inner halves become smaller and smaller. A stage is reached,
however, when the fate of being lost in infinity of subdivision
is averted. The contents of valves at their minimum emerge,
and either themselves grow into larger proportions, or enter
into conjugal fellowship with others of a like nature to form
large cells known as auxospores. These secrete a silicious
framework of the maximum size, and inaugurate a new cycle.
Diatoms are mostly buff-coloured, by reason of the presence
of a substance termed diatomine, which hides the chlorophyll.
They are generally endowed with somewhat limited loco-
motion, which is understood to be effected by the protrusion
of protoplasmic processes, recalling pseudopodia, along certain
definite lines. Besides the comparatively large diatom Isth-
mia, there are at least four others in company with it.
A minute elliptical species in great numbers, lying like scales
on many parts of the specimen, is Cocconeis. The others,
including Grammatophora, are in closely jointed or loosely
linked chains or rows.
So much for the flora of our colony: Jet us look now at its
fauna, taking the lowest forms first. At many points there
will be found microscopic spiral white shells, simulating those
of shell-fish, They belong to foraminifera—organisms in-
ternally little better to all appearance than specks of jelly.
From the mouth of the calcareous shell there protruded, when
the inmate was in life, long, delicate, occasionally anastomos-
ing strands of protoplasm (sarcode) covering the shell, and
feeling about, amceba-like, in quest of food. They also acted
as feet, enabling the shell-bearer to move about. The mode
of reproduction is not well understood. Foraminifera, small
as they are, have played an extremely important part in the
upbuilding of the earth’s crust. They form large masses of
- 1890-91. A “ Colonial” Herbarium Specimen. 473
rock—not only such rocks as the microscope reveals to be com-
posed of them, but also such as have become changed, so as
no longer to show their forms. Large tracts of the bottom of
the Atlantic, at or about 2400 fathoms, are covered with the
spherical tests of the now familiar form, Globigerina, the
deposit being termed Globigerina ooze.
Here and there on our specimen the microscope also detects
groups of transparent threads with the vestiges of terminal
cups. These are the remains of the once extremely sensitive
and active infusorian, Vorticella. Infusoria include many
forms so closely akin in form and function to certain minute
alge and fungi, that it is a matter of extreme difficulty to
distinguish where the boundary-line between the plants and
animals should be fixed. Vorticella, the bell-animalcule, is
distinct enough. Elevated on a delicate stalk, which is cap-
able of extremely rapid spiral contraction, is a bell-shaped
head, having a crown of cilia which vibrate in such a manner
as to convey the idea of continuous rotary motion. At one
side of the crown there is a mouth, into which food is swept
by the vortices caused by the coronal cilia. A ciliated passage
leads inwards and terminates blindly. The food is engulfed by
the gelatinous body-substance, and then digested. A nucleus
and a vacuole can be made out, the latter showing pulsating
contraction and expansion. Multiplication takes place by
simple fission of the bell, or by conjugation between individ-
uals unequal in size, followed by division.
Hitherto we have dealt with animal forms too minute to
be seen by the naked eye; now we have to deal with a re-
latively huge structure, forming, indeed, the most prominent
object on the sheet. It is a sponge known as Grantia com-
pressa, hanging from the Delesseria as a white, leathery,
flattened sack, half an inch in length. Mr Lindsay has so
recently described this species in his most interesting paper
on the sponges, that it is unnecessary to dwell on its struc-
ture. Our ideas of sponge structure are generally taken from
the contemplation of the household article, and most people
have therefore a difficulty in believing that a sponge may be
found to be virtually composed of sharp, three-rayed, cal-
eareous spicules. Such, however, is really the condition of
Grantia. In the living state of the sponge, as was pointed
VOL. II. 21
474 A “Colonial” Herbarium Specimen. [Sess.
out in the paper just referred to, currents are set up by the
lashing of cilia passing out from cells which have been re-
garded as individually bearing a very close affinity with
certain infusoria. Living sponges in a vessel soon deprive
the water of its oxygen—a desideratum supplied in a re-
ciprocal way by growing alge. The reproduction of the
sponge is accomplished by “eggs” or gemmules, and by fer-
tilised ova which segment and become free-swimming larve.
The naked eye can easily discern a few shining beaded
threads adhering to the alga. They are the chitinous scaffold-
ing of two zoophytes, Obelia and Sertularia. In Obelia there
are beautiful transparent cups on ringed stalks, which branch
from a common stem. The cups in the fresh state contain a
flower-like organism which can protrude itself, and spread out
a whorl of waving tentacles to capture food. The mouth is
situated in the centre of the whorl, and it communicates with
a ciliated canal which runs through the stem, and connects
all the zooids (polypites) in a common nutritive system. In
certain of the cups there are developed medusa-like buds,
which have a nervous system and organs of sense and repro-
duction. The buds break away and swim freely in the sea,
and give rise ultimately to new stationary colonies. The
other hydroid zoophyte present is Sertularia, in which the
cups are sessile, and arranged on opposite sides of the stalk.
In reproduction the generative buds do not break away and
become free as in the Obelia.
The last items in our “ colonial” census are also known as
zoophytes, and, like those already described, have often found
their way into herbaria as sea-weeds. Covering the rounded
stem of the Delesseria is an elegantly reticulated white mesh-
work, the protective skeleton of a Polyzoan known as Mem-
branipora. The spaces of the meshwork are the cells which
separate zooids inhabited. These did not communicate with
each other like the zooids of the hydroid zoophytes. They are
much higher in organisation ; indeed it surprises one at first
sight to find them classed higher in the scale than the shell-
fish, and almost at the top of the invertebrate series. The
reason becomes apparent when the microscope reveals the fact
that they have organs betokening high-development. Each
normal zooid has an alimentary canal and a nervous system.
1890-91. | A “Colonial” Herbarium Specimen. 475
Heart and blood-vessels are absent, respiration being effected
by means of finely ciliated tentacles, borne either on a circular
or crescentic apparatus—the lophophore. The ciliary action
serves to drive food particles into the mouth, which is placed
in the centre of the lophophore, and there are special muscles
for pulling this organ within the protective cell. In some of
the group certain zooids become wonderfully metamorphosed,
so as to resemble the beaks of birds, which grasp small worms
and the like, and hold them till they decompose, and their re-
mains are swept into the mouths of the zooids. In others,
the metamorphosis results in the formation of long, very active
whips, which are understood to serve a similar purpose with
the beaks. The reproductive elements are developed inter-
nally, and when mature pass into the body-cavity, where
fertilisation takes place. The larva, having undergone segmen-
tation, passes out in a ciliated condition, to live for a time a
free and roving life. By-and-by it settles down, buds, and
forms the network described. A small portion of another
species was found on the alga. In this the cells were oval,
hyaline, and connected together like a chain.
We have thus seen that, instead of having one plant on the
sheet, as is ordinarily the case, we have had ten repre-
sentatives of the plant kingdom, and, besides, seven of the
animal kingdom. The former are members of two great’
families, the latter members of five. Think of the history and
daily doings of that colony: seventeen species struggling for
existence in less than two cubic inches of sea! Reciprocity
is at work, the plant members agreeing to exchange the
necessaries of life with the animal members. Think, too, of
the rising generation setting out to occupy new regions. All
are moving—a few by currents, the most by apparatus of
their own. What a stir there must have been sometimes
around this quiescent Delesseria—floating tetraspores, carpo-
spores, auxospores, gemmules, and frustules, mingling with the
dashing swarmspores, zoospores, free vorticelle, sponge-larvee,
medusa-buds, and young polyzoans, the commotion being
increased by the currents caused by the sponges, bell-animal-
cules, and zoophytes! And, after all, these form only a
fraction of the crowd that would sometimes be there, as all
know who have tried to identify the organisms got by dipping
476 Bear and Wolf Children. [Sess.
a jar into the summer sea. Let us, therefore, for the sake of
its record, regard our mummified herbarium specimen with
some interest. It is not the fault of the specimen, but our
own, if we are not benefited by the contemplation of it. We
are not touched by a great poem if we do not understand the
language it is written in, nor are we bettered by the possession
of such objects as this we have handled if we do not know to
some extent their life-history. And most will agree that a
day at the sea studying its living inhabitants is better than a
thousand in the mausoleum where only their remains and their
names are preserved. j
XIV.—BEAR AND WOLF CHILDREN.
By Mr SYMINGTON GRIEVE.
(April 22, 1891.)
Mr SyMINGTON GRIEVE brought before the members of the
Society the following question: “Are Human Beings ever
reared by Bears, Wolves, or other Wild Animals?” Refer-
ring in the first place to the various half-mythical stories
recorded in history of children having been reared by bears
or wolves, Mr Grieve went on to speak of the widely spread
belief in India regarding “ wolf-children,’ and adduced the
testimony of Sir William Sleeman and others on the subject.
Mr Grieve next mentioned that he had himself seen a living
example of a reputed “wolf-child,” while travelling in India
in November 1888. The history of this individual, now
erown to manhood, seemed to be well authenticated. He
was then living at St John’s Orphanage for Famine Children
at Sikandra, near Agra. Mr Grieve had taken much interest
in this case, making inquiries on the spot as to the various
circumstances connected with it. He was then led to study
the whole subject somewhat particularly, and now brought it
before the members of the Society, in order to elicit their
opinion regarding it, as well as to gain further information
upon it. Mr Grieve mentioned incidentally that Sir William
1890-91.] Lest of Plants Gathered at Excursions, 1890.. 477
Hunter evidently believed in the existence of “ wolf-children,”
and quoted a passage from that author’s ‘Indian Empire’ (p.
518) in proof of the assertion. Mr Grieve also stated that,
from inquiries he had made when in Agra, he had no doubt
the story of a wolf-boy captured near Gwalior about August
1888 was quite true, as the poor child was taken to the
hospital, and died a few weeks after admission.
In the discussion which followed several members took
part, the general feeling of the meeting evidently being, that
while the rearing of human beings by the lower animals
might not be held to be impossible, yet fuller and more trust-
worthy evidence was required before it could be regarded as
an indisputable fact.
[Since Mr Grieve introduced the above subject at the
April meeting of the Society, his attention has been drawn to
a valuable paper on “Wild Men and Wolf Children,” which
appeared in ‘Chambers’s Journal’ for June 25, 1887, and
which he desires to notice here as being well worth perusal. |
XV—LIST OF PLANTS GATHERED AT
EXCURSIONS, 1890.
By Mr ANDREW MOFFAT, SECRETARY.
Tue Excursions of the Society for 1890 were singularly unfor-
tunate in respect of weather and the small attendance of
members and friends. There were, however, two notable ex-
ceptions—the Excursion to Inverkeithing and the North Ferry
Hills, and that to West Linton, both of which were favoured
with fine weather, a very good attendance, and an exceedingly
rich gathering of plants. The railway station at North Queens-
ferry not having been yet opened for traffic, the party had to
go on to Inverkeithing, and then find its way back to the Ferry
Hills. Owing to this, many good plants growing in the imme-
diate vicinity of North Queensferry were missed; but this was
compensated for by the time afforded to botanise in the neigh-
bourhood of Inverkeithing Bay.
478 List of Plants Gathered at Excursions, 1890.. _ [Sess.
In the following list most of the more common plants are
omitted. In a few cases plants here named have been already
mentioned in former lists as growing in the same localities.’
Plants marked thus (*) were gathered either in the marsh or
among the débris to the south of Inverkeithing Bay ; those
marked thus (+), on that portion of the Ferry Hills nearest
Inverkeithing, and looking eastward towards the Firth; and
those marked thus ({), on the moor by the side of the road,
midway between West Linton and Dolphinton.
*Ranunculus sceleratus L.
R. Flammula, var. reptans L.”
R. hederaceus L.*
tArabis hirsuta R. Br.
*Cochlearia officinalis L.
*Cakile maritima Scop.
Reseda Luteola L.
Viola lutea Huds.
7Polygala vulgaris L.
*Sagina maritima Don.
*Arenaria peploides L.
7A. serpyllifolia L.
Hypericum perforatum L.
7Geranium dissectum L.
*Trifolium striatum L.
*T, procumbens L.
tLotus major Scop.
Vicia sylvatica L.*
tLathyrus macrorhizus Wimm.
{Spirea Filipendula L.
y+Agrimonia Eupatoria L.
tAlchemilla arvensis L.
{Potentilla Comarum Nestl.
+Rosa spinosissima L.
*Montia fontana L.
*Lepigonum marinum Wahl.
*tSedum villosum L.
7Scandix Pecten-veneris L.
Sambucus Ebulus L.°
{Sherardia arvensis L.
{Valeriana dioica L.
*Aster Tripolium L.
tAntennaria dioica Geert.
7Scrophularia nodosa L.
+Pedicularis sylvatica L.
+Veronica officinalis L.
+Pinguicula vulgaris L.
+Primula farinosa L.
*Glaux maritima L.
*Armeria maritima L.
*Plantago maritima L.
*Sueda maritima Dum.
*Salicornia herbacea L.
tOrchis latifolia L.
* Allium Schoenoprasum L.,
*Triglochin maritimum L.
*Fleocharis palustris Br.
*Carex stellulata Good.
*C, glauca Scop.
+Botrychium Lunaria Sw.
1 For former lists, see vol. i. pp. 254, 298; vol. ii. p. 79.
2 Shores of Loch Leven.
same locality in his time.
3 Ditches near West Linton.
Mentioned by Lightfoot (1792) as growing in the
Said only to be found here and at Windermere.
4 Abundant on the banks of the Lyne, near West Linton.
5 Found well established on the railway embankment west of Inverkeithing
bay.
Before the construction of the railway it was growing in a hedgerow
occupying as near as possible the same site.
1890-91. ] Annual Business Meeting. 479
ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING.
Tur Annual Business Meeting of the Society was held in
20 George Street on the evening of Wednesday, 28th October
1891,—Dr William Watson, President, in the Chair. The
Secretary reported that 15 general meetings of the Society
had been held during the past Session, 6 of which had been
indoor and 9 field meetings. The following are the dates and
localities of these meetings—viz. :
Inpoor Meetines: 1890—26th November, 24th Decem-
ber; 1891—28th January, 25th February, 25th March, and
22d April. Frerp Meetinas: 1891—9th May, Polton and
Roslin; 16th May, North Berwick; 23d May, Newbattle ;
30th May, Kinghorn and Seafield Tower; 6th June, Had-
dington ; 13th June, Culross; 20th June, West Linton; 4th
July, Gosford and Aberlady ; 18th July, Duddingston.
[In addition to these outdoor meetings, on the 25th of July
the Council and a number of the members met at a garden-
party, on the invitation of Charles Jenner, Esq., at Easter
Duddingston Lodge, where luncheon and tea were provided
for the company, and the afternoon was pleasantly spent in
examining the floral treasures of this famous garden. ]
The Treasurer reported that the income for the past Session,
including balance from last account and donations to the Pub-
lication Fund, amounted to £49, 13s. 34d., and the expendi-
ture to £48, 4s. 94d., leaving a balance in the Treasurer's
hands of £1, 8s. 6d. It was explained, however, that while
these figures represented the actual receipts and disbursements,
there was still due the sum of £11, 12s. on the printing ac-
count. A small committee was appointed to take steps to
wipe off, as soon as possible, this adverse balance.
It was reported that the membership of the Society for the
past Session was 167, as against 186 for the previous Session,
—24 members having withdrawn and 5 members been added
to the list during the year, showing a decrease of 19. A dis-
cussion took place as to the best means of bringing the income
and expenditure of the Society more into accord, in view of
the diminution of the membership that has been reported
annually by the Secretary for the past few years. It was
480 |. Annual Business Meeting. [Sess. 1890-91.
finally decided that, rather than curtail any of the operations
of the Society, the members should endeavour to make the
benefits to be derived from the Society more widely known,
in order to secure if possible, during the next Session, a large
increase to the membership.
The election of Office-Bearers was the next business, when,
after the various vacancies had been filled up, the complete
list stood as follows :-—
President,
T. B. Spracusr, M.A., F.R.S.E.
Vice-Presidents.
ARCHIBALD CRAIG. | Wittiam Bonnar. | SOMMERVILLE GRIEVE.
Council.
THOMAS WRIGHT. Dr Davits. Dr SEMPLE.
RurPeERT SMITH. Gro. Brrp, F.S.A. Scot. | Wiiiram Coats.
Rost. Stewart, S.S.C. E. Drenson. Wa. C. CRAwForD, M.A.
JoHN A, JOHNSTON. J. T. Mack. J. J. MAcDONALD.
Editor of ‘ Transactions.’
JOHN LINDSAY.
Secretary and Treasurer.
ANDREW Morrat.
Librarian.
JOHN LINDSAY.
Auditors.
Huen H. Pitnans; JoHN PAIRMAN, S.S.C.
Mr T. B. Sprague, the newly elected President, then took
the Chair, and briefly thanked the members for the honour
done him in calling him to this honourable position in the
Society.
TN:D EX.
Abriachan, home of the jackdaw in,
446.
Allan, J.: Jottings on a Ramble in
Wester Ross, 23.
Ancient Lake-deposit in Queen’s Park,
an, 135.
Andromeda Family, the, 457.
Anglesea, Stray Notes on the Birds of,
360.
Animals of Banda, the, 205.
Animals of Gurhwal, the, 291 e¢ seq.
Apochromatic Object-glasses, 21.
Archeological excursions, 92.
Arrin-a-chruinach, Ross-shire, descrip-
tion of, 25 et seq.
Aulacodiscus Ehrb., Remarks on the
Genus, 183.
Bacteria, Dr Alex. Edington on, 274.
Balance of Nature, Rats and the, 323.
Bears, Wolves, or other Wild Animals,
are Human Beings ever reared by ?
476.
Bird Life, Notes on, 12, 260.
Birds’ nests, out-of-the-way places for,
13.
Birds of Anglesea, Stray Notes on the,
360.
Birds of Banda, the, 206.
Birds of Kumaon, the, 402 et seq.
Birds of the Great Glen, 439.
Bombay to Jeypore, a Few Notes on a
Journey from, 310.
Botanical Work in the Field, a Few
Suggestions on, 3.
British Plants, Notes on Some New
and Rare, 55.
Brochs, Notices of the, at Kintail and
Glenelg, 234 et seq.
Budrienath, pilgrimages to the temple
of, 289.
Business Meetings, Annual, 90, 193,
279, 391, 479.
Centipede, story of a, 209.
Cholera in the Himalayas, 399 eé seq.
Coats, W.: Optical Phenomenon seen
in Glenure, 159.
Coats, W.: On Sclerenchymatous Cells,
378.
Cockburns of Ormiston Hall, notice of
the, 32.
Colletia, the Genus, 252.
“Colonial” Herbarium Specimen, a,
469.
Coniferze, Notes on the, 126.
Cornerake, the, as a ventriloquist, 16.
Craig, A.: The Paride or Titmice, 41.
On an Ornithological Visit to
Warwickshire, 141.
Kintail and Glenelg,
Notices of the Brochs, 229.
Stray Notes on the Birds of
Anglesea, 360.
— Birds of the Great Glen, 439.
Craigmillar Castle, excursion to, 195.
Crow, a patriarchal, 16. .
Crows, British and Indian estimates of,
compared, 404.
Cuckoo, an imprisoned, 265.
with
Dark-ground Illumination, on, as show-
ing Peculiarities of certain Diatoms,
56.
Delesseria, description of, 470.
Diatoms, occurrence of, in sea-urchins,
354.
Diatoms of Linlithgow Loch, the, 80.
Diatoms, the structure of, 471.
Diatoms upon dark-ground illumina-
tion, 59—upon polarised dark-
ground illumination, 128.
Diseases of Gurhwal, the, 305 et seg.
Diseases of Kumaon, the, 398 et seq.
Don, George, as a field botanist, 7.
Dornie village, Ross-shire, description
of, 230.
Dry-rot, on, 179, 246.
Eagle’s Nest, How, I Robbed the, and
Why, 463.
Echinoidea or Sea-urchins, on the, 341.
Edington, Dr Alex., on Bacteria, 274.
Elk-shooting in Norway, 220 et seq.
Entomological clock, an, 297.
Eucalyptus globulus, Note on, 165.
482
‘‘ Fairy stones,” exhibition of, 384.
Fasciation, on, 82.
Fawside or Falside Castle, 72.
Fish-gorges, some curious forms of, 467.
Fishing, on a Peculiar Mode of, in the |
Estuary of the Thames, 467.
Forgan, W.: Apochromatic Object-
glasses, 21.
Fossils of the Red Crag and Chalk
Pits, Suffolk, 51.
Fraser, H. : On Fasciation, 82.
Notes on the Conifers, 126.
Note on Eucalyptus globulus,
165.
——— The Genus Colletia, 252.
The Kaurie Pine (Dammara
australis), 357.
The Andromeda Family, 457.
Frazer, A.: A New Form of Freezing
and Embedding Microtome, 189.
Fungus Folk-Lore, 175.
Garden-Spider, the, as an Architect, 337.
Glenelg, Kintail and, with Notices of
the Brochs, 229.
Glenure, Optical Phenomenon seen in,
159.
Gold-crest, description of the, 263.
Great Auk or Garefowl, Recent Notes
on the, 93.
Great Glen, Birds of the, 439.
‘¢Green Balls,” the, of Loch Kildonan,
420.
Grieve, Sommerville: The Common
Lump-fish (Cyclopterus lwmpus), 413.
Grieve, Symington: On Botanical Work
in the Field, 3.
Notes on Some New and Rare
British Plants, 55.
Recent Notes on the Great Auk
or Garefowl, 93.
——— A Few Notes on a Journey from
Bombay to Jeypore, Rajputana, 310.
— Are Human Beings ever reared
by Bears, Wolves, or other Wild
Animals ? 476.
Grouse Disease, 82.
Gurhwal, a District in the Himalayas,
an Account of, 281.
Hailes Quarry, excursion to, 196.
Hare, the, 64.
Herbarium Specimen, a ‘‘ Colonial,”
469.
Herbert, A. B.: Swallows and Starlings
feeding in Concert, 71.
——— A Few Notes on Bird Life, &c.,
260.
The Tufted Duck (fuligula
cristata), 382.
— On a Peculiar Mode of Fishing
in the Estuary of the Thames, 467.
Index.
| Hoopoe in Westmoreland, the, 308.
Hume, W.: Hume’s Projection Micro-
scope, 61.
Hurdwar, the Hindoo yearly festival at,
288.
Ichneumon or Mungoos, the, 253.
India, botany and geology of, 198 ef
seq.
India, British rule in, 410.
India, Notes on Natural History in,
197.
Indian hill mina, story of an, 407.
Indian native bridges, 283.
In Memoriam: John Allan, 275.
Jackdaw, home of the, in Abriachan,
446.
Jain temples at Delwada, Rajputana,
visit to, 315 et seq.
Johnston, J. A., and J. Lindsay: An
Ancient Lake-deposit in Queen’s
Park, 135.
Jottings on a Ramble in Wester Ross,
23.
Kaurie Pine, the, 357.
Kidarnath, pilgrimages to the temple
of, 289.
King, M.: Plant Multiplication, 416.
Kingfisher, the, 153, 267, 411.
Kintail and Glenelg, with Notices of
the Brochs, 229.
Kumaon, a Description of, in the
Central Himalayas, 393.
Lakes, absence of, in the Himalayas,
394.
Lapp village, visit to a, 218.
Leper hospital, visit to a Norwegian,
215.
Leprosy in the Himalayas, 398.
Liberton magpie, the, 388 et seq.
Lightfoot, Dr John, as a field botanist,
9.
Lindsay, J. : Ormiston Hall—its Yew-
tree and other Antiquities, 30.
——— The Diatoms of Linlithgow
Loch, 80.
—w— In Memoriam: John Allan, 275.
—— On the Echinoidea or Sea-
urchins, 341.
The Structure and Life-history
of a Sponge, 428.
and J. A. Johnston: An Ancient
Lake-deposit in Queen’s Park, 135.
Linlithgow Loch, the Diatoms of, 80.
Lump-fish, the Common, 413.
Magpie, the, 384.
Microscopic apparatus, some new, 20,
82, 192.
Index.
Microscopic Section, Meetings of, 89,
192, 279.
Microtome, a New Form of Freezing
and Embedding, 189.
M‘Kean, Miss M.: The Fossils of the
Red Crag and Chalk Pits, Suffolk,
BI:
Moffat, A.: Exhibition of a White
Sparrow, 19.
——— Lists of Plants gathered at Ex-
eursions, 79, 477.
Mungoos or Ichneumon, the, 253.
Naini Tal, the Lake of, 396 e¢ seq.
Natural History in India, Notes on,
197.
Natural History Notes, 422.
Natural History, Some Peculiar Occur-
rences in, 155.
Nightingale, the, as a song-bird, 146.
Night-jar, description of the, 366 e¢ seq.
Northern Cliffs, Round about the, 372.
Norway, a Sporting Tour in, 209.
Norwegian salmon, cast for a, 211.
Oak-leaves, exhibition of, 72.
Oliphant, J. C., on Bermuda, 246.
Optical Phenomenon seen in Glenure,
159.
Ormiston Hall—Its Yew-tree and other
Antiquities, 30.
‘Ormiston Laurel,” the, 40.
Ornithological Visit to Warwickshire,
on an, 141.
Owls, staple food of, 335.
Paride or Titmice, the, 41.
Parsee funeral rites, 313.
Penman, W., F.R.M.S.: On Dark-
ground Illumination, as showing
Peculiarities of certain Diatoms, 56.
Polarised Dark-ground I]lumin-
ation, 127.
Photo-micrographs, apparatus for tak-
ing, 88.
Phytelephas macrocarpa or Ivory Palm,
the, 459.
Plague in the Himalayas, the, 305 et
seq., 398.
Plant Multiplication, 416.
Plants, List of, gathered in Switzer-
land, 174.
Plants, Lists of, gathered at Excur-
sions, 79, 477.
Plants of Gurhwal, the, 298 et seq.
Polarised Dark-ground Illumination,
127.
Polyporus giganteus or giant sap-ball,
the, 18
Projection Microscope, Hume’s, 61.
Puftin Island, Anglesea, bird life, &c.,
of, 371.
483
Queen’s Park, an Ancient Lake-deposit
in, 135.
Rats and the Balance of Nature, 323.
Rats, fecundity of, 327.
Rattray, J., M.A., B.Se.: Remarks on
the Genus Aulacodiscus Ehrb., 183.
Reproduction in sponges, 436.
Rook, the, 120.
Round about the Northern Cliffs, 372.
Royal Botanic Garden, bird life in the,
12 et seq.
Salmon-fishing in Norway, incident of,
211.
Scandinavian plants, representatives of,
in Scotland, 11.
Sclerenchymatous Cells, on, 378.
Scott Elliot, G. F., M.A., B.Sc. :
Lectures by, on the Life-history of a
Plant, 192.
“Sea-fyke,” Note on, 437.
Sea-urchins, the Echinoidea or, 341.
Seeds, dispersion of, 418 ef seq.
Speedy, T.: The Hare, 64.
Grouse Disease, 82.
The Rook, 120.
Stoats and Weasels, 166.
A Sporting Tour in Norway, 209.
—— Rats and the Balance of Nature,
323.
—— The Magpie, 384.
—— The Kingfisher, 411.
— How I Robbed the Eagle’s Nest,
and Why, 463.
Sponge spicules, description of, 432.
Sponge, the Structure and Life-history
of a, 428.
Sporting Tour in Norway, a, 209.
Sprague, Mrs: List of Plants gathered
in Switzerland, 174.
Sprague, T. B., M.A.: The ‘‘ Green
Balls” of Loch Kildonan, 420.
Starlings, Swallows and, feeding in
Concert, 71.
Steele, A. B. : Polyporus giganteus, 18.
Fungus Folk-Lore, 175.
——— On Dry-rot, 246.
Stewart, R.,.S.8.C.: Notes on Bird-
Life, 12.
Some Peculiar Occurrences in
Natural History, 155.
The Ichneumon or Mungoos,
253.
— The Garden- Spider (Zpeira
diadema) as an Architect, 337.
——w— Natural History Notes, 422.
Stoats and Weasels, 166.
Sutherland, J.: Round
Northern Cliffs, 372.
Swallows and Starlings feeding in
Concert, 71.
about the
484 Index.
Switzerland, List of Plants gathered
in, 174.
Tait, J. W.: On Embedding and Cut-
ting Animal Tissues, 251.
——— On the Development of the
Embryo in a Flowering Plant,
391.
Towers of Silence, the, at Bombay,
visit to, 311.
Tufted Duck, the, 382.
Vegetable Ivory, on, 459.
Vorticella or bell-animalcule, the, 473.
Walcot, J.: The Hoopoe in Westmore-
land, 308.
Warwickshire, on an Ornithological
Visit to, 141.
Watson, Dr Wm.: Notes on Natural
History in India, 197.
Watson, Dr Wm.: An Account of Gurh-
wal, a District in the Himalayas, 281.
—— Description of Kumaon, in the
Central Himalayas, 393.
Weasels, Stoats and, 166.
Wester Ross, Jottings on a Ramble in,
23.
Westmoreland, the Hoopoe in, 308.
White Sparrow, Exhibition of a, 19.
Whittingham yew, the, 39.
Wilson, J. H., D.Sc. : A ‘‘ Colonial”
Herbarium Specimen, 469.
Wood, T. A. Douglas: Fawside or
Falside Castle, 72.
Wright, T.: Exhibition of ‘‘ fairy
stones,” 384.
On Vegetable Ivory (Phytele-
phas macrocarpa), 459.
Yew-tree at Ormiston Hall the, 37,
et seq.
LIST OF PAST PRESIDENTS.
Dr Rost, Brown 1869. | wy gy Watcor 79-1882
Mr R. Scor SKIRVING, 1869-1874, iets cls ; Eppa tae
Mr A. B. Herpert, 1882-1885.
Mr Wm. Gorrir
(deceased), 1874-1877. Mr SymineTon Grigve, 1885-1888.
Rev. R. F. Cotvin s i TATAR
(eceased); 1877-1879. | Dr Wint1am W ATSON, 1888-1891.
OFFICE-BEARERS, 1891-92.
President,
T. B. Spracur, M.A,, F.R.S.E.
Vice- Presidents,
ArcHp. Craig. | Wuiiam Bonnar, | SomMERvVILLE GRIEVE.
Council,
THomas WricHt, | E. Denson.
Rupert Smiru. J. T. Mack.
Rosert Srewart, §.8.C. | Dr SEMPLE.
Joun A, Jounsron, Witttam Coats.
Dr Davies. Wittiam C, Crawrorp, M.A,
GEORGE Brrp, F.S.A. Scot. | J, J. Macponatp,
Gditor of ‘ Transactions.’
JoHN LInpsay.
Secretary and Treasurer.
ANDREW Morrar,
Xrbrarian.
JoHN Linpsay,
Auditors.
Hucu H. Pittans; Joun ParIRMAN, 8.8.C,
LIST OF MEMBERS, 1890-91.
(Original Members marked thus *. Life Members marked thus +.)
Honorurp Members.
Brown, Ropert, Ph.D., F.L.S.,° London.
HENDERSON, Prof. Joun R., M.B., C.M., The College, Madras,
Corresponding Wembers.
ARCHIBALD, STEWART, Carroch, Kirriemuir.
CRUICKSHANK, T. M., South Ronaldshay,
Hoxgxirk, CHarues P., Huddersfield.
Hossacx, B. H., Craigie Field, Kirkwall,
THomson, JoHN, Stobo,
XXVi
10
20
30
Ordinary
Adam, James, Comely Park, Dun-
fermline.
Alexander, Miss Tina, 25 Gillespie
Crescent.
Anderson, Miss, 3 Gladstone Place.
Archibald, Jas., 13 Clifton Terrace.
Ayton, Alex., 43 N. Bruntsfield PI.
Bashford, W. T., Argyle House,
Portobello.
Bathgate, John, 8 Wardie Avenue.
Bell, George, 11 Dundonald Street
Bell, John M., W.S., East Mor-
ningside. House.
Bird, George, F.S.A. Scot., 24 Queen
Street.
Black, William, 8.8.C., 38 Hanover
Street.
Boa, Peter, 119 George Street.
Bonnar, Wm., 8 Lauriston Park.
Bryden, Mrs, 72 Great King Street.
Bryden, Miss, 72 Great King Street.
Buncle, James, Hope Street.
Burns, Miss, 15 Greenbank Terrace.
Cairns, Wm. M‘Gregor, 16 South
Charlotte Street.
Carter, A. EK. J., 9 Argyle Crescent,
Portobello.
Clapperton, Mrs Wm., 9 Strathearn
Road.
Clark, Alex., S.S.C., 804 Princes St.
Clark, William, 63 Montgomery
Street.
Coats, William, 21 Nelson Street.
Cochran, Henry, 21 St Andrew
Square.
Cooper, James, 31 Howe Street.
Cowan, Charles Wm., Valleyfield,
Penicuik.
Coyne, R, A. F. A., 7 Greenbank
Terrace.
Craig, Archibald, 13 M‘Laren Road.
Craig, Mrs Arch., 13 M‘Laren Road.
Crawford, Wm. C., M.A., 1 Lock-
harton Gardens, Slateford.
Davies, Arthur Ellson, Ph.D., F.L.S.,
48 Craigmillar Park.
Denson, E., 9 West Catherine Place.
Deuchar, Mrs, Harlaw, Hope Ter-
race.
Dobbin, Leonard, Ph.D., F.R.S.E.,
16 Kilmaurs Road.
aul
40
50
60
70
List of Members, 1890-91.
embers.
Dobbin, Mrs Leonard, 16 Kilmaurs
Road.
Dowell, Mrs, 13 Palmerston Place.
Dowell, Miss, 13 Palmerston Place.
Duncan, Esdaile, Dean Public
School.
Dunn, Malcolm, Palace Gardens,
Dalkeith.
Eld, Thos. W., 20 Warrender Park
Crescent.
Ewart, James, 1 Dundas Street.
Farquharson, Miss, Roseville, St
Catherine’s Place, Grange.
Farquharson, Thomas Ker, 100
Thirlestane Road.
Ferguson, John, 15 Brighton Place,
Portobello.
Flett, John 8., 52 Elm Row.
Forbes, Miss Mary, 5 Brunstane
Road, Joppa.
Forgan, William, 3 Warriston Cres.
Forster, Miss Dora, 1 Moredun Cres,
Fraser, Charles, 13 Greenhill Place.
Fraser, Mrs, 13 Greenhill Place.
Fraser, Hugh, Leith Walk Nurseries.
Fraser, Jas., 50 Albany St., Leith.
*Fraser, P, Neill, Rockville, Murray-
field.
Gardiner, Herbert L., 25 India St.
Gibb, Philip B., M.A., 14 Picardy
Place.
Gloag, David, 9 Barnton Terrace.
Goodchild, Herbert, 18 Dalhousie
Terrace.
Gray, Jos. T., M.A., Parkside.
Grieve, Miss Amelia, Salisbury View,
Dalkeith Road.
Grieve, Sommerville,
Crescent.
Grieve, Symington, 1 Burgess Ter.
Grieve, Mrs Symington, 1 Burgess
Terrace.
Guthrie, Mrs, West Grange.
Hart, James, M.A., Dean Public
School.
Hately, W., 5 Admiral Terrace.
Heggie, John, 1 Greenbank Terrace,
Henderson, John, 10 Salisbury St.
Herbert, A. B., London.
Horne, Oswald, 6 Queen Street.
Hume, William, 1 Lothian Street.
21 Queen’s
t+Jenner, Charles,
80
90
100
List of Members, 1890-91.
Hunter, Robert, 23 Pitt St., Porto-
bello.
Hutchison, Robert,
Bellevue Crescent.
Inches, Miss Ella M., Strathearn
House, Strathearn Road.
Inglis, Alexander, Northbank, Bow-
den, St Boswells,
F.R.S.E., Easter
Duddingston Lodge.
Johnston, George P., 33 George St.
Johnston, John A., 7 Annandale
Street.
Keith, Sydney, 69 So. Clerk Street.
Kilgour, Thos. W., 4 East Brighton
Crescent, Portobello.
King, J. Falconer, Minto House.
King, Mark, 120 Pitt Street, Leith.
Laidlaw, Thomas, 9 So. St Andrew
Street.
Laughton, Wm., So. Darenth, Kent.
Law, Mrs John, 41 Heriot Row.
Lee, William, 9 Granby Road, W.
Craigmillar Park.
Lennie, Joseph C., Rose
Trinity Road.
Lewis, David, 32 Findhorn Place.
Lindsay, James, jun., The Firs, 10
Craigmillar Park.
Lindsay, John, 43 James St., Pilrig.
Livingstone, Matthew, 108 Gilmore
Place.
Lockie, John, C.E., 39 Restalrig Ter.
Macadam, W. Ivison, F.C.S., F.LC.,
F.R.S.E., Surgeons’ Hall.
Macdonald, J. J., 7 West Catherine
Place.
Macfarlane, J. M., D.Sc., F.R.S.E.,
15 Scotland Street.
M‘Intosh, James, 42 Queen Street.
Mack, J. T., Office of Fishery Board
for Scotland, 101 George Street.
M‘Laren, J. R., M.A., 9 Gt. King St.
Maconochie, Arthur, 30 Warrender
Park Terrace.
Macpherson, C. E. W., C.A., 28
St Andrew Square.
Methven, John, 6 Bellevue Crescent.
Millar, R. C., C.A., 8 Broughton PI.
Millar, Thomas John, M.A., 8
Broughton Place.
Moffat, Andrew, 5 Scone Gardens.
Moffat, Geo. L., 5 Scone Gardens.
Morison, Mrs, 24 Great King Street,
Mossman, Robert, 10 Blacket Place.
Neill, John, 3 Sylvan Place.
F.R.S.E., 11
Park,
XXVii
Nelson, W. F., Salisbury Green.
Nesbit, John, 162 High Street,
Portobello.
110 Norfor, Robt. T., C.A., 47 So.
Bruntsfield Place.
Ogilvie, Miss, 18 Buckingham Ter.
Oliphant, J. C., M.A., 23 Charlotte
Square.
Oliver, John 8., 12 Greenhill Park.
Pairman, Jn.,$.S.C., 130 George St.
Paton, Henry, 15 Myrtle Terrace.
Peach, B. N., 13 Dalrymple Cres.
Peach, Mrs, 13 Dalrymple Crescent.
Pillans, Hugh H., 12 Dryden Place.
Purves, Samuel, 70 Haymarket Ter.
120 Ranken, William, 11 Spence Street.
Reid, Andrew, 1 East Trinity Road.
Robertson, George, Lothian Road
Public School.
Saxby, Charles F., Regina, Canada.
Scott, Alex., 27 Heriot Row.
Semple, Andrew, Deputy Surgeon
General H.M.S., Caledonian
United Service Club.
Simpson, James, 4 Middlefield, Leith
Walk.
* Skirving, R. Scot, 29 Drummond Pl.
Smith, Harry W., Norwood, 8 Kil-
graston Road.
Smith, Dr James, 1 Parson’s Green
Terrace.
130 Smith, Rupert, 20 Leopold Place.
Smith, Walter A., Falcon Lodge,
Murrayfield.
Speedy, Tom, The Inch, Liberton.
Sprague, T. B., M.A., F.R.S.E., 29
Buckingham Terrace.
Sprague, Mrs T. B., 29 Buckingham
Terrace,
Steele, Adam B., 10 Comely Bank.
Steele, Miss, 33 Upper Gray Street.
Stevenson, Miss, 2 Albert Place.
Stewart, Miss, 7 Gt. Stuart Street.
Stewart, Robert, 8.8.C., 7 Hast
Claremont Street.
140 Stewart, William D., 62 Princes
Street.
Stiell, William, 9 Royal Circus,
Sutherland, John, 21 Brougham St.
Tait, John Scott, C.A., 8 Claremont
Terrace.
Tait, John W., 68 Montgomery St.
Taylor, William, M.D., 12 Melville
Street.
Terras, James, B.Sc., 40 Findhorn
Place.
XXVili
150
Thomson, Thomas, 11 Dundonald
Street.
Tod, Andrew, Elmpark, Ettrick Rd.
Turnbull, George, 16 Thistle Street.
Usher, Andrew, Blackford House.
Walcot, John, 50 Northumberland
Street.
Walker, David, 61 Great King St.
Wallace, Prof. Robert, University,
Edinburgh.
Wallace, William, St Boswells.
Walton, Frederick, 40 Frederick St. |
Watson, Dr William, Lockharton,
Slateford.
160
Aw.
16 MAY.93
List of Members, 1890-91.
Watson, Mrs, Lockharton, Slateford.
White, Miss, 7 Lutton Place.
Wilson, George A., 46 Queensferry
Street.
Wilson, James T., Restalrig House.
Wilson, J. H., D.Sc., F.R.S:E.,
Royal Botanic Garden,
Wilson, Miss Katie, 2 Archibald PI.
Wood, T. A. D., F.S.A. Scot., View-
forth, Brunstane Road, Joppa.
Woodhead, Dr G. Sims, London.
Wright, Thomas, 6 Greenside Place.
Yorkston, James, 3 Grange Road.
' 167 Young, David E., 131 Mayfield Rd.
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