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ANNALS 


OF 


POLITICS   AND    CULTUKE 

(1492—1899) 


loiillOfi:    C.  J.   CLAY  and  SONS, 
CAMBRIDGE  UNIVERSITY    PRESS  WAREHOUSE, 

AVE  MARIA  LANE. 

•lugoto:  80,  WELLINGTON  STREET. 


%tvniU :   F.  A.  BROCKHAU8. 

Ileto  HoTfi:  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 

VombaB:   B.  SEYMOUR  HALE. 


ANNALS 


OF 


POLITICS  AND  CULTUKE 


(1492-1899) 


BY 

G.   p.   GOOCH,  M.A. 

ULTS   BOHOLAB  OF  TBINITT  COLLEOX,    OAMBBIDOS. 
AUTHOR  or   *SNOLIBH  DBMOCBATIC  IDEAS  IM  THB   UTXNTESNTH  OSNTUBT.' 


WITH  AN  INTRODUCTORY  NOTE  BY  LORD  ACTON. 


CAMBRIDGE : 
AT    THE    UNIVERSITY    PRESS 

1901 

[All  Rights  reserved,] 


<2rambrUi0e: 

PRINTED   BT  J.   AND   C.   F.    CLAT, 
▲T  THE   UNIVEBSITT   PRRHH. 


r^ 


\* 


INTRODUCTORY  NOTK 


T17H0EVER  desires  to  understand  modem  times,  the  prize  of 
^^  all  History,  and  to  trace  the  causes  that  made  the  present 
world,  knows  the  need  of  a  plain  guide  to  facts  and  books,  as 
a  deliverance  from  abridgments,  and  an  aid  to  fuller  information* 
The  present  volume  has  been  written  by  a  man  of  rare  ability 
and  attainment,  surrounded  and  supported  by  auxiliary  experts. 

Mr  Gooch  gives  first  of  all  the  external  course  of  public  events 
which  are  the  essential  basis  of  History.  But  a  man  ignorant 
of  the  Adviincement  of  Learning,  the  Principia,  or  the  Analogy ^ 
would  possess  little  of  that  which  makes  such  studies  interesting 
and  valuable  for  the  formation  of  the  mind;  and  many  of  our 
mast  instructive  historians,  Whewell,  Max  MtiUer,  Lightfoot,  Rash- 
dall,  Leslie  Stephen,  are  not  concerned,  directly,  with  politics. 

It  would  be  an  arbitrarj'  and  unscientific  definition  which 
should  exclude  them  and  the  topics  on  which  they  write  from 
their  proper  position ;  for  History  embraces  ideas  as  much  as 
events,  and  derives  its  best  virtue  from  regions  beyond  the  sphere 
of  State. 

No  previous  writer  has  grasped  this  fundamental  truth  with 
deeper  conviction  and  understanding  than  Mr  Gooch.  Viewing 
Modem  History  as  a  whole,  he  does  justice  to  its  several  elements, 
to  thought  as  well  as  action,  to  the  mass  of  influences  which 
constitute  opinion  and  govern  the  life  of  nations  and  the  progress 
of  civilization. 

ACTON. 

January^  1901. 


PREFACE. 


rriHE  present  work  was  undertaken  at  the  suggestion  of  Lord 
-*-  Acton,  in  the  belief  that  it  might  be  useful,  not  only  for 
students  but  for  the  general  reader,  to  possess  a  concise  summary  of 
modern  times,  embracing  the  life  of  mankind  in  its  entire  range  of 
thought  and  action.  No  presentation  of  history  can  be  adequate 
which  neglects  the  growth  of  the  religions  consciousness,  of  literature, 
of  the  moral  and  physical  sciences,  of  art,  of  scholarship,  of  social 
life.  Numerous  handbooks  deal  with  politics  alone,  and  a  few  with 
what  the  Germans  call  '  Rultur-Geschichte ' ;  but  no  systematic 
attempt  has  hitherto  been  made  either  in  English  or  in  other 
languages  to  combine  them.  The  plan  of  the  book  which,  not  less 
than  the  idea,  represents  a  new  departure,  may  be  briefly  explained. 
The  left-hand  page  deals  with  Politics,  the  right-hand  page  with 
what  I  have  termed,  for  the  sake  of  brevity.  Culture.  The  Politics 
and  Culture  of  each  year  are,  as  nearly  as  possible,  level,  in  order 
that  the  reader  may  see  at  a  glance  what  was  taking  place  in  the 
chief  departments  of  thought  and  action  at  any  given  moment.  It 
will  also  be  noticed  that  each  paragraph  is  numbered.  By  this 
means  the  student  is  enabled  to  trace  through  the  centuries  the 
growth  of  a  country,  a  literature,  a  science,  or  an  art.  If,  for  instance, 
we  wish  to  discover  the  main  outlines  of  the  history  of  Poland,  or 
Italian  Literature,  or  Geology,  or  the  Jesuits,  we  turn  to  the  index 
and  find  under  these  names  the  paragraph  numbers  of  the  entries 
relating  to  them.  In  this  way  what  may  be  called  a  system  of  double 
entry  is  obtained :  in  the  fii*st  place,  we  find  what  may  be  called  the 


Vlil  PREFACE. 

context  of  an  event,  and,  secondly,  we  are  enabled  to  discover  in 
what  relation  the  special  link  that  we  are  holding  stands  to  the  rest 
of  the  chain. 

It  need  scarcely  be  said  that  such  a  survey  aims  only  at  the 
inclusion  of  what  are  commonly  regarded  as  the  most  notable  events. 
Every  handbook  is  written  from  some  standpoint,  its  plan  being 
governed  by  the  desire  to  supply  the  needs  of  those  by  whom  it  will 
probably  be  used.  In  the  present  instance  more  space  is  devoted  to 
England  than  to  France ;  to  West  than  to  East  Europe ;  to  North 
America  than  to  South  America;  to  India  than  to  China;  to  South 
Africa  than  to  Morocco. 

A  work  covering  such  a  large  field  would  properly  require  a 
committee  of  specialists ;  and  the  present  writer  would  send  out  his 
book  with  far  greater  hesitation  were  it  not  for  the  ready  response 
with  which  his  requests  for  the  revision  of  certain  parts  of  the  work 
have  been  met.  To  Lord  Acton  is  due,  as  I  have  already  said,  both 
the  idea  and  the  form  of  the  work ;  and  he  has  also  found  time  to 
read  the  greater  part  of  the  proofs  and  to  write  an  Introductory 
Note.  To  him  belongs  the  greater  part  of  whatever  value  the  book 
may  be  held  to  possess.  Mr  Archbold,  one  of  the  sub-editors  of  the 
Dictionary  of  National  Biography,  and  author  of  The  Dissolution  of 
the  Somersetshire  Monasteries,  has  kindly  revised  the  greater  number 
of  the  pages  relating  to  the  16th  century.  The  paragraphs  dealing 
with  Philology  and  Scholarship  have  been  revised  by  Professor  Sir 
Richard  Jebb,  M.P. ;  Italian,  Spanish,  and  Portuguese  literature 
by  Dr  Oamett;  Dutch,  Danish,  and  Scandinavian  literature  by 
Mr  Edmund  Gosse ;  Education  by  Mr  J.  B.  Mullinger,  author  of  the 
History  of  the  University  of  Cambridge ;  Physics  and  Astronomy  by 
Mr  Arthur  Berry,  Fellow  of  King's  College,  Cambridge,  and  author 
of  A  History  of  Astronomy ;  Mathematics  by  Mr  Rouse  Ball,  author 
of  numerous  works  on  the  history  of  Mathematics,  and  by  Mr  Sedgwick, 
Senior  Wrangler  in  1894;  the  Biological  Sciences  by  Mr  W.  M. 
Fletcher,  Fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge;  Chemistry  by 
Mr  J.  E.  Purvis,  assistant  to  Professor  Liveing  in  the  University  of 
Cambridge;  Geology  by  Mr  Thomas,  assistant  to  Professor  Sollas  in 


PREFACE.  IX 

the  University  of  Oxford;  the  Painting  of  the  IGth  century  by 
Mr  Roger  Fry,  author  of  a  Study  of  Oiovanni  Bellini;  Law  by 
Mr  Reddaway,  Fellow  of  King's  College,  Cambridge,  author  of  The 
Munroe  Doctrine]  Music  by  Mr  H.  W.  Richards,  Mus.Bac.  To  all 
of  these,  and  to  other  friends,  I  am  indebted  for  valuable  suggestions 
and  corrections;  but  the  responsibility  for  the  errors,  which  are 
probably  only  too  numerous,  is  mine  alone.  I  shall  be  sincerely 
grateful  to  all  those  who  are  good  enough  to  inform  me  of  any 
mistakes  or  omissions  which  they  may  happen  to  detect. 

I  have  added  a  selected  list  of  guides  to  the  various  subjects 
dealt  with  in  the  book.  Numberless  Bibliographies  exist;  but  some 
are  useless  for  the  general  reader  by  their  very  completeness,  some 
again  are  too  elementary  to  be  of  value  to  any  but  beginners,  while 
others  are  rendered  worthless  for  advanced  students  by  omitting 
works  written  in  foreign  languages.  The  present  attempt  includes 
only  the  most  important  and  reliable  guides  in  English,  French, 
German,  Italian  and  Spanish.  References  to  less  familiar  languages 
would,  I  believe,  be  of  little  use.  The  Bibliography  has  been 
rendered  less  imperfect  by  the  kindness  of  Dr  Ward,  Master  of 
Peterhouse,  whose  profound  acquaintance  with  foreign  scholarship 
requires  no  testimony. 

Mrs  Marian  Marshall  has  been  good  enough  to  assist  in  preparing 
the  Index  for  the  press. 

G.  P.  G. 

8,    PORCHESTEB  GaTE, 
W. 

January,  1901. 


ERRATA. 


Page 

1    12 

.  §      88. 

26, 

,  §    i^. 

45 

,  §    279. 

108 

.  §    545. 

114, 

§    572. 

185, 

,  S  1373. 

198, 

,  §    978. 

241, 

,  §  1853. 

277, 

,  §  2166. 

286 

,  §  1424. 

806, 

§  1527. 

841, 

§  2625. 

879, 

.  S  2963. 

888, 

§  2986. 

889 

,  §  3038. 

889, 

§  3058. 

895, 

§  3103. 

400, 

§  1986. 

422, 

§  2070. 

431, 

S  3406. 

431, 

§  3410. 

439, 

§  3472. 

439, 

§  3486. 

447, 

§  3562. 

464. 

for  'King'  r^od  *Dake.' 

for  *AlexaDder*  read  *Aleander.* 

Montemayor's  Diana;  more  probably  1558  or  1559. 

Transfer  *the  King,*  etc.  to  §  544. 

for  'routes'  read  'routs.* 

for  'Foxe*  read  «Fox.* 

Transfer  *  Stanhope,'  etc.  to  §  977. 

for  'Abbot*  read  'Abt* 

for  'Walker*  read  'Walter.* 

for  'Thirlwall*  read  'ThelwaU.* 

for  'Napoleon*  read  'Bonaparte.* 

for  'Archaeology*  read  'Anthropology.* 

for  'History*  read  'Philosophy.* 

'Martensen/  etc.  should  be  headed  'Danish  Church.* 

for  'Frederick*  read  'Bichard.* 

for  'Hooper*  read  'Hooker.' 

for  'Bead*  read  'Beade.' 

for  'Fidazdo*  read  'Fidardo.' 

for  'Beichtag'  read  'Beichstag.' 

for  'Lembroso'  read  'Lombroso.* 

for  'Lay,'  read  'Clerical.' 

Transfer  to  §  3382. 

for  'Volometer'  read  'Bolometer.' 

Transfer  '  Blunt,'  etc.  to  §  3564. 

Last  two  lines  should  be  headed  'Asia.* 


ADDENDA. 

(Anno) 

1518.  Hans  Sachs'  first  poems.     (German  Lit) 

1552.  Joao  de  Barros*  Asia  Portugueza.     (Portuguese  Lit.) 

1792.  Arthur  Young's  Travels  in  France.     (Economics.) 

1887.  Michelet's  Histoire  de  France.     (History.) 


OMIT. 


age    55,  §    355. 

'Cortes.' 

„       80,  §    382. 

» unsuccessfully.* 

„       85.  §    601. 

„      127,  §    956. 

'Torricelli.* 

„      150,  §    742. 

'the  pacification— 1661.* 

„      174,  §     844. 

'  Aurungzebe — Mahrattas. ' 

„      179,  §  1337. 

'Calderon.' 

„      191,  §  1427. 

'Temple.' 

„     237,  §  1828. 

„     241,  §  1859. 

'Maflfei.' 

„      243,  §  1879. 

'Jussieu.' 

„     253,  §  1962. 

'  Sprengel— insects.  * 

„      273,  §  2136. 

'enters — and.' 

„      430,  §  2116. 

'Ex- judges  and  Life  Peers 

„      44r>,  §  3532. 

'  Hawthorne.* 

CHEONOLOGICAL 


TABLES. 


^^7     °- 


POLITICS 


1.  England.  Perkin  Warbeck  of  Toumai,  acclaimed  Duke  ri^go 
of  York  by  Desmond  and  Kildare  1491,  is  invited  to  the  Court    '■ 

of  France. 

Henry  VII.  undertakes  an  expedition  to  France  (for  which  money  is 
raised  by  Benevolences)  to  punish  Charles  VIII.  for  his  marriage  with 
Anne  of  Brittany  and  the  union  of  the  last  great  independent  lief  with 
the  French  crown.  On  commencing  the  siege  of  Boulogne,  however,  he  is 
bought  off,  and  returns  after  signing  the  Peace  of  Staples,  by  which 
Warbeck  is  expelled  from  France. 

2.  Spain.  The  1 1  years*  war  caused  by  the  refusal  of  tribute  by  the 
Moors  ends  with  the  capture  of  Granada,  chiefly  owing  to  the  divisions 
among  the  Moorish  chiefs.  The  termination  of  the  struggle  of  800 
years  is  celebrated  throughout  Christendom.  The  Moors  are  allowed 
to  retain  their  religion ;  but  large  numbers  cross  to  the  African  coast 
and  take  to  piracy. 

3.  Italy.  The  political  balance  established  by  Lorenzo  de  Medici 
is  ended  by  his  death.  Exasperated  by  the  misrule  of  Ferdinand, 
King  of  Naples,  a  number  of  nobles  appeal  to  France  to  interi)ose. 

Roderick  Borgia  becomes  Pope  Alexander  VI. 


4.  England.    On  leaving  France,  Warbeck  goes  to  Flanders,    ^493 
where  Margaret,  Duchess  of  Burgundv,  receives  him  as  her   ^ 
nephew.     Henry  breaks  off  commercial  relations,  thereby  alienating 
English  merchimts,  and  the  Yorkists  regain  hope  from  the  King's 
unpopularity. 

5.  Prance.  Charles  makes  peace  with  Spain  by  the  Treaty  of 
Barcelona,  restoring  Roussillon  and  Cerdagne,  and,  by  the  Treaty  of 
Senlis,  with  Maximilian,  the  new  Emperor. 

6.  Spain.  Being^  invited  to  confirm  tne  claim  of  Spain  to  Columbus* 
discoveries,  the  rope  issues  a  Bull,  granting  to  Spam  ever3rthing  not 
possessed  by  a  Chnstian  prince  100  leagues  west  of  the  Azores,  and  the 
discoveries  to  the  east  of  that  line  to  Portugal.  On  the  protest  of  the 
latter,  the  line  is  moved  270  leagues  further  west 


CULTUEE 


i.     Spanish  Ch,    Three  months  after  the  fall  of  Granada,  the    rijgo 
Jews,  at  the  instance  of  Torauemada,  are  offered  the  alternatives   '• 
of  conversion  or  exile,  and  about  150,000  leave  the  country  for  different 
parts  of  Europe  and  the  Ottoman  Empire. 

2,  Spanish  Lit.  Lebriia,  the  father  of  Spanish  Humanism  and  the 
tutor  of  Isabella,  publishes  his  Arte  de  la  Lingua  Castellana  and  his 
Snanish-Latin  Dictionary  ;  Encina  writes  his  first  Eclogues ;  and  Peter 
Martyr  of  Anghiera,  an  Italian  pupil  of  Pomponius  Laetus,  receives  a 
post  at  Court,  whence  he  maintains  a  correspondence  with  the  leaders 
of  politics  and  letters  for  30  years. 

3.  Geography.  After  various  attempts  of  the  Portuguese  to  reach 
India  by  the  West,  Columbus,  a  native  of  Genoa,  influenced  by  his 
voyages  with  Prince  Henry's  captains,  by  his  correspondence  with 
Toscanelli  of  Florence  and  by  his  friendship  with  Martin  Behaim, 
the  Nuremberg  cartoerapher,  leaves  Spain  with  three  vessels,  under 
the  patronage  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  to  find  a  western  route  to 
India  and  «fapan,  and  discovers  the  Bahamas,  Cuba  and  Hayti  (Oct.). 
Thinking  he  has  reached  India,  he  names  the  islands  the  West 
Indies. 


4.  Eng.  Lit.  Wjmkyn  de  Worde  of  Lorraine,  an  apprentice  of  n  493 
Gaxton  and  his  successor  at  the  printing-office  at  Westminster,  •- 
enters  on  a  course  of  rapid  publication.  In  the  next  seven  years,  100 
works  issue  from  his  press,  some  merely  reprints  of  Caxton.  At  the 
same  moment  appears  the  first  work  of  Pjmson,  a  Norman,  the  successor 
to  the  business  of  Machlinia  and  Lettou,  a  printer  less  prolific  but  more 
scholarly  than  W3mk3ni  de  Worde. 


1—2 


POLITICS  [149S 


7.  Italy.  Lodovico  Sforza,  desiring  to  supplant  his  nephew  in  the 
duchy  of  Milan,  and  fearing  intervention  from  Naples  and  Florence, 
invites  Charles  of  Prance  to  assert  his  right  to  Naples. 

8.  America.  Columbus  returns  to  found  the  Spanish  Empire, 
bringing  17  vessels  and  1,500  persons.  He  explores  the  Lesser  Antilles, 
Jamaica  and  the  southern  coast  of  Cuba;  founds  Isabella  and  San 
Domingo  in  Hayti,  and  remains  Governor  till  1500. 


9.  England.  Pojrnings  becomes  Deputy  for  Ireland,  and,  on  n^g^ 
account  of  the  reception  of  the  Pretenders,  announces  that  the  '- 
Irish  Parliament  may  meet  only  when  sanctioned  by  the  King,  that 
English  laws  are  binding  on  Ireland,  and  that  the  Acts  of  the  Irish 
Parliament  must  be  revised  by  the  King  and  Privy  Council.  By  these 
Acts,  known  collectively  as  Po3ming8'  Law,  Ireland  becomes  for  tiie  first 
time  directly  subject  to  England. 

10.  Italy.  The  aeath  of  Ferdinand  of  Naples,  of  an  illegitimate  branch 
of  the  house  of  Aragon  (Jan.),  determines  Charles  Vfll.  to  advance 
his  claims  derived  n*om  the  house  of  Anjou,  despite  the  Pope's 
recognition  of  Alfonso  II.,  the  son  of  the  late  King.  He  crosses  the 
Alps  (Sep.),  recognises  Sforza  as  Duke  of  Milan,  and  advances  on 
Rorence,  where  the  republican  party,  owing  to  the  weakness  of  Piero  de 
Medici  and  the  influence  of  Savonarola,  regains  strength  and  expels  its 
rulers.  At  this  moment,  Pisa  throws  off  the  Florentine  voke.  After  an 
agreement  by  which  the  King  receives  a  large  sum  of  money  and  is 
recognised  as  the  protector  of  the  liberties  of  Florence,  Charles  marches 
towards  Rome.  The  Pope,  finding  resistance  impossible,  dismisses  the 
Neapolitan  troops  and  opens  the  gates  (Dec.). 

11.  Spain.  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  retain  the  vacant  Mastership  of 
the  Military  Order  of  Alcantara  (as  they  had  done  in  a  similar  case  in 
1487  and  do  again  in  1499),  thereby  greatly  contributing  to  the  power, 
wealth  and  prestige  of  the  crown. 


12.  England.  Stanley  is  executed  for  complicity  with  Warbeck,  ^14^5 
despite  the  aid  he  had  rendered  to  Henry  at  Bosworth.  Warbeck  •- 
shortly  after  is  repulsed  in  a  descent  on  Kent,  is  rebuffed  in  Ireland  and 
passes  on  to  Scotland,  where  James  IV.  recognises  his  claim.  In  face 
of  this  danger,  Henry  causes  a  statute  to  be  enacted  by  whicli  no 
subject  obeying  the  de  facto  King  can  at  any  subsequent  time  be 
reached  by  a  charge  of  Treason. 

Judges  are  empowered  to  initiate  proceedings,  on  the  information  of 
any  individual,  and  to  awanl  punishment.  The  statute  is  used  to  exact 
fines,  and  Empson  and  Dudley  are  made  judges  in  order  to  apply  it. 

13.  Qennany.  ITie  Estates  at  the  Diet  of  Worms,  taking  advantage 
of  Maximilian's  necessities,  attempt  a  reorganisation  of  the  Empire  by 
abolishing  the  right  of  private  war,  creating  an  Imperial  Chamber,  or 


1495]  CULTURE 


S.  Bng.  Ch.  The  Pope  grants  bulls  for  the  suppression  of  [-1494 
two  monasteries,  in  each  of  which  there  are  only  tnree  monks.    '- 

S.  Scotch  Ch.  Thirty  'Wycliffites'  are  arrested  for  extreme  anti- 
hierarchical  teachings,  but  released  with  a  warning,  the  only  persecu- 
tion between  1433  and  1528. 

7.  Qerman  Ch.  Brandt's  Narrenschiff  (Ship  of  Pools),  one  of  the 
earliest  monuments  of  modem  German  prose,  enjoys  a  European  cir- 
culation (Latin  trans.  1497),  owing  to  its  satire  and  didactic  tone.  The 
work  is  discussed  in  the  sermons  of  (jeiler  of  Kaisersberg,  his  fellow 
Alsatian,  and  contributes  to  the  revival  of  popular  preaching. 

S.  Italian  Ch.  Savonarola's  influence  in  Florence,  steadily  growing 
since  his  Lent  sermons  in  the  Cathedral,  1491,  and  the  death  of  Lorenzo, 
now  reaches  its  highest  point.  Prior  of  San  Marco  since  1491,  Vicar- 
General  of  the  Dominicans  of  Tuscany  since  1493,  and,  since  the  arrival 
of  Charles  VIIL,  director  of  the  policy  of  the  city  and  founder  of  its 
new  Constitution,  Savonarola  now  carries  out  his  schemes  for  moral 
reform.  His  influence  is  maintained  by  his  sermons,  by  his  claim  to 
receive  direct  communications  from  Qod  (some  of  which  he  publishes  in 
his  Compendium  Revelationum),  by  his  attack  on  the  Paganism  of  the 
Renaissance  in  his  Triumphus  CJrucis,  etc.,  and  by  his  commentaries. 

9.  Philosophy.  With  the  expulsion  of  the  Medici  from  Florence, 
the  Platonic  Academy  is  for  a  time  broken  up,  and  Averroistic  Aristo- 
telianism  again  becomes  dominant  in  Italy,  through  the  activity  of 
the  Paduan  school,  Pomponazzi,  Nifo  and  Achillini.  The  Neapolitan 
Academy,  founded  1471,  becomes  the  most  influential  of  Renaissance 
circles,  in  part  owing  to  the  influence  of  Pontano. 

10.  Philology.  An  edition  of  Musaeus  appears,  the  first  work  issued 
from  the  Venetian  press  of  Aldus,  who  follows  it  with  editions  of 
Aristotle  and  Aristophanes,  in  which  he  receives  aid  from  Marcus 
Musurus  and  other  Cretans. 

11.  Education.    Aberdeen  University. 

12.  Deaths.    Pico,  Politian. 


13.  Spanish  Ch.    Ximenes  (chosen  as  her  confessor  by  Isabella,    n^gs 
1492,  and  Provincial  of  the  Franciscans,  1494),  becomes  Arch-    •■ 
bishop  of   Toledo  and  Chancellor  of  Castile,  and  obtains  a  unique 
position  in  CThurch  and  State. 

14.  Portuguese  Ch.  The  Jews  are  expelled  from  Portugal  by  the 
King,  in  order  to  induce  the  Spanish  sovereigns  to  give  him  their 
eldest  daughter. 

15.  Philosophy.  Reuchlin's  de  Verbo  Mirifico  introduces  the  work  of 
his  friend  Pico  into  Grermanjr.  The  ideas  are  exnanded  in  his  Ars 
Cabbalistica,  and  inspire  Agnppa's  Occult  Philosopny,  1510. 


6  POLITICS  [1495 

Court  of  Appeal  at  a  fixed  place,  of  which  the  President  alone  is  to  be 
chosen  by  tne  Emperor,  and  by  the  imposition  of  the  Common  Penny, 
collected  by  the  Diet. 
14.  Italy.  In  return  for  trifling  concessions,  the  Pope  receives  the 
obedience  of  France,  and  Charles  withdraws,  taking  with  him  Caesar 
Borgia,  who  escapes.  Alfonso  II.  abdicates  in  favour  of  his  son 
Ferdinand,  who  is,  however,  deserted,  and  flies,  Charles  entering  Naples 
unopposed.  Maximilian,  Ferdinand,  the  Pope,  Sforza,  and  Venice  form 
a  Holy  League  (March)  for  the  expulsion  of  the  French,  Maximilian 
being  alarmed  at  French  preponderance  in  Europe,  Ferdinand  fearing 
for  Sicily,  Sforza  disquieted  oy  the  claim  to  Milan  of  the  Duke  of 
Orleans,  derived  through  the  Visconti.  After  three  months  in  Naples, 
Charles  marches  northward  (May),  defeats  the  Venetian  trooi)s  at 
Fomovo  (July),  and  leaves  Italy  (Nov.),  the  Duke  of  Orleans  remaining 
behind.  Ferdinand,  who  has  already  returned  to  Naples,  brings  the 
French  occupation  to  an  end  with  Spanish  arms  (Nov.).  (Their  last 
stronghold  capitulates,  Aug.  1496.)  The  League  is  broken  up  bv 
Sforza,  who  accepts  French  overtures  for  i)eace.  The  expedition,  though 
in  itself  a  failure,  forms  a  tummg-jpoint  in  history,  revealiu]^  the  well- 
ness of  Italy,  introducing  into  European  {)olitics  the  notion  of  the 
balance  of  power,  and  fEuniliarising  France  with  the  ideas  and  productt^ 
of  the  Renaissance. 


15.  England.  Warbeck  and  James  invade  England ;  but  ^1490 
the  expedition  is  little  more  than  a  raid  In  view  of  the  '- 
insecunty  at  home,  Henry  makes  the  Intercursus  Magnus  with  Philip  of 
Burgundy,  by  which  the  latter  throws  over  Warbeck,  and  the  commercial 
privileges  between  England  and  Flanders  are  restored,  violations  and 
disagreements,  however,  shortly  ensuing. 

16.  Spain.  Philip,  son  of  Maximilian,  marries  Joanna,  daughter  of 
Ferdmand  and  Isabella,  who,  by  the  death  of  her  only  brother  (1498), 
becomes  heiress  of  the  Spanish  empire. 


17.  England.  Henry's  demand  for  a  subsidy  to  resist  a  Scotch  [1497 
invasion  is  resisted  by  the  Comishmen,  who  march  on  London,  ^ 
but  are  overpowered  at  Blackheath  (June).  Warbeck  lands  in  Cornwall 
(Sep.),  and  is  ioined  bv  6,000  men,  whom  he  deserts  at  Taunton,  on  the 
approach  of  the  King  s  troops.  The  army  melts  away  and  Warbeck  is 
captured. 

18.  Italy.  On  the  de^rture  of  Charles  from  Italy,  the  Pope  attacks 
the  barons  who  had  sided  with  him  (above  all  the  Orsini),  calls  the 
Spaniards  under  Gonsalvo  de  Cordova  to  his  aid,  and  expels  the  French 
from  Ostia. 


1497]  CULTURE 


16.  Italian  Lit.  Boiardo's  Orlando  Innamorato,  the  first  Italian 
romantic  epic,  the  £une  of  which  is  soon  dimmed  by  Ariosto's  treatment 
of  the  theme  and  by  Bemi's  ri/acimento  of  the  poem  itself,  1541. 

17.  Art.  The  equestrian  statue  of  Bartolommeo  Colleoni,  designed  by 
Verrocchio,  is  completed  (Venice). 

18.  SociaL  Columbus  sends  home  for  sale  as  sUves  500  prisoners, 
who  are  released  and  sent  back  by  Isabella. 


19.  Bng.  Ch.  Colet  returns  from  his  studies  in  Italy  and  rijgo 
France,  and  b^ns  to  lecture  at  Oxford  on  the  Epistles  of  St  ^ 
Paul,  thereby  aiding  the  movement  towards  classical  study  initiated  by 
Selling,  Linacre,  Grocyn  and  Vitelli,  and  revolutionising  tne  theologiod 
curriculum  by  introducing  the  study  of  the  books  of  the  Greek  Testa- 
ment in  their  historic  setting. 

20.  Dutch  Lit.  The  Chamber  of  Eglantine  is  founded  in  Amsterdam, 
the  most  fiunous  of  the  Chambers  of  Rhetoric,  ie.  dramatic  and 
literary  societies. 

21.  Art.  Michelangelo  comes  to  reside  in  Rome,  executes  the  Pietk 
(St  Peter^s),  and  on  the  accession  of  Julius  II.  is  commissioned  to 
design  his  tomb,  of  which  only  the  Moses  (Rome)  and  two  Slaves  (Paris) 
are  completed. 

Veit  Stoss,  the  wood-carver,  settles  in  Nuremberg,  and,  with  Adam 
Erafit  and  Peter  Vischer,  workers  in  stone  and  bronze,  and  Diirer, 
renders  the  city  for  a  generation  the  centre  of  German  art 

22.  Social.  As  a  concession  to  the  growing  power  of  the  nobility  in 
Poland,  the  King  allows  the  Diet  to  bmd  the  peasantry  to  the  soil 


2S.     Geography.    John  Cabot,  a  Genoese  resident  in  Bristol,   1-1497 
receives  a  patent  from  Henry  VII.  to  discover  and  occupy  lands   ^ 
across  the  Atlantic,  and,  with  two  vessels,  reaches  the  American  coast, 
probably  at  Newfoundland  or  Labrador,  for  the  first  time  (June). 

24.  EdncatioiL  The  convent  of  St  Rhadegund  in  Cambridge,  con- 
taining two  nuns,  is  suppressed,  and  its  funds  devoted  to  the  foundation 
of  Jesus  College. 

Celtes,  after  wandering  in  Italy  and  Gfermany,  settles  at  Vienna  and 
founds  the  Danube  Literary  Society  for  the  spread  of  Classical  culture, 
introduced  by  Peter  Luder  and  Agricola.  Humanism  is  in  the  same 
year  introduced  at  Tubingen  by  Bebel,  and  at  Erfurt  in  the  circle  that 
Mutianus  Rufus  gathers  round  him,  Hutten,  Eoban  Hess,  Crotus 
Rubianus  and  Busch. 


POLITICS  [1486 


19.  Franoe.  ChArles  VIII.,  the  last  of  the  direct  line  of  the  r^^gg 
Valois,  is  sucoeeded  by  his  cousin,  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  *- 
Louis  XII.,  whose  friendship)  is  at  once  sought  and  won  by  Venice  and 
the  Pope.  In  August,  Louis  makes  peace  with  Spain  by  the  treaty  of 
Marcoussis,  whidi  finally  destroys  the  Holy  League,  and  in  which  the 
partition  of  Naples  is  discussed. 

20.  England.  Warbeck  attempts  to  escape,  but  is  captured  and 
removed  to  the  Tower,  where  Warwick,  son  of  Clarence,  is  kept  a 
prisoner. 


21.  En^and.    Warbeck  and  Warwick  plan  a  flight,  and,  on  its   ^499 
discoyery,  are   executed,  Henry  seizing   the   opportunity   of  *- 
de8tro3ring  the  last  of  the  Torkist  stock. 

22.  Italy.  Louis  enters  Italy  to  enforce  his  claims  on  Milan,  whence 
he  expcds  Sforza  (Oct.),  who  flies  to  Switzerland.  Venice  joins  in  the 
war,  and  extends  her  territory  beyond  the  Adda. 

Stirred  up  by  Sforza,  the  Sultan  attacks  Venice,  who  is  defeated  at 
Sapienza,  and,  after  a  three  years'  war,  loses  what  remains  of  her 
Levantine  empire. 

23.  Switzerland.  The  Swiss  Confederation  resist  Maximilian's 
attempt  to  enforce  old  claims,  and  by  the  war  with  the  Suabian  Lea^e 
that  follows,  gain  independence  in  all  but  name.  The  Confederation 
is  now  joined  by  Basle  and  Schafiliausen,  and  (1513)  Appenzell,  thus 
reaching  the  number  of  13,  at  which  it  remains  till  Napoleon. 

24.  Asia.  After  a  period  of  anarchy,  Ismail  wins  the  throne  of  Persia 
and  founds  the  Sun  dynasty  (so  called^  from  the  School  to  which  his 
£unily  has  belonged  for  generations),  which  lasts  till  1736. 


25.  Germany.    The  Diet  at  Ausburg  proceeds  with  the  re-   mkoq 
organisation  of  the  Empire  by  establishing  a  Council  of  Regency,    >- 
composed  of  representatives  from  the  thiie  Colleges  of  Electors,  princes 
and  towns.    To  facilitate  administration,  Germany  is  divided  into  six 
circles  or  provinces. 

26.  Italy.  Sforza  recai)tures  Milan,  but  is  again  expelled  by  the 
French  and  imprisoned  in  France. 

Taking  advantage  of  the  fall  of  Sforza,  the  Pope  undertakes  the 
conquest  of  the  Komagna.  Caesar  Borgia  captures  Imola  and  Forti, 
and,  after  securing  the  goodwill  of  Venice,  Rimini  and  Pesaro. 

Louis  resolves  to  conquer  Naples,  but,  on  the  opposition  of 
Ferdinand,  submits  by  the  Treatv  of  Granada  to  a  compromise,  by 
which  France  is  to  have  the  kingship  and  the  northern  provinces  and 
Spain  the  southern. 

27.  America.  Cabral,  a  Portuguese,  is  carried  by  a  storm  to  Brazil, 
which  he  declares  an  appanage  for  Portugal.  Vespucci  is  sent  out  to 
erect  a  fort,  and  trade  oegins,  though  the  settlement  is  for  a  time 
neglected. 


1600]  CULTURE 


25.  French    Ch.     Louis  XII.    re-establishes  the   Pra^atic   rj^^oo 
Sanction  of  1438,  by  which  the  election  of  Bishops  was  given  to   ^ 
the  Chapters. 

26.  Italiaii  Ch.  The  Florentine  magistrates,  emboldened  b^  his 
excommunication,  1497,  and  terrified  by  the  threat  of  an  Interdict  on 
the  city,  forbid  Savonarola  to  preach.  The  spell  is  broken  by  his 
refusal  of  a  challenge  to  ordeal  (April),  and,  next  day,  San  Marco  is 
attacked  and  its  Prior  imprisoned.  Six  weeks  later  Savonarola  dies  a 
victim  to  his  opposition  to  the  Pope's  schemes,  and  to  the  reaction 
produced  by  his  strictness. 

27.  Eng.  Lit.  Erasmus  comes  to  reside  at  Oxford,  attracted  by  the 
fame  of  its  Greek  school,  and  forms  intimate  friendships  with  Colet  and 
with  More,  (now  living  in  London,)  their  fellow-work  introducing  the 
ideas  of  the  Renaissance  and  preparing  the  way  for  fisir-reaching  religious 
changes. 

28.  Gerxnan  Lit.  Reuchlin's  Henno,  in  the  style  of  Terence,  creates 
the  Latin  drama  in  Germany. 

29.  Geography.  Columbus  starts  on  his  third  voyage,  discovers 
Trinidad,  and  sails  along  the  Southern  mainland. 

Vasco  da  Gama  sails  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  (discovered  by 
Diaz  1486)  and  lands  at  Calicut,  substituting  Portuguese  commercial 
supremacy  for  that  of  the  Italian  cities. 

30.  EducatioiL  Hegius  dies,  and  the  school  at  Deventer,  founded 
by  the  Brethren  of  the  Common  Life,  loses  its  influence,  its  traditions, 
however,  being  continued  by  the  writings  of  Wimpheling  and  by  the 
schools  of  Elsass. 


31.  Art.    Bramante  leaves  Milan  on  the  £&11  of  Sforza,  and   r^^jgg 
settles  at   Rome,  where  he  perfects  the  classic  style  in  his   ^ 
palaces  and  in  his  additions  to  the  Vatican. 

Leonardo  finishes  the  'Last  Supper'  (Milan). 

32.  Geography.  Piu^n  sails  along  tiie  coast  of  Brazil  (abready 
surveyed  by  Vespucci,  if  the  reputed  voyage  of  1497  was  really  under- 
taken), ana  takes  possession  m  the  name  of  Spain,  though  without 
making  a  settlement 

33.  Deaths.    Ficino,  Torquemada. 


34.  Bohemian  Ch.    The  Pope  sends  inquisitors  to  cope  with   ri^QQ 
the  Bohemian  Brothers,  who  deny  the  Real  Presence  and  refuse   '- 
oaths,  and  who  exercise  commanding  influence,  in  part  owing  to  the 
preaching  of  Lucas  of  Prague. 

35.  Literature.    The  first  edition  of  Erasmus'  collection  of  Adages. 

36.  Philology.  Aldus  founds  an  Academy  at  Venice,  for  the  study 
and  publication  of  the  Greek  classics.  By  the  efforts  of  its  members, 
1000  volumes  a  month  are  sometimes  issued,  mainly  in  the  italic  t3rpe, 
borrowed  from  the  handwriting  of  Musurus,  and  in  small  size. 

37.  Geography.  CJortereal,  a  Portuguese,  sails  along  the  coast  of 
Labrador  and  discovers  the  entrance  to  Hudson  Strait. 


10  POLITICS  [1601 


28.     England.    Arthur,  Prince  of  Wales,  marries  Catherine  of 


[1501 


Aragon,  after  long  negociations,  but  dies  1502,  when  Catherine, 
again  after  long  negociations,  is  contracted  to  Prince  Henry. 

29.  Spain.  A  revolt  of  the  Moors  is  provoked  by  the  eflForts  of 
Ximenes  and  Talavera  to  effect  their  conversion,  but  is  suppressed,  the 
Moors  being  offered  the  alternative  of  exile  or  baptism. 

30.  Italy.  The  Pope  confirms  the  secret  treaty  of  Louis  and  Ferdinand, 
and  decrees  the  aeposition  of  the  King  of  Naples.  After  a  slight 
resistance  Frederick  withdraws,  and  the  aUies  enter  Naples  (Aug.). 


31.  Scotland.    Margaret,  eldest  daughter  of  Henry  VII.  of  M5Q2 
England,  marries  James  IV.  '- 

32.  Italy.  Prance  and  Spain  begin  to  quarrel  over  the  division  of  Naples. 
Caesar  Borgia  seizes  Urbino,  breaks  up  a  conspiracy  of  barons, 

reduces  Siniga^ia  and  Perugia,  and  destroys  the  Orsini. 


33.  Italy.    Gk)nsalvo  de   Cordova   defeats  the  French,  enters   ^503 
Naples  (May),  and,  by  a  victory  on  the  Garigliano  and  the  con-   >- 
sequent  surrender  of  Gaeta,  expels  them  from  the  country. 

Alexander  VI.  dies  (Aug.),  several  of  Caesar  Borgia's  conouests  are 
reoccupied  by  their  late  possessors,  and,  shortly  after  the  election  of 
Julius  II.,  Caesar  himself  is  imprisoned  for  refiising  to  surrender  the 
fortresses  he  still  holds  in  the  Romagna  to  the  Pope. 

34.  Asia.  To  strengthen  the  settlements  planted  by  Cabral  and  Vasco 
da  Gama  (in  a  second  voyage,  1502),  tnree  squadrons  (one  under 
Albuquerque),  are  sent  out,  and  a  fort  is  built  at  Cochin,  the  com- 
mander of  which,  Pacheco,  defeats  an  army  sent  by  the  ruler  of  Calicut. 


35.  Prance.  Louis  is  induced  by  his  wife  to  ally  with  r2^5Q^ 
Maximilian  and  Philip  in  the  Treaties  of  Blois,  promising  his  '- 
daughter  to  Charles,  the  son  of  Philip,  with  the  reversion  of  Burgundy, 
Brittany,  and  Milan  (the  investiture  of  which  he  receives  from  the 
Emperor,  1505),  and  undertaking  to  join  in  seizing  the  mainland  terri- 
tones  of  Venice  and  to  attack  the  Pope. 

36.  Qermany.    Maximilian  defeats  the  Count  Palatine  in  the  war  of 
the  Bavarian  Succession,  and  annexes  part  of  his  territory. 

37.  Italy.    Aragon  annexes  Naples,  which  is  ruled  by  Gk)nsalvo  de 
Cordova  till  1507,  and  afterwaras  by  a  Viceroy. 


1604]  CULTURE  11 

38.  Church    Hist.      Erasmus'  Enchiridion    Militis  Christiani    m5Q]^ 
attacks  the  confusion  of  scholasticism  and  ceremonies  with  piety,    ^ 
and  reflects  the  general  spirit  of  Colet's  teaching. 

39.  Scotch  Lit.  Gawain  Douglas'  Palace  of  Honour,  the  principal 
poem  of  its  author  and  the  first  purely  allegorical  romance  produced  in 
Scotland. 


40.  Eng.  Lit.    The  Nut-Brown  Maid  first  printed.  n  cno 

41.  Portuguese  Lit.  Gil  Vicente's  first  drama  (in  Castilian),  l^^"^ 
influenced  by  the  plavs  of  Encina.  Ribeiro's  Eclogues  now  appear  and 
found  the  pastoral  school 

4^.     Education.    Wittenberg  University. 

43.     Art.    Michel  Colombe,  trained  in  the  Burgundian  school,  makes 

the  tomb  of  the  Duke  of  Brittany. 
44*     Science.    Leonardo  da  Vinci  serves  under  Caesar  Borgia  as  an 

Engineer,  devoting  himself  not  only  to  Mechanics,  but  to  Optics, 

Chemistry,  Astronomy  and  (Jeology. 


45.  Eng.  Oh.     The  Lady  Margaret,  mother  of   Henry  VII.,    M5Q3 
endows  Professors  of  Divinity  at  both  Universities,  on  the  advice   •■ 

of  Fisher,  her  confessor,  who  becomes  the  first  occupant  of  the  chair  at 
Cambridge. 

46.  Scotch  Lit.    Dunbar  celebrates  the  marriage  of  the  King  in  his 
Thistle  and  the  Rose. 

47.  Art.^    Leonardo  commences  the  i>ortrait  of  Mona  Lisa  (Paris). 

48.  Social.    Portugal  transports  African  slaves  to  America. 


49.  ^ng.  Oh.  Colet  becomes  Dean  of  St  Paul's  and  exerts  tikqa 
a  wide  influence  by  his  sermons.  '- 

50.  Italian  Lit.  Sannazzaro's  pastoral  romance,  Arcadia,  modelled 
on  Boccaccio's  Ameto,  introduces  into  prose  the  reforms  effected  by 
Lorenzo  and  his  circle  in  verse. 

51.  Art.  Leonardo  and  Michelangelo  design  cartoons  for  the  Hall  of 
Council  at  Florence  for  the  Battle  of  the  Standard. 

Baphael  leaves  Perugia  for  Florence,  where  he  works  with  Fra 
Bartolommeo,  and  developes  a  style  independent  of  Perugino. 

Giorgione's  Madonna  at  Castelfranco,  tlie  first  CTeat  wonc  of  the  new 
style  at  Venice,  as  Bellini's  altar-piece  at  S.  Zacnaria,  1505,  may  be 
regarded  as  the  last  great  work  of  the  old. 

Michelangelo  completes  his  David. 

Cranach  is  attached  to  the  person  of  the  Elector  of  Saxony  and 
executes  portraits,  among  them,  later,  those  of  the  Reformers. 


12  POLITICS  [1004 

38.  Savoy.  Charles  III.  becomes  King  of  Savoy  (1504-1553),  and, 
while  attempting  to  avoid  participating  in  European  wars,  engages  in 
frequent  struggles  with  Geneva  and  Vaud. 


39.  France.    Ferdinand,  weakened  by  the  death  of  Isabella   M505 
and  the  claim  of  Philip  to  Castile,  persuades  Louis  to  throw  over   ^ 
the  Treaty  of  Blois  and  to  give  him  his  niece,  transferring  with  her  the 
French  claims  on  Naples. 

40.  Italy.  The  plan  of  partition  being  laid  aside  owing  to  changes  in 
the  relations  of  raince  and  Spain,  the  rope  hastens  to  get  what  he  can, 
and  Venice  restores  all  her  conquests  in  the  Romagna  except  Rimini 
and  Faenza,  the  retention  of  which,  however,  the  Pope  refuses  to 
guarantee. 

41.  Poland.  By  the  Constitution  called  Nihil  Novi  the  Diet  agree  to 
make  unanimity  essential  for  all  changes ;  the  whole  legislative  power 
in  consequence  passes  to  the  nobility,  the  Crown  becoming,  under 
Siji^smund  I.  and  II.  (1506-72)  steadily  weaker.  The  rule  of  the 
ol^archy  and  the  wars  with  Turkey  and  Russia  reduce  Poland  to 
impotence. 

42.  Russia.  Ivan  III.  dies,  after  a  reign  of  fortv-three  years,  having 
founded  the  Autocracy,  expelled  the  Tartars  of  the  Grolden  Horde, 
extended  the  frontier  on  the  North  and  West,  reduced  the  great  semi- 
independent  municipalities,  established  relations  with  the  Western 
powers,  and  married  a  princess  of  the  house  of  the  PalaeologL 

43.  Asia.  A  force  is  sent  out  to  Cochin  under  Almeida,  who  receives 
the  title  of  Viceroy,  to  secure  Portuguese  commerce. 

44.  Africa.  The  East  African  Empire  of  Portugal  is  begun  by  the 
occupation  of  the  coast  from  the  Zambesi  to  Delagoa  Bay,  and  the 
foundation  of  forts  at  Sofala  and  Mozambique  (1507),  out  never  extends 
far  inland. 


45.  England.    The  Archduke  Philip  is  wrecked  on  the  English   m  kqa 
coast  on  his  way  to  Spain,  and  is  forced  by  Henry  to  surrender   ^ 
the  Earl  of  Suflolk,  nephew  of  Edward  IV.  (who  remains  in  prison  till 
1513,  when  he  is  executed),  and  to  introduce  changes  in  the  Intercursus 
Magnus,  a  final  settlement  being  reached  1507. 

46.  Spain.  Philip  and  Joanna  go  to  Spain  to  compel  Ferdinand  to 
suirender  the  regency  of  Castile.  The  nobles  joining  Philip,  Ferdinand 
retires  to  Aragon ;  but  Philip  dies,  Joanna  be^mes  insane,  and 
Ferdinand  is  invited  to  return. 

47.  Italy.  Julius  marches  without  warning  against  Perugia  and 
Bologna,  both  of  which  surrender  without  a  struggle. 

48.  Netherlands.  The  Regency  is  entrusted  to  the  youthful  Charles' 
aunt,  Margaret  of  Austria. 


1606]  CULTURE  1 8 

62,  SodaL  Henry  places  Gilds  and  Companies  under  the  direct 
supervision  of  the  State.  The  Gild  system  declines,  its  place  being 
gradually  taken  by  the  '  domestic  system.' 

63.  Death.    Isabella. 


5^     German  Ch.    Luther  joins  the  Augustinians  at  Erfurt   n5Q5 
(the  strictest  Order  owing  to  the  revival  effected  by  Proles  and   ^ 
otaupitz,  the  visitors),  and,  on  the  advice  of  the  latter  Visitor,  studies 
Augustine. 

65.  Church  Hist.  Erasmus  commences  his  woi^  as  a  biblical  critic 
by  editing  Valla's  Annotations  on  the  New  Testament 

66.  Italian  Lit.  Bembo's  Asolani,  or  disquisitions  on  Love,  become  a 
model  of  style. 

67.  Education.  The  Lady  Margaret  founds  Christ's  College  and 
Saint  John's  College  at  Cambridge  (1509). 

68.  History.  Wimpheling's  Epitome  Rerum  Germanicarum,  the  first 
history  of  Germany  from  original  sources,  a  study  patronised  by 
Maximilian,  and  cultivated  by  Peutinger  and  Aventin  at  Augsburg, 
Pirkheimer  at  Nuremberg,  and  Stabius,  Cuspinian  and  Celtes  at 
Vienna. 

69.  Social.  Henry  grants  a  more  complete  constitution  to  the  Mer- 
chants' Adventurers  (an  offshoot  from  the  Mercers'  Co.,  c.  1400),  assigns 
Calais  as  their  head-quarters,  and  reduces  the  entrance  fee. 


60.  Eng.  Lit.  Hawes'  Pastime  of  Pleasure  (printed  1517),  an  mkqa 
elaborate  all^ry  in  the  style  of  Lydgate,  &c  ^ 

61.  Art.  Juuus  IL  lays  the  foundation-stone  of  a  new  Cathedral  of 
St  Peter,  designed  by  Bramante  in  the  form  of  a  Grreek  cross,  for  which 
Raphael,  Bramante's  successor,  substitutes  a  Latin  cross. 

Durer  visits  Italy,  meeting  Bellini,  Raphael  and  others. 
The  Laocoon  is  discoverea. 

62.  Philology.  Reuchlin's  Hebrew  Grammar  and  Dictionary,  the 
earliest  composed  by  a  Christian,  renders  the  study  of  Jewish  literature 
less  uncommon. 

63.  Education.  Joachim  of  Brandenburg  founds  a  University  at 
Frankfort  on  the  Oder,  chieflv  for  the  study  of  Roman  law,  which  now 
finds  its  way  into  German  codes. 

64.  Death.    Columbus. 


14  POLITICS  [1607 

49.  Qermany.  The  Imperial  Chamber  is  re-established  ;  but  n  5Q7 
the  Diet  accepts  the  principle  of  taxation  by  separate  states.  '- 

Maximilian  obtains  men  and  mone^  for  an  expedition  to  receive  the 
imperial  crown  and  assert  his  rights  m  the  Milanese.  The  scheme  of 
Cardinal  d'Amboise,  to  call  a  council  and  get  himself  substituted  for 
Julius,  turns  Maximilian's  thoughts  towards  becoming  Pope  himself. 

50.  Italy.  The  democratic  party  in  Genoa,  long  under  the  suzerainty 
of  France,  revolts  against  the  nobles  and  sets  up  a  Doge.  Louis  enters 
Italy  with  a  large  army,  retakes  the  city  and  abolishes  its  privileges. 


51.  Qermany.    Maximilian  assumes  the  title  of  Emperor  Elect   ricng 
at  Trent,  thereby  asserting  that  the  German  King,  by  his   '- 
election,  becomes  Emperor  without  further  confirmation.     The  title  is 
henceforward  recognised  by  the  Popes. 

52.  Italy.  Maximilian  invades  Venice,  but  is  repeatedly  beaten  and 
forced  to  make  a  three  years'  truce,  Venice  retaining  her  conquests. 
Her  success  preci{)itates  the  formation  of  a  league  against  her,  sketched 
some  months  previously  (Feb.),  and  finally  signed  at  Cambrai  (Dec.)  by 
D' Amboise  for  Louis  and  Margaret  of  Austria  for  her  father  Maximilian. 
The  Emperor  and  the  Pope  are  to  regain  the  towns  claimed  by  them, 
France  to  round  off  the  Milanese,  the  King  of  Aragon  to  have  the 
cities  on  the  Neapolitan  coast  taken  by  Venice  in  the  war  (1495), 
Hungary  to  receive  Dalmatia,  Savoy  Cyprus,  the  Duke  of  Ferrara  and 
Marquis  of  Mantua  to  recover  their  losses. 

The  Pope's  nephew  is  adojpted  by  the  childless  Guidobaldo  of  Urbino 
as  his  heir,  the  Duchy  remaining  in  the  Rovere  family  till  1626. 


53.  England.  Henry  VII.  dies,  and  his  son  marries  Catherine  riKQo 
of  Aragon.  "- 

54.  ItfiJy.  Though  the  real  author  of  the  League  of  Cambrai,  the 
Pope  only  enters  it  when  he  finds  France  is  in  earnest  (March),  rejects 
the  offer  of  Venice  to  restore  Faenza  and  Rimini,  the  cities  long  claimed 
by  him,  and  excommunicates  her.  The  French  now  advance  and  win  a 
battle  at  Agnadello,  the  allies  seize  what  thev  desire,  and  the  Pope 
replies  to  her  demand  for  peace  with  impossible  terms.  Venice  soon 
regains  Padua  from  Maximilian,  who  retires  firom  Italy  (Oct.) ;  but 
loses  her  fleet  (Dec),  and  agrees  to  the  Pope's  terms,  ceding  Faenza, 
Rimini,  and  Ravenna. 

Pisa  finally  becomes  subject  to  Florence. 

55.  AfWca.  After  four  years  of  fighting  in  North  Africa,  the  Spaniards, 
under  Ximenes,  take  Oran,  whence  they  push  on  to  Tripoli  (1510),  and 
compel  Algiers  and  Tunis  to  pay  tribute. 

56.  Asia.  Almeida  defeats  the  fleet  of  the  Mohammedan  princes  of 
North-West  India.  He  is  succeeded  by  Albuquerque,  who  traiisfers  the 
capital  to  Goa,  which  he  captures  1510,  conquers  Malacca  1511,  and 
plants  Portuguese  rule  in  the  Malay  Peninsula  and  in  the  Spice  Islands, 


1609]  CULTURE  15 

65.  Geography.    Waldseemiiller,  a  professor  of  Geography  in   1^507 
Lorraine,  publishes  a  letter  of  Amerigo  Vespucci,  containing  an    ^ 
account  of  his  travels,  and  proposes  diat  the  new  Continent  should  be 
named  after  him. 

66.  Art.    Giorgione  and  Titian,  fellow-pupils  of  Bellini,  are  commis- 
sioned to  fresco  the  Pindaco  dei  Tedesci  at  Venice. 

67.  Death.    Caesar  Boigia. 


68.  Oerman  Ch.  Luther  is  appointed,  by  Staupitz'  influence,  r]^5QQ 
Professor  of  Theology  at  Wittenoeig.  ^ 

69.  Italian  Lit.    Bibbiena's  Calandra  founds  Italian  Comedy. 

70.  Spanish  Lit.  Amadis  de  Gaula,  a  Spanish  version  of  the  Portu- 
guese work  of  Lobeira,  revives  interest  in  the  poems  of  Chivaby,  in  part 
through  the  French  translation  of  Uerbera^. 

71.  Education.  Ximenes  founds  the  University  of  Alcala,  which 
becomes  the  centre  of  exegetical,  as  Salamanca  is  of  dogmatic  theology. 

72.  Art.    Michelangelo  b^ns  to  fresco  the  roof  of  the  Sistine  chapeL 
Baphael  is  invited  by  the  Pope  to  reside  in  Rome,  and  is  set  to 

fresco  the  rooms  and  colonnades  of  the  Vatican. 
Titian's  Tribute  Money  (Dresden). 


[1509 


73.  German  Ch.  Pfefferkom,  an  apostate  Jew  of  Cologne, 
with  the  aid  of  Ortwin  Gratius  and  Uoogstraten,  obtains  an  order 
from  Maximilian  to  the  Jews  to  surrender  their  books.  The  Arch- 
bishop of  Mainz  urges  consultation  with  Hebrew  scholars,  and  Pfefferkom 
suggests  Reuchlin,  who,  however,  declares  boldly  against  persecution. 
Though  condemned  by  Paris  and  other  Universities,  Reuchlin  is  acquitted 
by  the  Bishop  of  Speyer,  dejmted  by  the  Pope  to  try  the  case,  and  by  a 
Commission  at  Rome,  and  wins  the  sympathies  of  the  Humanists  and 
the  general  public  of  Germany. 

74.  Sng.  Lit.    The  Paston  Letters  end  (1422— 1509). 

75.  Art.    Andrea  del  Sarto  s  frescoes  in  the  cloister  of  the  Annunziata, 
Florence. 


16  POLITICS  [1609 

conciliating  his  natiye  subjects  by  his  just  and  tolerant  administration. 
His  attempt  to  seize  Aden,  the  key  to  the  trade  of  the  Red  Sea,  foils 
1513. 

57.  Italy.    Venice  receives  absolution,  and  promises  free  naviga-    tikia 
tion  in  the  Gulf  of  Venice  for  the  subjects  of  the  Papal  States.    '- 
The  Council  of  Ten,  however,  secretly  execute  a  protest  against  the 
validity  of  the  pact  as  obtained  by  violence,  and  the  war  leaves  a  deep 
hostility  to  the  rapacy. 

58.  Prance.  The  Pope,  having  obtained  his  own  object  by  the  war, 
sets  himself  to  form  a  league  ^inst  France,  and  declares  war  against 
Louis'  ally,  Ferrara.  Louis  replies  by  summoning  to  Tours  a  synod  of 
French  Bishops,  who  condemn  the  conduct  of  the  Pope  and  recommend 
the  assembling  of  a  General  Council  to  inquire  into  it. 


59.  Italy.  The  Pope  fails  to  take  Ferrara,  and  the  French  ricii 
shortly  after  capture  Bologna.  French  and  Spanish  Cardinals  '- 
now  summon  a  General  Council  to  meet  at  Pisa,  to  which  Julias 
retorts  by  convoking  a  Council  at  the  Lateran.  The  Papacy, 
Ferdinand  and  Venice  undertake  the  recovery  of  Bologna  and  the 
defence  of  the  Church  (Oct.),  and  a  month  later  Henry  VIII.  enters 
European  politics  by  joining  the  League.  Meanwhile  the  Council  meets 
at  Pisa  (Sep.),  but  is  soon  transferred  to  Milan,  owing  to  the  attitude  of 
Florence,  the  withdrawal  into  French  territory  proving  a  mere  move  in 
the  game  of  politics. 

60.  America.    Diego  Velasquez  conquers  Cuba. 


61.  En^and.    An  expedition  is  sent  to  cooperate  with  Spain    ricio 
against  the  south-west  of  France,  but  the  troops  mutiny  and    '- 
Ferdinand  fails  to  support  them. 

62.  Italy.  The  Spanish  and  Papal  troops  are  out-manoeuvred  by  the 
French  under  Gaston  de  Foix,  who  wins  a  victory,  but  loses  his  own  life 
near  Ravenna  (April).  The  Council  at  Milan  decrees  the  suspension  of 
the  Pope,  who  replies  in  the  first  session  of  the  Lateran  Council  (May), 
by  declaring  its  adherents  schismatics.  The  League  is  joined  by 
Maximilian,  and  the  French  evacuate  Milan  and  retire  beyond  the  Alps, 
even  Genoa  shaking  off  their  yoke.  The  Council  withdraws  to  Lyons, 
and  the  Pope  recovers  Bologna.  The  victorious  allies  meet  at  the  Con- 
gress of  Mantua  (Aug.),  and  agree  to  concede  Parma  and  Piacenza  to 
the  Pope,  to  restore  Milan  to  the  son  of  Lodovico  Sforza,  and  to  win 
back  Florence  for  the  Medici.  Maximilian  now  recognises  the  Council 
of  Lateran. 

On  the  expulsion  of  the  French,  the  Medici  capture  Florence  with 
a  Spanish  army.  The  republican  changes  of  1494  are  swept  away,  and 
the  republican  chiefs  are  banished. 

63.  Spain.  Ferdinand  seizes  Navarre,  south  of  the  Pyrenees,  from  the 
House  of  D'Albret,  which  obtained  the  crown  by  a  marriage  with  the 
Queen,  Catherine  de  Foix,  1484. 


1612]  CULTURE  17 

76.  Italian  Lit.    Ariosto's  Orlando  Furioeo.  r^e^i^ 

77.  Art  Titian's  Sacred  and  ProCwie  Love  (Villa  Borghese.  L^^^" 
Rome). 

78.  Social.  Las  Gasas  is  ordained  a  priest  and  b^ns  his  lifelong 
crusade  on  behalf  of  the  native  races  in  the  Spanish  colonies,  in  which 
he  receives  support  from  Ximenes,  Ferdinand,  Vittoria  and  Soto,  but  is 
bitterly  opposea  by  a  lar]ee  party  led  by  Sepulveda  and  Oviedo. 

79.  Eaooation.  Colet,  having  come  into  a  laige  fortune  on  the  death 
of  his  &ther,  founds  St  Pam's  School,  and  appoints  Lily,  who  has 
learned  Greek  in  Rhodes,  headmaster.  The  statutes  lay  stress  on 
classical  study  and  on  the  formation  of  character,  and  concede  to  the 
Trustees  the  power  of  making  unlimited  changes.  The  school-books 
are  composed  by  Colet,  with  the  aid  of  Lily  and  £rasmus. 

80.  Death.    Botticelli 


81,  Eng.  Ch.  Some  '  Lollards'  are  burned,  and  several  persons  ricii 
are  for^  by  the  Bishops  to  do  penance.  ^ 

82.  Oerxnan  Ch.  Luther  is  sent  to  Rome  on  the  business  of  his 
order,  and  is  much  influenced  by  his  visit. 

Maximilian  employs  Wimpheling  to  draw  up  a  programme  of  reform 
for  the  Council  at  Pisa. 

8S,  French  Lit.  Gringoire's  satirical  feirce,  Le  Prince  des  Sots,  is 
followed  by  the  decline  of  the  mediaeval  theatre. 

8^  Literature.  Erasmus'  Praise  of  Folly,  composed  while  staying 
with  More,  satirising  pilgrimages,  indulgences,  prayers  to  the  Virgin, 
scholasticism,  and  attacking  the  attitude  of  Kings  and  Popes  in  regard 
to  war,  forms  an  important  link  in  the  chain  of  events  which  leads  to  the 
Reformation. 

85.  Education.  Erasmus  takes  up  his  residence  in  Cambridge  as 
Lady  Margaret  Professor  and  lecturer  in  Greek. 

86.  Death.    Comines. 


87.  Eng.  Ch.  Convocation  is  summoned  to  deal  with  heresy,  m cia 
and  a  contest  takes  place  between  Bi^op  Fitzjames,  the  leader   >- 

of  the  extreme  party,  and  Colet,  whose  opening  sermon  severely  censures 
the  clergy. 

88.  French  Ch.  Lef^vre,  already  famous  as  a  philosopher,  publishes 
a  conunentaiy  on,  and  translation  of,  St  Paul's  Epistles,  aflirming  the 
exclusive  authority  of  the  Bible,  and  attacking  Transubstantiation^ 
clerical  celibacy,  Latin  prayers,  etc. 

89.  German  Ch.  On  his  return  from  Rome,  Luther  lectures  on  the 
Epistle  to  the  Romans,  and  developes  his  theory  of  Justification. 

90.  Art.    Raphael's  fresco  of  Galatea  (Villa  Famesina,  Rome). 

91.  Education.  Brasenose,  Oxford,  is  founded,  the  statutes  of  which 
urge  the  study  of  the  old  Scholastic  curriculum. 


18  POLITICS  [1512 

64  Germany.  To  the  circles  of  1500  are  added  four,  each  with  a 
Qovemor.  A  short-lived  Aulic  Council  is  instituted  under  the  control 
of  the  Emperor,  to  which  part  of  the  work  of  the  Imperial  Chamber  is 
diverted. 


65.  France.  Henry  plans  a  league  for  the  partition  of  France,  r]^5]^3 
in  which  Maximilian  and  Ferdinand  join  at  the  Treaty  of  ^ 
Mechlin  (April).  To  break  up  the  confederacv,  Louis  sencls  a  force  to 
recover  the  Milanese,  which  is  routed  by  the  Swiss  mercenaries  of 
Sforza  (June).  Henry  now  crosses  to  Calais,  is  joined  by  Maximilian 
and  besieges  Terouenne,  the  chief  fortress  on  the  Netherlands  frontier. 
The  relieving  army  flies  without  a  blow  at  the  Battle  of  Spurs,  and 
Terouenne  and  Toumai  surrender.  Meanwhile  the  Swiss  overrun 
Franche-Comt^,  but  are  bribed  to  retire,  and  France  issues  unscathed 
from  her  campaigns. 

66.  Scotland.  James  IV.  takes  advants^e  of  the  absence  of  Henry  to 
invade  England,  but  is  routed  and  slain  at  Flodden  b^  the  Earl  of 
Surrey,  the  greater  part  of  the  Scotch  nobility  falling  with  him.  His 
heir,  James  v.,  is  still  a  child. 


67.  England.  An  Arsenal  is  constructed  at  Deptford,  and  ^1514 
Trinity  House  is  instituted  to  protect  English  shipping.  ^ 

68.  Scotland.  The  country  is  split  into  motions,  Margaret  manying 
Angus  and  desiring  an  Enghsh  alliance,  Archbishop  Beaton  demanding 
the  regency  of  Albany,  long  resident  in  France. 

69.  France.  Ferdinand,  not  desiring  to  weaken  France  too  much, 
makes  peace  with  Louis  and  persuades  Maximilian  to  do  the  same. 
Deserted  by  his  allies,  Henry  resolves  on  a  close  alliance  with  France, 
and  marries  his  sister  to  the  King. 

70.  Hnngary.  The  Diet  enacts  Verboczy's  Decretum  tripartitum 
Juris,  which  increases  the  privileges  of  the  nobility  and  establishes 
the  independence  of  the  King  in  re^d  to  Pope,  Emperor  and  clergy. 

71.  Turkey.    Selim  I.  defeats  the  Persians  at  Tauris  and  Aleppo. 


72.  England.    Wolsey,  who  has  risen  into  prominence  by  his    Met 5 
organisation  of  the  campaigns  of  1512-13  and  already  holds    ^ 
the  See  of  York,  becomes  Chancellor  and  Cardinal,  and  in  1517  Legate, 
and  adds  Durham  and  the  Abbey  of  St  Albans  in  commendam,  and 
Bath,  Worcester,  and  Hereford  in  farm. 

73.  Scotland.  Albany,  nephew  of  James  III.,  reaches  Scotland, 
assumes  the  Regency,  and  suppresses  the  Queen's  faction,  but  by  his 
partiality  for  France  drives  Margaret  and  the  nobles  into  the  arms  of 
England. 


1516]  CULTURE  19 

92.  Eng.  Ch.    Benefit  of  clergy  in  cases  of  murder  and  robbery  ty^i^ 
is  limited  to  the  higher  orders  of  the  GhurciL    This  attack  being  ^ 
resented  l^  the  clergy,  the  Ein^  has  the  case  aipied  in  his  presence, 
and  Standish,  a  Franciscan,  denies  the  validity  of  decretals  in  England 
unless  legally  ratified,  and  is  supported  by  Henry. 

93,  Italian  Ch.  The  Lateran  Council  condemns  the  assertion  that  the 
soul  is  mortal  or  one  in  all  men,  without,  however,  imposing  penalties. 

94..     £kK>tch  Lit.    Gawain  Douglas'  translation  of  the  Aeneid. 

95.  Politics.  Macchiavelli,  suspected  of  treason,  leaves  Florence  and 
composes  The  Prince,  which  he  dedicates  to  Lorenzo  de  Medici,  in 
hope  of  employment.  Though  not  published  till  1532,  it  circulates 
freely  in  MS.,  and  in  a  plagiarism  by  A^ostino  Nifo.  In  1516 
Macchiavelli  developes  and  qualifies  its  positions  in  lectures  on  the 
first  decade  of  Livy. 

96.  Art.  Holbein  settles  in  Basle  and  b^ns  his  career  as  a  painter, 
gradually  passing  from  fresco  and  religious  subjects  to  portraiture. 

97.  Geography.  Vasco  Nufiez  de  Balboa  sets  out  m)m  Antigua  in 
search  of  the  Pacific,  of  which  he  is  told  by  an  Indian  chief,  and  which 
he  sights  from  Darien. 

Ponce  de  Leon  discovers  Florida. 

98.  Education.  The  new  Pope,  Leo  X.,  appoints  Bembo  and  Sadoleto 
his  secretaries.  He  restores  and  extends  the  G^nasium,  founded  bv 
Eugenius  IV.  and  robbed  by  Julius,  and  invites  Lascaris  to  teach 
Greek,  aided  by  his  pupil  Musurus,  who  establishes  a  Greek  printing- 
press.  A  sculpture  gallery  is  now  formed  at  the  Vatican,  and  Baphael 
prepares  a  scheme  for  the  excavation  and  maintenance  of  the  antiquities 
of  the  city. 

99.  Spanish   Ch.     The  Complutensian  Polyglot,  planned  by   [1514 
Ximenes  and  executed  by  Zuniga,  Nebrija,  and  by  Greek  and   ^ 
Jewish  converts. 

100.  Art.    Corr^gio  discovers  and  applies  frill  chiaroscuro. 

101.  SociaL  EcK  defends  Usury,  the  Lateran  Council  at  the  same 
moment  allowing  the  Montes  Pietatis  to  charge  moderate  interest. 

102.  Philology.  Budaeus'  De  Asse  opens  the  French  or  second  period 
of  classical  studies. 

103.  Death.    Bramante. 


104.  Italian  Lit.    Trissino's  Sophonisba,  the  first  blank  verse   v^KYb 
in  modem  literature,  is  imitated  by  Rucellai,  Alamanni,  Aretino,    ^ 
Cinthio,  etc. 

105.  Gennan  Lit.  Eulenspi^el,  a  coarse  but  humorous  satire,  perhaps 
by  Mumer,  rivals  the  Narrenscniff  in  popularity. 

106.  Literature.  In  imitation  of  a  volume  published  by  Reuchlin, 
Mutianus  Rufris  and  his  friends  compose  Epistolae  obscurorum 
Virorum  (second  series,  1517,  by  Hutten),  supposed  to  be  received  bv 
Ortwin  Gratius,  in  which  the  ignorance  of  tne  Orders  is  ridiculed. 
The  work,  representing  the  open  breach  between  the  Humanists  and 

2—2 


20  POLITICS  [1515 

74.  France.  Immediately  on  his  accession,  Francis  sets  out  to  con- 
quer the  Milanese,  and  defeats  the  Swiss  in  the  decisive  battle  of 
Mari^ano,  shattering  the  military  supremacy  of  the  Swiss  mercenaries, 
expeuing  Sforza,  and  forcing  the  Pope  to  enter  into  an  alliance  and  to 
restore  the  cities  he  had  taken  from  the  Milanese  and  from  the  Dnchy 
of  Ferrara. 


75.  Italy.    Maximilian  descends  on  Milan  with  Swiss  troops,    nciA 
paid  by  England,  but  retreats  without  striking  a  blow,  though    I- 
the  expedition  prevents  Francis  from  attacking  Naples.    Fnmcis  secures 
the  alliance  of  Charles,  the  young  King  of  Spam,  and  shortly  after 
makes  peace  with  Maximilian. 

76.  Switzerland.  Francis  makes  peace  with  Switzerland,  which 
undertakes  to  fiimish  mercenaries. 

77.  Hungary.  Louis  II.,  King  of  Bohemia,  becomes  King  of  Hungary, 
and  the  faction  hghts  of  the  ^eat  and  small  nobility  prepare  the  way 
for  the  Turkish  invasion.  Ferdinand,  grandson  of  the  ^peror,  marries 
Louis'  sister. 

78.  Montenegro.  The  Prince  resigns  and  the  Vladikas,  or  Prince 
Bishops,  begin  to  rule. 

79.  Turkey.  Selim  invades  and  conquers  Syria  as  a  step  to  the 
conquest  of  Egypt. 


80.  Scotland.    Albany  returns  and  makes  a  treaty  of  mutual    ri 5^7 
defence,  hinting  at  a  marriage  between  the  young  King  and  a    >- 
daughter  of  Francis.     On  the  Regent's  departure,  faction  fights  break 
out  between  the  Hamiltons  and  the  Douglases. 

81.  Italy.  Maximilian  makes  peace  with  Venice  and  restores  Verona, 
thus  terminating  the  wars  that  had  grown  out  of  the  League  of  Cambrai, 
from  which  Venice  emerges  with  undiminished  territory,  though  with 
her  military  power  broken. 

82.  Turkey.  Selim  conquers  Eg}'pt,  beheads  the  Mameluke  Sultan, 
takes  Mecca  and  Medinah,  and  revives  the  Caliphate,  or  headship  of 
the  Mahommedan  world,  which  had  been  practicaUy  extinct  since  1258. 

83.  AfWca.  Barbarossa,  a  Lesbian  pirate,  takes  Algiers  and  defeats 
the  Spanish  fleet,  but  is  slain  by  a  new  Spanish  expedition,  and 
succeeded  by  his  brother,  the  more  famous  Baroarossa,  the  founder  of 
the  Barbary  Corsairs,  who  becomes  the  vassal  of  the  Sultan,  by  whom 
he  is  recognised  as  ruler  of  Algiers. 

84.  Asia.  The  Portuguese  establish  a  factory  at  Colombo,  and  gradu- 
ally gain  control  of  Ceylon. 


1617]  CULTURE  21 

the  old  learning,  enjoys  immense  popularity,  but  is  disapproved  by 
Erasmus. 

107,  Art.  Henry  VII. 's  chapel  is  completed,  and  about  the  same  time 
the  last  great  examples  of  Perpendiculiur,  such  as  Magdalen  Tower,  the 
churches  of  Bristol,  Coventry,  Boston,  Windsor  Chapel,  the  central 
tower  at  Canterbury,  King's  College  Chapel,  are  finished.  Torrigiano's 
work  on  Henry  Vll.'s  tomb  introduces  Renaissance  influences  in 
sculpture.    Raphael's  '  Sistine '  Madonna  (Dresden). 

108,  \jSKWi.    Zasius'  Conunentaries  on  Roman  law. 

109,  Deaths.    Albuquerque,  Aldus. 


110,  French  Ch.  Francis  and  Leo  arrange  a  Concordat,  by  \Y^\i^ 
which  the  annates  are  restored  to  the  Pope,  appointments  of  '- 
Bishops  and  Abbots  are  transferred  to  the  Kmg,  tnough  requiring  papal 
approval,  appeals  to  Rome  are  restricted,  and  excommunications,  bulls, 
etc.,  must  receive  the  sanction  of  the  Crown.  The  Parliament  and  Uni- 
versity of  Paris  and  the  Chapters  in  vain  protest 

111,  German  Ch.  Luther  meets  with  Tauler's  sermons  and  a  mystical 
work  which  he  publishes  with  the  title  German  Theology. 

112,  Church  aist.  Erasmus'  Novum  Instrumentum  compiled  from 
late  MS.    Erasmus'  edition  of  Jerome. 

lis.  Philosophy.  Pomponazzi,  an  Aristotelian,  contends  that  im- 
mortality cannot  be  proved  by  reason. 

m.  Politics.  More's  Utopia  (in  Latin)  attacks  the  social  and  political 
evils  of  England,  and  outlines  an  ideal  Commonwealth,  free  from  wars  of 
aggression,  class  legislation,  ecclesiastical  hierarchy,  and  persecution. 

115.  Education.  Fox,  Bishop  of  Winchester,  founds  Corpus  College, 
Oxford,  and  endows  lecturers  on  Greek,  Latin  and  Divinity,  the  latter 
to  discard  the  scholastics  in  favour  of  the  original  texts. 

116.  Geography.  Peter  Martyr's  Decades  describes  the  discoveries  in 
the  New  World. 

117.  Death.    Giovanni  BellinL 


118 


8.     Eng.  Ch.    A  Protestant  party  forms  around  Bilney,  Barnes   r^^^y 
and  Stafford  at  Cambridge.  '- 

119.  Italian  Ch.  The  Lateran  Council  is  closed,  the  Pope  declaring 
that  schism  has  been  destroyed  and  all  necessary  reforms  accomplished. 

120,  Qerman  Ch.  Tetzel,  the  agent  of  Albert,  Archbishop  ot  Mainz 
and  Macdeburg  (to  whom  Leo  had  granted  the  power  to  sell  indulgences 
to  pay  the  annates  of  his  See),  arrives  at  Juterbock,  but  is  forbidden  by 
the  Elector  of  Saxony  to  enter  his  dominions.  Luther  nails  95  theses  to 
the  door  of  the  Castle  Church,  describing  Indulgences  as  a  scholastic 
innovation.  The  theses  are  attacked  by  Tetzel  himself,  Hoogstraten, 
Prierias  and  Eck. 

121,  Qerman  Lit.  The  Theuerdank,  in  part  composed  by  Maxi- 
milian, the  last  German  Epic  of  Chivahy. 

122.  Spanish  Lit.  The  plays  of  Torres  Naharros,  the  father  of  Spanish 
Comedy. 


22  POUTics  [1518 

85.  England.  Wolsey  negociates  the  Trealy  of  London,  by  riKio 
which  France  buys  back  Toumay,  and  the  dauphin  is  betrothed   L 

to  the  princess  Mary.  The  league  is  joined  by  the  Pope,  the  ^peror, 
and  the  King  of  Spain,  thus  realising  for  the  moment  Wolsey's  oream 
of  a  universal  peace. 

More  at  laist  jielda  to  the  King's  entreaties  and  becomes  a  Privy 
Councillor. 

86.  Sweden.  Christian  II.,  of  Denmark,  invades  Sweden  to  attack 
Sten  Sture,  the  leader  of  the  nobles,  and  carries  away  hostages,  among 
them  Gustavus  Vasa,  son  of  a  senator. 


Germany.     Maximilian    dies,    and,    after    a    protracted   rtcig 
iggle,  in  which  Henry  VIII.  intervenes  as  a  candidate,  and   *- 


87. 
strui 

in  which  the  Pope  favours  Francis,  Charles  is  supported  by  Frederick  of 
Saxony,  and  is  nnally  elected  unanimously. 

At  his  coronation,  Charles  grants  a  Capitulation,  undertaking  to 
make  no  treaty  nor  declare  war  without  the  consent  of  the  Estates,  to 
put  none  to  the  ban  without  trial,  to  introduce  no  fore^  troops, 
to  reside  principally  in  Germany,  and  to  restore  the  u)uncil  of 
Regency. 

Ulnc  of  Wurtember^,  put  to  the  ban  of  the  Empire  for  quarrela 
with  his  nobility,  etc.,  is  ejected  by  the  Suabian  League,  his  duchy 
bein^  administered  by  the  Emperor. 

88.  America.  Cortez  leaves  Cuba  for  Mexico,  destroys  his  fleet  on 
disembarking,  and  enters  the  capital  after  overcoming  great  obstacles. 
He  is  expelled  with  much  loss,  1520,  but  re-enters  the  city  1521. 

89.  Africa.    The  family  of  the  Sherifs  founds  the  Moorish  empire  of 
Morocco. 


90.  England.  The  struggle  for  the  Empire  causes  strained  ticaq 
relations  between  Francis  and  Charles,  both  of  whom  in  conse-  ^ 
quence  desire  the  English  alliance.  On  his  way  from  Spain,  Charles 
visits  Henry  (May),  who  at  once  crosses  to  Calais  and  meets  Francis  at 
the  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold  (June),  returning  to  a  second  interview 
with  the  Emperor,  with  whom  he  makes  a  treaty  (July). 

91.  Spain.  Exasperated  by  Charles'  Flemish  counsellors,  especially 
Chi^vres,  by  his  neglect  of  Spanish  customs,  by  his  election  as  ]Bmperor 
and  his  rapid  departure,  leaving  another  foreigner,  Adrian  of  Utrecht, 
as  regent  m  Castile,  the  Spanifuds,  led  by  Padilla  and  Bishop  Acufia, 
revolt  in  Toledo  and  Castile.  The  rebels  petition  the  Emperor  for 
reforms,  but  are  weakened  by  the  defection  of  the  nobility  ana  crushed 
at  Villalar,  1521.  On  the  arrival  of  Charles,  1522,  the  towns, 
prosperous  in  their  silk  and  cloth  trade,  are  robbed  of  their  liberties  and 
begin  to  decline. 

92.  Sweden.  Christian  again  invades  Sweden,  defeats  Sten  Sture, 
is  recognised  King  and  grants  an  amnesty,  but  massacres  many  of  the 
nobility,  including  Eric  Vasa,  in  the  Blood  Bath  of  Stockholm. 


1620]  CULTURE  23 

123.     Education.    The  CoU^  des  Tiois  Langues  at  LouTain. 

m.     Social     A  Commission  is  appointed  to  report  on  Enclosures,  now 

becoming  frequent  in  En^and,  despite  the  Acts  of  1490  and  1516. 

Chides  grants  a  monopoly  of  importing   slaves   into  Spanish 

America. 
125.     Death.    Ximenes. 


126.  Oennan  Ch.    Luther  dedicates  an  amplification  of  his   ncjo 
theses  to  tiie  Pope,  and  meets  Gajetan,  the  rapal  Legate,  at   ^ 
Ausbuig  (Oct.).    Miltitz  is  sent  as  special  envoy  to  the  Elector  of 
Saxony,  carrying  the  Golden  Rose  for  presentation  if  Frederick  yields. 

Melanchthon,  a  relative  and  pupil  of  Reuchlin,  becomes  Professor  of 
Greek  at  Wittenberg,  connects  the  new  movement  with  Humanism,  and 
himself  becomes  a  theologian. 

127.  Swedish  Ch.    Two  Swedes  return  from  Wittenberg  and  intro- 
duce Protestantism,  which  spreads  in  the  towns. 

12S.     Church  Hist    Julius  Exclusus,  a  satire  on  the  Pope. 
129.     Science.    Linacre  founds  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians. 


ISO.  Oennan  Ch.  Luther  meets  Miltitz  (Jan.),  and  writes  ricig 
respectfully  to  the  Popa  In  a  disputation  with  Eck,  at  Leipsi^  ^ 
(June),  he  discovers  his  kinship  wiui  Huss,  and  is  forced  to  criticise  the 
Council  of  Constance,  his  new  position  winning  him  sympathy  from 
Pirkheimer,  Crotus  &ibianus,  Eoban  Hess,  Justus  Jonas,  Hutten,  and 
Siddngen,  from  Oecolampadius,  and  from  the  Bohemian  Brethren. 
His  advances  to  Reuchlin  are  met  with  hostility,  and  to  Erasmus  willi 
evasions. 

131.  Art.    Titian's  Assumption  of  the  Virgin  (Venice). 

132.  Education.  Street  fights  take  place  at  Oxford,  and  the  'Trojans' 
are  rebuked  by  the  King  and  More. 

133.  Geography.  Magellan,  a  Portuguese  in  the  service  of  Spaing 
saAs  round  Cape  Horn  and  is  killed  on  the  Philippines,  1521,  his  ship, 
however,  completing  the  circuit  of  the  world,  1522. 

134.  Death.    Leoiuurdo  da  Vinci. 


135.  Eng.  Ch.    Wolsey  bums  Luther's  works  at  Paul's  Cross,    ri  con 
where  Fisher  delivers  a  violent  sermon.    The  Cambridge  Pro-   ^ 
testants  in  consequence  meet  secretly  at  the  White  Horse  Inn,  where 
they  are  joined  by  Coverdale  and  Latimer,  the  Inn  being  nicknamed 
Germany,  and  its  frequenters  Germans. 

136.  French  Ch.  Bri^nnet,  Bishop  of  Meaux,  a  follower  of  Lef^vre 
and  friend  of  Farel  and  Roussel,  attracts  a  semi-protestant  cirde 
round  him,  and  gains  the  patronage  of  the  King's  sister,  Margaret  of 
Navarre. 

137.  German  Ch.  Luther's  To  the  Christian  Nobility  of  the  German 
Nation,  pleads  for  a  free  Council,  urges  the  princes  and  nobility  to 
natioiuJise  the  Church,  and  combats  ordinances  not  to  be  found  in  the 
N.  T.     His  Babylonish  Captivity  rejects  all  the  Sacraments  of  the 


24  POLITICS  [1020 

Gustavus  Vasa,  who  has  escaped  from  captivity,  1519,  persuades 
Lubeck,  the  chief  of  the  Hansa  Towns,  to  aid  in  raising  Sweden  against 
Christian,  piduaUy  undermines  Christian's  authority,  and  is  recognised 
as  Regent  by  part  of  the  nobility. 
93.  Turkey.  Soliman  the  Magnificent  begins  his  reign,  the  most 
glorious  chapter  of  Ottoman  history  in  the  arts  both  of  war  and  peace, 
m  part  owing  to  the  Grand  Vizier  Ibrahim  (executed  1536). 


94.  England.    The  Duke  of  Buckingham,  son  of  the  antagonist   ri  501 
of  Richard  III.,  is  executed  on  a  charge  of  treason,  his  death    ^ 
closing  the  list  of  the  powerful  nobles. 

95.  Gotland.    Albany  returns,  and  Angus  is  forced  to  retire. 

96.  Prance.  Charles  V.  allies  with  the  Pope  to  expel  the  French 
from  Italy  (May),  and  Wolsey,  after  failing  to  avert  the  war  by  a  Con- 
ference at  Calais  (Aug.),  joins  the  Emperor  (Nov.).  Meanwhile  the 
French  are  expelled  from  Milan,  where  oforza  is  restored,  and  France 
itself  is  invaded.     Parma  and  Piacenza  are  annexed  to  the  Papacy. 

97.  Germany.  The  Diet  of  Worms  reconstitutes  the  Imperial 
Chamber  and  revives  the  Council  of  Regency,  which  lasts  for  three 
years. 

The  Emperor  resits  his  hereditary  dominions  in  Germany,  except 
the  Netherlands,  to  his  brother  Ferdinand. 

98.  Portugal.  With  the  accession  of  John  III.  (1521-1557),  the 
decline  of  Portugal  commences,  N.  Africa  being  abandoned,  except 
Ceuta,  and  African  slaves  being  imported  to  till  the  soil. 

99.  Switzerland.  Zwingli  obtains  the  abolition  of  the  Reislaufen,  or 
mercenaries,  in  Zurich. 

100.  Turkey.  With  the  excuse  of  avenging  an  insult  to  the  Turkish 
envoy,  Soliman  captures  Belgrade,  and  frightens  Venice  into  pajdng 
tribute  for  SJante  and  Cyprus. 

101.  America.  Ponce  de  Leon  returns  to  Florida  and  founds  a  settle- 
ment which  ends  in  disaster,  owing  to  the  climate  and  the  hostility  of 
the  natives. 


102.  Scotland.  Albany  retires,  but  French  influence  remains  fikao 
supreme.  ^ 

103.  France.  England  declares  war  against  France,  but  the  invasion 
leads  to  no  result  save  that  Francis  allies  with  Scotland. 

104.  Germany.  The  Knights,  or  lesser  Grennan  nobility,  under  Hutten 
and  Sickingen,  attack  the  Elector  of  Trier,  but  obtain  little  support, 
owing  to  Luther's  disapproval  of  violent  measures. 

105.  Turkey.  After  a  heroic  defence  of  five  months,  the  Knights  of 
St  John  in  Rhodes,  a  number  of  them  English,  are  forced  to  surrender, 
but  receive  Malta  from  the  Emperor,  1530.  The  victory  leaves  the  Turks 
supreme  in  the  Eastern  Mediterranean. 

106.  Asia.    The  Portuguese  settle  at  Macao  (near  Hong-Kong). 


1622]  CULTURE  25 

Church  except  Baptism  and  the  Lord's  Sapper,  and  demands  the  cup 
for  the  laity.  His  Freedom  of  a  Christian  Man  maintains  the  priest- 
hood of  every  believer.  Eck  now  circulates  the  Pope's  Bull  of  Excom- 
munication (brought  by  Miltitz,  1518),  which  Lutner  publicly  bums. 
A  new  war  of  pamphlets  is  waged  by  Luther  and  Hutten  on  one  side, 
and  by  Mumer  and  Emser  on  the  other. 

138.  Italian  Ch.  Sadoleto,  Contarini,  Giberto,  Caraffa,  Gaetano  da 
Thiene,  the  poet  Flaminio,  Camesecchi,  etc.,  some  of  them  accepting 
the  Lutheran  theory  of  Justification,  be^  to  meet,  and,  in  1523,  give 
the  Society  the  name  of  the  Oratory  of  Divine  Love. 

139.  Art.  Correggio  b^ns  his  10  years'  labour  on  the  frescoes  of  the 
domes  of  Sim  Giovanni  and  the  Cauiedral  at  Parma. 

i^.     Death.    Baphael. 

141.  Eng.  Ch.    Henry  replies  to  Luther's  Babylonish  Captivity   r^Koi 
in  his  Seven  Sacraments,  for  which  he  receives  the  title  of  '- 
Defender  of  the  FaitL    Luther  retorts,  attributing  the  work  to  Lee, 
and  is  attacked  by  More  and  Fisher. 

142.  French  Ch.  The  Sorbonne  condemns  the  Colloquies  of  Erasmus, 
and  100  propositions  from  Luther's  writings. 

143.  German  Ch.  Alexander,  the  Papal  legate  at  the  Diet  of  Worms, 
fails  to  induce  the  Emperor  to  enforce  tne  bull  without  hearing  Luther 
(Ap.),  who  refuses  to  retract  anything  but  what  is  proved  unscriptural. 
Charles  allows  him  to  return,  but  puts  him  to  the  ban  of  the  Empire 
(May).  Luther  hides  in  the  Wartburg,  where  he  translates  the  Biole. 
At  Wittenberg  his  work  is  carried  on  by  Melanchthon  and  Carlstadt, 
and  by  the  newcomers,  Bugenhagen  and  Justus  Jonas.  Melanchthon 
lays  the  foundations  of  Lutheran  theology  in  his  Loci  Communes. 

144-  Spanish  Ch.  A  number  of  Spanisn  Bishops  visit  Worms  to  com- 
plain of  the  entry  of  Lutheran  doctnnes  into  Spain. 

140.  Scotch  Lit.  Major,  Principal  of  Glasgow,  and,  later,  of  St 
Andrew's  (where  Knox  and  Buchanan  are  among  his  pupils),  writes  his 
History  of  Scotland. 

146,     Social.    The  manu£Etcture  of  silk  is  introduced  into  France. 


147.  French  Ch.    Lefevre's  Commentary  on  the  Gospels.  [1522 

148.  German  Ch.  Mystical  Anabaptism  appears  in  Zwickau, 
whence  it  is  expelled  by  the  magistrates,  Miinzer  roaming  over 
Germany,  Storch,  Stiibner  and  Oellarius  visiting  Wittenberg.  Melanch- 
thon being  too  undecided  to  preserve  order,  Luther  returns  to  Wittenberg 
(March),  and  persuades  the  Anabaptists  to  leave  the  city.  He  now 
publishes  his  translation  of  the  N.  T.,  the  first  rendering  from  the 
original  into  German  prose,  of  which  it  is  the  first  important  monument. 

Mumer,  the  Franciscan,  attacks  the  extravagances  of  the  Reforma- 
tion in  his  Great  Lutheran  Fool. 
1j^.  Swiss  Ch.  Zwingli,  pastor  at  Zurich,  attacks  fasting,  clerical 
celibacy,  etc.,  and  urges  the  substitution  of  the  Bible  for  the  Church. 
His  example  is  followed  by  his  old  teacher  Wjrttenbach,  and  by  Pelli- 
canus  and  Oecolampadius  at  Basle. 


26  POLITICS  [1523 

107.  England.    Requiring  money  for  the  French  war,  Henry   [^523 
summons  a  Parliament  (the  only  one  1516-28),  which,  however,    *• 
refuses  Wolsey's  enormous  demand  of  £800,000. 

108.  Scotland.  Henry's  offer  of  aUiance  is  rejected,  and  Surrey  rayages 
the  Border. 

109.  France.  Owing  to  the  loss  of  his  position  as  Constable  and  the 
Queen  dowager's  lawsuit  to  obtain  his  estates,  Bourbon,  the  most 
powerful  of  fi-ench  nobles,  joins  the  league  of  Charles,  Henry,  and  most 
of  the  Italian  powers.  The  invasion,  despite  the  attack  of  Picardy  by 
Ekigland,  of  Guienne  by  Spain  and  of  Champagne  by  the  Emperor, 
results  in  failure. 

110.  Germany.  The  Knights'  War  is  terminated  by  the  capture  of 
Sickingen's  castle  and  the  death  of  its  owner,  quickly  followed  by  that 
of  HuUen. 

111.  Spain.  Charles  refuses  to  receive  petitions  for  redress  before  the 
grant  of  supplies,  thus  reducing  the  Castilian  Cortes  to  impotence. 

112.  Denmark.  Christian  H.  is  expelled  by  his  subjects,  aided  by 
Lubeck,  his  uncle  Frederick  of  Schleswig  Holstein  succeeding  to  the 
throne. 

113.  Sweden.  On  the  flight  of  Christian  from  Denmark,  the  garrison 
in  Stockholm  surrenders,  the  long  war  of  sieges  comes  to  an  end,  and 
Gustavus  Vasa  becomes  King  of  Sweden,  the  throne  being  declared 
hereditary  in  his  family,  1544.  Gustavus  founds  Swedish  commerce  by 
abolishing  the  Hanseatic  monopoly,  re-organises  the  finances,  developes 
the  internal  resources  of  the  country  and  creates  a  standing  army. 


114.  Scotland.    Albany,  who  had  returned,  1523,  finally  re-   ^^524 
tires,  and  an  English  party  begins  to  form.    Beaton  is  im-   '> 
prisoned,   the    Queen   is  joined  by  Arran,  and  the  young  king  is 
proclaimed. 

115.  France.  The  French  invade  Italy,  but  are  repulsed  and  lose  the 
Chevalier  Bayard.  Bourbon  advances  from  Lombardy  to  the  siege  of 
Marseilles,  but  is  forced  to  return,  Francis  following  him,  capturing 
Milan,  laying  siege  to  Pavia,  and  drawing  the  Pope  to  nis  side. 

116.  Sweden.  By  the  Treaty  of  Malmo  the  independence  of  Sweden 
(except  the  southern  provinces),  is  recognised  by  the  King  of  Denmark, 
the  Union  of  Calmar,  1397,  thus  coming  to  an  end. 


117.  Prance.  The  French  troops,  weakened  by  the  des^tch  of  neoR 
a  large  force  against  Naples,  are  routed  near  ravia  by  rescara,  ^ 
Launoy  and  Bourbon  (Feb.),  Francis  being  carried  captive  to  Spain  and 
forced  to  resign  Milan  and  Genoa.  The  battle  terminates  the  first  war, 
1522-6,  and  marks  the  supremacy  of  the  Spanish  infantry,  who  for  the 
first  time  use  muskets. 

118.  England.  On  the  news  of  Pavia,  Wolsey  desires  to  restore  the 
balance  of  power  by  allying  with  France.  Henry,  however,  determines 
to  invade  France,  and  Wolsey  is  compelled  to  ask  for  an  Amicable 
Loan,  which  meets  such  wide-spread  resistance  that  the  invasion  is  given 
up  and  a  treaty  negociated. 


1626]  X  CULTURE  27 

160.     Bohemian  Ch.    The  Bohemian  Catechism,  probably  by  Lucas  of 
Prague,  who  is  strongly  influenced  by  a  visit  to  the  Waldensians. 

151.  Eng.  Lit.     Skefton  attacks  Wolsey  in  Why  come  ye  not  to 
Court? 

152.  Italian  Lit.    Sannazzaro's  De  Partu  Virginis,  a  model  of  Latin 
style  and  a  blend  of  Christian  and  classical  ideas. 

153.  Death.    ReuchUn. 


154.  German  Ch.    Carlstadt  and  Miinzer  become  more  and   ricoQ 
more  Anabantist,  and  retire  to  small  parishes,  whence  they    *- 
foment  the  devolution  by  word  and  pen. 

155.  Spanish  Ch.  Juan  d'  Avila,  *the  Apostle  of  Andalusia/  is 
persecuted  as  a  Lutheran. 

156.  Netherlands  Ch.  Flemish  Protestantism,  which  has  centred  in 
Augustinian  monasteries,  now  begins  the  translation  of  Luther's  writings 
and  the  composition  of  original  works,  and  loses  its  first  martyrs. 

157.  Swiss  Ch.  Zwingli  draws  up  67  articles  and  holds  two  public 
disputations,  after  which  the  clergy  marry,  the  monasteries  are  dissolved, 
1524,  Mass  is  discontinued,  and  a  theological  college  is  instituted. 

158.  Eng.  Lit.    Lord  Bemers*  translation  of  Froissart. 

159.  Art.  Titian's  Bacchus  and  Ariadne  (London)  first  renders  move- 
ment. 

160.  Social.  Fitzherbert's  Husbandry,  the  first  agricultural  handbook 
since  that  of  Walter  of  Henley  (c.  1250). 


161,  German    Ch.    Many    Humanists   who  had  joined  the   ^1504 
Protestants  in  their  attack  on  the  clergy,  without  sharing  their   >- 
religious  ideas,  sever  their  connection  with  Luther,  the  signal  being 
given  bv  Erasmus'  book  on  Free  Will,  to  which  Luther  replies,  1525. 

Luther  and  Walther  collect  and  compose  the  first  Grerman  hjrmn- 
book. 

162,  Italian  Ch.  Gaetano  da  Thiene,  with  the  aid  of  Caraffa,  founds 
the  Theatine  Order  to  educate  the  secular  priesthood,  to  preach  iemd  to 
visit. 

163,  French  Lit.  Gryphius  begins  to  print  at  Lyons,  with  the  aid  of 
Dolet. 


I64.,     £kK>tch  Ch.     Parliament  forbids  the  import  of  Luther's   tirar 
books ;  but  propagandism  is  at  this  moment  begun  by  Patrick   '- 
Hamilton. 

165,  French  Ch.  Owing  to  the  increasing  antagonism  aroused  by  the 
works  of  Lef^vre  and  his  K>llowers,  the  Dowager  Louise,  left  supreme  by 
the  captivity  of  the  King,  and  influenced  by  Cardinal  Duprat,  breaks  up 


28  pouTics  [1S2S 


119.  Germany.  The  revolt  of  the  peasants,  the  greatest  of  a  laige 
number  in  the  last  half  century,  due  to  poyertv,  to  feudal  oppression, 
and  to  the  teachings  of  Mlinzer,  Carlstadt  and  their  followers,  and  in  a 
less  degree  to  the  principles  of  the  Reformation,  spreads  from  south  to 
central  Germany.  Their  ^evances  are  formulated  in  the  Twelve 
Articles,  supported  from  Scnpture,  in  which  they  claim  the  right  of  each 
parish  to  cnoose  its  minister,  the  ri^ht  to  hunt  and  fish,  the  reduction 
of  tithes,  the  abolition  of  clerical  jurisdiction,  etc.  They  destroy  castles 
and  convents,  are  denounced  by  Luther,  and  defeated  in  a  series  of 
battles.  Miinzer  is  captured  and  executed,  and  the  revolt  pitilessly 
stamned  out  (May). 

The  Catholic  Electors  form  the  League  of  Dessau. 

Albert  of  Brandenburg,  Grand  Master  since  1511  of  the  Teutonic 
Knights,  accepts  the  Reformation,  surrenders  the  lands  of  his  Order  to 
the  King  of  Poland,  from  whom  he  receives  them  back  as  a  fief,  takes 
the  title  of  Duke  of  Prussia,  and  establishes  Protestantism. 


120.  Prance.  By  the  Treaty  of  Madrid  (Jan.),  Francis  is  re-  rj^g^e 
leased  on  promising  to  yield  the  Duchy  of  Burgundy  and  his  ^ 
claims  in  Italy,  Fkunders,  and  Artois,  and  leaving  two  sons  as  hostages. 
Once  free,  however,  the  King,  with  the  Pope's  approval,  repudiates  the 
compact,  and  joins  with  England,  the  Pope,  Venice,  and  Milan  in  the 
League  of  Cognac  (May),  to  compel  the  Emperor  to  restore  the  royal 
hostages  and  make  Sforza  independent  in  Milan.  The  second  war  of 
Francis  and  Charles  commences  with  the  capture  of  Milan  by  Bourbon 
(July),  the  arrival  of  German  reinforcements  under  Frondsberg,  and  his 
advance  on  Rome. 

121.  Germany.  To  be  ready  for  resistance  to  the  victorious  Emperor, 
Philip  of  Hesse  joins  with  John,  Elector  of  Saxony,  the  princes  of 
Brunswick-Liineburg,  Anhalt,  Mecklenburg  and  the  city  of  Magdeburg, 
in  the  League  of  Torgau  (March).  In  face  of  this  confederacy,  and  of 
the  alliance  of  the  Pope  with  Francis,  the  Diet  at  Spire  (June)  practi- 
cally drops  the  Edict  of  Worms  by  leaving  its  execution  to  the 
conscience  of  individual  rulers,  until  a  General  Council. 

122.  Hungary.  King  Louis  and  20,000  are  slain  at  Mohacz  (Aug.)  by 
the  Turks,  who  occupy  Buda.  Ferdinand,  brother-in-law  of  the  late 
King,  and  Zapolya,  a  prominent  noble  and  the  candidate  of  the  Porte, 
are  chosen  King  by  rival  factions.  Bohemia  passes  to  Ferdinand,  who 
declares  it  a  hereditary  possession,  1547. 

123.  Russia.  After  20  years*  war,  peace  is  made  with  Poland,  by  the 
mediation  of  the  Western  powers,  Russia  retaining  Smolensk,  her  chief 
conquest.    The  remnants  of  the  Tartar  hordes  are  now  expelled. 

124.  Tnrkey.  The  fleets  of  the  Sultan  destrov  the  Arab  Corsairs  of 
the  Red  Sea,  and  extend  his  authority  over  Arabia,  his  influence  being 
felt  in  India,  whence  embassies  are  sent. 

125.  Asia.  Baber,  a  descendant  of  Tamerlane  (after  seizing,  1504,  and 
ruling  the  kingdom  of  Cabul),  enters  India,  defeats  the  Mohammedan 
King  of  Delhi  at  Panipat,  and  a  Hindu  confederacy,  1527,  and  founds 


1526]  CULTURE  29 

the  circle  at  Meaux  (where  Brifonnet  submits),  and  bums  a  number  of 
Protestants,  the  leaders,  however,  being  saved  by  Margaret  With  the 
return  of  the  King,  the  persecution  is  arrested. 

166.  Oerxnan  Ch.  Luther  marries  Catherine  Bora,  once  a  nun,  to  the 
vexation  of  most  of  the  Reformers. 

The  piu^  conunemorative  view  of  Holy  Communion  now  explained 
in  Zwingli's  True  and  False  Beli^ion  is  accepted  by  Oecolampadius,  and 
in  part  by  Bucer  and  Capito,  and  begins  to  spread  over  South  Germany. 

167,  Education.  Wolsey  creates  Cardinal  College,  Oxford,  on  the  site 
of  St  Frideswide's  Monastery,  with  its  endowments,  and  those  of  other 
monastic  houses,  sununons  several  of  its  first  teachers  from  Cambridge, 
and  founds  a  Grammar  School  at  Inswich,  specially  for  classical  studies, 
to  feed  his  college.  On  his  £bJ1,  Ipswich  is  confiscated  and  Cardinal 
College  re-christened  and  re-endowed  as  Christ  Church,  1546. 


168,  Eng.  Ch.    Aftergreat  difficulties,  Tyndale's  translation  of  ri  kqa 
the  N.  T.  appears  at  Worms,  and  quickly  circulates  in  England,    '- 
but  is  burnt  at  Paul's  Cross  and  charged  with  wilful  mistranslations 
by  Tunstall,  Lee,  and  More.   The  work  gives  a  new  stimulus  to  English 
Protestantism,  of  which  Latimer  now  becomes  leader. 

169,  German  Ch.  Luther  composes  a  German  service,  and  organises 
the  ^stematic  visitation  of  parishes. 

170,  Polish  Ch.  Desnite  the  efforts  of  the  Ein^  and  the  Church, 
Protestantism  gains  a  nold  through  books,  through  the  education  of 

irouths  at  Wittenberg,  and  through  commerce  with  German  towns,  and 
OSes  ite  earliest  martvrs. 

171.  Philosophy,  vittoria  becomes  Professor  of  Theology  at  Sala- 
manca, and  substitutes  the  study  of  Aquinas  for  that  of^Peter  the 
Lombard.  The  studj  of  Thomism  revives,  and  is  spread  by  the  alumni 
of  Salamanca,  Melchior  Cano,  De  Soto,  and  Carranza. 

172,  Spanish  Lit.  Acting  on  a  suggestion  of  the  Venetian  ambas- 
sador, Boscan  b^ns  to  imitate  Italian  forms  and  initiates  a  literary 
revolution. 

173.  Portogaese  Lit.  About  the  same  time  Sa  de  Miranda  returns 
firom  Italy  and  founds  the  classic  school  in  Portugal. 

174.  Art.  Holbein  pays  a  visit  to  England,  bringing  a  letter  from 
Erasmus  to  More  by  whom  he  is  introdu(^  at  Court.  Except  for  visits 
to  Basle,  he  remains  in  England  as  Court  painter  till  his  death. 

175.  Social.  While  resident  at  the  court  of  Henry  VIII.,  Vives  com- 
poses his  De  Subventione  Paunerum,  the  principles  of  which  are  widely 
applied,  are  approved  by  the  Sorbonne,  1531,  despite  the  opposition  of 
the  Mendicant  Orders,  and  initiates  the  modem  treatment  of  poverty. 


30  POLITICS  [1686 

the  Moghul  Empire,  leaving  at  his  death,  1530,  the  whole  of  the  Punjab 
to  his  son,  Hamayun. 


126.  England.  Henry's  secret  ne^ociations  with  Clement  con-  n^^ 
ceming  a  divorce  (fii^  clearly  referred  to  1525),  miscan3ring  ^ 
owing  to  the  Pope's  captivity  and  their  discovery  by  the  Qaeen,  the 
King  tells  his  wife  that  his  conscience  compels  their  separation,  and 
imposes  silence  on  her.  Wolsey  informs  More  and  Fisner  that  the 
King's  scruples  have  been  raised  by  the  Bishop  of  Tarbes  in  negociating 
for  the  hand  of  his  daughter,  and  forbids  them  to  see  the  Queen. 

127.  Italy.  The  German  troops  mutiny  for  pay,  and  are  led  by  Bourbon 
to  Bome,  which  is  given  over  to  the  most  terrible  pillage  it  has  ever 
experienced  (May).  The  Pope,  who  has  taken  refuge  in  the  Gastle  of 
St  Angelo,  is  compelled  to  come  to  terms  with  the  JBmperor,  and  the 
Papal  States  are  dismembered  by  the  princes  and  cities  of  North  Italy. 

On  the  news  of  the  sack,  a  French  army  enters  Italy,  captures  Genoa 
and  marches  on  Naples,  whither  the  Emperor's  army  is  transported 
from  Rome.  Naples  is  saved  by  a  pestilence  and  by  the  entry  of  Doria 
(who  has  been  olockading  the  city  on  behalf  of  France)  into  the 
service  of  Charles,  on  account  of  an  insult  by  Francis  to  Genoa,  his 
native  town. 

The  Medici  are  expelled  a  second  time  from  Florence. 

128.  Sweden.  Needing  money,  Gustavus,  by  threats  of  resignation, 
induces  the  Diet  of  Westeras  to  give  him  the  disposal  of  Church 
property,  and  to  institute  religious  liberty. 

129.  America.  Pizarro,  after  numerous  rebuffs,  resolves,  with  a 
handful  of  followers,  to  go  forward,  and  finds  traces  of  a  great  civilisa- 
tion. He  therefore  procures  patents  from  Spain,  and  starts  from 
Panama,  1531,  conuuers  Peru  without  difficulty,  enters  Cuzco,  1534, 
and  founds  Lima,  the  capital  of  Spanish  Peru. 


130.  England.  Gardiner  and  Fox  are  sent  to  Rome  to  ur^e  the  ri  500 
Pope  to  appoint  a  decretal  Commission.  Clement,  not  danng  to  i- 
insult  the  Emperor,  the  nephew  of  Catherine,  refuses,  and  sends 
Camp^gio  to  join  Wolsey,  with  a  verbal  promise  to  confirm  their 
arrangements.  It  is  now  found  that  Julius  had  given  a  Brief,  preserved 
in  Spain,  even  more  definite  than  the  dispensation.  Henry  vainly 
urges  the  Pope  to  declare  this  a  forgery.  During  this  delay,  Wolsey 
consults  the  Bishops,  who  declare  the  case  doubtful,  and  urge  him  to 
consult  the  Universities. 

131.  Scotland.  The  King  escapes  from  Angus,  becomes  master  of  his 
kingdom,  and  makes  peace  with  Henry. 

132.  Germany.  Philip  of  Hesse,  suspecting  a  conspiracv  among  the 
Catholic  princes,  pays  Pack,  an  official  of  the  Duke  of  Saxony,  to 
produce  documents  proving  its  existence.  On  the  strength  of  Pack's 
revelations,  Philip  prepares  for  war,  but  desists  on  fin£ng  that  the 
documents  are  forged. 


1628]  CULTURE  31 

176.  Scotch   Ch.     Hamilton  writes  his   Commonplaces,  and   1-1527 
lectures  at  St  Andrews,  where  he  converts  Alesius.    He  is   ^ 
arrested  and  burnt,  1528. 

177.  French  Ch.  Margaret  of  Angoulfime  marries  Henry  of  Navarre, 
gathers  round  her  at  N^rac  Marot,  I)esperiers,  etc.,  and  holds  Lutheran 
services  in  the  Castle. 

178.  German  Ch.  Philip  of  Hesse  founds  a  University  at  Marburg, 
much  visited  by  English,  and  where  Busch  and  Lambert  of  Avignon 
teacL 

179.  Italian  Ch.  The  sack  of  Rome,  which  may  be  said  to  terminate 
the  Italian  renaissance,  breaks  up  the  Oratory  of  Divine  Love,  some  of 
its  members  becoming  strongly  ultramontane,  the  more  moderate  settling 
in  Venice.  At  the  same  moment,  Ren^,  daughter  of  Louis  XH., 
marries  the  Duke  of  Ferrara,  and  makes  her  court  the  centre  of  Pro- 
testant influences  in  Italy. 

180.  Swiss  Ch.  ZwingU's  Elenchus  contra  Catabaptistas  records  the 
first  Baptist  Confession,  adherents  of  which  are  (m)wned  at  Zurich. 
B^ne,  Basle,  Schaffhausen  and  St  Grail  become  Protestant. 

181.  Asiatic  Ch.  Chaitanya,  a  Brahman  reformer  of  Vishnuism,  dies, 
and  about  the  same  time  Vallabha-Swami  preaches  a  sensuous  Vish- 
nuism, and  Nanak  Shah  founds  the  community  of  the  Sikhs  in  the 
Punjab. 

182.  Art.    Sansovino  becomes  official  architect  of  Venice. 

183.  £k^ience.  Paracelsus  lectures  on  Medicine  at  Basle,  and  founds  the 
modem  science  by  applying  his  knowledge  of  chemistry. 

184.  History.  Maccniavelli's  History  of  Florence  traces  the  operation 
of  political  forces. 

186.     Death.    Macchiavelli. 


186.  Eng.  Ch.    Fish's  Supplication  of  Beggars,  attacking  the   tiroq 
avarice  of  the  clergy,  the  belief  in  purgatory,  etc.,  is  answered  by   •■ 
More  in  his  Supphcation  of  Souls,  and  by  Fisher. 

Tyndal's  Obedience  of  a  Christian  Man  and  how  Christian  Rulers 
ought  to  govern,  defends  Protestants  from  the  charge  of  being  bad 
subiects,  and  attacks  the  clergy  and  the  Papal  system.  The  book  falls 
under  the  notice  of  the  King. 

187.  German  Ch.  Schwenkfeld  breaks  with  the  Lutherans,  from 
whom  he  differs  on  baptism,  justification,  the  Lord's  Supper  and  Church 
organisation,  and  settles  in  South  Germany,  where  he  founds  a  sect  and 
composes  his  polemical  and  mystical  works. 

188.  Italian  Ch.  The  order  of  the  Capucins  is  founded,  as  a  branch  of 
the  Observants  (from  1619  self-governing)  and  is  patronised  by  Caterina 
Cibo  and  Vittoria  Colonna. 

189.  Spanish  Lit.  Juan  de  Valdez'  Dialogo  de  Mercurio  y  Caron,  the 
chief  prose  work  of  the  reign,  discusses  the  political  and  religious 
problems  of  the  time. 

190.  Italian  Lit.  Castiglione's  Courtier,  a  manual  of  polite  conduct, 
inspired  by  the  Court  of  iJrbino. 


32  POLITICS  [1628 

133.  Italy.  The  last  French  attack  is  made  on  Naples  by  Laatrec,.wfao 
is  routed  at  A  versa  (Aug.)  The  French  at  the  same  time  are  expelled 
from  Genoa  by  Doria,  who  gives  the  Republic  a  new  Constitution  with 
a  Doge,  chosen  for  two  years. 


134.  England.  On  the  meeting  of  the  Court  (May),  the  Queen  rj^^g 
appeals  to  Rome,  and  Fisher  declares  for  the  legality  of  the  ^ 
marriage.  Campeggio  adjourns  the  Court,  the  Pope  having  revoked  the 
cause  according  to  secret  agreement.  On  the  failure  of  his  policj, 
Wolsey  is  denrived  of  the  seal  (Oct.),  and  his  possessions  are  adjudged 
to  the  King,  More  succeeding  him  as  Chancellor.  Cranmer  reconimends 
that  the  Universities  should  be  consulted,  and  that  the  case  should  be 
dealt  with  by  an  English  Court 

The  Seven  Years'  Parliament  meets,  the  members  of  which  are 
chiefly  lawyers  and  country  gentlemen,  in  some  cases  owing  their  elec- 
tion to  the  influence  of  the  Crown. 

135.  France.  A  final  French  expedition  to  Italy  is  defeated,  and  the 
second  war  between  Francis  and  Charles  terminated  by  the  Peace  of 
Cambrai  (Aug.)  Francis  receives  back  his  sons,  renounces  his  claims 
on  Italy,  Flanders  and  Artois,  and  pays  a  large  indemnity. 

136.  Germany.  By  the  Treaty  of  Barcelona,  Charles  promises  to 
leave  Milan  to  Sforza  for  life,  to  restore  the  Medici  to  Florence  and  to 
extirpate  heresy,  Clement  undertaking  to  crown  Charles,  and  to  invest 
him  with  the  kingdom  of  Naples. 

The  majoritv  of  the  Diet  at  Spire  (March),  desiring  to  annul  the 
Edict  of  1526,  the  Evangelical  princes  draw  up  a  formal  protest,  signed 
by  John  of  Saxony,  Hesse,  Brandenburg,  Brunswick,  Anhalt  and 
14  cities,  thus  earning  the  name  of  Protestants. 

137.  SvTitzerland.  In  consequence  of  a  League  formed  by  Zurich 
with  Constance  1527  and  joined  bv  other  cities  as  they  become  Pro- 
testant, the  Catholic  States  ally  with  Austria.  War  is  averted  through 
the  intervention  of  neutral  states,  the  Austrian  alliance  is  broken  off 
and  each  district  is  left  free  to  settle  its  own  religion. 

138.  Turkey.  The  Turks  advance  on  Vienna,  and  after  three  weeks' 
siege  withdraw  with  great  loss. 


139.  England.    Wolsey  is  restored  to  partial  favour  (Feb.),    r^^Q 
which  he  loses  on  the  discovery  of  negociations  with  Francis.    ^ 

He  is  arrested  (Nov.),  and  dies  of  fright 

The  King  consults  the  Universities  (Feb.),  which  return  an  evasive 
reply.  Parliament  urges  the  Pope,  to  whom  Cranmer  has  forwarded 
the  opinions  of  the  foreign  Universities,  to  nullify  the  marriage, 
warning  him  that  other  arrangements  may  be  made.  The  Pope  de- 
precates the  threat,  and  Henry  issues  a  Proclamation  forbidding 
transactions  with  Rome  and  the  introduction  of  Bulls. 

140.  Italy.    Charles  is  crowned  Emperor  by  the  Pope  at  Bologna. 
The  Hapsburg  hegemony  in  the  peninsula   is   confirmed  and   the 


1630]  CULTURE  33 

191.  Literature.  Erasmus  satirises  the  slavish  adherence  of  Humanists 
like  Longolius  of  Padua  to  the  vocabulary  of  Cicero  in  his  Ciceronianus, 
to  which  Julius  Scaliger  and  Dolet  reply. 

192.  Education.    Melanchthon  propounds  his  educational  reforms. 

193.  Death.    Diirer. 


194.  French  Ch.    Despite  the  efforts  of  Margaret  of  Navarre,   n  529 
Berquin,  the  friend  ana  translator  of  the  Grerman  reformers,  is   *- 
burned.    The  execution  leads  to  a  reaction  in  the  mind  of  the  King. 

195.  (German  Ch.  Philip  of  Hesse,  desiring  Protestant  unity  and 
sympathising  with  the  views  of  the  Swiss  reformers,  invites  Luther, 
Melanchthon  and  Justus  Jonas  from  Wittenberg,  Zwingli  and  Oeco- 
lampadius  from  Switzerland,  Bucer,  Hedio,  Osiander  and  Brenz  from 
South  Germany  to  Marburg  to  discuss  the  theory  of  the  Sacrament. 
Luther  and  Zwingli,  having  already  disputed  for  three  years,  fail  to  find 
a  compromise,  Luther's  deep  consciousness  of  sin  rendering  a  merely 
commemorative  act  inadequate  for  his  spiritual  needs.  The  Conference 
marks  the  definite  severance  of  the  churches. 

Luther's  Larger  and  Smaller  Catechism. 

196.  Spanish  lit.  Guevara's  Dial  of  Princes,  a  didactic  novel  with 
Marcus  Aurelius  for  its  hero,  creates  the  style  afterwards  practised  by 
Lyiy,  Grongora  and  Marini.     (Translated  by  Lord  Bemers,  1531.) 

197.  Education.  Influenced  by  Mar^^ret,  Budaeus,  and  the  Du 
Bellays,  Francis  founds  the  College  de  France  for  Greek  and  Hebrew, 
continuing  the  work  of  Lascaris  and  carrying  out  a  plan  suggested  by 
Erasmus.  Owing  to  the  hostility  of  the  party  of  ^eda,  and  to  the 
changeableness  of  the  King,  the  college  for  some  years  maintains  a  pre- 
carious life.     Additional  chairs  are  gnidually  endowed. 

198.  Philology.    Budaeus'  Commentarii  Linguae  Graecae. 

Robert  Stephanus  succeeds  to  his  father's  printing  business  at  Paris 
(established  about  1502),  issues  a  vast  number  of  works  in  Greek,  Latin 
and  Hebrew,  including  many  of  his  own  editions,  and  is  appointed 
printer  to  the  King,  1539,  but  is  driven  by  the  Sorbonne  to  remove  to 
Geneva,  1551. 


199.  Eng.  Ch.  Parliament  reduces  the  Probate  charged  in  mkoq 
Church  Courts,  and  forbids  the  procuring  of  licenses  from  Rome   *- 

for  pluralities,  the  latter  Statute  striking  the  first  blow  against  the 
Papal  power. 

200.  German  Ch.  Melanchthon  represents  Lutheranism  at  the  Diet 
of  Augsburg,  Luther  staying  within  reach  at  Coburg.  Though  admitting 
the  practical  identity  of  doctrine,  anxious  for  a  restoration  of  episcopiQ 
authority,  and  ready  to  accept  the  Mass  with  explanations,  Melanch- 
thon's  Confession  is  rejected  by  the  Diet.  He  now  draws  up  an  Apology 
for  the  Confession,  based  on  the  Articles  of  the  Marburc  Conference,  the 
Schwabach  and  Torgau  Articles.  Zwingli  sends  a  Confession;  and 
Bucer  and  Capito,  in  a  first  attempt  at  an  Eirenicon,  present  the  Con- 
fessio  Tetrapolitana,  on  behalf  of  four  cities  of  South  Germany.    The 

o.  3 


34  pouTics  [1S80 

alliance  of  Spain  and  the  Papacy  commences,  Venice  alone  standing 
outside  their  influence. 

Alexander  de  Medici  is  restored  by  Spanish  troops  to  Florence, 
which  jdelds  after  a  long  siege,  the  last  relics  of  the  communal  regime 
being  swept  away. 
141.     Switzerland.    Geneva  becomes  independent  of  the  Duke  of  Savoy. 


142.  En^and.    The  cler^  forfeit  their  possessions  under  Prae-    {\m 
munire  for  recognising  Wolsey  as  Legate,  but  are  allowed  to    *- 
compound,  on  condition  of  recognising  the  King  as  supreme  head  of  the 
Church  of  England.    They  introduce  the  qualification,  'so  £eu:  as  is 
allowed  by  the  law  of  Christ.' 

Convocation  urges  the  withdrawal  of  Annates  from  the  Pope,  adding 
that,  if  he  retaliate,  obedience  should  be  withdrawn. 

143.  Germany.  The  Protestant  League  of  Schmalkald  is  signed  by 
John  of  Saxony,  Hesse,  Brunswick-Luneberg,  Anhalt,  and  many  towns, 
and  is  welcomed  by  France  and  Denmark. 

144.  Switzerland.  The  War  of  the  Cantons  breaks  out  and  Zwingli  is 
defeated  and  slain  at  Cappel.  The  Peace  provides  that  each  CimtcA 
should  settle  its  own  religious  affairs  ;  but  a  decided  Catholic  reaction 
sets  in. 

145.  America.  A  rumour  spreads  that  Brazil  contains  precious  metals, 
the  first  royal  governor  is  sent  out,  and  the  coast  is  divided  into 
Captaincies.  A  steady  flow  of  colonists  takes  place,  the  sugar-cane  is 
introduced  from  Madeira,  and  negroes  are  imported  from  Guinea. 


146.  En^and.  Convocation  is  forced  to  sign  the  Submission  of  ricM 
the  Clergy,  in  which  it  engages  neither  to  meet  nor  to  enact  new  L-""*^^ 
Canons  without  the  King's  leave.  On  this  More  resigns  the  Chancellor- 
ship. 

147.  Scotland.  James  V.  founds  the  College  of  Justice,  modelled  cm 
the  Parliament  of  Paris,  for  civil  actions. 

148.  Germany.  Owing  to  the  advance  of  the  Turks  into  Austria,  the 
Emperor  agrees  with  the  Schmalkaldic  allies  to  the  Peace  of  Nuremberg, 
by  which  toleration  is  guaranteed  till  a  General  Council. 

149.  Italy.  Don  Pedro  de  Toledo  commences  his  Viceroyalty,  daring 
which  he  creates  modem  Naples,  introduces  law  and  order,  and  fortifies 
the  country. 


150.  En^and.  The  King  secretly  marries  Anne  (Jan.),  and,  on  ricoo 
hearing  of  the  Pope's  forthcoming  decision,  induces  Parliament  ^ 
to  forbid  Appeals  to  Rome.  He  forces  Convocation  to  condemn 
Catherine's  marriage  (March),  and  licenses  Cranmer  to  hold  a  Court, 
which  pronounces  the  marriage  void  (May).  He  ratifies  the  Act  of 
Annates,  passed  1532,  and  appeals  to  a  (reneral  Council. 


1533]  CULTURE  35 

Recess  of  the  Diet  forbids  Protestant  teaching,  and  orders  the  restora- 
tion of  Church  property,  but  promises  to  urge  the  Pope  to  summon 
a  CoundiL 

201.  Fhiloflophy.    Agrippa's  De  Vanitate  Scientiarum  et  Artium. 

202,  Art.  Quintin  Ik£itsys  dies,  and  Italian  influences  become  domi- 
nant in  Flemish  art  with  Mabuse  and  Van  Orley,  both  of  whom  study 
in  Italy. 


203.  Eng.  Ch.    The  first  collection  of  English  hymns  and  carols,    ri  531 

204.  Swiss  Ch.    On  the  death  of  Zwingli,  Bullinger  succeeds   ^ 
to  his  position  and  in  great  measure  to  his  influence. 

205.  Cnorch  Hist.  Servetus'  De  Trinitatis  Erroribus  stimulates  the 
growth  of  Unitarian  ideas,  already  broached  by  Denck,  Hetzer  and 
Campanus  and  condemned  by  the  Confession  of  Au^burg. 

Cajetan  maintains  the  doctrine  of  Papal  infallibility. 

206.  Education.  Elyot's  '  Grovemor/  a  treatise  on  education,  urges 
gentleness  and  the  study  of  individuality.  Similar  ideas  are  expressed 
about  this  time  in  the  De  Disciplinis  of  Vives. 

207.  Art.  Primaticcio  is  appointed  Court  painter,  and  aids  Rosso  and 
Benvenuto  Cellini  in  naturalising  Italian  styles  in  French  art,  the 
supremacy  of  the  School  of  Tours  now  coming  to  an  end. 


208.  French  Ch.  The  Waldenses  declare  themselves  Pro-  r^ggg 
testants.  *- 

209.  Swiss  Ch.  After  six  years'  work  in  French  Switzerland,  Farel 
settles  in  Greneva  and  rapidly  gains  a  foothold  for  Protestantism  in  the 
Great  Council. 

210.  French  Lit.  Rabelais'  Pantagruel  and  Gargantua  (1535)  sketch 
a  scheme  of  education,  recommenmng  the  study  of  the  sciences  and 
physical  exercises,  and  satirising  scholasticism. 

211.  Art  The  Church  of  St  Eustache,  at  Paris,  is  be^un,  marking  the 
transition  from  Gothic  to  Italian,  visible  also  in  the  ChAteau  of  Blois, 
now  rebuilt 

212.  Philology.    The  Thesaurus  Latinus  of  Stephanus. 

213.  Law.  The  Caroline  Code,  composed  from  Roman,  German  and 
Christian  sources,  to  reform  the  criminal  jurisprudence  of  Germany,  is 
published  by  the  Diet  of  Ratisbon. 

21%.     Social.    The  first  Bourse  is  instituted  at  Antwerp. 


215.  Eng.  Ch.    Fryth  is  burnt  for  rejecting  Transubstantiation,    1-1533 
though  willing  to  leave  it  an  open  question.     His  death  makes    '- 
such  a  sensation  that  an  Act  is  passed,  forbidding  Bishops  to  proceed 
ex  officio  against  heretics. 

216.  French  Ch.    The  influence  of  Protestantism  at  Court  reaches  its 
high-water-mark,  owing  to  the  death  of  Louise,  the  King's  mother,  and 

3—2 


36  POLITICS  [1588 


The  Nun  of  Kent  is  executed  for  attacking  the  religious  changes 
and  the  divorce,  Fisher  and  others  being  involved  by  misprision  of 
treason. 

151.  Prance.  To  render  the  Council  impossible,  the  Pope  enters  into 
close  alliance  with  Francis,  to  whose  son  he  marries  his  niece,  Gatiierine 
de  Medici. 

152.  Hungary.  Ferdinand  makes  peace  with  the  Turks,  Solyman 
receiving  the  right  to  be  consulted  on  any  measures  concerning 
Hun«iry. 

153.  Denmark.  On  the  death  of  Frederick,  the  throne  is  disputed,  his 
son  Christian  being  resisted  by  the  clergy  as  a  Lutheran.  WuHenweber, 
Burgomaster  of  Lubeck,  interposes  and  schemes  to  recall  Christian  IL 

1 54.  Turkey.  Barbarossa  visits  Constantinople  and  rebuilds  the  Turkish 
navy,  of  which  he  becomes  Admiral. 

The  Turks  enter  on  war  against  Persia,  1533 — 6,  and  annex  part  rf 
Georgia. 


155.  England.  Hennr  procures  from  Parliament  acts,  trans-  nM/t 
ferring  the  Annates  of  all  benefices  to  the  Ein^,  regulating  the  1 
appointment  of  Bishops  by  a  royal  cona^  d^lire,  abolishinj^  Peter's 
Pence,  transferring  to  the  Archbishop  the  Pope's  right  to  issue  dis- 
pensations, and  directing  that  appeals  from  the  Archbishop's  court 
should  be  heard  by  royaJ  commissioners. 

The  Act  of  Succession  declares  Mary  illegitimate  and  Elizabeth 
heir  to  the  crown.  More  and  Fisher,  though  willing  to  recognise  anv 
succession  appointed  by  Parliament,  refuse  to  condemn  Catherine  a 
marriage,  and  are  impnsoned.  Parliament  passes  a  new  Treason  act 
for  denial  of  the  King's  titles. 

156.  Ireland.  Eildare  is  summoned  to  England  and  dies  in  prison, 
on  news  of  which  the  Fitzgeralds  revolt  and  are  suppressed,  six  of  them 
being  hanged  at  Tyburn,  1537,  a  boy  of  12  alone  surviving.  The  first 
great  forfeitures  are  now  carried  out. 

157.  Germany.  The  Swabian  League  being  dissolved,  Philip  of  Hesse, 
with  encouragement  from  Francis  and  the  princes  who  wish  to  weaken 
the  Austrian  power,  resolves  to  expel  King  Ferdinand  from  Wurtem- 
berg  and  restore  Duke  Ulrich.  Owing  to  the  Emperor's  absence  and 
the  Turkish  attacks  in  the  Mediterranean,  Ferdinand,  after  a  defeat  at 
Laufen,  accepts  the  Treaty  of  Cadan,  but  secures  recognition  as  King 
of  the  Romans.  Ulrich  at  once  introduces  the  Reformation  into 
Wurtemberg. 

Lubeck,  though  failing  to  carry  the  other  Hanse  cities  with  her, 
presses  on  to  the  attack  of  Denmark. 


1634]  CULTURE  37 

to  the  influence  of  Margaret  and  Madame  d'£tampes,  the  King's 
mistress.  Calvin  is  rescued  from  punishment  for  an  outspoken  sermon 
to  the  Sorbonne,  Beda,  the  leader  of  the  obscurantists,  is  banished,  and 
Du  Bellay  sent  to  negociate  with  the  German  Reformers. 

217.  Italian  Ch.  Juan  Valdez,  a  Castilian,  who  has  gone  to  Italy  as  an 
official,  gathers  round  him  at  Naples  a  circle  including  Vittoria  Colonna, 
Giulia  Oonzaga,  Caterina  (>bo,  Peter  Martyr,  Ochino,  Marcantonio 
Flaminio,  Caraccioli,  in  which  reform  and  doctrinal  changes  are  freely 
discussed. 

218.  Hungarian  Ch.  Though  discouraged  by  both  Eincs,  Lutheranism 
filters  in  through  Saxony,  and  is  spread  oy  Devay  and  Honter. 

219,  Education.  Smith  becomes  Professor  of  Greek  at  Cambridge,  and 
does  much  to  popularise  its  study,  preparing  the  way  for  his  successor, 
Cheke,  1540. 

220,  Art.  Michelangelo  begins  his  eight  years'  labour  on  the  Last 
Judgment,  in  the  Sistine  Chapel. 

221.  SociflJ.  Leland  is  appointed  King's  antiquary,  and  starts  on  his 
six  years'  survey  of  the  libraries  of  England. 

222,  Death.    Ariosto. 


223,     Eng.  Ch.    Fourteen  'Anabaptists'  are  burnt.  [1534 

224-     French  Ch.    A  violent  reaction  against  the  toleration  of     '- 
Protestants  sets  in  at  Paris  with  the  mutilation  of  a  favourite  Madonna 
and  the  posting  of  insulting  placards  about  the  city,  Margaret  being 
forced  to  declare  herself  a  Catholic. 

The  translation  of  the  Bible  begun  by  Farel  and  continued  by 
Oliv^tan,  Calvin's  uncle,  is  published. 

Calvin,  after  receiving  his  education  from  Mathurin  Cordier  at  Paris 
and  learning  Greek  at  Bourges  from  a  Lutheran,  leaves  the  ChurcL 

225.  German  Ch.  Owing  to  the  Millenarian  and  Anabaptist  teaching 
of  Jan  Matthys  and  Rothmann  in  Miinster  and  to  its  reco^ition  by 
the  Council,  refugees  enter  the  city  in  great  numbers.  The  more 
violent,  under  John  of  Leyden,  establish  'The  Kingdom  of  Sion,'  a 
regime  of  communism,  polygamv  and  reUgious  terrorism. 

226.  Swiss  Ch.  The  First  Confession  of  Basle,  -by  Oecolampadius  and 
Myconius. 

227.  Church  Hist.  Loyola,  and  his  fellow-students  at  Paris,  Salmeron, 
Xavier,  Bobadilla,  Lainez,  Peter  Faber  and  B.odriguez,  take  an  oath  at 
Montmartre  to  evangelise  Palestine,  or,  failing  that,  to  put  themselves 
at  the  Pope's  orders. 

228.  Art.    Michelangelo's  Moses. 

229.  Social.  English  farmers  are  forbidden  to  own  more  than  2,000 
sheep,  but  the  attempt  to  check  enclosures  fails. 


38  POLITICS  [1636 

158.  England.  The  Act  of  Supremacy  proclaims  Heniy  r^RQi| 
Supreme  Head  on  Earth  of  the  Church  of  Endand  (Jan.).  ^ 
For  refusing  to  reco^ise  the  title,  the  Prior  and  several  members  of 
the  London  Carthusians,  imprisoned  1534,  are  executed,  Fisher  and 
More  quickly  sharing  their  fate.  The  new  title  is  attacked  by  Pole 
in  his  ve  Unitate,  for  which  he  is  made  a  Cardinal,  and  by  Ghtfdiner, 
now  Bishop  of  Winchester,  in  his  De  Vera  Obedientia.  Henry  never- 
theless makes  Thomas  Cromwell  his  Vicar-Oeneral,  suspending  die 
jurisdiction  of  the  Bishops  till  a  Visitation  of  the  monastenes  is 
completed. 

159.  fVance.  After  several  yeard  of  intrigue,  Francis  openly  allies 
with  Solyman,  who  grants  Capitulations  to  French  subjects  wUch 
still  remain  in  force. 

160.  Denmark.  The  Hansa  forces  are  defeated  both  by  land  and  sea, 
and  at  the  Hanseatic  Diet  Wullenweber  is  bitterly  attacked  by 
members  of  the  aristocratic  and  Catholic  party,  and  shortly  deposed 
and  executed.  The  dominant  party  at  once  recognises  Christian  UL 
as  King  of  Denmark. 

161.  Itfiuy.  Francesco  Sforza  dies,  and  the  Emperor  occupies  the 
Milanese. 

162.  Africa.  The  Emperor,  with  a  fleet  under  Doria,  defeats  Barbarossa 
and  takes  Tunis,  sacKs  the  city  and  restores  the  ruler  exiled  by 
Barbarossa  as  a  vassal  of  Spain. 


163.     En^and.    Henry  becomes  tired  of  Anne  Boleyn  and  has    ric^^ 
her  executed  on  a  charge  of  infidelity.     On  the  day  after  the    •• 
execution  he  marries  Jane  Seymour,  and  obtains  an  Act  of  Parliament 
settling  the  succession  on  Jane's  children,  and  declaring  both  Maiy 
and  Elizabeth  illegitimate. 

The  King  persuades  Parliament  (March)  to  dissolve  all  monastic 
houses  with  a  revenue  of  less  than  £200  a  year,  amounting  to  376,  on 
the  ground  of  evil  conduct  revealed  in  the  reports  (though  Cromwell's 
agents  had  neither  time  nor  wish  to  learn  or  state  the  truth,  the  crime 
of  the  monasteries  consisting  less  in  their  conduct  than  in  their  close 
relations  to  the  Papal  system).  The  Court  of  Augmentations  is  insti- 
tuted to  conduct  the  dissolution,  the  members  of  the  dissolved  houses 
being  dven  the  choice  of  entering  others  or  of  receiving,  in  some  cases, 
a  small  indemnity. 

Annoyed  by  the  religious  innovations,  by  the  violence  of  the  dis- 
solution, by  the  cessation  of  poor-relief,  by  Cromwell's  monopoly  of 
power,  by  the  spread  of  enclosures,  the  northern  counties  break  into 
a  revolt  under  Aske,  a  lawyer.  Tlie  Duke  of  Norfolk,  who  is  sent  to 
crush  the  '  Pilgrimage  of  Grace,'  finds  it  too  fonnidable  to  attack  ;  and 
Henry  is  obliged  to  issue  an  amnesty  and  to  promiise  a  Parliament  at 
York. 


1S36]  CULTURE  39 

2S0.   Eng.  Ch.    Coverdale's  translation  of  the  Bible  from  Latin     ri  535 

and  Gennan  is  encouraged  by  Cromwell  and  the  King.  '- 

Ul.   Iriah  Ch.    Brown  becomes  Archbishop  of  Dublin  and  the  real 

nler  of  the  Irish  Church  for  20  years. 
21?.   French  Ch.     Paris  witnesses  the  first  great  Auto-dorfS,  the 

intiodaction  of  strict  censorship  of  the  press,  and  the  return  of  Beda. 

Dupn^  however,  dies,  and  is  succeeded  by  the  tolerant  Dubourg, 

Fruicis  returning  to  a  policy  of  conciliation* 
3^.   Gennan  Ch.     Miinster  is  captured  by  the  Emperor  and  the 

Bishop,  Protestantism  being  excludea  from  the  city  and  the  Protestant 

cinae  everywhere  suffering  from   the  supposed  connection  with  its 


The  new  edition  of  Melanchthon's  Loci  diverges  from  Luther  in 
the  treatment  of  Justification  and  the  B.eal  Presence,  and  gives  rise  to 
the  school  of  Phihppists. 

W^,   Bohemian  Ch.    The  First  Bohemian  Confession,  probably  by 

r  John  Augusta,  is  composed  and  sent  to  King  Ferdinand  and  to  Luther. 

^.  Italian  Ch.  The  new  Pope,  Paul  IIL,  creates  the  leaders  of  the 
reform  partv,  Pole,  Contarini,  Sadolet,  Caraffa,  Cardinals  (Erasmus 
lefiises),  and  appoints  a  Commission  on  Church  Reform,  the  report  of 
which  is  drawn  up  chiefly  by  Contarini. 

l^,  Scotch  Lit.  Lyndsajr's  Satire  of  the  Three  Estates  criticises 
Church  and  State. 

3J7.  Education.  Cromwell  issues  Imunctions,  encouraging  the  New 
Learning  and  forbidding  the  study  of  Canon  Law  or  Scholasticism.  His 
visitors  find  the  pages  of  Duns  Scotus  scattered  about  New  College. 


319.    Eng.  Ch.    The  Kin^,  with  the  aid  of  Cranmer  and  Fox,    ri  rqq 

frames  Uie  Ten  Articles,  in  part  from  the  Confession  of  Augs-    *- 

bug,  to  secure  uniformity. 
^.    French  Ch.    Calvin's  Institutes  of  the  Christian  Religion. 
Vfi.    Gennan  Ch.    The  Wittenberg  Concordia,  composed  by  Melanch- 

thoD,  is  accepted  by  the  Protestants  of  South  Germany,  chiefly  owing  to 

Boeer. 
m.    Netherlands  Ch.    The  moderate  anabaptists,  under  the  lead  of 

Menno,  dissociate  themselves  from  the  extremists,  of  whom  David  Joris 

beeomes  the  leader.    About  the  same  time.  Families  of  Love  are  formed 

by  Henry  Nicholas. 
^.    Poitagaese  Ch.    The  Inquisition  is  introduced,  deals  principally 

vith  the  dooendants  of  the  Jews  converted  1492,  and  harasses  Damian 

deGoes  and  other  Humanists.     (In  1557,  it  is  made  a  department  of 

State.) 
^.    Danish  Ch.    At  the  instance  of  the  King,  the  Diet  deposes  the 

BuhoM  and  secularises  much  ecclesiastical  land. 
4^    Bwiaa  Ch.    Farel  having,  since  his  arrival  ifi  Geneva,  1534,  per- 

loaded  the  city  to  adopt  Protestantism,  induces  his  friend  Calvin  to 


40  POLITICS  [1696 

164.  Wales.    Wales  is  united  to  England  in  matters  of  law. 

165.  Ireland.  The  Irish  Parliament  registers  the  Act  of  Supremacy, 
dissolves  Monasteries,  and  orders  the  adoption  of  the  English  language, 
dress  and  customs. 

166.  France.  France  conquers  Savoy  and  Piedmont  (Feb.),  and  repek 
Charles'  invasion  of  Provence  (Julv),  and  his  attack  on  Marseules 
(Sept.) ;  the  Turkish  fleet  meanwhile  ravages  the  Italian  coast. 

167.  Germany.  The  Schmalkaldic  League  receives  as  members  the 
princes  of  Wurtembei^,  Pomerania  and  Anhalt  and  several  cities. 

168.  Switzerland.  Tne  Duke  of  Savoy  attacks  (Geneva,  but  is  defeated 
by  the  aid  of  Bern  and  forced  to  cede  part  of  his  territories. 


169.  En^and.  The  King,  knowing  that  the  Scotch  are  planning  rn^ 
an  invasion  and  that  role  is  busy  in  Flanders,  cancels  his  *• 
amnesty  and  executes  the  leaders  of  the  recent  insurrection.  A  Council 
of  the  rf  orth  is  appointed,  the  nobles  being  bribed  into  acquiescence  by 
the  grant  of  the  greater  monastic  houses,  which  are  dissolved  in  great 
numbers  on  charges  of  complicity  in  the  insurrection  or  of  evil  living. 

170.  Scotland.  Despite  tne  efforts  of  Henry  to  secure  his  friend^iip, 
James  enters  into  a  close  alliance  with  France  by  manying  a  daughter 
of  Francis. 

171.  Germany.  The  Princes  of  Brandenburg  and  Liegnitz  form  a 
treaty  of  mutual  inheritance.  The  Duke  of  Liegnitz  is  compelled  by 
Ferdinand,  as  King  of  Hungary,  to  revoke  the  treaty  ;  but  the  revoca- 
tion is  never  recognised  by  the  Hohenzollems. 

172.  Italy.  Alessandro  de  Medici  is  murdered,  and  Cosimo,  of  a 
collateral  branch  of  the  Medici,  succeeds,  and  crushes  the  conspiracy  of 
Filippo  Strozzi,  the  leader  of  the  Republicans.  He  annexes  Siena,  1555, 
and  obtains  the  title  of  Grand  Duke  from  the  Pope,  1569,  which  the 
Emperor  recognises  1576. 


173.  England.     The  destruction   of  the  tomb  of  Becket  at   r^ggg 
Canterbury  impels  the  Pope  to  launch  his  excommunication  of  *• 
Henrv,  withheld  since  1535  at  the  entreaty  of  Francis. 

The  Marquis  of  Exeter,  first  cousin  of  the  King,  and  several  of  the 
Poles  are  executed  on  a  charge  of  conspiracy. 

174.  Scotland.  On  the  death  of  his  first  wife,  James  marries  Mary  of 
Guise. 

175.  France.  The  third  war  (1536-8)  between  Francis  and  Charles  is 
terminated  by  the  10  years'  Truce  of  Nice,  both  retaining  their  con- 
quests, the  Duke  of  Savo^  thus  being  excluded.  The  peace  is  seemingly 
confirmed  by  a  personal  mterview  at  Aignes-Mortes. 

176.  Germany.  The  Vice-Chancellor  Held,  acting  as  the  agent  of 
Charles,  unites  Austria,  Bavaria,  Brunswick,  and  Geoige  of  Saxony  in 
the  League  of  Nuremberg  against  the  Schmalkaldic  allies. 


1638]  CULTURE  41 

come  to  his  aid.    Calvin  draws  up  a  Catechism,  which  he  imposes  on 
every  citizen,  and  creates  a  spiritual  Consistory. 

Bullinger,  M^conius,  and   other   Zwinglians   draw  up  the  First 
Helvetic  Confession,  in  view  of  a  General  Council 
240.    ClasBics.    Dolet's  Commentarii  Linguae  Latinae. 

246.  SodaL  The  first  comprehensive  Poor  Law  forbids  beggiuj^,  and 
ordains  the  collection  of  alms  for  the  impotent  and  the  supply  of  work 
for  others. 

An  attempt  is  made  to  free  land  from  '  Uses/ 
The  manufistcture  of  silk  is  commenced  at  Lyons  by  Italians,  whom 
Francis  induces  to  settle  there. 

247.  Death.    Erasmus. 


248.  Eng.  Ch.  The  Institution  of  a  Christian  Man,  a  work  rj^Kow 
slightly  more  conservative  than  the  Ten  Articles,  is  composed  by   *• 

a  committee  of  la¥ryers  and  divines. 

249.  German  Ch.  The  Pope  having  invited  Protestants  to  a  Ceneral 
Council  at  Mantua,  the  Elector  of  Saxony  orders  the  preparation  of 
a  Creed.  Luther  therefore  draws  up  the  strongly  anti-Papal  ochmalcald 
Articles,  to  which  Melanchthon  adds  an  appendix  attacking  the 
primacy  of  the  Pope. 

250.  Danish  Ch.  To  complete  the  organisation  of  the  Lutheran 
Church,  Bugenhagen  is  summoned  to  Copenhagen,  draws  up  a  constitu- 
tion and  form  of  worship,  and  reorganises  the  University,  of  which  he 
becomes  Rector  and  Professor  of  Theology. 

251.  Science.  Tartaglia  applies  mathematics  to  military  defence,  and 
explains  the  curve  of  bullets,  etc. 

252.  Education.  The  University  is  finally  transferred  from  Lisbon  to 
Coimbra,  and  enters  on  its  golden  age  with  Andrea  Grovea  and  Buchanan. 

John  Sturm  begins  to  teach  classics  in  Strassburg,  his  school  soon 
containing  1000  boys. 

253.  History.  Guicciardini  loses  influence,  retires  to  his  home,  and 
composes  his  Florentine  History  and  his  Maxims. 


254.  Eng.  Ch.    Cromwell,  as  Vicar-Qeneral,  issues  Injunctions,   n^^S 
e.g.  that  a  Bible  should  be  placed  in  every  Church.     Some   >> 
Ludieran  divines,  however,  invited  to  England  by  Cranmer,  ofiend  the 
Kinff  by  criticisiDg  the  English  ChurcL    From  this  moment  a  reaction 
in  Henry's  mind  b^ins. 

255.  Scotch  Ch.    Buchanan  attacks  the  clergy  in  his  Franciscanus. 

256.  French  Ch.    The  pjersecution  of  Protestantism  recommences. 

257.  Swiss  Ch.    Calvin  is  compelled  to  leave  Geneva  for  Strassburg. 

258.  French  Lit.    Desp^riers,  an  imitator  of  Rabelais,  mocks  at  all 
religions  in  his  Cymbalum  Mundi,  which  the  Sorbonne  bums. 

259.  German  Lit.    Eirchmayer's  Pammachius,  a  Protestant  picture  of 
Anti-Christ  and  the  typical  drama  of  the  Reformation. 


42  POUTics  [1638 

177.  Spain.    The  Nobles  and  Clergy  are  excluded  from  the  Oastiliaii 
Cortes,  deputies  of  the  cities  alone  being  admitted. 

178.  Hungary.    The  rivals  agree  that  Ferdinand  shall  rule  Hungary  oa 
the  death  of  Zapolya. 

179.  Turkey,    fiarbarossa  takes  Morea  and  part  of  the  Archipelago 
from  Venice. 


180.  England.  Parliament  declares  the  proclamations  of  the  [^539 
King  as  valid  as  its  own  Acts.  It  also  presents  to  the  King  the  ^ 
property  of  the  remaining  monasteries,  most  of  which  he  gives  or  sells  to 
new  families,  a  small  part  being  devoted  to  the  endowment  of  six  new 
Bishoprics  and  the  construction  of  ships  and  fortifications.  The  dis- 
appearance of  the  Abbots  from  the  Upper  House  gives  the  secular  peers 
a  majority. 

181.  Scotland.  David  Beaton  succeeds  his  uncle  as  Archbishop  of 
St  Andrews,  and  becomes  chief  adviser  to  the  Ring,  supporting  the 
anti-English  policy  to  which  James  has  pledged  himself. 

182.  Germany.  Duke  (Jeorge  of  Saxony,  a  vigorous  opponent  of  the 
Reformation,  dies  and  is  succeeded  by  his  brother  Henry,  who  intro- 
duces Lutheranism.  At  the  same  moment,  Joachim,  Elector  of 
Brandenburg,  allows  the  adoption  of  Protestantism,  the  old  £uth  now 
being  represented  in  North  Germany  by  Brunswick  alone. 

183.  America.  De  Soto  lands  with  a  large  army  in  Florida,  and  pushes 
North-West  to  the  Mississippi,  where  the  survivors  of  the  expedition 
build  boats  and  sail  down  to  Mexico,  1543. 


184.  England.  To  pledge  the  King  to  a  Protestant  policy  r'^^ 
beyond  power  of  drawing  back,  Cromwell  persuades  him  to  marry  *• 
Anne  of  Cleves,  of  whom  Holbein  paints  a  too  flattering  portrait 
Henry,  however,  becomes  anxious  for  the  friendship  of  the  Emperor, 
divorces  Anne  and  sacrifices  Cromwell  (condemned  by  a  bill  of  attainder 
without  being  heard  in  his  own  defence,)  to  the  nobles,  of  whom 
Norfolk,  the  uncle  of  the  new  Queen,  Katherine  Howard,  exercises  the 
chief  power. 

185.  NetherlandB.  Ghent,  which  has  refused  a  subsidy,  1536,  offers 
its  allegiance  to  Francis,  who  informs  the  Emperor.  All  charters  are 
therefore  annulled,  ^d  property  is  confiscated,  the  commercial 
prosperity  of  the  city  is  crippled,  and  the  way  is  prepared  for  the  war 
of  independence. 

The  Emperor  makes  Ren^  of  Chalons  Stadtholder  in   Holland, 
Zealand  and  Utrecht,  thus  introducing  the  family  of  Orange. 

186.  Hungary.  Zapolya  dies,  but  the  treaty  of  1538  is  broken  by 
the  proclamation  of  his  son  as  King  and  his  recognition  by  the  Sultan, 
who,  however,  in  the  following  year  carves  out  tor  himself  a  province 
with  the  capital  at  Buda,  between  Western  or  Austrian  Hungaiy  and 
Transylvania,  and  compels  Ferdinand  to  pay  tribute  for  the  former. 


1540]  CULTURE  43 

260,  Politics.    Melanchthon's  Ethicae  Doc^nae  Elementa  contains  the 
first  Protestant  statement  of  Natural  Right 

261.  Philology.    Postel,  after  two  journeys  in  the  East,  becomes  the 
first  Professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  the  CoU^  de  France. 


262.  Eng.  Ch.  The  King  persuades  Convocation  and  Parlia-  1-1539 
ment  to  enact  Six  Articles,  affirming  transubstantiation,  Com-  *- 
munion  in  one  kind,  clerical  celibacy,  the  perpetual  obligation  of  vows  of 
chastity,  private  masses  and  confession,  oava^e  penalties  are  attached, 
but  are  not  often  applied.  Latimer  is  driven  nom  his  see  and  Cranmer 
forced  to  dismiss  his  wife. 

The  Great  Bible,  a  revision  of  T3mdale's  and  Coverdale's,  is  printed 
by  royal  letters-patent 

263.  German  Ch.  Philip  of  Hesse,  desiring  to  take  a  second  wife  into 
his  household,  consults  Luther,  Melanchthon  and  Bucer,  who  reply  that 
the  practice  is  sanctioned  by  the  0.  T.,  and  not  forbidden  by  the  N.  T. 
The  marriage  and  its  sanction  by  the  Protestant  leaders  form  an 
effective  weapon  against  the  Lutheran  cause. 

264.  Swiss  Ch.  Cardinal  Sadoleto  writes  an  open  letter  to  the 
Genevese,  urging  them  to  return  to  the  Church,  and  provokes  a  spirited 
reply  from  CaMn. 

Calvin's  first  Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Eomans. 


265.  Oennaa  Ch.  The  Lutherans  formally  condemn  the  \\^ai\ 
mystical  Pantheists,  Franck  and  Schwenkfeld.  ^ 

John  Agricola  leaves  Wittenberg,  aftier  quarrelling  with  Luther  and 
Melanchthon,  on^account  of  the  stress  they  lay  on  the  observance  of  the 
law. 

Melanchthon  revises  the  Confession  of  Augsburg,  especially  in 
regard  to  the  Real  Presence  and  Justification,  the  changes  being 
a<K)pted  at  the  Conference  of  Worms.  The  Confessio  Variata  is  signed 
by  Calvin,  and  used  at  Regensburg,  1541,  and  elsewhere. 

266.  Italian  Ch.  An  anonymous  ^tract  on  the  Benefits  of  Christ's 
Death,  written  from  the  standpoint  of  Luther's  theory  of  Justification, 
finds  an  immense  circulation,  and  powerfiilly  contributes  to  the  spread 
of  Protestantism  in  Italy. 

Steuco,  Librarian  of  the  Vatican,  maintains,  in  his  De  Perenni 
Philosophia,  that  the  Christian  doctrines  of  the  Trinity,  Creation, 
Immorality  prevailed  in  the  earliest  times  and  in  all  lands. 

267.  Church  Hist.  Loyola  and  his  companions,  adding  to  the  vows  of 
Poverty,  Chastity  and  Obedience  an  oath  of  obedience  to  the  Pope,  are 
constituted  the  Society  of  Jesus  bv  a  Papal  Bull,  Lovola  bein^  chosen 
first  General,  1541,  and  are  urged  to  devote  themselves  to  nussiouary 
and  educational  work  in  Europe. 

268.  Art.  Tallis  is  appointed  to  the  Chapel  Royal,  and  begins  his  long 
series  of  compositions  of  Church  Music,  some  of  which  are  designed  for 


44  POLITICS  [1640 

187.  America.    Cartier  returns  to  the  Saint  Lawrence  with  five  ships, 
and  attempts  to  found  a  settlement. 

Attracted  by  the  stories  of  wealth  collected  by  Narvaez  (1528-36) 
and  others,  an  expedition  under  Coronado  is  sent  northwards  from 
Mexico,  but,  after  marching  as  far  as  Nebraska,  returns  without  finding 
gold. 

188.  Asia.    After  10  years  of  fighting,  Hama3run  is  driven  out  of  India 
by  Afghan  settlers  under  Sher  Shah,  who  becomes  Emperor  of  Delhi. 


189.  England.    Margaret,  Countess  of  Salisbury,  daughter  of  riR^i 
Clarence,  is  executed  on  a  charge  of  conspiracy,  but  in  re^ity  for   >> 
being  mother  of  Cardinal  Pole. 

190.  Africa.  The  Emperor  fails  in  an  attack  on  Algiers,  his  fleet  being 
destroyed  by  a  storm,  and  leaves  the  Mediterranean  in  the  hands  of  the 
French  and  the  Turks.  A  Spanish  expedition  to  Jerba,  1560,  is  repulsed, 
and  in  1574,  with  the  withdrawal  from  Ooletta,  Spanish  influence  over 
Tunis  comes  to  an  end. 


191.  Scotland.    After  a  period  of  uneasy  peace,  war  breaks  out   n542 
again,  and  Norfolk  ravages  the  border.    A  Scotch  army  enters   '■ 
Cumberland,  but  flies  in  panic  to  Solway  Moss,  where  nearly  all  the 
troops  are  slain  or  captured.    James  V.  dies  a  few  days  later,  leaving 
the  throne  to  his  daugnter  Mary,  now  a  week  old. 

192.  Ireland.  Henry  is  acknowledged  Kin^  of  Ireland  by  a  Parliament 
at  Dublin,  attended  by  native  chiefs,  to  whom  he  dves  English  titles 
and  abbey  lands,  the  change  of  title  (from  that  of  Lord,  wanted  to 
Henry  H.  by  the  Popje)  serving  to  mark  his  independence  of  Some. 

193.  France.  Francis  allies  with  Denmark  and  Sweden  and  commences 
his  fourth  war  against  Charles  in  the  Netherlands,  in  Italy  and  on  the 
Spanish  frontier,  owing  to  the  investiture  of  Charles'  son  with  Milan. 

194.  Germany.  At  the  Diet  of  Spires,  the  Protestants  contribute 
monev  for  use  against  the  Turks,  in  return  for  a  five  years'  truce. 

The  Duke  of  Brunswick,  refusing  to  obey  the  Recess  of  the  Diet 
of  Ratisbon,  is  expelled  by  the  Schmalkaldic  League,  which  establishes 
Protestantism  in  his  dominions.  Indignant  at  this  treatment,  the 
Elector  of  Brandenburg  withdraws  from  the  League  and  secretly  joins 
the  Emperor,  his  example  bein^  followed  by  Duke  Maurice  of  Saxony, 
who  covets  the  possessions  of  his  Ernestine  cousin. 

195.  America.  Roberval  arrives  in  Canada  as  Viceroy;  but  the 
colonists  whom  he  brings  are  forced  to  return  after  two  years,  and  the 
settlement  of  Canada  is  postponed  for  half  a  century. 


1642]  CULTURE  45 

use  with  the  new  Prayer-book.    With  Byrd,  Orlando  Gibbons,  etc.,  he 

forms  the  so-called  Sixth  English  School 
£69,    Flidlology.    Scaliger's  De  Gausis  Lin^ae  Latinae. 
£70,    Education.    The  Re^ns  Professorships  of  Divinit^r,  Law,  Physics, 

Hebrew  and  Greek  are  instituted  at  02cford  and  Cambridge. 
£71.    Deaths.    Budaeus,  Guicciardini,  Vives. 


£7£,  German  Ch.  At  the  Diet  of  B^tisbon,  the  most  imjportant  ri  541 
of  several  similar  attempts  at  reunion,  Melanchthon  and  Bucer  ^ 
meet  Contarini,  the  Legate,  who  approximates  to  the  Lutheran  view  of 
Justification,  but  cannot  persuade  the  Pope  to  allow  re-union  on  that 
basis,  nor  to  accent  his  compromise  in  relation  to  the  Papal  Supremacy. 
Though  re-union  is  not  achieved,  the  Treaty  of  Nuremberg  is  confirmed 
and  Protestants  are  allowed  to  enter  the  Imperial  Chamber. 

273,  Swiss  Ch.  Calvin  returns  to  Geneva,  on  the  invitation  of  the 
city,  which  now  accepts  his  Ordonnances  Eccl^siastiques,  and  restores 
the  Consistory  of  pastors  and  lay  elders.  His  opponents,  the  so-called 
Libertines,  whom  he  attacks  in  a  vigorous  polemic,  1545,  are  one  after 
another  executed  or  banished. 

Calvin's  Tract  on  the  Lord's  Supper. 

274'    Deaths.    Paracelsus,  Pizarro. 


275.  German  Ch.  Luther  provokes  violent  hostility  by  conse-  ri  540 
crating  a  Bishop.  ^ 

276.  Italian  Ch.  The  establishment  of  the  Inquisition  at  Rome,  on 
the  advice  and  under  the  direction  of  Caraffa,  initiates  the  crusade 
against  Protestantism  throughout  Italy.  Ochino,  already  charged  with 
heresy,  now  declares  his  conversion  ana  flees  to  Geneva,  and  the  circle 
at  Ferrara  is  scattered 

277.  Asiatic  Ch.  Xavier's  expedition  to  Goa  initiates  mission  work  in 
the  East,  he  himself  passing  on  to  Japan,  1549.  (Nagasaki  becomes 
largely  Christianised,  1573.) 

278.  Church  Hist.  Luther  attacks  the  Jews  in  his  Juden  und  ihre 
Lugen. 

279.  Spanish  Lit.  Montemayor's  Diana  naturalises  the  pastoral 
romance. 

280.  Science.  Vesalius  of  Brussels  founds  modem  Anatomy  by  his 
Fabrica  Corporis  Humani,  in  which  he  incorporates  the  researches  of 
Mnndino,  Achillini,  Berenger  of  Carpi,  openly  parts  from  Sylvius,  his 
old  Paris  teacher,  a  follower  of  Galen,  and  introauces  illustrations  of  his 
researches  on  human  bodies. 

281.  Art.  The  Academia  Vitniviana,  which  is  now  founded  in  Rome, 
marks,  with  the  treatises  of  Palladio,  the  supremacy  of  classic  models  in 
architecture. 

282.  Education.  Castellio,  Rector  of  the  college  at  Geneva,  composes 
his  Dialogues  Sacrds,  a  favourite  school-book  of  Latin  for  200  years. 


46  POLITICS  [1643 

196.  England.  Henry  maxries  Katherine  Parr,  with  whom  Pro-  r,g^ 
testant  influences  reappear  at  Court.  ^ 

197.  Wales.  The  country  is  divided  into  counties,  and  the  Court  of  the 
Welsh  Marches  is  instituted. 

198.  Scotland.  A  Treaty  for  the  marriage  of  Prince  Edward  with 
Mary,  who  is  to  be  sent  to  England  in  10  years,  is  negociated,  bat  ffidls, 
owin^  to  the  hostility  of  Beaton,  the  Queen-mother  and  Bishop 
Hamilton,  whose  party  the  Regent  Angus  joins: 

199.  France.  Fnuicis  defeats  Cnarles  at  Landre^ies,  and,  with  the  aid 
of  the  Turkish  fleet,  which  now  sails  the  Mediterranean  unchallenged, 
captures  Nice  from  Savoy.  The  Emperor,  however,  compels  the  Ihike 
of  Cleves  to  yield  (Jelderland. 

200.  Germany.  The  Archbishop  of  Cologne  is  deposed  for  admitting 
Protestantism,  to  which  he  has  been  drawn  by  Bucer,  into  his 
dominions. 


201.  England.  Henry,  having  allied  with  Charles,  1543,  invades  h^aa 
Picardy  and  captures  Boulogne,  the  expense  being  in  part  provided    *■ 

by  debasing  the  coinage.    At  the  same  moment.  Parliament  declares 
that  the  Kmg  need  not  repay  a  loan  which  he  has  collected. 

202.  Scotland.  Hertford  and  Lisle  invade  Scotland,  ravage  the  Low- 
lands and  bum  Edinburgh. 

203.  Germany.  At  the  Diet  of  Spires,  Charles,  on  promising  a  Council 
in  Germany  or  a  Diet  to  deal  with  religion,  receives  supplies  against  the 
French  and  Turks,  invades  Champagne  and  threatens  Paris.  The  last 
war  of  Francis  and  Charles  is,  however,  terminated  by  the  peace  of 
Crdpi  (Sept),  concluded  without  consulting  England.  Conquests  on 
both  sides  since  the  truce  of  Nice,  1538,  are  restored ;  Frtmcis  sur- 
renders his  claims  to  Naples,  Flanders,  Artois,  Gelderland,  and  Charles 
his  claim  to  Burgundy,  though  retaining  Milan  as  a  fief  for  Philip.  A 
marriage  alliance  is  also  discussed. 

204.  Savoy.  The  Peace  of  Cr^pi  decrees  the  restoration  of  his  estates 
to  Charles  of  Savoy,  which,  however,  is  not  carried  out. 

205.  Sweden.  On  the  attempt  of  Christian  III.  of  Denmark  to  win  the 
Emperor's  aid  against  Sweden,  Gustavus  makes  a  close  alliance  with 
France,  and  enters  into  European  politics. 

206.  Hungary.  Solyman  divides  Hungary  into  12  administrative  dis- 
tricts. 


207.  England.    A  benevolence  of  1/8  in  the  £  on  land  and  lOd,   m  545 
in  the  £  ongoods  is  levied  to  combat  the  French,  who  land  on   ^ 
the  Isle  of  Wight. 

208.  Scotland.  A  division  of  the  English  army  is  defeated  at  Ancrum 
Moor,  after  which  reinforcements  are  sent,  and  the  ravages  are  recom- 
menced. 

209.  Italy.  The  Pope  creates  the  duchy  of  Parma  and  Piacenza  for  his 
son,  Piero  Famese. 


16411]  CULTURE  47 

28S.    Ibig.  Ch.    The  Erudition  of  a  Christian  Man,  issued  by   fi^^ 
the  King^s  orders,  is  substituted  for  the  more  Protestant  Institu-   *- 
tion. 

284^  Spanish  Ch.  The  first  Protestant  is  burned;  Enzina  is  im- 
prisoned for  his  translation  of  the  New  Testament ;  and  Juan  Diaz  is 
murdered  by  his  brother,  1546. 

285,  Spanish  Lit.    Garcihiso's  poems  carry  on  the  tradition  of  Boscan. 

286.  Philosophy.  Ramus'  Animadversiones  Aristotelicae  is  condenmed 
by  the  Sorbonne  and  attacked  by  Schegk  and  others,  but  creates 
a  school,  influences  Taurellus,  Patrizzi,  Bruno,  Grassendi,  the  Ic^cians 
of  Port-Royal,  and  finds  its  way  into  most  Protestant  Universities  in 
Germany,  and  into  England  and  Scotland. 

287,  Science.  Copernicus'  De  Revolutionibus  Orbis  Terrarum  rejects 
Ptolemy's  explanation  of  the  movements  of  the  planets  by  the  theory  of 
epicycles.  Ijie  new  teaching  is  tabulated  and  spread  by  Reinhold  and 
Ma^rtlin,  but  is  combated  by  Maurolycus  and  Tycho  Brahe,  and  remains 
little  known  till  championed  by  Bruno,  Campanella,  Kepler  and  Galileo. 

288.  I>eaths.    Copermcus,  Holbein. 


289.  Eng.  Ch.    Granmer  lays  the  foundation  of  the  English  mk^ 
Prayer-book  by  composing  a  Litany,  prayers  for  the  King  and   ^ 
private  devotions. 

290.  German  Ch.  Luther  makes  a  final  attack  on  the  sacramental 
theoiy  of  the  Zuinglians. 

291.  Church  Hist.  In  consequence  of  the  Emperor's  explicit  utterances 
at  the  Diet  of  Spires,  the  Pope  summons  a  Council  to  meet  at  Trent  in 
1545. 

292.  French  Lit.  Maigaret  of  Navarre's  Heptameron,  aided  by 
DesD^neis,  on  the  model  of  Boccaccio. 

Maurice  Serve's  D^lie  creates  the  '  Lyons  school,'  inspired  by  Plato 
and  Petrarch  and  developed  by  Louise  Lab^. 


29S.    Eng.  Ch.    The  dissolution  of  Chantries  is  decreed.  [1545 

294^    French  Ch.    Francis  almost  exterminates  the  Vaudois.         *- 

295.  Spanish  Ch.  St  Peter  of  Alcantara's  De  Oratione  et  Meditatione 
initiates  Catholic  mysticism  in  Spain. 

296.  Church  Hist  The  long-promised  Council  is  opened  at  Trent 
(Bee.).  Cardinal  Del  Monte  presides,  and  Charles  sends  Mendoza  as 
his  ambassador.  Pacheco,  Carranza  and  Soto  represent  Spain.  No 
German  prelates  are  present. 

297.  Science.  Cardan's  Ars  Magna  communicates  Tartaglia's  plan  of 
solving  cubic  equations. 

¥ms  Mani^  de  traitez  les  Plaies  founds  modem  surgery  by 
substituting  ligature  for  cauterisation. 


48  POLITICS  [1545 

210.  Germany.  A  truce  is  made  with  the  Turks,  and  the  Emperor, 
now  everywhere  at  peace,  becomes  ready  for  the  Council. 

211.  Asia.  John  de  Castro  is  appointed  Viceroy  of  Portuguese  India, 
defeats  a  ku^e  Turkish  fleet  ana  the  King  of  Gujarat  in  a  pitched 
battle,  and  reforms  the  administration,  d3ring  1548. 


212.    England.    Henry  arrests  Norfolk  and  his  son  Surrey,  the 


[1546 


poet,  for  treason. 

213.  Scotland.  Wishart  is  arrested  and  burned  by  Beaton,  partly  for 
heresy  and  partly  for  joining  in  a  plot  to  murder  him.  His  aeath 
inflames  the  English  party  among  the  nobles,  of  whom  Leslie  and 
Eirkaldy  of  Grange,  both  in  Henry's  pay,  murder  the  Cardinal  at 
St  Andrews. 

214.  France.  Henry  makes  peace  with  France,  in  which  Scotland  is 
included,  undertaking,  on  payment  of  a  large  sum,  to  restore  Boulogne. 

215.  Germany.  The  death  of  Luther  (Feb.)  gives  the  signal  for  the 
civil  war  so  long  expected.  John  Frederick  and  Philip  are  put  to  the 
ban  of  the  Empire  (Julv).  Buke  Maurice  of  Saxony  secretly  joins  the 
Emperor  and  occupies  the  Electorate,  and  Charles  reduces  the  members 
of  tne  League  in  South  Germany. 

216.  Turkey.    The  Turks  occupy  Moldavia. 


217.  England.  Surrey  is  executed  (Norfolk  being  saved  by  the  [1547 
King's  death),  the  conservative  party  being  so  weakened  that  ^ 
Henry's  plan  of  a  balance  in  the  Council  is  set  aside  and  Hertford  is 
made  Protector  with  the  title  of  Duke  of  Somerset  The  newly-made 
treasons,  and  the  Act  giving  legal  force  to  Proclamations  are  repealed. 
Parliament  vests  in  tne  King  the  endowments  of  all  Chantries  and 
religious  societies  dissolved  by  the  Act  of  1545,  but  only  now  executed. 

218.  Scotland.  St  Andrews  being  recaptured  by  a  French  fleet, 
Somerset  determines  to  force  on  the  mamage  of  Ekiward  with  Mary, 
and  destroys  the  Scotch  army  at  Musselburgh,  where  the  English  navy 
for  the  first  time  cooperates  with  the  army,  and  at  Pinkie  Cleugh,  and 
bums  Holyrood  and  Leith. 

219.  France.  The  new  King,  Henry  H.,  still  further  increases  the 
royal  power  bjr  appointing  Intendants  of  Police  and  Justice,  and  insti- 
tuting new  tnbunals  overriding  the  Seignorial  Courts. 

220.  Germany.  The  Emperor  routs  the  Schmalkaldic  allies  at  Muhl- 
berg  (April),  John  Fredenck  of  Saxony  is  captured  and  his  electorate 
and  nearly  all  his  dominions  transferred  to  Maurice,  only  a  few  scattered 
territories  in  Thuringia  being  reserved  for  his  sons.  Philip  of  Hesse 
submits,  the  Duke  of  Brunswick  is  restored  to  his  duchy,  all  North 
Germany  except  the  city  of  Magdeburg  is  reduced,  and  Protestantism 
enters  on  its  most  critical  period. 

Ferdinand  invades  Bohemia,  which  refuses  troops  to  the  Emperor, 
makes  it  a  hereditary  possession,  and  curtails  the  privileges  of  the 
nation. 


1647]  CULTURE  49 


298,  Art.    Cellini  sculptures  Perseus  (Florence). 

299,  Edncatdon.    Henry  VIII.  refounds  Wolsey's  College  as  Christ 
Church. 

300,  Social.    Silver  mines  are  opened  in  Potosi,  in  Peru,  the  output 
from  which  largely  decreases  the  value  of  money. 


301,  French  Ch.    Dolet,  the  printer  of  Lyons  and  the  leading    ^540 
scholar  and  humanist  of  France,  is  burned  at  Paris  for  printing    ^ 
Protestant  books  and  disbelieving  in  the  immortality  of  the  soul. 

The  first  edition  of  Stephanus'  N.  T.,  based  on  the  Coniplutensian 
and  on  that  of  Erasmus. 

302,  Charch  Hist.  The  Council  of  Trent  declares  revelation  con- 
tinuous in  the  Church  of  which  the  Pope  is  the  head,  maintains  the  sole 
authority  of  the  Vulgate,  and  forbids  monks  to  preach  without  the 
Bishop's  license  except  in  churches  of  their  own  order. 

303,  Science.  Agricola's  De  Ke  Metallica  founds  mineralogy,  to  which 
few  additions  are  made  for  two  centuries. 

304^    Art     Palissy  makes  a  white  enamel 

Lescot  begins  his  30  years'  labours  on  the  construction  of  the 
Louvre,  Jean  Goujon  undertaking  the  sculptural  decoration. 
Michelangelo  designs  the  dome  of  St  Peter's. 
305.    Education.   Trinitv  College,  Cambridge,  is  founded  by  Henry  VIIL, 
by  combining  King's  Hall  and  Michaelhouse  and  adding  monastic  lands, 
liie  first  three  Masters  and  many  of  the  lecturers  are  drawn  from  St 
John's  College. 
806.    Death.    Luther. 


307,    Eng.  Ch.    Bonner  and  Tunstal  are  deprived,  and  Grardiuer   ri  547 
is  imprisoned.     A  visitation  is  commenced,  homilies  and  the    '- 
Paraporases  of  Erasmus  are  circulated,  and  the  cup  is  given  to  the 
laity. 

reter  Martyr  teaches  theology  at  Oxford. 

$08.  Italian  Ch.  An  attempt  to  introduce  the  Spanish  Inquisition 
into  Naples  fails. 

509.  Church  Hist.  Luther's  theory  of  Justification  is  condemned,  the 
doctrine  of  the  sacraments  is  defined,  and  a  compromise  is  reached  in 
reference  to  episcopal  residence,  forbidding  pluralism  but  safeguarding 
the  Papal  dispensing  power.  The  Pope,  relying  on  the  support  of 
France,  revokes  the  Council  to  Bologna  on  the  plea  of  the  plague 
(March).  Most  of  the  Spanish  Bishops,  however,  refuse  to  leave  Trent, 
neither  branch  dares  to  continue  work,  and  the  Pope  shortly  postpones 
the  Council  indefinitely. 

510.  Social.  The  King  confiscates  the  religious  endowments  of  the 
English  gilds,  the  influence  of  which  henceforward  steadily  diminishes. 

511.  Deaths.    Bembo,  Vittoria  Colonna,  Cortes,  Sadoleto. 


G. 


50  pouTics  [1M7 

221.  Russia.  Ivan  IV.  is  crowned,  assumes  the  title  of  Tsar,  takes 
Kazan  (1548)  and  Astrakhan  (1550)  from  the  Mongols,  thus  extending 
Russia  to  the  Caspian,  strengthens  the  defences,  reorganises  the  Ghoreh, 
introduces  a  printmg-press  and  institutes  schools. 


222.  Germany.    At  the  Diet  of  Augsburg,  the  Emperor  carries   r-^m^ 
his  proposals  without  opposition.     The  Imperial  Chamber  is  re-   ^ 
constituted,  the  appointment  of   its  members  being  vested   in  the 
Emperor  ;  the  Netherlands  are  formed  into  a  Circle  of  the  Empire ;  and 
a  new  military  treasury  is  formed  under  the  Emperor's  control 

223.  Scotland.    Mary  is  sent  for  protection  to  Franca 

224.  Italy.    Henry  of  France  occupies  the  marquisate  of  Salujszo. 

225.  Asia.    Mendez  Pinto  establisnes  a  factory  in  Japan  and  opens  up 
the  country  to  Portuguese  settlers. 


226.  En^and.  A  rebellion,  provoked  by  the  innovations  of  the  r^^i^ 
Council,  and,  above  all,  by  the  issue  of  the  new  Prayer-Book,  ^ 
breaks  out  in  Devon  and  Cornwall,  and  is  put  down  with  difficulty  by 
Russell  with  foreign  mercenaries.  Simultaneously,  a  rising  takes  pUce 
in  Norfolk,  provoked  chiefly  by  enclosures,  led  by  Ket,  who  estabusbes 
a  camp  on  Mousehold  Hill.  Palings  near  Norwich  are  pulled  down, 
but  the  revolt,  despite  the  sympathy  of  the  Protector,  is  suppressed  b? 
Dudley,  Earl  of  Warwick.  The  failure  of  Somerset's  foreign  policy  and 
his  unpopularity  in  the  country  embolden  the  Council  to  depose  him 
and  to  abolish  the  Protectorate,  Warwick  at  once  assuming  a  leading 
position. 

227.  America.  De  Sousa  arrives  in  Brazil  with  troops,  officials  and 
Jesuits  and  governs  with  remarkable  ability,  the  natives  being  weU 
treated  and  the  Inquisition  excluded. 


228.  England.    Warwick  makes  peace  with  France,  surrendering   r-^^^ 
Boulogne,  and  with  Scotland,  pnsoners  being  released  on  both    ^ 
sides.     At  this  moment,  Somerset  regains  some  power  in  the  Council 

229.  Aftica.    Fez  is  captured  by  the  Sheriffs  of  Morocco. 

230.  Germany.  The  Emperor  attempts  to  secure  the  succession  of  his 
son  Philip  to  the  Empire,  out  is  resisted  by  his  brother  Ferdinand,  King 
of  the  Ilomans,  ana  by  several  German  princes.  At  this  moment, 
Maurice  of  Saxony,  feeling  that  the  Emperor  has  nothing  more  to  give 
him,  resolves  to  desert  the  Imperial  cause,  and  refuses  to  appear  at  the 
Diet  of  Augsburg,  ostensibly  because  Philip  of  Hesse  is  not  released 
from  imprisonment. 


1560]  CULTURE  51 

312,    Eng.  Ch.    A  new  Communion  Office  is  established  by   1-1540 
procWtion  of  the  CouncU.  images  are  removed,  and  preaching   L 
IS  forbidden. 

SIS.  German  Ch.  Owing  to  his  quarrel  with  the  Pope,  the  Emperor 
asks  the  Diet  to  accept  the  Interim,  conceding  the  cup  and  the  marriage 
of  the  clergy.  The  Interim  leads  to  a  fierce  strife  between  the  A(U- 
aphorists,  chiefly  Melanchthonians,  who  accept  it,  and  the  strict 
Lutherans,  led  by  Flacius. 

S14>    Church  Hist    Loyola's  Spiritual  Exercises. 

SIS.    Education.    The  Elector  of  Saxony  founds  Jena  University. 


316.  Eng.  Ch.    The  Committee  of  Diyines  sitting  at  Windsor   ng^g 
present  their  draft  of  a  Prayer-Book,  largely  compiled  from  the    ^ 
oarum  Use  and  the  Consultation  of  Archbishop  Hermann,  composed 
by  Melanchthon  and  Bucer,  1543,  with  slight  additions  from  Ureek 
and  Mozarabic  rites.    The  Act  of  Uniformity  establishes  its  use. 

Bucer  becomes  Regius  Professor  of  Theology  at  Cambridge. 
Ochino,  a  refugee,  attacks  the  Papacy  in  his  Tragedy. 
Joan  Bocher  is  burned  for  denjring  the  divinity  of  Christ. 

317.  German  Ch.  Osiander  attacks  the  Lutheran  theory  of  Justifica- 
tion. 

The  Jesuits  enter  Ingoldstadt  and  spread  over  Grermany. 
Melanchthon  composes  the  Little  Interim  for  Saxony. 

318.  Scotch  Lit.  The  Complaint  of  Scotland,  an  attack  on  English 
policy,  the  first  important  monument  of  modem  Scotch  prose. 

319.  French  Lit.  Du  Bellay's  Defense  et  Illustration  de  la  Langue 
Rran^aise  initiates  the  reform  of  the  Pleiade,  Ronsard,  Jodelle,  Belleau, 
Baif,  Daurat,  Pontus  de  Tyard  and  Du  Bellay.  Their  ideas,  exemplified 
by  Ronsaid's  Odes,  1550,  dominate  French  literature  until  Malherbe. 

320.  German  Lit.    Dedekind's  Grobianus,  developed  from  Brandt. 

321.  Death.    Margaret  of  Navarre. 


322.  Eng.  Ch.    Hooper  refuses  to  wear  episcopal  vestures.  ri550 
Cranmer^s  True  and  Catholic  Doctrine  of  the  Sacrament.  '- 
Laaco,  a  Pole,  receives  the  Church  of  the  Augustiniaus  for  refugees, 

the  Gongrefisation  appointing  its  officers. 

Henry  Nicholas,  a  friend  of  David  Jons,  a  mystical  Pantheist,  founds 
Families  of  Love  among  the  Dutch  refugees. 

323.  Nethnrlanda  Ch.    The  Emperor  establishes  the  Inquisition. 

324.  Eng.  Lit.    Udall's  Ralph  Roister  Doister  founds  English  comedy. 
326.    Death.    Alciati. 


4—2 


52  POLITICS  [1561 


231.  England.     The   King   and   Warwick   attempt  to  forbid   r-^^^ 
Mary  to  hear  Mass,  but  yield  before  the  displeasure  of  the   ^ 
Emperor.     Warwick's  CTowing  unpopularity  strengthens  Somerset,  but 
the  King  sides  with  Warwick  and  has  his  uncle  arrested,  and  (1553) 

executed. 

232.  Germany.  Maurice,  owing  to  the  Emperor  still  refusing  to 
release  his  father-in-law,  Philip  of  Hesse,  undertakes  to  force  the 
acceptance  of  the  Interim  on  Magdeburg,  the  head-quarters  of 
opposition,  as  a  pretext  for  collecting  an  army,  and  allies  with  the 
Protestant  Princes. 

233.  Turkey.    The  Turks  attack  Malta,  without  success. 

234.  Africa.  Tripoli  is  taken  from  the  Knights  of  St  John,  by  Dragut, 
once  a  lieutenant  of  Barbarossa. 


235.  Germany.  The  Protestant  Princes  persuade  Henry  11.  to  r,  «2 
join  them  against  the  Emperor,  promising  him  the  rule  of  Metz,  ^ 
Toul,  Verdun  and  Cambray  as  Imperial  vicar.  Maurice,  having  termi- 
nated the  siege  of  Magdeburg,  openly  deserts  the  Emperor,  seiies 
Augsburg,  and  oiilv  misses  the  capture  of  Charles  at  Innsbruck  by  a 
few  hours.  The  Lmperor  therefore  empowers  Ferdinand  to  condude 
peace  at  Passau.  Jonn  Frederick  of  Saxony  and  Philip  of  Hesse  are 
released  (though  the  Electoral  dignity  is  never  restored  to  the  Emestine 
branch),  the  Lutherans  are  allowed  free  exercise  of  their  religion  and 
admitted  into  the  Imperial  Chamber,  and  a  Diet  is  promised  to  effect  a 
permanent  settlement. 

236.  France.  Meanwhile  the  French  overrun  Lorraine  and  occupy 
Toul,  Verdun,  and  Metz  (April),  the  latter  of  which  Charles  attempts  to 
retake  (Oct.).  He  is,  however,  forced  by  the  winter  to  withdraw, 
leaving  the  border  fortresses  in  Henry's  possession. 

237.  Hungary.    The  Turks  take  Temesvar. 


238.  England.  Northumberland,  observing  that  the  King  can-  r,  «• 
not  live  long,  and,  dreading  the  accession  of  Mary,  induces  ^ 
him  to  set  aside  his  father's  Will,  though  sanctioned  by  Parliament, 
and  to  leave  the  crown  to  Jane  Grev,  a  Protestant,  the  granddaughter 
of  Mary,  younger  sister  of  Henrv  VIII.,  whom  he  marries  to  his  son. 
The  Council,  at  the  entreaty  of  the  dying  King,  signs  the  Will,  and,  on 
Edward's  death.  Lady  Jane  is  proclaimed  Queen  (July).  Owing,  how- 
ever, to  the  unpopularity  of  Northumberland,  she  is  deserted  by  the 
troops,  and  Mary,  who  had  fled  to  the  Howards  in  Norfolk,  is  pro- 
claimed Queen  in  London.  Northumberland  is  executed  and  Gardiner 
becomes  Chancellor,  and  shapes  the  Queen's  policy  till  the  arrival  of 
Pole.    The  Parliament  which  now  meets,  though  not  disapproving  the 


]  CULTURE  53 

iX.  German.  Ch.  Major  declares  good  works  necessaiy  to  mrki 
ahitioD,  and  is  attacked  by  AmsdorL  *- 

XT.   Italian  Ch.    The  Jesuits  found  the  Collc^o  Romano. 

J^.  Church  Hist.  The  new  Pope,  Julius  111.,  allows  the  Bishops  to 
reuwmUe  at  Trent,  but  the  Council,  to  which  certain  Protestiuit 
priaoes  send  ambassadors,  is  paralysed  by  the  refusal  of  France  to  join, 
udL  after  defining  the  Eucharist,  is  suspended  (1552),  on  pretext  of 
dumper  bom  the  army  of  Maurice  of  Saxony. 

12^.    Qennan  JAL    Wickram's  novels  of  bourgeois  life. 

i^\  Science  Gesner  s  Historia  Animalium,  the  first  original  work  on 
&>4o^  since  Aristotle  and  Theophrastus. 

i-il.    SoeiaL    The  English  currency  reaches  its  greatest  debasement 


Death.    Bucer. 


»»r 


li-i    Eng.  Ch.    The  Prayer-Book  is  revised  by  Cranmer,  Ridley,    ri  550 

l-'X.  Tavlor.  on  the  lines  of  the  Swiss  reformers.  ^ 

^    Scotch  Ch.    Hoping  to  retain  waverers  in  the  Church,  Arch- 

lit-j^jp  Hamilton  issues  a  Catechism  omitting  mention  of  the  Papal 

nprtmacy. 

V*.    German   Ch.    Westphal  of  Hamburg  attacks  Crj-pto-Calvinist 

aocioDs  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  held  by  Major  and  Feucer,  Melanchthon's 

tca-iD-law. 

Swiaa  Ch.    Calvin  re^es  to  Bolsec's  attack  on  Predestination. 
V.    RnMsian  Ch.    A  few  Bohemian  Brothers  enter  the  country ;  but 

Mhher  Protestantism  nor  Roman  Catholicism,  which  the  Jesuit  Possevin 

i^  VDt  to  champion,  ^ns  any  foothold. 
^.    Scotch  Lit.    Sir  David  L\'ndsa3''s  Monarchy,  an  historical  and 

pUloMphical  survey  with  a  strong  anti-Catholic  bias. 
3.    French    Lit.     Jodelle's  Geopatre  founds  the  classical  drama, 

■irT*ioped  by  Gr^vin,  Gamier,  Haray,  and  Montchretien,  etc.     In  the 

«3ke  Tear  Jodelle's  La  Rencontre,  the  first  French  comedy,  is  produced. 
^'    Alt.    Vignola  builds  the  Villa  di  Papa  Giulio  outside  Rome,  and 

»^kain»  the  '  Jesuit '  style  in  his  Trattato  degli  Ordini. 
•4.'.    Sdncation.    Christ's  Hospital  and  over  30  grammar  schools  are 

funded  by  the  King,  whose  interest  in  education  is  aroused  bv  Ridley. 
V    Death.    Xavier. 


US,   Mug,  Ch.    The  Confession  of  Faith,  drafted  by  Cranmer   r]^553 
mi  Bidley,  on  the  basis  of  the  13  Articles  agreed  on  by  Cranmer   >- 
aaithe  Lathenn  divines,  1538,  is  ratified  by  Convocation,  and  published 
W  the  King  s  command  in  42  .\rticles. 

<)ii  the  accession  of  Mary,  the  imprisoned  Bishops  are  restored,  the 
fcmga  refugees  leave  the  country,  and  the  Reforming  Bishops  are  com- 
mii  to  the  Tower.  The  Commons  repeal  the  religious  legislation  of 
liwui  VI.,  but  retain  that  of  Hcurv  VIII. 


54  POLITICS  [1568 

Queeu's  Church  policy,  petitions  against  the  Spanish  marriage  now 
being  negociated,  and  is  in  consequence  dissolved. 

239.  Oermany.  Rendered  reckless  by  his  losses,  the  Emperor  en- 
courages Albert  of  Brandenburg  (who  refused  to  lay  down  hia  arms  at 
Passau,  but  subsequently  joined  Charles)  in  his  raids,  thereby  alienating 
both  classes  of  his  subjects,  and  driviuj^  Ferdinand  to  form  a  league  to 
guarantee  the  execution  of  the  provisions  of  Passau,  and  to  oppose 
Philip's  succession  to  the  Impenal  dignity.  Maurice  undertakes  to 
reduce  Albert,  and  routs  him  in  a  battle  in  which  he  loses  his  life. 
Albert,  in  consequence,  recovers  his  position,  but,  after  repeated  defeats, 
retires  to  France  and  enters  the  service  of  Henry. 

240.  Aftica.  English  trading  ships  visit  the  West  African  coast  for  the 
first  time. 


241.  England.  The  opposition  to  the  Spanish  marriage  culmi-  rj^sj^ 
nates  in  a  revolt,  led  oy  Wyatt,  in  Kent,  and  Suflfolk,  father  of  '- 
Lady  Jane,  in  the  Midlands,  with  a  view  to  make  Elizabeth  Queen. 
Sufl'olk  fails,  but  Wyatt  reaches  London,  where  he  is  defeated  and 
captured.  Lady  Jane,  her  husband,  and  her  father  are  executed,  and 
Elizabeth  imprisoned.  Parliament  consents  to  the  Spanish  match,  and 
Philip  comes  to  England  and  marries  Mary  (July).  A  new  Parliament 
is  summoned,  which  repeals  all  statutes  against  the  Pope  since  1529, 
on  condition  that  the  surrender  of  the  abbey  lands  is  not  demanded. 
The  Kingdom  is  received  back  into  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Pope  by  Pole, 
who,  though  appointed  Legate  on  Mary  s  accession,  is  only  now  allowed 
by  the  Emperor  to  enter  the  country. 

242.  Scotland.  The  Queen  Mother,  by  the  aid  of  France,  obtains  the 
regency  from  Arran,  whose  avarice  and  weakness  have  rendered  him 
unpopular.  She  alienates  the  nobles,  however,  by  filling  offices  with 
foreigners,  garrisons  Dunbar  with  French  soldiers,  and  proposes  to  levy 
taxes  for  a  standing  army. 


243.  England.    The  Queen  restores  all  Church  property  vested    r-^^ 
in  the  Crown,  and  a  few  monastic  houses  are  in  consequence  re-    *■ 
founded. 

244.  Geimany.  The  Diet  promised  at  Passau  meets  at  Au^buiff, 
under  the  Emperor's  plenipotentiary,  Ferdinand,  repeats  the  pnnciple 
of  Cujus  Repo,  Ejus  Keligio,  laid  down  at  Spires,  1526,  and  admits 
both  parties  m  equal  numbers  to  the  Imperial  Chamber.  Secularisations 
of  Church  property  before  1552  are  confirmed,  but  Ferdinand  and  the 
Catholics  insist  on  an  Ecclesiastic  Reservation,  by  which  future  converts 
to  Lutheranism  shall  resign  their  offices  and  patronage.  Against  this 
the  Lutherans  issue  a  protest,  which  is  incorporated  in  the  Treaty. 
Though  recognising  no  Protestants  except  Lutherans,  and  conceding  no 
individual  freedom  of  conscience,  the  Treaty  forms  the  basis  of  religions 
and  political  life  in  Germany  till  the  Thirty  Years*  War. 


15S6]  CULTURE  55 

S44.  SwiflB  Ch.  Servetus'  Ghristiaaismi  Restitutio,  a  scheme  of  Xeo- 
Platonism,  leads  Calvin  to  obtain  the  auUior's  prosecution  at  Lyons, 
and  to  send  his  letters  and  notes  on  the  Institutes.  On  escaping  from 
Lyons,  Servetus  is  arrested  in  Greneva  and  burned.  His  punishment  is 
censured  by  Castellio  but  applauded  by  Beza,  Melanchthon,  and 
Bullinger.  Unitarianism,  however,  is  taught  in  Greneva  and  Zurich  by 
the  Italian  refugees,  Gribaldo,  Biandrata,  Alciati,  Grentile,  Ochino,  and 
carried  to  Poland  and  Transylvania. 

S4o,  Cburoh  ffist.  Hosius'  Confessio  Fidei  Catholicae,  a  popular 
symbol. 

346,  Gec^raphy.  Furnished  with  plans  by  Cabot,  Chancellor  and 
Willoughby  start  on  the  North-East  passage  to  China.  Willoughby  is 
lost,  but  Chancellor  lands  at  Archangel,  reaches  Moscow,  and  opens  up 
commerce,  for  which  the  Muscovy  Company  is  chartered,  1554. 

347.  Death.    Rabelais. 


34s,    Eng.   Ch.    Mary  enjoins  clerical  celibacy.     Convocation    mrc^ 
elicits  from  Cranmer,  Latimer,  and  Ridley  that   they  reject    ■- 
Transubstantiation. 

349.  Church  Hist.  Knox  becomes  minister  of  the  English  refugees  at 
Frankfort,  but  is  expelled  on  the  arrival  of  Richard  Cox  and  others, 
1555,  who  desire  the  ritual  of  the  Prayer-Book. 

350.  Italian  Lit.  Bandello's  collection  of  Tales,  a  quarry  for  Shake- 
speare and  other  dramatists. 

351.  Spanish  Lit.  Lazarillo  de  Tonnes,  long  ascribed  to  Mendoza,  the 
first  example  of  the  picaresque  novel. 

352.  Art.  Antonio  Moro,  a  Fleming,  educated  in  Italy,  settles  in 
England  as  Court  painter  to  Philip  and  Mar}\ 

353.  Science.  Rondelet's  Historia  Piscium  and  Belongs  De  Aquatilibus 
found  Ichthyology. 

354.  FhiloBophy.  Cardan's  De  Varietate  Rerum  relates  the  psychic 
experiences  of  t^e  author  and  his  father. 

355.  Death.    Cortes. 


356.  Eng.  Ch.    Stren^heued  by  her  husband,  Mary  appoints   M555 
Gardiner  (shortly  replaced  by  Bonner),  Tunstal,  and  3  other   ^ 
BishofNB  to  try  heretics.   R(^rs  (the  Matthew  of  Matthew's  Bible)  suflFers 
at  Smithfield,  Hooper  at  Gloucester,  Rowland  Taylor  in  Suffolk,  and 
Ridley  and  Latimer  at  Oxford  (Oct.). 

357.  French  Ch.  An  attempt  by  the  Cardinal  of  Guise  to  revive 
persecution  is  fhistrated  by  Parliament,  and  the  first  Protestant  Church 
in  Paris  is  instituted  on  a  Presbyterian  basis. 

358.  Oennan  Ch.  Pfeffinger's  De  Libero  Arbitrio,  developing  Me- 
lanchUion's  Synergism,  is  opposed  by  Flacius  and  Amsdorf,  who  maintain 
that  man  can  oppose  but  cannot  mcilitate  the  workings  of  Grace,  the 
sjmergistic  controversy  lasting  for  twelve  years. 


56  POLITICS  [1565 

In  coDBequence  of  the  fiulure  of  his  schemes,  the  accession  of  tlie 
anti-Hapsburg  Pope,  Paul  IV.,  and  advancing  age,  the  Emperor  resigns 
the  Netnerlands  and  his  Italian  provinces  to  his  son  Philip. 
245.  America.  Vill^gnon,  with  Uie  approval  of  Coligny,  founds  a 
Huguenot  colony  in  Rio  Bay,  which  is  suppressed  by  the  Portuguese, 
1558. 


246.  FiTiglancL    Sir  Henry  Dudley,  the  cousin  of  Northumber-    r^^ 
land,  and  a  number  of  young  nobles  plot  to  dethrone  Mary  and    ^ 
make  Elizabeth  Queen.    The  plan,  however,  is  betrayed,  and  Uie  con- 
spirators are  executed. 

247.  Germany.  The  Emperor  transfers  the  Spanish  crown  to  his  son, 
and  his  German  possessions  to  his  brother.  He  resigns  the  Empire, 
commending  Ferdinand  to  the  Electors,  and  retires  to  the  monastery 
of  San  Juste,  in  Spain,  though  remaining  busily  occupied  with  politics 
till  his  death,  1558. 

248.  Italy.  The  new  Pope,  wishing  to  take  advantage  of  Philip's  youth, 
bribes  Henry  II.  with  the  promise  of  Naples  to  send  Guise  into  Italy  to 
expel  the  Spaniards.  Alva,  the  Governor  of  Naples,  however,  repels 
the  invasion,  but,  from  reverence  for  the  Papacy,  refrains  from  seizing 
Rome,  and  thus  gives  Guise  time  to  raise  new  troops. 

249.  Asia.  Bairam  Khan  and  Akbar,  the  14-year-old  son  of  Hamaioun, 
defeat  the  Afghan  dynasty  at  Panipat,  and  finally  win  India.  Shortly 
after  the  battle,  Hamaioun  dies  and  is  succeeded  by  Akbar,  under  the 
regency  of  Bairam  Khan. 


250.  En^and.    Sir  Thomas  Stafford,  an  exile  at  the  Court  of  r^ggy 
Paris,  sails  for  England  with  two  ships  and  seizes  Scarborough   ^ 
castle.     The  people  refuse  to  rise  against  the  queen,  and  the  rebels  are 
e.xecuted. 

25 1 .  Scotland.  The  first  Covenant  is  drawn  up  by  Argyll  and  Morton, 
renouncing  the  '  Congregation  of  Satan,'  and  resolving  on  Protestant 
worship  in  private  houses. 

252.  Italy.  Guise  again  invades  Italy,  but  Alva  bribes  Parma  and 
Tuscany  with  lands  and  repels  the  French,  the  Spanish  supremacy  not 
being  again  challenged. 

253.  Prance.  A  Spanish  army  under  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  who  wishes 
to  recover  his  Duchy,  besiegas  St  Quentin,  and  is  routed  by  the  relieving 
army  (Aug.),  before  the  English  troops,  which  Mary  sends  to  her 
husband,  arrive.     Philip,  however,  refuses  to  risk  an  advance  on  Paris. 

254.  Asia.  The  Portuguese,  who  have  carried  on  trade  with  China 
since  1517  and  established  two  factories,  withdraw  to  Macao,  near 
Canton,  and  are  recognised  as  independent,  1587. 


1667J  CULTURE  57 

559,  Spanish  Ch.  Peter  of  Alcantara,  a  Franciscan,  the  earliest  of 
Spanish  mystics,  founds  the  congregation  of  the  Barefooted  Friars. 

560.  SwiflB  Ch.  A  final  revolt  of  the  Libertines  in  Greneva,  under  Ami 
Perrin,  is  suppressed. 

361.  Polish  Ch.  Calvinism  having  spread  among  the  nobles  and 
Lutheranism  among  the  citizens,  owing  to  the  tolerance  of  the  King, 
a  Synod  permits  all  to  worship  freely  in  their  own  houses. 

362.  Polish  Lit.  The  first  critical  history  of  Poland  is  written  by 
Cromer. 

363.  History.  Busbequius  is  sent  by  Ferdinand  to  Constantinople, 
and  describes  the  Ottoman  Empire. 

364.  Geography.  Eden's  Decades  of  the  New  Worid,  the  first  English 
account  of  recent  discoveries. 


365.  Eng.  Ch.    Cranmer  is  induced  to  sign  seven  forms  of   ri  ceo 
recantation ;   but  when  brought  to  the  stake  at  Oxford,  he    ^ 
recants  his  recantations  and  stretches  his  right  hand  into  the  flames. 
Pole  is  consecrated  Archbishop  «)f  Canterbury  on  the  following  day. 

366.  Italian  Ch.  Philip  Neri  commences  meetings  at  his  house  in 
Rome,  for  reading  and  discussion.  The  members  undertake  evening 
preaching  in  the  City  churches,  and  are  created  tlie  order  of  the  Oratory, 
1575. 

367.  Church  Hist.  Lo^'ola  dies,  and  is  succeeded  as  General  by  Lainez, 
who  perfects  the  organization  of  the  Society  and  issues  the  Constitu- 
tions and  the  Declarations. 


368.  Eng.  Ch.    The  Pope  revokes  Pole's  legatine  Commission   v-xkm 
and  sununons  him  to  Rome  to  answer  to  a  charge  of  heresy.    ^ 
Mary,  however,  declares  that  Pole  shall  remain  legate,  and  the  Pope 
gives  way. 

The  persecution  continues,  and  Pole  undertakes  a  Visitation  of 
Uie  Universities. 

369.  German  Ch.  The  Venetian  ambassador  reports  that  only  a  tenth 
part  of  the  Grerman  nation  remains  Catholic. 

Frederick  III.,  the  new  Elector  Palatine,  introduces  Calvinism, 
which  remains  the  established  religion. 

370.  Hungarian  Ch.  The  majority  of  the  Hungarian  clergy  formally 
adopt  Calvinism  at  the  Synod  of  Czenger,  the  Confession  rejecting 
Lutheranism  and  Unitarianism. 

371.  Church  Hist.  The  Pope  imprisons  Morone  on  a  charge  of  favour- 
ing Lutheran  opinions. 

372.  Eng.  Lit.  In  TotteFs  Miscellany,  the  first  of  English  anthologies, 
appear  tiie  works  of  Wyatt  and  Surrey,  who  introduce  the  sonnet  and 
bLiDk  verse  from  Italian  Literature. 

The  Stationers'  Company  is  incorporated. 

373.  Science.  Record's  Whetstone  of  Wit,  the  first  English  algebra, 
invents  Uie  sign  =,  etc.,  and  explains  how  to  extract  a  square  root. 


58  POLITICS  [1668 

255.  England.  Guise,  who  has  been  recalled  from  Italy  after  the  n  550 
battle  of  St  Quentin,  storms  Calais  and  the  oatljdng  post  of  ^ 
Guisnes,  and  terminates  the  English  occupation  of  211  years.  ThoiijB^h 
deeply  chagrined  by  the  loss  of  their  last  foothold  in  France,  the  English 
people  trust  the  Queen  too  little  to  aid  in  the  prosecution  of  the  war. 
Mary  dies  (Nov.),  and  her  sister  Elizabeth  retains  the  Council,  to  which 
she  adds  Sir  William  Cecil. 

256.  Scotland.  The  Lords  of  the  Congregation  petition  the  Regent  for 
concessions,  but  receive  evasive  replies.  Their  position,  however,  is 
greatly  strengthened  by  the  death  of  the  English  Queen  and  by  the 
return  of  Knox  from  Geneva. 

257.  France.  Egmont  routs  a  detachment  of  the  French  army  at 
Gravelines,  aided  by  the  English  fleet  (July). 

Mar}%  Queen  of  Scots,  marries  Francis,  the  Dauphin,  the  King 
yielding  to  the  pressure  of  the  Guises.  A  secret  treaty  binds  Maiy 
to  bring  over  her  kingdom. 


258.  En^and.    Philip  offers  marriage  to  Elizabeth  (Jan.),  but   r^eeg 
withdraws  when   Parliament  meets  and  passes  a  new  Act  of  ^ 
Supremacy,  imposing  on  officials  or  graduates  an  oath  to  acknowledge 
the  Queen  as  Supreme  Governor  in  all  Spiritual  things  as  Temporal, 
and  restoring  the  election  of  Bishops  by  conge  cT^lire' 

259.  Scotland.  The  Regent  forbids  preaching,  summons  the  dis- 
obedient clergy  to  Perth,  and  outlaws  tnem  for  not  appearing.  Knox 
denounces  *  idolatry,'  and  the  churches  and  monasteries  are  sacked. 
Both  parties  advance  to  Perth,  but  a  compromise  is  made  reserving  the 
controversies  for  Parliament.  The  rebels  offer  to  marry  Arran's  son,  a 
Protestant,  to  Elizabeth,  to  counterbalance  the  union  of  France  and 
Scotland.     Elizabeth  refiises,  but  sends  money. 

260.  France.  At  the  Treaty  of  Cateau-Cambresis,  between  France  and 
Spain  (April),  Savoy  and  Piedmont  are  returned  to  the  Duke  of  Savoy. 
Both  sides  restore  their  conquests,  though  the  French  keep  Saluzzo,  one 
of  the  gates  of  Italy,  and  Calais,  ana  Philip  marries  the  daughter 
of  Henry  II.  The  Treaty  closes  the  40  years'  war,  and  leaves  opain 
supreme  in  Italy. 

On  the  accession  of  Francis  II.,  power  passes  to  his  wife's  uncles,  the 
Guises,  who  are  opposed  by  the  Bourbons  and  Coligny. 

261.  Italy.  Thp  ^'^^P^  deposes  his  nephews,  whom  he  had  raised  to 
power  on  account  of  their  support  in  his  anti-Spanish  policy. 

262.  Netherlands.  Margaret,  sister  of  Philip,  oecomes  Regent,  and 
Granvelle  her  chief  adviser.  The  States  refuse  supplies  till  the  4,000 
troops  left  by  Philip  are  removed. 

263.  Turkey.  Turkey,  the  ally  of  France,  is  not  included  in  the  Treaty 
of  Cateau-Cambresis,  and  Philip  attacks  Algiers. 


1650]  CULTURE  59 

574,  Eng.  Ch.    The  persecution  is  ended  by  the  simultaneous   riRRo 
death  of  the  Queen  and  Pole,  about  300  persons  having  suffered,    '- 
chiefly  in  Bonner's  Diocese  of  London,  and  in  Canterbury  and  Norwich. 

Aconcio,  an  Italian  refugee,  introduces  Unitarianism  into  England, 
and  writes  his  '  Strat^ems  of  Satan/ 

575.  Church  Hist  The  Bull  Cum  ex  Apostolatus  Officio  declares  that 
heretical  kings  and  bishops  are  ipso  facto  deposed,  and  incur  sentence 
of  death,  and  that  the  Pope  judges  all  and  can  be  judged  by  none. 

376,  Politios.  Poynet,  the  dispossessed  Bishop  of  Winchester,  in  his 
Political  Power,  and  Gk>odman,  the  colleague  of  Knox  at  Geneva,  in  his 
How  Superior  Powers  should  be  Obeyed,  maintain  the  right  and  duty 
of  the  people,  by  the  Law  of  Nature  and  of  God,  to  resist  and  depose 
ungodly  rulers.  Enox  more  directly  attacks  two  reigning  Queens  in  his 
Blast  of  the  Trumpet  against  the  monstrous  Regiment  of  Women. 

377,  Geography.    Zeno  of  Venice  publishes  a  map  of  the  northern  seas. 

378,  Social.  Tobacco  is  brought  to  Spain,  whence  it  is  sent  to  Paris  by 
Nicot,  the  French  ambassador. 

379,  Death.    J.  C.  Scaliger. 


380,  Eng.  Ch.  The  Act  of  Uniformity,  exacting  a  fine  for  mrra 
absence  from  church  and  restoring  the  second  Prayer-Book  of  ^ 
Edward  VI.,  with  a  few  alterations,  is  passed  after  vigorous  opposition 
in  the  Lords,  and  without  consent  of  Convocation.  All  the  Bishops, 
except  Kitchin  of  Llandaif,  and  about  200  clergy  are  deprived.  Parker 
bf^omes  Primate,  and  Commissioners  are  sent  through  the  country  with 
Injunctions  dealing  with  images,  celibacy,  and  ceremonial. 

381,  French  Ch.  The  first  Protestant  Synod  is  held,  under  the  presi- 
dency of  Morel,  and  adopts  a  Confession,  composed  by  Calvin,  and 
a  Presbyterian  organisation. 

382,  German  Ch.  Flacius  edits  a  Church  History^,  the  Magdeburg 
Centuries,  the  first  historical  defence  of  Protestantism. 

Brenz  defends  Luther's  theory  of  ubiquity  against  Melaiichthon. 

383,  Italian  Ch.  The  Index  compiled  from  the  lists  made  at  Louvain 
and  by  the  Spanish  Inquisition  is  issued  at  Rome.  A  revised  edition  is 
published  by  the  Council  of  Trent,  1564,  including  a  department '  donee 
corrigatur.'     A  Congregation  of  the  Index  is  instituted,  1571. 

38J^  Spanish  Ch.  Autos-da-fi6  are  held  at  Valladolid  and  Seville,  by 
which  Lutheranism  is  almost  eradicated.  Carranza,  Archbishop  of 
Toledo,  is  imprisoned  (for  17  years)  for  his  theory  of  Justification,  and 
the  lUuminati  are  persecuted. 

385,  Church  Hist.  Joasaph,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  makes 
enquiries  about  Protestantism,  but  leaves  unanswered  a  letter  of 
Meianchthon,  enclosing  the  Confession  of  Augsburg. 

386,  French  Lit.    Amyot  translates  Plutarch. 


60  POLITICS  [1680 

264.  Scotland.  At  Cecirs  entreaty,  the  Queen  sends  troops  and  n  raq 
a  fleet  to  Scotland.  The  joint  forces  besiege  the  French  in  jLeith,  ^ 
which  surrenders  after  the  death  of  the  Regent,  who  has  been  deserted 
by  nearly  all  her  counsellors,  including  Maitland.  By  a  treaty  at  Edin- 
burgh, France  ceases  to  govern  Scotland,  and  acknowledges  Elizabeth's 
title,  though  Francis  refuses  to  ratify  this  stipulation,  and  the  govem- 
ment  is  vested  in  12  nobles  till  Mary's  return. 

265.  France.  A  conspiracy  to  rescue  the  King  from  the  Guises  at 
Amboise  fails,  but  frightens  them  into  promoting  L'Hdpital,  who  grants 
liberty  of  private  worship  to  Huguenots.  The  Guises,  however,  im- 
prison Cond^ ;  but  their  plans  are  frustrated  by  the  King's  death'  and 
the  regency  of  Catherine  de  Medici,  who  favours  Coligny  and  the 
Politiques. 

266.  Netherlands.  After  a  delay  of  thrice  the  stipulated  period,  the 
Spanish  troops  are  recalled.  The  Council  of  State,  including  Oranee 
and  Egmont,  is  rendered  powerless  by  the  secret  council  of  Granvelle, 
Berlaymont,  and  Viglius.  Further  discontent  is  aroused  by  the  creation 
of  14  bishoprics  and  3  archbishoprics. 

267.  Asia.  Akbar  quells  a  revolt  of  Bairam  Khan  and  assumes  power, 
and  builds  up  an  Empire  from  his  new  capital  at  Am,  conquering  the 
Rajput  kingdoms.  Lower  Bengal,  Orissa,  Gujerat,  Kashmir,  KancuJuur, 
and  Scinde,  but  failing  to  subdue  the  south.  He  divides  the  Empire 
into  Provinces  with  Viceroys,  abolishes  the  non-Mussulman  poll-tax, 
and  creates  justice  and  police.  His  finance  minister,  Todar  Mall, 
makes  the  first  land  survey,  and  imposes  a  land-tax. 


268.  En^and.    Lady  Catherine    Grey,   sister    of  Lady  Jane,    r^g^i 
marries  Hertford,  son  of  the  Protector  Somerset,  without  the    *■ 
Queen's  consent,  and  is  thrown  into  the  Tower. 

269.  Scotland.  Mary  arrives  in  Scotland  by  sea,  Elizabeth  refusing 
her  a  passage  through  England  unless  she  renounces  her  claim  to  the 
English  crown.  She  acknowledges  the  new  Calvinistic  establishment, 
but  retains  the  Mass  for  her  own  use,  and  accepts  her  half-brodier 
Murray  and  Maitland  as  ministers. 

The  first  Book  of  Discipline  is  rejected  by  Parliament. 

270.  Prance.  The  States-General  meet  at  Orleans,  and  L'Hdpital 
appeals  to  all  parties  to  support  the  throne  and  cease  their  bitter 
struggles.  The  Edict  of  Orleans  attacks  a  number  of  legal  and  other 
abuses ;  the  Parliament  of  Paris,  however,  refuses  to  register  it 
Feeling  grows  more  and  more  embittered,  and  L'Hdpital  and  the 
Queen  Regent  therefore  summon  men  of  moderate  opinions  from  the 
Parliaments  and  the  Privy  Council  to  an  assembly  at  St  (^ermains. 

271.  Poland.  Livonia,  which  threw  ofl*  allegiance  to  the  Teutonic 
knights,  1521,  in  fear  of  Russian  aggression,  surrenders  itself  to  Poland, 
which  retains  it,  despite  the  attacks  of  Sweden  and  Russia.  The 
Grand  Master  keeps  part  of  the  province  as  Duke  of  Courland,  under 
the  suzerainty  of  Poland. 


1561]  CUXTURE  6 1 

SS7.  En^  Ch.  The  '  Breeches/  or  Geneva,  Bible,  with  Calvin-  r^^^Q 
istic  annotatioDfl,  remains  the  most  popular  edition  till  1611.  *- 

S8S.  Scotch  Ch.  At  the  request  of  Parliament,  Knox  and  five  other 
ministers  draw  up  a  Confession,  which  Ls  approved  The  authority  of 
the  Pope  is  rejected,  the  mass  is  abolished,  and  all  laws  against  Pro- 
testantism are  repealed.  The  first  General  Assembly  meets  (Dec.),  and 
approves  the  First  Book  of  Discipline  (compiled  by  the  authors  of  the 
Confession),  adoptingin  part  the  system  of  Geneva. 

SS9.  German  Cn.  rlacius  declares  that  original  sin  is  not  accidental 
bat  substantial,  and  is  accused  of  ManichaeisuL 

S90,  Asiatic  Ch.  Akbar,  with  the  aid  of  his  minister,  Abul-Fazl, 
constructs  an  eclectic  Mohammedanism,  and  grants  religious  liberty 
throughout  India. 

391.    TCience.    Battista  Porta's  Magia  Naturalis  discusses  the  structure 
(^  the  eye,  and  invents  the  Camera  obscura.     He  also  founds  the 
Academia  Secretorum  Naturae  at  Naples,  the  first  scientific  society. 
Eustachius  describes  the  tube  running  between  the  mouth  and  the 


S!92.    Alt.    Tintoretto  b^ns  to  fresco  the  Scuola  di  San  Rocco,  Venice. 

Germain  Pilon  s  Three  Graces  (Louvre). 

Jean  Goujon's  Diana  and  a  Stag  (Louvre). 
^5.    Fbilology.    Sigonius  b^ins  to  study  Roman  law  and  customs. 
S9i,    Deallia.    Doria,  Lasco,  Melanchthon. 


395.  Sn^  Ch.    The  Queen  is  dissuaded  by  Cecil  from  issuing  an    ri  cai 
ofdinaiice  against  the  marriage  of  the  clergy,  but  forbids  mem-    '- 
bers  of  collies  or  cathedral  churches  to  marry  or  to  retain  their  wives. 

396.  French  Ch.  At  a  Conference  at  Poissy  (Aug.),  Beza  confesses  his 
dissent  from  ten  of  the  Articles  of  Augsburg,  including  that  relating  to 
the  Real  Presence. 

Mariorat's  N.  T.  Ezpositio,  a  popular  Calvinist  cummentar}\ 
^97.     Oennan  Ch.    The  Protestant  Princes  adopt  the  revised  Con- 

fieflsion  of  Augsburg  of  ]  540,  and  the  Apologia  of  tne  earlier  edition. 
398.    NaCherlanda  Ch.    The  Belgic  Confession  is  drawn  up  by  Guido 

de  Brea,  a  Calvinist.    The  Genevese  Church  system  is  introduced,  1563. 
3&9.     Liteiaiiire.    J.  C.  Scaliger's  Poetics,  the  first  modem  work  of 

liteniy  criticism  and  analysis. 
^fiO^    Sdncation.    The  Merchant  Taylors'  School  in  London  is  founded. 
^fil,     SociaL    Sandwich  is  licensed  to  receive  4<X^  Flemish  refugees  as 

cIothworiLers.      Colchester,  Norvrich,  and  other  towns  quickly  follow 

suit. 
^f)2,    Dea^    Schwenckfeld. 


62  POLITICS  [1662 

272.  England.    The  Oath  of  Supremacy  is  imposed  on  the   r^»M 
members  of  the  House  of  CommoDs,  Catholics  being  thus  ex-   '- 
eluded. 

273.  Ireland.  After  a  visit  to  London,  on  the  invitation  of  ihe  Queen, 
Shane  O'Neill  rebels  a  second  time,  and,  after  five  years'  struggle,  is 
murdered. 

274.  France.  The  Edict  of  January,  promulgated  by  the  Assembly  of 
St  Germains,  formally  authorises  Protestantism,  though  enjoininf  respect 
for  the  ancient  worship.  To  oppose  the  policy  of  toleration,  a  league  is 
formed  by  the  Guises  and  Montmorency,  which  the  King  of  Navarre  is 
persuaded  to  join.  The  massacre  W  the  followers  of  the  Duke  of  Guise 
of  a  congre^tion  at  worship  in  Vassy  leads  to  the  first  of  the  long 
series  of  religious  wars.  The  Huguenots  receive  aid  irom  the  German 
Princes,  and  the  Catholics  obtain  support  irom  Spain  and  Switzerland 
The  Huguenots  prove  successful  at  tne  outset,  ana  the  King  of  Navarre 
is  killed,  his  son  of  ten,  Henry,  becoming  head  of  the  Bourbons.  Cond^ 
and  Montmorency,  the  rival  commanders,  are  taken  prisoners  at  Dreuz 
(Nov.),  Coligny  becoming  leader  of  the  Hufi^enots. 

The  Huguenots  obtain  the  aid  of  Elizabeth  by  offering  her  Havre, 
which  she  hopes  to  exchange  for  Calais. 

275.  Austria.    Maximilian  is  elected  King  of  the  Romans. 

276.  America.  Ribault  establishes  a  colony  of  Huguenots  in  Florida, 
at  the  instance  of  Coligny,  and  leaves  a  number  of  settlers,  who 
volunteer  to  hold  the  country  for  the  King  of  France  tiU  Ribault 
returns  with  recruits  and  supplies.  ^ 


277.  En^and.    Arthur   and    Edmond  Pole,  the  last  of  the   r^e^^ 
Yorkists,   are  convicted  of  treason  and  imprisoned  till  their   ^ 
death. 

278.  Prance.  The  murder  of  the  Duke  of  Guise  (Feb.),  when  advancing 
against  Orleans,  terminates  the  war,  though  Coligny  is  anxious  for  its 
continuance.  The  peace  made  at  Amboise  (March)  tolerates  the  Re- 
formed faith  where  established  before  the  war  (except  in  Paris),  and  a 
town  in  every  district  is  selected  for  Huguenot  worship.  War  is 
declared  against  England,  and  Havre  is  recaptured.  Three  years  of 
peace  ensue,  the  Edict  of  Amboise,  however,  only  being  execut^  where 
the  Huguenots  are  strong. 

279.  Germany.  The  claims  of  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg  and  his 
heirs  to  the  succession  of  the  Duchy  of  Prussia  are  recognised  by  the 
King  of  Poland. 

280.  AMca.  A  Spanish  fleet  is  destroyed  by  a  storm,  but  Oran  is 
successfully  defended  against  the  Turks. 


281.  England.  Elizabeth  is  compelled  to  make  peace  with  mkaj 
Fraiice,  without  recovering  Calais.  I- 

282.  Austria.  On  the  death  of  Ferdinand,  the  Imperial  title,  with 
Austria,  Bohemia  and  Hungary,  passes  to  Maximilian  II.,  the  remaining 
provinces  being  divided  among  his  two  younger  sons. 


15M]  ciJuruBX  63 

jfOS.    En^  Ch.    Jewel's  Apologj  for  the  Church  of  Knghmd.  ri502 

404,    Gennan  Ch.    Cheauutx  criticiaes  Catholic  theology  in  his   ^ 
Exmmen  Conmlii  TridentiiiL 

The  Elector  Palatiiie,  Frederick  III.,  the  first  CalTinist  prince  in 
Germany,  orders  Ursinos  and  Olevianos  to  compoee  the  Heidelberg 
Catedusm,  the  most  popolar  (^  Calvinistic  symbols. 

406.  Spanish  Ch.  Theresa  founds  a  couTent  of  barefooted  Carmelites 
in  her  Urthplaee,  Avila.  She  is  aided  by  John  of  the  Cross,  who 
extends  the  reform  to  the  male  Carmelites. 

4O6.  Church  mat  The  Councfl  of  Trent  meets  for  the  third  time, 
under  the  presidency  of  Hosins  and  four  other  legates.  The  concession 
of  the  cup  to  the  laity,  demanded  by  Germany  and  France,  is  defeated 
by  Laines  and  the  Spaniards.  The  Cardinal  of  Lorraine  arrires  with 
the  French  Inshops  (Sept.),  and  takes  the  anti-papal  side  in  the  dis- 
cussion of  the  diTine  origin  of  Episcopacy. 

4OT.    Alt.     Paul  Veronese's  '  Marriage  ot  Cana'  (LouTre). 

40s.  Bociiil  John  Hawkins  makes  the  first  Englidi  slave-trading 
expedition  from  Guinea  to  the  Spanish  Indies. 

409.    Death.     Laelius  Sodnus. 


410.    En^  Ch.    The  42  Articles  are  reduced  to  39,  accepted  by    r ^i^ 
Conrocation,  and  ratified  by  the  Queen  with  a  few  alterations.        '- 
Foxe's  Book  of  Martyrs. 

4^i.  Church  Hist.  The  Emperor  is  won  orer  to  terminating  the 
CooncO  by  the  Pope's  promise  of  the  cup  to  the  laity.  Reforms  are 
ra{Hdly  reaolred  on  in  reference  to  clerical  seminaries,  the  discipline  of 
Cardinals  and  bsshi^  and  the  visitation  of  chapters,  and  the  theory  of 
purgatory,  indulgences  and  the  invocation  of  samts  is  defined. 

412,    Sn^  Lit.    Sa^^riDe's  Induction  to  the  ^lirror  for  Magistrates. 

41s,    Arib    Phffin  commissions  Herrera  to  build  the  EscuiiaL 

414^  Bodal  Tne  Statute  of  Apprentices  empowers  Justices  of  the 
Peace  to  periodically  settle  the  rate  of  wages.  The  number  of  appren- 
tiees  is  laid  down  in  rdation  to  the  number  of  journeymen  and  the 
status  of  the  master. 


415,     Gfameh  SBsL    The  Pope  confirms  the  acts  of  the  recent    r^Wk 
Comidl,  the  disciplinary  decrees    being  accepted    by  sereral    ^ 
Gennan  princes,  Italy,  Pohuul,  Portugal,  and  tne  Spanish  Empire,  and 
rejected  by  Hungary  and  Rrance,  though  certain  of  the  ref*>rms  are 
qoiedy  adopted 

The  Profenio  Fidei  Tridentinae  defines  the  the>ry  of  the  Sacraments, 
Poigatory  and  Indulgences^ 

41s,  Gennan  Ch.  Asked  by  the  new  Emperor  for  ius  opinion  on  the 
decieeSy  GMaander  recommends  the  permisaun  of  the  cup  to  the  laity 
andof  marriage  of  the  cleigy. 

417,  IkiJMmnlan  Ch.  Owing  to  the  concession  by  the  Pooe  of  the  cup 
to  the  Inty,  the  Utniq[uists  become  merged  in  the  Catnoiic  Church. 


64  POLITICS  [1664 

283.  Netherlands.  On  the  demand  of  the  Nationaligts  and  of  the 
Recent,  Granvelle  is  recalled.  Philip,  however,  refuses  to  change  his 
policy,  and  enforces  still  more  strictly  the  edicts  against  heresy. 

284.  Asia.  The  Philippines  are  occupied  by  the  Spaniards,  and  Manila 
is  built. 


285.  Scotland.    After  contemplating  various  foreign  matches   hm 
and  rejecting  Elizabeth's  offer  of  Leicester,  Mary  marries  her   ^ 
cousin,  Darmey,  a  Catholic.     Regarding  this  as  a  defiance,  ElizabeUi 
urges  the  Scottish  malcontents,  led  by  Murray,  to  a  revolt,  which  is 
easily  crushed,  and  in  consequence  is  disowned  by  ElizabetL 

286.  France.  Catherine  meets  Alva  at  Bayonne,  but  refuses  to  change 
her  system  of  compromise. 

287.  Switzerland.  The  Catholic  cantons  ally  with  the  Pope,  Spain 
and  Savoy,  though  without  taking  overt  action. 

288.  NetherlandB.  The  nobles  despatch  Egmont  to  Philip  to  demand 
concessions.  The  King  makes  some  vague  promises,  and  loads  the 
ambassador  with  gifts  and  honours. 

289.  Turkey.  The  Knights  of  St  John  in  Malta,  under  Lavalette, 
sustain  a  siege  by  the  Turks,  and,  after  three  months,  are  relieved  by 
Spanish  troops  from  Sicily. 

290.  America.  Menendez  is  sent  by  Philip,  who  fears  the  loss  of  his 
Mexican  fleets,  to  Florida  to  destroy  the  Huguenot  colony. 


291.  En^and.    The  Commons  resolve  to  petition  the  Queen  to   ji^ 
marr>',  but  are  ordered  to  leave  the  matter  alone.     Paul  Went-   *• 
worth  asks  if  such  a  command  is  not  contrary  to  their  privileges. 

292.  ScoUand.  Damley  and  the  Protestant  nobles  murder  Kizzio,  the 
unoflicial  Foreign  Secretary  of  the  Queen. 

293.  Germany.  The  Elector  Palatine  successfully  defends  his  adoption 
of  Calvinism  before  the  Diet  of  Augsburg. 

294.  Netherlands.  St  Aldegonde,  Brederode  and  William's  brother, 
Louis  of  Nassau,  form  a  league,  in  which  a  number  of  Catholics  join, 
called  the  Compromise,  to  resist  the  Inquisition,  and  present  a  request 
to  the  Regent.  Berlaymont  urges  her  not  to  fear  the  *  beggars '  (a 
name  that  the  nationalists  at  once  adopt),  and  the  Resent  signs aModeia- 
tiou,  making  trifling  concessions.  She  refuses  to  follow  the  advice  of 
Orange  in  the  Council  and  to  summon  the  States-Greneral,  till,  frightened 
by  an  attack  on  the  churches,  she  issues  the  Accord,  abolishing  the 
Inc^uisition  and  granting  an  amnesty,  secretly  protesting  to  Philip  that 
it  IS  obtained  by  force.  Acting  on  orders  from  Spain,  she  captures 
several  towns,  and  re-establishes  the  Inquisition,  William  withdnwing 
from  the  countrv. 

295.  Turkey.  The  Turks  capture  Chios,  the  last  (Genoese  possession 
in  the  Levant  The  decline  of  the  Ottoman  Power,  however,  b^ns 
with  the  death  of  Sol3rman,  and  the  Janissaries  become  an  hereditary 
caste. 


1686]  CULTURE.  65 

At  the  same  time  the  Bohemian  Brothers,  under  the  leadership  of 

BUhoslav,  obtain  toleration  from  the  Emperor. 
418.     Swiw  Ch.    Besa  succeeds  to  Calvin  s  position  as  the  head  of  the 

Galvinist  Churches. 
4ig.    Art    Delorme  designs  the  Tuileries  for  Catherine  de  Medici. 

420.  Bociiil     Wierus,  a  pupil  of  A^ppa,  attacks  the  belief  in  witch- 
craft, which  is  defended  about  this  time  by  Bodin,  Erastus  and  Belria 

421,  DeaUis.    Calvin,  Laines,  Michekngelo,  Vesalius. 


422.  French  Ch.    The  first  contest  takes  place  between  the   mcoc 
University  of  Paris,  represented  by  Pasquier,  and  the  Jesuit    ^ 
college,  founded  by  the  Bishop  of  Clermont. 

423.  Spaniah  Ch.     Francis  Borgia,  Viceroy  of  Catalonia,  becomes 
Gieneral  of  the  Jesuits,  and  greatly  extends  the  Order  in  Spain. 

424.  Polish  Ch.    The  Unitarians  are  excluded  from  the  synods  of  the 
Reformed  ChurcL 

42s ^    Italian  Ut.    Cinthio's  Hecatomithi,  a  collection  of  tales. 

426,    Alt.     Palestrina's  Missa  Papae  Marcelli  rescues  music  frt)m  the 

suspicions  of  die  Counter-Reformation. 
42J.     Fhiloaophy.    Telesio's  De  Rerum  Natura,  a  system  of  mystical 

pantheism,  influenced  by  Paracelsus  and  Cardan. 
428.    Death.    Gesner. 


42^.  Sn^  Ch.  Parkers  Advertisements  (issued  without  the  ricaa 
imprimatur  of  the  Queen),  supplement  the  Injunctions  of  1559  ^ 
and  declare  the  minimum  of  ntual.  The  appended  declaration  of  con- 
formity is  refiised  bv  about  40  London  clergy,  who  are  suspended  or 
de]Hrived.  The  malcontents  be^n  to  organise  meetings,  but  their 
separation  from  die  Church  is  condemned  by  Knox,  Beza,  and 
Bnllinger. 

4JO.  SwiM  Ch.  Bullinger's  Confessio  Helvetica  Posterior,  blending 
Calvinism  widi  Zwinglianism,  gradually  wins  recognition  throughout 
Switxerland. 

^jA  Chnroh  Hist.  The  Catechismus  Romanus,  planned  by  the 
Council  of  Trent  and  baaed  on  its  decrees,  becomes  the  favourite 
manual  of  teachers,  though  disapproved  by  the  Jesuits.  The  Cate- 
diismns  Parvus  of  Canisius  is  also  widely  adopted. 

432,  French  Lit.  Henry  Stephanus  replies  to  the  criticisms  of 
Herodotus  in  his  Apologie  pour  Herodot^  in  which  he  attacks  the 
mcMmls  and  credulity  of  the  Roman  clergy. 

^jj.  Alt.  Colins  completes  the  reliefs  on  the  tomb  of  Maximilian  I.  at 
Innsliruck. 

434,  History.  Bodin's  Methodus  ad  Historiarum  Cognitionem  discusses 
the  laws  of  progress  and  causation. 

4^.     Social.    The  Royal  Exchange  is  founded  by  Gresham. 

436.    DesOi.    Las  Cans. 

a  5 


66  POLITICS.  [1667 

296.  Scotland.  Darnley  is  murdered  by  Bothwell  (Feb.),  who  r^^ 
traps  the  nobles  into  signing  a  bond  at  Ainslie's  Tavern,  de-  *• 
Glaring  his  innocence  and  urging  the  Queen  to  marry  him.  The  marriage 
taJkes  place  (May),  but  her  subjects  rise  against  her  and  capture  her  at 
Carberry  Hill.  She  is  imprisoned  on  Loch  Leven,  and  is  forced  to 
abdicate  in  favour  of  her  infant  son,  who  is  placed  in  Protestant  hands, 
and  for  whom  Murr^  becomes  Regent. 

297.  France.  The  Huguenots  plan  to  seize  the  King  at  Meaux,  but 
the  Court  escapes  to  Paris,  which  Cond^  besieges,  and  a  drawn  battle  is 
fought  at  St  Denis. 

298.  Netherlands.  Philip  sends  Alva  to  aid  Margaret,  who  shortly 
retires.  Egmont  and  Horn  are  arrested,  and  the  Council  of  Disorders 
(the  *  Council  of  Blood ')  is  instituted. 

299.  Asia.  Nobunaga  becomes  supreme  in  Japan,  deposes  the  Shogun, 
centralises  the  government,  encourages  Christian  missions,  and  maintains 
peace. 


300.  Scotland.     Mary  escapes  (May),  is  defeated  by  Murray  at    r^ggg 
Langside,  and  flies  to  England,  demanding  an  army  to  replace    '- 
her.     Elizabeth  appoints  Commissioners,  who  pronounce   the   Casket 
Letters  produced   oy  Murray  authentic.      Though  refusing  to  recog- 
nise her  deposition,  the  Queen  detains  Mary  in  England. 

301.  France.  The  Treaty  of  Longjumeau  confirms  the  settlement  of 
Amboise.  The  Pope,  however,  releases  the  Queen  from  her  obligations. 
Cardinal  Guise  returns.  KHdpital  is  dismissed,  the  reformed  service  is 
forbidden,  Cond6  and  Coligny  leave  Paris,  and  war  again  breaks  out 

302.  Spain.  Owing  to  the  enforcement  of  the  laws  against  Moorish 
customs  and  language,  the  Moors  revolt,  but  are  crushed  by  Don  John, 
the  half-brother  of  rhilip. 

303.  Netherlands.  William  formally  joins  the  Reformed  Church,  and 
collects  an  annv,  part  of  which  defeats  the  Spaniards  at  Heiligerlee. 
Alva  executes  £^out  and  Horn,  and  defeats  ijouis  at  Jemmingen. 


304.  En^and.    The  northern  nobles  conspire  to  marry  Norfolk    r^^^^ 
to   Mary  Stuart.     Norfolk  is    imprisoned    on   suspicion,    and    ^ 
Northumberland  and   Westmoreland   openly  revolt   (Nov.).   but  flee 
before  the  army  sent  against  them. 

305.  Prance.    The  Huguenots  are  routed  and  Cond^  slain  at  Jamac 
(March).    Coligny  becomes  leader,  but  is  defeated  at  Montcontour  (Oct.). 

306.  Netherlands.    Alva's  financial    policy  ruins  manufactures  and 
commerce. 

307.  Poland.    Sigismund  II.  unites  Lithuania  (loosely  connected  since 
1386)  to  Poland  by  the  Treaty  of  Lublin. 


).669]  CULTURE.  67 

437,  Eng.  Ch.  The  Queen  orders  the  Ecclesiastical  Commis-  1-1507 
sioners  to  break  up  the  Nonconformist  congregations  in  London.  ^ 
100  sectaries  are  seized  at  Plumber's  Hall,  London,  which  had  been  hired 
under  pretence  of  a  wedding,  and  imprisoned.  A  centre  of  propaganda, 
however,  is  instituted  at  Wandsworth  ;  but  separation  from  the  Church 
rarely  occurs  outside  the  London  district. 

4^8,     Scotch  Ch.    Lay  patronage  is  adopted. 

43g.  Italian  Ch.  Camesecchi  is  surrendered  by  the  Buke  of  Tuscany 
and  burnt  at  Rome,  Paleario  suffering,  1568.  Their  deaths  mark  the 
close  of  the  Protestant  movement  in  Itisily. 

440,  Netherlanda  Ch.  Baius,  Professor  of  Theology  at  Louvain,  who 
has  been  condemned  by  the  Sorbonne,  1560,  is  censured  by  the  Pope,  at 
the  instance  of  the  Franciscans,  for  his  teaching  in  regard  to  Predestina- 
tion and  Grace.  He  submits,  but  his  ideas  remain  in  circulation  and 
are  appropriated  by  Jansen  in  the  succeeding  generation. 

441,  EdncatioiL    Rugby  School  is  founded  by  Laurence  Sheriff. 


442,  Eng.  Ch.    The  *  Bishops'  Bible,'  revised  by  Parker  and  his    ri  ego 
suffragans,  is  authorised,  and  forms  the  base  of  the  translation  of   >- 
1611. 

William  Allen,  sometime  Fellow  of  Oriel,  founds  a  college  in  the 
University  of  Douai  for  English  Catholics,  especially  for  those  desiring 
to  work  for  the  conversion  of  England.  Similar  institutions  are  created 
at  Rome  and  Valladolid. 

443,  Netherlands  Ch.  Mamix  de  Ste  Aldegonde  composes  the 
Wilhelmuslied,  which  takes  its  place  as  a  national  anthem. 

444,  Bohemian  Ch.  Blahoslav  translates  the  Bible,  adds  com- 
mentaries, and  composes  h3rmns,  his  writings  exercising  a  profound 
influence  over  the  Bohemian  Brethren. 

44^,     Polish  Ch.    The  Unitariaas  of  Transylvania  separate  from  the 

Protestants. 
446,     Church  Hist.    Pius  V.  issues  the  Breviarium  Romanum,  revised 

by  order  of  the  Council  of  Trent. 
44y,     Philosophy.    Soto's  De  Justitia  et  Jure,  the  first  ethical  work 

of  the  century,  attempts  to  combine  the  conceptions  of  Komau  and 

Canon  Law. 
448,     Economics.    Bodin  explains  the  revolution  in  prices,  returning 

to  the  public  revenues,  in  the  R^publique. 
44g,     Death.     Ascham. 

4§o,    Netherlands  Ch.     Mamix'  Beehive  violently  satirises  the    n5Qg 

Catholic  Church.  ^ 

4^1,     Science.    Mercator's  hydrographical  Chart  introduces  the   new 

projection  by  crossing  parallels  an(f  meridians  at  right  angles.     His 

atks  appears  1598. 
4^2.    Philosophy.     Montaigne  translates  the  Theologia  Naturalis  of 

Rajrmond  de  Sebonde  into  French,  and  composes  an  Apology  for  the 

author. 

5—2 


68  POLITICS.  [1670 

308.  England.    The  Pope  excommunicates  Elizabeth  and  absolves   r^^^ 
her  subjects  from  their  allegiance.     The  bull  is  affixed  to  the    *- 
door  of  the  Bishop  of  London's  house. 

309.  Scotland.  Murray  is  murdered  by  the  Hamiltons.  Mary's  sup- 
porters again  come  forward  and  resist  the  new  Regent,  Lennox,  and 
confusion  ensues  till  Morton  obtains  the  regency,  1572. 

310.  France.  The  success  of  the  Catholic  arms  leads  to  a  reacti(»i 
against  the  Guises  and  the  Spanish  party,  and  to  the  Treaty  of  St 
Germain  (Aug.),  which  grants  religious  nreedom  to  the  Huguenots. 
The  younff  King,  Charles  IX.,  assumes  power,  and  deserts  the  religious 
system  of  the  Counter-Reformation,  offering  his  brother  Anjou  to 
Elizabeth  and  welcoming  Louis  of  Nassau  at  Court.  Margaret,  the 
sister  of  the  King,  is  tetrothed  to  Henry  of  Navarre,  and  Coligny*8 
influence  becomes  supreme. 

311.  Sweden.  Denmark  recognises  the  independence  of  Sweden,  con- 
firming the  treaty  of  Bromsebro  (1541),  at  the  peace  of  Stettin,  and 
Sweden  surrenders  her  claim  to  Norway. 

312.  Turkey.  (>prus,  bequeathed  to  Venice  by  Caterina  Comaro, 
1489,  is  attacked  oy  the  Turks,  and  the  chief  towns  are  taken  and 
destroyed. 

313.  Afirica.    The  Turks  capture  Tunis  from  Spain. 


314.  England.  Strickland  is  excluded  from  the  House  of  Com-  [1571 
mons  by  the  Queen  for  proposing  to  amend  the  Prayer-book.    ^ 

To  avoid  a  quarrel,  Elizabieth  allows  him  to  return,  the  question  of  the 
Prayer-book  being  dropped. 

An  Italian  banker,  resident  in  England,  Ridolfi,  informs  Alva  that 
the  peers  desire  him  to  send  a  Spanish  armv  of  6,0n0O  soldiers,  murder 
the  Queen  and  set  Mary  and  Norfolk,  who  nas  been  released  fi^m  the 
Tower,  on  the  throne.  The  scheme,  which  is  approved  by  Philip,  is 
discovered  by  Burleigh,  diplomatic  relations  with  Spain  are  broken  off 
(till  1578),  and  Norfolk  is  imprisoned.  Parliament  declares  traitors  all 
who  introduce  Bulls,  who  are  reconciled  to  Rome  or  reconcile  others. 

315.  Turkey.  The  Pope  arranges  a  Holy  Leafi^ue  with  Spain  and 
Venice  against  the  Turks,  whose  fleet  is  destroyea  at  Lepanto  by  Don 
John  (Oct.).  The  victory  is  rendered  useless  by  the  jealousies  of  the 
Powers. 

316.  Hungary.  The  Zapolya  dynasty  in  Transylvania  ends,  and  Stej^en 
Bathory  is  elected. 


317.  England.  The  Queen  executes  Norfolk,  but  refuses  the  [-1570 
demand  of  Parliament  for  the  death  of  Mary  Stuart.  In  her  '- 
anxiety  to  find  support  ajgainst  Spain,  she  resumes  negociations  for 
a  French  marriage,  this  time  with  Alen^on,  Anjou*s  brother,  a  youth 
21  years  younger  than  herself,  and  makes  a  defensive  alliance  with 
France  at  Blois. 


1072]  CULTURE.  69 

4S3,    En^  Ch.    Gartwright  is  deprived  of  the  Lady  Maigaret   n57o 

ProfewoTship  for  Puritanism,  largely  owing  to  Whitgifb,  Master   ^ 

of  Trinity. 
4^4^     German  Ch.    Pischart,  a  Calvinist,  begins  his  career  of  Protestant 

champion,  translates  Dutch  and  Huguenot  polemics,  and  attacks  the 

Jesuits. 

The  introduction  of  presbyteries  into  the  Palatinate  is  attacked 

by  Erastas,  a  professor  at  Heidelberg,  who  contends  for  state  control. 
4S5.    Polish  dh.     By  the  consensus  of   Sendomir,  on  the  lines  of 

Melanchthon's  later  ideas,  the  Calviuists,  Lutherans  and  Bohemian 

Brothers  are  united.     At  the  same  moment,  the  Jesuits  enter  the 

kingdom. 
4§6.     Chnroh  Hist.    Pius  V.  issues  the  Missale  Romanum,  ordered  by 

the  Council  of  Trent. 
4^7.     Science.    Ortelius'  (of  Antwerp)  Theatrum  Orbis  Terrarum,  the 

first  modem  atlas. 
4^8.    Art.    Palladio's  Treatise  on  Architecture. 
4^g.    Education.    Ascham's  Schoolmaster  recommends,  for  the  learning 

of  Latin,  the  study  of  a  model  book  in  preference  to  a  long  preliminary 

course  of  grammar. 

In  consequence  of  the  support  given  to  Cartwright  by  the  younger 

Masters  of  Arts,  the   Elizabeuian  Statutes  are  enacted,  vestiug  the 

administration  of  the  University  in  the  Caput  or  Heads  of  Houses. 


460.  Eng.  Ch.    Subscription  to  the  XXXIX  Articles  is  enforced    1-15^ 

Sr  Paiiiameut  on  the  clersy,  and  the  Canon  Law  compiled  under    ^ 
eniy  and  Edward  final^'  disappears. 

461.  Philosophy.  Patrizzi's  Dissertationes  Peripateticae  strongly 
attacks  Aristotle,  and  urges  the  recognition  of  the  Platonists  by 
the  Church. 

462.  Politics.  Gentillet's  Anti-Machiavel,  the  first  important  attack 
from  the  Protestant  side. 

^j.     Education.    Harrow  School  is  founded  by  John  Lyon. 

464.     Geography.    Jenkinson  carries  a  letter  from  Elizabeth  to  the 

Shah  of  Persia,  travelling  through  Russia  and  Bokhara. 
46S'    Law.    Plowden's  Reports. 
466.    Death.    Cellini. 


467,     Eng.  Ch.    Cartwright  and  his  followers  draw  up  the  First    m  570 
and  Second  Admonition  to  Parliament,  denouncing  Anglican    ^ 
ceremonial,  above  all  the  use  of  vestments.     Whitgift  reph'es,  and 
a  long  controversy  b^ns. 

Sanders    attacks    the    English    Reformation    in    his    De    Visibili 
Monarchia. 


70  POLITICS.  [1572 

318.  Prance.  CatheriDe  plots  with  Anjou  to  murder  Coligny,  who  is 
wounded  but  not  killed.  At  this  moment,  Heniy  of  Navarre's  marriage 
with  the  King's  sister  brings  many  Huguenots  unarmed  to  Paris,  and 
the  King  is  persuaded  by  his  mother  and  the  Guises  to  order  a  massacre, 
which  begins  with  the  murder  of  Coligny  on  St  Bartholomew's  Day 
([Aug.  24),  and  is  repeated  in  the  provinces.  The  news  of  the  massacre, 
in  which  many  thousands  lose  their  lives,  is  warmly  welcomed  by  Philip 
and  the  Pope,  who  strikes  a  medal  in  honour  of  the  event.  A  few 
Protestants  find  refuge  at  the  Court  of  Ren^  of  Ferrara,  at  Montargis. 
Henry  of  Navarre  is  spared  on  condition  that' he  Attends  Mass. 

319.  Netherlanda.  The  Dutch  exiles  and  refugees,  knowp  as  'sea 
beggars,'  capture  Brill,  and  hold  it  in  the  name  of  Orange.  Troops  sent 
by  Alva  to  recapture  it  are  repulsed,  and  the  foundations  of  an  inde- 
pendent Netherlands  are  laid.  Holland,  Zealand,  Friesland  and  Utrecht 
acknowledge  William  of  Orange  as  Stadtholder.  The  Flemish  towns, 
however,  in  part  owing  to  the  massacre  of  St  Bartholomew,  return  to 
their  allegiance. 

320.  Poland.  Sigismund,  the  last  of  the  Jagellons,  who  have  reigned 
since  1386,  dies,  and  the  Estates  declare  the  Crown  elective.  An 
Austrian  Archduke  claims  the  throne,  which,  however,  is  secured  for  the 
Duke  of  Anjou  by  the  French  ambassador. 


321.  Scotland.    Elizabeth  sends  aid  to  the  party  of  the  ¥oung   riK^o 
King,  and  captures  Edinburgh,  in  which  Maitlana  and  Kirkaldy,    *- 
who  joined  Alary's  party  after  her  flight,  have  held  out    Maitumd  dies, 
and  Mary's  party  ceases  to  exist 

322.  Irelana.  The  revolt  of  the  Desmonds  and  the  nobles  of  Munater, 
led  by  James  Fitzmaurice,  1569 — 73,  in  part  owing  to  the  threat  of 
Plantations,  is  crushed. 

323.  France.  Peace  is  made  with  the  Huguenots,  partly  owing  to  the 
growth  of  the  party  of  the  Politiques,  led  by  the  Montpensiers.  Pro- 
testant worship  is  permitted  in  four  towns. 

324.  Netherlands.  Haarlem  is  taken,  but  Alkmaar  holds  out,  and 
Alva's  |)etition  for  his  recall  is  granted.  English  aid  is  for  the  first  time 
secretly  sent 

325.  Poland.  Anjou  becomes  King  of  Poland,  promising  not  to  many 
nor  make  war  without  consent  of  Parliament,  and  recognising  the  right 
of  the  nobles  to  resist  him  if  he  breaks  the  pact. 

326.  Turkey.  Cyprus  is  surrendered  by  Venice  to  the  Porte  after  three 
years'  war,  and  a  large  indemnity  is  paid. 


327.     Netherlanda.    Requesens  succeeiis  Alva  and  defeats  and    mc^a 
kills  Louis  of  Nassau  at  Mooker  Heath.     Leyden,  however,  is    ^ 
gallantly  defended,  and  is  relieved  by  cutting  the  dykes  and  flooding 
the  country  (Oct.).     The  Constitution  of  Holland  is  drawn  up,  and 
William  becomes  Commander-in-Chief  and  Dictator. 


1574]  CULTURE.  71 

468.     Scotch  Ch.    Morton  appoints  the  so-called  Tulchan  Bishops,  who 

pass  on  their  fees  to  the  nobles,  perform  no  duties,  and  are  subject  to 

the  General  Assembly. 
460.     GhBrman  Ch.     Weigel,  a  mystical  Saxon  pastor,  is  denounced  as  a 

neretic. 
4^0,     Spanish  Ch:    Luis  de  Leon  is  imprisoned  for  his  views  on  biblical 

criticism. 
^/.     Eng.  Lit.    Parker  founds  the  Society  of  Antiquaries,  for  the 

study  and  preservation  of  manuscripts.     The  Society  is  dissolved  by 

James  I,  but  is  revised  1717. 
4J2,    Fdrtogaese  Lit.     The  Lusiads  of  Camoens,  who  has  resided  in 

the  East  16  years,  describes  the  heroic  age  of  Portuguese  conquest  in  the 

East,  and  becomes  the  national  epic. 
4J3.     Science.    Bombelli  improves  the  notation  of  algebra. 
4J4,     Fhilology.    Stephanus  Thesaurus  Linguae  Graecae. 
^5.     History.     Buchanan's  Detection  relates  the  life  of  Mar}'  Stuart. 
4^6.     Social.    Justices  of  the  Peace  are  empowered  to  assess  for  the 

relief  of  the  poor,  to  house  them,  and  to  appoint  overseers. 
4JJ,     Deaths.    Enox,  Groujon,  Ramus. 


[1573 


4j8,  Eng.  Ch.  In  consequence  of  Cartwright's  attack,  the 
Queen  appoints  Commissioners  to  compel  suspected  clergy  to 
approve  tne  Articles  and  Prayer-book  and  sign  a  recantation. 

47g,  Church  Hist.  Crusius  and  Andreae,  Professors  at  Tubingen,  open 
negotiations  for  union  with  the  Greek  Church,  which  are  terminated  by 
the  condemnation  of  the  Confession  of  Augsburg. 

480.  Italian  Lit.    Tasso's  Aminta  founds  Italian  pastoral  drama. 

481.  Philosophy.    Taurellus  attacks  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle. 

482.  Politics.  The  anonymous  De  Jure  Magistratuum  reveals  the 
more  extreme  ideas  adopted  by  the  Huguenots  in  consequence  of  the 
massacre  of  St  Bartholomew. 

483.  Agiictiltare.  Tusser's  500  points  of  Husbandry  strongly  recom- 
mends the  enclosing  of  land  and  convertible  husbandr}'. 

484.  Death.    KHdpitaL 


48s '  Eng-  Ch.  Cartwright  translates  Travers*  Presbyterian  \\m^ 
Doctrina  Ecclesiae.  ^ 

486,  Oerman  Ch.  The  Elector  of  Saxony  banishes  the  Crypto- 
Calvinists. 

487,  Asiatic  Ch.    Tulsi  Das'  Wanderings  of  Rama. 

488,  Art  The  Gate  of  Honour  at  Cains  College,  Cambridge,  the  first 
completely  classical  design  in  England.  Longleat,  erected  about  the 
same  time,  shows  that  the  '  Elizabethan '  style  of  Penshurst,  Haddon 
and  Knowle  is  yielding  to  Italian  influences. 


72  POLITIC&  [1674 


328.  Poland.  Henry  secredv  leaves  Poland  on  the  death  of  his  brother, 
and  Stephen  Bathory,  of  Iransylvania,  who  has  married  a  Jagellon, 
succeeds.  He  repels  the  attacks  of  Ivan  the  Terrible,  organises  the 
Cossacks,  and,  though  probably  a  Protestant,  allows  a  free  hand  to  the 
Jesuits. 

329.  Turkey.  John  the  Terrible,  prince  of  Moldavia,  attacks  the  Tuib 
and  is  killed.    His  army  is  annihilated  and  the  country  devastated 

330.  Aftica.  The  Portuguese,  under  Paulo  Diaz,  colonise  Angola  and 
found  the  city  of  San  Paulo. 


331.  En^and.    Elizabeth  visits  Leicester  at  Eenilworth.  r^ime 

332.  Prance.  On  the  arrival  of  the  new  King,  the  strife  of  *- 
parties  recommences,  Alen^on,  Cond^  and  Henry  of  Navarre  join  the 
rolitiques,  and  John  Casimir,  brother  of  the  Elector  Palatine,  advances 
with  troops.  The  alliance  is  broken  up  by  promising  further  concessions 
to  the  Hu^enots  and  the  summoning  of  the  States- General,  and  b^ 
giving  the  duchy  of  Anion  to  Alencon. 

333.  Netherlands.    The  states  of  Holland  and  Zealand  are  united,  and 
the  crown  is  offered  to  and  refused  by  Elizabeth. 


334.  England.     Peter  Weutworth  attacks  the  Queen's  inter-    nMa 
ference  with  free  debate,  and  is  committed  to  the  Tower  by  the   ^ 
Commons. 

335.  Prance.  By  the  truce  of  Monsieur  (May),  Huguenot  worship  is 
allowed,  except  m  Paris.  This  leniency  leads  to  tne  formation  of  a 
League  by  Guise,  which  undertakes  to  obey  the  King  if  he  obeys  the 
Estates.  The  States-General,  however,  which  meet  at  Blois  (Dec), 
despite  the  efforts  of  the  Politiques,  Bodin  and  Basmaison,  attack  the 
Huguenots. 

336.  Netherlands.  Requesens  dies,  and  the  unpaid  troops  mutiny 
and  sack  Antwerp  ('  The  Spanish  Fury  *)  and  other  cities.  These  out- 
rages induce  the  provinces  to  unite  in  the  Pacification  of  Ghent  (Nov.), 
by  which  they  recognise  Philip,  but  agree  to  expel  the  troops,  secure 
toleration  and  convene  a  federal  assembly.  The  Archduke  Matthias  is 
invited  to  be  Governor. 

337.  Austria.  The  new  Emperor,  Rudolf  II.,  devotes  himself  chiefly  to 
astrology  and  alchemy,  and  by  his  patronage  of  the  Jesuits  initiates  the 
Catholic  reaction  in  Austria. 

338.  Asia.  The  head  Lama  of  the  chief  monastery  of  Lhassa  is  made 
Grand  Lama  of  Tibet. 


339.     En^and.    Drake  sets  out  in  the  Pelican  to  attack  Spanish    r^^m 
shipping  and  treasure  in  the  Pacific,  and  returns  home  viA  the    *- 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  1580,  being  the  first  commander  to  make  the 
circuit  of  the  world. 


HIT]  GULTURS.  73 

IfiniatnffB  puntiiig  in  England  b^ns  with  Hilliard  and  the  Olivers. 

#ff^  FoUtlca.  Hotman's  Fmnco-GaUia  aigues,  on  historical  grounds, 
m  fcToor  of  the  rights  of  the  people  in  the  election  and  deposition 
«f  Eing&  Tlie  Reveille-Matin  des  Fran^ais,  however,  fiercely  de- 
nonnciiig  the  royal  hoose  and  authorising  r^cide,  is  disowned  by  the 
HninieiiotB. 

0p.    SodaL    Reginald  Soot  explains  the  cultivation  of  hops. 


^.    Xn^  Ch.    Dutch  Anabaptists  are  burned  in  Smithfield.         [1575 
#92.    Bohemian  Ch.    The  Second  Bohemian  Confession,  based   ^ 
oa  the  Augsbaig  and  the  First  Bohemian  Confession,  is  drawn  up  by 
Lnthenuis,  Cahrmists,  Utiaquists,  and  Bohemian  Brethren. 
0^    Bcienee.     An  observatory  is  constructed  for  Tycho  Brahe  by  the 


King  of  Denmark. 
ML    Xoon^ 


^    IBeoiiofnica.     Calvin's  Letter  on    Usury  hastens   the    reaction 

ipinst  mediaeval  economic  conceptions. 
4^,    Sdocatioii.    Leyden  University  is  founded  to  commemorate  the 


0)t.    Fhilolofif.    Lipsius'  edition  of  Tacitus. 
^    Deaths.    Bullinger,  Parker. 


^.   Sng.  Ch.    Elizabeth  orders  the  suppression  of  the  Prophe-    ncyA 
niags.  or  meetings  of  cleigy  and  laity  for  theological  discussion,    ^ 
kfiQi  aboat  1571.     Archbishop  Grindal,  however,  who  favours  them  as 
A  tnining'gronnd  for  preachers,  refuses. 

m-  Oennaa  Ch.  'Hie  Tori^u  Book,  a  Confession  of  12  Articles,  is 
dnvn  ap  by  Andreae,  Chemmti  and  other  Lutherans,  and  is  submitted 
t^  all  Lutheran  princes  for  revision. 

jOD.    If  Han  Ch.    Archbishop  Borromeo  combats  the  plague  in  Milan. 

57/.    Xn^  Ut.    Gascoyne's  oteel  Glass,  a  social  satire. 

522.   Oennan  Ut.    Frischlin's  Rebecca,  based  on  the  classical  comedy. 

502.  Folitics.  La  Bo^tie's  Contre-Un,  written  about  1548,  from  the 
jttt^KHot  of  extreme  individualism. 

5^    ■dneation.    Duke  Julius  of  Brunswick  founds  Helmstadt  Uni- 


ii>f.    Qeogra|>hy.    Frobisher's  first  voyage,  the  earliest  enloration  of 

tk  Xofth-West,  sights  part  of  Labrador  and  Frobisher's  Strait. 
M    Dettlhs.    Cardan,  Titian. 


«>««.  Ch.    Grindal  reproves  the  Queen  for  her  overbearing   m  5^ 
iitgffcrence  in  Cliurch  matters,  and  is  suspended.     The  Prophe-    ^ 


suporeased  by  the  Bishop,  though  most  of  them  believe  in 
thrir  utility.  Despite  his  suspension,  the  Archbishop  is  allowed  to 
^mane  h»  visitation  and  to  consecrate  Bishops. 


74  .poLiTica  [1877 

340.  France.  The  Huguenots  take  up  arms ;  but  the  war  is  (j^uickly 
ended  by  the  treaty  of  Bergerac,  whicn  cedes  a  town  in  each  district, 
nine  strongholds,  and  seats  in  certain  provincial  Parliaments.  Worship 
is  allowed  to  continue  where  held  at  the  time  of  the  treaty.  France 
enjoys  comparative  peace  for  seven  years. 

341.  Netherlands.  The  new  Viceroy,  Don  John,  finds  himself  com- 
pelled to  grant  the  Perpetual  Edict,  and  to  confirm  the  Pacification 
of  Ghent  and  promise  the  removal  of  the  troops,  with  which  he  hopes  to 
invade  England.  William  suspects  Don  John's  good  &ith,  and  refuses 
to  recognise  the  Edict. 

342.  Austria.  The  Hungarian  Serbs  receive  districts  irom  the  Emperor 
as  military  colonists.  In  1606  they  are  definitely  merged  in  the 
Austrian  dominions. 

343.  AMca.  The  first  English  Ambassador  is  sent  to  Morocco,  with 
which  the  Barbary  Merchants,  incorporated  1585,  trade. 


344.  England.    Elizabeth  abrogates  the  special  privileges  of  the    r-iMg 
Hansards  in   retaliation  for  their  expulsion  ot  the   Merchant    ^ 
Adventurers  from  Hamburg. 

345.  Netherlands.  Don  John  defeats  Matthias  at  Gemblours  (Jan.), 
but  is  not  supported  by  Philip,  who  disapproves  his  scheme  of  invading 
England  and  marrying  Mary  Stuart,  and  orders  Antonio  Perez  to  murder 
Escovedo,  his  agent  in  Madrid.  Don  John  dies  broken-hearted,  and  is 
succeeded  by  Alexander  Famese  of  Parma. 

Holland  adopts  the  Excise. 

346.  Sweden.  John  III.,  son  of  Gustavus,  secretly  becomes  a  Catholic, 
owing  to  his  Catholic  wife,  and  to  the  Jesuit,  Possevino,  and  perhaps  to 
the  prospect  of  the  Polish  throne. 

347.  Afnca.  A  defeated  usurper  of  Morocco  appeals  to  Sebastian, 
King  of  Portugal,  who  invades  Morocco  and  is  slain  at  Alkazar,  his 
army  being  annihilated. 

About  the  same  time  Portuguese  and  Christian  influence  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Congo  come  to  an  end. 

348.  Portugal.    Cardinal  Henry,  aged  67,  becomes  King. 

349.  America.    Gilbert's  attempt  to  settle  in  North  America  fiuls. 


350.  England.  The  Duke  of  Anjou  visits  Elizabeth,  and  a  r,g«g 
treaty  of  marriage  is  signed.     The  project  is  strongly  attacked    ^ 

by  Sir  Philin  Sidney,  who  has  to  retire  from  Court,  and  by  Stubbe,  who 
loses  his  right  hand. 

The  Eastland  Company  is  chartered  to  trade  with  the  Baltic  states. 

351.  Scotland.  Esm^  Stuart,  a  Catholic  cousin  of  the  King,  arrives  in 
Scotland,  and  wins  his  favour. 

352.  Ireland.  The  Desmond  revolt  breaks  out  again.  Sir  James  Fiti* 
maurice  being  joined  by  mercenaries,  sent  by  the  Pope  under  Stakely 
and  Saunders,  at  Smerwick,  which  is  stormed  by  Lord  Grey,  the  Deputy, 
who  massacres  the  prisoners.  In  consequence,  the  Earl  of  Desmond 
himself  takes  the  lead,  the  rebellion  continuing  till  his  death,  1583, 


1679]  CULTURE.  75 


Cuthbert  Mayne  suffers,  under  the  Act  of  1571,  for  maintaining 
that  Catholics  should  assist  a  foreign  force  to  reduce  England  to  the 
obedience  of  the  Pope. 

So8.  German  Ch.  Andreae,  Chemnitz,  Chytraeus  and  others  compose 
the  Formula  of  Concord,  on  the  basis  of  the  Torgau  Book,  approving 
a  modified  form  of  Brenz'  theory  of  ubiquity,  and  entirely  rejecting 
synergism. 

jop.  Church  EUst.  Medina,  a  Dominican,  founds  Probabilism,  author- 
ising conduct  allowed  by  a  single  doctor,  which,  though  attacked  by 
Bellarmine,  is  elaborated  by  Toletus,  Suarez,  and  many  others. 

Sio.  Scotch  Ut.  'The  Admirable'  Crichton  leaves  Scotland  for 
France  and  Italy,  where  he  distinguishes  himself  in  a  series  of  scholastic 
discussions. 

577.  French  Lit.  D'Aubign^  begins  his  Tragiques,  an  invective 
against  Catholics. 

S12.  Politics.  Bo<lin's  La  R^publique,  the  first  modem  discussion  of 
the  principles  and  forms  of  Government. 

57J.     Law.    Cujas'  Commentaries  on  Roman  Law  are  collected. 


S14.  £k^otch  Ch.  The  Second  Book  of  Discipline,  embodying  M570 
the  ideas  of  Melville,  and  adopted  by  the  General  Assembly,  '■ 
transfers  authority  and  discipline  to  the  Kirk  Session,  the  Presbytery, 
the  Provincial  Synod,  and  the  General  Assembly.  The  Presb3rtery, 
consisting  of  the  ministers  of  the  district  and  an  elder  firom  each  con- 
gregation, controls  the  Kirk  Session,  examines  candidates,  ordains  and 
deposes  ministers,  and  becomes  the  mainspring  of  the  system. 

575.  Church  EUst.  The  English  college  is  moved  from  Douai  to 
Rheims,  owing  to  the  hostilitv  of  the  Calvinists  of  the  Low  Countries  to 
partisans  of  Spain.    (The  college  is  restored  to  Douai,  1593.) 

570.  French  Lit.  Du  Bartas'  La  Semaine,  a  didactic  poem  on  the 
Creation,  the  first  French  Christian  epic.  In  its  translation  by 
Sylvester,  it  becomes  very  popular  in  England. 

577.  Polish  Lit.  Kochanowski  writes  the  Despatch  of  the  Greek 
Ambassadors,  the  first  regular  Polish  drama,  and  his  Lamentations,  the 
first  Polish  lyrical  poetry. 

S18.    Death.    Sachs. 


57p.     Polish  Oh.    Faustus  Socinus  settles  in  Poland,  where  he    M579 
attempts  to  unite  the  Anti-Trinitarians.  '- 

S20.     SwisB  Oh.    Carlo  Borromeo  founds  the  Collegium  Helveticum  at 
Milan  for  missionaries  to  Switzerland. 

§21,     Kng.  Ut.    Spenser's  Shepherd's  Calendar. 

Lyly's  Euphues,  a  fantasy  dealing  with  education,  written  in  a  style 
modelled  on  Guevara's  Mirror  for  Princes,  influences  English  literature 
for  haJf  a  century.  With  Green  and  Lodge,  Lyly  founds  the  novel 
of  manners. 

North's  translation  of  Plutarch's  Lives. 


76  POLITICS.  [1879 

leaving  Munster  a  desert.    The  confiscations  are  granted  to  '  Unda- 
takers/  such  as  Raleigh  and  Hatton. 

353.  Germany.  Albert  of  Bavaria  is  succeeded  by  Williani,  a  devoted 
adherent  of  the  Jesuits,  who  makes  the  country  the  head-quarters  of  die 
Catholic  reaction. 

354.  Netherlands.  Owing  to  the  religious  differences  between  the 
northern  and  southern  provinces,  which  rarma  fosters,  William  fimds  it 
impossible  to  maintain  the  Pacification  of  Ghent,  and  founds  the  Dutch 
Republic  by  the  Union  of  Utrecht  (Holland,  Zealand,  Utrecht,  Gelder- 
land,  Friesland,  Groningen,  Overyssel),  Philip's  authority  being  nomi- 
nally  retained. 


[1580 


355.  England.  Campion  and  Parsons  lead  a  Jesuit  mission  to 
the  conversion  of  England,  and  explain  that  nobody  need  act  on 
the  Bull  of  Disposition  till  o|)portunity  arises. 

The  first  royal  Proclamation  is  issued  against  the  growth  of  London. 

356.  Scotland.  Mary  Stuart  informs  Philip  that  she  places  herself  in 
his  hands. 

357.  France.  An  insult  to  the  wife  of  Henry  of  Navarre  leads  to 
a  short  war.  The  Huguenots  are  worsted ;  and  the  Peace  of  Fleix 
renews  the  terms  of  Bergerac.     Guise  now  allies  with  Spain. 

358.  Netherlands.  Philip  issues  a  Ban  against  William,  who  replies 
in  an  Apology,  defending  his  past  conduct  and  present  attitude. 

359.  Portaged.  On  the  death  of  King  Henry,  rhilip,  as  grandson  of 
Emmanuel  the  Fortunate,  enters  Portugal  and  quickly  defeats  by  land 
and  sea  the  rival  candidate,  Antonio,  an  illegitimate.  Though  pro- 
mising to  respect  all  privileges,  he  excludes  Dutch  vessels  from  Lisbon, 
increases  the  royal  domains,  and  depresses  the  nobility.  By  the  con- 
quest of  Portugal,  Spain  thus  doubles  her  colonial  empire. 

360.  Asia.  Yermak,  a  Cossack  in  the  service  of  the  otroganofif  &mily, 
enters  Siberia ;  hunters  and  traders  follow,  and  garrisons  are  esta- 
blished.    Within  80  years,  Russia  reaches  the  Pacific. 


361.  England.    Reganling  the  Jesuits  and  the  seminary  priests    ncoi 
as  conspirators  against  the  Crown,  Parliament  enacts  the  Kecu-    ^ 
sancy  Laws,  imposing  fines  and  imprisonment  for  hearing  mass  and  for 
absence  from  Church.    Campion  is  arrested  and  executed ;  other  priests 
are  tortured,  and  Parsons  escaj>es  abroad. 

Elizabeth  pushes  on  negociations  for  the  Anjoii  marriage,  and  Anjou 
arrives  at  Court  for  a  visit  of  three  months. 

The  Turkey  or  Levant  Company  receives  a  Charter,  Aleppo  being 
chosen  as  its  chief  mart. 

362.  Netherlands.    After  urgent  pressure  from  William,  the  Northern 
Provinces  formally  renounce  their  allegiance  to  Philip,  and  are  per- 


1081]  CULTURE.  77 

S22,    Frenoh  Lit.    Larivey's  works,  based  on  Plautns  and  Terence  and 
the  Italian  comedy. 

Henr]^  Stephanus  protests  against  the  predominance   of   Italian 
fieishions  in  his  Pr^llence  de  la  Langue  Franfaise. 
^23,     Politics.     The  Vindiciae  Gailicae,  by  Languet  and  Duplessis- 
Moma^,  a  philosophical  defence  of  the  right  of  the  people  to  maintain 
their  hberties  udd  religion  against  a  ruler. 

Buchanan,  tutor  to  James  VI.,  in  his  De  Jure  Regni,  inculcates 
obedience  to  a  good  ruler,  even  if  an  usurper,  and  resistance  to  a  bad 
ruler.  The  work  is  burned,  1584,  and  attacked  by  Blackwood  and 
Barclay. 

Paruta's  Perfezione  Politica  eulogises  the  Venetian  constitution  as 
combining  monarchy,  aristocracy  and  democracy. 
^24.    De^aw.    Hosius. 


S2S'  Scotoh  CIl  The  Second  Book  of  Discipline  is  presented  neon 
to  Parliament ;  but  episcopacy  is  maintained.  ^ 

526.  German  Ch.  Andreae  adds  a  conciliatory  Praefatio  to  the 
Formula  Concordiae,  which  is  now  published,  and  is  adopted  by  most 
Lutheran  churches,  with  the  Liber  Concordiae,  containing  the  Augsburg 
Confession  and  Apology,  Luther's  Catechism,  and  the  Schmalkald  Articles 
of  1537.  Many  Melanchthonians,  on  the  other  hand,  join  the  Cal- 
vinists,  who  increase  largely  in  the  Palatinate,  Nassau,  Anhalt,  Bremen, 
Hesse  and  Brandenburg. 

527.  Xng.  Ut.  Gabriel  Harvey  attempts  to  naturalise  classical  metres, 
especiaDy  hexameters,  and  infects  Spenser  and  his  circle. 

Sidney *s  Arcadia,  a  romance  suggested  by  Euphues. 

^28.    French  Ut.    Montaigne's  Essais,  LivTes  1,  2. 
Gamier's  Les  Juives. 

j^p.  Netherlands  Lit.  The  Elzevirs  establish  their  press  at  Am- 
sterdam. 

Sjo.     Spanish  Lit.    Herrera's  Annotations  on  Garcilaso  de  la  Veea. 

JJ7.  Science.  Palissy  asserts  that  fossil-shells  were  real  sea-shells  left 
by  the  ocean,  and  belonged  to  marine  animals  that  had  lived  where  they 
were  found. 

S32.     History.    Zurita  completes  his  Annals  of  Aragon. 

5JJ.    Death.    Camoens. 


334.     Scotch  Oh.    The  Second  Scotch  Confession,  fiercely  anti-    nggj 

papal,  is  drawn  up  by  Craig,  subscribed  by  the  King  and  the    ^ 

Asfiemblv,  and  fineouently  confirmed. 
5j^.     Italian  Oh.    Bellarmine's  De  Controversiis  Christianae  Fidei. 
5jd.    Kng.  Ut.    Sidney's  Defence  of  Poesy,  in  answer  to  Gosson's  School 

of  Abuse. 
33J.    Italian  Ut.    Tasso's  Gerusalemme  Liberata. 
338.     Spanish  Ut.    Cervantes'  first  work,  Galatea,  a  pastoral  novel. 
33^,    Philosophy-    Sanchez,  a  Portuguese,  living  at  Toulouse,  declares 

certainty  impossible  in  his  Quod  nihil  scitur. 


78  POLITICS.  [1581 

■ 

suaded  by  William  to  offer  the  sovereignty  to  Anjou,  who  accepts  it, 
and  attacks  Parma. 
363.     Portugal.     Antonio  of  Portugal  obtains  the  promise  of  aid  from 
Catherine  de  Medici. 


364.  England.  Anjou  leaves  England,  the  matrimonial  negotia-  r^egA 
tions  never  being  resumed.  ^ 

365.  Scotland.  In  the  Raid  of  Ruthven,  the  King  is  snatched  by  the 
Protestant  and  English  party  from  Esm^  Stuart,  whose  plans  for  the 
association  of  Mary  with  her  son  and  the  restoration  of  Catholicism  are 
upset. 

366.  Netherlands.  The  Prince  of  Orange  narrowly  escapes  assassina- 
tion. 

367.  Germany.  The  Catholic  princes  refuse  to  admit  to  their  College 
the  deputy  of  the  Bishopric  of  Magdeburg,  held  by  the  Protestant 
Joachim  Frederick  of  Brandenburg,  on  the  ground  that  he  is  not  lawful 
Bishop.  The  Catholics  in  the  Couege  of  Cities  at  the  same  time  unsnc- 
cessfully  attempt  to  exclude  the  deputies  of  the  city  of  Aachen,  whidi 
has  recently  become  Protestant. 

368.  Portugal.  A  French  fleet  of  60  ships  is  defeated  at  Terceira,  in 
the  Azores,  and  Antonio  escapes  to  England. 

369.  Asia.  Nobunaga  dies,  and  his  general  Hideyoshi  becomes  supreme 
in  Japan. 

370.  Africa.  A  number  of  Rouen  merchants,  expelled  from  Guinea  by 
the  Portuguese,  form  a  Company  and  fortify  the  island  of  St  Louis, 
Senegal. 


371.  England.  Thro^orton  is  arrested  and  reveals  under  mcoq 
torture  the  intended  invasion  of  England  by  Guise's  army.  •■ 

372.  Scotland.  The  King  escapes  nrom  Gowrie's  hands,  the  Raid  of 
Ruthven  is  declared  treason,  the  chief  Protestant  lords  are  banished, 
and  Esm6  Stuart  is  recalled. 

373.  Germany.  The  Archbishop  of  Colopie,  Gebhard  Truchsess, 
marries,  announces  his  conversion  to  Calvinism  and  resolves  to  retain 
his  see,  contrary  to  the  IVeaty  of  Augsburg  and  to  the  precedent  set  by 
his  predecessor,  Hermann  von  Wied.  He  is  excommunicated  and 
driven  from  his  see,  the  Lutherans  refusing  to  aid  a  Calvinist,  the 
Catholics  thus  saving  their  majority  in  the  Electoral  College. 

374.  Netherlands.  Anjou  determines  to  carve  out  a  principality  for 
himself  in  the  Southern  provinces,  and  seizes  a  number  of  towns,  the 
resistance  in  Antwerp  giving  rise  to  the  so-called  French  Fury.  On 
the  faihire  of  his  plot  he  retires  to  France.  Parma  takes  advantage  of 
the  quarrels  of  his  enemies,  and  conquers  several  towns. 

375.  America.  Gilbert  lands  in  Newfoundland,  and  takes  possession  in 
the  Queen's  name,  but  is  drowned  on  his  way  home. 


1883]  CULTI.TRE.  79 

J40,  Education.  Mulcaster's  Positions  urge  exercise,  adaptation  to  the 
learner,  postponement  of  foreign  languages,  the  education  of  girls,  and 
the  training  of  teachers. 

S4i^    Death.    Languet. 


^42.     Eng.  Ch.    Browne,  a  pupil  of  Cartwright,  is  expelled  from    ngoo 
the  ministry  and  crosses  to  Holland,  where  he  pleads  for  the    ^ 
separation  of  Church  and  State,  and  liberty  for  individuals,  however 
few.  to  form  an  independent  congregation.     His  follower,  Barrow,  how- 
ever, recommends  friendly  intercourse  between  congregations. 

Beza  presents  the  Codex  Bezae  to  Cambridge  University. 

Gregory  Martin  translates  the  Bible  (the  Douai  Version). 

543,  R1I88UU1  Ch.  The  Metropolitan  of  Moscow  is  made  a  Patriarch, 
and  the  Russian  Church  becomes  autocephalous. 

544,  Church  Hist.    Gregory  XHI.  revises  the  Corpus  Juris  Canonici. 
Beza's  first  edition  of  the  N.T.,  based  on  Stephanus. 

S4S-  Asiatic  Ch.  Ricci,  a  Jesuit,  settles  in  China,  maintains  that  Con- 
fucianism is  related  to  Christianity,  permits  ancestor-worship,  and  wins 
many  converts. 

^46.     Sng.  Lit.    Watson's  Century  of  Love,  a  collection  of  Sonnets. 

^4j,  Italian  Lit.  The  Accademia  della  Crusca  is  founded  at  Florence 
to  reform  the  language. 

S48.  Science.  The  Julian  Calendar  is  reformed  by  Clavius,  Lilio 
and  Ciacconius,  and  promulgated  by  the  Pope,  but  is  not  adopted 
in  Protestant  countries. 

^4g.     History.    Buchanan's  Histor>'  of  Scotland. 

S50.     Geography.    Hakluyt's  Collection  of  Voyages. 

557.     Education.    Edinburgh  University. 

jj^.     Deaths.    Alva,  Buchanan,  St  Theresa. 

j'jj.     Xng.  Ch.    On  the  death  of  Archbishop  Grindal,  the  Queen   mkqq 
appoints  Whitgiffc,  who  orders  the  clerg>'  to  subscribe  a  recogni-    ^ 
tion  of  the  Queen's  ecclesiastical  supremacy,  and  the  Prayer-book  and 
Articles.     To  crush  opposition,  Elizabeth  creates  the  Court  of  High 
Commission,  consisting  of  Bishops  and  Privy  Councillors. 

55^  Spanish  Lit.  Luis  de  Leon's  Los  N  ombres  de  Cristo,  mystical 
prose  dialogues. 

555-     Science.    Galileo  discovers  the  principle  of  the  pendulum  from 
observation  of  a  lamp  hanging  in  the  Cathedral  at  Pisa. 
Gaesalpinus  classines  plants  by  their  flowers  and  seeds. 

^56,  Philosophy.  Bruno  visits  England,  and  explains  his  physical 
views  in  the  Cena  delle  Ceneri,  and  his  metaphysical  in  Della  Causa, 
Prindpio  ed  Uno. 

557.  History.  Scaliger's  De  Emendatione  Temponim  first  compares 
and  criticises  the  sources  of  ancient  histor>\ 

55<f.  Pdlitics.  Sir  Thomas  Smith's  Commonwealth  of  England  first 
describes  the  machinery  of  English  government,  and  discusses  sovereignty 
in  the  spirit  of  Bodin. 

55p.    Death.    Maldonatus. 


80  POLITICS.  [UM 


376.  England.    Mendoza,  the  Spanish  Ambassador,  is  expelled,   r^^ 
on  the  instigation  of  Leicester,  and  an  Association  is  formed  to   *- 
defend  the  Queen,  and,  in  the  event  of  her  murder,  to  execute  the 
person  for  whose  sake  the  crime  is  committed. 

Leicester's  Commonwealth,  an  anonymous  lampoon,  fiercely  attach 
the  Earl. 

377.  France.  Anjou,  the  only  remaining  brother  of  the  childless  King, 
dies,  and  Henry  of  Navarre  becomes  heir  to  the  throne.  In  conse- 
quence, the  Guises  form  a  league  to  exclude  Protestants  from  tke 
succession,  with  the  aid  of  Spain. 

378.  Spain.  Philip  imprisons  Perez  for  the  murder  of  Escovedo,  for 
misrepresenting  Don  John,  and  for  tampering  with  State  Papers. 

379.  ifetherlanda.  William  is  murdered  in  the  seventh  attempt  made 
on  his  life  and  encouraged  by  Philip,  and  is  succeeded  by  his  son 
Maurice,  with  Bameveldt  as  chief  counsellor. 

380.  Russia.  Ivan  the  Terrible  is  succeeded  by  his  son  Feodor,  who  is 
entirely  subject  to  the  influence  of  liis  brother-in-law,  Boris  Godounoff. 

381.  America.  Raleigh,  to  whom  the  patent  of  his  half-brother,  Gilboi, 
is  transferred,  sends  an  expedition  to  ascertain  whether  North  America 
is  suitable  for  colonisation.     A  favourable  report  is  brought  back 

382.  AMca.  A  Turkish  fleet  unsuccessfully  attempts  to  wrest  tbe 
Zanzibar  coast  from  Portugal,  but  is  routed. 


383.  En^and.  The  Association  is  confirmed  by  Parliament,  Qcgc 
which  banishes  Jesuits  and  seminary  priests.  ^ 

384.  Scotland.  James  makes  a  league  with  England,  and  disowns  bis 
mother  s  cause.     Arran  falls,  and  the  banished  lords  return. 

385.  France.  In  the  Treaty  of  Joinville  (Jan.),  Spain  and  the  Guises 
agree  to  support  the  candidature  of  Cardinal  Bourbon,  the  uncle  of 
Henry,  Philip  to  receive  Navarre  and  B^am.  Paris  is  divided  into 
districts,  the  representatives  of  which  form  '  Les  Seize.*  The  Kinff  is 
forced  to  sign  the  Treaty  of  Nemours,  recalling  all  edicts  of  tolentum. 
The  Pope  excommunicates  Henry  of  Navarre,  and  a  desultory  war 
breaks  out. 

386.  Italy.  Sixtus  V.  becomes  Pope,  and  divides  the  government 
among  15  congregations  of  Cardinals,  whom  he  limits  to  70,  suppresses 
brigandage,  fosters  agriculture  and  industries,  and  builds  a  new  aqueduct 
ana  churches. 

387.  Netherlands.  Parma  captures  Brussels  and  Antwerp,  and  EIi»- 
beth,  though  declining  the  sovereignty  of  the  Netherlands,  sends  troops 
under  Leicester. 

388.  America.    Drake  plunders  Vigo  and  attacks  St  Domingo. 
Ualeigh  sends  colonists  to  Roanoke  Island,  who    are,  however, 

brought  home  by  Drake,  1586.     A  second  expedition  in  1587  fiues 
no  better. 


]  CULTURE  81 

560.    Xng.  Ch.    Whitgift  is  forced  by  Leicester,  Burleigh  and   1-1504 

Walstn^iam  to  hold  a  conference  at  Lambeth  with  Puritan   *- 

dirines,  which  effects  nothing.  Burleigh  proposes  his  chaplain  Travers, 
Cartwn^ht's  diief  follower,  for  the  masterehip  of  the  Temple,  but  with- 
draws him,  on  the  opposition  of  Whitgift,  in  £&your  of  Hooker.  The 
Puitans  offer  petitions  to  the  Commons,  some  of  which  are  adopted, 
but  are  rejected  by  the  Lords. 

5SI,  Art.  Lodovico  Gaiacci,  with  two  cousins,  b^ns  to  fresco  at 
Boloaia,  aikl  founds  the  Eclectic  sdiool,  among  their  pupils  being 
Gtti&Reni  and  Bomenichino.  The  school  is  attacked  by  the  realist 
CariTimo,  whose  work  is  continued  by  Ribera. 

i62.  fl^Mopihy.  Sir  William  Temple  introduces  the  logic  of  Ramus 
into  England. 

SSS,  Xdnoalioii.  Emmanuel  Coll^i^  Cambridge,  is  founded  by  Sir 
Walter  Mikbnay,  and  becomes,  under  its  first  master,  Chaderton,  a 
<troiighold  of  Puritanism.  Hooker,  Cotton,  Harvard  and  others  who 
ifterwaids  emigrate  to  New  England  are  among  the  iearly  members  of 
the  college. 

>!#.    ffis&iy.    Knox's  History  of  the  Reformation  in  Scotland. 

>$5.    SodaL    A  public  bank  is  instituted  at  Venice. 

Scott's  Discovery  of  Witchcraft  vigorously  attacks  the  superstition. 

of».    Death.    Borromeo. 


^.    Xn^  Ch.    To  stren^en  the  position  of  the  Bishops  and    m  505 
to  stem  the  growth  of  Puntanism,  Whitgift  composes  disciplinaiy    ■- 
CtDons,  supplementing  those  of  1576  and  1583,  but  relaxes  subscription 

^  far  all  bat  tnoee  entering  the  ministry. 

^.  Scotch  Ch.  The  King's  supremacy  in  matters  eccl^iastical  is 
ifirmed,  bishops  are  allowed  to  hold  synods,  and  presbjrteries  are 
deprived  of  jurisdiction.    This  attack  on  Presbyterianism  is  vehemently 

^  denounced  by  MelviUe  and  the  exiled  ministers. 

5&.  Italian  Ut.  Guarini's  Pastor  Fido,  modelled  on  Tasso's  Aminta, 
iiacted. 

^A  Science.  Stevinus  of  Bruges,  the  founder  of  Statics,  discovers  the 
kw  of  equilibrium  on  the  inclined  plane,  and  measures  the  pressure  of 
hids. 

^1.  Oeography.  John  Davis  visits  West  Greenland,  discovers  Davis 
Sdait,  and  penetrates  ftirther  west  than  any  of  his  predecessors. 

ST2.  Xdnciilaon.  On  the  report  of  a  commission  appointed  by 
Aquaviva,  the  Batio  Studiorum  of  the  Jesuits  is  published.  Revised 
in  1599,  it  remains  in  use  in  Jesuit  schools  till  1832.  The  method 
iadndes  training  colleges  for  teachers,  constant  inspection  of  schools, 
the  use  of  Latin,  short  hours,  repetition  of  lessons,  mutual  criticism 
lad  emulation  among  the  pupils,  and  physical  exercise. 

^S,    Deaths.    Muietus,  Sonsard,  Sigonius. 


82  POLITICS  **  [1686 


389.  England.    Babington,  Ballard  and  other  Catholics,  plot  to   mi^ 
murder  the  Queen,  but  are  detected  and  executed  by  Walsing-   *- 
ham,  who  maintains  Mary's  complicity.     She  is  condemned  to  deadi, 
and  Parliament  ur^es  the  Queen  to  execute  the  sentence. 

390.  Holland.  Leicester  is  offered  and  accepts  the  ffovemment,  is 
censured  by  the  Queen  and  returns  to  Endand.  Many,  however, 
remain,  ana  in  the  battle  of  Zutphen  Sir  Philip  Sidney  is  slain. 

391.  Switzerland.  Pfyffer  forms  the  Golden  or  Borromean  Leagne 
between  the  seven  Catholic  Cantons.    The  Jesuits  enter  the  countiy. 

392.  Poland.  The  Ultramontane,  Sigismund  III.,  son  of  the  King  of 
Sweden  and  a  Jagellon  Princess,  succeeds  Stephen  Bathoiy. 

393.  A»La.  Abbi^  the  Great,  of  Persia,  begins  his  reign  of  42  yetrs, 
during  which  he  developes  the  material  resources  of  the  countiy, 
extends  his  rule  alon^  the  Persian  Gulf  and  Afghan  frontier,  recoYen 
territory  from  the  Turks,  and  maintains  religious  toleration. 


394.  England.    Elizabeth  signs  Mary's  death  warrant,  which  is   r^m 
carried  out  (Feb.),  but  fines  and  disgraces  Secretary  Davison.   ^ 
The  Pope  proclaims  a  crusade  against  England,  and  Mary's  death 
precipitates  the  Spanish  invasion  ;  but  the  fleet,  when  about  to  start,  is 
attacked  by  Drake  in  Cadiz  harbour,  and  crippled. 

395.  France.    Henry  of  Navarre  defeats  the  King's  forces  at  Coutras ; 
but  Guise  defeats  and  expels  his  German  allies. 

396.  Holland.    Leicester  returns  and  attempts  to  raise  the  dege  of 
Sluys,  but  quarrels  with  the  Dutch  and  is  recalled. 


397.  England.  Peter  Wentworth  is  committed  to  the  Tower  for  ncga 
questions  to  the  Speaker  touching  the  liberties  of  the  House.  ■- 

The  Armada,  under  Medina  Sidonia,  enters  the  Channel,  where  it  is 
harassed  by  the  English  (whose  ships,  though  smaller,  are  more 
numerous  and  possess  better  artillery),  under  Howard  of  "Rffingha^m^ 
Frobisher  and  Drake,  and  is  defeated  off  Gravelines  (Aug.).  A  storm 
rises  during  the  battle  and  sweeps  the  remnants  of  the  fleet  past  Uie 
coast  of  Flanders,  where  Parma  s  army  is  waiting  to  be  convoyed  to 
England,  and  round  the  north  of  Scotland,  only  54  out  of  120  ships 
returning  to  Spain. 

398.  France.  Guise  enters  Paris,  and  barricades  are  erected  round  the 
Louvre.  The  King  flies  to  Blois,  where  he  is  forced  to  concede  Guise's 
demands  and  to  assemble  the  States-General  (Oct.),  which  insists  on  the 
removal  of  the  King's  favourites,  and  suggests  the  surrender  of  the 
crown  to  Guise.  Henry  assassinates  Guise  (Dec.),  and  imprisons  the 
Cardinal  of  Bourbon. 

399.  Spain.  Perez  escapes  to  Aragon,  but  the  Inquisition,  hearing  of 
his  attacks  on  Philip  s  religion,  removes  him,  and  Aragon  rises  in  revolt 


1588]  /  CULTURE  83 

* 

.)r^    Xng.  Oh.    Whi^rift  is  admitted  to  the  Council.  ri586 

o75.    French  Oh.    T^e  Feuillauts,  a  reformed  branch  of  the   ^ 

Cistercians,  with  exceedingly  severe  rules,  are  founded. 
o7€.    Oennan  Ch.     Grell  becomes  Chancellor  of  the  new  Elector  of 
Saxony,  and  the  second  period  of  crypto-Calvinism  begins,  extending 
till  the  death  of  the  Elector  and  the  strictly  Lutheran  Articles  of  Visita- 
tion of  1592. 
ST7,    Xn^  Ut.    Shakespere  leaves  Stratford  for  London,  and  becomes 
tn  actor  in  the  Lord  Chamberlain's  Company. 
Camden's  Britannia. 
S78.   Italian  Ut.    Ghiabrera's  Lyrics. 
o79.    SodaL    Drake  brings  tobacco  and  potatoes  to    England  from 

\iiginia. 
SSO,   Bconomics.    The  Pope  forbids  Usury  in  the  bull  Detestabilis.    It 

is  defended,  however,  by  the  Canonists  Navarrus  and  Scaccia. 
^L   Fdlitics.    Dorleans  and  other  French  preachers  defend  the  League 
m  their  sermons,  and  warn  the  King  that  orthodoxy  is  a  higher  duty 
thin  loyalty. 


^2.    Sng.  Ch.    On  the  failure  of  an  attempt  to  legalise  the   ricoy 
Book  of  Discipline,  several  hundred  clergy  subscribe  it  as  binding   ^ 
mi  tbem,  and  the  more  extreme  commence  a  violent  pamphlet  war. 

iS-i.  Sng.  Ut.  Marlowe's  Faust,  and  Tamburlaine,  closely  followed  by 
the  Jew  of  Malta  and  Edward  IL,  found  English  drama,  aided  by  the 
works  of  the  *  University  Wits,*  Lyly,  Peele,  Greene,  Kyd,  Lodge,  Nash. 

^"^i  Oennan  Ut.  English  actors  perform  English  plays  at  the  Courts 
<jf  Hesse  and  Brunswick,  and  influence  the  works  of  Duke  Julius  and 

^  Jacob  Ayrer. 

^^;.  Nnmiamatics.  Agustino's  Dialogo  de  Medallas  y  Inscricioues 
foanils  numismatics. 

^.    Death.    Foxe. 


S87.  Xn^  Ch.  The  Martin  Marprelate  pamphlets  appear,  chiefly  ti^qq 
composed  by  Penry,  Udal,  Thro^orton  and  Fenner,  and  printed  '- 
from  a  movable  press,  which  is  at  length  captured  at  Manchester. 
Udal  is  condemnea  under  the  libel  law  of  1581,  and  thrown  into  prison, 
vhere  he  dies,  1593.  At  Whitgift's  suggestion,  Cooper,  Bishop  of 
TinchMter,  replies  to  the  attacks  on  the  Uiurch  and  clerf^y. 

Penryattadcs  the  Welsh  clergy,  and  commences  a  Puritan  move- 
mteat  in  W  ales. 

Gerard  arrives  in  England  and  works  under  Garnet,  till  he  is 
captured,  1594. 
^.    Italian    Ch.     The  first  volume  appears  of  Baronius'  Aunales 
Ecclenastici,  which,  despite  its  author's  ignorance  of  Greek,  becomes 
the  official  ultramontane  text-book  of  Church  Histor>'. 

6—2 


84  POLITICS  [1S88 


400.  Denmark.    Christian   IV.  becomes  King,  and   encounges  the 
industry  and  commerce  of  Norway. 

401.  Afnca.    The  first  English  Guinea  Company  is  chartered  to  trade 
with  West  Africa,  but  no  settlement  is  formed. 


402.  England.  An  expedition  sails  under  Drake  to  assist  c^mq 
Antonio  of  Portugal,  and  seizes  much  booty.  ^ 

403.  France.  Camerine  dies  (Jan.).  Mayenne  declares  war  on  the 
King,  who  is  thus  thrown  into  the  arms  of  the  Huguenots.  Hemy  of 
Navarre  professes  his  loyalty  to  the  crown,  and  extorts  toleration. 
Many  moderate  Catholics  rall^  round  the  throne,  (he  Swiss  and  Gtermanft 
cross  the  borders,  and  the  King  marches  on  Paris,  but  is  mordered  by 
Jacques  Clement  at  St  Cloud.  Henry  of  Navarre  at  once  assumes  the 
royal  title,  which  is  also  claimed  by  the  Duke  of  Lorraine,  Cardinil 
Bourbon,  and  Philip. 

404.  Sviritzerland.  The  Duke  of  Savoy  attacks  Geneva,  which  i» 
deserted  by  Bern,  the  struggle  lasting  till  the  Peace  of  Vervins,  1598. 


405.  France.    The  Cardinal  of  Bourbon  is  proclaimed  Charles  X.,    rmjM 
and  Mayeuue,  with  a  large  army  of  mercenaries,  is  defeated  at   ^ 
Ivry  (March).     Henry  lays  siege  to  Paris,  but  is  compelled  to  retire  by 
the  advance  of  Parma  from  the  Low  Countries  (Sept.).    The  Cardinal  w 
Bourbon  dies. 

406.  Holland.    While  Parma  is  away,  Maurice  of  Nassau  captures 
Breda. 

407.  Africa.    The  Emperor  of  Morocco  annexes  Timbuctoo  and  the 
Upper  Niger. 


408.  England.  Eleven  judges  protest  against  illegal  commit-  r^^gi 
ments  by  the  Council.  ^ 

409.  France.  Henry  captures  several  towns,  lays  siege  to  Rouen,  and 
receives  reinforcements  from  Grermany  and  England,  Mavenne  being 
aided  by  Spanish  and  Italian  troops.  Navarre,  Foix  ana  Albret  are 
annexed  to  the  French  Crown. 

410.  Spain.  A  royal  army  enters  Aragon,  and  the  defenders  of  Perei 
are  ruthlessly  punished.  Philip  fills  the  C!ortes  with  nominees,  leaving  it 
only  the  right  to  petition,  and  appoints  the  judges. 

411.  Russia.  Demetrius,  son  of  Ivan  the  Terrible  by  his  seventh  wife, 
dies,  perhaps  killed  by  Boris,  who  aspires  to  the  Tsardom. 

412.  Asia.  Lancaster  undertakes  the  first  English  voyage  to  the  East 
Indies. 


1091]  CULTURE  85 

589.  Church  Hist.  Molina,  a  Portuguese  Jesuit,  writes  a  semi- 
Pelagian  treatise  on  Grace,  which  is  approved  by  A^uaviva,  but 
attaoced  by  the  Dominicans  and  Au^stinians.  The  case  is  transferred 
to- Rome,  1597,  and  a  Congregation  is  appointed. 

590.  PoUtiak  Boucher  attacks  the  King  in  his  De  justa  Abdicatione 
Henrici 

591.  Geography.  Davis  undertakes  a  third  voyage,  and  reaches 
72'  12'. 

592.  Deaths.    Paul  Veronese,  Weigel. 


593.  Xng.  Ch.     Bancroft    maintains   the   Divine   Right  and    MRog 
Apostolical  Succession  of  Bishops  in  a  sermon  that  may  be   ^ 
regarded  as  the  first  manifesto  of  the  High  Church  or  Anglo-Catholic 

Bacon's  Advertisement  touching  Controversies  of  the  Church  of 
England  impartially  points  out  the  mults  of  Puritan  and  Anglican. 

594.  Netherlands  Ch.  Arminius,  minister  at  Amsterdam,  is  invited 
to  confute  Comheert,  Coolhaes  and  other  sub-lapsarians,  but  ends  by 
adopting  their  position. 

595.  Science.  Galileo  disproves  Aristotle's  law  that  the  pace  of  &lling 
bodies  varies  with  their  weight. 

596.  Sdncatton.  The  Academy  of  Kiev,  the  first  educational  institu- 
tion in  Russia. 

597.  SociaL    The  spinning-wheel  is  used  at  Cambridge. 


Xng.  Ch.    Cartwri^t  is  summoned  before  the  High  Com-   ri  kqa 
lission,  refuses  to  recant,  and,  with  six  other  clergy,  is  im-   ^ 


598. 

mission, 

prisoned. 

599.    Kng.  Ut.    Spenser's  Fairy  Queen,  Books  1 — 3. 
000.    Art.    Giovanni  of  Bologna's  equestrian  statue  of  Cosmo  I.,  and  his 

Mercuiv  (Florence). 
$01.    PtauMophy.    Campanella's  De  Sensu  Renim,  a  system  based  on 

Teleaio,  but  more  idealistic  and  theosophicaL 
602.    Deatha     Ciigas,  Palissy,  Par^,  Sixtus  V.,  Walsingham. 


603,  Kn^  Ut.    Sidney's  Astrophel  and  Stella  is  followed  by  the  n  591 
scxnnetB   of  Daniel,    Bamabe   Barnes,  Giles  Fletcher,  Lodge,   ^ 
Drayton,  Spenser,  and  Sir  John  Davies.    The  fashion  lasts  for  six  years. 

ohakeqwre's  first  play.  Love's  Labour's  Lost,  reveals  Lyly's  influence. 

604,  Bdenee.    )^eta  s  In  Artem  analyticam  Isagoge  improves  algebraic 
notation. 

605.  Sdncation.    Queen  Elizabeth  founds  Trinity  College,  Dublin. 

606.  Death.    John  of  the  Cross. 


86  POLITICS  [1N2 


413.  France.    Parma  again  enters  France,  and  relieves  Rouen   McgA 
(Apr.).     Henry  profits  by  the  reaction  caused  by  Philip's  plan  of  *- 
placing  his  daughter  on  the  throne.    P^rigord  and  Blaru  are  annexed 
to  France. 

414.  Spain.    Drake  sacks  Corunna,  but  fails  to  take  LislK>n. 

415.  Netherlands.  Parma  dies  on  his  return  from  Bouen,  haTUtf 
completely  reduced  the  southern  provinces,  now  known  as  the  Spaoisa 
Netherlands,  of  which  the  Archduke  Ernest  becomes  Governor. 

416.  Sweden.  Sigismund  of  Poland  becomes  King  of  Sweden,  but  is 
resisted  by  his  Protestant  uncle  Charles  of  Sodermannland. 

417.  Asia.  As  a  stepping-stone  to  China,  Hideyoshi  invades  Kc^et, 
which  obtains  aid  from  its  suzerain. 

418.  Afirica.  To  confirm  their  menaced  authority,  the  Portuguese  build 
a  fort  at  Mombasa,  which  becomes  the  capital  of  the  northern  settle- 
ments. 


419.  England.    The  Speaker,  in  answer  to  his  request  for  liberty   r^i^ga 
of  speech,  is  told  that  it  is  granted,  '  but  not  to  speak  everyone   ^ 
what  he  listeth — their  privilege  was  to  say  Aye  or  No.' 

420.  France.  The  States-General  meet  at  Paris  to  choose  a  King,  tod 
suggest  that  Henry  should  turn  Catholic.  Henry  therefore  attends 
mass  in  St  Denis,  and  is  joined  by  the  nationalist  Leaguers. 

421.  Holland.    The  States-General  are  organised  by  Bameveldt. 

422.  Russia.  Boris  GodounofF  forbids  peasants  to  leave  the  service  of 
their  masters. 

423.  Turkey.  Michael  the  Brave  buys  the  throne  of  Wallachia,  and  at 
once  revolts  and  wins  independence. 


424.  England.  An  anonymous  treatise  on  the  succession  de-  riiuu 
clares  the  Infanta  of  Spain,  as  descendant  of  John  of  Gaunt,  heir   ^ 

to  the  throne. 

425.  Ireland.  Hugh  O'Neill,  Earl  of  Tyrone,  heads  a  rising  in  Ulster 
and  appeals  to  Spain  for  help,  which  is  promised,  but  does  not  arrive. 

426.  Prunce.  Henry  is  crowned  at  Chartres  and  enters  Paris,  where  he 
is  warmly  received.  Most  of  the  nobles  are  won  over  by  separate 
negotiations,  and  Laon,  the  last  stronghold  of  the  League  in  the  north 
east,  is  taken  after  a  long  siege.  The  Spanish  army  withdraws  to  the 
Netherlands,  and  Normandy  submits.  The  King  sends  D'Ossat  and 
Duperron  to  Rome  to  discuss  with  the  Pope  the  removal  of  the  excom- 
munication. 


1694]  CULTURE  87 

607,  Sootoh  Oh.    The  Pre3b>-terian  sptem  is  fully  established   ^^592 
by  the  Scotch  Parliament,  which  ratifies  the  Second  Book  of  •■ 
Discipline.    Episcopacy,  though  not  abolished,  possesses  no  jurisdiction. 

608,  German  Ch.  Hunnius  and  other  Lutherans  draw  u^  Four 
Articles  of  Visitation  with  a  view  to  suppress  crypto-Calvinism  in 
Saxony. 

609,  Swiss  Ch.  Francis  de  Sales,  Bishop  of  Geneva,  begins  to  preach 
in  Chalais. 

610,  Church  Hist  The  revision  of  the  Vulgate,  ordered  by  the 
Council  of  Trent  and  published  1589,  is  revised,  owing  to  the  criticisms 
of  Bellarmine,  the  final  revision  appearing  1593. 

611,  Spanish  Lit.  Lope  de  Vega's  dramas  begin  to  be  acted  at 
Madrid. 

612,  Science.  Galileo's  Scienza  Mechanica  explains  the  raising  of 
weiiirhts. 

61S.     History.    Mariana's  History  of  Spain  till  1516. 

6H,     Archaeology.    The  remains  of  Pompeii  are  discovered. 

615,    Death.    Montaigne. 


616,  Xng.  Ch.    Parliament  banishes  all  above  16  who  refuse  to   Mcgo 
attend  Church.    A  large  number  of  Catholics  and  Puritans  leave   *- 
the  country.    The  Brownist  leaders,  Barrow,  Penry  and  Greenwood,  are 
executed  under  the  libel  law  of  1581. 

Bancroft's  Dangerous  Positions  maintains  that  Puritan  teachings 
involve  a  danger  to  society. 

617,  AsiaUc  Ch.    The  first  Christians  are  executed  in  Japan. 

618,  French  Lit.  The  Satire  Menipp^  composed  by  Pithou,  Rapin, 
Passerat,  Gillot,  satirises  the  extreme  members  of  the  League. 

619,  Philology.  Scali^r's  departure  for  Leyden  ushers  in  the  third  or 
Butch  period  of  classical  learning,  of  Grotius,  Heinsius,  Gronovius, 
Gerard  and  Isaac  Vossius,  Cluvenus,  Meursius,  Graevius. 

620,  Archaeology.    Bosio  begins  to  explore  the  Roman  Catacombs. 

621,  Death.    Marlowe. 


622.    Kng.    Ch.     Hooker's  Ecclesiastical  Polity,   Books   1—4,   r^gg^ 
defends  the  Anglican  Via  Media  against  Rome  and  Geneva,   ^ 
and  maintains  that  the  external  ordering  of  the  Church  is  a  matter  of 
exnediencv 

62S,  French  Ch.  Pithou's  Libert^s  de  I'figlise  Gallicane  first  fully 
states  Erastian  Chdlicanism.  The  Pope  is  declared  to  be  without  power 
in  temporal,  and  bound  by  the  old  French  Councils  in  spiritual,  matters. 

62J^    Kng.  Ut.    Shakespere  composes  most  of  his  Sonnets. 
Naah's  Jack  Wilton  introduces  the  novel  of  adventure. 

625.  Uteratnre.    Casaubon  and  Scali^er  begin  to  correspond. 

626.  Politics.  Hooker  declares  the  pnmitive  condition  of  men  to  have 
been  one  of  war,  and  ^vernment  to  nave  originated  by  a  contract. 

6^,    Deaths.    Palestnna,  Tintoretto. 


88  POLITICS  [15N 

427.  Ireland.  Sir  John  Norris  is  sent  to  subdue  the  revolt  of  qcm 
T3rrone,  but  fails.  I 

428.  France.  Henry  formally  declares  war  against  Spain,  which 
captures  a  number  of  towns  on  the  N.£.  frontier.  At  the  moil 
cntical  moment  he  is  absolved  by  the  Pope,  and  agrees  to  restxne 
Catholic  property  and  worship  in  his  hereditary  dominions,  and  to 
accept  certain  of  the  articles  of  the  Council  of  Trent 

429.  Netherlands.  The  Age  of  the  Archdukes  begins  with  the  appoint- 
ment of  Albert  of  Austria,  the  husband  of  Philip's  daughter  Isabelli, 
to  the  position  of  Governor. 

430.  America.  Raleigh  visits  Ouiana  in  search  of  £1  Dorado,  and  saik 
up  the  Orinoco. 

431.  Asia.    The  Dutch  establish  their  first  Factory  in  the  East  in  Java. 


432.  England.    An  offensive  and  defensive  coalition  is  formed   qcoa 
by  France  and  England  against  Spain,  to  which  the  Dutch,  who   ^ 
are  thus  recognised  as  an  independent 'State,  shortly  accede. 

Essex,  Kaleigh  and  Howiurd  of  Effingham  lead  an  expedition,  in 
which  the  Dutch  join,  against  Spain.  The  Spanish  fleet  is  aestroyed  in 
Cadiz  harbour,  and  the  city  is  sacked 

433.  France.  Mayenne  submits  to  Henr^,  and  Epemon  is  deserted  in 
Provence.  Mercoeur  alone  holds  out  in  Brittany.  The  Archduke 
Albert,  however,  takes  Calais. 

Henry  convokes  an  Assembly  of  Notables  at  Rouen,  and  lays  before 
them  his  scheme  of  reforms.  He  permits  the  establishment  of  a  Council 
of  Finance,  which,  however,  only  exists  for  three  months. 

434.  Netherlands.  Philip  repudiates  debts  contracted  by  Spanish 
troops  and  officials. 


435.  England.  The  privileges  of  the  Hanse  merchants  are  with-  ri  rm 
drawn.  ^ 

436.  France.  The  Spaniards  seize  Amiens,  but  Henry  retakes  it 
Negotiations  begin  under  the  Pope's  mediation.  Mercoeur,  the  last 
French  noble  in  arms  against  the  King,  yields. 

437.  Netherlands.    Maurice  and  Vere  rout  the  Spaniards  at  Tomhout 


438.  France.    The  war  with  Spain  is  terminated  by  the  Treaty   mkqo 
of  Veryins,  by  which  France  regains  her  losses,  and  Philip  resigns   *• 

his  claim  to  the  French  throne. 

439.  Spain.    Philip  II.  is  succeeded  by  his  son,  Philip  III.,  who  is 
guided  by  Lerma. 

440.  Germany.    The  Cera  Bond  is  made  by  which  the  younger  branch 
of  the  HoheuzoUerns  is  to  possess  Culmbach  ;  if  either  brancn  fails,  the 


1698]  CULTURE  89 

628.  Xng.  Ch.    Barret  attacks  the  authority  and  doctrine  of  the   n  595 
German  and  Swiss  Protestants,  and  founds  the  Anglo-Catholic   '• 
moyement  at  Cambridge.     In  reply,  Whitaker  draws  up  the  strictly 
Calvinist  Lambeth  Articles,  which  are  adopted,  with  slight  modifica- 
tions, l^  Whitgift  and  several  other  bishops. 

Bound's  True  Doctrine  of  the  Sabbath  systematises  and  expounds 
the  Puritan  theory. 

629.  Frenoh  Ch.  The  Jesuits  refuse  to  recognise  Henry  as  King, 
despite  his  conversion,  and  are  attacked  by  Amauld  on  behalf  of  the 
University  of  Paris.  On  an  attempt  by  Chastel,  a  student  of  Clermont 
Coll^,  on  the  King's  life,  the  Order  is  expelled. 

650.  Folish  Ch.  At  the  synod  of  Brzesc,  the  Polish  Church  attaches 
itself  to  the  Western  Church. 

651.  Deaths.    Philip  Neri,  Tasso. 


[1596 


032.  Xng.  Oh.  Peter  Baro,  Lady  Margaret  Professor  at  Cam- 
bridge, attacks  the  Lambeth  Articles  from  an  Anglo-Catholic 
standpoint,  and  is  warmly  supported  by  Overall  and  Andrewes. 

6SS.    French  Ch.    Malaonatus'  Commentaries  on  the  New  Testament. 
Bodin  leaves  his  Heptaplomeres  in  MS.,  a  sceptical  dialogue  on 
religions,  published  1847. 

6S4,     German  Ch.    The  Archduke  Ferdinand  in  Styria,  and  Maximilian 
in  Bavaria,  stamp  out  Protestantism. 

635.  Kng.  Lit.    Ben  Jonson's  Every  Man  in  his  Humour. 

636.  Science.    Rheticus'  Opus  Palatinum,    a    computation   of  pure 
trigonometrical  tables.     Pitiscus  supplies  the  addition  formulae,  1599. 

637.  Education.    Lectures  begin  at  Gresham  College,  London. 

638.  ^  Geography.    Barents,  the  pilot  of  a  Dutch  expedition,  discovers 
Spitsbergen,  and  sails  round  the  N.W.  of  Nova  Zembla 

639.  Deaths.    Bodin,  Drake. 


640.    Xng.  Ut.    Bacon's  first  ten  Essays.  ri507 

Bodley  bequeathes  his  library  to  Oxford  University.  ^ 


641.  French  Ch.  Desiring  to  ward  off  political  danger,  Henry  n  ego 
issues  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  by  which  the  Huguenots  obtain  ^ 
toleration  and  the  right  of  worship  wherever  it  has  been  celebrated 
within  two  years,  admission  to  schools  and  colleges  and  eligibility  to 
office.  They  must,  however,  ^y  tithes,  renounce  all  dealings  with 
foreign  powers,  and  dissolve  their  provincial  assemblies.  The  Edict  is 
violendy  opposed  by  the  Pope  and  Parliament,  by  which  it  is  not 
registered  tul  1599.  The  clause  concerning  admission  to  office  remains 
a  dead  letter. 

Da  Plessis-Momay's  L'Institution  de  TEucharistie. 


90  POLITICS  [1008 

other  is  to  inherit  the  Electorship  and  the  Margravate  until  they  can  be 
again  divided. 

Catholicism  is  restored  in  Aachen  by  military  force. 

441.  Italy.  Ferrara  is  annexed  by  the  Pope,  on  the  death  of  Alfonso  IL, 
the  last  of  the  Este.  Modena  passes  to  an  illegitimate  member  of  the 
family. 

442.  Russia.  Feodore  dies,  and  the  house  of  Rurik  comes  to  an  end. 
Boris  succeeds,  and  forces  the  head  of  the  Romanoffs,  who  are  related  to 
the  house  of  Rurik  by  marriage,  to  become  a  monk 

443.  Asia.  The  War  of  China  and  Japan  ends.  Hideyoshi  dies,  aod 
his  general,  Jeyasu  Tokucawa,  restores  the  Shogunate,  which  remains 
in  his  family  till  1868.  Korea  does  not  recover  from  the  struggle  for 
several  generations. 


444.  Ireland.    Essex  is  sent  to  cope  with  Tyrone's  rebellion,   r^egg 
which  has  grown  into  a  national  movement.     He  fails,  returns   '- 
without  permission,  and  is  imprisoned. 

445.  France.    Gabrielle  d'Estr^es  dies. 

Sullv  becomes  superintendent  of  the  finances,  pays  off  the  debt  and 
accumulates  a  reserve,  reduces  the  Taille,  recovers  part  of  ^e  rojal 
domain,  revives  agriculture,  constructs  roads  and  canab,  and  reorganises 
the  artillery  and  ambulance  departments  of  the  army.  He  also  alK^isbes 
sinecure   offices,  and  makes  seats  in  the  Parliament  hereditary  od 

Eaymeut  of  an  annual  tax.    The  King  supports  Sully  in  his  reforms, 
ut  devotes  his  chief  attention  to  manufactures  and  commerce. 

446.  Spain.  An  Armada  for  the  invasion  of  England  is  equipped  at 
Lisbon,  but  on  sailing  is  scattered  by  a  storm. 

447.  Hungary.  Michael  the  Brave,  of  Wallachia,  defeats  Andrew 
Bathory,  a  tool  of  the  Sultan,  and  cont^uers  Transylvania,  with  the 
Emperor  8  approval. 


448.  Prance.    Henry  obtains  the  sanction  of  the  Pope  for  his   tiqaa 
divorce  from  Margaret  of  Valois,  and  marries  Mary  de  Medici,    »• 
who  brings  him  male  heirs. 

Henry  declares  war  on  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  who  has  annexed  Saluizo, 
1588,  and  refuses  to  surrender  it. 

449.  Netherlands.  Negotiations  begun  by  the  Archduke  fiiil,  and 
Maurice  enters  Flanders  and  besieges  Pf ieuport.  The  Archduke  with  a 
relieving  army  is  utterly  routed ;  but  Maurice,  too  weak  to  conquer 
Flanders,  returns  to  Holland. 

450.  Asia.  In  consequence  of  the  raising  of  the  price  of  l>epper  by  the 
Dut^h,  an  Association  of  Loudon  merclumts  for  trading  witn  the  East 
Indies  is  formed,  with  125  shareholders  and  £70,000  capital    The  first 


1000]  CULTURE  91 

642.  Spauuh  Ch.    Paiamo's  History  and  Methods  of  the  Inquisition. 

643.  Netherlands  Ch.  St  Aldegonde's  Diff^rends  de  la  Religion 
Chi^tienne. 

644.  Eng-  Ut.    Stow  s  Survey  of  London. 

64o.     Spauuh  Lit.    Lope  de  Vega's  Arcadia,  a  pastoral  novel. 

646.  FhiloBophy.    Du  Vair's  Philosophie  Morale  des  Stoiciens. 

647,  Education.  Henry  IV.  reorganises  the  University  of  Paris,  and 
attempts  to  encourage  tne  direct  study  of  the  classics,  the  Bible  and  the 
natural  sciences. 

64s.  Geography.  Lindschoten  publishes  his  voyages  and  maps  of  the 
East,  from  which  the  Dutch  and  English  obtain  their  first  reliable 
informatiou. 

649.    Deaths.    St  Aldegonde,  Burleigh,  Stephanus. 


650.  Asiatic  Ch.    At  the  Synod  of  Diamper,  convened  by  the   fi^gg 
Archbishop  of  60a,  the  Syrians  or  Nestorian  Christians  are  com-    *- 
pelled  to  join  the  Roman  Church. 

651.  Spanish  Lit.  Lope  de  Vega's  San  Isidoro,  a  poem  in  honour  of 
Madrid's  patron  saint. 

Guzman  d'Al£Eurache,  a  picaresque  novel 

652.  Science.    Aldovrandus'  Encyclopaedia  of  Natural  History. 
Wright's  Errors  in  Navigation  Detected  explains  the  theory  of 

meridional  parts. 

653.  Politics.  Mariana's  De  Rege  discusses  the  origin  and  limits  of 
royal  power,  with  iUustrations  from  contemporary  Trance,  from  an 
extreme  Ultramontane  standpoint. 

King  James'  Basilican  Doron,  composed  for  his  son  Henry,  con- 
dfflnns  Presbytmanism  as  a  foe  to  royal  power. 

654.  Philology.  Scaliger's  De  Europaeorum  Linguis  Diatriba,  the  first 
classification  of  langnages. 

$55.  Education.  The  CoUegium  Mauritianum  is  instituted  at  the 
Court  of  Eassel,  the  chief  of  the  Ritter- Academien  for  the  education  of 
the  nobility. 

656.  Death.    Spenser. 

657.  Scotch  Ch.  James  appoints  three  new  Bishops,  who,  how-  n^QQ 
ever,  are  not  recognised  Inr  ue  Church.  *- 

658.  Tnneh  Ch.  The  King  arranges  and  is  present  at  a  Conference  at 
Fontainebleau,  to  discuss  Du  Plessis-Momav  s  work  on  the  Eucharist. 
Momay's  accuracy  of  (quotation  is  successfully  impeached  by  Duperron, 
and  French  Prot^tantism  loses  prestige. 

659.  Ttallan  Ch.  After  seven  years'  miprisonment  by  the  Inquisition, 
Bnmo  is  burned  in  Rome  for  maintaining  the  plurality  of  inhabited 
worids,  having  recanted  his  other  heresies. 

660.^    Kntf.  IM.    England's  Helicon,  a  collection  of  frigitive  verse  by 

Sidney,  Balei^,  Greene,  Lodce. 
661.    Science.    GilbCTt's  De  Magnete,  the  first  considerable  work  in 

English  adenoe  since  Rocer  Bacon. 
Kircher  invents  tjie  Migic  Lantern. 


92  POLITICS  [1800 

voyage  of  the  East  India  Company,  commanded  by  Lancaster,  is  made 
1601,  and  a  factoiv  is  established  at  Bantam. 
451.     Hungary.      Michael  the  Brave  conquers  Moldavia,  and  for  a 
moment  unites  all  Roumanian  lands.    Hungary,  however,  throws  off  hia 
yoke,  and  Michael  is  killed,  1601. 


452.  Engjand.    Essex,  who  has  been  deprived  by  the  Queen   q^^ 
of  the  monopoly  of  sweet  wines  on  which  he  depends  and  who,   ■- 
though  liberatea,  is  forbidden  to  come  to  Court,  attempts  to  force  the 
Queen  to  change  her  ministers.     He  is  arrested,  accused  of  plotting 
with  the  Scotch  King,  prosecuted  by  Coke  and  Bacon,  and  executed. 

To  pay  for  the  conquest  of  Ireland,  the  Queen  summons  ParliameDt, 
which  grants  supplies,  out  compels  Elizabeth  to  promise  to  revoke  all 
burdensome  monopoUes. 

453.  Ireland.  A  Spanish  fleet  and  a  small  army  land  at  Einsale,  bat 
are  defeated  and  compelled  to  withdraw. 

454.  Savoy.  Peace  is  made  at  Lyons,  Savoy  retaining  Saluzso,  and 
ceding  VsJromey,  Gex,  Bresse  and  Bugey,  which  connect  France  and 
Switzerland. 

455.  Russia.  The  false  Demetrius,  perhaps  a  vrotM  of  the  Jesuits, 
appears  in  Poland,  and  is  acknowledged  by  tne  lung. 


456.  England.    Elizabeth  attempts  to  revive  the  coalition  of  ti^m 
1596,  and  proposes  to  Henry  an  offensive  alliance  against  Spain.    ^ 
The  offer  is  rejected,  renewed  after  the  conspiracy  of  Biron,  and  again 
rejected. 

457.  France.  Biron*s  plot  with  Spain  and  Savoy  and  BouiUon,  the 
Huguenot  leader,  for  the  dismemberment  of  France,  is  discovered,  and 
Biron  is  executed. 

458.  Switzerland.  The  Duke  of  Savoy's  attempt  to  seize  Geneva  (the 
'  Escalade  *)  fails. 

459.  Asia.  The  Dutch  Companies  are  amalgamated  into  a  national 
East  India  Company,  which  eiects  the  Portuguese  from  the  Moluccas^ 
and  monopolises  the  spice-traae. 


460.  England.  Elizabeth  indicates  her  preference  for  the  Kmg  r^^Q^ 
of  Scots,  thouffh  the  legal  heir  is  William  Seymour,  representative  ^ 
of  the  Suffolk  line.  Ou  the  death  of  the  Queen,  James  succeeds 
without  opposition,  retains  Robert  Cecil  as  Secretary  of  State,  and 
makes  peace  with  Spain.  The  Main  Plot,  perliaps  to  put  Arabella 
Stuart,  a  descendant  of  Margaret  Tudor,  on  the  throne,  is  discovered, 
and  Raleigh  is  imprisoned. 


L603]  CULTURE  93 

S62.  Art.  Etuydice,  the  libretto  by  Rinuccini,  the  music  by  Peri,  is 
perfonned  at  the  marriage  of  Henry  IV.  and  Maxv  de  Medici,  and 
founds  the  opera,  which  is  developed  by  Monteverde. 

The  first  Oratorio,  composed  oy  Cavaliere,  is  performed  in  the 
Oratoiy  at  Rome. 

565.  Law.    Coke's  Reports. 

364,    Philology.    Casaubon's  Commentaries  on  Athenaeus. 

566.  Agriculture.  Olivier  de  Serre's  Th^tre  de  T Agriculture,  based 
on  30  years'  experience,  aids  the  revival  of  agriculture. 

see.    Death.    Hooker. 


967.    Philosophy.     Charron's  De  la  Sagesse,  the  first  modern    r^^Q^ 
attempt  at  a  system  of  ethics  without  theology,  deeply  influenced   ^ 
by  his  friend  and  master  Montaigne. 

Ses,  Philology.  Gruter,  with  the  aid  of  Scaliger,  edits  a  Corpus 
Inscriptionum  Antiquarum  Orbis  Romani. 

669.  SociaL  The  Poor  Law  assumes  the  form  which  it  substantiallv 
retains  till  1834.  The  administrators  are  empowered  to  provide  work 
for  the  able,  relief  for  the  impotent,  and  punishment  for  the  idle,  and 
children  are  to  be  trained  to  work. 

670.  Death.    Tycho  Brahe. 


671.  French  Gh.  Francis  de  Sales  preaches  the  Lent  course  of  riaQ2 
sermons  in  the  Louvre,  and  becomes  Archbishop  of  Geneva.  '- 

672.  Bohemian  Ch.  The  Emperor  revives  tne  edicts  of  persecution 
against  Protestants. 

673.  Church  Hist.  Cyril  Lucar,  a  Cretan,  becomes  Patriarch  of 
Alexandria.  Having  visited  Wittenberg  and  Geneva,  he  attempts  to 
introduce  Calvinism  into  the  Eastern  Church,  sends  students  to  Pro- 
testant Universities,  and  corresponds  with  Abbot,  Utenbogaert,  and 
other  Protestants. 

674.  Kng-Lit.    Shakespere's  Hamlet. 

675.  Art.  Guido  Reni  settles  in  Rome,  and  paints,  among  other  works, 
the  Aurora  in  the  Rospigliosi  palace. 


676.  Eng.  Ch.    The  new  King  is  greeted  with  the  Millenary  and    m0Q3 
other  petitions  from  the  various  parties  in  the  Church,  and   ^ 
promises  a  conference  for  their  discussion. 

677.  French  Ch.  Despite  the  opposition  of  the  Parliament  and  Uni- 
versity of  Paris,  the  .Jesuits  are  re-admitted.  They  receive  the  royal 
ChAtean  at  La  Fl^he  for  a  seminary,  and  Cotou  becomes  the  Ring  s 
Confessor. 

678.  Polish  Ch.  Socinus  rallies  the  Unitarian  parties  to  his  own  views 
at  the  83mod  of  Racau. 

679.  Eng.  Lit.    Florio's  translation  of  Montaigne. 


94  POUTics  [1603 


461.  Ireland.  Tyrone  submits  to  Mountjoy,  the  country  being  more 
thoroughly  reduced  than  at  any  previous  time. 

462.  Germany.  The  Anspach  line  of  Hohenzollems  dies  out  and  the 
Elector  of  Brandenburg  grants  their  possessions  to  his  brothers.  He 
gives  Jagemdorf,  in  Silesia,  bought  by  George  of  Anspach  in  1524, 
to  his  second  son,  from  whom  it  is  confiscated  by  the  Emperor,  1623. 


463.  England.    James'  first  Parliament  meets,  vindicates  its   r^«Aj 
claims  to  the  control  of  its  own  elections  and  the  freedom  of  its   ^ 
members  from  arrest,  and  resists  the  King's  proposal  for  a  union  with 
Scotland. 

Despite  Sully's  mission  to  London,  peace  is  made  with  Spain,  James 
promising  not  to  support  the  Dutch,  nor  trade  in  the  Indies. 

464.  Netherlands.  Spinola  takes  Ostend,  after  three  and  a  half  yean' 
siege. 

465.  Sweden.    Sigismund  is  deposed  and  succeeded  by  Charles  IX. 

466.  Russia.    Demetrius  invades  Russia,  but  is  twice  defeated  by  Boris. 

467.  Hungary.  The  Hungarians  join  Stephen  Bocskai,  who  invades 
Hungary  and  is  proclaimed  King  of  Hungary  and  Transylvania,  1605. 
He  obtains  from  the  Emperor  constitutional  government  and  toleration. 

468.  America.  Henry  IV.  sends  De  Monts  to  colonise  Acadia.  Port 
Royal  (the  present  Annapolis)  is  founded,  and  Champlain  explores  the 
coasts. 


469.  England.    In  consequence  of  the  banishment  of  priests   tiaqk 
from  London,  1604,  Catesby  and  some  friends  resolve  to  blow  up   *• 
Ring  and  Parliament,  and  send  for  Guy  Fawkes  from  Flanders  to 
execute  the  scheme.     Gunpowder  Plot,  however,  is  revealed  by  one  of 
the  conspirators,  on  the  eve  of  the  meeting  of  Parliament,  Nov.  5. 

470.  Russia.  Boris  dies,  and  Demetrius  is  killed  in  a  revolution  in 
Moscow.  A  relative  of  the  house  of  Rurik  becomes  Tsar,  on  making 
cessions  of  territory  to  Sweden,  and  receiving  the  aid  of  a  Swedi£ 
army.    A  second  Demetrius  is  brought  forward  by  the  Poles. 

471.  America.  Possession  is  formally  taken  of  Bajrbadoes,  the  first 
English  colony,  which  is  not  settled  till  1624. 

472.  Asia.  Akbar  is  succeeded  by  Jehangir,  under  whom  the  Moghul 
Empire  is  weakened  by  the  revolts  of  his  sons  and  the  loss  of  Kandiuiar. 


L806]  CULTURE  95 


380.     Science.    Cesi  founds  the  Academia  dei  Lincei  in  Rome. 
Fabricins  of  Acquapendente  discovers  valves  in  the  veins. 

S^i.  Politics.  Althusins'  Politica  recommends  a  republican  govern- 
ment, in  which  the  chief  magistrate  is  aided  and  controlled  by  Ephors, 
and  the  representatives  are  chosen  only  among  the  wealthy.  His 
teaching  is  developed  by  his  follower  Boxhom. 

S82.     DeathB.    Cartwright,  Gilbert,  Vieta. 


$^J.     Eng.  Ch.    A  Conference  is  held  at  Hampton  Court,  repre-    ri  094 
sented  bv  Whitgift,  Bancroft,  Bilson  and  others  on  the  Anglican    ^ 
side,  and  Reynolds,  Chaderton  and  others  on  the  Puritan.     The  King 
rejects  every  demand  of  the  Puritans,  except  that  for  the  revision  of  the 
Bible. 

Convocation  composes  some  new  canons,  and  orders  the  clergy  to 
subscribe  the  ecclesiastical  supremacy  of  the  Crown,  the  Prayer-book, 
and  the  Articles.  The  Canons,  though  not  enforced  by  law,  lead  to  the 
ejection  of  a  number  of  clergy. 

^4,  German  Ch.  Paraeus,  Professor  at  Heidelberg,  which  has  suc- 
ceeded to  Geneva  as  the  chief  School  of  Calvinism,  issues  an  Irenicum, 
which  is  attacked  by  Hutter  and  other  Lutherans. 

HSo.  Netherlands  Ch.  Arminius  is  appointed  Professor  of  Theology 
at  Leyden,  and  commences  his  struggle  with  Gomarus,  his  colleague. 

686,  Science.  Kepler's  Optics  explain  the  structure  of  the  eye,  and  the 
formation  of  images  on  the  retina. 

687,  History.    De  Thou's  History  of  his  Times. 

688,  Ek>cial.  Elizabeth's  mild  statute  against  witchcraft  is  superseded 
by  a  severe  Act,  under  which  hundreds  are  executed. 

689,  Deaths.    Faustus  Socinus,  Whitgift. 


690.  Ekuitch  Ch.    James  banishes  a  number  of  Presbyterian    noAR 
ministers,  alienates  Church  property  and  restores  the  Bishops,    '- 
and  is  recognised  as  supreme  in  temporal  and  spiritual  matters. 

691,  (German  Ch.  Johann  Amdt's  Wahres  Christenthum  (and  Para- 
diee-gardein),  based  on  the  teaching  of  Weigel  and  other  mystics, 
initiates  a  r^iction  against  do^atism  and  founds  Pietism  in  Germany. 

692,  Polish  Ch.  The  Raoovian  Catechism,  compiled  by  Socinus,  Crell 
and  others,  becomes  the  recognised  creed  of  the  Unitarians. 

693.  Xng.  Lit.  Ben  Jonson  writes  Volpone,  and  begins  to  compose 
masques,  or  plays  for  the  Court,  adaptea  to  sceneiy  and  music,  wnich 
ronain  popomr  tiD  the  Civil  War. 

69i.  Froich  Lit.  Vauquelin  de  la  Fresnaye's  L'Art  Po^tique,  the 
r^ntmi  and  last  product  of  the  Ple'iade  movement.  Malherbe  now 
settles  at  Court,  and  his  verses  develope  the  classical  style. 

695.  Spanish  Lit.    Cervantes'  Don  Quixote,  Part  I. 

696.  Philosophy.  Bacon's  Advancement  of  Learning,  a  survey  of  the 
condition  and  needs  of  the  sciences,  introductory  to  a  reconstruction  of 
human  knowledge. 

697.  Death.    Beza. 


96  POLITICS  [1008 

473.  England.    Bates,  a  merchant,  chaUenges  the  King's  right  i^^q^ 
to  levy  a  duty  on  currants ;  but  the  Court  of  Exchequer  decides  ^ 
that  tne  King  may  levy  impositions  by  his  own  authority. 

474.  Italy.  The  claim  'of  Venice,  whose  attitude  is  largely  determiudd 
and  defended  by  Sarpi,  to  exercise  criminal  jurisdiction  over  priestB  is 
met  by  an  interdict,  the  last  issued  by  the  Roman  Church,  on  which  the 
Republic  banishes  the  Orders.  France  arranges  a  compromise,  iht 
prisoners  bein^  tried  by  an  Ecclesiastical  Court,  while  the  Jesuits 
remain  in  banishment  till  1651. 

475.  America.  Largely  in  consequence  of  the  satisfieu^ry  reiK)it6 
brought  back  by  Oosnold,  1602,  and  Weymouth,  1605,  Virginia  is  divided 
between  the  London  and  Plymouth  Comnanies. 

476.  Ada.  The  fifth  Governor  of  the  Sikns  dies,  and  the  (Governorship 
becomes  hereditary.  The  sect  is  transformed  into  an  army,  and  begins 
a  Holy  War  against  the  Moghul  Emperors. 


477.  England.  Parliament  refusing  to  concede  free-trade  and  to  r^^^ 
recognise  the  Scotch,  the  King  obtams  a  decision  from  the  iudges,   ^ 

by  a  test  case  (the  Post-Nati),  that  Scottish  subjects  bom  after  hb 
accession  are  legally  naturalised. 

478.  Ireland.  Tyrone  and  Tyrconnel,  finding  resistance  hopeless,  flee 
to  Spain  ;  James  confiscates  a  large  part  of  Ulster,  which  is  colonised  by 
English  and  Scotch  settlers. 

479.  Holland.  Heemskerk  destroys  the  Spanish  fleet  at  Gibraltar, 
and  Spinola*s  troops  mutiny  for  want  of  pay. 

480.  Spain.    Owing  to  Spanish  repudiations,  the  Bank  of  Grenoa  &ik 

481.  Ajnerica.  A  settlement  is  made  by  the  Plymouth  Company  in 
North  Virginia;  but  many  of  the  colonists  die  and  the  rest  return,  1608. 

At  the  same  time  a  settlement  is  made  at  Jamestown,  in  Southern 
Virginia,  by  John  Smith. 


482.  Germany.  In  consequence  of  the  annexation  of  the  tiaqo 
strongly  Protestant  Donauworth,  on  account  of  a  riot,  by  Maxi-  *- 
milian  of  Bavaria,  acting  on  the  order  of  the  Aulic  Council,  the  Pro- 
testants at  the  Diet  of  Katisbon  deny  the  right  of  the  majority  to  bind 
the  minority,  and  a  Protestant  Union,  from  which,  however,  Lutherans 
stand  aloof,  is  formed  by  the  Elector  Palatine  and  Christian  of  Anhalt 

483.  Austria.  The  Archdukes,  exasperated  by  the  conduct  of  Rudolf, 
compel  him  to  name  his  brother  Matthias  Governor  of  Austria,  Hungary 
and  Moravia,  and  to  promise  him  the  succession  in  Bohemia. 


ItOB]  CULTURE  97 


^.  Sng.  Ch.  Though  James  infonns  the  Pope  that  he  will  rigng 
icknowledge  him  as  the  first  Bishop  and  President  of  the  Church,  >- 
if  he  will  renounce  the  claim  to  depose  sovereigns,  Garnett,  arrested  for 
complicity  in  Gunpowder  Plot,  equivocates.  An  oath  of  allegiance  is 
impoeed  on  Catholics,  and  is  condemned  b^  the  Pope,  attm^ked  by 
BeUaimine,  Barclay,  Suarez,  Becanus  and  Scioppius,  and  defended  by 
die  King  himself,  Andrewes  and  others,  the  controversy  lasting  for 

10  y^tf^- 

The  King  requests  convocation  to  draw  up  a  number  of  canons  on 
dril  government    The  articles  irritate  the  Km^  by  inculcating  obedi- 
ence to  the  de  facto  ruler,  and  are  neither  ratified  nor  published 
Field's  Book  of  the  Chutch. 

^.    Hungarian  Gh.    Bocskay  obtains  perfect  equality  for  Protestants. 

7Vj.  Datd^  Ch.  Teellinck,  'the  reformed  Kempis,'  after  a  visit  to 
Endand  and  acquaintance  with  the  Puritans,  begins  his  mystical  yet 
orthodox  teaching  at  Leyden. 

'^/.  Polish  Lit.  The  Macaronic  Period,  dominated  by  the  Jesuits, 
begins  and  continues  for  a  century  and  a  half. 

*»:.  History.  Scaliger's  Thesaurus  Temporum  contains  every  chrono- 
Ijgical  relic  in  Greek  and  Latin,  and  reconstructs  the  Chronicon  of 
Eodebias. 

Oi,  Oeography.  Torres,  a  Spaniard,  sails  between  New  Guinea  and 
Australia. 

f>i    Death.    Lipsius. 

(fy.    Ckaatoh  Hist.    The  Pope  dismisses  the  Congregation  De   rigny 

Aoxiliis  without  pronouncing  a  decision,  and  imposes  silence  on    ^ 

the  di^utants. 
7^f^,    Sng.  Lit.    Hall's  Mundus  Alter  et  Idem,  a  philosophical  romance, 

lerives  the  style  of  More,  and  is  followed  by  Bacon's  New  Atlantis 

ind  Godwin's  Man  in  the  Moon. 
>C,    Uteratnre.     Scioppius,  the  gladiator  of  the   Jesuits,   attacks 

SctUger  in  his  Scaliger  Hypobolimaeus,  in  which  he  ridicules  his  claim 

to  dttcent  from  the  Scala  family  of  Verona. 
^«e^.    Art    The  Friedrichsbau  is  added  to  the  Schloss  at  Heidelberg, 

vith  very  rich  ornamentation. 
^^.    Education.    The  Lutherans  leave  Marburg  and  institute  a  rival 

rnirereity  at  Giessen,  also  in  Hesse. 
UO.    Death.    Ban)nius. 


•7i.    Sn^  Ch.    The  Separatist  congre^tion  meeting  in  Brew-   ri  gno 
^  Her  8  house  at  Scrooby,  Northanoptonshiro,  emigrates  to  Holland.    ^ 
*/i.    French  Ch.    Francis  de  Sales'  Introduction  to  a  Devout  Life, 
^  feDoved  by  his  Spiritual  Letters. 

r/#,    Sii|{.  Lit.    Beaumont  and  Fletcher's  first  play,  Philaster. 
^U    Trmoh  Lit.    Kegnier's  Satires. 

*l9.   American  Lit.    Captain  John  Smith's  True  Relation  of  Virginia. 
*^^.    Science.    Hans  Lippersheim  invents  the  telescope,  and  Joannides 
or  Galileo  invents  the  microscope. 


•». 


98  POLITICS  [1608 

484.     America.    Champlain  founds  Quebec,  and  begins  the  struggle  with 
the  Iroquois. 


485.  Germany.  A  CathoUc  League  is  formed  by  Maximilian,  of  r^^ 
which  Philip  III.  becomes  Protector.  ^  '• 

The  Duke  of  Cleves  and  Jiilich  dies,  and  the  succession  is  claimed 
by  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  the  son  of  the  Duke  of  NeubuM,  both 
Lutherans,  and  six  others.  Fearing,  however,  the  presence  of  a  heretic 
ruler  near  the  Netherlands,  the  Emperor  claims  the  provinces,  in  coDse- 
quence  of  which  the  rivals  join  hands  and  annex  the  country. 

486.  Spain.  The  Moors  and  the  Moriscoes,  numbering  about  500,000, 
are  expelled  by  Lerma,  to  the  irreparable  damage  of  agriculture  and 
industry. 

487.  Bohemia.  Zerotin  and  the  Protestants  of  Bohemia  compel  the 
Emperor  to  issue  his  Majestatsbrief  granting  toleration  to  the  Pro- 
testants. 

488.  Holland.  Owing  to  the  mediation  of  President  Jeannin  sad 
others,  a  truce  of  12  years  is  made  with  Spain  and  guaranteed  by 
France  and  the  Emneror.  Spain,  however,  refuses  to  recoffniae  the 
independence  of  the  Netherlands,  and  the  States  refuse  to  pledge  th^n- 
selves  to  tolerate  Catholics. 

The  Bank  of  Amsterdam  is  instituted  and  largely  contributes  to 
the  prosperity  of  the  country. 

489.  KUBsia.  The  Poles  invade  Russia,  proclaim  the  son  of  their  King 
Tsar,  and  take  Moscow. 

490.  America.  Paraguay,  occupied  by  Spain  since  1586,  is  handed 
over  to  the  Jesuits,  wno  establish  a  theocracy  based  on  communism. 

491.  West  Indies.  The  Bermudas  are  taken  by  the  Virginia  Co.,  and  a 
colony  is  planted  in  1612. 


492.  England.    To  gain  money,  James  agrees  to  abandon  certain    r^^iA 
feudal  dues  and  part  of  the  Impositions,  and  to  declare  that  all    '- 
further  levy  of  such  duties  without  Parliamentary  consent  is  ill^;al,  in 
return  for  a  grant  of  £200,000  a  year. 

The  absolutist  teaching  of  Dr  Cowell,  Professor  of  Civil  Law  at 
Cambridge,  in  his  Interpreter,  is  brought  before  Parliament  by  C6ke, 
and  receives  a  censure  in  which  the  King  joins. 

493.  Germany.  The  Archduke  Leopold  seizes  Jiilich,  but  is  expelled 
by  a  force  of  English,  Dutch  and  Germans. 

494.  France.  Henry  allies  with  the  Protestant  Union,  and  prepares 
to  intervene  in  Germany.  At  this  time,  he  is  said  by  Sully  to  nave 
elaborated  a  plan  of  international  federation  or  Christian  Republic,  and 
a  rearrangement  of  the  map  of  Europe  to  secure  peace  and  to  resist 
Hapsburg  encroachments.     On  the  eve  of  setting  out,  he  is  murdered 


1610]  CULTURE  99 

717,    Art    After  seven  years'  study  in  Italy,  Rubens  settles  in  Antwerp 
and  becomes  Court-Painter  to  the  Archduke  Albert. 


71iS.  Sng.  Ch.  Jacob,  an  Independent,  writes  An  Humble  nong 
Supplication  for  Toleration.  ^ 

719,  French  Ch.  Ang^lique  Arnauld,  who  has  been  made  Abbess  of 
Port-Roval  at  10,  is  awakened  (at  17)  by  an  itinerant  preacher  and 
begins  the  reform  of  the  monastery  TJourn^e  du  Guichet),  in  which  she 
is  aided  by  Francis  de  Sales  and  Maaame  Chantal. 

7^K    Sng.  Lit.  Shakespere's  Sonnets  are  published  without  his  sanction. 

721.  Italian  Lit.  The  Ambrosian  Library  at  Milan  is  founded  by 
Cardinal  Frederick  Borromeo. 

722.  Science.  Jansen,  a  Dutch  spectacle-maker,  and  Galileo  construct 
telescopes.  The  latter  applies  it  to  astronomy,  and  discovers  irre- 
gularities in  the  surface  ot  the  moon,  four  satellites  of  Jupiter,  the 
phases  of  Venus  (both  of  which  confirm  his  belief  in  the  Copernican 
ifvstem),  and  the  sun-spots,  irom  the  observation  of  which  he  learns 
that  the  sun  revolves  on  its  own  axis  in  28  days. 

Kepler  discovers  that  Mars  does  not  revolve  as  Tycho's  observations 
led  him  to  expect,  and  proves  in  his  Astronomia  Nova  that  it  moves 
not  in  a  circle  but  in  an  ellipse.  His  Second  Law  explains  that  the 
planets  move  quickest  when  near  the  sun,  so  that  a  line  from  the  sun 
to  a  planet  moves  over  equal  areas  in  equal  times. 

72.},  Law.  Grotius'  Mare  Liberum  declares  that,  by  the  law  of  nature, 
the  sea  cannot  be  monopolised  by  any  single  country. 

724,    DeaUiB.    Arminius,  Caravaggio,  Scaliger. 


72o,  Sng.  Ch.  Abbot,  the  opponent  of  Laud  at  Oxford,  becomes  ri  aiq 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  L 

72*J.  Scotch  Ch.  The  titular  Bishops  are  consecrated  in  England  and 
receive  fuU  authority  from  the  General  Assembly,  the  Scotch  Parliament 
ratifying  all  that  has  been  done.  Courts  of  High  Commission  are  insti- 
tuted at  Glasgow  and  St  Andrews. 

727.  Trench  Ch.  Francis  de  Sales  and  Madame  Chantal  found  the 
female  Order  of  the  Visitation,  modelled  on  the  Ursulines,  which  rapidly 
ipreads  beyond  Savoy,  and  is  approved  by  the  Pope,  1618. 

72if.    Qerman  Ch.    (Gerhard's  Loci  Theolo^ci,  a  Lutheran  text-book. 

729,  Dutch  Ch.  On  the  death  of  Arminms,  Episcopius,  Utenbogaert 
and  Vorstius  compose  a  Remonstrance,  of  five  Articles,  declaring  that 
tfcdestiiyttion  is  conditional  The  Gomarists  reply  in  a  Counter- 
Bemonstrance. 

7S0,  Church  Hist.  Bellarmine  maintains  the  infallibility  and  universal 
nonarchy  of  the  Pope,  relying,  in  part,  on  the  Isidorian  Decretals. 

741.    Sng.  Ut.    Donne's  Anatomv  of  the  World,  followed  by  his  Satires, 

^  femids  the  so-called  Metaphysical  School. 

7i2,   n«nch  Lit.    D'Urfes  Astr^  introduces  the  pastoral  novel. 

Mme  de  RambouiUet  begins  to  gather  a  literary  circle  round  her, 
wUch  dominates  French  taste  for  a  generation. 

7—2 


98  POLITICS  [1M8 


the  Iroquois. 


}tniggl( 


485.  Germany.  A  Catholic  League  is  fonned  by  Maximilian,  of  ri«Qg 
which  Philip  III.  becomes  Protector.  •• 

The  Duice  of  Cleves  and  Jiilich  dies,  and  the  succession  is  claimed 
by  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  the  son  of  the  Duke  of  Neuburs,  bod 
Lutherans,  and  six  others.  Fearing,  however,  the  presence  of  a  heretic 
ruler  near  the  Netherlands,  the  Emperor  claims  the  proyinces,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  the  rivals  join  hands  and  annex  the  country. 

486.  Spain.  The  Moors  and  the  Moriscoes,  numbering  about  500,000, 
are  expelled  by  Lerma,  to  the  irreparable  damage  of  agriculture  and 
industry. 

487.  Bohemia.  Zerotin  and  the  Protestants  of  Bohemia  compel  the 
Emperor  to  issue  his  Majestatsbrief  granting  toleration  to  the  Pro- 
testants. 

488.  Holland.  Owing  to  the  mediation  of  President  Jeannin  and 
others,  a  truce  of  12  years  is  made  with  Spain  and  guaranteed  by 
France  and  the  Emperor.  Spain,  however,  refuses  to  recoffnise  the 
independence  of  the  rf etherlands,  and  the  States  refiase  to  pledge  them- 
selves to  tolerate  Catholics. 

The  Bank  of  Amsterdam  is  instituted  and  largely  contributes  to 
the  prosperity  of  the  country. 

489.  Russia.  The  Poles  invade  Russia,  proclaim  the  son  of  their  King 
Tsar,  and  take  Moscow. 

490.  America.  Paramiay,  occupied  by  Spain  since  1586,  is  handed 
over  to  the  Jesuits,  who  establish  a  theocracy  based  on  communism. 

491.  West  Indies.  The  Bermudas  are  taken  by  the  Virginia  Ck).,  and  i 
colony  is  planted  in  1612. 


492.  England.    To  gain  money,  James  agrees  to  abandon  certain    r^«^ 
feudal  dues  and  part  of  the  Impositions,  and  to  declare  that  all   ^ 
further  levy  of  such  duties  without  Parliamentary  consent  is  ill^[al,  in 
return  for  a  grant  of  £200,000  a  year. 

The  absolutist  teaching  of  Dr  Cowell,  Professor  of  CSvil  Law  it 
Cambridge,  in  his  Interpreter,  is  brought  before  Parliament  by  Cdu, 
and  receives  a  censure  in  which  the  King  joins. 

493.  Germany.  The  Archduke  Leo])old  seizes  Jiilich,  but  is  expelled 
by  a  force  of  English,  Dutch  and  Germans. 

494.  France.  Henry  allies  with  the  Protestant  Union,  and  prepam 
to  intervene  in  (jennany.  At  this  time,  he  is  said  by  Sully  to  have 
elaborated  a  plan  of  international  federation  or  Christian  KepuUic,  and 
a  rearrangement  of  the  map  of  Europe  to  secure  peace  and  to  resist 
Hapsburg  encroachments.     On  the  eve  of  setting  out,  he  is  muideied 


inO]  CULTURE  99 

717.    Art    After  seven  years'  study  in  Italy,  Rubens  settles  in  Antwerp 
and  becomes  Court-Painter  to  the  Archduke  Albert 


71S,  Eng.  Ch.  Jacob,  an  Independent,  writes  An  Humble  rigng 
Supplication  for  Toleration.  ^ 

719.  French  Ch.  Ang^lique  Arnauld,  who  has  been  made  Abbess  of 
POTt-Royal  at  10,  is  awakened  (at  17)  by  an  itinerant  preacher  and 
b^^  the  reform  of  the  monastery  TJourn^e  du  Guichet),  in  which  she 
is  aided  by  Francis  de  Sales  and  Maaame  Chantal. 

72ff.    Mng,  Ut.   Shakespere's  Sonnets  are  published  without  his  sanction. 

721.  Ttalian  Lit.  The  Ambrosian  Library  at  Milan  is  founded  by 
Cirdinal  Frederick  Borromeo. 

722.  Science.  Jansen,  a  Dutch  spectacle-maker,  and  Galileo  construct 
telescopes.  The  latter  applies  it  to  astronomy,  and  discovers  irre- 
gularities in  the  surface  ot  the  moon,  four  satellites  of  Jupiter,  the 
(thises  of  Venus  (both  of  which  confirm  his  belief  in  the  Copernican 
astern),  and  the  sun-spots,  iirom  the  observation  of  which  he  learns 
that  the  sun  revolves  on  its  own  axis  in  28  days. 

Kepler  discovers  that  Mars  does  not  revolve  as  Tycho*s  observations 
led  him  to  expect,  and  proves  in  his  Astronomia  Nova  that  it  moves 
not  in  a  circle  but  in  an  ellipse.  His  Second  Law  explains  that  the 
I»laoets  move  quickest  when  near  the  sun,  so  that  a  line  from  the  sun 
to  a  planet  moves  over  equal  areas  in  equal  times. 
72-i.  Law.  Grotius'  Mare  Liberum  declares  that,  by  the  law  of  nature, 
the  sea  cannot  be  monopolised  by  any  single  country. 


Deaths.    Arminius,  Caravaggio,  Scaliger. 


72o.  Sn^  Ch.  Abbot,  the  opponent  of  Laud  at  Oxford,  becomes  ri  ai  n 
Archbishop  of  C!anterbury.  l 

r^;.  Scotcn  Ch.  The  titular  Bishops  are  consecrated  in  England  and 
receive  fuU  authority  from  the  General  Assembly,  the  Scotch  Parliament 
ntifyiug  all  that  has  been  done.     Courts  of  High  Commission  are  insti- 

^  toted  at  Glasgow  and  St  Andrews. 

727.  French  Ch.  Francis  de  Sales  and  Madame  Chantal  found  the 
female  Order  of  the  Visitation,  modelled  on  the  Ursulines,  which  rapidly 

^  cpreids  beyond  Savoy,  and  is  approved  by  the  Pope,  1618. 

729.    Oennan  Ch.    Gerhard's  Loci  Theolo^ci,  a  Lutheran  text-book. 

7^.  Dutch  Ch.  On  the  death  of  Arminius,  Episcopius,  Utenbogaert 
tod  Vorstius  compose  a  Remonstrance,  of  five  Articles,  declaring  that 
mdestiiyttion  is  conditional.  The  Gomarists  reply  in  a  Counter- 
Acmoiistrance. 

7^1    Church  Hist.  Bellarmine  maintains  the  infallibility  and  universal 

^  monarchy  of  the  Pope,  relying,  in  part,  on  the  Isidorian  Decretals. 

r.f/.    Sn^  Ut.    Donne's  Anatomv  of  the  World,  followed  by  his  Satires, 

^  fbrnids  the  so-called  Metaphysical  School. 

7'ti.    French  Lit.    D'Urf^  s  Astr^  introduces  the  pastoral  novel. 

3lme  de  Rambouillet  begins  to  gather  a  literary  circle  round  her, 
vUch  dominates  French  taste  for  a  generation. 

7—2 


100  POLITICS  [1610 

by  Ravaillac  (May).  Mary  de  Medici  and  her  favourite  Concini  throw 
themselves  into  the  arms  of  Spain  and  the  Jesuits,  and  Sully  retires 
iirom  office. 
495.  Italy.  Henry  of  France  concludes  the  Treaty  of  Brusol  with  Savoy 
for  the  liberation  of  Lombardy ;  but  the  execution  of  the  scheme  is 
prevented  by  the  murder  of  the  King. 


496.  Engjand.    The  marriage  of  the  Princess  Elizabeth  with   r,«^^ 
the  young  Elector  Palatine  is  discussed.  I- 

Owing  to  the  Commons'  attack  on  the  High  Commission  and  Boyai 
Proclamations,  James  dissolves  Parliament  before  the  Great  Contract 
is  finally  arranged.  The  King  raises  money  by  instituting  the  order 
of  Baronets. 

Arabella  Stuart  is  imprisoned  for  marrying  William  Seymour,  a 
descendant  of  Mary,  sister  of  Henry  VHI. 

497.  Germany.     The  Duch;^  of   Prussia   passes   to    the  Elector  of 
Brandenburg,  though  remainmg  subject  to  the  suzerainty  of  Poland 

John  George  becomes  Elector  of  Saxony  and  leader  of  the  Lathenn 
party. 

498.  Bohemia.    Rudolf,  who  has  tried  to  evade  his  promisies  of  1609,  is 
deposed  by  the  Bohemians,  and  the  Crown  is  transferred  to  Matthias. 

499     Sweden.    Gustavus  Adolphus  becomes  King  and  Oxenstiem  his 

Chancellor. 
500.    Asia.    The  Dutch  receive  permission  to  trade  with  Japan. 


501.  England.    Cecil  dies,  and  the  Treasury  is  put  in  Com-    r,gi2 
mission.   James  resolves  to  become  his  own  Secretary ;  but  Carr,    *- 
afterwards  Earl  of  Somerset,  becomes  the  King's  favourite. 

Prince  Henry  dies,  at  19,  under  suspicion  of  poison. 

502.  Germany.    The  Protestant  Union  allies  with  the  Elector  Palatine. 

503.  Austria.    Matthias  becomes  Emperor. 

504.  Italy.  On  the  death  of  the  Duke  of  Mantua  and  Montfemt, 
Charles  Emanuel  of  Savoy  claims  Montferrat  for  a  granddaughter,  bat 
is  expelled  by  France  and  Spain.     Spain  orders  mm  to  disband  his 


1812]  CULTURE  101 

7SS.    Bcienee.     Harriott,  Fahicias  and  Schemer  diacoTer  sunspots. 

r^i  Pcklitica.  The  Soihonne  renews  the  decree  of  the  Council  of 
Constuioe  against  tyrannicide,  and  condemns  Mariana.  Aquaviva,  the 
Jesuit  Genoal,  disclaims  the  toiet  on  behalf  of  the  Order. 

7'i5.  Geography.  Hudson,  a  marine  in  the  Dutch  service,  discovers 
Hudson's  Bay,  but  is  turned  adrift  in  an  open  boat  by  mutineers. 

736.    History.    Sarpi's  Hilary  of  Ecclesiastical  Benefices. 

r.^r.   Death.    Bicci. 


7SS.    Eng.  Ch.    The  revision  of  the  Bible,  commenced  1607  by    rj^gj^j^ 
47  divines,  including  Andrewes,  Overall,  Miles  Smith,  Reynolds,    ^ 
Sanvia,  Chaderton,  on  the  basis  of  the  Bishops'  Bible,  becomes  the 
Aathorised  Version. 

The  General  or  Arminian  Baptists  draw  up  their  first  Confession. 

7^.  French  Ch.  A  third  attack  on  the  Jesuits  by  the  University  of 
Ftfis  is  made  by  Richer,  the  Syndic.  The  Order  is  compelled  to 
disown  regicide  and  anti-Gallican  tenets,  and  is  forbidden  to  teach.  In 
defending  the  Gallican  position,  however,  and  in  the  De  Ecclesiastica 
rt  Pditica  Potestate,  which  he  composes  by  request,  Richer  lays  himself 
open  to  die  attacks  of  Duperron,  is  deserted  by  Parliameut  in  its  fear  of 
i  breach  with  Rome,  and  deposed  from  his  post  of  Syndic. 

A  branch  of  the  congr^ation  of  the  Oratory  is  founded  by  B^ruUe 
in  Older  to  raise  the  secular  clergy  by  study  and  personal  influence.  On 
B^rolle's  death,  Charles  de  Condbren  becomes  General. 

7^^j.    American  Ch.    The  Jesuits  found  a  mission  in  Canada. 

7iJ.  Spanish  Lit.  Gongora  developes  *  Culteranismo,'  introduced  into 
Spain  by  Carrillo.  Despite  the  attacks  of  Lope,  euphuism  influences 
Spanish  literature  for  a  century. 

r^i.  Ihitch  Lit.  Brederoo's  Roderick  and  Alphonsus  initiates  modem 
Datch  Comedy. 

7i-i,   Death.    Perez. 


7U.    Eng.  Ch.    Leffatt  and  Wightman,  Unitarians,  are  burned,    n  q]^2 
Smith  and  Hehrisse,  seceders  from  the  Congregationalists,    ^ 

petuTD  from  Amsterdam,  where  they  have   been  mfluenced  by  the 

Mennonites,  and  found  a  Baptist  Church  in  London. 
Sir  Henry  Savile's  edition  of  Chrysostom. 
7i5,    Oerman  Ch.    Bohme's  Aurora,  a  system  of  theosophic  pantheism, 

^es  much  to  Paracelsus,  Schwenkfeld,  and  Weigel. 
7yj,    Dutch   Ch.     At  the  instigation  of  Abbot,  King  James  obtains 

the  dismissal  of  Vorstius,  Professor  of  Theolo^  at  Leyden. 
*•('".    Chnrch  Hist    The  Monita  Secreta  Societatis  Jesu,  professing  to 

be  derived  from  private  instructions  from  Aquaviva  to  probationers,  are 

7JS,    Dutch  Ut.    Vondel's  first  Biblical  play,  Het  Pascha. 

7fi.    TtaHan  Lit.    The  Accademia  della  Crusca  issues  its  Dictionary. 


102  POLITICS  [ISU 


troops  ;  but  he  appeals  to  the  Italian  States  to  expel  the  stranger,  and, 
thouffh  impotent,  is  hailed  as  the  liberator  of  Italy. 
505.    Asia.    The  English  settle  at  Surat,  near  Bombay,  and  Sir  Thomas 
Roe,  Ambassador  to  Jehangir,  obtains  privileges  for  them. 


506.  England.    Princess  Elizabeth  marries  Frederick,   Elector   r^^my^ 
Palatine.  ^ 

Bacon  becomes  Attorney-General,  and  wins  the  confidence  of  Uie 
King,  being  made  Chancellor  1617. 

Gondomar,  the  Spanish  Ambassador,  arrives  and  gains  immense 
influence  over  the  King. 

507.  Germany.    The  Protestant  Union  allies  with  the  Dutch  Provinces. 
The  Diet,  the  last  before  the  war,  refuses  to  aid  the  Emperor  against 

the  Turks,  desiring  to  discuss  religious  questions  alone 

508.  Hungary.    Bethlen-Oabor,  a  Protestant,   establishes  himself  in 
Transylvania,  where  he  reigns  till  1629. 

509.  Russia.    The  Troitza  Monastery  holds  out  against  the  Poles, 
Moscow  is  retaken,  and  the  Poles  expelled. 

Michael,  son  of  Philaret,  Patriarch  of  Moscow,  becomes  Tsar  and 
founder  of  the  house  of  KomanoiT. 


510.  England.    The  Second,  or  Addled  Parliament,  summoned    r«gi^ 
on  the  advice  of  the  so-called  Undertakers,  meets,  but  is  dis-   ^ 
solved  for  refusing  supplies  till  it  has  discussed  the  Kind's  impositions 

Peacham,  a  country  Rector,  is  arrested  and  tortured  for  an  attack 
on  the  King,  found  among  his  papers. 

Gondomar  proposes  to  James  a  Spanish  marriage. 

511.  France.  The  first  of  a  new  series  of  Civil  Wars  breaks  out  under 
Condd,  who  aspires  to  the  Regency,  and  obtains  a  promise  to  summon 
the  States-General.  At  their  meeting,  in  which  Kichelieu  speaks  on 
behalf  of  the  clergy,  the  Tiers  l5tat  attacks  the  Taille  and  the  raulette, 
urges  the  abolition  of  pensions,  and  demands  a  declaration  that  no 
power  can  depose  the  Kin^.  Tlie  Estates  are  di88<)lved  before  the 
answers  to  the  Cahiers  are  given,  and  do  not  meet  again  till  1789. 

512.  Germany.  The  danger  of  war  incurred  by  Neuburg's  conversion 
to  Catholicism  and  his  appeal  to  the  Catholic  Ijeague  is  removed  by  the 
Convention  of  Xanten,  wnich  confirms  the  partition  of  the  duchies  with 
Brandenburg. 

513.  America.  The  United  New  Netherland  Company  is  established  in 
Holland,  and  receives  territory  at  the  mouth  of  the  Hudson. 


1614]  CULTURE  103 

750,  Art.    Rubens'  Descent  from  the  Cross  (Antwerp). 

751.  Edncation.  %  the  aid  of  the  Prince  of  Anhalt-Kothen,  Katke 
sets  up  a  school  at  Kothen,  where  he  carries  out  his  principles  of  follow- 
ing nature,  mastering  one  thing  at  a  time,  studying  the  mother  tongue, 
eliminating  the  practice  of  learning  by  heart. 


752.  Eng.  Ch.    At  the  dictation  of  Kin^  James,  Lady  Essex  is   n aiq 
declared  by  a  Commission  of  Bishops,  including  Andrewes,  to  be   I- 
divorced  from  her  husband.     Immediately  after,  she  marries  Carr. 
Abbot,  who  refuses  to  share  in  the  judgment,  forfeits  the  King's  favour. 
The  moral  prestige  of  the  Church  is  greatly  diminished  bj  this  episode. 

753,  Eng.  Lit.    Drajrton's  Polyolbion,  a  poetical  description  of  England. 
Browne's  Britannia's  Pastorals,  witn  Giles  and  Phineas  Fletcher 

and  Wither,  carry  on  the  Spenserian  tradition. 
75J^     Philology.    Erpenius*  Arabic  Grammar. 

755.  Economics.  Serra's  Causes  of  Wealth  asserts  the  superiority  of 
manufactures  over  agriculture  as  a  source  of  national  wealth  and  the 
importance  of  a  large  supply  of  gold  and  silver. 

756.  SodaL  The  New  Kiver,  engineered  by  Sir  Hugh  Myddelton, 
enters  London. 

757.  Death.    Regnier. 

758.  Eng.  Ch.  Busher,  a  Baptist,  writes  a  Plea  for  Liberty  of  n  ^^4 
Conscience.  ^ 

759.  Oerman  Ch.  A  book  entitled  Generalreformation  der  ganzen 
Welt  describes  the  Rosicrucians,  for  whom  a  Confession  is  drawn  up 
1615,  and  of  whom  an  Order  is  founded.  The  movement  springs  from 
the  desire  of  Andreae,  a  Lutheran  pastor,  for  a  religious  revival,  but 
qaickly  breaks  up  into  many  branches  and  becomes  connected  with 
alchemy  and  Caboalism. 

Sigismund,  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  issues  a  Calvinistic  Confession, 
but  makes  no  attempt  to  enforce  it. 

760.  Asiatic  Ch.  Jeyasu  orders  the  exile  of  missionaries  and  the 
recantation  of  native  converts.  A  terrible  persecution  begins,  and  after 
twenty  years  not  a  Christian  is  known  to  exist  in  Japan,  though  a  few 
continue  secret  adherents. 

761.  Eng.  Lit.    Overbury's  Characters. 

762.  Science.  Napier  invents  Logarithms  and  explains  their  constnic- 
tion,  1619.    The  tables  are  constructed  by  his  friend  Brig^  1617. 

763.  Philosophy.  With  the  death  of  Cremonini,  the  Aristotelians  in 
Italy  come  to  an  end. 

764.  History.    Raleigh's  History  of  the  Worid. 

At  the  wish  of  James  I.,  Casaubon  criticises  Baronius,  admitting  his 
sincerit}',  but  exposing  his  i^orance  of  Greek  and  Hebrew  and  his 
employment  of  a  large  quantity  of  apocr3rphaI  material. 

765.  Gheography.  John  Smith  explores  the  coast  of  Northern  Virginia, 
and  publishes  a  description  with  a  map. 

rietro  della  Valle  starts  on  a  journey  in  S}Tia,  Persia  and  India. 


104  POLITICS  [1616 


514.  England.    Somerset  and  his  wife  (the  Countess  of  Essex)    r^g^^ 
are  accusdi  and  found  guilty  of  poisoning  Sir  Thomas  Overbuiy.    ^ 
The  King  spares  their  lives,  but   banishes  them  from  Court,  where 
Somerset's  pkce  is  taken  by  George  Villiers. 

515.  France.    The  Second  Civil  War  breaks  out,  Cond^  allying  with 
Bouillon  and  the  Huguenots.    The  government,  unable  to  resist,  makes 

peace. 

Louis  marries  Anne,  daughter  of  Philip  III. ,  who  resigns  her  claims  to 
the  Spanish  throne,  Philip  s  son  at  the  same  time  marrying  Louis 
sister.  The  Queen-Mother  s  policy  of  union  with  Spain  is  thus  com- 
pleted. 

516.  America.    Champlain  undertakes  an  expedition  to  Lake  Huron. 

517.  Asia.    The  English  defeat  a  superior  Portuguese  fleet  off  the 
Bombay  coast  at  Swally. 


518.  England.  An  action  is  brought  against  Bishop  Neile,  to  r-^^^^ 
whom  the  King  has  granted  a  living  in  commendam ;  but  James  ^ 
orders  the  judges  not  to  give  sentence  till  they  have  consulted  with  him. 
Against  this  Chief  Justice  Coke  protests  and  is  in  consequence  dismissed. 
He  is  succeeded  by  Sir  Henry  Montague,  a  thorough-going  supporter  of 
the  King.  Henceforth  the  prerogative  is  safe  from  attack  in  the  coorta 
of  law. 

519.  Prance.    Cond^  is  arrested,  and  Richelieu  becomes  Secretary  of 
State. 

520.  America.    The  cultivation  of  tobacco  is  introduced  into  Virginia 

521.  Asia.    The  Manchoo  Tartars  invade  China,  conquer  the  province 
of  Lao-Tung,  1619,  and  proclaim  their  independence,  1620. 


522.  England.    Raleigh,  who  has  been  liberated  by  Buckingham,    r^g^» 
IB  16,  sails  for  Guiana,  in  search  of  a  gold  mine,  promising  the    '> 
King  not  to  molest  the  dominions  of  Spain. 

Negotiations  for  a  Spanish  match  are  formally  opened,  but  are 
dropped,   1618,  on  the  demand  for  privileges  for  English  Catholics. 

523.  Prance.  Concini,  whom  liouis  lias  long  wished  to  overthrow,  i& 
murdered,  and  Luynes,  the  King's  favourite,  takes  his  place,  the  Queen- 
Mother  joining  the  opposition. 

B^am  is  united  to  the  crown,  and  the  restoration  of  Catholicism 
and  Church  property  is  decreed. 

524.  Bohemia.  The  Bohemian  Estates  are  bribed  by  promises  and 
threats  to  recognise  Ferdinand  of  Styria,  cousin  of  Matthias,  the  pro- 
spective heir  to  the  Empire,  as  heir  to  the  throne. 


1117]  CULTURE  105 

7*j6,  Iriah  Ch.  The  first  Convocation  of  the  Protestant  cleigy  hqi^ 
adopts  a  strictly  Galvinistic  Confession,  drawn  up  by  Ussher.  '- 

rc  Oennan  Ch.  Parens,  Professor  of  Theology  at  Heidelberg,  where 
libefalism  has  been  encouraged  by  Frederick  IV.,  1592-1610,  issues  an 


>;$.    l^puiiih  Lit.    Cervantes'  Don  Quixote,  Part  II. 

rf2>.    Science,    Kepler's  Nova  Stereometria  Doliorum  investigates  the 

area  of  sarfiaoes,  the  capacity  of  casJcs,  and  conic  sections,  by  infini- 

tfflhnalfl 

770.  Sconomice.  Montchr^tien,  the  dramatist,  dedicates  his  Traits  de 
rfioooomie  Pditique  to  the  Einc  and  the  Queen-Mother,  suggested  by 
Tisits  to  Eni^and  and  the  NeUierlands.  The  work  recommends  the 
Biereantiliat  principles  on  which  Richelieu  and  Colbert  later  act 

771.  FhHoeophy.  Vanini's  De  Admirandis  Naturae  Arcanis,  a  system 
f^  naturalistic  pantheism,  is  condemned  by  the  Inquisition. 

rasquier. 


t  >  m 


rrj.    Xng.  Ch.    De'Dominis,  late  Archbishop  of  Spalatro,  pro-    \\kir 
fanes  himadf  an  Anglican  and  settles  in  England,  where  he  is    ^ 
presented  with  several  benefices. 

Heoiy  Jacob  returns  from   Leyden    and    coUects    the    scattered 
fimvnisto  or  Independents  surviving  from  1593  into  a  congr^ation  at 
SoQtfawark. 
77 i,    French  Ch.    Francis  de  Sales'  work  On  the  Love  of  Grod. 
77.y,    Science,     Galileo  is  threatened  with  punishment  unless  he  under- 
takes not  to  teach  tlie  Copemican  s}'stem  in  future. 

TTie  views  of  Copernicus  are  condemned,  having  hitherto  escaped 
ifvia^  to  the  {«e&ce  of  Osiander  declaring  them  hypothetical. 
^^^'.    Art.    Bernini's  Apollo  and  Daphne  (Kome),  his  first  work. 

Oeognqphy.    After  several  voyages,  Baffin  discovers  and  describes 
Btflb  s  Bay. 

Cervantes,  Shakespere. 


« •  t 


7't    Church  Hist.    Cornelius  a  Lapide  s  Commentaries  begin  to   ri  gi  7 

ippear.  } 

De  Dominis'  De  Republica  Ecclesiastica  maintains  that  the  Bishops, 

fi^*t  the  Pope»  are  head  of  the  ChurcL 
>'>.    Scolcn   Lit.     Drummond's    Forth    Feasting,    a    complimentary 

iddiesi  to  James  on  his  return  to  Scotland. 
«;.    Oerman    Lit.    The  Fruchtbringende    GeseUschaft   of   Weimar, 

MleDed  on  the  Italian  societies,  renders  the  formation  of  literary 

<ir^  in  Germany  fashionable. 

Ailoeophy.    A  collected  edition  of  Fludd's  works  is  published, 

4e»fing  with  medicine,  occultism,  and  Rosicrucianism. 
\<1.    Fdlilice.    Suarex'  De  Legibus  ac  Deo  Legislatore  declares  all  power 

^001  God,  rejects  the  theory  of  the  Divine  right  of  Kings,  and  authorises 


•  V 


o 


106  POLITICS  [IWT 


525.  Sweden.  By  the  treaty  of  Stolbovo,  Gustavus  obtains  Ingeniuum- 
land  aud  Karelia,  and  recovers  the  former  rights  of  Sweden  in  Livonia. 
Novgorod  and  other  Swedish  conquests  in  Russia  are  given  up. 

526.  Aftica.    The  Dutch  buy  the  island  of  Goree  from  its  native  rulers. 


[1618 


527.  England.  Raleigh  attacks  the  Spaniards,  fails  to  find  gold, 
and  returns  to  England  empty-handed.  He  is  executed  on  the 
original  charge  of  treason,  out  in  reality  to  humour  Spain. 

528.  Germany.  Albert  II.,  Duke  Df  Prussia,  dies  childless,  and  his 
dominions  are  joined  to  the  electorate  of  Brandenburg,  though  remaining 
under  Polish  suzerainty. 

529.  Bohemia.  Indignant  at  the  anti-national  and  anti-Protestant 
policy  of  the  government,  the  Bohemian  nobles,  led  by  Count  Thurn, 
revolt,  and  hurl  the  two  regents  from  a  window  of  the  palace  at 
Prague,  by  this  act  commencmg  the  Thirty  Years*  War.  Ferdinand 
despatches  troops  to  subdue  the  rebels,  to  whose  assistance  Mansfeld 
is  sent  by  the  Protestant  Union. 

530.  Spain.  Lenna,  who  has  alienated  the  Austrian  Hapsburgs  by 
his  French  proclivities,  is  dismissed,  and  Spain  prepares  to  co-operate 
in  the  war. 

531.  Italy.  Bedmar,  the  Spanish  ambassador  at  Venice,  concerts  with 
the  Governors  of  Milan  and  Naples  a  land  and  sea  attack  on  the 
Republic,  which,  however,  is  quickly  discovered. 

532.  Asia.    The  Dutch  found  Batavia  in  Java. 

533.  AfHca.  A  British  compauy  is  chartered  to  trade  with  West  Africa, 
and  establishes  forts  on  the  Gambia  and  the  Gold  Coast. 


534.  England.     Craufield  reduces  the  finances  to  order.  r«««g 

535.  Bohemia.  On  the  death  of  Matthias,  the  Bohemians  ^ 
depose  Ferdinand,  who  becomes  Emperor  two  days  later,  and  elect 
Frederick  the  Elector  Palatine.  Maximilian  of  Bavaria  and  the  League 
declare  fur  Ferdinand.  At  this  moment  Bethlen-Gabor  declares  war 
and  besieges  Vienna,  but  is  forced  to  retreat  James  I.  refuses  to 
support  the  aggression  of  his  son-in-law,  but  sends  Doncaster  to  offer 
the  mediation  of  England,  which  is  rejected. 

536.  Holland.  Maurice  seizes  the  opportunity  presented  by  the  defeat 
of  the  Arminians  to  execute  Barneveldt  on  a  charge  of  treason,  and  to 
imprison  Grotius  and  others  in  the  castle  of  Louvestein. 

537.  America.  The  first  Colonial  Parfiament  for  South  Virginia  meet« 
at  Jamestown. 

Negro  slaves  are  brought  to  Virginia. 


1619]  CULTURE  107 

their  deposition  either  by  the  Church  or  by  the  people  where  the  con- 
tract, from  which  they  derive  their  power,  is  broken. 

784.  Deaths.    Suarez,  De  Thou. 

785.  Eng.  Ch.  Selden  is  forced  by  the  High  Commission  to  n^^^g 
recant  his  utterances  on  the  secular  origin  of  tithes.  ^ 

The  King  enjoins  certain  amusements  for  Sunday  afternoon  in 
a  Book  of  Sports,  which  many  clergy  refuse  to  countenance. 

786.  Scotch  Ch.  At  the  General  Assembly  at  Perth,  kneeling  at 
Conununion,  observance  of  Holy  Days,  private  Communion  and  Baptism 
in  case  of  sickness,  and  episcopal  confirmation  are  enjoined.  A  new 
lituigy  is  composed  by  the  Bishops  and  authorised  by  the  King,  but  is 
not  introduced. 

787.  French  Ch.  The  Benedictines  of  St  Maur  settle  in  Paris,  receive 
St  Germain  des  Pr^s,  and  under  D' Ach^ry,  their  first  librarian,  commence 
their  historical  studies. 

Vincent  de  Paul  founds  the  order  of  Sisters  of  Mercy  for  the  care  of 
the  sick. 

Cameron,  a  Scotchman,  becomes  Professor  of  Theology  at  Saumur, 
where  he  teaches  a  modified  Calvinism  (described  by  opponent^^  as  semi- 
Pelagianism),  and  forms  a  school. 

788.  SpaxiiBh  Ch.    St  John  of  the  Cross'  Spiritual  Works. 

789.  Dntch  Ch.  A  Synod  is  held  at  Dort,  at  which  Deodatus, 
Scultetus,  Breitinger,  Hall,  Davenant,  Hales  are  present,  to  close 
the  Arminian  controversy.  Despite  the  defence  of  Episcopius,  the 
Anninians  are  banished,  and  the  Belgic  Confession  of  15B1  (revised) 
and  the  Heidelberg  Catechism  are  confirmed.  The  five  articles  of  the 
Remonstrance  are  rejected,  and  five  Calviuistic  canons  adopted. 
Calvinistic  Scholasticism  is  further  elaborated  by  Gomar,  Voetius,  and 
Hoombeck. 

790.  Church  Hist.  A  Conference  for  the  reunion  of  Catholics  and 
Protestants  is  held  at  Prague. 

791.  Death.    Duperron. 

792.  French  Ch.    Vanini  is  burnt  at  Toulouse  as  an  '  atheist/     riQio 
79S.     Church  Hist.    Scioppius'  Classicum  Belli  Sacri  summons   *- 

the  Gatholic  Princes  of  the  Empire  to  the  annihilation  of  heretics. 

794.  Kntf-  I«it.    Ben  Jonson  visits  Dnimmond  at  Hawthorndeu. 

795.  Science.  In  his  lectures  at  St  Bartholomew's  Hospital,  Harvey 
reveals  his  discovery  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  in  whicli  he  has 
been  aided  by  the  works  of  his  master,  Fabricius,  Servetus,  Columbus, 
Gaesalpinus,  and  Saipi. 

Kepler's  Harmonia  Mundi  states  his  Third  Law,  that  the  s([uares  of 
the  periodic  times  (revolutions  round  the  sun)  of  the  planets  are  propor- 
tional to  the  cubes  of  their  distances  from  the  sun. 

Decimal  notation  for  fractions  is  used  by  Briggs  and  Napier. 

796.  EQstory.  Sarpi's  History  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  based  largely  on 
the  information  supplied  by  eye-witnesses,  is  pseudonymously  published 
in  England,  iuid  fiercely  attacked  by  ultramontane  writers. 


108  POLITICS  [1610 


538.  England.    Owing  to  nimours  of  a  Spanish  attack  on  the  q^m 
Palatinate,  James,  who  is  willing  to  aid  his  son-in-law  in  self-  "- 
defence,  allows  volunteers  under  Vere  to  garrison  the  fortresses. 

539.  France.  The  discontented  nobles  jom  Mary  in  an  attack  on 
Luynes;  but  Richelieu  negotiates  peace,  and  the  King  ftnd  his  mother 
are  reconciled.  Louis  enters  B^arn  and  roughly  enforces  the  {ffocb- 
mation  of  1617. 

540.  Bohemia.  Frederick  is  cnished  by  Tilly  and  the  army  of  the 
League  at  the  battle  on  the  White  Hill,  outside  Prague,  and  expelled 
from  Bohemia,  and  the  Protestant  Union  is  dissolved.  The  l^Men  of 
the  Bohemian  revolt  are  executed,  the  Protestant  clergy  are  expeUed, 
the  Jesuits  retuni  and  Prague  University  is  merged  in  a  Jesnit  GoUeee, 
Protestant  children  are  forbidden  to  inherit  land,  the  towns  are  it- 
prived  of  their  charters,  the  national  language  is  neglected,  trade  and 
population  decline.     Finally,  in  1627,  the  Protestants  are  expelled 

541.  Germany.  A  Spanish  army  invades  the  Lower  Palatinate  and 
a  Bavarian  army  the  Upper. 

542.  Italy.  Protestants  are  massacred  in  the  Valtelline  (a  subject  huid 
of  the  Protestant  Orisons  League),  and  an  independent  republic  is  pro- 
claimed, and  supported  by  Spanish  and  Austrian  troops. 

543.  America.  A  hundred  of  Robinson's  congregation  at  Leyden  cro» 
the  Atlantic  in  the  Mayflower,  draw  up  a  Compact  of  Government,  and 
land  at  Plymouth. 


544.  England.    Parliament  meets  and  attacks  monopolies,  which   q«21 
are  withdrawn  by  the  King.     Sir  Giles  Mompesson,  one  of  the   •• 
holders,  leaves  the  country. 

The  Commons  impeach  and  disgrace  the  Chancellor  for  accepting 
sums  of  money  before  giving  judgment.  Bacon  admits  the  chaige, 
but  denies  that  his  decision  was  thereby  influenced.  He  is  d^praded 
and  flued,  and  Williams,  Dean  of  Westminster,  succeeds  him. 

545.  France.  Scared  by  events  in  B^n  and  Germanv,  the  Huguenote 
rebel  under  Rohan  and  Soubise.  To  reassure  the  moderates,  the  King 
confirms  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  and  sends  Luynes  and  Lesdigui^res,  the 
latter  a  Huguenot,  to  (juell  the  revolt 

The  Kin^  infonns  Parliament  that  he  is  sending  Digby  to  Vieniii 
to  ask  Ferdmand  to  restore  the  Palatinate,  which,  however,  is  now 
secretly  conferred  on  Maximilian.  Parliament  declares  tliat  if  diplomacr 
fails,  it  will  defend  Frederick,  and  i)etitions  the  King  to  marry  his  son 
to  a  Protestant.    The  King  rebukes  the  Commons  for  their  interference. 

546.  Holland.    The  12  years*  truce  comes  to  an  end 

547.  Netherlands.  The  Archduke  dies,  and  the  Netherlands  are 
re-annexed  to  Spain. 

548.  America.  Alexander,  the  Scotch  i>oet,  obtains  a  patent  for 
Acadia,  described  as  Nova  Scotia ;  but  an  attempt  at  settlement  fails. 


1621]  C?ULTURE  109 


797.  French  Ch,  The  Decrees  of  Dort  are  accepted  by  the  rigoA 
French  Protestants  at  the  Synod  of  Alais.  L^ 

798,  Science.  Drebbel  constructs  a  thennometer,  employing  spirits  of 
wine     Galileo  has  previously  filled  the  bulb  with  air. 

Bacon  suggests  that  heat  may  be  a  movement. 
799,^    Art.    Rubens  is  invited  to  Paris  by  the  Queen-Mother  to  paint 
pictures  for  her  palace  of  the  Luxembourg,  now  in  the  Louvre. 

800.  Philosophy.  Bacon's  Novum  Organum  i)oints  out  the  species  and 
causes  of  error,  and  declares  experience  the  starting-point  and  induction 
the  true  method  of  knowledge.  Of  a  thinl  part,  a  series  of  Natural 
Histories,  only  fragments  are  written.  A  fourth  })art  is  designed  to 
supply  a  knowledge  of  the  forms  underl}'ing  phenomena. 

Campanella's  I)e  Sensu  Rerum,  a  system  of  occultist  pantheism, 
deeply  influenced  by  the  study  of  Telesio. 

801.  Philology.  Salmasius  issues  Casaubou's  Commentary  on  the 
Augustan  History  with  additional  notes. 

802.  Death.    Stevinus. 


803.  Eng.   liit.    Robert    Burton,    of   Christ    Church,   Oxford,    r^ggi 
(writing   as    Democritus    Junior)    publishes    his    Anatomy  of   ^ 
Melfwdioly,  which  he  largely  alters  and  increases  in  subsequent  editions. 

John  &jclay's  Latin  romance,  Argenis,  of  which  an  English  version 
quickly  araears. 

804,  Dutch  Lit.  Constantine  Huyghens'  Batava  Tempe,  a  poem  in 
pndse  of  the  Hague,  the  most  elegant  Dutch  poem  up  to  this  time 
written. 

805,  Science.  Snell  (a  Dutchman)  discovers  the  law  of  refraction  of 
light,  and  calculates  the  index  of  refraction  for  water  and  other  sub- 
stiuices. 

806.  Art.  Inigo  Jones  designs  a  magnificent  palace  at  Whitehall  in 
the  style  of  Palladio,  of  which  only  the  Banqueting  Hall  is  carried  out. 

8€7.  l^conomics.  Mun's  Discourse  of  Trade  from  England  to  the  East 
Indies^  and  England's  Treasure  by  Foreign  Trade,  first  clearly  state  the 
theory  of  the  balance  of  trade,  and  recommend  the  attraction  of  money 
from  abroad.  The  export  of  money  is  permitted  where  the  re-export  of 
the  foreign  wares  that  it  procures  will  bring  back  more  than  the  original 
price  of  purchase.  The  *  Mercantilisi '  theor}'  remains  virtually  un- 
contested till  the  close  of  the  century. 

808,    Death.    Bellarmine. 


110  POLITICS  [len 

549.  England.    Parliament  is  dissolved,  its  protest  being  torn   r^^^ 
from  the  Journals  by  the  King,  and  Coke,  Pym,  and  Selden  are   ^ 
imprisoned. 

Porter  is  sent  to  Madrid  to  arrange  a  visit  from  Prince  Charles,  tod 
to  demand  Spanish  aid  for  Frederick. 

Knight's  sermons  before  Oxford  University  on  the  right  of  i^sistuice 
to  rulers,  based  on  Paraeus'  Commentary  on  Romans,  is  burnt,  and  the 
doctrine  is  condemned  by  the  University. 

550.  Germany.  Bethlen-Gabor  makes  peace  with  the  EmDeror,  and 
Tilly  defeats  the  Margrave  of  Baden  and  Christian  of  Brunswick 
Despite  the  aid  sent  by  James  I.,  the  Palatinate  in  conquered. 

551.  Spain.    Olivarez  becomes  chief  minister. 

552.  America.    Gorges  and  Mason  obtain  a  grant  of  Maine. 

553.  Asia.  English  rivalry  with  Portugal  iu  the  East  ends  with  the 
taking  of  Ormuz. 


554.  England.  Charles  and  Buckingham  visit  Madrid  to  woo  r-t^ 
the  Infanta,  but  are  informed  that  she  will  only  be  sent  to  '> 
England  when  religious  liberty  has  been  given  to  the  Catholics.  The 
scheme  is  in  the  highest  degree  unpopular  with  the  Spaniards,  and  after 
wearisome  negotiations  they  leave  Spain,  in  a  rage.  The  failure  of  the 
match  is  hailed  by  England  with  enthusiasm. 

555.  France.  The  Hu^ienot«  are  forced  to  accept  the  Treaty  of 
Montpellier,  which  forbids  political  gatherings  and  leaves  them  La 
Rochelle  and  Montauban. 

556.  Germany.  Freilerick  is  put  to  the  ban  of  the  Empire,  and  his 
Electoral  dignity  and  the  Upper  Palatinate  are  given  to  Maximilian 
of  Bavaria,  the  Catholics  thereby  obtaining  a  majority  in  the  Electoral 
Diet. 

John  George  of  Brandenburg  is  banned  by  the  Empire,  and  Jagem- 
dorf  is  confiscated  by  the  Emperor. 

557.  Italy.  Venice  and  Savoy  ally  to  wrest  the  Valtelline  from  the 
Hapsburgs ;  but  the  troops  of  the  Pope  occupy  the  valley. 

urban  VIII.  becomes  Pope  and,  fearing  the  Hapsburg  supremacy, 
leans  to  France. 

558.  Asia.  The  English  traders  at  Amboyna  are  massacred  by  the 
Dutch  on  the  charge  of  conspiring  to  surprise  the  garrison. 

559.  West  Indies.  English  and  French  settlements  are  made  in 
St  Kitts,  and  the  other  Leeward  Islands  are  colonised  from  thence. 


1823]  CULTURE  111 

809.  Eng.  Ch.  Laud  holds  a  Conference  with  Fisher,  a  Jesuit  n  aoo 
who  has  converted  Buckingham's  mother.  '- 

De  Dominis,  hearing  that  the  Pope  is  willing  to  welcome  him, 
renounces  his  Anglicanism  and  returns  to  Rome. 

810.  Clinrcli  Hist.  The  Congregation  De  Pronaganda  Fide,  planned 
by  Gregory  XIIL,  is  instituted  by  Gregory  XV.  Tbe  decrees  of  the 
Iropagandia  are  declared  to  have  the  force  of  apostolical  constitutions. 
A  Colkge  for  tlie  education  of  missionaries  is  instituted,  1627. 

811.  Eng.  Lit.    Butter,  a  Loudon  stationer,  publishes  the  Weekly  News. 

812.  French  Lit.  SoreFs  Histoire  Comique  de  Francion  founds  the 
novel  of  bourgeois  manners. 

813.  Italian  Lit.  Tassoni's  Secchia  Rapita  (the  Kape  of  the  Bucket) 
perfects  the  Comic  Epic. 

CampaneDa's  Sonnets  are  printed  in  Germany  by  his  disciple,  Tobias 
Adami. 
814-     Science.    Asellius  discovers  the  tubes  that  carry  nourishment  to 
the  blood,  and  names  them  lacteals. 

815.  History.    Bacon's  Life  of  Henry  VII. 

816.  Deaths.    Melville,  Francis  de  Sales. 

817.  Eng.  Ch.  The  King  allows  a  Catholic  Bishop  in  Partibus  n  ^23 
in  England,  a  victoiy  for  the  Seculars  over  the  Jesuits,  who  fear   •• 

a  diminution  of  their  authority. 

818.  French  Ch.  P^re  (jarasse's  Doctrine  Curieuse  des  Beaux  Esprits 
attacks  the  creed  and  conduct  of  the  Libertins. 

819.  German  Ch.     Glassius'  Philologia  Sacra,  a  Lutheran  classic, 

8'ves  an  inapetus  to  exegetical  work,  which  is  continued  by  Walther, 
dov  and  rfeiffer. 

820.  Chnrch  Hist.  Uriel  Acosta,  a  Portuguese  Jew  resident  in  Amster- 
dam, attacks  Judaism,  is  banned  by  the  Synagogue,  and  commits 
saicide,  1647. 

821.  Asiatic  Ch.  The  Pope  authorises  the  Malabar  Rites,  i.e.,  the 
aocommodations  practised  bv  Nobili  and  other  Jesuits. 

822.  Bntf.  Lit.  The  First  Folio  of  Shakespere,  nominally  collected  by 
his  feUow-actors,  Heming  and  Condell,  really  by  Jaggara  and  a  s}iidi- 
cate  of  pnblishersy  contains  all  the  published  plays  except  Pericles,  and 
classifies  them  as  Histories,  Comedies,  Tragedies. 

Webster's  Duchess  of  Malfi. 
82S.    Italian  Lit.    Marini*s  Adone,  a  descriptive  poem  in  the  style  of 

GoD^ra,  becomes  a  model  for  a  century. 
824^    French   Lit.    Chapelain  writes  an  elaborate  Introduction  to  a 

French  translation  of  Marini^s  Adone. 

825.  Alt.  Velasquez  is  invited  by  Olivarez  to  settle  in  Madrid,  where 
he  is  shortly  appointed  Court-Painter. 

826.  BolitiiML  Gampanella's  Civitas  Solis,  a  communistic  Utopia  in  the 
style  of  Plato  and  More. 

827.  Philology.  The  elder  Buxtorf's  Hebrew  Grammar  commences  the 
sevenfy  yean'  labour  at  Semitic  languages  of  father  and  son. 

828.  ]>eath.    SarpL 


112  POLITICS  [18M 

560.  En^and.  The  fourth  and  last  Parliament  of  James  u  q«24 
summoned  and  votes  supplies  for  the  recovery  of  the  Palatinate,  *^ 
which  Charles  and  Buckingham  persuade  the  King  to  undotake. 
Believing  that  the  Treasurer,  Cranfield,  is  opposed^  to  a  war,  the 
Commons,  encouraged  by  Charles  and  Buckingham,  impeach  faim  for 
malversation.  Believing,  too,  that  the  King  wishes  a  war  in  G^rmaoj, 
and  themselves  desiring  a  war  at  sea,  the  Commons  appronriate  part  of 
their  grant  to  refit  the  navy,  in  addition  to  supplying  Manafeld  witli 
12,000  men.  Parliament  is  prorogued  and  a  marriage  treaty  made 
with  France,  by  which,  despite  the  promise  made  to  the  CommoDi, 
liberty  is  granted  to  the  English  Catholics. 

Monopolies  are  finally  declared  illegal. 

561.  France.  Richelieu,  who  has  received  a  Cardinal's  hat,  1623. 
becomes  supreme.  The  Council  consists  henceforward  rather  of  lawyers 
than  of  nooles  and  clergy. 

562.  Italy.  Richelieu  allies  with  Venice  and  Savoy,  and  Swiss  and 
French  troops  expel  Spain  from  the  Valtelline. 

563.  Sweden.  Gustavus  Adolphus  makes  proposals  to  England  in 
regard  to  intervention  in  the  war. 

564.  America.  A  Dutch  West  India  Company  is  formed  to  drive  the 
Portuguese  out  of  South  America.  For  some  years  plundering  expedi- 
tions are  made,  with  little  attempt  at  trade  or  colonisation. 


565.  England.  Mansfeids  troops  reach  Holland  without  monev  r^^ 
or  provisions,  and  three-fourths  of  them  soon  die.  Disgusted  witn  *• 
the  mismanagement  of  the  war,  the  new  Parliament  refuses  to  gnmt  a 
lar^e  sum  for  the  war  except  to  counsellors  in  whom  it  has  confidence, 
and  is  in  consequence  dissolved.  A  fleet  sent  by  the  King  to  Cadiz 
to  intercept  the  bpanish  treasure-ships  returns  without  striking  a  Uow. 

566.  France.  A  new  revolt  breaks  out  under  Soubise  and  Rohan, 
owing  to  the  erection  of  a  fort  near  La  Rochelle,  but  is  ended  by  the 
defeat  of  the  Huguenot  fleet. 

567.  Germany.  Tilly  and  Wallenstein  enter  Saxony,  and  the  Danish 
period  of  the  war  begins,  Christian  IV.  being  Duke  of  Holstein  and 
nead  of  the  Lower  Saxon  Circle. 

568.  Netherlands.  Spinola  retakes  Breda  (captured  by  Maurice  1598). 
after  1 1  montLs'  siege. 

569.  America.  Corten,  a  merchant  of  Flemish  descent,  plants  a  colony 
in  Barbadoes. 


1626]  CULTURE  113 

S29,     Eng.   Ch.    Monta^,   an   Anglican    rector,   replies   to   a   mq24 
CHtholic  attack  on  Calvinism  in  his  New  Gag  for  an  old  Goose,    *■ 
recognising  the  Roman  Church  as  part  of  the  true  Church,  and  author- 
ising confession,  belief  in  the  Real  Presence,  and  similar  doctrines. 

SSO,  French  Ch.  Vipcent  de  Paul  founds  the  Lazarists  or  Priests 
of  the  Mission  for  evangelical  and  charitable  work  in  the  rural  districts. 

8S1,  German  lat.  Opitz*  Buch  von  der  deutschen  Poeterey  insists  on 
beauty  of  form,  purifies  German  style,  and  founds  the  first  Silesian 
School 

832.  Science.    Van  Helmont  intrcniuces  the  term  Gas. 

833.  PhiloBophy.  Lord  Herbert's  De  Veritate  introduces  Deism  into 
England,  and  maintains  that  we  have  five  *  common  notions,'  namely 
that  God  exists,  that  He  should  be  worshipped,  that  virtue  is  a  means 
of  worship,  that  repentance  is  necessary,  and  that  rewards  and  punish- 
ments will  follow  tnis  life. 

834.  Philology.    Gerard  Vossius'  De  Historicis  Graecis. 

835.  Deaths.    Bohme,  Mariana. 


836.  Eng.  Ch.    In  consecjuence  of  Abbot's  censure  on  Montagu's    n  gofi 
distinction  between  Puritan  and  Anglican  principles,  Montagu    ^ 
writes  Appello  Caesarem,  for  which  Parliament  impeaches  him.     Owing 
in  part  to  Laud,  now  rising  in  influence,  the  King  replies  by  making 
Montagu  his  chaplain,  and  shortly  after  Bishop  of  Chichester. 

Nicholas  Ferrar  withdraws  from  the  world  and  settles  with  his 
family  at  Little  Gidding  in  Huntingdonshire,  where  he  spends  his  time 
and  devotion  in  parish  work.  The  community  is  twice  risited  by  the 
King,  but  is  broken  up  by  the  civil  wars. 

Lftud  draws  up  a  list  of  Orthodox  and  Puritan  clerg>'. 

837.  Chnrch  Hist.  At  the  request  of  Lutheran  friends,  Metrophanes, 
a  disciple  of  Cyril  Lucar,  draws  up  a  Confession  strongly  attacking 
Bomamsm,  but  silent  in  regard  to  Protestantism. 

838.  Eng.  Lit.    Howell's  Letters  begin. 

839.  French  Lit.  Balzac's  Letters  and  Voiture's  Letters  and  Vers  de 
Soci^  inmrove  French  prose  by  their  dignity  and  correctness. 

8j^,  Dntch  Lit.  Vondel  defends  the  memory  of  Bameveldt  in  his 
tragedy  of  Palamedes,  which  is  bitterly  attacked  by  Cats  and  other 
Calvinists. 

Cats'  Marriage,  and  Emblems  of  Fancy  and  Love,  remain  universal 
{ayonrites  for  two  centuries. 

841.  Science.    De  Dominis  attempts  to  explain  the  rainbow. 

842.  Law.  Grotius'  De  Jure  Belli  et  racis,  based  on  Oldendorp, 
Hemming,  Winkler,  Vittoria,  Ayala,  Gen ti lis,  and  in  part  suggested  by 
the  Thirty  Years'  War  and  by  the  Dutch  East  India  Company,  gives 
a  great  impetus  to  the  discussion  of  international  law  by  appealing  to 
natural  law  as  springing  from  the  social  nature  of  man. 

843.  Geography.    Purchas  his  Pilgrims. 
844^    Deaths.    Marini,  Maurice  of  Nassau. 

G.  8 


114  POLITICS  [1826 

570.  England.  Charles'  second  Parliament  meets,  the  King  haTing  r^^ 
chosen  the  more  independent  members  sheriffs  for  the  year.  The  •• 
Commons,  however,  find  a  leader  in  Eliot,  who  impeaches  Buckiii^in 
on  the  charge  of  lending  ships  to  the  French  King  to  suppress  the 
Huguenots.  The  King  dissolves  Parliament  without  a  grant  ofsuppliea. 
and  orders  a  forced  loan. 

571.  Prance.  The  Huguenots  are  accorded  the  terms  of  1623;  tat 
Richelieu  resolves  to  break  their  political  power,  and  interrupts  his  var 
with  Spain  in  Italy  by  the  treaty  of  Mouzon,  without  knowledge  of  his 
allies.  The  Valtelline  remains  subject  to  the  Orisons,  though  Catholie 
worship  is  guaranteed. 

The  nobility  and  courtiers  revolt  against  the  Cardinal  and  win  the 
king's  brother  to  a  scheme  to  depose  him  and  murder  Richelieu.  "Hie 
plot  is  discovered,  and  its  authors  punished  with  death  or  exile. 

Brittany  petitions  against  the  rule  of  descendants  of  its  ancient 
dukes,  and  prays  for  the  destruction  of  its  fortresses. 

572.  Germany.  Tilly  routes  the  Danes  at  Lutter,  aud  Wallenstein, 
who  raises  an  army  aud  takes  the  field  for  the  Emperor,  defeats  Mansfeld 
at  the  bridge  of  Dessau.  Mansfeld  and  Christian  of  Brunswick  die 
shortly  after. 

573.  Italy.  The  Duchy  of  Urbino  is  bequeathed  to  the  Pope  by  the 
last  of  the  Rovere,  who  dies  childless. 

574.  America.  The  Dutch  settlement  of  New  Amsterdam  is  made  on 
Manhattan  Island. 


575.  En^and.    Discontent  is  caused  by  the  practice  of  billeting   r^^Mo 
and  the  exaction  of  forced  loans,  for  refusing  which  five  knights   '• 
are  imprisoned  on  a  royal  warrant.     The  King's  prerogative  is  at  the 
same  time  magnified  by  Sibthorp  and  Mainwaring. 

576.  Prance.  The  Huguenots  once  more  revolt  and  the  siwre  of 
La  Rochelle  commences.  An  expedition  under  Buckingham  fiuls  to 
relieve  the  city. 

577.  Germany.  Wallenstein  exnels  the  Danes  from  Silesia,  and  over- 
runs Holstein,  Schleswig  and  Jutland. 

578.  Italy.  The  Gonzaga  line  dies  out  at  Mantua,  and  Nevers,  a  French 
Prince,  succeeds.  The  Emperor,  however,  claims  Mantua  as  feudal 
suzerain. 

579.  America.  The  Guiana  Company  is  chartered;  but  colonisadon 
does  not  extend. 

580.  West  Indies.  Lord  Carlisle  obtains  the  grant  of  the  Caribbean 
Islands. 


581.     England.    Charles  summons  his  third  Parliament,  desiring   rvgaft 
money  for  a  second  expedition  to  La  Rochelle.     Wentworth   *• 
attacks  the  government,  but  retires  from  the  struggle  when  the  King 
refuses  his  recommendations,  and  becomes  President  of  the  Council  w 


1828]  CULTURE  115 

ifiS,    Irish  Ch.    A  Presbyterian  Church  is  established  in  Ulster,    ri  gnfi 
Sift.    French  Ch.     A  work  of  Sanctarel,  reviving  the  contention    '- 

of  the  power  of  the  Pope  to  depose  a  King,  is  disowned  by  the  court 

JesnitoW  burnt  i-  i~»  8 

S^,  American  Lit.  Sandys'  verse  translation  of  Ovid's  Meta- 
morphoses, the  first  purely  literary  work  undertaken  in  English 
America. 

8i8,  Science.  Desai^es  lectures  on  projective  geometry,  the  new 
method,  however,  being  shortly  displaced  by  the  anal3rtical  method 
of  Descartes. 

A  Jaidin  des  Plantes,  for  students  of  medicine  and  the  culture  of 
mediciDal  herbs,  is  instituted  at  Paris. 

Sj&,    Law.    Spelman's  Glossary  of  Law  terms. 

^j.    Deaths.    Andrewes,  Bacon. 


^/.    Xng.   Ch.    Cosin  composes  Devotions,  of  a  pronounced    [1^07 

AngiicaD  tjrpe,  for  the  ladies  of  the  Court.  1- 

^>.^    Dutch  Ch.  Grotius'  De  Veritate  Religionis  Christianae  combats  the 

<pirit  of  the  French  sceptics  and  attempts  to  rise  above  the  dififerences 

between  the  Churches. 
So-i,    Chnrch  Hist.    The  Bull  In  Caena  Domini  excommunicates  heretics 

and  schismatics  and  their  defenders,  the  owners  of  heretical  books,  and  all 

vbo  appeal  from  a  Papal  decree  to  a  future  General  Council.     Clerics 

cioDot  oe  taxed  or  punished  without  Papal  permission. 
i^l    Sn^  Lit.    Bacon's  New  Atlantis. 
4>J.    Spaniflh  Lit.    Quevedo's  Visions  found  '  Conceptismo,'  or  pedantry 

of  the  idea,  a  companion   and  a  contrast  to  the  Culteranismo  of 

GoQ^ora. 

lino's  earliest  plays  carry  on  the  work  of  Lope,  with  an  added 

ftKugth  and  realism. 

Mendoza's  Guerra  de  Granada. 
^>A    Art.    Voaet,  after  14  years'  residence  in  Italy,  is  summoned  to  the 

pRDch  Court,  and  revives  French  painting. 

Schutz'  Daphne,  the  first  German  opera,  introduces  Italian  reforms 

■to  German  musia 
^.    History.    Petavius'  Doctrina  Temporum  attacks  the  chronology  of 

Scaliger. 


^.    Sng.  Ch.     The  King  issues  a  declaration,  composed  by    hqor 
Lud,  foitndding  public  discussion  of  predestination  and  other   ^ 
&pQted  doctrines.    At  the  same  moment  Laud  is  made  Bishop  of 
Lvdon,  and  Mainwaring,  lately  censured  by  the  Commons  for  his 
T)ev4  of  the  prerogative,  receives  promotion. 

By  the  E^ffs  order,  Laud  edits  Andrewes'  sermons. 
1%    FirenchCh.     DaiU^'s  L'Usage  des  P^res  maintains    that  the 
Patiicn  are  of  little  assistance  in  the  disputes  of  the  day.     His  work  is 
faj  Hales  aod  Chillbgworth. 

8—2 


116  POLITICS  [108 


the  North.  Eliot,  Coke,  and  Selden  carry  the  Petition  of  Right,  (br- 
bidding  martial  law,  enforced  billeting,  forced  loans  or  taxes  without 
Parliamentary  grant,  and  imprisonment  without  cause  shown. 

Buckingham  is  murdered  at  Portsmouth  when  about  to  embark  ob  a 
second  expedition  to  La  Rochelle. 

582.  France.  La  Rochelle  is  starved  into  surrender  and  dismantled, 
and  the  political  power  of  the  Huguenots  is  broken. 

583.  Germany.  Wallenstein  attacks  the  Hanse  Towns,  but  &ik  to 
take  Stralsund.  Gustavus  turns  from  his  Polish  war  to  the  aid  of 
Denmark. 

584.  Holland.    The  Dutch  capture  the  Spanish  silver  fleet 


585.  England.  Eliot  introduces  resolutions  declaring  enemies  of  r^aM 
the  kingdom  those  who  introduce  innovation  in  religion  and  those  '• 
who  recommend  or  pay  tonnage  and  poundage  without  Parliamentair 
grant.  The  Speaker,  who  has  orders  to  aojoum  the  House,  is  held 
down  while  the  resolutions  are  read.  Parliament  is  dissolved,  Eliot  i? 
sent  to  the  Tower.  Personal  Government  commences,  supported  by 
Wentworth,  Laud  and  Weston.  France  renounces  her  support  of  the 
English  Catholics,  and  England  her  support  of  the  Huguenots. 

586.  France.  The  Huguenots  rise  for  the  last  time  under  Rohan  ind 
receive  subsidies  from  Spain,  but  are  quickly  reduced. 

587.  Germany.  Tilly  and  the  Catholic  League  refusing  to  gnmt 
Wallenstein's  plea  for  aid,  Christian  invades  Germany,  but  is  demted 
by  Wallenstein  and  forced  to  conclude  peace  at  Lubeck.  He  receivw 
back  his  conquered  territories,  but  withdraws  from  German  pohtics. 
The  Dukes  of  Mecklenburg  are  put  to  the  ban,  and  Wallenstein  is 
invested  with  their  lands. 

The  Edict  of  Restitution  restores  property  secularised  since  1551 
The  refusal  to  recognise  the  Calvinists  alienates  Saxony  and  Bran- 
denburg. 

588.  Italy.  The  War  of  the  Mantuan  succession  breaks  out  Spain 
besieges  Casale,  which  is  relieved  by  France. 

589.  America.  The  King  grants  a  charter  to  the  Massachusetts  Bay 
Company  and  Mason  receives  New  Hampshire. 

Quebec  is  captured  by  England. 


.V.M).     England.     Peace  is  made  with  Spain.  r,^ 

o*n.  Prance.  Angered  by  Kichelieu's  anti-Spanish  policy,  the  '- 
Queen-mother  heads  a  plot  to  overthrow  his  authority,  but  fails  at  the 
pay  of  Dupes,  and  flies  to  Bnissels.  The  Duke  of  Orleans  takes  refiij.'* 
in  Lorraine,  and  Marillac,  one  of  the  Queen-mother  s  tools,  is  executed. 
5*J2.  Germany.  The  Catholic  princes  meet  at  Katisbon  and  pre.<«  f^r 
the  resignation  of  Wallenstein.  The  demand  being  supported  by  Father 
Joseph,  whom  Richelieu  sends  to  sow  discord  between  the  princes  and 


1630]  CULTURE  117 

860.  German  Ch.  Drechsel's  Meditations  supply  devotional  literature 
for  educated  Catholics. 

861.  Literature.  Cyril  Lucar,  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  presents  the 
Codex  Alexandrinus  to  Charles  I. 

862.  Science.  Harvey  publishes  his  De  Motu  Cordis  et  Sanguinis,  the 
tenets  of  which  are  accept^  by  Descartes,  Hobbes  and  other  thinkers, 
but  cost  the  author  his  practice,  and  lead  him  into  controversy  with 
Biolan,  Professor  of  Anatomy  at  Paris. 

Castelli,  a  pupil  of  Galileo,  founds  hydraulics  by  his  Misura  dell' 
Acque  Correnti. 

Kepler's  Rudolphine  Tables  are  published,  based  on  Tycho  Brahe's 
observations. 

863.  Art.    The  Arundel  marbles  reach  England. 
Shah  Jehan  builds  the  Taj  Mahal  at  Agra. 

864.  History.    Blondel's  False  Decretals  attack  the  Pseudo- Isidore. 

865.  Law.    Coke's  Institutes,  a  Commentary  on  Littleton. 

866.  Oeography.    Dutch  expeditions  reach  Western  Australia. 

867.  Death.    Malherbe. 


868.  £ng.   Ch.    The  King  issues   Instructions,  composed    by   ng29 
Laud,  forbidding  Puritan  'lecturers*  and  the  employment  of  ^ 
chaplains,  except  by  noblemen,  and  attacking  non-resident  Bishops. 

869.  Iriah  Ch.  Bedell  becomes  Bishop  of  Kilmore,  and  helps  to  reform 
the  Irish  Church. 

870.  Church  Hist.  Cyril  Lucar,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  writes  a 
Calvinistic  Confession  in  Latin,  which  he  hopes  may  be  adopted  by  and 
reform  the  Greek  Church. 

871.  Spanish  Lit.  The  plays  of  Alarcon,  the  most  polished  of  Spanish 
dramatists,  are  collected. 

872.  Philosophy.  Descartes  settles  in  Holland,  only  thrice  re-visiting 
France.  Mersenne,  his  old  schoolfellow,  becomes  his  literar\«^  repre- 
sentative in  Paris.  Descartes  also  corresponds  with  Elizabeth,  daughter 
of  the  Elector  Palatine. 

873.  Philology.    Salmasius'  Commentar}'  on  Solinus. 

874.  Deaths.    BeruUe,  Buxtorf  (senior),  Bethlen  Gabor. 


875.  Bng.  Ch.    Dr  Leighton  is  imprisoned  by  the  Star  Chamber    Mg3Q 
for  an  attack  on  episcopacy.  '- 

George  Herbert  becomes  Bector  of  Bemerton. 

876.  Church  Hist.    Dur}-,  chaplain  to  the  English  merchants  at  Elbing, 
begins  to  travel  over  Europe  with  a  view  to  reunion. 

877.  Danish  Lit.    Arrebo's  Hexameron,  modelled  on  Du  Bartas,  founds 
modem  Danish  literature. 

878.  American  Lit.    Winthrop  begins  to  keep  a  Journal. 


118  POLITICS  [IfiSO 

the  Emperor,  Ferdinand,  who  wishes  to  secure  his  son's  election  as  King 
of  the  Komans,  gives  way.  Tilly  assumes  the  command  of  Walko- 
stein's  army,  and  the  Emperor  once  more  becomes  overshadowed  by  the 
League.  At  the  same  moment,  Gustavus  crosses  to  Germany,  and  ii 
joined  by  Bernard  of  Weimar  and  other  petty  princes. 

593.  Italy.  Richelieu  leads  an  expedition  to  Italy,  reduces  Pioerolo, 
and  occupies  Saluzzo. 

594.  America.  Fifteen  vessels,  bearing  over  1,000  colonists,  includine 
Winthrop,  the  governor,  reach  Massachusetts,  and  found  Boston  and 
other  towns.  In  the  next  decade  they  are  joined  by  20,000  immi- 
grants. 

595.  West  Indies.  The  Buccaneers  (adventurers  of  all  countries) 
settle  in  Tortuga,  off  Hispaniola,  and  prey  on  Spanish  commerce 
throughout  the  century. 


596.  Italy.    By  the  Treaty  of  Clierasco,  the  Emperor  rec^ignises    q^^j 
Nevers  as  Duke  of  Mantua,  allows  Savoy  to  obtain  part  of  the    ^ 
Duchy  of  Montferrat,  and  withdraws  the  Imperial  troops  from  Italy, 
leaving  the  reward  of  the  Mantuan  war  to  France,  which  again  obtaiiu 
a  footing  in  Italy. 

By  a  secret  agreement  with  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  Richelieu  obtains 
tlie  fortress  of  Pinerolo,  which  dominates  Savoy,  and  Victor  Amadeos 
marries  a  sister  of  the  King  of  France. 

597.  Germany.  Gustavus  concludes  a  subsidy  treaty  with  France,  and 
attempts  to  win  over  Saxony  and  Brandenburg.  He  succeeds  with  the 
latter,  but  too  late  to  relieve  Magdeburg,  which,  after  a  long  si^e,  i« 
stormed  and  sacked  by  Tilly.  The  Emperor  orders  an  attack  on  Saxony, 
which  is  thus  forced  to  ally  with  Gustavus.  The  two  powers  rout  Tilly 
at  Leipsig,  and  Gustavus  occupies  the  Rhine  principalities.  At  the 
Emperor  s  urgent  entreaty,  Wallenstein  undertakes  to  collect  an  army, 
but  he  insists  on  complete  control.  At  this  moment,  he  begins  to 
secretly  negotiate  with  the  Swedes. 

598.  Holland.  A  Spanish  fleet  sent  against  the  Dutch  privateers  is 
destroyed. 


599.  England.  The  Treaty  of  St  Germain  between  France  and  r,M2 
England  cedes  New  France,  Acadia  and  Canada  to  France.  ^ 

600.  France.  Montmorency,  governor  of  Languedoc,  receives  Gaston 
of  Orleans  in  his  province  and  heads  a  rebellion  against  Richelieu,  by 
whom  it  is  quickly  suppressed.  Gaston  is  pardoned,  but  Montmorency, 
the  last  of  the  famous  family,  is  executed. 

601.  Germany.  Gustavus  advances  on  Bavaria,  defeats  and  kills  Tilly. 
who  attempts  to  bar  the  passage  of  the  Lech,  and  enters  Municn. 
Hoping  to  create  a  principality  for  himself,  and  perhaps  even  to  become 
King  of  Hungary,  Wallenstein  attempts  to  detach  Saxony  from  the 


1632]  CULTURE  119 

879.  Philosophy.  Ames'  De  Conscientia,  inspired  by  the  works  of  his 
Cambridge  master,  Perkins,  developes  Protestant  casuistry  in  England. 

880.  Philology.  Laud  founds  a  Professorship  of  Arabic  at  Oxford,  and 
sends  Pococke,  the  first  Professor,  to  the  East  to  gather  manuscripts. 

881.  Social.  The  Earl  of  Bedford  and  others  undertake  to  dram  the 
Cambridgeshire  marshes,  the  work  being  directed  by  Sir  Cornelius 
Vermuyden. 

882.  Deaths.    D'Aubign^,  Harvey,  Kepler. 


8SS.    French  Ch.    Amyraut,  Professor  of  Theology  at  Saumur,    mq3i 
is  ordered  by  the  Protestant  synod  to  inform  the  King  of  the   *■ 
infringements  of  the  Edict  of  Xantes,  and  enforces  his  right  to  address 
the  King  standing,  like  the  Catholic  deputies. 

884,  Gerxnan  Ch.  An  attempt  to  unite  Lutherans  and  Calvinists  is 
made  at  Leipsig  by  Hesse,  Brandenburg  and  Saxony. 

886.  Church  Hist.  A  women's  Order,  founded  by  Mary  Ward,  on  the 
model  of  the  Jesuits,  is  dissolved  by  the  Pope  on  account  of  its  lax 
difici^ine. 

886.  French  Lit.  Renaudot  founds  the  Gazette  de  France,  which 
becomes  the  organ  of  the  Government,  and  which  he  edits  for  more 
than  20  years. 

887.  Art.    Rembrandt's  Lesson  in  Anatomy.     (The  Hague.) 

888.  Education.  Comenius'  Janua  Quatuor  Linguanim  Reserata  ex- 
plains his  system  of  learning  Latin,  Italian,  French  and  German,  but 
overestimates  the  acquisitive  power  of  the  mind. 

889.  Social.  Spee  attacks  the  belief  in  witchcraft,  which  is  defended  by 
Carpsov  and  others. 

890.  Death.    Richer. 


891.  Eng.  Lit.    Falkland  takes  up  his  residence  at  Great  Tew,    n  goo 
near  Oxford,  and  gathers  round  him  a  circle,  including  Hales,    '- 
Chillingworth,  Hammond,  Morley,  Sheldon,  Clarendon,  Selden,  Carew, 
Suckling,  Davenant,  Waller. 

892.  French  Lit  Gomberville*s  Polexandre  (a  work  of  6,000  pages) 
fonnds  the  school  of  Romans  de  longue  Haleine,  continued  by 
Calpienkle's  Cassandra  and  Mile  Scud^ry*s  Ibrahim  and  Grand  Qn^is. 
This  genre  forms  a  transition  from  the  romances  of  chivalry  to  the  novel 
of  society,  and  dominates  French  literature  till  Boileau. 

893.  Alt.  Van  D^ck,  a  favourite  pupil  of  Rubens,  settles  in  England 
on  Charles'  invitation  as  Court  painter. 


120  POLITICS  [1682 

Swedes.    Gustavus,  however,  joins  the  Elector  and  defeats  Wallenstem 
at  Lutzen,  where  the  Swedish  King  loses  his  life. 

602.  Holland.  The  Dutch  take  Maestricht,  and  Spain  negotiatefl  6r 
peace. 

603.  Sweden.  Christina,  the  daughter  of  Gustavus,  succeeds  to  tk 
throne  under  the  regency  of  Oxenstiem. 

604.  America.  Maryland,  the  northern  part  of  South  Viiginia,  ia 
colonised  bv  Lord  Baltimore,  a  Catholic,  who  is  allowed  to  tax  and 
legislate  only  with  the  consent  of  the  adult  males,  at  first  directly,  later 
by  representatives. 

605.  West  Indies.  English  Colonies  are  planted  in  Antigua  and  Moot- 
serrat. 


606.  England.    The  City  of  London's  property  in  Ulster  is  con-   rjgjj 
fiscated  on  a  charge  of  mismanagement,  and  alleged  encroach-   '- 
ments  on  the  royal  forests  are  recovered. 

607.  Scotland.  Charles  entrusts  the  selection  of  the  Lords  of  the 
Articles  to  the  Bishops. 

608.  Ireland.  Wentworth  lands  in  Ireland  as  Lord  Deputy,  and  sum- 
mons a  Parliament,  ecjually  balanced  between  the  two  Churches,  from 
which  he  obtains  a  grant  rendering  him  independent.  He  reforms  the 
civil  service  and  the  array,  introduces  flax,  and  raises  Ireland  to  un- 
precedented material  prosj)erity. 

609.  Germany.  Wallenstein's  negotiations  with  Saxony  for  a  geneni 
peace,  on  the  basis  of  a  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  B.estitutioQ,  are  dis- 
allowed at  Vienna.  He  thereupon  expels  the  Swedes  from  Silesia,  but 
is  checked  by  Bernard  of  Weimar's  capture  of  Ratisbon. 

Oxenstiern  persuades  several  of  tiie  South  German  states  to  join 
Sweden  in  tlie  Convention  of  Heilbronn. 

610.  Netherlands.  The  Infanta  Isabella  dies,  and  after  the  failure  of 
a  revolt,  the  Spanish  provinces  are  governed  directly  from  Spain.  The 
States-General  do  not  meet  again  till  1790. 


611.  England.    The  King,  on  the  advice  of  Attorney-General    rig^^ 
Noy,  persuades  London  and  other  port  towns  to  furnish  ships,    *■ 

on  the  pretext  of  defence  against  jiiracy. 

Prynne's  ears  are  cut  otf  for  indirectly  attacking  the  Queen  in  his 
Histrioniastix. 

612.  France.    Richelieu  centralises  the  administration  of  the  countrr 
by  api)ointing  Intendant^. 

613.  Germany.    The  Kmperor  deserts  Wallenstein,  who  is  declared 
a  traitor  and  assassinated.     His  army  passes  to  the  Ehuperor's  son. 


1634]  CULTURE  121 

894.  Archaeology.  Bosio  publishes  the  result  of  many  years'  explora- 
tions in  the  Catacombs  in  his  Roma  Sotteranea. 

i9d.  Science.  Gralileo's  Systems  of  the  World  (a  dialogue  between 
a  doubter,  a  Ptolemaic,  and  a  Copernican)  is  licensed  at  Horence 
and  Bome,  but  examined  by  the  Inquisition,  which  summons  him  to 
Rome  (1633),  compels  him  to  recent  his  Copernican  utterances,  and 
confines  him  to  his  home. 

896.  Politics.  Lebret's  La  Souverainet^  du  Roy  openly  recommends 
absolutism. 

897.  Education.    Gustavus  Adolphus  founds  an  University  at  Dorpat. 

898.  Death.    Eliot. 


899.  Eng.   Ch.    Laud  becomes  Archbishoi)  of  Canterbur}-,  re-    rigoo 
publishes  the  Instructions  of  1629  and  the  Book  of  Sports,  moves    •- 
the  Communion  table  to  the  chancel  and  increases  ritual.     His  eflforts 
are  assisted  by  Wren  of  Nonnich  and  other  Bishops  in  their  visitations. 

The  Baptist  Community  is  divided  into  Particular  and  General. 

900.  Scotcn  Ch.  Cliarles  visits  Edinburgh  with  Laud  to  be  crowned, 
and  orders  the  Scotch  Bishops  to  prepare  a  Liturgy. 

901.  American  Ch.  Cotton  and  Hooker  arrive  in  Massachusetts  and 
obtain  almost  absolute  power  in  temporal  and  spiritual  matters. 

902.  Church  Hist.  Scioppius*  Anatomia  Societatis  Jesu  reveals  certain 
of  the  secrets  of  the  Order. 

90S.  Eng.  Lit  Herbert's  The  Temple  initiates  the  *  Metaphysical 
School '  (based  largely  on  Donne),  which  is  developed  by  Quarles, 
Crashaw,  and  Vaughan. 

Massinger's  New  Way  to  Pay  Old  Debts.     With  Ford  and  Shirley 
Massinger  forms  the  third  generation  of  English  dramatists. 

904.  Spanish  Lit.    The  first  collection  is  made  of  Calderon's  plays. 

905.  Philosophy.  La  Mothe  le  Vayer*s  Dialogues  of  Orasius  Tubero 
develope  the  scepticism  of  Montaigne  and  Charron.  His  Virtue  of  the 
Heathen  attacks  the  Jansenist  contention  that  the  virtues  of  the 
heathen  were  vices 

906.  Philology.  The  second  Elzevir  edition  of  the  N.T.  (called  the 
Textus  Receptus),  based  on  the  text  of  Stephanus  and  Beza. 

Morin's  De  Sinceritate  Hebraei   Graecique  Textus  compares  and 
criticises  the  texts. 

907.  Social.    The  Lancashire  witches  are  tried. 

908.  Death.    George  Herbert. 


909.    Eng.   Ch.      Father    Davenport,  chaplain    to  the  Queen,    ngo^ 
declares  that  the  39  Articles  are  not  contrary  to  Roman  doc-    ^ 
trine. 

Father  Leander,  an  English  Benedictine,  and  Panzani,  an  Oratorian, 
are  sent  by  the  Pope,  with  the  sanction  of  the  King,  to  investigate  the 
position  of  the  English  Catholics  and  the  English  Church.  Their  report 
IS  favourable;  but  the  idea  of  reunion  falls  through,  owing  to  the 
opposition  of  the  Jesuits  and  the  Puritans. 


1 22  POLITICS  [1684 


Ferdinand,  who  is  joined  by  Spanish  troops  from  Italy,  advances  to  the 
relief  of  Bavaria,  and  routs  Bernard  of  Weimar  and  Horn  at  Nordlingen. 
The  whole  of  South  Germany  is  saved  for  the  Church  and  Empire.  At 
this  point  France  succeeds  Sweden  as  protector  of  the  Protestants,  iimI 
a  French  army  enters  the  Palatinate. 
614.  West  Indies.  The  Dutch  take  the  island  of  Cura^oa,  whidi 
becomes  the  headquarters  of  contraband  trade  with  the  Spanish  main- 
land. 


615.  England.    The  King  extends  his  demand  for  ship-money   r-*M 
to  the  inland  counties,  thus  creating  a  fleet  independent  of  the   '- 
mercantile  marine. 

616.  Ireland.  Wentworth  claims  for  the  King  the  province  of 
Con  naught,  and  invites  settlers  from  England. 

617.  France.  Richelieu  declares  war  against  Spain,  which  attacks  tlie 
Elector  of  Treves.  At  the  same  moment  he  renews  the  alliance  with 
Sweden  and  makes  the  Leagiie  of  Kivoli  with  the  Dutch,  Savoy,  Mantm 
and  Parma. 

618.  Italy.     Rohan  occupies  the  Orisons. 

619.  Germany.  Saxony  withdraws  from  the  war  by  the  Treaty  of 
Prague,  which  is  accepted  by  Brandenburg  and  most  LuliieTan  States. 
The  Emperor  limits  the  Edict  of  Restitution  to  1627,  and  cedes  Lusatia 
to  Saxony  as  a  fief  of  Bohemia.  The  war  at  this  point  ceases  to  be 
religious  and  becomes  a  struggle  of  French  and  Swedes  against  the 
Hapsburgs^  for  territory. 

620.  America.  Discontented  with  the  system  of  government  in  Massa- 
chusetts, a  number  of  settlers  migrate  to  the  Connecticut  Valley. 
obtained  by  Lonl  Brooke  and  Lord  Saye  and  Sele,  in  whose  honour  the 
fort  of  Saybrook  is  erected. 

621.  West  Indies.    The  French  occupy  Martinique  and  Guadeloupe. 

622.  Asia.    The  Dutch  occupy  Formosa. 


623.  France.     Spanish  and  Austrian  invasions  are  repulsed  ;  but   m  539 
no  decisive  battle  occurs.  *• 

624.  Holland.    The  Dutch  recapture  Breda,  the  last  stronghold  held  by 
Spain. 

625.  Germany.    Oxenstiem  retires  to  Sweden,  but  Baner  defeats  an 
army  of  Imperialists  and  Saxons  at  Wittstock. 


16]  CULTURE  123 

'.  French  Ch.  Amyrault's  La  Pr^estination,  supporting  the  theory 
f  universal  atonement,  is  defended  by  Daill^  and  Blondel,  and  attacked 
7  Pierre  Dumoulin,  Spanheim  and  Kivet  A  schism  in  the  Protestant 
(huTch  is,  however,  avoided. 

Urbain  Grandier  is  burnt  for  sorcery  by  Richelieu. 
.     Eng.  Lit.    Milton's  Ck)mus  is  acted  at  Ludlow  Castle. 
.     Philosophy.    Sanderson's  Cases  of  Conscience. 

African  Gh.    The  Jesuit  mission  in  Abyssinia,  which  has  obtained 
^Dsiderable  influence,  collapses  and  is  never  renewed. 
.     Death.    Coke. 


Eng.  Ch.    To  prevent  the  emigration  of  Puritan  ministers,    rigoc 
11  ordinance  forbids  any  to  leave  the  country  but  soldiers,    •■ 
iilors,  or  merchants.     Many,  nevertheless,  escape  to  America. 

Laud  begins  his  Visitation. 

Scotch  Gh.    Diocesan  Courts  are  established. 

French  Gh.  Petrus  Aurelius  (probably  St  Cyran)  defends  the 
allican  view  of  the  rights  of  bishops  against  the  Jesuits. 

French  Lit.  A  society  of  literary  men,  meeting  weekly  at  the 
ouse  of  Conrart  since  1629  for  discussion  and  criticism  of  each  other's 
orks,  is  transformed  by  Richelieu,  who  is  connected  with  the  group 
irough  Chapelain,  into  the  Academic  Fran^aise.  Conrart  becomes  its 
rat  secretary,  and,  on  Chapelain's  persuasion,  the  Academy  resolves  to 
>mpile  a  Dictionary. 

Science.   Cavalieri  invents  the  principle  of  indiWsibles,  and  applies 
to  the  quadrature  of  curves  and  surfaces  and  the  determination  of 
>lume8.     The  method  replaces  that  of  exhaustions,  and  is  employed 
<r  half  a  century,  when  it  is  superseded  by  the  integral  calculus. 

Law.  Selden  replies  to  Grotius'  plea  for  an  open  sea  in  his  Mare 
lausum. 

Deaths.    Champlain,  Lope  de  Vega. 


Eng.  Gh.  Hales'  Tract  on  Schism  pleads  for  the  toleration  m  oog 
'  theological  differences,  and  founds  English  latitudinarianism.     ^ 

French  Gh.  St  Cyran,  the  life-long  friend  of  Jansen,  becomes 
rector  of  Port  Royal  and  introduces  Jansenism,  i.e.  ultra- Augustinian- 
OQ,  into  France. 

American  Gh.  In  consequence  of  his  separatist  opinions,  his 
tack  on  the  Charter,  and  his  opposition  to  oatns,  Roger  Williams  is 
nished  from  Massachusetts  and  founds  the  town  of  Providence,  on 
od  which  he  buys  from  the  Indians.  Absolute  religious  liberty  and 
mplete  seraration  of  Church  and  State  are  here  first  carried  out.  He 
comes  a  Riptist  (1638),  but  renounces  his  re-baptism  and  becomes 
'  Seeker.' 

French  Lit.  Comeille's  Le  Cid,  suggested  by  a  play  of  De  Castro, 
referred  by  Richelieu  to  a  committee  of  the  Academy,  which  reports 
versely  to  it     Henceforward  the  Academy  ceases  to  issue  reports. 


124  POLITICS  [1631 


626.  England.  The  Judges  are  consulted  by  the  King  in  refer-  r^^ 
ence  to  ship-money,  and  10  out  of  12  report  that  the  King  may  '■ 
enforce  it  if  the  kingdom  appears  to  be  in  danger.  Hampden  deter- 
mines to  reassert  the  validity  of  the  Petition  of  Kight,  and  refuses  :^,- 
levied  for  ship-money.  Of  the  12  judges,  five  pronounce  for  him  and 
seven  against.  The  levy  is  continued,  but  the  arguments  of  Hampden's 
counsel  are  widely  circulated. 

Prynne,  Bastwick  and  Burton  are  heavily  punished  for  attacks  on 
episcopacy,  and  Bishop  Williams  is  disgraced. 

627.  France.     Artois  is  conquered  (1637-40). 

A  revolt  of  the  Croquants  in  Guienne  leads  to  the  abolition  of  the 
privileges  of  the  Province.     The  same  fate  befalls  Normandy,  1639. 

628.  Italy.     Rohan  is  forced  to  retire  from  the  Grisons. 

629.  America.    The  Pequods  are  exterminated  by  Mason,  after  fiTe 
years  of  incursions. 

Maurice  of  Nassau  becomes  Governor-General  of  the  Dutch  powcs- 
sions  in  South  America,  suppresses  piracy,  builds  forts,  and  develops 
trade.     He  fails,  however,  to  conciliate  the  natives. 

630.  AfWca.    Maurice  of  Nassau  despatches  a  force  which  captures 
Elmina  and  expels  the  Portuguese  from  the  Gold  Coast. 

French  tracfers  from  Dieppe  found  the  Fort  of  St  Louis,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Senegal. 


631.  Scotland.  Tlie  Tables  draw  up  a  Covenant,  the  subscribers  r«Mg 
of  wliich  pledge  themselves  to  remove  the  recent  innovations.  '• 
Hamilton  is  sent  to  revoke  the  Prayer-book  and  sanction  the  Covenant. 
The  General  Assembly  is  dissolved  by  Hamilton,  but  continues  it«  session, 
and,  under  the  leadership  of  Alexander  Henderson,  abolishes  Episcopacy 
and  restores  the  Presbyterian  system. 

632.  France.  The  birth  of  an  heir  destroys  the  hope  of  the  Duke  of 
Orleans. 

633.  Germany.  Bernard  of  Weimar  seizes  Breisach,  the  chief  fortress 
of  Elsass.  At  the  same  moment,  Turenne  defeats  the  Duke  of  Lorraine, 
and  the  French  fleet  is  victorious  in  the  Mediterranean. 

634.  America.  The  heads  of  the  Connecticut  settlements,  aided  by 
Hooker,  draw  up  the  Fundamental  Orders,  perhaps  the  first  written 
constitution,  resembling  that  of  Massachusetts,  though  establishing  no 
religious  <|ualification. 

Davenport,  a  minister  silenced  by  Laud,  and  Eaton,  a  parishioner, 
found  a  settlement  in  New  Haven,  in  the  government  of  which  only 
Church  members  share. 

Rhode  Islan<l  is  bought  from  the  Indians  and  colonised  by  refugees 
from  Massachusetts. 

Swedes  and  Finns  found  a  fort  on  the  Delaware  and  call  their  settle- 
ment New  Sweden.     The  colony  is  annexed  to  New  Netherlands,  1655. 

635.  Africa.     France  takes  RtHinion,  called  Isle  de  Bourbon. 


1638]  CULTURE  125 

926.  Education.  A  college  is  founded  by  Harvard,  a  minister  of 
Charlestown,  but  remains  for  a  time  a  seminary  for  clergy. 

Laud*s  Statutes  transfer  the  government  of  Oxford  University  to  the 
Heads  of  Houses. 

927.  Scotch  Ch.  The  use  of  the  new  liturL^^  in  St  Giles  r^ggi^ 
Church,  Edinburgh,  leads  to  a  riot  and  to  the  formation  of   ^ 

a  Committee  called  the  Tables. 

928.  Eng.  Ch.  Chillingworth  renlies  to  Knott,  a  Jesuit,  in  his  Religion 
of  Protestants  a  Safe  Way  of  Salvation,  discussing  fully  the  meaning  of 
Protestantism  and  enforcing  its  logical  corollary  of  Toleraticm. 

929.  American  Ch.  Mrs  Hutchinson  introduces  mystical  antinomian- 
ism  into  Massachusetts,  and  receives  sympathy  from  Vane,  at  this  time 
Governor.  She  is  expelled  by  his  successor,  Winthrop,  and  is  welcome<l 
by  Roger  Williams  to  Providence. 

930.  Eng.  Lit.     Milton's  Lycidas. 

931.  Philosophy.  Descartes  discusses  the  grounds  of  certainty  in  his 
Di.scours  sur  la  M<$thode  pour  bien  conduire  la  Raison  et  chercher  la 
V^rit^  dans  les  Sciences.  His  ideas  are  spread  by  Clerselier,  Mersenne, 
Rohault,  R^gis  and  the  Logic  of  Port  Royal  in  France,  and  by  Geulincx, 
Rener>'  and  Le  Roi  in  the  Netherlands.  Voetius,  Huet  and  others 
attack  tlie  new  philosophy  as  tending  to  atheism. 

932.  Science.  In  an  appendix  to  his  Discours,  Descartes  publishes  his 
Geometrie,  which  by  the  adoption  of  the  analytical  method  ashers  in 
the  period  of  modern  mathematics.  Fennat  independently  reaches 
similar  principles. 

In  a  second  appendix.  La  Dioptriqiie,  Descartes  states  the  law  of 
refraction,  taken  from  Snell. 

In  a  third  appendix,  Les  Mdt^ores,  Descartes  partially  explains  the 
rainbow,  though  ignorant  of  the  unequal  refrangibiiity  of  different  rays. 

933.  Death.    Ben  Jonson. 


9Ji  Eng.  Ch.  Joseph  Mede's  Clavis  Apocalyptica  extracts  an  rigoo 
elaborate  Millenarianism  from  the  Prophets.  ^ 

936.  French  Ch.  St  C>Tan  is  imprisoned  by  Richelieu,  who  dislikes 
him  for  refusing  his  offers  and  for  aiding  Jansen  in  his  attack  on  the 
Protestant  alliance.  While  at  Vincennes.  St  Cyran  obt^iins  influence 
over  Amauld,  Lancelot,  Singlin,  and  De  Sacy,  and  sends  Lcmaitre  to 
represent  him  at  Port  Royal. 

The  brothers  Dupuy  compile  Preuves  des  Libert^s  de  TEglise  Galli- 
cane,  at  the  instance  of  Richeheu.     A  reply  by  *  Optatus  Gallus'  is  burnt. 

936.  Polish  Ch.    The  school  of  Racov  is  closed  by  the  Jesuits. 

937.  Church  Hist.  Cyril  Lucar  is  murdered  by  the  Sultan,  at  the 
instigation  of  his  opponents,  and  his  teaching  is  anathematised  by 
a  Council  at  Constantinople. 

938.  Eng.  Lit.     Milton  sets  out  on  his  Italian  journey. 

939.  Science.    Horrocks  applies  the  elliptical  theory  to  the  moon. 
Galileo's  Mathematical  Discourses  and  Demonstrations,  the  first 

dynamical  investigations  of  the  laws  of  falling  bodies. 
9JiO.    Deaths.    Jansen,  Father  Joseph. 


126  POLITICS  [in 

636.  Scotland.  Charles  marches  north  to  punish  the  Scots  for  mm| 
the  refusal  of  the  General  Assembly  to  dissolve,  but  is  confironted  ^ 
by  an  army  under  Leslie,  supported  by  French  money,  before  which  hii 
own  troops  melt  away.  The  First  Bishops'  War  is  concluded  bytk 
Treaty  of  Berwick,  by  which  the  Scotch  army  is  to  be  disbanded  and 
Parliaments  are  to  be  regularly  summonea.  Parliament  meets  at 
Edinburgh ;  but  the  King  orders  its  adjournment  and  prepares  for 
a  new  attack. 

637.  England.  Wentworth  is  made  Earl  of  Straiford,  becomes  the 
King's  chief  adviser,  and  advises  the  summoning  of  a  Parliament 

638.  Germany.  On  the  death  of  Bernard  of  Weimar,  his  army  paaei 
with  Elsass,  his  latest  conquest,  to  France. 

639.  Holland.  Spain's  last  Armada,  under  O^uendo,  is  annihilated  in 
the  Chamiel  by  Trorap,  the  English  fleet  remaining  neutral. 

640.  Savoy.  Victor  Amadeus  I.  dies,  and  his  wife,  Maria  Christina, 
assumes  the  regency,  with  French  support.  Her  brothers-in-law,  desiring 
a  share  of  power,  ally  with  Spain  ana  seize  Turin  with  Spanish  troops 
A  French  army  comes  to  the  rescue  (1640),  and  recaptures  Turin.  In 
1642,  the  regency  question  is  compromised,  and  the  civil  war  ends. 

641.  Asia.  The  English  East  India  Company  bu^s  land  on  which  it 
builds  Madras,  its  first  territorial  possession  in  India. 


642.  England.  A  Parliament  meets,  but  is  dissolved  after  three  r^^ 
weeks  for  opposing  the  Scotch  war.  The  King  marches  to  meet  ^ 
the  Scots,  who  defeat  part  of  his  army  at  Newbum-on-T3me,  on  which 
a  truce  is  made  at  Ripon.  Charles  calls  a  Council  of  Peers  to  York, 
who  urge  him  to  summon  another  Parliament.  The  Long  Parliament 
meets  (Nov.),  impeaches  Laud  and  Strafford,  releases  and  compensates 
the  political  prisoners,  and  nullifies  the  recent  canons.  The  King  yields 
everything  to  gain  money  with  which  to  pay  the  Scots. 

643.  Germany.  The  Great  Elector  succeeds  to  Brandenburg,  and 
makes  a  truce  with  Sweden. 

644.  Spain.  Exasperated  by  Olivarez'  attempts  to  crush  its  ancient 
liberties,  Catalonia  revolts,  allies  mth.  France,  and  remains  partiilly 
independent  for  16  years. 

645.  Portugal.  The  Portuguese,  encouraged  by  the  Catalonian  revolt, 
proclaim  John  of  Braganza  John  IV.  An  alliance  is  made  with  France ; 
and  the  new  King  is  recognised  by  the  colonies,  though  Spain  retains 
Ceuta  and  Tetuan. 

646.  West  Indies.  The  manufacture  of  sugar  is  introduced  into 
Barbados  from  Brazil,  and  becomes  the  staple  industiy  of  the  West 
Indies. 

647.  Asia.  The  Dutch  destroy  Malacca,  the  Portuguese  rival  of 
Batavia. 


IMO]  CULTURE  127 


i'iJ.  Xng.  Ch.  Wroth,  Erbery,  and  Cradock,  Welsh  clerg}Tnen,  h^^q 
are  deprived  of  their  Brings,  set  up  Independent  Churches,  and  l^''^^ 
ofganiae  Welsh  Nonconformity. 

^1^.  Sooioh  Gh.  The  General  Assembly  passes  the  '  Barrier  Act/  for- 
bidding changes  in  the  laws  of  the  Church  till  ratified  by  prorincial 
Sjnods  and  rresbyteries. 

^^3,    American  Lit.    The  first  Printing-Press  is  established. 

^U.    Science.    Horrocks  first  ob6er>'es  the  transit  of  Venus. 

^iS.    History.    Ussher's  Antiquitates  Ecclesiae  Britannicae. 

Spelmao's  Councils,  Laws  and  Constitutions  of  the  English  Church. 

9^.  Philology.  John  Buxtorf's  Lexicon  chaldaeum,  rabbinicum,  tal- 
■lodicaui. 

'*i7.  Geography.  Father  Gristoyal  de  Acuua  ascends  the  Amazon  and 
writes  the  fint  adequate  description  of  it. 

>iii.    Death.    CampaneUa. 


'^^4.    Sng.  Ch.    Henderson,  Baillie  and  Gillespie  arrive  in  London   tiqaq 

ind  exert  great  influence  by  their  preaching.  L 

Convocarion  continues  to  sit  after  the  dissolution  of  the  Short 

Piriiament  and  makes  Canons,  among  them  a  new  oath  for  the  clergy, 

KToepcing  the  government  of  the  Church  by  Bishops,  *  et  cetera.'    This 

hrfomes   the    object    of  riolent   criticism,  and    Lambeth  Palace  is 

attacked. 

At  the  meeting  of  the  Long  Parliament,  a  Committee  for  Religion 

»  iinbtitated.     A  sub-committee  is  formed,  under  the  presidency  of 

White,  to  deal  with  *  scandalous  ministers.'    A  selection  of  cases  that 

cone  before  it  is   published  as  'The  First  Ceutur}-  of  Scandalous 

Miaistera,*  and  many  deprivations  are  made. 

Milleiuurian  doctrines  begin  to  appear,  and  are  attacked  by  Bishop 

BdL 
^'.   Kng.  Ut.    Isaac  Walton's  Life  of  Donne. 
^/.   Melherianobi  Gh.     Jansen's  Augustinus  is  published    posthu- 

aoody,  and,  despite  the  Pope's  command  to  avoid  discussion,  circulates 

nWv. 
^   Art.    Poossin  becomes  First  Painter  in  Ordinary  to  the  King  of 

Faare,  and  produces  the  Labours  of  Hercules,  the  Last  Supper,  the 

Uumh  of  iWth  (Paris). 
^.   HnlofT*    Selden's  De  Jure  Naturali  juxta  Hebraeos,  with  his 

Cxv  Hebraiea,  aids  Pococke  and  Lightfoot  to  reconstruct  Jewish  life. 
^    Foiitlos.    Selden  maintains  that  Natural  Law  was  supematurally 

irtttied  to  the  first  human  beings  and  handed  down  to  us. 

CuDpaneDa'a  De  Monarchia  Uispanica  claims  universal  dominion  for 

Spiin. 
Aw.   Bdneetion.    Dr   Busby  becomes    Headmaster   of   Westminster 

SAxi.  wad  occniHes  the  post  for  fift}'-five  years. 
*^.   Deaths.    Bnbens,  Torricelli. 


128  POLITICS  [1641 

648.  England.  A  triennial  Act  is  passed,  by  which  Parliament  r^^ 
is  to  meet  every  three  years,  and  to  sit  not  less  than  50  days.  ^ 
Strafford's  impeachment  is  turned  into  an  attainder  when  it  is  foond 
that  he  is  not  reached  by  the  statute  of  Edward  III.,  and  the  Lords  pw 
the  bill  on  Pym*s  discovery  of  the  plot  of  the  Queen  to  bring  up  the 
army  from  the  North  and  of  the  King  to  seize  the  Tower.  Qianes  L< 
frightened  into  signing  the  death-warrant,  and  agrees  that  the  Parlii- 
ment  shall  not  be  adjourned  or  dissolved  without  its  own  conseot 
Parliament  abolishes  the  Star  Chamber  and  High  Commission  CoorU, 
and  declares  ship-money  and  distraint  of  knighthood  illegal  CharlH 
goes  to  Scotlana,  professedly  to  assent  in  person  to  the  abolition  of 
Episcopacy,  but,  in  the  belief  of  the  Commons,  to  raise  an  army,  ind 
attempts  to  arrest  Argyle  and  Hamilton.  The  Grand  Remonstrance. 
nevertheless,  claiming  ministerial  responsibility,  only  obtains  a  majoritr 
of  11,  and  a  protest  is  drawn  up  by  the  minority.  The  King  thus  finds 
a  party  created  for  him,  led  by  Falkland  and  Hyde.  Twelve  Bisho;^. 
who  have  been  mobbed  and  have  signed  a  protest  against  all  done  in 
their  absence,  are  impeached. 

649.  Ireland.  Fearing  a  iresh  influx  of  colonists  and  renewed  persecu- 
tion, the  native  Irish  massacre  some  thousands  of  Engli^  ana  Scotdi 
in  Ulster. 

650.  France.  The  King  demands  the  registration  of  Royal  Edicts  br 
the  Parliament  of  Paris  without  discussion. 

651.  Italy.  Urban  VIII.*s  relatives,  the  Barberini,  quarrel  with  the 
Famesi,  and  the  Pope  is  induced  to  claim  the  duchy  of  Castro.  Pinna 
is  joined  by  Venice,  Tuscany  and  Modena ;  but  Castro  is  conquered  by 
Urban's  successor,  Innocent  X. 

652.  Holland.  Princess  Mary  of  England  marries  William,  the  eldest 
son  of  Frederick  Henry. 

653.  America.  The  Body  of  Liberties,  the  first  New  England  code  of 
laws,  is  drawn  up  by  Massachusetts. 


654.  England.  The  King,  believing  that  the  leaders  of  the  rig|2 
Opposition  invited  the  Scots  to  invade  England  in  1640,  im-  •- 
peaches  Pym,  Hanipilen,  Holies,  Hazlerigg  and  Strode  (Jan.  3).  and 
comes  to  the  House  with  500  anned  men  to  seize  them  (Jan,  4). 
The  five  members  escape  to  the  city,  and  the  King  leaves  London 
(Jan.  10),  the  Queen  going  to  Holland  to  raise  money.  Parliament 
fails  to  obtain  the  control  of  the  militia,  and  Hotham  refuses  to  allow 
the  King  to  enter  Hull  to  obtain  arms  (April).  From  this  point  both 
sides  begin  to  raise  foroe>5,  and  the  King  s  party  leaves  Westminster. 
Nineteen  Propositions  sent  by  the  Commons  are  rejected  by  the  King 
(June).  Xegociations  cease,  and  Essex  is  appointed  Commander,  money 
being  raise<l  by  tonnage  and  poundage,  and  by  a  tax  on  property  and 
income.  The  King  raises  his  standard  at  Nottingham  (Aug.  22),  and 
receives  the  support  of  the  greater  part  of  the  north-west  of  the 
kingdom.     An  indecisive  battle  is  fought  at  Edgehill  (Oct.),  after  which 


1642]  CULTURE  129 

9o?.    Eng.  Ch.    The  Commons  despateh  Commis^Mouers  to  destroy    n  ^^j 
relics  of  idolatry  in  the  churches.    Hall's  Remonstrance  in  favour    '■ 
of  Episcopacy  is  answered  by  five  Presbyterian  divines  (Smectymnuus), 
and   Uasher,  Falkland,  Jeremy  Taylor,  and  Milton  join  in  the  con- 
troversy. 

The  Commons  pass  the  Root  and  Branch  Bill  for  the  abolition  of 
episcopacy,  and  for  the  transference  of  the  jurisdiction  to  committees 
of  la>iiien  in  each  diocese. 

}oS.  French  Ch.  De  Marca's  Concordia  Sacerdotii  et  Imperii,  pro- 
pounding a  moderate  Gallicanism,  is  censured  at  Rome. 

^9,  Oerman  Ch.  The  Weimar  or  Ernestine  Exposition,  inspired  by 
Quest  of  Saxe-Gotha,  and  composed  by  Gerhard,  aids  in  the  evangelical 
revival. 

}60.  Science.  Th^phraste  Renaudot  announces  his  intention  to  render 
medical  aid  without  pa>Tnent,  and  is  violently  attacked  by  Guy  Patin 
and  the  Faculty  of  Medicine,  and  in  1644  is  forbidden  to  practise. 

^I.  Philosophy.  Descartes'  Meditationes  reply  to  criticisms  of  the 
Discours  sur  la  Methode  by  Hobbes,  Amauld,  and  Gassendi. 

?62.     Art.    Dobson  becomes  the  first  English  Court  painter. 

>6J.  Politica.  Harry  Marten,  in  conversation  with  Clarendon,  gives 
utterance  to  the  first  republican  sentiments  reconled  in  England. 

964^  History.  Naud^  maintains  that  the  De  Imitatione  Christi  was 
written  by  Thomas  k  Eempis.  The  Benedictines  of  St  Maur,  on  the 
other  hand,  ascribe  it  to  Gersen,  a  Benedictine. 

965.    Deaths.    Sully,  Vandyck. 


966.  Eng.    Ch.    The  Root  and   Branch    Bill   is  revived  and   r,g^ 
carried  owin^  to  the  departure  of  most  of  the  royalist  members    ^ 
from  Westmuster,  and,  after  4  mouths'  delay,  is  adopted  by  the  Lords. 
Its  provisions,  however,  are  not  to  come  into  operation  for  a  year, 
presumably  to  give  time  for  an  accommodation  witfi  the  King. 

A  Committee  for  Plundered  Ministers  is  appointed  to  provide  for 
Puritan  cleigy  ejected  or  plundered  by  the  royal  forces,  and  for  their 
transference  to  vacant  benefices.  The  work  of  sec^uestration  is  also 
carried  on  by  local  committees. 

Ussher's  edition  of  Ignatius  declares  nine  epistles  spurious  and  the 
other  six  partially  interpolated. 

Sir  Thomas  Brown's  Religio  Medici,  a  latitudinarian  if  not  Unitarian 
confession. 

967.  French  Ch.    Olier  founds  the  Seminan-  of  St  Sulpice,  at  Paris. 
96S.     Chnrch  Hist.    Grotius'  Eirenicon,  Via  ad  Pacem  Ecclesiasticam 

earns  for  him  the  name  of  Grotius  Papizaus,  and  is  hotly  attacked  by 
Rivetus  and  others. 

969.  Eng.  Lit.    Staee  plays  are  forbidden  by  Parliament. 

970.  French  Ut,    Naud^  becomes  librarian  to  Mazarin  and  creates  the 
Mazarin  library. 

G.  9 


130  POLITICS  [1M2 

the  King  pushes  on  to  London  ;  but,  meeting  the  trained  bands  at 
Turnham  Green,  retires  to  Oxford  for  the  winter. 

655.  Ireland.  The  Catholic  nobles  choose  a  Council,  hold  an  AssemUj 
at  Kilkenny,  and  petition  Charles  for  the  redress  of  grievances. 

656.  France.  Cinq-Mars,  a  favourite  introduced  by  Richelieu,  plots  to 
supplant  the  Cardinal,  who  obtains  evidence  of  his  correspondence  with 
Spain.  Orleans  betrays  his  associates,  and  Cinq-Mars  ana  De  Thou  tie 
executed.     The  Cardinal's  death  follows  (Dec.). 

Roussillon  submits  to  Prance. 

657.  Germany.  Torstenson  defeats  the  Imperialists  under  Piccolomiiii 
at  the  second  battle  of  Leipsig,  and  threatens  the  hereditary  estates  cl 
the  Emperor.     These  successes  arouse  the  hostility  of  Denmark. 

658.  Portugal.  The  Spaniards  invade  Portugal,  but  are  defeated  at 
Montijo. 

659.  America.    Maisonneuve  takes  possession  of  Montreal. 

660.  AfWca.  The  Prench  Compagnie  de  I'Orient  is  formed  to  colonise 
Madagascar. 


661.  England.  The  Kin^  plans  that  three  armies,  led  by  m^ 
Hopton,  Newcastle,  and  himself,  shall  converge  on  London.  ^ 
Hampden  is  slain  at  Chalgrove  Pield,  Hopton  defeats  Waller  at  Roond- 
way  Down,  Rupert  storms  Bristol,  Newcastle  defeats  Fairfiu  in  York- 
shire, and  the  King  besieges  Gloucester.  The  London  trained  bandft 
under  Essex  march  to  its  relief,  the  siege  is  raised,  and  the  tide  is 
turned.  After  a  fierce  but  indecisive  battle  at  Newbuiy,  where 
Palkland  is  slain,  Charles  retires  to  Oxford  for  the  winter.  Meanwhile 
a  better  army  is  being  fonned  by  the  Eastern  Association,  under  the 
direction  of  Cromwell.  The  royalist  successes,  however,  determine  Ppi 
to  ask  aid  of  the  Scots,  and  the  younger  Vane  is  sent  to  Edinbni^ 
The  Solemn  League  and  Covenant  is  accepted  by  Parliament  (Sept), 
and  imposed  on  the  nation. 

662.  Ireland.  Ormond  is  directed  by  the  King  to  make  peace  (The 
Cessation)  with  the  Catholics. 

663.  Prance.  The  King  dies,  but  his  widow,  who  becomes  R^ent, 
retains  Mazarin,  despite  her  Spanish  predilections.  The  young  nobles, 
nicknamed  the  Importants,  are  disappointed,  and  plot  with  Beaufort, 
a  descendant  of  llenrj'  IV.,  but  are  quickly  suppressed.  Beaufort  is 
imprisoned,  Mme  de  Clie\Teuse  is  exiled,  and  Mazarin's  rule  remains 
undisputed  for  five  years. 

Condd  defeats  the  Spaniards  at  Rocroy,  but  the  French  are  routed 
at  Dutlingen  by  an  Austro-Bavarian  army. 

664.  Germany.  Negociations  begin  in  Miinster-Osnabriick,  but  come 
to  nothing,  as  the  Emperor  desires  to  retain  Elsass. 

665.  Denmark.  Torstenson  marches  rapidly  north,  conquers  Holstein 
and  Schleswig,  and  invades  Jutland. 

666.  America.  Roger  Williams  obtains  a  patent  of  Incorporation  of 
Providence  Plantations,  permitting  the  settlements  on  Narragansett 
Bay  to  form  a  federation. 


1M3]  CULTURE  131 


971.  Politica.  Bishop  Bramhall  attacks  the  prevalent  exaltation  of 
Nature  over  positive  law,  and  points  out  the  danger  involved  in  the 
ideas  of  Paiker  and  other  Parliamentary  writers. 

972.  History.  Hooft  publishes  his  History  of  the  Dutch  War  of  Inde- 
pendence. 

973.  Geography.  Tasman  is  sent  from  Batavia  by  Van  Diemen, 
Governor  of  the  Dutch  East  India  Company,  and  discovers  Tasmania 
and  New  Zealand,  which  are  not  visited  again  till  the  time  of  Cook. 

974.  Deaths.    Galileo,  Guido  Reni. 


975,  Eng.  Ch.  An  Assembly  of  divines  is  summoned  by  Parlia-  m  043 
ment  to  Westminster.  Episcopalians  are  invited,  but  do  not  '- 
appear,  and  the  Presb}i;eriaDS  possess  a  large  majority.  The  first 
fifteen  Articles  are  revised ;  but  few  alterations  are  made.  On  the 
arrival  of  the  Scotch  Commissioners  the  Covenant  is  laid  before  the 
Assembly  and  accepted.  Many  of  the  clergy,  however,  throughout  the 
country  reject  it. 

Saltmarsh,  Dell,  and  other  '  Antinomians '  make  their  appearance 
and  cause  the  Westminster  Assembly  grave  anxiety.  Thougn  some- 
times called  Anabaptists,  few  of  them  are  members  of  the  Baptist 
Churches. 

976'.  French  Ch.  Amauld's  De  la  fr^uente  Communion,  disapproving 
constant  and  unprepared  communion,  leads  to  the  first  Jesuit  attack  on 
Port  Royal,  but  is  approved  by  the  Pope  and  Inquisition  and  brings 
many  penitents  to  Port  Koyal. 

A  Bull  is  issued,  condemning  Jansenism,  but  is  attacked  by  Amauld, 
and  ia  not  recognis^  by  the  Sorbonne. 

d77,  Netherlands  Ch.  BoUand,  a  Jesuit  of  Antwerp,  commences 
a  collection  of  the  Acta  Sanctorum,  aided  by  Papebroch.  (This  work  is 
still  in  progress.) 

978.  Chnrch  Hist.  Mogilas*  Orthodox  Confession,  attacking  Catholics 
and  the  followers  of  Lucar,  is  approved  by  a  synod  at  Jassy,  and 
becomes  the  creed  of  the  whole  Eastern  Church. 

979.  Sn^  Lit.  Birkenhead's  newspaper,  Mercurius  Aulicus,  and  Need- 
ham's  Mercurius  Britannicus,  champion  respectively  the  royal  and  the 
Parliamentary  cause. 

980.  Science.  Torricelli  finds  that  the  changes  of  atmospheric  pressure 
vary  with  its  rarity,  and  invents  the  Barometer.  The  discovery  is  con- 
firmed by  Pascal's  experiment  on  the  Puy  de  D6me,  1648. 

981.  Art    Teniers' Pilgrims.     (National  Gallery.) 

982.  Philosophy.  Gassendi's  Disquisitiones  Anti-Cartesianae  attacks 
Descartes'  criterion  of  certainty. 

98S.  P6litio8.  Prynne's  Sovereign  Power  of  Parliament  contends  for 
constitutional  monarchy. 

984.  Lftw.  Conrin^s  De  Origine  Juris  Germauici  founds  the  study  of 
German  law  on  a  historical  basis. 

985.  History.    M^zerai's  History  of  France. 

9-2 


132  POLITICS  [IMS 

For  purposes  of  defence,  Massachusetts,  Connecticat,  Pljonouth  iimI 
New  Haven  form  a  loose  confederation. 

Massachusetts  omits  the  allegiance  clause  in  the  magistrates'  oath, 
and  politely  refuses  the  offer  of  Parliament  to  pass  any  legislation 
required. 


667.  England.  20,000  Scots,  under  Leslie,  enter  England,  and  q^ 
the  control  of  the  armies  is  entrusted  to  a  Committee  of  both  ^ 
kingdoms.  Ru^rt  and  Newcastle  are  routed  bv  Leslie,  Fairfiiz,  Man- 
chester (Lord  Kimbolton),  and  Cromwell  at  Marston  Moor  (Jul?). 
Waller's  army,  however,  melts  away,  and  Essex  capitulates  to  Chanes 
in  Cornwall.  A  second  battle  at  Newbury  (Oct.)  proves  indedsiTe, 
owing  to  Manchester's  and  Waller's  slackness  in  pursuit  Cromwell 
hereunon  attacks  Manchester,  introduces  a  Self-denying  Ordinance, 
excluding  members  of  Parliament  from  command,  and  determines  to 
organize  a  New  Model  Army. 

668.  Scotland.  Montrose  takes  arms  for  the  King,  raises  Highland 
troops,  and  captures  Perth. 

669.  Germany.  Cond^  turns  to  aid  Turenne  against  Austria  and 
Bavaria,  and  wins  the  Rhineland  by  the  battle  of  Freiburg. 

670.  Sweden.    Christina  begins  to  govern  in  person. 

671.  America.  Maurice  of  Nassau  is  recalled  from  South  America. 
In  1645,  the  Portuguese  colonists  in  the  Dutch  captainships  throw  cS 
the  Dutch  yoke,  and  by  1655  not  an  acre  of  ground  remains  in  Batch 
hands. 

672.  Asia.  The  Manchus  are  invited  by  the  Emperor  of  China  to  aid  in 
suppressing  a  rebellion,  but  seize  Pekin,  depose  the  last  sovereign  of  the 
ilmg  dynasty,  which  has  reigned  since  1368,  and  establish  tliat  of  the 
Manchus. 


678.  England.  Xegociations  are  opened  with  the  King  at  Ux-  riA^ 
bridge,  but  broken  off  aft<?r  three  weeks,  Charles  refusing  to  *■ 
establish  Presbyterianisni  or  to  allow  Parliament  entire  control  of 
appointments.  The  Self-denying^  Ordinance  is  carried,  Essex,  Man- 
chester, and  Waller  resi^ai,  and  Fairfax  becomes  General  of  the  Xev 
Model,  the  soldiers  of  which  receive  regular  pay.  Cromwell  is  exempted 
from  the  Ordinance  and  becomes  Lieutenant-General.  Fairfitx  and 
(Vomwell  defeat  the  King  at  Xaseby,  despite  Prince  Rupert's  victoritws 
attack  on  the  left  wing  under  Ireton  (June).  Letters  shewing  the 
King's  |)ersistent  attempts  to  introduce  a  foreign  army  are  taken  and 
publisheil.  The  war  drags  on  until  Fairfax  forces  Rupert  to  surrender 
in  Bristol.  Montrose,  who  has  won  several  battles,  is  rout^  at  Philip- 
haugh  (Sept.). 


1846]  CULTURE  133 


986.  Social.  MOton  begins  his  series  of  tracts  on  marriage,  suggested 
by  his  personal  experience,  and  contends  that  incompatibility  of  tem- 
perament justifies  divorce. 

987.  Deaths.     Ghillingworth,  St  Cyran,  Episcopius,  Pym. 


988.  Eng.   Church.    The  Westminster  Assembly  agree   to   a   r^g^ 
Director}'  of  Public  Worship,  differing  but  slightly  from  that  of  '■ 
Cartwright  and  Travers. 

Whichcote  becomes  Provost  of  King's  College,  Cambridge,  and  by 
his  sermons  inaugurates  the  movement,  neither  Puritan  nor  Anglican, 
of  the  Cambridge  Platonists,  the  chief  of  whom,  except  More,  are 
members  of  Emmanuel  College  and  influenced  by  Tuckney,  first  Tutor, 
lat€r  Master.  In  the  same  year  John  Smith  becomes  Fellow  of  Queens* 
and  preaches  his  Discourses,  and  Cudworth  becomes  Master  ot  Clare, 
and  Ke^us  Professor  of  Hebrew.  Henry  More's  Philosophical  Poems 
are  published  1647. 

The  Baptists  issue  a  Confession,  exhibiting  their  doctrinal  agreement 
with  the  Churches. 

Hammond's  Practical  Catechism. 

989.  French  Ch.    Petavius'  Dogmata  Theologica. 

990.  American  Ch.  Roger  Williams  attacks  the  views  of  Cotton  and 
the  elders  of  Massachusetts,  who  distinguish  between  'fundamentals* 
and  'circumstantials,'  in  his  Bloody  Tenet  of  Persecution,  the  first 
widely-read  plea  for  complete  religious  freedom. 

991.  Eng.  Lit.  Some  of  his  own  tracts  having  been  condemned  by  the 
licensers,  Milton  protests  in  his  Areopagitica  against  subjection  to 
Presbyterian  belief  and  policy,  and  demands  liberty  for  books  no  less 
than  for  men. 

992.  Science.  Descartes'  Principia  Philosopliica,  dedicated  to  the 
Princess  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  James  I.,  discusses  the  laws  of  motion, 
propounds  the  theory  of  vortices,  and  replies  to  the  criticisms  of  tlie 
Meditations. 

993.  Education.  Milton  writes  a  Letter  on  Education,  at  the  re<iuest 
of  Hartlib,  a  disciple  of  Comenius,  many  of  whose  views  Milton  has 
reached  independently. 

994.  Philosophy.  Sir  Kenelm  Digby's  treatises  on  Bodies,  and  on  Man's 
Soul. 

995.  Politics.  Rutherford's  Lex  Rex  contends  that  kings  are  elective 
and  can  be  deposed  by  the  people,  and  that  parliaments  are  e(|ually 
subject  to  the  popular  will. 


996.     Eng.  Ch.    Laud  is  executed,  the  impeachment  having  been  n  645 
chanced  into  an  attainder.  ^ 

The  Westminster  Directory  is  imposed,  and  the  use  of  the  Prayer 
Book,  in  public  or  private,  is  forbidden  under  heavy  penalties.  The 
Directorjr  is  attackea  by  Jeremy  Taylor,  Saunderson,  and  Hammond,  and 
its  use  IS  forbidden  by  the  King.     Five  Independent  Ministers,  led  by 


134  POLITICS  [1645 

674.  Ireland.  The  King  sends  the  Earl  of  Glamorgan,  a  Gatliolic,  to 
Ireland,  to  raise  men  and  money  (Aug.).  The  Earl  accepts  the  demand 
for  the  transference  of  the  churches  to  the  nobles  and  for  clerical  juris- 
diction, on  the  promise  of  10,000  men.  A  papal  nuncio,  Binuccini, 
lands  in  Ireland  and  requires  fresh  concessions,  to  which  Glamoigan 
also  assents. 

675.  Germany.  The  Imperial  force  that  has  been  sent  to  aid  the 
Danes  is  pursued  into  Germany  by  Torstenson,  and  routed  at  Magdebaig 
(Jan.).  Torstenson  defeats  another  Imperial  army  at  Jankau,  in 
Bohemia  (March),  joins  Rakoczy,  prince  of  Transylvania,  oTerrans 
Moravia,  and  advances  on  Vienna.  He  fails,  however,  to  capture 
Briinn,  retires  to  Bohemia,  resigns,  and  is  succeeded  by  Wrangel. 

Turenne  and  Cond^  defeat  the  Imperialists  at  Nordlingen,  but  are 
forced  to  retire  to  the  Rhine.  Turenne  captures  Treves  and  restoies 
the  Elector. 

676.  Denmark.  Christian  is  forced  to  ac<;ept  the  Treaty  of  Bronsdiro, 
ceding  the  islands  of  Gotland  and  Oesel,  and  commercial  exemptions  to 
Sweden. 

677.  Turkey.  The  Turks  land  in  Crete  and  commence  a  war  of  con- 
quest, which  lasts  24  years. 

678.  Russia.  Erijanitch,  a  Croatian  Catholic,  settles  in  Moscow,  and 
champions  the  conception  of  Panslavism. 


679.  England.  Charles'  army  in  the  west  surrenders  to  Fairfax,  m.^ 
most  of  the  remaining  fortresses  fall,  and  the  King  surrenders  to  '• 
the  Scots  (May).  He  is  taken  to  Newcastle,  where  he  refuses  to  consent 
to  the  establishment  of  Presbyterianism  in  England,  and  is  in  conse- 
(juence  treated  as  a  prisoner.  He  also  rejects  the  demands  of  Pariia- 
ment  to  surrender  the  militia  for  20  years  and  support  Presbyterianism. 
Shortly  after,  desiring  to  allow  time  for  the  opposition  to  Presby- 
terianism to  grow,  he  offers  to  establish  Presbyterianism  for  three  years. 

680.  Germany.     Turenne  joins  Wrangel,  and  devastates  Bavaria. 

681.  Hungary.     George  Rakoczy *s  insurrection  leads  to  the  concessions 
of  several  political  and  religious  privileges. 


682.     England.    The  Scots  surrender  the  King  to  Parliament  and    n  giv 
retire,  in  return  for  the  payment  of  their  expenses.     Charles  is    *- 
taken  to  Ilolraby  House,  Northamptonshire.    The  Presbjrterian  majority 
in   Parliament  accepts  his  proposal  to  establish  Presbyterianism  for 
three  years  as  a  basis  for  negociations,  and  at  the  same  moment  reduces 


1647]  CULTURE  135 

Goodwin,  recently  returned  from  Holland,  appear  in  the  Assembly,  and 
join  the  Emstians,  led  by  Selden,  in  opposition  to  the  Presbyterians. 

Lord  Herbert's  De  Religione  Gentilium  first  attempts  a  natural 
history  of  religion  and  discovers  in  all  religions  the  ideas  of  a  God, 
immartality  and  conscience. 

W.  Foliflh  Ch.  The  colloquy  of  Thorn.  frx)m  which  Unitarians  are 
excluded,  discusses  reunion,  and  is  attended  by  the  Lutherans,  Calixtus, 
Calov,  by  the  Moravian  Comenius,  and  by  Catholics,  but  serves  only  to 
widen  the  gulf 

^^.  Asiatic  Ch.  Owing  to  the  attacks  of  the  Capucins  and  Domini- 
cans, Innocent  X.  condemns  the  Malabar  Bites.  Alexander  VH.,  how- 
eTer,  again  authorises  them,  1656. 

.^    Sng.  Ut.    Waller's  Poems,  among  them  his  odes  to  Saccharissa. 

1*M.  Science.  Boyle,  Hooke,  Wilkins,  Wallis,  Petty,  Seth  Ward,  and 
others  begin  to  meet  for  weekly  scientific  discussions  at  Gresham 
CcJl^,  London,  and  in  Oxford. 

/'^'i.    Art.     Lesueur's  Histoire  de  Saint  Bruno  (Louvre). 

/'"'?.  Fhiloaophy.  Busenbaum  and  Spec,  German  Jesuits,  publish  the 
Medulla,  a  treatise  on  Casuistry,  of  which  45  editions  appear  in 
:f5  years. 

pni.  Philology.  Le  Jay's  Polyglot,  to  which  Morin  contributes  the 
Samaritan  Pentateuch. 

i'^'y.  Politics.  After  the  battle  of  Naseby  Baxter  visits  the  camp  and 
witnesses  the  rapid  growth  of  republican  and  revolutionary  sentiments, 
^i«tered  by  Hugh  Peters  and  other  Independent  chaplains.  At  this 
OKiment.  Lilbume  declares  that  sovereignty  resides  not  in  Parliament 
\nt  in  the  people,  and  founds  the  Leveller  movement  in  Southwark, 
vhence  it  rapidly  spreads  to  the  army. 

/'*A>.    Deaths.    Grotius,  Olivarez,  Quevedo. 

I*f0],    Eng.  Ch.  Biddle,  of  Gloucester,  attacks  IVinitarianism,  and    tiqaq 
tcuisktes  the  Racovian  Catechism.     After  repeated  imprison-    *■ 
BMotA,  be  dies  1662,  and  his  work  is  carried  on  by  Firmin  and  other 
diwiples. 

IW,    American  Ch.  John  Eliot  begins  his  missionary  labours  in  Massa- 

diiL5ett8. 

l^fnf,  Kng.  Lit.  Henry  Vaughan,  the  Silurist,  publishes  his  first  poems. 
Sir  Thomas  Browne's  Vulgar  Errors. 

/'/if<    Philosophy.  Escobar's  Theologia  Moralis,  a  treatise  on  Casuistry. 

NO.    History.    Clarendon  b^ns  to  write  his  History  of  the  Rebellion. 

HI.  Education.  The  Schools  at  Port  Royal  are  fully  organised,  and 
f<r»r  twenty  years  remain  the  best  in  France.  Lancelot  compiles  several 
t^it-books,  and  Amauld  and  Nicole  compose  the  Port  Royal  Logic. 

Hj.    Death.    Henderson. 


1013.    Sng.  Ch.    An  election  of  elders  under  the  new  Presbv'terian    m  047 
Kkeme  takes  place,  and  the  Provincial  Assembly  of  London    ^ 
aeetfiu    The  system  is  also  carried  out  in  Lancashire,  but  never  becomes 
videl  J  adopted. 


136  POLITICS  [160 

the  army,  without  pa3riug  arrears.  The  regiments,  in  confiequence, 
choose  A^tators,  and  refuse  to  disperse.  The  Presbyterians  pbn 
a  Scotch  mvasion,  and  a  royalist  rising  is  reported  to  Cromwell,  wbo 
orders  Comet  Joyce  to  prevent  the  King  from  being  seized  (June). 
Joyce,  fearing  the  approach  of  troops,  takes  Charles  to  rl^ewmarket,  and 
thence  to  Hampton  Court.  Parliament  retorts  by  reorganising  the 
trained  bands  ;  whereupon  the  army  marches  on  London,  and  11  Presbj- 
terian  members  fly  abroad. 

Meanwhile  the  officers  try  to  reach  an  understanding  with  Charitf, 
and  Ireton  offers  the  Heads  of  the  Proposals,  according  to  which  Pariii- 
ment  is  to  control  the  army  and  navy  for  10  years,  and  to  appoint  to 
great  offices.  Parliaments  are  to  be  biennial,  and  toleration  is  to  be 
granted  to  all  but  Catholics.  When  the  King  rejects  these  terms,  tbe 
Agitators  draw  up  the  Case  of  the  Army  and  the  Agreement  of  the 
People,  demanding  biennial  Parliaments,  freedom  of  religion  and  tnkle, 
and  ec^uality  before  the  law,  but  only  obtain  the  sanction  of  the  Cooncii 
of  Officers  for  manhood  suffrage,  though  this,  too,  is  opposed  by 
Cromwell  and  Ireton.  The  King  becomes  aware  of  his  danger,  and  fli« 
to  the  Isle  of  Wight,  where  he  is  detained  in  Carisbrook  Castle  (Nov.). 
He  at  once  makes  an  arrangement  with  the  Scots,  promising  three  yens' 
Presbyterian  ism  in  return  for  an  army. 

683.  Ireland.  Rinuccini  fails  to  win  Ireland,  since  Ormond  prcfen  to 
hand  over  Dublin  to  the  Parliamentary  troops  and  leaves  the  conntir. 

684.  Italy.  A  revolt  in  Palenno  against  Spanish  rule  is  suppressedW 
leads  to  an  outbreak  in  Naples,  under  Masaniello,  against  the  taxation  of 
food.  After  a  dictatorship  of  a  week,  Masaniello  is  killed ;  but  the 
malcontents  repulse  a  fleet  sent  under  Don  John,  and  proclaim  a 
Republic.  The  nobility  declare  for  Spain,  and  the  rebels  invite  Heniy 
of  Guise,  Duke  of  Lorraine,  a  representative  of  the  Anjou  claims,  t" 
become  Do^e.  Guise,  however,  quarrels  with  the  popular  leader. 
Gennaro  Annese,  who  joins  Spain,  and  by  whose  help  l5on  John  n^ 
captures  the  city. 

685.  Holland.  Negociations  for  jxjace  with  Spain  are  opened,  inJe- 
l)endeiitly  of  France. 


686.  England.  Parliament,  Hnding  that  the  King  refuses  its  r^^ 
terms,  declares  that  it  will  make  no  more  proposals  (Jan.).  The  '■ 
resolution  is  approved  by  the  officers,  and  the  Levellers  lose  their 
influence  in  the  army.  The  people,  on  the  contrary,  wear}'  of  the  rule 
and  exi)ense  of  the  army.  Fairfax  suppresses  a  revolt  in  Kent,  awl 
takes  Colchester  after  a  hmff  sie^ce.  Cromwell  suppresses  a  simultaneous 
insurrection  in  Wales,  and,  marching  north,  routs  the  Scots,  who  have 
invaded  England,  at  Preston  (Aujjf.).  The  army  removes  the  King  to 
Hurst  Ca.stle,  and,  when  Parliament  declares  for  a  reconciliation  with 
the  King,  sends  Colonel  Pride  to  exclude  the  royalist  members  from  the 
House  (Dec.). 


16(8]  CULTURE  137 

Jeremy  Taylor's  Liberty  of  Prophe83ring  restates  the  positions  of 
Oiillingworth,  excluding  only  the  Anabaptists  from  toleration. 
Jeremy  Taylor's  Dissuasive  from  Popery. 
Baxter's  Saints'  Rest 

Geori^  Fox  bcigins  itinerant  preaching,  his  doctrine  of  the  Inner 
liidit  beinff  in  part  derived  from  the  Mennonite  Baptists  and  from  the 
Scnwenkfeldians.  He  is  joined  by  Dewsbury,  Howgill,  Burrough,  and 
Margaiet  Fell,  whom  he  marries. 

On  the  fall  of  Oxford,  Parliament  appoints  Commissioners  for  a 

TisitatioiL     The  University  declares  its  abhorrence  of  the  Solemn 

League  aod  Covenant^  and  Sanderson,  Hammond,  and  other  Anglicans 

areexpeUed. 

i'//-fc    Scotch  Ch.    The  Westminster  Confession  is  adopted  without 

change  by  the  General  Assembly. 
pflo.    Bng.  Lit.    Cowley's  Mistress,  a  specimen  of  the  Metaphysical 

School 
Pjl^    French  Lit.    Vaugelas'  Reman^ues  control  literary  taste  for  sixty 
years. 

KotTou's  Wenceslas. 
1017.    Science.     Pecquet  discovers  that  the  lacteals  empty  themselves 
bto  a  laige  tube,  the  thoracic  duct,  which  carries  the  fluid  into  the 
principal  veins.     His  discovery  is  confirmed  by  Rudbeck,  1649. 
I'flff.    Philosophy.    Sanderson's  De  Obligatione  Juramenti. 
lOiy,    Politics.    Chemnitz'  (Hippolytus  a  Lapide)  De  Batione  Status  in 
Imperio  declares  that  the  Germanic  Constitution  is  German  and  not 
BcooaD,  and   that    absolutism  has   no  place,   and  attacks  Austria's 
hegemony. 
/'>A/.    Deaths.    Hooft,  TorriceUi. 


loj],    Sng.  Ch.    Parliament  approves  the  Longer  and  Shorter    rigAg 
Weiitminster   Cktechisms ;    the    former    composed    chiefly    by    '- 
Turkney,  the  latter  probably  in  part  by  Wallis,  the  mathematician. 
The  Shorter  Catechism  takes  its  place  besides  Luther's  and  that  of 
Heidelberg,  and  is  at  once  adopted  in  New  England. 
Audrewes'  Private  Devotions  are  published. 
Jeremy  Taylor's  Life  of  Christ. 

10*2.  Scotch  Ch.  The  Catechisms  are  adopted  by  the  General  Assembly, 
and  are  approved  by  Parliament,  1649. 

y/i3.    Oennan  Ch.    The  Treaty  of  Westphalia  extends  to  the  Calvinists 
tke  recognition  confined  by  the  Peace  of  Augsburg  to  the  Lutherans. 
Gerfajird's  first  hymns  contribute  to  the  pietistic  revival,  and  found 
German  lyrical  poetry. 

10^.  DnUsh  Ch.  Coccejus'  De  Foedere  et  Testamentis  Dei,  a  compro- 
m^e  between  Calvinism  and  Arminianism,  is  attacked  as  Pelagian  by 
Voetins  and  the  rigid  Calvinists. 


138  POLITICS  [16tt 

687.  Germany.  The  ravages  of  the  Swedes  in  Bavaria  and  the  victoiy 
of  Condd  at  Lens  precipitate  the  conclusion  of  the  Treaty  of  West- 
phalia. In  secular  affairs  a  return  is  made  to  the  conditions  of  1618. 
The  Electoral  dignity  and  the  Upper  Palatinate  are  left  with  tk 
Bavarian  house,  the  Lower  Palatinate  being  restored  to  the  son  of  the 
Winter  King,  with  a  new  (8th)  Electorate.  Brandenburg  obtains  put 
of  further  Pomerania,  the  Archbishoprics  of  Magdeburg  and  tk 
bishoprics  of  Halberstadt  and  Minden.  Questions  of  ownership  of 
ecclesiastical  estates  are  to  be  settled  by  the  conditions  of  1624.  Tk 
Imperial  Court  is  restored,  its  members  being  drawn  equally  frnn 
Protestants  and  Catholics.  The  princes  are  allowed  to  conclude 
alliances  with  each  other  and  with  foreign  powers,  if  not  directed 
against  the  Emperor  and  Empire. 

688.  France.  On  the  news  of  the  victory  at  Lens,  the  Queen-mother 
arrests  Broussel,  the  leader  of  the  opposition  of  the  Parliament  of  Paik 
Barricades  are  erected,  De  Retz,  Coadjutor  of  the  Archbishop  of  Paris, 
obtains  the  release  of  Brousset,  and  the  Court  is  forced  to  accept  oertiiu 
of  the  demands  of  the  Frondeurs. 

France,  which  with  Sweden  becomes  a  guarantor  of  the  Treatv  of 
Westphalia,  obtains  the  legal  cession  of  Metz.  Toul  and  Veiioii, 
Breisach  and  most  of  Els&ss,  the  overlordship  of  Pinerolo,  and  the  right 
to  garrison  Philipsburg. 

689.  Sweden.  Ii^weden  obtains  the  greater  part  of  Pomerania  and  the 
Bishoprics  of  Bremen  and  Verden  as  fiefs  of  the  Empire. 

690.  Switzerland.    Switzerland  is  declared  independent  of  the  Empire. 
69L     Holland.    The  Dutch  are  recognised  as  independent  of  Spain  at 

the  Treaty  of  Miinster,  and  insist  on  the  closing  of  the  Scheldt 


692.  England.  The  Commons  declare  that  the  people  being  the  r^^^ 
source  of  power,  they,  being  chosen  by  them,  are  supreme.  A  ^ 
Court  for  the  trial  of  the  King  is  constituted,  but  only  half  the 
appointed  members  are  present.  Charles  refuses  to  plead  and  is  con- 
demned and  executed  (Jan.  30),  his  son  taking  the  title  of  Charles  II. 
The  Commons  aboli.sli  the  Monarchy  and  the  House  of  Lords,  and 
appoint  a  Council  of  State  of  41.  The  Levellers  attack  the  Govern- 
ment, but  are  suppressed,  and  begin  to  plot  with  the  Koyaliats. 

693.  Ireland.  Cromwell  crosses  to  Ireland,  where  Charles  has  been 
proclaimed,  and  storms  Drogheda  and  Wexford. 

694.  Prance.  The  Court  leaves  Paris  for  St  Germain,  and  the 
Frondeurs  are  joined  by  Conti,  the  Due  and  Duchesse  de  Longueville, 
La  Rochefoucauld,  and  Beaufort.  Cond^  comes  to  the  aid  of  the  Court 
and  captures  the  Fronde  towns.  The  nobles  retort  by  applying  for  aid 
to  the  Spanish  Netherlands.  President  MoW,  who  desires  a  compro- 
mise, visits  Ruel  and  concludes  a  treaty,  which,  however,  is  rejectea  by 
the  nobles.  A  Spanish  force  enters  Cliampagne,  but  Maiann  bribe* 
Turenne's  troops  to  desert  their  leader.  The  second  Treaty  of  Rud  is 
made,  and  the  Regent  buys  off  tlie  nobles  with  pensions  and  offices. 


1MB]  CULTURE  139 


;vj.>.    Bahamian  Ch.    Comenius  becomes  chief  Bishop  of  t}ie  Bohemian 

Brotheis  and  revives  the  society. 
.'">•.    dmroh  Hist.    Innocent  X.  condemns  the  Peace  of  Westphalia, 

vhich  i;»  concladed  without  consulting  him,  and  declares  that  it  is  not 

binding. 
/"iT.    ng.  Ut.    Herrick's  Hesperides. 
!"^,    Swedish  Lit.    Stjemhjelm  enters  Christina's  Court  and  founds 

Svedi^  poetiT  and  dnuna.    The  Queen   also  receives  visits   from 

Silma^ins.   Giotius,  Vossius,  Naud^,  Bochart,   Huet,  Descartes,  and 

•^ther  distinguished  foreigners. 
:"^>.    Death'    Lord  Herbert. 


yt,p\    Sn^  Ch.    Thomdike's  Right  of  a  Church  in  a  Christian    mcaq 

>»^il,    Scotch  Ch.    Lay  patrona^  is  abolishe<l. 

*••<?-'.  French  Ch.  Rve  propositions  from  the  Augustinus  are  selected 
Vt  certain  doctors  of  the  Sorbonne  for  disapproval,  and  85  prelates  urge 
tike  P'^pe  to  condemn  them.  A  Committee  decides  against  t  nem,  thouiirh 
vitlk*^t  declaring  that  they  are  to  be  found  in  Jauseu^s  b<x)k.  The 
JiKiflUs^s  admit  the  heretical  character  of  the  Propositions,  but  deny 
tiat  tber  were  held  by  Jansen.  A  new  enquir>'  is  therefore  made  by 
tike  Bi«hop».  who  report  that  they  are  in  the  oook. 

i**U.    Qennan  Ch.    The  mystical  hymns  of  Spec  are  collected. 

''*'*!  American  Ch.  The  Maryland  Assembly  passes  a  Toleration  Act 
>c  all  Christians,  the  Catholics  fearing  the  increasing  number  of  the 
hv4£$tant  immigrants 

>*i^,    Fhiloecphy.    Gassendi's  Svntagma  Philosopliicum  Epicuri,  follow- 
iar  oe  hi»  Life  of  Epicurus  and  Kis  commentary  on  Diogenes  L^ertius, 
ffvirfsfr  the  stndy  and  system  of  Epicurus. 
Bi^kop  HaO*s  Practical  Cases  of  Conscience. 

y^  Potttiea.  A  fortnight  after  the  King's  death,  Milton's  Tenure  of 
and  Magistrates  appears,  justifying  the  execution  but  not  attack- 
oairhr.  The  Bkou  Basilike,  compiled  by  Gauden  in  part  from 
:'s  ttuta»,  quickly  follows,  and  is  answereil  in  the  Eikonoklaiite.< 
^  Miknik.  now  Corresponding  Secretary  to  the  Government,  in  a  tiercer 
Vttr  kndk  against  the  person  of  the  King  and  the  institution  of 
Bnarrhj. 

AT.    miilory.     Lord  Herbert  of  Cherbur>''s  Historj-  of  Henr>-  VIII. 

P^  BociaL  The  Diggers  b^n  to  work  at  St  George's  Hill,  Surrey. 
md  no  being  prosecuted  by  the  Government  attack  the  institution  of 
pRvate  pmpertT. 

M>    Agrieulftiira.    Blith's  treatise  on  Drainage. 

^'i&.    Bf  fh      Gerhard  Vossius. 


140  POLITICS  [1860 


695.  Ireland.  Cromwell  leaves  Ireland,  the  conquest  being  r^^ 
carried  on  by  Ireton  and  Ludlow  till  1652,  when  a  large  part   >- 

of  Ulster,  Munster,  and  Leinster  is  confiscated  for  the  soldiers. 

696.  Scotland.  Montrose  appears  in  arms  for  the  King,  but  is  betrared 
and  executed.  Charles  II.  lands  (June),  signs  the  Covenant,  and  l« 
welcomed  by  the  whole  nation.  Fairfax  refuses  to  lead  an  army  to 
Scotland,  and  Cromwell,  who  takes  his  place,  advances  to  EdinbuigL 
He  is  forced  to  retreat  to  Dunbar,  where  the  Scots  attack  him  and  are 
utterly  routed  (Sept.  3).    Edinburgh  falls  three  months  later. 

697.  France.  Cond^,  who  attempts  to  dominate  the  Court,  is  arrestol 
with  Conti  and  Longueville.  Mme  de  Longueville  (Condi's  sisten 
wins  back  Turenne  and  makes  a  treaty  with  the  Spanish  NetherUuA*. 
Turenne  is  defeated ;  and  Mazarin  pacifies  Guienne,  where  Cond^*8  wife 
ha,s  raised  a  revolt,  with  the  restoration  of  local  privileges. 

698.  Holland.  William  II.  and  Mazarin  agree  to  disown  the  Peace  d 
Westphalia,  to  partition  the  Spanish  Netherlands,  and  to  restore  the 
Stuarts  to  England  ;  but  the  plot  is  foiled  by  the  death  of  William. 

699.  America.  The  New  Netherlands  and  the  United  Colonies 
establish  a  boundary  between  the  Dutch  and  English  settlement, 
Governor  Stuyvesaut  having  claimed  as  far  as  Cape  God. 


700.  England.    Charles  is  crowned  at  Scone  by  Arigyll,  collects  m^jj 
an  army,  and  marches  across  the  border  (Aug.),  but  is  overtaken   '■ 
and  routed  by  Cromwell  at  Worcester  (Sept.   3).     After  many  *J- 
ventures,  he  escapes  to  France,  and  Argyll  resumes  friendly  relation* 
with  Cromwell. 

The  Council  sends  ambassadors  to  the  Netherlands  to  suggest  a  clo«« 
union  ;  the  provinces,  however,  with  the  exception  of  Holland,  refuse  t4» 
expel  the  Stuarts.  In  retaliation,  the  Navigation  Act  is  passed,  by 
which  English  vessels  alone  may  import  goods,  excepting  only  the 
vessels  of  the  country  whence  the  goods  come.  This  measure  crettw 
a  commercial  nav}',  and  may  l)e  said  to  found  England's  commeicial 
Empire. 

701.  Prance.  Mazarin  is  forced  to  release  Cond^,  whose  insolence 
throws  the  Frondeurs  into  the  arms  of  the  Court.  The  King  is  declared 
of  age,  and  Parliament  declares  CondtS  who  has  raised  a  revolt  in  the 
south,  guilty  of  treason. 

702.  Poland.    The  single  veto  is  first  used. 

703.  Asia.     The  Portuguese  are  exj>elled  from  Muscat. 

704.  AfHca.  St  Helena  is  occupied  by  the  English,  and  becomes  s 
station  of  the  East  India  Compmy. 


U61]  CULTURE  141 

1041.    Sng.  Ch.    Jeremy  Taylor's  Holy  Living  and  Holy  Dying,    m  gcQ 
Baxter  contends  for  a  modified  predestination  on  the  lines    ^ 
of  Amyraiit's  teaching. 
104^,    American  Lit.    Anne  Bradstreet's  Poems. 
1043.    Science.     Guericke  of  Magdeburg  invents  an  air-pump  by  which 
re^Ksek  can  be  exhausted,  and  proves  that  the  air  presses  equally  in  all 
diiecticms.     Boyle  hears  of  the  pump  and  makes  one  of  a  somewhat 
i^imilar  character. 

Descartes'  Les  Passions  de  TAme  calls  attention  to  reflex  action, 
and  declares  that  the  brain  changes  with  the  changing  states  of 
consciousness. 

Glisson's  Treatise  on  the  Bickets. 
I"ii.    Art.     Hobbema  paints  his  first  pictures,  which,  with  the  works  of 

Raygdael,  found  Dutch  landscape. 
I'^i>.    EQstory.     Ussher's  Annaies  Veteris  et  Novi  Testamenti. 

Launni  attacks  the  legend  of  Pope  Joan,  which  is  defended  by  the 
Abb^  Thiers. 
lOi^;.    Law.    Sir  Matthew  Hale's  Analysis  of  the  Civil  Law  presents  a 
scheme  of  codification. 

Ztiuch's  Explicatio  Juris  inter  Gentes,  the  first  systematic  work  on 

international  law  produced  in  England. 

I*fi7.    Philology.    Cappel,  Professor  of  Theology  at  Saumur,  publishes 

hi<i  Critica  Sacra,  attacking  the  theory  of  inspiration  of  the  Hebrew 

Tovels,  maintained  by  the  elder  Buxtorf. 

!**is.    Agricnlture.    Hartlib  describes  the  agricultural  methods  in  use 

iu  Flanders,  and  Weston  calls  attention  to  the  advantages  of  turnips, 
i^/p.    Death.    Descartes. 


J(»50.  Eng.  Ch.  Sandcroft's  Fur  Predestinatus  attacks  Justifica-  MgKi 
tioD  by  Faith  from  an  Arminian  standpoint.  ^ 

1^*51.  Asiatic  Ch.  A  body  of  Dominicans  arrives  in  China  and  is  greatly 
shocked  at  the  attitude  adopted  by  the  Jesuits  in  regard  to  Chinese 
(cremoDies  and  beliefs. 

ytSi,  IVench  Lit.  Fureti^re's  Roman  Bourgeois,  with  Scarron's  Roman 
Comique.  introduces  a  reaction  against  the  conventional  Romans  de 
kngne  Haleine. 

yAi.  Science.  Harvey's  De  Generatione  Animalium  founds  embryology 
and  suggests  Epiffenesis. 

i^i  F3itiC8.  Milton  replies  to  Salmasius*  attack  on  the  execution  of 
the  King  in  his  Defensio  pro  Populo  Anglicano,  in  which  he  assumes  a 
definitely  repablican  position. 

Hobbes  returns  to  England,  notifies  his  submission  to  the  Council  of 
•State  and  publishes  his  Leviathan,  a  rSsume  of  his  previous  works.  He 
•r^totendij  that  the  de  facto  sovereign,  whether  by  contract  or  by  con- 
•iXiest,  has  a  right  to  absolute  obedience  in  all  matters  of  Church  and 
Jkate.  This  obedience  alone  has  rescued  society  from  its  primitive 
uan-hy,  and  can  alone  prevent  its  relapse. 

i">>-    Philosophy.    Hobbes  separates  theology  from  philosophy,  but 
Ttjtct*  the  purely  empirical  metnods  of  Bacon.    He  finds  the  origin  of 


142  POLITICS  [1652 

705.  England.    The  Commons  propose  to'  raise  their  numbers  to   r^^M 
400,  existing  members  retaining  their  seats,  with  power  to  veto   '- 
the  new  members. 

War  breaks  out  with  the  Dutch  over  the  right  of  search,  and  Vane, 
the  Secretary  and  organiser  of  the  Navy,  entrusts  the  fleet  to  Blake. 
After  indecisive  battles,  Tromp  defeats  the  English  (Dec.). 

706.  Holland.  A  treaty  is  made  with  Denmark  to  close  the  Soond 
against  English  ships. 

707.  Prance.  Turenne,  who  has  rejoined  the  Court,  forces  his  way  to 
Paris  and  defeats  Cond^  in  the  Faubourg  St  Antoine,  but  is  compdkd 
by  the  victories  of  Spain  in  the  N.E.  to  withdraw.  Cond^,  however, 
loses  his  influence,  and  the  Court  returns,  sentences  Cond^  to  death  and 
arrests  Retz. 

708.  Spain.  Don  John,  an  illegitimate  son  of  Philip  IV.,  takes  Barce- 
lona, and  ejects  the  French  from  Catalonia. 

709.  Russia.  The  Cossacks  on  the  Dnieper  take  the  oath  of  allegiance 
to  the  Tsar. 

710.  America.    Maine  is  joined  to  Massachusetts. 

711.  AfHca.  Van  Riebeck  is  sent  by  the  Dutch  East  India  Company  to 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  to  make  a  fort  and  a  hospital  for  invalided 
soldiers  and  sailors,  in  consequence  of  the  ^vreck  of  an  East  ludiaman  in 
Table  Bay.  In  1657,  several  members  of  the  Dutch  garrison  become 
&rmers  and  begin  the  Boer  settlement,  which  remains  unmolested 
except  by  the  Hottentots. 


712.  England.  Despite  an  assurance  that  nothing  will  be  done  ri^ea 
in  a  hurr}'  (April  19),  Parliament  proceeds  (April  20)  to  pass  the  ^ 
Perpetuation  Bill.  Cromwell,  spurred  on  bv  Harrison,  arrives  before  the 
motion  is  put,  and  expels  tlie  members.  The  officers  appoint  a  Council 
of  Stat€,  which  reqiiests  the  Independent  ministers  to  recommend  candi- 
dates for  a  new  Parliament.  Of  these  the  Council  selects  139,  who 
meet  as  the  Little,  or  Barebones,  Parliament  (June).  Alarmed  by  the 
attempt  to  carry  out  ambitious  reforms,  the  more  cautious  declare  the 
Parliament  dissolved  (Dec).  The  Instrument  of  Government  is  drawn 
up,  by  which  Cromwell  becomes  Lord  Protector  with  a  Council  of  21  life 
members,  whose  concurrence  is  necessary  for  peace  or  war.  Legislation 
is  vested  in  a  single  house,  which  must  meet  once  every  third  year  for 
not  less  than  five  montlis,  and  in  time  of  war.  The  Protector  receives 
a  fixed  revenue  and  must  ask  Parliament  if  he  needs  more. 

Blake,  Deane  and  Monk  defeat  IVomp  and  Ruvter  off  Beachy  Head 
(March),  and  Monk  again  defeats  Tromp  off  the  Texel  (Aug.).  Nego- 
ciations  are  opened,  and  Cromwell  vainly  presses  for  a  complete  umon 
as  the  nucleus  of  a  Protestant  League. 

713.  Prance.    The  Fronde  flickers  out  in  the  Provinces,  and  Cond^  and 
the  Spaniards  are  repulsed  by  Turenne. 


1C6S]  CULTURE  143 

knowledi^  in  sense-impredsions.  and  defines  the  good  as  that  which 
L<  desired  by  the  individual  ana  that  which  t^nds  to  self-preservation. 
he  Lugo's  Responsa   Moralia,  .a  handbook  which  obtains  great 
lathority. 


10S*>.    Bng.Ch.  Gatakers  Commentary  on  the  thoughts  of  Marcus    riQRo 

V)57.    Datch  Ch.   Lodensteyu,  the  leader  of  the  Pietists,  becomes  pastor 

at  Utrecht. 
VfoS.  RnBuian  Ch.  Nicon  becomes  Patriarch,  and,  secure  in  the  support 
of  the  Tsar  Alexis,  introduces  many  small  changes  into  the  Church, 
allowing  western  music  and  art,  reviving  preachmg  and  revising  the 
BiUe.  The  Raskolniks  (Dissenters)  leave  the  Church,  owing  to  the 
litQigical  chances.  Nicon  quarrels  with  the  Tsar,  1658,  and  retires. 
A  Council  of  tne  Eastern  Patriarchs  meets  in  Moscow  and  condemns 
him,  and  elects  a  new  Patriarch,  16G7. 
mu.    Art.    Paul  Potter's  Bull  (The  Hague). 

Vi^j,  FhiloBophy.  Culverwell's  Light  of  Nature  declares  the  Jus 
Naturae  a  code  antecedent  to  all  human  law,  yet  dependent  on  the 
Dirine  Will 
M/.  Politics.  Winstanley's  Law  of  Freedom  unfolds  an  elaborate 
^j'^tem  of  communism,  with  the  prohibition  of  bu>'in^  and  selling,  the 
eWtion  of  office-holders,  equal  salaries,  technical  instruction,  civil 
marriage,  and  a  priesthood  to  lecture  on  the  day  of  rest. 
l^^il.    iSsathfl.     Inigo  Jones,  Petavius,  John  Smith. 


V^M^.    Eng.  Ch.    A  lai^e  section  adopts  Millenarian  ideas,  and    ri  053 
Jaine^  Naylor  allows  himself  to  be  recognised  in  Bristol  as  the    i- 
Mestffiah.     Fifth  Monarchy  men,  led  by  Feake  and  Rogers,  also  become 
de&utely  Antinomian,  though  Vane  and  Harrison  stand  aloof 
Jeremy  Taylor's  course  of  Sermoas  for  the  Christian  Year. 

Id'H.  French  Ch.  Innocent  X.  condemns  five  Propositions  concerning 
Gnee,  professing  to  be  drawn  frdm  the  Augustinus,  without  declaring 
viwther  they  are  in  Augustine  or  in  Jansen. 

iVi^.  Oennan  Ch.  The  Great  Elector  confirms  the  declaration  of  Sigis- 
muDd,  granting  toleration  to  Lutherans  and  Calvinists. 

Id^^i.  Dutch  Uh.  Many  Dutch  Catholics  accept  Jansenism,  denying 
that  the  condemned  propositions  are  drawn  from  Jansen's  work.  The 
Stated-General  declare  against  the  Unitarians,  many  of  whom  in  con- 
!«qiieDce  become  professing  Arminians. 

l*>^.  Asiatic  Ch.  Syrian  Christians  renounce  the  Roman  Cliurch  and 
enter  into  relations  with  the  Jacobites. 

Vp^.    Eng.  Lit.    Isaac  Walton's  Complete  Angler. 

i'^**.  Scotch  Lit  Sir  ITiomas  Urquhart's  translation  of  Rabelais,  the 
Ufct  monument  of  old  Scotch  prose. 

l*/:ij.  Spaniah  Lit.  Gracian  s  Ordculo  Manual,  an  anticipation  of  La 
Bochefoncanld. 


1 


144  POLITICS  [1653 

714.  Germany.    The  Great  Elector  issues  a  Constitution  and  suppresses 
his  Diet 

715.  Holland.    De  Witt  is  elected  Pensionary  of  Holland,  and  becomes 
the  ruler  of  the  United  Provinces  for  20  years. 


716.  England.  Cromwell  terminates  the  war  with  the  Dutch,  ri«c^ 
the  House  of  Orange  being  excluded  from  the  Stadtholdersbip.  *• 
He  also  decrees  a  union  with  Scotland  and  Ireland,  and  a  reform  of 
Chancery.  On  the  meeting  of  the  first  Protectorate  Parliament,  elected 
on  the  lines  of  Vane's  Reform  Bill,  an  attack  is  made  on  the  new 
government ;  but  the  Protector  excludes  about  100  members  who  refuse 
to  promise  not  to  attempt  to  alter  the  Constitution. 

Cromwell  oflFers  his  alliance  to  Spain,  in  return  for  freedom  to  trade 
in  the  West  Indies  and  toleration  for  the  English  in  Spanish  tenitovf. 
On  Spain's  refusal,  he  sends  a  fleet  under  Penn  and  Venables  to  attack 
the  Spanish  Indies. 

Blake  sails  for  the  Mediterranean,  obtains  compensation  from 
Tuscany  and  the  Pope  for  injuries  inflicted  with  their  countenance 
on  English  merchants,  and  bombards  Tunis  for  refusing  a  similar 
indemnity. 

Cromwell  forces  Denmark  to  reopen  the  Sound  and  to  pay  damages. 
Whitelocke  is  sent  to  Sweden,  and  Christina  proves  friendly. 

717.  Sweden.    Christina  resigns  the  throne  to  her  cousin,  Charles  X., 
and  declares  herself  a  Catholic. 

718.  Switzerland.    Cromwell  sends  Dury  and  Pell  to  arrange  a  leagae 
with  the  Protestant  Cantons. 


719.  England.  The  Protector,  finding  the  members  persist  in  rjg^ 
criticising  the  Constitution,  dissolves  Parliament.  Some  refuse  ^ 
to  pay  taxes,  on  the  ground  that  the  Instrument  has  not  been  reco^iised 
by  Parliament,  and  the  judges  who  agree  with  them  are  ejected.  A 
royalist  plot  breaks  out  in  Wiltshire,  and  the  republicans  become 
increasingly  active.  Cromwell  in  consequence  diviaes  England  into 
military  districts  under  Major-Generals, 

Blake  destroys  the  Barbar}'  fleet  and  releases  the  captives  in  Algiers. 

Cromwell  makes  an  alliance  with  France,  Dunkirk  to  be  taken  by 
the  joint  armies  and  handed  over  to  England,  and  religious  freedom  to 
be  granted  to  Englislimen  in  France.  At  this  moment  the  Duke  rf 
Savoy  attacks  the  Vaudois,  and  Cromwell  forces  Mazarin  to  stop  the 
persecution  as  the  price  of  his  alliance. 

Penn  and  Venables  are  repidsed  from  San  Domingo,  but  seiie 
Jamaica,  in  which  a  number  of  settlers  arrive  fix)m  Barbados  and 
St  Kitts. 

The  Levellers  plot  with  the  Royalists,  but  nothing  is  done,  both 
from  want  of  money  and  from  opj[>osition  to  the  royal  veto  and  episco- 
pacy.    Sexby,  the  leader,  is  seized,  1658,  and  the  Levellers  disappear. 


L668]  CULTURE  145 

1071,     Swediflh  Lit.    Stjernhjelm's  Hercules,  a  didactic  allegor}',  im- 

pn>Te$  the  lanmage. 
107J.    Death.    Salmasiu8. 


1073.    Bug.  Ch.    Cromwell  appoints  Triers,  among  them  Rouse   n  054 

and   Peters,  toprovide  a  g(K)d  Puritan  clergy.  ^ 

VCi,    French  Ch.    Pascal,  scared  by  a  carriage  accident,  enters  Port- 

RoyaL 
PCS.    Church  Hist.    Cromwell  commissions  Dury  to  work  for  re-union 

m  Switierlan  i,  Germany  and  Holland. 
i'C^;.    Sn^  Lit.    Roger  Boyle's  Parthenissa  imitates  the  French  Romans 

de  longue  Haleine,  at  this  time  widely  read  in  England. 
VC7.    American  Lit.    Johnson's  Wonder  Working  Providence  of  New 

Eo^dand  replies  to  the  charges  against  the  colonists  and  contends  that 

the  i<«ttlements  were  undertaken  for  religious  purposes,  and  are  sustained 

br  miracles. 
J'CV     Dutch  Lit.    Vondel's  Lucifer,  a  drama  in  five  acts. 
V*y*.    Science.     Pascal  and  Fermat  found  the  theory  of  probabilities. 
H«>bbes,  who  has  spoken  slightingly  of  the  Universities  and  urged 

the  State  to  teach  obedience  to  itself  and  to  prohibit  the  study  of 

!<*boIa$tic  philo^phy  and  the  classics,  is  attacked  by  Ward,  Professor  of 

.\>ti^tnomy  at  Oxford  and  by  Wallis,  Professor  of  Mathematics,  who 

menilessly  expose  his  mathematics  and  science.     The  controversy  with 

Wftllis  continues  till  1678. 

Glisson  discovers  the  fibrous  sheath  of  the  liver  known  as  'Glisson's 

Ctpsuled  *  and  detects  irritability. 
/'•V'.    Philosophy.  The  controversy  between  Hobbes  and  Bishop  Bram- 

Lill  no  tlie  Freedom  of  the  Will  b^ns. 
i'rt/.    Politics.   Milton's  Defensio  Secunda  attacks  a  reply  to  his  Defensio 

Prima  written  by  Peter  Dumoulin,  and  edited  by  Moms,  a  Scot,  and 

ims  the  Protector  to  associate  the  'Commonwealths  men'  in  the 

GoTemmeiit. 

Coming's  De  Finibus  Imperii  Germanici  discusses  the  relation  of 

die  Empire  to  the  States. 
Wi,    Bocisl.    Petty  executes  a  survey  of  Irish  land,  rendered  necessary 

br  the  changes  of  the  last  generation. 
i*^.    Deaths.    Gataker,  Oxenstiem,  Selden. 


Mi  Sn^  Ch.  FrijB^tened  by  the  rising  in  Wiltshire,  the  Pro-  ri  555 
fiecttr  foitnda  the  private  use  of  the  services  of  the  Church,  the  *- 
^ikyment  of  Anglican  clergy  as  chaplains  or  schoolmasters,  and  the 
pnctice  of  repeating  prayers  from  memoiy.  Gunning,  however,  con- 
tianeB  to  preach  in  London,  and  the  Episcopal  Church  is  upheld  by 
Baamoiid,  Sheldon,  Sanderson  and  others. 

Cromwell  ia  induced  by  Manasseh  ben  Israel  of  Amsterdam  to 
OBsder  the  return  of  the  Jews.  The  committee  appointed  failing 
to  ifrree.  Cromwell  resolves  to  proceed  alone,  despite  the  attacks  of 
Pni^  and  others.    The  Jews  from  this  time  gradually  creep  back. 

«.  10 


146  POLiTios  [1655 


720.  Sweden.  Charles  X.  invades  Poland,  whose  King,  Casimir,  refuses 
to  recognise  him,  and  overruns  the  country  almost  without  resistance. 
The  Great  Elector,  hitherto  neutral,  prepares  to  bar  his  return,  but  is 
attacked  and  defeated. 

721.  Switzerland.  An  attempt  to  draft  a  new  federal  constitutioD 
fails,  and  the  Catholic  cantons  renew  the  Borromean  League.  The  first 
Vilmergen  war  breaks  out,  in  which  the  Protestants  are  defeated,  and 
after  which  the  sovereign  right  of  each  state  is  aflHrmed. 

722.  Asia.  The  Emperor  of  China  allows  Russia  to  send  a  caravan 
yearly  to  Pekin.  Russia  also  builds  some  forts  on  the  south  shore  of 
the  Amur,  and  moves  steadily  towards  the  East.  The  Chinese  Govern- 
ment, finally,  determines  to  hinder  the  advance,  demolishes  the  forts, 
and  forces  Russia  to  sign  the  treaty  of  Nertchinsk  (1689)  (the  first 
treaty  concluded  by  China  with  an  European  power),  promising  not  to 
meddle  with  the  territory  south  of  the  Amur. 


723.  England.    War  is  declared  by  Spain,  and  a  second  Parlia-   r««cA 
ment  is  summoned  to  grant  money,  about  100  members  of  *■ 
which  are,  however,  excluded.     Part  of  the  Spanish  treasure-fleet  is 
captured. 

Vane's  Healing  Question,  written  in  response  to  the   Protectors 
request  for  advice,  advocates  the  calling  of  a  Constituent  Assembly. 

724.  Portugal.  A  fleet  under  Blake  and  Montague  compels  King  John 
to  ratify  his  treaty  with  England. 

725.  Sweden.  The  Great  Elector  is  forced  to  make  a  treaty  with 
Charles  X.,  agreeing  to  hold  the  duchy  of  Prussia  of  Sweden  (Jan.). 
The  Poles  rise  and  repulse  the  Swedes,  and  Charles  obtains  the  alliance 
of  the  Elector  by  ceding  part  of  Poland.  With  his  aid,  he  defeats  John 
Casimir  in  the  three  days*  battle  of  Warsaw.  To  retain  the  alliance, 
Charles  surrenders  his  suzerainty  over  the  duchy  of  Prussia.  The  other 
nations  are  by  this  time  alarmed,  and  Russia  interrupts  her  conflict  with 
Poland  to  ally  with  her  against  Sweden.  The  Emperor  and  the  Danes 
at  the  same  time  declare  against  Sweden.  Charles  thereupon  secures 
the  help  of  Rakoksy  of  Transylvania,  and  attacks  Russia  in  Lithuanii. 
At  this  moment  the  Danes,  with  the  Emperor  and  the  Dutch,  attack  the 
Swedish  coasts,  and  Charles  returns. 

726.  Turkey.  After  a  long  period  of  misrule,  Eiuprili,  an  Albanian, 
becomes  Vizier,  and  reorganises  the  State  and  the  Army.  His  son, 
Turkey's  greatest  statesman,  succeeds  him  1661,  and  for  15  ^ean 
maintains  his  position  as  virtual  Sultan.  Though  his  administration  is 
successful,  his  military  career  is  a  complete  failure. 

The  Venetians  destroy  a  Turkish  fleet. 


16S6]  CtLTURE  147 

IGSo,    French  Ch.    The  Due  de  LiaDcourt,  a  rich  patron  of  Port-Royal, 

is  refused  absolution  at  St  Sulpice  unless  he  deserts  the  Jansenists. 

Amauld  writes  two  pamphlets,  denying  that  tlie  condemned  propositions 

are    in  the  Augustinus,  and   is  in   consequence  expelled  from  the 

Sorbonne. 

La  Peyr^re's  Systema  Theologicum,  the  first  definitely  rationalist 

work  on  creation,  inspiration,  miracles. 

IXAch^ry's  Spicilegium  (in  which  Mabillon  shares),  the  first  of  a  long 

series  of  woiks  of  erudition  issuing  from  the  Beue<lictine8  of  St  Maur. 
1080.     German  Ch.    Calov's  Consensus  of  the  Lutheran  Faith  attacks 

Calixtus'  S}Ticretism,  and  is  approved  by  Wittenberg  and  Leipsig. 

The  symbol,  however,  is  rejected  at  Jena  by  the  pupils  of  Gerhard,  and 

never  becomes  widely  adoptetL     Calov  commences  his  Loci  Theologici, 

a  summary  of  rigid  Lutheran  orthodoxy. 

1087.  History.    Dugdale's  Monasticon. 

1088.  Philosophy.    Stanley's  History  of  Philosophy. 


1089.  Eng.  Ch.    Muggleton  and  Reeve  describe  the  revelations   n^5^ 
vouchsafed  to  them  m  the  Divine  Looking-glass,  and  proclaim    '- 
themselves  the  two  witnesses  of  the  Apocalypse. 

1090.  French  Ch.  The  Pope  declares  the  condemned  propositions  to 
be  in  the  Augustinus,  and  all  ecclesiastics  are  ordered  to  accept  this 
decision. 

Pascal's  (anonymous)  Lettres  Provinciales  attack  the  Jesuits,  1 — 3 
dealing  with  Grace  and  the  condemnation  of  Amauld,  4 — 16  attacking 
Jesuit  casuistry.  The  last  two  letters  return  to  the  5  Propositions 
and  assert  that  the  Pope  is  infallible  in  matters  of  faith  alone.  The 
work  is  answered  by  P^re  Daniel  and  others,  but  initiates  a  reaction  in 

&Tour  of  Port-Royal  which  is  increased  by  the  effect  of  the  Saints  Epine 
on  Pascal's  niece. 

1091.  Dutch  Ch.  Spinoza,  after  narrowly  escaping  assassination,  is  ex- 
eommonicated  by  the  Jews  at  Amsterdam. 

1092.  American  Ch.  The  Quakers  reach  Massachusetts  and  are  vio- 
lentlypersecuted,  a  few  being  killed. 

109S.    Kig.  Lit    Cowley's  Pindaric  Odes. 
WaUer's  Ode  to  Cromwell. 

1094.  French  Lit.  Chapelain's  Epic,  La  Pucelle,  obtains  a  great  though 
short-lived  popularity. 

1095.  Science.  Wallis'  Arithmetica  Infinitorum  extends  the  methods  of 
analysis  of  Descartes  and  C^valieri. 

1096.  FOlitica.  Harrington's  Oceana,  a  system  of  aristocratic  republi- 
canism, strongly  influenced  by  Venetian  institutions,  containing  re- 
markable anticipations  of  modem  reforms  in  regard  to  education,  the 
franchise,  and  the  ballot,  imposing  a  limit  on  accumulation  of  land  and 
filling  the  offices  of  state  by  rotation,  appeals  to  the  Protector  to 
reori^anise  the  government  Harrington's  svstem  is  attacked  by  Baxter 
in  his  Holy  Commonwealth  on  the  ground  that  men  are  not  wise  or 
good  enough  to  make  it  a  success. 

10—2 


148  POLITICS  [1667 


727.  England.  In  return  for  a  grant  of  monev,  Cromwell  re-  q-ko 
moves  the  Major-Generals.  Parliament  offers  the  Protector  the  ^ 
title  of  Ein^,  and  the  power  to  appoint  his  successor,  and  draws  up  the 
Humble  Petition  and  Advice,  by  which  the  members  of  the  Council  of 
State  are  nominated  and  removable  by  consent  of  Parliament,  which  is 
to  consist  of  two  Houses.  The  Protector  accepts  the  new  Constitution, 
but  refuses  the  Kingship.  Meanwhile  Blake  destroys  a  Spanish  fleet 
off  Teneriffe,  but  dies  on  his  way  home. 

728.  France.  Condi's  success  against  Turenne  encourages  Spain,  and 
the  war  revives.  Cromwell  sends  6,000  men  to  co-operate,  and  Maitlyck 
is  taken. 

729.  Sweden.  The  Great  Elector  joins  Poland  against  Sweden,  and 
receives  Pnissia  free  from  Polish  suzerainty.  The  Swedes  are  driven 
out  of  Poland,  retaining  only  Polish  Prussia.     Charles,  however,  attacb 

•    Denmark,  with  which  the  Great  Elector  allies. 

730.  Hungary.  George  Rakoksy  II.,  wishing  to  extend  the  power  of 
Transylvania,  allies  with  Sweden  for  the  partition  of  Poland,  and  gains 
several  victories.  He  is  cnished,  however,  by  Imperialist  and  Turkish 
armies  and  deposed,  part  of  Transylvania  passing  under  direct  Turkish 
rule. 

731.  Asia.    Aurungzebe  deposes  his  father  and  becomes  Emperor. 


732.  England.    The  Commons  meet  for  their  second  session  and  r^m 
restore  the  excluded  members ;   but  on  attacking  the  Upper  '■ 
House,  they  are  dissolved  (Feb.).     The  Protector  loses  his  favourite 
daughter  (Aug.),  and  dies  (Sept.  3),  and  is  succeeded  by  his  son 
Richard,  whom  he  is  said  to  have  named  on  his  death-bed. 

733.  Prance.  With  the  aid  of  the  English  troops,  Turenne  routs  the 
Spaniards  under  Cond^  and  Don  John  at  the  battle  of  the  Dunes  (June), 
and  takes  Dunkirk,  which  is  retained  by  England. 

734.  Germany.  Failing  to  secure  the  election  of  Louis  as  Emperor, 
Mazarin  creates  a  Confederation  of  the  Khine,  nominally  to  guarantee 
the  Treaty  of  Westphalia. 

73^5.  Sweden.  Charles  crosses  the  frozen  belt  to  Copenhagen,  and  com- 
pels Denmark  to  cede  her  East  Sound  provinces  ana  to  close  the  Baltic 
against  the  enemies  of  Sweden  (Feb.).  Charles  concludes  a  truce  with 
Russia,  and  again  attacks  Denmark,  which  receives  aid  from  the  Dutch 
and  the  Great  Elector. 

736.  Asia.  The  Dutch  take  Jaffnapatam,  the  last  important  Portuguese 
port  in  Ceylon. 


737.  England.  Richard  is  attacked  by  the  officers,  who  demand  r^^^ 
that  Fleetwood  shall  become  their  general  and  independent  of  ^ 
the  Protector.  The  latter  demand  is  refused,  and  the  army  forces 
Richard  to  dissolve  Parliament  (April).  A  fortnight  later,  42  memb^s 
of  the  Rump,  ejected  in  1653,  meet  at  Westminster  and  attempt  to 
dictate  to  the  officers.    Richard  abdicates  (May),  and  Booth  rises  in 


1659]  CULTURE  149 

1097.  History.    Fuller's  Church  History  of  Britain. 

1098.  Deaths.    Calixtus,  Gassendi,  Ussher. 


1099.  Eng.  Ch.  The  Whole  Duty  of  Man  (anonymous)  is  pub-  rigRw 
lished  with  a  preface  by  Hammond.  '- 

1100.  French  Ch.  De  Marca  draws  up  a  formula  of  renunciation  of  the 
5  Propositions,  which  the  Pope  approves.  Amauld  again  denies  that 
the  condemned  tenets  are  in  the  Augustinus. 

1101.  (German  Ch.  Angelus  Silesius  fScheffler),  a  recent  convert  to 
Catholicism,  publishes  his  Greistliche  Seelenlust,  a  collection  of  mystical 
songs,  influenced  by  his  study  of  Behmen. 

Schupp's  Solomon,  Friend  in  Need,  and  other  didactic  tracts,  foster 
practical  theology. 

1102.  French  Lit.  Ninon's  Salon  in  Paris  is  frequented  by  the 
Idbertins,  St  Evremond,  Scarron,  Gourville,  Sarrasin,  and  later,  by 
Lafaie,  Chaulieu  and  the  habitues  of  the  Temple. 

1103.  Science.  The  Academia  del  Cimento  is  founded  at  Florence, 
among  its  members  being  Torricelli  and  Castellio.  The  Society  exists 
for  10  years. 

110^.     Education.    Comenius'  Orbis  Sensualium  Pictus,  the  child's  first 

picture-book. 

Cromwell  founds  a  University  at  Durham  for  the  northern  counties. 

It  is  suppressed  at  the  Restoration,  but  revived  1837. 
1106.      nulology.      Brian   Walton   completes  his    Polyglot,   in    nine 

languages,  aided  by  Pococke,  Thomdike,  Hyde,  Hammond,  Ussher, 

Li^tfoot,  and  other  scholars. 

1106.  History.    Prynne's  Abridgement  of  the  Records  of  the  Tower. 

1107.  Deaths.    Carpzov,  Harvey. 


1108.  Eng.  Ch.    The  Savoy  Declaration,  the  fundamental  Con-   ri  qkq 
gre^tional  Confession,  is  drawn  up  by  Goodwin,  Owen,  and  Nye,    ^ 
anadiflfers  but  slightly  from  the  Westminster  Confession. 

1109.  Science.  Pascal,  following  the  work  of  Roberval,  solves  certain 
problems  of  the  cycloid  by  the  method  of  indivisibles.  His  work  in  this 
airection  is  continued  by  Wallis,  1659. 

Sylvius  becomes  Professor  of  Medicine  at  Leyden  and  founds  the 

iataro-chemical  school,  owing  something  to  Paracelsus  and  Van  Helmont. 

The  teaching  is  imported  into  England  by  Thomas  Willis. 

Huyghens  invents  the  cycloidal  pendulum  and  applies  the  pendulum 

to  clocka. 
UlO.    Philosophy.   Gassendi's  Syntagma  Philosophicum,  less  materialist 

than  his  criticisms  on  Descartes,  presents  a  theory  of  ideas  that  almost 

anticipates  Locke,  and  a  system  of  Epicurean  Ethics. 
Ull.    Philology.    Lightfoot's  Horae  Hebraicae. 
IIU.    Eng.  Iiit.    Sir  T.  Browne*s  Hydriotaphia  advocates  cremation. 


lUS.    Eng.  Ch.    Pearson's  Exposition  of  the  Apostles*  Creed.        fiesQ 
Stillingfleet,  influenced  by  nis  training  under  the  Cambridge    ^ 


150  POLITICS  *     [1869 

Cheshire  for  Charles  II.,  but  is  defeated  by  Lambert  (Aug.).  The 
Rump  is  excluded  from  the  House  by  Lambert  (Oct.),  but,  after  the 
failure  of  Ludlow's  attempt  to  appoint  Conservators  of  Liberty,  is 
restored  by  the  oflScers,  who  discover  that  they  cannot  obtain  taxes 
(Dec). 

738.  Prance.  Mazarin  negociates  the  Peace  of  the  Pyrenees,  by  which 
Louis  XIV.  is  to  marry  the  Infanta,  and  France  receives  Roussilloo, 
Artois  and  a  number  of  fortresses  on  the  N.E.  frontier.  Lorraine  is  to 
be  conditionally  restored  to  Charles,  and  the  Governorship  of  BurguDdj 
to  Cond<^,  and  Portugal  is  not  to  be  further  assisted. 

739.  Sweden.  The  Great  Elector  drives  the  Swedes  from  the  mainland. 
Holland,  France  and  England  ally  to  keep  the  Baltic  open  and  force 
Charles  X.  to  make  peace. 


740.  England.  Monk  crosses  the  border,  is  joined  by  Fairfax  at  m««q 
York,  and  enters  London  (Feb.  3).  The  City  refuses  to  pay  '• 
taxes  without  representation,  and  Monk  declares  for  a  free  ParliameDt 
(Feb.  16).  The  Kump  recalls  the  Presbyterians  excluded  by  Pride,  and 
Parliament  votes  its  own  dissolution  and  orders  a  new  election.  By 
the  Declaration  of  Breda,  Charles  promises  amnesty,  toleration,  payment 
of  the  soldiers'  arrears,  and  confirmation  of  transfers  of  land  (April  4). 
Parliament  meets  (April  25),  and  welcomes  the  Declaration,  invites  the 
King  to  return,  and  declares  for  the  old  Constitution.  The  King  enters 
London  (May  29).  Hyde  becomes  supreme,  and  a  return  is  tacitW 
made  to  the  situation  of  August,  1641.  A  partial  indemnity  is  granted, 
and  13  regicides,  with  Vane,  are  hanged.  The  army  is  paid,  and, 
except  for  two  regiments,  disbanded,  military  tenures  and  feudal  dues 
are  abolished,  and  a  revenue  of  £1,200,000,  drawn  from  tonnage  and 
poundage  and  excise  is  settled  on  the  King. 

Councils  of  IVade  and  Foreign  Plantaticms  are  formed. 

741.  France.  Louis  marries  the  Infanta,  who  is  compelled  by  the 
Spanish  Court  to  renounce  her  claim  to  the  Spanish  throne,  on  condition 
of  receiving  a  dowry,  which  is  never  paid. 

742.  Sweden.  Charles  dies,  and  the  war  is  terminated  by  the  treaty  of 
Oliva  between  Sweden,  Poland  and  Brandenburg,  conquests  being  re- 
stored and  Casimir  renouncing  his  claims  to  the  Swedish  crown  aim  to 
Esthonia  and  Livonia.  The  sovereignty  of  Russia  is  recognised  hv 
Sweden  and  Poland.  Peace  is  renewed  with  Denmark,  which  surrendew 
the  south  of  Scandinavia.  The  pacification  of  the  north  is  completetl  by 
a  treaty  between  Sweden  and  Russia,  each  restoring  conauests,  1661. 
The  Swedish  estates  confer  almost  unlimited  power  on  the  King. 

743.  Denmark.  The  clerg\'  and  citizens  force  the  nobles  to  share  in 
taxation,  make  the  Crown  hereditary,  abrogate  the  privileges  extorted 
from  the  infant  King,  and  place  the  whole  government  under  n>}'al 
ccmtrol. 

744.  Turkey.  The  Emperor  sends  Montecuculi  to  defend  Transylvania, 
thus  for  the  first  time  for  100  years  becoming  involved  in  war  with  the 
Porte. 


1860]    *  CULTURE  151 

PUtt>nist«.  urges  in  his  Irenicum  a  compromise  between  systems  of 

tlmrch  government,  none  of  which,  in  his  opinion,  can  claim  divine  right. 

More  attacks  Hobbes  in  ln»  Immortality'  of  the  Soul. 

Thi^nidike's  Epilogue  to  the  Tragedy  of  the  Church  of  England 

emphasiaes  the  need  of  return  to  the  primitive  Church. 

UH.    'FteMkch  Cb.    A  sTOod  of  the  nrotestant  Church  is  held  under  the 

pf«:BideiieT  of  Daill^;  the  King,  however,  forbids  further  meetings. 
II lo.    French  Ut.    Moli^re,  who  has  settled  in  Paris  and  played  before 
the  Coart  1658,  produces  his  first  masterpiece,  Les  Pr^ieuses  Ridicules, 
in  ]ttrt  sagge«tea  by  the  affectations  of  the  Rambouillet  circle. 

St  Evremond  is  banished  for  his  criticism  on  the  Treaty  of  the 
Pyrenees,  and  settles  in  England. 
i:>;.    German  Lit.    Grimmelshausen's  Simplicissimus. 
HIT.     Science.  Huyghens  discovers  that  Saturn  is  surrounded  bv  a  rin^. 
Illy.    Politics.    Various  plans  of  government  are  suggested  in  £ngland, 
Harrington  s  theories  being  discussed  at  the  Rota  Club  and  exciting 
•peciai  notice. 


1I1\    Sng.  Ch.    Clarendon  draws  up  a  Declaration  on  behalf  of   mooa 
the  King  making  a  number  of  concessions  to  nonconformists,    ^ 
which.  kw)wever,  are  rejected  by  Parliament.     (Oct.) 

Henry  More's  Myster}*  of  Godliness,  a  system  of  mystical  theost^phy. 

U^t.  Scotch  Cb.  Lay  patronage  is  restored,  the  leailin^  Covenanters 
m  imprisoned,  and  fiutherforti  s  Lex  Rex  and  Uuthne's  Causes  of 
frj**  Wrath  are  called  in. 

lUI.  Irish  Ch.  The  Irish  Catholics  are  offered  toleration  if  they  will 
$v«ar  allegiance  to  the  King  and  repudiate  the  Pope's  claim  to  depose 
Sum.  An  address  is  drawn  up  by  Carew  and  Walsh,  and  signed  by  120 
&<•!<$,  but  is  condemned  by  the  Irish  Bishops  and  the  papal  nuncio 
hi  Brussels. 

lli^.  FcdiBh  Ch.  Unitarians  are  expelled  from  Poland,  and  settle  in 
iirje  numbers  in  Holland. 

IJ^i.    Sng.  Ut.    Pepys  begins  his  Diar}*,  which  he  keeps  for  9  years, 

2Iti    Oerman  Ut.    Gr^^-pnius*  Geliebte  Domrose. 

lliS.  Science.  The  scientists  (see  1645)  again  begin  to  meet  at 
(jTHham  College,  fulfilling  the  schemes  of  Bolton,  1616,  Charles  I.,  and 
■ore  recently,  of  Evelyn,  Cowley,  and  Petty  for  a  college.  Boyle, 
Wallis.  Wren,  Brouncker,  and  otners.  are  incorporate*!  as  the  Royal 
SoetT,  1662,  and  begin  to  publish  Transactions,  1665.  The  Society 
k>  attacked  by  South,  Gunning,  and  Stubbe,  as  hostile  to  religion  and 
B^-ialitT. 

n>;.  Fhiloeophy.  Jeremy  Taylor's  Ductor  Dubitautium,  the  most 
«y«t<iDatio  English  work  on  Casuistr}'. 

1127.  Politics.  Milton's  Beady  Nay  to  establish  a  free  Commonwealth 
RTQiBiiieiHLi  the  election  of  a  Grand  Council,  chosen  for  life. 

U>.  SociaL  Women  appear  on  the  stage,  iu  part  owing  to  the 
enaple  of  Mrs  Betterton. 

•'.' '^    Deelha.    Hammond,  Vincent  de  Paul,  Velasquez. 


152  POLITICS  [1661 

745.  England.  A  few  Fifth  Monarchy  men,  led  bv  Venner,  r,-*, 
revolt  in  the  City,  but  are  easily  suppressed,  and  political  ^ 
Millenarianism  finally  disappears.  The  incident,  however,  strengthens 
the  reaction  and  allows  the  King  to  retain  some  regiments.  A  Dew 
Cavalier  Parliament  meets,  declares  war  against  the  King  to  be  un- 
lawful, and  passes  the  Corporation  Act,  by  which  all  municipal  officers 
must  renounce  the  Covenant  and  receive  the  Sacrament  according  to 
Anglican  rites.  ' 

Charles  announces  his  intended  Portuguese  marriage,  to  which  he  is 
encouraged  by  Louis.  Charles  promises  to  assist  the  Portuguese  with 
troops  and  a  fleet. 

746.  Scotland.  The  old  form  of  government  is  restored,  Argyle  is 
executed,  and  the  persecution  of  the  Covenanters  begins.  Guthrie  is 
executed,  Rutherford  escapes  by  death,  Gillespie  recants.  Episcopacy 
is  restored,  and  Sharp  becomes  Archbishop  of  St  Andrews.  A  revolt 
is  quelled  at  Ruthen  Green. 

747.  Ireland.  By  the  Act  of  Settlement,  settlers  during  the  Inter- 
regnum are  confirmed  in  possession  of  their  lands,  and  Catholics 
unconcerned  in  the  rebellion  of  1641  are  restored.  By  the  Act  of 
Explanation,  1665,  adventurers  and  soldiers  surrender  one-third  of  their 
lands. 

748.  France.  Mazarin  dies,  and  the  King,  aided  by  Le  Tellier,  Lionoe 
and  Louvois,  who  reorganises  the  army,  personally  assumes  the  govern- 
ment. Fouquet,  the  superintendent  of  the  finances,  is  dismissed  and 
succeeded  by  Colbert,  who  is  recommended  by  Mazarin. 

749.  Russia.  Bv  the  peace  of  Kardis,  Russia  ends  the  war  with  Sweden, 
and  abandons  all  claims  to  Livonia. 

750.  America.  Massachusetts  draws  up  a  Declaration  of  Rights, 
asserting  its  claim  to  defend  itself  against  all  who  disturb  the  colooj, 
and  declares  against  the  Navigation  Act. 


751.  England.  The  sale  of  Dunkirk  to  France  for  £200,000  r^^ 
evokes  angry  remonstrances  directed  against  Clarendon.  ^ 

752.  Prance.  The  French  Ambassador  at  Rome  being  maltreated  by 
the  Pope's  Corsican  guards,  L#ouis  sends  troops  to  Rome  and  seixes 
Avignon,  1663,  and  the  Pope  is  forced  to  send  a  legate  to  demand 
pardon.  The  King  also  refuses  to  lower  his  flag  to  England,  ^^ 
obtains  ceremonial  precedence  for  the  French  over  the  Spamsh  ambas- 
sador in  London. 

753.  Holland.  De  Witt  makes  treaties  with  France  and  England, 
which  i)romise  aid  if  attacked. 

754.  America.    Connecticut  receives  a  liberal  Charter. 

755.  Asia.  Sivaji,  chief  of  the  Mahratta  Confederacy  of  the  Deccan, 
begins  to  fight  with  Aurungzebe,  asserts  his  independence,  1664,  and 


1M2]  CULTURE  153 


1150,  Sng.  Ch.  A  confereDce  to  discuss  the  revision  of  the  riogi 
Pnyer-t)ook  takes  place  at  the  Savoy  Palace,  the  Anglicans  led    ^ 

by  Sheldon,  Morley,  Gunning,  and  Pearson,  the  Presbyterians  by  Baxter. 
Tiie  objections  to  the  Prayer-book  are  not  accepted,  and  the  four 
months  granted  for  the  Conference  elapse  before  the  discussion  is  ended. 
The  King  orders  Convocation  to  revise  the  Prayer-book. 
Beverid^e's  Private  Thoughts  on  Religion. 

1151,  ScoUm  Cb.  A  packed  Parliament  passes  an  Oath  of  Allegiance 
to  the  king  as  supreme  over  all  persons  and  in  all  causes,  and  Episco- 
pacy is  restored  by  proclamation. 

USi,  French  Ch.  The  Declaration  of  1656  is  enforced,  and  four  Bishops 
pfrotest.  The  residents  of  Port-Royal  refuse  to  declare  that  the  Propo- 
sitions are  in  Jansen  and  not  in  Augustine.  The  schools  are  therefore 
dosed,  and  an  interdict  is  laid  on  the  abbey.  M^re  Ang^lique  dies, 
tod  some  of  the  inmates  yield. 

U'^i,  German  Ch.  Grossgebauer's  Alarm  Cry  demands  an  increase  of 
preaching,  and  the  concession  of  further  privileges  and  power  to  the  laity. 

IIU,  Church  Hist  At  the  instance  of  the  Bang  of  Spain,  Alexander  VII. 
l«saes  a  Constitution,  recommending  the  Immaculate  Conception,  which 
L«  hotly  attacked  by  Launoy  and  others. 

7M5.  £ng.  Lit.  Betterton  joins  Davenant's  company  at  Lincoln's  Inn 
Fidds  theatre. 

IIV).  French  Ut.  Benserade  begins  to  write  ballets  for  the  court. 
Ptttoral  poetry  is  initiated  by  Segrais,  Fontenelle,  and  Mme.  Des- 
hnuli^res. 

IW.  German  Lit.  Lohenstein's  Cleopatra  founds  the  Second  Silesian 
fchooL 

USS.  Science.  Malpighi  discovers  with  the  microscope  the  air-cells  of 
the  lungs,  and  shows  that  minute  tubes,  called  capillaries,  connect  the 
arteries  and  the  veins.  He  also  discovers  the  vascular  coils  in  the 
cortex  of  the  kidney. 

Boyle  discovers  his  Law  of  Compressibility,  i.e.  that  the  volume  of 
a  gift  decreases  with  the  pressure. 

Steno  discovers  Steno  s  conduit,  and  explains  the  saliva  and  invest!- 
fntes  the  muscles. 

lii^.  Fhiloflophy.  Glanvil's  Vanity  of  Dogmatising,  partly  influenced 
by  Descartes,  attacks  the  validity  of  the  idea  of  Cause. 

U¥^.    Philology.      Dalgamo's  Ars    Signonim   suggests   an    universal 
liogoage.    Wilkins  maxes  a  similar  attempt  1668. 
Liidoirs  Aethiopic  Grammar  and  Lexicon. 

UU.    Death.    Fuller. 

llii.    Eng.  C?h.    By  the  Act  of  Uniformity,  clergy  and  school-    nggo 
ttuten^,  failing  to  use  and  assent  to  everything  in  the  revised    '- 
Pnjo'-book,  to  receive  episcopal  ordination,  and  to  condemn  the  Cove- 
nant and  resistance,  b^  August  24,  are  ordered  to  resign.     Several 
kiudred  Presbyterian  ministers  in  consequence  leave  the  Church. 

The  Prayer-book,  revised  by  Convocation  and  greatly  aided  by  the 
coQections  of  Cosin,  is  accepted  by  Parliament. 


154  POLITICS  [1682 


maintains  it  till  his  death,  1680.  The  Mahrattas  gradually  become  the 
dominant  power  in  the  south,  and  encourage  the  small  Mohamedan 
states  in  resistance  to  Aurungzebe's  life-long  purpose  of  subjugating  the 
Deccan. 

Catherine  of  Portugal  brings  Bombay  as  a  dowry,  which  Gharte 
sells  to  the  East  India  Company.  The  seat  of  the  Western  Presidency 
is  fixed  there,  1697. 

The  Dutch  take  Cochin,  the  principal  Portuguese  station  in  South 
India,  and  the  chief  pepper  ports  on  the  Malabar  coasts. 
756.     Africa.    A  new  African  company  is  formed,  and  contracts  to 
supply  slaves  to  the  British  West  Indies. 

Catherine  of  Braganza  brings  with  her  Tangier  as  a  dowry. 


757.  Ireland.     Irish  ships  are  excluded  from  the  benefit  of  the   r^^ 
Navigation  Laws.  *■ 

758.  Germany.    The  Diet    of  the  Empire  at  Regensburg   becomes 
permanent. 

759.  Portugal.    Don  John  takes  Evora ;    but  Lisbon  is  saved  by  i 
victory  at  Almexial,  in  which  the  English  auxiliaries  share. 

760.  Turkey.    The  Turks  seize  the  Upper  Danube. 

761.  America.    Khode  Island  receives  a  Charter  under  which  it  lives 
till  1842. 

The  Colony  of  Carolina,  south  of  Virjf^inia,  is  founded  by  Clarendon. 
Monk,  Shaftesbury,  and  other  proprietaries. 

Colbert  incorporates  a  new  Company  to  colonise  Guiana,  and  unites 
it  with  the  West  Indies  under  a  West  India  Company,  1665. 

762.  West  Indies.     Barbadoes  passes  to  the  English  Crown. 


763.  England.    The  King  persuades  Parliament  to  repeal  the   r-,^ 
Triennial  Act  of  1641  ;  but  the  interval  between  Parliaments  is   •- 
limited  to  three  years. 

War  with  the  Dutch  breaks  out,  chiefly  o\*-ing  to  friction  in  West 
Africa ;  ports  are  seized  in  the  West  Indies  and  Guinea. 

764.  Prance.  Colbert  establishes  trading  Companies  for  India  and  the 
Levant.  His  first  tariff*,  unlike  his  second  tariff",  1677.  admits  nw 
materials  free.  Colbert  fails  to  build  up  manufactures  for  lack  of 
markets,  harasses  agriculture  by  his  changeable  policy  in  regard  to 
exportation,  and  cripples  his  trading  Companies  by  a  too  strict 
monopoly.     He  neglects  to  remove  the  internal  tolls  on  road  and  river. 


1864]  CULTURE  155 

Stillingfleet's  Origines  Sacrae  declares  primitiye  bishops  no  more 
than  the  equal  of  presbyters. 
1143.    Scotch  Ch.    Presbyterian  assemblies  are  forbidden  ;  nobody  may 
become  a  minister  or  schoolmaster  without  a  bishop's  license,  nor  may 
hdd  an  office  of  public  trust  without  abjuring  the  Covenant.     400 
ministers  refuse  and  are  ejected 
21H.    Church  Hist.    Antoinette  Bourignon  gathers  round  her  a  circle 
of  believers  in  her  revelations.    She  obtains  great  success  in  the  Spanish 
Netherlands,  where  Poiret  becomes  her  friend  and  interpreter. 
lli'j.    American  Ch.    Wigglesworth's  poem  on  the  Day  of  Doom  depicts 

the  damnation  of  unbaptised  infants. 
ll^i    Eng.  Lit    Fuller  s  Worthies  of  England. 

The  Licensing  Act  revives  many  of  the  provisions  of  the  Star 
lluLmber  Ordinances. 
11^7.    Art.    Le  Brun,  a  pupil  of  Vouet  and  Poussin,  becomes  first  painter 

til  the  King. 
//^>.    Philosophy.    Amaidd  and  Nicole  compose  the  Cartesian  Logique 
*ie  Port-RoyaJ,  which  is  accepted  by  Bossuet  and  F^nelon,  used  in 
HniUnd,  Germany,  England  and   Italy,  and  remains  the  authorised 
teit-book  till  Empiricism  becomes  dominant  in  the  18th  centur}-. 
lip.    Economics.    Petty's  Treatise  on  Taxes  and  Contributioas  allows 
the  export  of  money,  and  declares  that  price  depends  on  cost  of  produc- 
tion, and  that  division  of  labour  tends  to  cheapness. 
ir/K    Death.    Pascal 


lljl.    Eng.  Ch.    The  Kind's  request  for  an  Act  allowing  him  to    mooq 
use  the  dispensing  power  is  opposed  hy  Clarendon  and  rejected    •- 
by  Parliament.     The  tolerant  Archbishop    Juxon    is    succeeded    by 
Sbekion. 

Convocation  for  the  last  time  grants  a  subsidy. 
ll'j.    Eng.  Lit.    Butler  satirises  Puritanism  in  Hudibras. 

L'&trange  is  appointed  licenser  of   the  press,  and   issues  The 
Ifitelh^ncer. 

Diyden's  The  Wild  Gallant  originates  the   Restoration  Comedy, 
♦Jeveloped  by  Etherege,  Shadwell,  Sedley,  Mrs  Behn,  Wycherley. 
//•>i.    rrench  Lit.    The  Academic  des  Inscriptions  et  Belles-Lettres  is 

^HiDded. 
ll-j-i.    Science.     Newton  discovers  the  Binomial  Theorem. 

Pascal's  L'£quilibre  des  Liqueurs  is  published,  proving  that  the 
pieanire  od  a  liquid  is  transmitted  undiminished  in  all  directions  and 
icts  with  the  same  force  on  all  equal  surfaces  in  a  direction  at  right 
aagles  to  them. 
ilS5.    Death.    Sanderson. 


IJS6.    Xng.  Ch.    The  first  Conventicle  Act  forbids  nonconformist   rioQA 
■eeciiigs  of  more  than  four  besides  the  household  under  hea\'y    ^ 
penalties. 

TDIotaon  becomes  preacher  at  Lincoln's  Inn,  his  Sermons  being 
regarded  as  models  for  a  century. 


156  POLITICS  [1664 

765.  Turkey.  Montecuculi,  aided  by  French  troops,  routs  the  Turks  at 
St  Gothard.  Owing,  however,  to  Leopold's  anxiety  to  terminate  the 
war,  a  truce  of  20  years  is  made,  the  continued  quasi-independence  of 
Transylvania  beinff  recognised. 

766.  America.  NicoUs,  one  of  the  Commissioners  sent  to  investi^te 
complaints  against  Massachusetts,  takes  New  Netherlands  almost  with- 
out a  blow.  Charles  gives  the  territory  to  his  brother  ;  but  the  Duke 
grants  the  southern  part  to  favourites,  and  names  it  New  Jersey. 


767.  England.     Parliament  appropriates  a  large  sum  for  the  war,    ri  aac 
and  the  Duke  of  York  wins  a  decisive  victory  off  Southwold  Bay    '- 
(June).     Charles  employs  the  Bishop  of  Munster  to  attack  the  states  on 
the  flank. 

768.  Ireland.  Irish  cattle  and  dairy  produce  are  excluded  from 
England. 

769.  Spain.  Louis  offers  to  help  to  crush  Portugal  if  Spain  will  declare 
his  wife's  renunciation  invalid,  or  will  cede  Franche-Comt^  and  part  of 
the  Netherlands.  Philip  refuses,  and  is  routed  by  French  and  Portu- 
guese troops  at  Villa  Viciosa,  which  secures  Portuguese  independence 
and  gives  a  final  blow  to  Spain.  Philip  IV.  dies,  and  is  succeeded  by 
his  sickly  son,  Charles  II.  Maria  Anna  of  Austria  becomes  Regent,  bat 
her  subjection  to  her  Jesuit  confessor  Nithard  leads  to  the  formation  of 
a  party  under  the  late  King's  natural  son,  Don  John,  and  the  expukion 
of  Nithard,  1669. 

770.  Austria.  The  younger  line  of  the  Hapsburgs  dies  out,  and  Tyrol 
falls  to  the  Emperor. 

771.  America.     New  Haven  unites  with  Connecticut 


772.     England.    Louis,  as    an   ally  of   Holland,   declares  war   riAAa 
against  England  (Jan.),  and  drives  off  the  Bishop  of  Munster.    ^ 
The  Dutch,  under  Ruyter,  defeat  Monk  and  Rupert  in  a  four  days' 
battle  off  Dover  (June),  but  are  themselves  worstea  off  the  North  Fore- 
land (July). 

Algernon  Sydney  and  other  exiles  plot  with  Louis  to  raise  a 
rebellion  in  England;  but  the  plan  fails,  owing  to  the  disapproval  of 
De  Witt. 

Parliament  appoints  a  Committee  to  inspect  the  accounts  of  naval 
and  other  officials. 


1666]  CULTURE  157 

1157.  Scotch  Ch.  A  Court  of  High  Commission  with  unlimited  powers 
is  erected,  on  the  advice  of  Sharp,  Archbishop  of  St  Andrews.  A  revolt 
breaks  out,  but  is  crushed  at  Pentland. 

1158.  French  Ch.  Nicole's  Perpetuity  de  la  Foi  touchant  TEucharistie 
contends  that  a  belief  in  the  Keal  Presence  has  always  existed.  The 
assertion  is  denied  by  Claude  and  other  Protestants. 

De  Ranc^  b^ns  to  reform  the  abbey  of  La  Trappe. 

1159.  French  Lit.    Moli^re's  Tartuffe. 

1160.  Science.  Willis'  Anatome  Cerebri  first  carefiilly  investigates  the 
brain. 

1161.  Numismatics.    Spanheim's  De  Usu  Numismatum. 

1162.  Social.  Sir  Matthew  Hale  condemns  two  women  for  witchcraft, 
and  Sir  Thomas  Browne  gives  witness. 

116S.    Death.    Amyraut. 

1164.  Eng.  Ch.  The  Five  Mile  Act  which  Parliament  bribes  the  r ^ggg 
King  to  accept,  forbids  those  who  refuse  to  swear  to  attempt   ^ 

no  chanfi^es  in  Church  or  State  to  reside  within  five  miles  of  a  town  or  of 
their  old  ministry. 

1165.  French  Ch.  Alexander  VII.  orders  Jansenists  to  submit  to  the 
Bull  of  1653,  declaring  the  Propositions  to  be  in  the  Augustinus  in  the 
sense  condemned. 

1166.  Eng.  Lit.    Head's  The  English  Rogue  revives  the  picaresque  novel. 

1167.  French  Lit.  La  Rochefoucald  issues  his  Maxims,  which  have 
been  submitted  to  Mme.  de  SabM. 

The  Journal  des  Savants,  the  first  literary  and  scientific  review, 
b^ns  to  appear  weekly. 

La  Fontaine's  Contes,  followed  by  his  Fables,  1668.  The  weekly 
dinners  of  La  Fontaine,  Boileau,  Moli^re  and  Racine  begin. 

Buflsy-Babutin  is  exiled  to  his  estates  for  exposing  the  morals  of 
the  Court  in  his  Histoire  Amoureuse  des  Gaules. 

1168.  Art.    Perrault  constructs  the  Colonnade  of  the  Louvre. 

1169.  Science.  Boyle  proves  that  a  candle  cannot  bum  nor  an  animal 
breathe  without  air. 

Hooke  anticipates  the  undulatory  theory  of  light. 

1170.  Law.    Goaefroy  edits  the  Theodosian  Code. 

1171.  Philology.  Francis  Junius  edits  the  Codex  Argenteus  (Gothic 
Gospels). 

1172.  SociaL  The  Plague  breaks  out  in  London  and  spreads  to  the 
Provinces. 

1173.  Deaths.    Fermat,  Poussin. 


1174,  Eng.  Ch.    Bunyan  s  Grace  Abounding,  his  spiritual  auto-    r^ggg 
biograj^y.  '- 

1175,  French  Ch.  The  Huguenots  begin  to  leave  France  in  consequence 
of  persecution. 

1176,  Chnreh  Hist.    Sabbatai  of  Sm3nma  proclaims  himself  the  Messiah 
and  is  widely  recognised  as  such,  but  subsequently  embraces  Islam. 


158  POLITICS  [1686 

773.  Germany.  The  Great  Elector  joins  with  Denmark  to  guarantee 
Dutch  independence  against  France. 

The  Great  Elector  divides  the  Cleves-Julich  inheritance  with  the 
Duke  of  Neuburg  and  receives  Cleves. 

774.  Hungary.  A  conspiracy  is  formed  against  the  Emperor's  govern- 
ment by  the  nobles,  wno  put  forward  the  son  of  the  late  Rakoksy. 
Failing  to  secure  external  aid,  the  movement  comes  to  nothing,  and  the 
leaders  are  seized  and  executed,  1670. 

775.  West  Indies.  Residents  in  the  Bermudas  move  to  the  Bahamas, 
which  are  granted  to  the  Proprietors  of  Carolina,  1670,  and  taken  over 
by  the  English  Government,  1717. 


776.  England.    Louis  secretly  makes  a  treaty  with  Charles,  by   riogy 
which  he  promises  not  to  help  the  Dutch,  in  return  for  a  free    ^ 
hand  in  the  Spanish  Netherlands. 

The  Dutcn  are  alarmed  by  the  advance  of  the  French,  and  open 
a  conference  at  Breda.  Charles  disbands  his  fleet  before  the  treaty  is 
signed,  and  the  Dutch  in  consequence  sail  up  the  Medway  and  bum 
English  men-of-war.  The  Treaty  is  at  once  signed,  England  retaining 
Dutch  North  America,  but  surrendering  her  last  spice  islands  and 
Surinam. 

Meanwhile  the  Commons  demand  an  inquiry  into  the  expenditure  of 
the  money  voted  for  the  war.  Clarendon  prot^ts,  and  the  King  seizes 
the  opportunity  of  the  Chancellor's  unpopularity  to  dismiss  him.  The 
Commons  impeach  him  ;  but,  on  a  hint  from  the  King,  he  withdraws  to 
France.     Charles  calls  to  his  counsels  Buckingham  and  Arlington. 

De  Witt  and  Temple  enter  into  unofficial  discussions  (Sept.),  and 
the  latter  goes  on  a  mission  to  the  Hague  (Dec.). 

777.  Prance.  Louis,  who  on  the  death  of  Philip  IV.,  1665,  claimed 
part  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands  by  the  Law  of  Devolution  (a  feudal 
law  by  which  property  descends  to  the  children  of  a  first  marriage),  fails 
to  obtain  recognition  of  his  claim.  He  therefore  invades  Flanders  with 
Turenne,  and  takes  a  number  of  fortresses. 


778.  Prance.  The  French  capture  fortress  after  fortress,  and  riooo 
Cond<^  suddenly  overruns  Franche-Comt^.  England,  Holland  L^'*^ 
and  Sweden  therefore  conclude  the  TWple  Alliance,  n^ociated  by 
De  Witt  and  Temple.  A  secret  article  bmds  England  and  Holland  to 
reduce  France,  if  she  breaks  her  promises,  to  the  position  she  occupied 


1668]  CULTURE  159 

11 77.     Eng.  Lit.    The  London  Gazette  begins  to  api)ear. 

117S,  French  Lit.  Boileau's  Satires  attack  Cliapeiain,  McMiage,  Saint- 
Amaut,  and  the  authors  of  the  Romans  de  longue  Haleine,  anil  respect 
only  Comeille  and  the  followers  of  Malherl)e.  Voiture  and  Kacan. 

1179.     Science.    Colbert  founds  the  Acad^niie  des  Sciences. 

Newt4m  uses  the  notation  of  Fluxions,  and  shews  it  in  ms.  to  friends 
and  pupils  1669.  He  measures  the  moon's  orbit  and  discovers  gravi- 
tation, of  which  he  says  nothing.  He  also  discovers  the  dispersion  and 
the  compound  nature  of  light,  and  explains  the  rainbow. 

1150.  Art.  The  Gobelin  Tapestry  Manufactory  is  instituted  in  Paris  by 
Colbert. 

1151.  Ek>cial.  The  Great  Fire  of  London  bums  for  three  days,  destroy- 
ing the  city  from  the  Tower  to  the  Temple  and  from  the  Thames  to 
Smithtield,  St  Paul's  and  many  other  churches  being  burnt.  An 
elaborate  plan  of  reconstruction  is  designed  by  Wren,  but  is  not  carried 
out. 

Glanvils  Considerations  concerning  Wit<:hes  (expanded  into   Sad- 
ducismus  Triumphatus,  1681)  declares  the  whole  question  of  belief 
in  the  Supernatural  at  stake. 
118;i,    Death.    Franz  Hals. 


118S.  French  Ch.  Paul  Feny,  a  Protestant  minister  at  Metz,  \\aon 
discusses  reunion  with  Bossuet.  *- 

1184.  Sng.  Lit.  Milton's  Paradise  Lost,  perhaps  influenced  by  Vondel's 
Lucifer,  Andreini's  Adamo,  and  Du  Bartas'  La  Semaine. 

Dryden's  Essay  of  Dramatic  Poesy  presents  the  tirst  example   of 
perfectly  modem  prose,  and  contains  an  eulogy  of  SliakesiHjare. 
Dr\'den's  Annus  Mirabilis. 

1185.  Ihcench  Lit.  Racine,  a  pupil  of  Boileau,  writes  his  first  great 
drama,  Andromache. 

1186.  Science.  An  Observatory  is  established  at  Paris,  to  which  Cassini 
is  appointed,  and  where  Romer  and  Huyghens  work. 

1187.  Law.  Leibnitz'  New  Methods  of  Jurispnidence  introduces  the 
aanction  of  a  future  life,  and  discusses  duties  towards  God. 

Lamoignon  compiles  the  Code  Louis,  a  codification  of  French  legis- 
lation.    He  is  prevented  from  codifying  the  285  Droits  de  Coutume. 

1188.  Politics.  Puffendorf's  De  Statu  Imperii  Germanici  attacks  the 
HapsborgB  and  the  ecclesiastical  princes,  and  proposes  a  Confederation, 
witQ  a  perpetual  council  for  foreign  affairs,  a  federal  anny,  the  seculari- 
sation of  the  ecclesiastical  principalities,  the  abolition  of  convents,  and 
the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits. 

1189.  Death.    Jeremy  Taylor. 


1190.  Eng.  Ch.    Sir  Matthew  Hale,  on  behalf  of  the  latitudi-    r^ggg 
nariao  school  of  Wilkins  and  Stillingfleet  drafts    a  bill  for   ^ 
oompreheiiBion  of  all  but  Catholics  and  Socinians.     The  Commons, 
however,  declare  that  no  comprehension  bill  can  be  received. 

1191.  French  Ch.    The  Peace  of  Clement  IX.  permits  the  signature  of 


160  POLITICS  [1668 

in  1659.  Louis  makes  the  Treaty  of  Aix-la-Ghapelle  with  Spain,  to 
which  he  restores  Franche-Comt^,  but  retains  his  conquests  in  the 
Spanish  Netherlands.  Louis  has  meanwhile  secretly  arranged  with  the 
Emperor  to  divide  the  Spanish  inheritance,  France  to  receive  the 
Spanish  Netherlands,  Franche-Comtd,  Naples,  and  Sicily,  the  Emperor 
to  obtain  Spain  and  Spanish  America. 

779.  Portugal.  By  the  Treaty  of  Lisbon,  Spain  recognises  the  inde- 
pendence of  Portugal. 

780.  Switzerland.  The  Defensionale,  or  common  military  organisa- 
tion, devised  1647,  is  put  in  operation.  This  union,  however,  is  rapidly 
broken  up  by  French  agents. 


781.  England.    The  Duke  of  York  avows  himself  a  Catholic,  and    r|ggg 
the  King  secretly  announces  his  own  conversion  to  Arlington,    '- 
Clifford  and  other  Catholics,  and  considers  how  to  restore  Catholicism  iu 
England. 

The  Committee  appointed  by  Parliament  to  examine  the  public 
accounts  secures  the  dismissal  of  the  Treasurer  of  the  Navy. 
A  *  Secretary  at  War '  is  appointed. 

782.  Germany.    The  Hanse  Diet  meets  for  the  last  time ;  henceforth, 
Lubeck,  Hamburg  and  Bremen  alone  retain  the  name  of  Hanse  Towns. 

783.  Turkey.    The  Turks  capture  Crete  from  the  Venetians,  after  20 
years*  war. 

784.  America.    South  Carolina  is  founded. 


785.  England.    Charles  drops  his  demand  for  toleration  in  return    mma 
for  a  Parliamentary  grant  for  eight  years.  *• 

Negociations  are  commenced  with  Louis,  who  sends  Charles'  sister 
Henrietta,  Duchess  of  Orleans,  to  conclude  an  alliance.  By  the  secret 
treaty  of  Dover,  Charles  promises  to  join  in  an  attack  on  the  Dutch  and 
to  support  Louis'  claim  on  Spain,  if  the  King  of  Spain  dies  childless.  In 
return,  Louis  promises  troops  and  money  For  Charles' personal  defence 
in  case  of  neea,  and  money  during  the  war,  in  which  a  French  fleet  is  to 
serve  under  an  English  admiral  (June).  Louise  de  Edrouaille  is  sent  to 
keep  Charles  to  his  engagements.  A  promise  to  declare  himself  a 
Catholic  at  liis  convenience  is  confided  only  to  Clifford  and  Arlington. 

786.  France.    France  allies  with  Bavaria,  a^eeing  to  act  togemer  in 
any  partition  of  Spain  or  on  the  death  of  the  Emperor. 

The  Duke  of  Lorraine  is  exiled  for  his  negociations  with  the  Dutch, 
and  Lorraine  is  occupied  by  the  French. 

787.  America.    Sir  Henry  Morgan,  the  most  famous  of  the  Buccaneers, 


1670]  CULTURE  161 

the  declaration  of  1656,  without  asserting  Jansen  the  author  of  the 
condemned  pronositions. 

MabiUon  coUects  and  edits  the  Acta  Sanctorum  of  his  Order. 

1192,  ESng.  Lit.  Mrs  Behu's  Oronoko  draws  a  picture  of  the  happiness 
and  virtue  of  the  negro. 

119S,    French  Lit.    Racine's  Comedy,  Les  Plaideurs. 

1194-  Science.  Bedi  finds  that  maggots  in  meat  are  due  not  to  sponta- 
neous generation  but  to  the  eggs  of  flies. 

1195.  Economics.  Child's  Observations  concerning  Trade  and  Interest 
urge  that  a  low  rate  of  interest  should  be  fixed,  allows  export  of  cash 
where  necessary,  and  thinks  the  Navigation  Act  good  politics  rather 
than  good  economics. 

1196,  Death.    Rembrandt. 


1197.  Eng.  Ch.  Gale's  Court  of  the  Gentiles  attempts  to  cstabUsh  ri  aqq 
that  Greek  philosophy  is  a  distorted  reproduction  of  the  Bible.       *- 

1198.  Austrian  Ch.  Abraham  a  Santa  Clara  becomes  Court- Preacher  at 
Vienna,  and  by  his  witty  and  earnest  sermons  and  books  contributes  to 
the  religious  revival. 

1199.  Dutch  Ch.  Labadie,  a  convert  to  Protestantism,  refuses  to  sign 
the  Confessio  Belgica.  He  is  deposed  from  tiis  pastorate  at  Middelburg, 
and  forms  a  new  congregation  at  Amsterdam,  with  the  aid  of  Anna 
Schurmann,  based  on  Quietism  and  Communism.  The  community 
breaks  up,  1725. 

1200.  French  Lit.  Mme.  de  S^vic^n^'s  daughter  marries  the  Comte  de 
Gri^ian  and  receives  innumerable  Tetters  from  her  mother. 

Bossuet  begins  his  Oraisons  fiin^bres. 

1201.  Literature.  The  letters  of  a  Portuguese  nun  to  a  French  officer 
appear  in  a  French  translation. 

1202.  Science.    Malpighi  studies  silk-worms  and  other  insects. 
Swammerdam's  Iiistory  of  Insects. 

Bartholinus  observes  the  division  of  a  ray  in  Iceland  spar. 
Vauban  writes  La  Conduite  des  Sieges. 

1203.  Art.  The  Academic  Royale  de  Musique  is  instituted  under  Lully, 
a  Florentine,  who  introduces  the  style  of  Carissimi,  which  lasts  till 
Gluck. 

1204.  History.    Anthony  Wood's  Antiquities  of  Oxford. 

1205.  Deaths.    Goccejus,  Escobar,  Geuhncx,  Pryune. 


1206.  Eng.  Ch.   Jane  Leade,  with  the  aid  of  her  master,  Pordage,    n  q^q 
founds  the  Philadelphian  Society.  '- 

1207.  Scotch   Ch.    Leighton, '  sometime  Principal  and   Professor   of 
Theol^y  at  Edinbuigh,  becomes  Archbishop  of  Glasgow. 

1208.  nench  Ch.    FascaFs  Pens^es,  mutilated  fragments  of  a  great 
work  on  religion,  appear  posthumously. 

1209.  Spanish  Ch.    Maria  d' Agreda  s  Alj'stica  Ciudad  de  Dios. 

1210.  Dutch  Ch.    Spinoza's  Tractatus  Theologico-Politicus  maintains 
that  complete  religious  liberty  is  essential  to  the  safety  of  a  state, 

o.  11 


162  POLITICS  [1870 

attacks  Panama  and  opens  the  way  to  the  Pacific,  where  the  Buccaneers 
cripple  Spanish  trade. 

Charles  grants  a  charter  to  Prince  Rupert  and  17  others  as  the 
Hudson  Bay  Company.    They  trade  specially  in  furs. 
788.     West  Indies.    The  Treaty  of  Madrid  formally  recognises  the  West 
Indian  possessions  of  England. 


789.  England.    To    mislead    his   ministers,    the    King    sends  Mgy^ 
Buckingham  to   Paris  to  negociate  a  sham  treaty,   omitting  '- 
mention  of  Charles'  conversion,  and  representing  iJl  the  money  as  a 
contribution  to  the  war. 

790.  Prance.  Treaties  of  alliance  or  neutrality  are  made  with  sevenJ 
of  the  German  States  and  with  the  Emperor.  At  the  same  moment,  the 
death  of  Lionne,  the  Foreign  Secretary,  throws  the  power  into  the  hands 
of  Louvois,  the  Minister  of  War,  an  advocate  of  an  aj^gressive  policy. 

791.  Holland.    A  defensive  treaty  is  made  with  Spam. 

792.  Hungary.  A  plan  to  eject  the  Germans  is  betrayed,  and  con- 
fiscations take  place.  Oppressive  taxes  are  imposed,  the  Constitution  is 
abolished,  and  Hungary  becomes  a  province  of  Austria. 

793.  West  Indies.  The  Government  of  the  Leeward  Islands  is  sepa- 
rated from  Barbados  and  the  Windward  Islands. 

The  Danes  settle  in  St  Thomas. 

794.  AfHca.  France  builds  a  fort  at  Whydah,  in  Dahomey,  on  the  Gold 
Coast. 


795.  England.    The  King,  in  his  need  of  money,  refuses,  pro-   r^g-j 
bably  on  the  suggestion  of  Clifford,  to  repay  the  principal  of  the   ^ 
Goldsmiths'  loan,  and  reduces  the  interest  from  12  p.c.  to  6  p.c  (Jan.). 

796.  France.  Leibnitz  recommends  Louis  to  conquer  Egypt  and  secure 
the  monopoly  of  the  Mediterranean  trade. 

797.  Holland.  The  English  fleet,  without  awaiting  the  declaration  of 
war,  attacks  a  Dutch  merchant  fleet  (April) ;  but  the  Duke  of  York  is 
slightly  worsted  by  Ruyter  in  Southwold  Bay  (June). 

Louis,  who  declares  war  (April),  crosses  the  Rhine  and  captures 
city  after  city  almost  without  resistance.  Though  turned  back  by  the 
cutting  of  the  dykes,  he  rejects  the  favourable  conditions  offerra  bv 
De  Witt.  The  Stadtholderate  is  revived  for  William,  now  22  years  okl, 
and  the  De  Witts  are  munlered  by  the  mob. 

The  rapid  advance  of  the  French  induces  the  Great  Elector  to 
promise  to  aid  the  Dutch  with  22,000  men,  and  the  Emperor  to  ally 
with  Brandenburg.  The  German  armies,  however,  are  kept  at  bay  on 
the  Rhine  by  Turenne. 


167S]  CULTURE  163 

denies  that  Moses  wrote  the  Pentateuch,  and  declares  that  miracles  do 
not  happen. 
nil.    Eng.  Lit.    Drydeu's  Conquest  of  Granada,  his  masterpiece  in  the 
hermc  styla     The  type  is  carricKl  on  by  Crowne  and  Settle,  and  a  little 
later,  by  Otway  (Venice  preserved),  Lee,  Gongreve  (Mourning  Bride), 
Si^utheme  and  Rowe.    Buckingham  and  others  ridicule  the  extrava- 
gances of  the  heroic  drama  in  Trie  Rehearsal,  1671. 
lUJ.    French  Lit.    Moli^re's  Le  Bourgeois  (jentilhomma 
UlS,    Science.    The  papers  of  Malpighi  and  Grew  on  vegetable  anatomy 

are  read  before  the  Koyal  Society. 

Mayow*s   experiments  on  respiration  and  combustion  reveal  the 

exii^ence  of  two  gases  in  the  air,  which  he  describes  though  does  not 

name.     His  work  is  for  the  time  superseded  by  Becher's  theory  of 

Phlogiston. 
lUi,    Politics.    The  Fundamental  Constitutions  of  Carolina  are  drawn 

op  on  the  lines  of  a  modified  feudalism ;  but  religious  liberty  is  granted, 

probably  at  the  instance  of  Locke. 
Ulo.    Fiulosophy.    The  Abb^  Villars'  Comte  de  Gabalis,  a  Rosicnician 

romance. 
Ul^),   Social.  Com  imported  into  England  is  charged  %s.  a  quarter  between 

^.  \d.  and  80«.,  16«.  between  44^.  and  53^.  4cd.,  and  21^^.  9^.  under  44«. 


IU7,    En^  Ch.    Penn's  Great  Case  of  Liberty  of  Conscience.         fiATl 
lUS.    French  Ch.    Bossuet's  conciliatory  Exposition  de  la  Foi    ^ 

Catkdiqne  becomes  almost  a  symbolical  book,  converts  Turenne  and 

others,  and  is  attacked  by  Jurieu. 

Quesnel,  a  Jansenist  Oratorian,  publishes  his  Reflexions  Morales  sur 

le  Nouveau  Testament 
l'il-\    Bohemian  Ch.    Comenius,  the  last  Bishop  of  the  Bohemian 

Brethren,  dies. 
l^y*.    En^  Ut.    Milton's  Paradise  Regained,  and  Samson  Agonistes. 
mi,    French  Lit.    Nicole's  Essais  de  Morale. 


^i^.  Kn^  Ch.  The  King  issues  a  Declaration  of  Indulgence,  ri  570 
nspoiding  penalties  agaiu^  Dissenteis  and  Catholics.  '- 

m^.    Frencn  Ch.  Fllchier's  funeral  oration  on  Madame  de  Montausier. 

l^  Church  Hist  The  last  synod  of  the  whole  Greek  Church  is  held 
It  Jerusalem.  The  creed  of  Cyril  Lucar  is  condemned,  though  his 
tttliarship  is  denied  by  Dositheus,  and  the  Confession  of  Mogilas  is 
Mkqpted. 

la^.  EQstory.  Conrin^  disproves  the  validity  of  the  Charter  of  Lindau, 
the  best  piece  of  historical  criticism  before  Mabillon. 

li^j.  PouticB.  Puffendorfs  De  Jure  Naturae  et  Gentium  attempts 
to  evolve  a  system  of  jurisprudence  from  the  study  of  human  nature. 
Lit  is  derived  from  reason,  the  civil  law  and  revelation  ;  that  is,  there 
are  three  disciplines,  natural  law,  civil  law  and  moral  theology.  Natural 
law  confines  itself  to  regulating  external  acts.  The  state  of  nature 
one  of  peace,  but  political  mstitutions  are  necessar}'  for  progress. 

11—2 


164  POLITICS  '  [1872 

* 

798.     Sweden.    France  allies  with  Sweden,  which  9  anxious  for  money, 
and  undertakes  to  make  a  diversion  in  Germany. 


799.  England,  fiupert  is  defeated  off  the  Texel,  bein^  deserted  r^g^^ 
by  the  French  fleet  (Aug.).     Engb'sh  opinion  at  this  point  begins  '- 

to  turn  against  France. 

Shaftesbury,  who  has  recently  learned  of  the  secret  treaty  of  Dotct, 
turns  against  the  Catholic  party,  supports  the  Test  Act,  which  leads  to 
the  resignation  of  Clifford  and  the  Duke  of  York,  and  is  dismissed. 
The  Cabal  is  broken  up,  and  Osborne,  later  Earl  of  Danby,  becomes 
chief  minister. 

The  Duke  of  York  marries  Manr  of  Modena. 

800.  France,  A  secret  Partition  Treaty  is  signed  at  Vienna^  by  which 
the  Emperor  is  to  have  Spain,  the  Indies  and  Milan,  and  Louis  the  Low 
Countries,  Naples  and  Sicily  (Jan.). 

The  Great  Elector,  weariea  by  his  want  of  success,  makes  terms  with 
France,  and  thus  ends  the  first  coalition.  At  the  same  time,  Vauban 
reduces  Maestricht.  The  war,  however,  now  changes  its  character. 
The  Emperor,  Spain,  Denmark,  Saxony  and  Lorraine  join  in  a  new 
coalition  gainst  France.  Montecuculi  joins  William,  Bonn  is  captured, 
and  the  French  are  driven  from  the  Rhine.  The  German  Princes, 
except  Bavaria,  sever  their  connection  with  France. 

The  Parliament  of  Paris  is  forbidden  to  make  remonstrances  till  the 
royal  Edicts  are  registered. 

The  Man  in  the  Iron  Mask  is  imprisoned  in  the  Bastille. 

801.  America.    Frontenac  reaches  Quebec  as  Governor,  builds  Fort 
Frontenac  at  Ontario,  and  conciliates  the  Iroquois. 


802.  En^and.    Charles  is  compelled  by  Parliament  to  make    riMi 
peace  with  the  Dutch  by  the  Treaty  of  London,  the  Dutch    ^ 
paying  an  indemnity  and  a^eeing  to  salute  the  English  flag  (Feb.). 
Though  remaining  on  friendly  terms  with  Louis,  the  King  offers  his 
niece,  Mary,  to  William,  who  refuses,  expecting  James  to  have  a  son. 

803.  Prance.  Sweden  alone  remains  the  ally  of  Louis,  who,  in  conse- 
quence, attempts  in  vain  to  make  i)eace  with  William.  Franche-Comt^ 
is  finally  taken  (May),  and  Cond^  fights  a  fierce  but  indecisive  battle 
against  the  Dutch  and  Spanish  at  Seneff  (Aug.)  Turenne  croeses  the 
Rnine,  defeats  the  Imperial  troops  and  devastates  the  Palatinate. 

804.  Holland.  The  ^tadtholderate  is  declared  by  the  States-GenenJ 
hereditar}^  in  the  Orange  family. 

805.  Poland.  Sobiesky,  already  distinguished  for  his  victories  over  the 
Turks,  becomes  King  of  Poland. 


1874]  CULTURE  165 

• 

Intematioiud  law  is  not  restricted  to  Christian  nations,  since  all  nations 

form  part  of  humanity. 
1227,    Philosophy.    Cumberland's  De  Legibus  Naturae  attacks  Hobbes, 

but  renews  Hobbes'  attempt  to  find  an  independent  morality.    This  he 

discovers  in  sociability,  which  leads  him  to  propound  the  common  good. 
Glisson's  De  Substantia  declares  that  substance  consists  of  forces, 

self-sufficient  and  unrelated,  and  suggests  the  theor}-  of  monads  to 

LeibnitZw 
122S.     SociaL    Colbert  forbids  processes  for  witchcraft. 

1229.  Eng.  Ch.  On  the  meeting  of  Parliament  the  King  is  com-  ri  573 
peUed  to  recall  his  Declaration  and  to  accept  a  Test  Act  against  ^ 
Catholics,  by  which  all  office-holders  must  deny  transubstantiation  and 
receive  the  sacrament  according  to  Aiurlican  rites.  To  further  Isolate 
them,  the  Commons  pass  a  bill  granting^oleration  to  Dissenters,  which 
is,  however,  thrown  out  in  the  Upper  House  by  the  Bishops.  Many 
nonconformists  take  the  test  occasionally,  and  the  practice  of  Occasional 
Conformity  arises. 

Milton's  Of  true  Religion,  Heresy,  Schism,  advocates  the  exclu- 
sion of  Catholics  from  toleration,  as  idolaters. 

12^.  French  Ch.  The  efi'orts  of  the  King  to  re-unite  the  Huguenots, 
who  have  steadily  increased  in  prosperity  and  whose  loyalty  is  now 
aboTe  suspicion,  are  rejected  by  a  synod. 

12S1,  Science.  Huyghens  works  out  the  mathematical  theor}'  of  the 
Pendulum. 

1232.  Geography.  JoUiet  and  Marquette  reach  the  Mississippi  from 
Canada. 

12SS.    Death.    Moli^re. 


1234.  French  Ch.    Jurieu's  Traits  de  la  Devotion.  [1674 

1235.  French  Lit.    Boileau's  Lutrin  (the  Lectern)  satirises  the  ^ 
ecclesiastical  world  in  a  mock  heroic.     His  Art  Po^tique  systema- 
tises  and  enforces  the  ideas  of  the  Satires  and  influences  French  Doetry 
tiD   Victor  Huro.     His  principles  are  enforced  by  Bossu,  Bouhours. 
Bapin,  FonteneUe. 

Mora's  Dictionnaire  Historique. 

1236.  Art  MuriUo  completes  a  series  of  pictures  for  the  Hospital  de 
la  Caridad  in  Seville. 

1237.  Archaeology.  Spon  of  Lyons  visits  the  Levant  and  Greece. 
His  travels  are  printed  1676. 

1238.  Philosophy.  Malebranche's  Recherche  de  la  \^nt^  applies 
Cartesianism  to  the  philosophy  of  religion,  declaring  that  the  human 
mind  immediately  perceives  God,  and  sees  all  things  in  Him.  The 
work  influences  F^nelon,  P^re  Lami,  Boursier  and  others. 

Sjiuteen  publishes  a  letter  denying  God,  devil  and  immortality. 

1239.  Fbilolc^.  A  series  of  Greek  and  Latin  authors  is  edited  for  the 
use  of  the  Dauphin  (in  usum  Delphini)  by  Huet  his  preceptor,  and 
Mma  Dacier. 

1240.  Deaths.    Clarendon,  Herrick,  Labadie,  Milton. 


166  POLITICS  [1876 

806.  England.  The  formation  of  definite  parties  is  hastened  by  mmc 
Danby's  Anglican  policy.  Danby  introduces  a  bill  compelling  '■ 
office-holders  and  Members  of  Parliament  to  take  an  oath  to  attempt 
no  alteration  in  Chnrch  or  State.  The  Bill  is  passed  by  the  Lorog, 
but  Parliament  is  prorogued  while  the  Commons  are  still  discussing  it. 
No  money  is  granted,  and  Louis  pays  the  King  £100,000  a  year. 

807.  France.  After  brilliant  campaigning  in  the  Vosges,  bv  which  the 
Germans  are  forced  to  recross  the  Khine,  Turenne  is  killed  (July). 
Montecuculi  again  crosses  the  river,  but  is  driven  back  by  Cond^.  After 
the  campaign,  both  generals  retire  from  military  life.  CMqui  capitu- 
lates to  the  Duke  of  Lorraine  with  his  whole  army  (Sept). 

808.  Sweden.  The  Swedes,  as  the  allies  of  France,  at  last  attack 
Brandenburg,  but  are  routed  by  the  Great  Elector  at  Fehrbellin  and 
expelled  from  almost  the  whdc  of  Pomerania  (June).  War  also  breaks 
out  with  Denmark.  ^ 

809.  Germany.  The  last  Duke  of  Liegnitz  dies,  and  the  Emperor 
seizes  Liegnitz,  Brieg  and  Wohlau,  and  incorporates  them  with  the 
kingdom  of  Bohemia.  The  Great  Elector,  relying  on  the  treaty  of  1537, 
protests. 

810.  Hungary.  Exasperated  by  the  tyranny  of  Lobkowitz,  the  minister 
of  the  Emperor  Leopold,  a  new  revolt  breaks  out  under  Tokoli,  favoured 
by  France,  Poland,  Transylvania  and  the  Porte,  and  lasts  four  years. 

811.  America.  New  England  engages  in  King  Philip's  war,  which 
crushes  the  Indians  but  weakens  the  colonists. 


812.  England.  Louis  promises  not  to  seize  Dutch  goods  con-  r^m^ 
veyed  in  English  ships.  •- 

813.  France.  Duquesne  thrice  defeats  the  Spanish  and  Dutch  fleets, 
and  Kuyter  is  killed.  The  first  French  successes  on  the  sea,  owing  in 
large  i)art  to  the  reorganisation  of  the  navy  by  Colbert,  make  a  deep 
impression  in  Europe.  But  the  Duke  of  Lorraine  cantures  Philipsburg, 
and  Louis,  who  desires  ])eace,  sends  ambassadors  to  I^imw^en. 

814.  Spain.  The  Queen-Mother,  whose  policy  has  been  guided  by  the 
exiled  Nithard,  is  overthrown,  and  Don  John,  who  is  friendly  to  France, 
becomes  supreme  till  the  Peace  of  Nimwegen,  1678,  when  the  Queen- 
Mother  returns. 

815.  Turkey.  The  war  with  Poland  ends,  Turkey  obtaming  part  of 
Podolia  and  of  the  Ukraine. 

816.  America.  Owing  to  the  niisgovemment  of  the  governor  of 
Virginia,  Berkeley,  and  the  harassing  regulations  of  the  Navigation 
Act,  Nathaniel  Bacon  takes  advantage  of  the  danger  from  the  Indians 
to  resist,  intending  to  unite  the  colonies  against  the  King's  representa- 
tives. After  a  number  of  siicces-ses,  Bacon  dies,  and  the  rebellion 
comes  to  an  end. 

Edmund  Randolph  is  sent  to  Massachusetts  by  the  King  to  com- 
plain of  the  breach  of  the  Navigation  laws  and  the  purchase  of  Maine. 
but  in  reality  to  find  a  pretext  for  the  revocation  of  the  charter,  Charles 
desiring  to  bring  the  colonies  under  his  direct  control 


1676]  CULTURE  167 

1241.  (German  Ch.  Spinola,  a  Spanish  Confessor  of  the  Empress,  n  Q75 
undertakes,  at  the  request  of  the  Emperor,  and  with  the  secret  ^ 
encouragement  of  Innocent  XL,  a  tour  throughout  Protestant  Germany 
for  the  purpose  of  reunion.  He  offers  a  new  council  to  fix  the  doctrine 
and  constitution  of  the  reunited  Church,  clerical  marriage,  and  the 
recognition  of  Papal  supremacy.  The  scheme  is  approved  by  the 
Catholic  Duke  of  Hanover,  Leibnitz,  and  Molanus,  but  receives  little 
support. 

opener,  a  Lutheran  pastor  in  Frankfort,  publishes  his  Pia  Desi- 
deria,  or  Earnest  Desires  for  a  reform  of  the  Evangelical  Church,  pro- 
posing private  meetings  for  the  study  of  the  Bible,  the  greater 
participation  of  the  laity  in  the  government  of  the  Church,  the  re- 
organisation of  the  theological  training  in  the  universities,  and  the 
laying  of  stress  in  sermons  on  the  inner  life.  The  meetings  which 
Spener  holds  in  his  house  (Collegia  Pietatis)  are  widely  adopted. 

1242.  Italian  Ch.  Molinos,  a  Spanish  priest  resident  in  Italy,  aeciares 
in  his  Guido  Spirituale  that  peace  is  to  be  found  by  contemplation, 
inward  mortification,  and  frequent  communion. 

1243.  Swiss  Ch.  Turretin  and  Heidegger  compose  the  Consensus 
Helveticarum  Ecclesiarum,  the  last  strict  Calvinist  creed. 

1244*  Science.  Leibnitz  discovers  the  differential  and  integral  calculus, 
and,  next  year,  the  infinitesimal  calculus.  Though  in  communication 
with  Oldenburg,  Secretary  of  the  Royal  Society,  since  1670,  he  may 
not  have  known  of  Newton's  discovery  of  Fluxions. 

A  Boyal  Observatory  is  instituted  at  Greenwich,  and  Flamsteed  be- 
comes the  first  Astronomer  Royal. 

1245,     Art.    The   new   cathedral    of   St  Paul,   London,  is  begun  by 
Christopher  Wren.     Grinling  Gibbons  ornaments  the  Choir. 
Purcell's  Dido  and  Aeneas,  the  first  English  opera. 

12^.    Death.    Lightfoot. 


1247.  Sng.  Ch.    Barclay's  Apology  for  the  Quakers.  ri676 

1248.  French  Ch.    Pajon,  Professor  of  Theology  at  Saumur,    ^ 
expresses  ultra-Amyraldist  views  in  conference  with  Claude,  and  is 
attacked  by  Jurieu  and  other  Calvinists. 

Louia  institutes  a  fund  for  the  conversion  of  Protestants. 

1249.  Bng.  Lit.    Etherej^e's  Man  of  Mode,  or  Sir  Fopling  Flutter. 

1250.  Science.    Ray  edits  Willoughby's  Ornithology. 

Romer  measures  the  velocity  of  light  by  observation  of  Jupiter's 
moons,  and  estimates  that  the  Sun's  ravs  reach  the  earth  m  11 
minutes. 

Wiseman,  *the  fether  of  English  surgery,*  publishes  his  Seven 
Ghimmcal  Treatises. 

Sydenham's  Observationes  Medicae  study  epidemic  diseases  and  treat 
small-pox  by  the  cooling  method,  and  ague  by  bark. 

Mariotte  independently  discovers  Boyle's  law^  of  atmospheric 
pressare. 

1251.  Death.    Voetius. 


168  POLITICS  [1877 

817.  England.    On  the  meeting  of  Parliament,  Shaftesbuiy  and  r^^ 
his  friends  question  whether  the  prorogation  of  15  months  does  ^ 
not  dissolve  Parliament,  and  are  sent  to  the  Tower  bjfr  the  Lords.  Louis 
now  begins  to  intrigue  with  the  leaders  of  the  Opposition. 

The  Commons  vote  a  subsidy  for  the  navy,  and  order  it  to  be  paid 
to  their  own  receivers. 

James'  daughter,  Mary,  is  married  by  the  King  and  Danby,  with 
the  approval  of  both  political  parties,  to  William  of  Orange,  who  desires 
to  draw  England  into  the  war. 

818.  Scotland.  The  Government  sends  a  body  of  men,  known  as  the 
Highland  Host,  to  suppress  the  Covenanters  in  the  West 

819.  France.  To  force  on  a  peace,  Louis  redoubles  his  efforts  and  wins 
successes  in  Flanders  and  Lorraine,  and  Cr6qui  captures  Freiburg.  The 
Dutch  republican  party  clamours  for  peace,  and  sends  envoys  to 
Nimwegen.  William,  however,  regarding  the  war  from  an  European 
rather  than  a  nationalist  standpoint,  continues  the  camnaign. 

820.  Sweden.  The  Great  Elector  captures  Stettin,  ana  the  Danes  take 
Gothland  and  fiiigen. 


821.  England.  The  King's  intention  to  go  to  war  with  France,  n^ 
for  which  Parliament  votes  money,  yields  to  a  secret  alliance  ^ 
with  Louis.  Titus  Oates  announces  a  Popish  plot  to  murder  the  King 
and  land  a  French  army  for  the  support  of  the  Duke  of  York  (Aug.). 
Sir  Edmund  Beny  Godfrey,  the  magistrate  before  whom  Oates'  depod- 
tions  are  taken,  is  found  murdered  near  London,  and  a  belief  spreads 
that  London  is  to  be  set  on  fire  and  Protestants  massacred.  ParliameDt 
reassembles,  and  the  flame  is  fanned  by  Shaftesbury.  A  new  Test 
Act  is  passed,  excluding  Catholics  from  both  Houses  of  Parliament 
Coleman,  the  secretary  of  the  Duchess  of  York,  is  executed.  The 
English  ambassador  in  Paris  reveals  the  secret  treaty,  and  Parliament 
impeaches  Danby. 

822.  Prance.  A  treaty  is  signed  at  Nimwegen  with  Holland  (Aug.). 
Four  days  later,  William  attacks  the  army  of  Luxemburg,  but  i« 
repulsed.  The  French  conquests  are  restored,  and  a  commercial  treaty 
is  arranged. 

Suain  renounces  Franche-Comt^,  and  most  of  the  barrier  towns  of 
the  Netherlands  to  France  (Sept.). 

823.  AfWca.  Goree  is  c^ded  by  the  Dutch  to  France.  French  influence 
becomes  consolidated  on  the  Senegal,  and  the  Dutch  are  confined  to  the 
Gold  Coast. 


824.  England.  To  save  Danby,  the  King  dissolves  the  Cavalier  r,g»g 
Parliament  (Jan.).  A  new  Parliament,  however,  proves  more  '- 
hostile  than  the  old,  and  the  King  sends  liis  brother  out  of  the  country. 
Danby,  who  is  again  impeached,  produces  a  pardon  from  the  King, 
which  the  Lords  neglect,  but  drop  proceedings  on  his  being  deprived  of 
office  and  sent  to  the  Tower.  On  the  advice  of  Temple,  tlie  King 
appoints  a  Privy  Council  of   30,    15   being  ministers,  and  the  rest 


1879]  CULTURE  169 

1252,  Sntf.  Ch.  The  Baptists  draw  up  a  new  Confession,  a  mere  ri  077 
recension  of  the  Westminster  symbol.  '- 

1253.  Dutch  Ch.  Owing  to  the  strife  in  Amsterdam  of  the  Cocceians 
and  Voetians,  the  magistrates  are  forced  to  interfere.  The  parties 
agree  to  have  an  equal  number  of  preachers.  Witsius,  a  Cocceian, 
attempts  conciliation  in  his  Economia  Foederum. 

1254.  Science.  Leeuwenhoek  discovers  animalcules  in  water  and  in 
animals. 

1255,  Fdlitics.  Spinoza's  Tractatus  Politicus  arrives  at  the  conclu- 
sions of  Hobbes,  though  reserving  liberty  of  thought 

125ts.  Philosophy.  Spmoza's  Ethics  explain  in  mathematical  form  a 
svgtem  which  starting  from  Descartes  issues  in  Pantheism,  phenomena 
being  regarded  as  modes  of  the  Absolute,  or  Substance. 

125T,    Deaths.    Barrow,  Harrington,  Spinoza. 


1258,  Eng.  Ch.  Bunyan's  Pilgrim's  Progress,  largely  written  in  riAiTQ 
Bedford  Gaol,  1660-72.  ^1678 

Homeck,  Smytliies,  Beveridge,  and  Bray  found  Religious  Societies, 
or  guilds  for  devotion  and  charity,  which  exert  a  wide  influence  for 
t  generation. 

South  publishes  a  selection  of  his  Sermons. 

1259,  French  Ch.  Bossuet  begins  his  discussions  with  Claude  before 
Mile,  de  Dnras,  a  niece  of  Turenne,  who  becomes  a  Catholic. 

Simon,  an  Oratorian,  publishes  his  Histoire  Criticjue  du  Vieux 
Testament  (1689,  his  Histoire  Critique  du  N.T.)  which  rejects  the 
Mosaic  authorship  of  the  Pentateuch,  and  is  attacked  by  Bossuet  and 
many  others. 

1200.  French  Lit.  Mme.  de  la  Fayette's  Princesse  de  Cloves,  the  first 
I^ench  novel  of  character,  a  story  of  the  court  of  Henry  II. 

12€1.  Science.  Morison's  Historia  Plantarum  classifies  according  to 
the  fructifying  organs  and  the  fruit. 

Huyghens  proposes  the  undulatory  theory  of  light. 

/i>S2.  nulosophy.  Cudworth's  Intellectual  System,  the  most  con- 
sderable  work  of  the  Cambridge  Platonists,  defends  idealism  against 
Hobbes.  (His  Immutable  Morality,  published  1731,  maintains  tlie 
independence  of  Ethics.) 

/A;^.    Philology.    Ducange's  Glossarium  Mediae  et  Infimae  Latiuitatis. 

/>'i  Geography.  La  Salle  sets  out  from  Canada  and  explores  the 
Great  Lakes. 


/>>>.    Eng.  Ch.    Blount,  the  first  English  Deist  since  Herbert,    rigwg 

Cblishes  his  Anima  Mundi,  a  work  on  Immortality,  and  trans-    ^ 
es  PhUostratus'  Life  of  ApoUonius  Tyanaeus. 
/iv;.    Scotch  Ch.    The  extremer  sects,  the  Covenanters  and  Camero- 

niaDS,  make  their  appearance. 
/i57.    French  Ch.    rort-Royal  loses  its  protector  with  the  death  of 
Mme  de  J#ongueville,  and  its  numbers  are  reduced  by  royal  command. 
Anaald  and  Nicole  leave  the  country. 


170  POLITICS  [1879 

influential  men,  with  Shaftesbury  as  President.  The  scheme  proves 
unworkable,  and  an  inner  council  is  formed  in  which  Sunderland  and 
Halifax  exercise  the  chief  influence.  Parliament  introduces  a  bill  to 
exclude  the  Duke  of  York  from  the  succession.  Shaftesbury  hints  thX 
Monmouth,  believed  by  some  to  be  legitimate,  should  be  elected,  and 
Parliament  is  in  consequence  dissolved,  after  passing  the  Habeas  Corpus 
Act.     A  new  House  proves  still  more  hostile,  and  is  prorogued. 

825.  Scotland.  Archbishop  Sharp  is  murdered  (May).  Claverhouse 
is  repulsed  by  an  armed  Conventicle,  which  he  tries  to  disperse  at 
Drumclog  (June).  The  peasants  declare  against  Prelacy  and  the 
succession  of  the  Duke  of  York,  but  are  suppressed  by  an  army  under 
Monmouth. 

826.  Germany,  The  Emperor,  hampered  by  Cr^ui  and  the  revolt  in 
Hungary,  comes  to  terms  with  France,  which  restores  Philipsburg,  but 
obtains  Freiburg  and  a  passage  across  the  fihine  at  Breisach.  The 
Duchy  of  Lorraine  remains  in  French  hands. 

827.  Sweden.  The  Great  Elector  is  forced  by  the  Peace  of  St  Germain 
to  restore  his  conquests  in  Pomerania,  in  return  for  the  reversion  of 
East  Friesland.  Denmark  and  the  Empire  also  make  peace  with 
Sweden. 

828.  Hungary.    Tokoli  concludes  a  truce  with  the  Emperor. 


829.  England.  During  the  prorogation,  petitions  are  sent  to  t^^aq 
the  King,  urging  him  to  reassemble  Parliament  Counter-  ^ 
petitions  are  sent  by  those  who  disapprove  the  Exclusion  BilL  The 
two  classes  are  named  Petitioners  and  Abhorrers,  soon  replaced  by 
Whigs  and  Tories.  Shaftesbury  indicts  James  as  a  recusant  (June). 
Parliament  meets  (Oct.),  and  passes  the  Exclusion  Bill,  which  is  rejected 
in  tlie  Lords,  owing  to  the  argument  of  Halifax  that  James  will  probably 
not  long  outlive  his  brother,  that  his  daughters  are  Protestant,  and  tbi^ 
the  selection  of  Monmouth  midit  lead  to  civil  war.  Lord  Staflfoid,  the 
last  of  the  victims  of  the  Popish  plot,  is  executed  (Dec.). 

830.  Prance.  William's  Principality  of  Orange  is  occupied,  and  the 
town  dismantled. 

831.  Germany.  The  new  Elector  of  Saxony,  John  George  HI.,  advo- 
cates the  fonnation  of  a  league  of  German  Princes  to  counteract 
Louis  XIV. 

The  Great  Elector  obtains  the  possessions  of  the  Archbishop  of 
Magdeburg, 


832.     England.    The  King  dissolves  Parliament,  which  refuses  to   r,ggj 
vote  supplies  (Jan.),  and  summons  another  at  Oxford,  to  avoid   '■ 
the  London  mob.     The  Whigs,  fearing  military  intimidation,  come 


1881]  CULTURE  171 

Haet's  Demonstiatio  Evangelica  declares  Greek  beliefs  borrowed 

from  the  Jews. 
1268.    Italian  Ch.    Segneri's  Sermons  are  collected  and  published. 
1M<    dmrch  Hist.   Innocent  XL  condemns  65  probabilist  propositions, 

extracted  from  Jesuit  treatises  on  moral  philosophy. 

1270.  Swediah  Lit.  fiudbeck's  Atland  identifies  Sweden  with  Atlantis, 
the  cradle  of  the  human  race. 

1271.  EUatory.  Bossuet's  Histoire  Universelle,  written  for  his  pupil  the 
Dauphin,  portrays  the  events  of  the  ancient  and  early  mediaeval  world 
as  the  worK  of  P^vidence  leading  mankind  towards  the  Church. 

Bamet*8  History  of  the  Keformation. 

1272.  Deatha.    Hobbes,  De  Ketz,  Vondel. 


[1680 


1273.  Eng.  Ch.  Burnet's  Sacred  Theory  of  the  Earth  asserts 
that  the  early  history  of  the  Earth  was  a  time  of  perpetual 
springy  and  that  the  Flood  was  due  to  sin. 

1274.  French  Ch.    La  Salle  founds  the  Fr^res  des  Ecoles  Chr^tiennes 
for  the  education  of  poor  children. 

Thomassin's  Dogmata  Theologica,  a  philosophic  study  of  Christian 

ideas. 
lJ7o.    Oerman    Ch.    Joachim    Neander's    Bundeslieder  extends  the 

Pietist  movement. 
1270.   En^  Lit.    Bunyan's  Life  and  Death  of  Mr  Badman  anticipates  the 

realistic  novel  of  Defoe. 
1277.    Science.    Borelli's  De  Motu  Animalium  founds  the  iatro-physical 

^bool  of  medicine,  explaining  functions  on  physical  and  mechanical 

principles. 

1275.  Art.    Lely  dies,  and  Kneller  becomes  Court  painter. 

Scariatti,  a  pupil  of  Carissimi,  composes  his  first  opera  and  improves 

counterpoint  and  scientific  technique. 
127^.    Fhiloaophy.    Malebranche  s  Traits  de  la  Nature  et  de  la  Gr^ce 

tft  attacked  by  F^nelon  and  Amauld,  at  the  wish  of  Bossuet,  and  placed 

on  the  Index  as  leading  to  the  denial  of  freedom. 
12S0,    Fdlitica.     Filmer's   Patriarcha,   written  during  the  Civil  War, 

pounds  the  absolute  power  of  kings  on  the  dominion  granted  directly 

DT  God  to  Adam  and  transmitted  by  him  to  the  ruling  sovereigns. 
12fil.    SociaL    Dockwra  institutes  the  penny  post  in  London. 
Dalgamo  invents  a  hand-alphabet  for  the  deaf  and  dumb. 
12>f2.    Deatha.    Bernini,  La  Rochefoucauld,  Sivaji,  Swammerdam. 


l^'ifS.  French  Ch.  The  persecution  of  Huguenots  increases,  ngQi 
ciJDTersions  being  heavily  punished,  mixed  marriages  forbidden,  >- 
Hogaenots  excluded  from  offices  and  professions  and  doubly  taxed,  the 
churches  in  many  cases  destroyed,  and  emigration  forbidden.  Kisings 
io  the  south  are  suppressed.  Louvois  quarters  troops  im  Huguenot 
bf'Qfleholds  till  they  abjure,  thus  commencing  the  Dragonnades. 

12fti,    En0.  Lit.    Dryden  attacks  Shaftesbur}'  in  Absalom  and  Achito- 
pbel,  followed  by  the  Medal,  1682. 

^<^5.    Fdlitica.    Samuel  Johnson,  the  chaplain  of  Earl  Russell,  asserts 


172  POLITICS  '  [1681 

armed  and  with  armed  foUowers.  The  King  offers  to  accept  the 
Regency  of  the  Prince  of  Orange  for  his  brother ;  but  Shaftesborj 
insists  on  the  recognition  of  Monmouth.  Parliament  is  dissolved  aftor 
a  week's  session,  and  public  opinion,  in  fear  of  civil  war,  rallies  to  the 
King.  In  London,  however,  the  Grand  Jury  of  Middlesex  throw  out 
the  bill  for  Shaftesbury's  arrest  for  treason. 

833.  France.  Desiring  to  make  his  eastern  frontier  impregnable,  and 
to  overawe  the  Rhine  Electors,  Louis  appoints  local  courts,  known  as 
Chambers  of  Re-union,  to  decide  on  the  extent  of  his  treaty  rights  in 
Alsace,  the  three  Bishoprics,  and  Franche-Comt^.  The  Courts  award 
to  France  the  complete  suzerainty  of  Alsace,  and  the  free  city  of  Stns- 
burg  is  suddenly  seized  b^  Louvois  (Sept.).  On  the  same  day,  Casale, 
the  Italian  fortress,  is  seized  by  the  Duke  of  Mantua.  The  duchy  of 
Zweibrilcken  is  also  declared  united  to  France. 

834.  Sweden.  Charles  XL,  with  the  aid  of  the  clergy  and  commons, 
expels  the  nobles  from  the  lands  alienated  during  his  minority,  re- 
organises the  army  and  navy,  and  becomes  an  absolute  monarch. 

Sweden  and  Holland  form  a  Convention  to  maintain  the  treaties  of 
1648  and  1678. 

835.  Hungary.  The  system  of  Lobkowitz  is  abandoned,  natives  are 
reinstated  in  offices,  the  arbitrary  taxes  are  withdrawn,  and  liberty  of 
conscience  is  granted.  Tokoli  suspects  and  rejects  the  concessions)  and 
is  nominated  Prince  of  Hungary  by  the  Sultan. 


836.  England.    The  King  recalls  James  frx)m  Scotland  ;   and  m^ 
Shaftesbur>%  who  fails  to  induce  Monmouth  to  take  a  decisive  *■ 
step,  escaj)es  to  Holland  (Oct.). 

837.  Germany.  The  League  of  Sweden  and  Holland  is  joined  by  the 
Emperor,  Spain  and  a  number  of  German  princes. 

838.  Russia.  The  first  war  between  Turkey  and  Russia  ends,  Russia 
securing  part  of  the  Ukraine  and  the  Cossack  territory. 

839.  America.  Penn  obtains  Delaware  Bay  and  the  region  behind,  the 
King  retaining  the  right  to  examine  and  annul  the  laws,  though  religions 
toleration  is  guaranteed.  Pennsylvania  is  founded,  and  a  constitution 
is  drawn  up  by  Penn. 

La  Salle  descends  the  Mississippi  to  the  sea,  and  takes  possession  of 
the  country  for  Louis,  under  the  title  of  Louisiana.  The  colony  wnich 
he  plants  at  the  mouth  ends  in  disaster. 

840.  Africa.  The  Great  Elector  founds  a  fort  on  the  Gold  Coast  for 
trade ;  but  the  settlement  only  lasts  40  years.  The  Danes  also  settle 
on  the  Gold  Coast. 


1682]  "  CULTURE  173 

the  right  of  resistance  in  a  work  entitled  Julian,  to  which  Hickes  replies 

in  Jovian.    Sherlock's  Case  of  Resistance  distinguishes  between  suffering 

t]rraiiny  and  doing  wTon^  at  the  king's  biddinj^. 

Nevile,  the  closest  mend  and  oisciple  of  Harrington,  repeats  his 

master'-fl  teaching  in  Plato  Rediviyns. 

Sydney  writes  or  perfects  his  Discourses  on  (jovernment,  published 

1699. 
1286.     Science.    Papin  communicates  to  the  Royal  Society  an  account 

of  his  steam-engine. 
1ZS7.     EUfltory.  Mabillon's  De  Re  Diplomatica  founds  historical  criticism. 
12SS.    Law.     Stair's  Institutions  of  the  Law  of  Scotland. 
liS!^.    Deaths.    Galderon,  Conring,  Nicon. 

i290.    Eng.  Ch.    Stillingfleet's  Unreasonableness  of  Separation    nQ32 
replies  to  Baxter  and  Owen,  in  a  conciliatory  manner.  ^ 

Bunyan's  Holy  War. 

IS^l.  French  Ch.  In  consequence  of  the  Pope's  rejection  of  his  claim 
to  the  Regale  (the  revenues  and  patronage  of  a  vacant  bishopric)  where 
be  does  not  already  possess  it,  Louis  summons  a  synod  which  approves 
the  extension  of  the  Regale  and  declares  that  the  Papacy  has  power 
udIv  in  spiritual  matters,  that  a  General  Council  is  supenor  to  the  rope, 
that  the  Pope  cannot  alter  the  customs  of  the  Gallican  Church,  and 
that  Papal  decrees  are  not  binding  till  confirmed  by  the  Church.  An 
Appeal  to  a  future  Council  is  excluded  by  Bossuet,  who  regards  the 
declarations  as  inopportune.  The  subscribers  of  these  Four  Articles 
are  refused  confirmation  by  the  Pope,  and  attacked  by  the  Spaniards 
D'Aguirre,  Gonzalez,  Roccaberti,  and  other  Ultramontanes,  but  de- 
fended  by  Bossuet. 

Poiret's  Economic  Divine,  a  mystical  system  influenced  by  Mme 
Boorignon,  attacks  Cartesianism. 
ii^*2.    Church. Hist    Petrucci's  Enigmi  Disvelati,  a  work  of  Catholic 
mrsticism,  influenced  by  Molinos. 

D'A^irre  makes  the  last  important  attempt  to  prove  the  Isidorian 
Deoetab  genuine. 
iiStJ.    Kmg.  Ut.    Dryden's  Religio  Laici. 

Otway's  Venice  preserved, 
/i^i    Scotch    Ut.    Sir    George    Mackenzie  founds    the    Advocates' 

Libiiry. 
1^5,    Oeiman  Lit.    The  Acta  Eruditorum,  founded  by  Leibnitz  and 
Otto  Mencke,  b^n  to  appear  at  Leipsic,  modelled  on  the  Journal  des 
StTantflL 
i^A    Science.    Ray's  Methodus  Plantarum  Nova  divides  flowering 
piints  into  monocotyledons  and  dicotyledons,  but  retains  the  division 
of  phmts  into  herbs,  shrubs  and  trees. 
^*r.    Art.    Mansard  builds  Versailles,  the  Trianon  and  the  Church  of 

the  Invaiides. 
^i*H,    Politics.    Potty's  Political  Arithmetic,  the  first  attempt  at  com- 

pvitive  statistics. 
^^<^.   Deaths.    Sir  T.  Browne,  Murillo. 


174  POLITICS  [1683 

841.  England.    The  King  confiscates  the  charter  of  the  City  of  ri-gj 
London,  and  appoints  the  Lord  Mayor  and  other  offices,     rro-  >■ 
vincial  towns  are  treated  in  the  same  way  by  the  Judges  on  circuit,  and 
Tories  are  named  members  of  the  new  corporations. 

Ferguson,  Wildman,  fiumbold,  Walcot,  and  other  old  CommoD- 
wealthsmen  resolve  to  attack  the  Kin^  and  his  brother  at  the  Bye 
House,  near  Ware,  on  their  return  from  Newmarket.  The  plot  fails,  the 
King  returning  a  few  days  earlier  than  was  expected,  and  several  of  the 
conspirators  are  taken  and  executed.  A  plan  formed  by  Monmouth, 
Russell,  Essex,  Howard  and  other  Whigs,  designed  to  cornel  the  sum- 
moning of  another  Parliament,  is  discovered.  Essex  commits  suicide  in 
prison,  and  Howard  turns  informer,  fiussell  is  executed,  refusing  to 
admit  that  resistance  to  the  King  is  never  lawfuL  Algernon  Sidney  b 
also  executed,  the  want  of  a  second  witness  being  suppued  by  tiie  pro- 
duction of  a  manuscript  treatise,  declaring  the  ri|rht  of  subjects  to 
depose  their  King.     Monmouth  is  sent  into  exile  in  Holland. 

842.  Prance.  The  French  invade  the  Spanish  Netherlands,  besiege 
Luxemburg,  and  seize  Trier,  1684.     Lorrame  is  occupied  permanently. 

843.  Turkey.  In  consequence  of  Turkish  intervention  m  Hungry, » 
war  breaks  out  with  the  Emperor.  The  Turks,  with  the  aid  of  French 
officers,  advance  to  the  siege  of  Vienna,  which  is  defended  by  Stahrem- 
berg,  but  are  driven  oflF  by  Sobieski,  King  of  Poland,  who  marches  to 
its  relief  with  Charles  of  Lorraine,  Louis  of  Baden,  and  Prince  Eugene. 

844.  Asia.  Aurungzebe  commences  his  wars  in  southern  India  with  the 
Mahrattas 

The  Dutch  are  expelled  from  Formosa  by  Eang-He,  Emperor  of 
China,  who  also  conquers  Tibet. 


845.  England.    The  King  is  urged  by  Halifax  to  comply  with  M^g^ 
the  Triennial  Act  by  calling  a  Parliament,  but  is  dissuaded  by  >- 
Hyde,  Earl  of  Rochester,  President  of  the  Council,  and  receives  money 
from  France. 

846.  France.  Luxemburg  is  besieged  and  taken,  and  a  truce  is  made  at 
Regensburg  with  Spain,  the  Empire  and  Holland,  by  which  the  R^ 
unions  and  Luxemburg  remain  in  French  hands  for  20  years. 

Louis  secretly  marries  Mme  de  Maintenon,  his  wife  hi&ving  died  1683- 

847.  Italy.    Genoa  is  bombarded  by  Lavardin  for  preferring  a  Spanish 
to  a  French  alliance. 

848.  Turkey.  The  Pope  negotiates  a  Holy  League  against  the  Turl^ 
between  the  Emperor  and  Venice  Morosini  invades  and  reduces  tb* 
Peloponnesus,  1684-9,  the  Imperial  armies,  under  the  Duke  of  Lorraia^ 
beinp  swelled  by  volunteers  from  all  countries  except  France,  whic** 
subsidises  the  Sultan. 

849.  America.  After  a  prolonged  legal  contest,  the  Massachusetts  char^^^ 
is  annulled,  and  Andros,  late  governor  of  New  York,  assumes  control 

850.  AfWca.  England  surrenders  Tangier  to  Morocco,  in  consequen^r* 
of  repeated  attacks  by  the  Moors. 

851.  Asia.  The  East  India  Company  builds  Fort  Marlborough  in  Sumatra 


1684]  CULTURE  175 

l^j,    French  Ch.    Ranc^,  abbot  of  La  Trappe,  attacks  learning   ri  qqq 
m  his  Saintet^  et  Devoirs  de  la  Vie  Mouastique.  He  is  answered    '- 

by  Mabillon's  Traits  des  Etudes  Monastiques,  and  a  controversy  arises 

as  to  the  relations  of  learning  and  piety. 

The  King  ceases  to  enforce  the  teaching  of  the  Four  Articles  in 

schools. 
W)l.    French  Ut.    Fontenelle's  Dialogues  des  Morts. 
l¥>2.    Italian  Ut.    Filicaja  writes  a  cycle  of  odes  on  the  relief  of 

Vienna. 
W^S.    Politics.    The  University  of  Oxford  bums  the  works  of  Buchanan, 

Milton,  Hobbes,  and  Baxter,  and  declares  its  adhesion  to  the  doctrines 

of  non-resistance,  which  are  at  this  time  maintained  by  Mackenzie  in 

his  Jus  Regium. 
i*>^    Oleography.    Dampier  commences  his  voyage  round  the  world, 

((tiling  from  South  America  to  the  Ladrones,  and  returning  by  the 

Philippines,  Australia  and  the  Gape  of  Good  Hope.    The  account  of  his 

voyage  appears  1697. 
W)o,    Deaths.    Colbert,  Owen,  Isaac  Walton,  Roger  Williams. 


/.M.    American  Ch.    Francis  Makennie,  an  Irish  Presbyterian    ri  004 

miDister.  introduces  Presbyterianism.  ^ 

m:,    (Jerrnan  Ch.    The  Great  Elector  oflFers  a  refuge  to  the  French 

IV)testanta. 
h^tS.    En^  Lit.    Locke  is  expelled  from  Christ  Church  by  the  Dean, 

Doctor  Fell,  for  his  connexion  with  Shaftesbury,  and  retires  to  Holland, 

where  he  makes  the  acquaintance  of  the  Arminians,  Limborch   and 

Le  Clerc 
Wj^.    French  Lit.    Bayle  begins  his  literary  review,  Nouvelles  de  la 

R^ubliqae  des  Lettres. 
WO.    Uteratore.    The  Turkish  Spy,  a  criticism  of  western  life  and 

thongfat  ostensibly  by  a  Turkish  envoy  at  Paris,  is  written  by  Paul 

Mtfina  of  Genoa,  with  additions  probably  by  an  Englishman. 
WL    Science.    HaUey  asks  Newton  to  discover  the  orbit  of  a  planet 

if  the  attraction  is  that  of  the  inverse  square.     Newton  replies  that  it 

woaM  be  an  ellipse.    Halley  therefore  persuades  Newton  to  attack  the 

whole  moblem  of  ^vitation. 

Leibnitz  explams  his  Differential  Calculus  in  the  Acta  Eruditorum, 

tod  the  method  is  applied  by  James  and  John  Bernoulli. 

Uli, .  Oeography.    Kampfer  accompanies  an  embassy  to  Persia,  and 
▼ints  the  Persian  Gulf,  Java  and  Japan. 

nu.   Dtath.    ComeiUe. 


176  POLITICS  [1686 

852.  England.  Charles  dies,  •ref^onciled  to  the  Roman  Church  r^agt 
(Feb.).  James  chooses  as  his  ministers  Rochester,  Halifax,  ^ 
Sunderland  and  Godolphiu,  and  summons  Parliament,  which  proves 
strongly  Tory,  in  part  owing  to  the  remodelling  of  Corporations,  by 
which  members  are  hugely  chosen.  Monmouth,  supported  by  a  numb^ 
of  republicans,  lands  in  the  west  (June),  and  enters  Taunton  with  5,000 
men,  but  is  routed  at  Sedgmoor  by  Kirk,  captured  and  executed  (July). 
Jeffreys  is  sent  down  to  the  west  and  holds  the  Bloodv  Assize,  over  300 
rebels  being  executed  and  over  800  transported  to  the  West  Indies  as 
slaves.  In  gratitude  for  this  achievement,  James  makes  Jeffreys  Lord 
Ciiancellor.  The  King  appoints  Catholics  to  posts  in  the  army,  and 
asks  Parliament  to  repeal  the  Test  Act,  proroguing  it  when  it  remon- 
strates. Halifax  is  dismissed,  and  Sunderland  becomes  President  of  the 
Council. 

853.  Scotland.  In  consequence  of  an  enactment  punishing  with  death 
anyone  attending  a  conventicle,  Argyle  returns  from  his  exile  in 
Holland,  and  attempts  to  raise  an  insurrection,  but  is  captured  withoat 
a  blow  and  executed. 

854.  Germany.  Charles  I.,  Elector  Palatine,  dies  childless,  and  Louis 
claims  part  of  the  Lower  Palatinate  through  the  Elector's  sister,  the  wife 
of  his  brother.  The  new  Elector  Palatine,  a  member  of  the  house  of 
Neuburg,  rallies  Germany  to  his  side. 

855.  Turkey.  Charles  of  Lorraine  defeats  the  Turks  and  drives  the 
Hungarians  under  Tokoli  back  into  Transylvania. 

856.  Greece.  The  tribute  of  children  for  Janissaries  ceases,  and  the 
Klefts,  half  patriots,  half  robbers,  spring  iip. 

857.  Asia.     A  French  embassy  is  sent  to  oiam. 


858.  England.  The  King  brings  the  case  of  Hales,  a  Catholic  m^ 
officer,  before  a  packed  court,  which  declares  that  royal  dispensa.-  *• 
tions  suspend  the  penalties  of  the  law  (June).  The  King  appoints 
Massey,  an  avowed  Catholic,  Dean  of  Christchurch,  and  Parker  Bishop 
of  Oxford,  and  leaves  Walker  Master  of  University  College,  a  regent 
convert,  unmolested.  Compton,  Bishop  of  London,  is  ordered  to  siw- 
pend  the  Dean  of  Norwich  for  preaching  a^inst  Romanism,  but  refases, 
on  which  the  King  ap])oints  an  Ecclesiastical  Commission  Court  under 
Jeffreys,  which  suspends  Compton.  Rochester,  a  devoted  Tory,  is  dis- 
missed for  refusing  to  change  his  religion,  and  a  camp  of  13,0Q0  men  is 
formed  at  Hounslow. 

859.  Scotland.  James  orders  the  Scotch  Parliament  to  repeal  anti- 
Catholic  laws,  and  on  its  refusal  dispenses  with  them  by  his  own 
authority.  .  * 

860.  Germany.  A  league  to  guarantee  the  Treaties  of  1648  and  1678 
and  the  truce  of  Ratisbon,  is  concluded  at  Augsburg  by  the  Emperor, 
Spain.  Sweden,  and  a  large  number  of  German  princes  (f  uly).         • 

A  compromise  is  m^e  bf  the  Great  Elector  and  the  Emperor, 


H86]  CULTURE  177 

1514.  Eng.    Ch.    Bull's  Defensio  Fidei    Nicaenae    maintains,    riaoc 
against  Petavius,  that  the  pre-Nicene  thinkers  were  not  Arian   ^ 
hot  ess^itially  Athauasian.    Bull  is  thanked  by  a  synod  of  French 
Bishops  over  which  Bossuet  presides. 

Spencer's  De  Legibus  et  ^itualibus  Hebraeorum  discusses  the  debt 
of  tm  Jews  to  E^pt  and  other  countries,  and  helps  to  found  the  study 
of  comparative  religion. 

1515.  nench  Ch.  The  General  Assembly  of  the  clergy  urge  strongly 
the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  and  after  much  hesitation  Louis 
complies,  prohibits  Protestant  worship,  exiles  the  ministers,  and  destroys 
the  churcnes.  The  step  irreparably  weakens  the  country,  many  of  the 
most  thriving  parts  of  the  population,  despite  the  prohibition  of  emi- 

fation,  escaping  to  England,  tne  Dutch  Netherlands  and  Brandenburg. 
nder  French  pressure  the  Duke  of  Savoy  recalls  the  concessions 
granted  by  his  father  to  the  Vaudois. 

1516.  {German  Ch.  Pfeifier's  Pansophia  Mosaica  asserts  that  all  the 
philosophy,  science  and  law  of  the  ancient  world  were  derived  from  Moses. 

1517.  Italian  Ch.  Molinos  and  Petrucci  are  arrested  at  the  instance 
of  Louis  XIV,  spurred  on  by  the  Jesuits,  examined  by  the  Inquisition, 
and  condemned  to  perpetual  im{)risonment.  In  1687  the  Pope  approves 
the  a>ndemnation  by  the  Inquisition. 

lilS,    Italian  Lit.    Redi's  Bacchus  in  Tuscany. 
Uiu,    Science.    Cohom's  Treatise  on  Fortification. 
IWk    Death.    Calov. 


Ii21.    French  Ch.    Mme  Guyon  publishes  her  Moyen  Court   rj^gog 
pour  rOraison,  influenced  by  study  of  St  Theresa  and  John  of  '- 
the  Cross.     With  the  aid  of  Lacombe,  a  Barnabite  monk,  she  founds  an 
iostitution  for  converts  at  6ex  under  the  Bishop  of  Geneva.    Lacombe 
is  shortly  removed  and  is  followed  by  Mme  Guyon. 

Dapin's  Ancient  Discipline  of  the  Church  assumes  an  ultra-Gallican 
(nation,  which  he  illustrates  in  his  Biblioth^que  des  Auteurs  Eccl^si- 
ftfdqaea. 
Iii2,    Dutch  Ch.    Limborch's  Theolo^ia  Christiana  gives  the  fullest 
jweseDtation  of  Arminianism  since  Episcopius. 

Leclerc  rejects  the  Mosaic  authorship  of  the  Pentateuch,  and 
ndooalises  the  story  of  Babel,  Lot's  wife,  and  the  passage  of  the 
BedSea. 
ISiS.  Church  Hist.  Bayle  condemns  the  expulsion  of  the  Hugueuots 
in  his  Contrains  les  Entrer,  the  first  systematic  work  of  rationalist 
tendency. 
/J^  Uteratore.  Mabillon  describes  his  Italian  journey  in  the 
Museom  Italicum  and  the  Iter  Italicum. 

Leclerc  begins  his  literary  review,  La  Biblioth^ue  Universelle. 
I'iX,    Science.    Willoughby's  and  Kay's  Historia  Piscium  constitute 
the  first  real  advance  since  Rondelet.     Their  work  is  developed  by 
Artedi  and  Linnaeus. 
I'^S.    Fhiloeophy.    Abercromb/s  Discourse  of  Wit  anticipates  Reid*s 
doctiiiie  of  Common  Sense. 

c.  12 


178  POLITICS  [1686 

Frederick  William  renouncing  his  claims  on  Jagemdorf  and  Li^nitz  in 
return  for  the  cession  of  the  circle  of  Schwiebus,  in  Silesia.  At  the  same 
moment,  however,  the  Austrian  ambassador  makes  a  secret  compact 
with  the  Elector's  son,  by  which  the  latter  pledges  himself  to  restore  tbe 
circle  on  his  accession. 
861.  Turkey.  Charles  of  Lorraine  storms  Buda,  which  the  Turks  hare 
held  since  1541  (Sept.). 


862.  England.  The  King  issues  a  Declaration  of  Indulgence,  r^es? 
suspending  laws  against  Catholics  and  Dissenters,  to  whom,  how-  ^ 
ever,  Halifax  points  out  that  such  an  indulgence,  not  being  guaranteed 
by  law,  is  of  no  value  (April).  A  Catholic  is  nominated  President  of 
Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  and  the  Fellows,  who  choose  one  of  their 
own  number,  are  ejected.  Parliament  is  dissolved  and  the  Corporations 
are  remodelled. 

863.  France.  Louis  disputes  with  the  Pope  about  the  sanctuary  which 
the  French  ambassador  in  Rome  claims  for  his  house. 

864.  Germany.  The  League  of  Augsburg  is  joined  by  Bavaria,  Sazonj, 
Savoy,  and  some  of  the  Italian  states,  and  receives  the  secret  approval  of 
the  Pope. 

865.  Austria.  The  Emperor  annexes  the  principalities  of  Liegnitx, 
Brie^,  and  Wohlau. 

866.  Hungary.  Charles  of  Lorraine  and  Louis  of  Baden  defeat  the 
Turks  at  Mohacz  and  drive  them  out  of  Croatia  and  Transylvania. 
T<>k()li  loses  prestige,  and  Leopold  suppresses  the  constitution. 

867.  Asia.  The  East  India  Company  obtains  independent  jurisdiction 
and  coinage,  and  power  to  build  fortifications,  levy  customs,  and  enlist 
native  militia. 

86H.  Africa.  Several  hundred  Huguenots  settle  at  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  but  become  quickly  blended  with  the  Dutch.  Though  their 
language  completely  disappears,  their  names  survive  in  great  numbers 


869.  England.  The  King  orders  a  second  Declaration  of  Indul-  r«^ 
j^'ence  to  be  read  in  all  churches.  Archbishop  Sancroft  and  six  *- 
bisho])s  protest,  and  are  tried  in  Westminster  Hall  for  a  seditious  libel 
Imt  acquitted  (June  30),  Meanwhile  the  King  has  had  a  son.  widelv 
suimnsed  to  be  supposititious  (June  10),  and,  on  the  day  of  the  acnuittJ. 
William  of  Orange  is  invited  to  deifend  English  liberties.  William 
accepts,  and  issues  a  Declaration,  enumerating  James's  misdeeds  and 
promising  to  abide  by  the  decision  of  a  free  Parliament     Jame« 


]  CULTURE  179 

Education.    Mme  de  Maintenon  founds  the  MaisoD  de  Saint- 
r  for  the  daughters  of  the  poor  nobility. 
Geography.    Chardin's  Travels  in  Persia. 
Deaths.    Cond^,  Pearson. 


Scotch  Ch.    James's  Declaration  of  Indulgence  suspends   rioon 
penal  laws,  except  as  regards  field-preaching,  which,  however,    *- 
itinues. 

French  Ch.  Fontenelle's  Histoire  des  Oracles  attacks  the  priests 
i  oracles  of  classical  times  and,  indirectly,  miracles. 

Eng.  Lit.  Dryden's  Hind  and  Panther  contrasts  the  Roman 
urch,  which  he  has  recently  joined,  with  the  Anglican.  It  is 
rodied  by  Montagu  and  Prior  in  the  Country  Mouse  and  City  Mouse. 

French  Lit.    La  Bruy^re's  Caract^res. 

Art.  The  Parthenon  is  irretrievably  damaged  by  the  falling  of 
Venetian  bomb  into  the  powder  stored  within  it. 

Science.  Newton's  Principia,  dedicated  to  the  Royal  Society^ 
5W8  that  all  the  important  characteristics  of  the  motions  of  the  solar 
jtem  are  explicable  by  three  fundamental  laws  of  motion  and  by  the 
7  of  ^vitation,  namely,  that  every  particle  of  matter  attracts  every 
ler  with  a  force  varying  directly  as  the  mass  of  each,  and  inversely  as 
i  square  of  the  distance  between  them.  Hooke's  claim  to  the 
«x)very  of  the  law  of  inverse  squares  is  rejected  by  Newton.  The 
jory  is  introduced  into  Cambridge  by  Clarke,  Bentley,  Whiston,  into 
:ford  by  Halley,  into  Edinbur^  by  Gregory.  On  the  Continent 
ibnitz,  Huyghens,  the  Bemouilhs  cling  to  the  vortex  theory ;  and  in 
since,  despite  Fontenelle,  it  is  little  known  till  Voltaire's  return  from 
gland.  It  is  introduced  into  Holland  by  's  Gravesande. 
Newton  states  the  three  fundamental  laws  of  motion.  I.  Every 
iy  continues  in  its  state  of  rest  or  of  uniform  motion  in  a  straight 
e  except  in  so  far  as  it  be  compelled  by  impressed  force  to  cliange 
it  state.  II.  The  rate  of  change  of  momentum  is  proportional  to 
J  impressed  force  and  takes  place  in  the  direction  of  the  straight 
e  in  which  the  force  acts.  III.  To  every  action  there  is  an  equal 
i  opposite  reaction. 

Newton  declares  that  the  propagation  of  sound  varies  directly  as 
5  square  root  of  the  elastic  force  and  inversely  as  the  square  root  of 
i  density  of  the  medium. 

Hans  Sloane  visits  Jamaica,  and  lays  the  foundation  of  his  botanical 
lections. 

Philosophy.    Tschimhausen's  Medicina  Mentis  forms  a  trans- 
ya  between  the  systems  of  his  friends  Spinoza  and  Leibnitz. 
.    Deaths.    Calderon,  Petty,  La  Salle,  Steno. 


Eng.  Ch.    Cave's  Scriptores  Historiae  Ecclesiasticae.  [1688 

Etootch  Ch.    On  the  news  of  William's  landing,  Presby-    •- 
ianism  is  quietly  restored. 

French  Ch.    Mme  Guyon  is  arrested,  but  liberated  by  the 

12—2 


180  POLITICS  [1888 

abolishes  the  Ecclesiastical  Commissioners,  restores  the  City  Charten 
and  the  ejected  Fellows,  and  dismisses  Sunderland  and  Petre,  but 
refuses  an  offer  of  help  from  Louis,  who  transfers  his  army  from  the 
Netherlands  frontier  to  the  Palatinate  and  leaves  William  free  to  land 
in  Torbay  (Nov.  5).  The  North  and  the  Midlands  rise  under  Danbjr 
and  Devonshire,  and  James  is  deserted  by  Churchill  and  by  his  danghter 
Anne.  The  King  summons  a  Parliament,  and  proposes  an  accommoda- 
tion with  William,  but  resolves  to  leave  the  country.  He  is  stopped 
by  fishermen  near  Sheemess,  and  brought  back  to  London,  whence  he  is 
allowed  to  escape  (Dec.  23).  William  consults  the  Lords,  the  members 
of  Charles's  Parliaments,  and  the  City,  and  is  advised  to  summon  a  Coo* 
vention. 

870.  France.    On  the  death  of  the  Archbishop  of  Cologne,  Louis  snp- 

Sirts  a  candidate  who  is  opposed  by  the  Emperor  and  the  Pope  (June), 
e  declares  war  with  Holland  and  the  Empire,  captures  Philippsbmi^ 
overruns  the  Palatinate,  and  seizes  Avignon  from  the  Pope. 

871.  Turkey.    The  war  against  the  Turks  is  resumed,  and  Belgrade  is 
taken. 

872.  America.    Andros  is  named  Governor  of  the  northern  coloniefl, 
and  revokes  the  charters  of  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island. 


873.  England.  The  Convention  meets  (Jan.  22),  and  the  Com-  r^^ 
mons  resolve  that  James,  having  broken  the  original  contract  ^ 
between  King  and  People,  and  withdrawn  from  the  kingdom,  has  abdi- 
cated the  government  and  that  the  throne  is  thereby  vacant.  Tke 
Lords,  after  discussing  a  Regency,  accept  the  resolution.  A  Declaration 
of  Rights  is  prepared,  and  William  and  Mary  are  offered  the  Crown,  and 
choose  Danby,  Halifax,  Nottingham,  Shrewsbury,  and  Godolphin  for 
their  minist.ers.  The  Convention  Parliament  embodies  the  Declaration 
of  Rights  in  a  Bill  of  Rights. 

Owing  to  the  mutiny  of  a  regiment,  a  Bill  is  passed  hj  which  the 
troops  cannot  be  paid  without  a  special  Act  of  Appropriation,  and  no 
soldier  can  be  punished  without  the  annual  re-enactment  of  the  Bill. 

874.  Etootland.  Dundee  rallies  the  Highland  clans  against  the  new 
sovereign,  and  defeats  William's  general  at  Killiecrankie,  but  is  himself 
slain  (July). 

875.  Ireland.  James,  with  aid  from  France,  against  which  Williim 
declares  war,  lands  at  Kinsale,  finding  an  army  prepared  by  TyrconneL 
The  Scotch  and  English  settlers  take  refuge  in  Enniskillen  and  London- 
derry, which  is  relieved  when  reduced  to  extremities  (July  30).  The 
Irish  army  is  defeated  at  Newtown  Butler,  near  Enniskillen  (Aug.). 
Meanwhile  the  Irish  Parliament  issues  an  Attainder,  confiscating  the 
land  of  about  2,000  of  William's  adherents  (May). 

876     France.    Louvois  orders  the  devastation  of  the  Palatinate,  which 

trovokes  a  declaration  of  war  from  the  Diet    Though  ably  sensed  by 
luxembourg,  Bouiilers  and  Catinat,  the  French  armies  are  curiven  back 


1689]  CULTURE  181 

mfloeoce  of  Mme  de  Maintenon,  who  invites  her  to  her  new  foundation 
for  girls  at  St  Cyr  and  adopts  her  Torrents  Spirituels  as  a  handbook  of 
devotion.     At  St  Cyr  she  is  brought  into  close  relations  with  F^nelon. 

Boesuet  publishes  his  Histoire  des  Variations  Protestantes,  the  most 
poverfol  Catholic  attack  of  the  century,  distinmiishes  the  tenets  of  the 
Albigenses  from  those  of  the  Waldenses,  and  calls  attention  to  the 
importance  of  Melanchthon. 

2S41.  French  Lit.  Perrault,  who  had,  in  congratulating  the  King  on 
hiA  recovery  from  illness,  declared  the  moderns  superior  in  arts  and 
ktters  to  the  ancients  and  had  been  attacked  by  Fontenelle,  supports 
his  contention  in  his  Parall^Ie  des  Anciens  et  des  Modernes.  Boileau 
defends  the  ancients.  Perrault  and  his  adherents  introduce  the  idea  of 
progress  into  literary  criticism. 

ISii.    Oennan  Lit.    Thomasius  delivers  the  first  lectures  in  German, 

and  contributes  to  the  first  German  review. 
lSi3.    Literature.     Morhof  *s  Polyhistor,  a  dictionary  of  authors. 

ISU-    Education.    Fenelon's  ^ucation  des  Filles,  the  first  work  on  the 

Mibject.  lays  stress  rather  on  character  than  on  learning. 
lSi5,    Deaths.    Bunyan,  Cudworth,  Du  Gauge,  The  Great  Elector. 

ISi^s.  Eng.  Ch.  A  Toleration  Act  allows  Dissenters  to  worship  nggg 
I  publicly  on  taking  an  oath,  and  permits  Quakers  to  affirm,  but  *- 
excludes  Catholics  and  Unitarians  from  its  benefits.  An  attempt,  how- 
eTer,  made  at  the  order  of  Parliament,  by  Burnet,  Tenison,  Stillin^fleet, 
Tillotson,  and  Beveridge,  to  attract  the  Dissenters  back  to  the  Church 
bjr  the  alteration  of  the  Prayer  Book  fails,  owing  to  the  opposition  of 
CoQvocation. 

Archbishop  Bancroft,  five  Bishops,  and  about  400  clergy,  including 
Keo,  Hickes,  Kettlewell,  Leslie,  and  Jeremy  Collier,  refuse  to  take  the 
piths  of  supremacy  and  allegiance  and  are  deprived,  forming  the  Non- 
juors,  who  are  jomed  by  laymen  such  as  Nelson  and  Dodwell.  Two 
whope  are  consecrated  1694,  and  three  others,  1713. 

Locke's  First  Letter  on  Toleration  advocates  the  exclusion  of 
Githdics,  as  owing  allegiance  elsewhere,  and  of  Atheists  and  Anti- 
DOBiiaos. 

iW.  Scotch  Ch.  The  episcopal  clergy  are  ejected,  Presbyterianism 
i»  everywhere  restored,  and  the  Westminster  Confession  is  reimposed. 
.\II  acts  in  favour  of  episcopacy  are  rescinded;  but,  though  Episcopacy 
ii  abolished,  the  Scotch  Episcopate  perpetuates  itself. 

IU8.  American  Ch.  Cotton  Mather  issues  a  collection  of  Memorable 
Prnndences  relating  to  Witchcraft  and  Possession. 

U».    Daniih  Ut.    Kingo's  Psalms. 

iiSO.  Politics.  Locke  publishes  two  Treatises  on  Civil  Government,  of 
vhich  the  first  replies  to  Filmer's  Patriarcha,  and  the  second  discusses 
the  origin  and  end  of  government,  and  is  designed  to  justify  the 
B«foIntion  of  1688  and  'establish  the  throne  of  our  great  restorer.' 
Hie  contract  theory,  based  on  natural  right,  allows  the  formation  of 
aaj  government  except  Absolute  Monarchy.  Frequent  revolutions  are 
pievented  by  the  inertia  of  mankind. 


182  POLITICS  [1689 


England  and  Holland  join  the  League  of  Augsburg,  and  the  Grand 
if'  Alliance  is  formed. 

877.  America.    Andros  is  imprisoned,  William  and  Mary  are  pro- 
claimed, and  the  old  charters  are  resumed. 

878.  Asia.    The  Treaty  of  Nerchinsk  excludes  Russia  from  Amurland. 


879.  England.    The  Indemnity  Bill  is  coupled  with  so  many   rj^^ 
exceptions  that  the  King  dissolves  the  Convention  Parliament   ^ 
and  contemplates  resignation.     Halifax  leaves  the  Government,  and 
Danby  becomes  the  leading  minister.     Parliament  limits  the  grant  of 
half  the  King's  revenue  to  four  years. 

Admiral  Tourville  is  sent  to  invade  England,  and  meets  the 
English  and  Dutch  fleets  off*  Beachy  Head  (June  30).  By  blunderiDg 
or  design,  Admiral  Herbert  keeps  his  ships  out  of  danger,  the  Dutch  in 
conseauence  being  defeated.  Herbert  is  tried  and  acquitted,  but  di*- 
missed  from  his  post  and  replaced  by  Russell,  brother  of  the  victim  of 
1683.  Tourville  does  not  follow  up  his  victory,  and  contents  himsdf 
with  burning  Teignmouth. 

880.  Ireland.  William  crosses  to  Ireland,  where  Lauzun  has  arrived 
with  French  troops,  and  defeats  James  and  Lauzun  at  the  Battle  of  the 
Boyne  (July),  where  Schomberg  is  killed.  James  escapes  to  France, 
William  and  Marlborough  enter  Dublin,  but  are  prevented  by  Sarsfield 
from  taking  Limerick. 

881.  Scotland.  The  Lords  of  the  Articles  are  abolished,  and  the  pro- 
cess of  defeudalisation  begins. 

882.  France.  Luxembourg  defeats  the  Dutch  under  Prince  Waldeck, 
at  Fleurus,  but  is  checked  by  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg. 

Louis  restores  Avignon  to  the  Pope. 

883.  Savoy.  Savoy  joins  the  League  of  Augsburg,  but  is  defeated  by 
Catinat. 

884.  Turkey.  The  Prince  of  Transylvania  dies,  and  Eiuprili  nominates 
Tokuli  and  sends  an  army  which  recovers  Belgrade,  Servia  and  Bulgaria, 
owing  to  the  withdrawal  of  the  Emperor's  best  troops  for  the  French 
war. 

885.  Asia.  A  fort  is  founded  by  the  East  India  Company  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Ganges,  which,  by  the  purchase  of  three  villages  in  1700, 
becomes  Calcutta. 


886.  England.  Mariborough,  jealous  of  William's  Dutch  ^ggj 
generals,  offers  to  James  to  move  an  address  asking  the  King    *• 

to  expel  the  foreigners,  and  persuades  Anne  to  join  the  opposition.    For 
this  treachery  he  is  deprived  of  his  offices. 

The  English  Company,  a  rival  to  the  East  India  Co.,  is  established, 
and  receives  a  charter,  1G98. 

887.  Ireland.  Ginkell,  sent  to  Ireland  with  Mackay  and  Ruvigny. 
a  French  Protestant,  destroys  the  Irish  army  at  Aughrim,  and  takes 
Limerick.  The  soldiers  and  oihcers,  among  ttiem  Sansfield,  are  allowed 
to  enter  the  French  ser>'ice.     The  Irish  Catholics  are  promised  the 


Un]  CULTURE  183 

Halifax^s  Character  of  a  Trimmer. 
1S51.    Law.    Domat's  Lois  Civiles  founds  law  on  ethical  and  religious 

principles. 
ISo^,    History.    Pagi's  Critica  in  Annales  Baronii,  the  first  searching 

examination  of  the  entire  work. 
ISoS.    Social.     Export  duties  on  corn  are  abolished  in  England,  and 

a  bonnty  of  5/-  is  given  when  the  price  is  under  48/-.    This  measure 

greatly  contributes  to  the  revival  of  agriculture. 
Ii54.    Deaths.    Christina  of  Sweden,  Sydenham. 


ISoo,    Xng.  Oh.    Wallis'  Doctrine  of  the  Trinity  is  attacked  by    nggo 

Sberiock  and  by  South,  who  is  censured  by  the  University  of  »- 
Oxford  for  Tritheism. 

Bury's  Naked  Gospel,  a  Deistic  work,  is  burnt. 

lSo6,  Etootch  Ch.  Lay  patronage  is  abolished ;  the  Act  of  Supremacy 
is  rescinded ;  ejected  ministers  are  restored,  and  a  General  Assembly 
meets. 

13-57,    French  Oh.    The  Pope  condemns  the  theory  of  Philosophic  Sin. 

IS58,    Eng.  Lit.    Dunton's  Athenian  Gazette  anticipates  the  Spectator. 

Ii5ff.    French  Lit.     Fureti^re's  Dictionary  of  the  French  Language. 

IM,    History.    Tillemont*s  Histoire  des  Empereurs  des  6  premiers 
t       a^le& 

/•>;/.  Philosophy.  Locke's  Essay  on  the  Human  Understanding  at- 
tacks Descartes'  conception  of  innate  ideas,  and  derives  knowledge  from 
aeojsatioD  and  reflection.  Philosophy  must  be  approached  by  a  study  of 
the  capacities  of  the  human  mind.  The  work  gives  a  psychological 
iirectinn  to  thought,  and  is  attacked  by  Norris,  Stillingfleet,  bishop  of 
Worcester,  and  Leibnitz  in  his  Nouveaux  Essais  sur  TEntendement 
kumaiiL 

Huet's  Faiblesse  de  TEsprit  humain  declares  the  credibility  of  the 
uioms  of  reason  to  de^nd  on  revelation. 

^to.  Economics.  >iicholas  Barbon's  Discourse  of  Trade  asserts  that 
Tilae  does  not  reside  m  things,  but  arises  from  their  relation  to  human 
Kedbt. 

IM.    Death.    Teniers. 


[1691 


/A'i  Eng.  Oh.  Boyle  founds  a  Lectureship  in  Apologetics, 
00  which  Bentley  delivers  the  first  course,  inferring  a  tirst  Cause 
bwD  Newton's  discoveries. 

/^5.  Chnrch  Hist.  Gonzalez'  Fundamenta  Theologiae  Moralis  at- 
tacks Probabilism,  which  breaks  into  Equiprobabilism,  Probabiliorism, 
md  Tatiorism. 

Leibnitz  and  Molanus,  with  the  approval  of  the  electress  Sophia  and 
the  theologians  of  Helmstadt,  negotiate  for  reunion  with  Bishop  Burnet. 

i^.    Eng.  Lit.    Antony  Wood's  Athenae  Oxonienses. 

i<K7.    French  Lit.    Racine's  Athalie,  his  last  and  greatest  work. 

Peimult's  Griseldis  commences  his  fairy  tales,  in  which  he  is  fol- 
lowed by  the  Comtesse  d'Aulnoy  and  Anthony  Hamilton. 


184  POUTics  [18n 

privileges  they  enjoyed  under  Charles  II.;  but  the  Parliament,  repre- 
senting the  Engusn  colony  alone,  compels  the  King  to  revoke  Us 
concessions. 

888.  Scotland.  Military  execution  is  proclaimed  against  all  who  haie 
not  laid  down  their  arms  and  taken  the  oath  of  allegiance  by  the  list 
day  of  the  year. 

889.  France.  Louis  advances  in  person  to  the  North-east  frontier, 
and  takes  Mons,  which  William  is  too  weak  to  relieve.  Catinat  takes 
Nice.  Louvois  dies,  and  henceforth  the  King  is  served  by  men  of  slight 
ability. 

890.  Turkey.  Louis  of  Baden  meets  and  destroys  a  huge  Turkish 
army  at  Szalankemen,  where  Kiuprili  is  killed.  Transylvania  is  finallj 
conquered,  Tokoli  retiring  and  joining  the  Turkish  ranks,  and  die 
Estates  recognise  the  Habsburgs  as  pnnces,  in  return  for  a  recognition 
of  political  and  religious  privileges. 


891.  England.    James  issues  a  long  list  of  names  to  be  excepted   r^tt^^ 
from  his  amnesty.     Russell  meets  and  destroys  the  French  neet,   ^ 
prepared  for  an  mvasion,  at  La  Hogue.    The  French  navy,  perfected  hj 
Colbert  and  his  son  Seignelai,  begins  to  decline. 

To  support  the  war  Montagu  borrows  one  million  pounds,  on  which 
interest  is  steadily  paid,  and  which  may  be  regarded  as  the  origin  of  the 
National  Debt. 

892.  Scotland.  The  Macdonalds  of  Glencoe,  having  failed  to  swear 
allegiance  to  William  by  the  given  date,  are  treacherously  massacred  by 
order  of  Stair,  who  has  obtained  an  ambiguous  authorisation  from  ths 
King.     The  indignation  is  so  strong  that  Stair  is  dismissed. 

893.  Ireland.  Catholics  are  forbidden  to  sit  in  Parliament,  and  severe 
laws  deal  with  their  worship,  their  property,  and  the  education  of  their 
children. 

894.  Prance.  Vauban  takes  Namur  (June),  which  is  defended  by 
Cohom,  and  Luxembourg  wins  an  indecisive  victory  over  William  at 
Steinkirk  (Aug.). 

895.  Germany.  Ernest  Augustus,  Duke  of  Brunswick-Luneberg, 
obtains  the  Electoral  title  for  Hanover,  in  return  for  a  perpetual 
alliance  with  the  Emperor. 

896.  America.    Massachusetts  receives  a  new  Charter. 


897.  England.     The  King  vetoes  bills  for   Triennial   Parlia-    r^^ 
ments  and  for  the  exclusion  of  placemen  from  Parliament  ^ 

Sunderland,  who  is  allowed  to  return  to  Court,  recommends  the 
Kinp  to  form  a  homogeneous  Whig  ministry. 

The  Smyrna  merchant  fleet  is  almost  wholly  destroyed  by  the 
French  off  Cape  St  Vincent 

A  liand  Tax,  on  a  valuation  carried  out  1692,  is  imposed,  beginning 
with  4/-  in  the  pound. 

898.  France.    Louis  fails  to  take  Li^ge  and  never  appears  in  the  field 
again.     Catinat  defeats  the  Duke  of  Savoy.      Luxembourg  defeats 


16B3]  CULTURE  185 

1568,  Science.    Leibnitz'  Protogaea,  a  geological  work  suggested  by  his 
mining  duties  in  the  Harz  mountains. 

1569.  Philosophy.     Norris*  Ideal  World  introduces  the  ideas  of  Male- 
branche  into  England.     His  teaching  is  continued  by  Barthogge. 

Geulinx  declares  extension  and  thought  absolutely  distinct,  like 

two  clocks  at  each  instant  adjusted  by  6o<l. 
1370.    Philology.    Bentley's  Letter  to  Mill,  in  reference  to  an  edition 

of  Malalas,  discusses  metre  and  other  subjects,  and  earns  the  praise  of 

Spanheim  and  Graevius. 
1S71.    Economics.     North's  Discourse  of  Trade  maintains  the  unity  of 

the  world  for  trading  purposes,  declares  human  industry,  not  money, 

the  source  of  wealth,  and  attacks  restrictions  on  prices,  interest,  and 

the  export  of  bullion. 

1372.  Social.    Bekker  and  Thomasius  attack  the  treatment  of  witches. 

1373.  Deaths.    Baxter,  Boyle,  Foxe,  Pococke. 


1374.  Eng.  Lit.    Temple's  Ancient  and  Modern  Learning  in-    [1592 
tiTKluces  the  controversy  into  England,  and  selects  for  praise    ^ 
the  Fables  of  Aes<»p  and  the  Epistles  of  Plialaris. 

1375,  Italian  Lit.    The  Arcadian  Academy  is  founded  by  Crescimbeni, 
Gravina,  and  Guidi. 

1376.  Norwe^an  Lit.    Dass's  Trumpet  of  Norway. 

1377.  Science.    Newton's  papers  are  burnt,  a  blow  from  which  he  never 
entirely  recovers. 

1378,  Education.    William  and  Mar}'  College  is  founded  in  Virginia 
for  the  training  of  clergy. 

1379,  Social.    Societies  for  Reformation  of  Manners  are  instituted. 
A  witchcraft  frenzy  breaks  out  at  Salem. 

On  the  news  of  the  victory  of  La  Hogue  Queen  Mary  transforms 
the  palace  begun  by  Charles  IL  at  Greenwich  into  a  refuge  for  disabled 
sailors. 

Lloyd's  Coffee-house  becomes  an  office  for  marine  insurance. 


1380,  Sng.  Ch.    Leslie's   Short  and  Easy  Method  with  the    r^^^^ 
Deists.  ^ 

1381,  French  Ch.    Louis  undertakes  not  to  teach  nor  enforce  the 
articles  of  1682. 

Godet,  Bishop  of  Chartres,  warns  Mme  de  Maintenon  against  Mme 
Ckijon,  who  is  in  consequence  dismissed  from  St  Cyr.  She  appeals  to 
Bossiiet,  who  reads  her  ms.  commentary  on  the  Apocalypse  and  is  much 
shocked.  Bossuet,  Noailles  and  Tronson  meet  at  Issy,  and  issue  a  con- 
demnation of  Mme  Guyon's  tenets,  which,  with  a  few  changes,  is 
signed  by  F^nelon.  Mme  Guyon  promises  not  to  write  nor  teach  again, 
bat  breaks  her  promise,  and  is  shut  up  in  Vincennes. 

1382,  Sng.Lit.     Hacket's  Life  of  Bishop  Williams. 

1383,  Science.   Ray's  Synopsis  Animalium  attempts  a  new  classification. 
Halley  explains  a  method  of  ascertaining  the  distance  of  the  Sun 

by  observation  of  the  transits  of  Venus. 


186  pouTics  [1893 


William  and  the  allies  at  Landen  (July).     The  Palatinate  is  once  more 
ravaged.     Overtures  for  peace  made  by  Louis  are  rejected. 
Louis  institutes  the  Order  of  St  Louis. 

899.  '  Sweden.    Charles  XL  is  declared  absolute. 

900.  America.    An  expedition  against  Canada  is  arranged,  but  does 
not  succeed. 


90L  England.  Following  the  advice  of  Sunderland,  the  Kins  r^gg^ 
dismisses  his  Tory  ministers,  except  Godolphin  and  Danby,  and  ^ 
fills  their  places  with  Whigs,  his  chief  advisere,  known  as  the  Junto, 
being  Somers,  Admiral  Kussell,  Montagu  and  Wharton.  This  step 
may  be  said  to  mark  the  origin  of  the  Cabinet  system,  though  the  King 
regards  the  ministers  as  responsible  to  himself,  not  to  Parliament  To 
guard  against  corruption  and  the  abuse  of  patronage  by  the  Ministry, 
a  Bill  is  introduced  forbidding  members  of  Parliament  to  hold  any  oflSce, 
but  is  defeated.  The  King,  however,  accepts  a  Triennial  Act,  limiting 
the  duration  of  Parliament  to  three  years.  The  death  of  Queen  Mary 
from  small-pox  greatly  weakens  the  King's  position,  and  encouraged 
negociations  with  James. 

On  the  suggestion  of  Paterson,  a  Scotch  prot^g^  of  Montagu,  who 
desires  a  safer  place  for  the  deposit  of  money  than  with  the  gol<&mith$, 
the  Bank  of  England  is  founded.  A  loan  is  made  to  the  &>vemment 
from  the  deposits  on  the  promise  of  Parliament  to  pay  interest.  The 
shares  are  largely  taken  up  by  rich  city  Nonconformists. 

902.  France.  An  English  expedition  to  Brest  is  defeated,  owing  to 
information  secretly  conveyed  by  Marlborourgh.  The  English  fleet 
proceeds  to  bombard  Havre,  Dunkirk  and  other  coast  towns. 

903.  Spain.  A  French  expedition  against  Spain  achieves  nothing 
decisive.     Barcelona  is  saved  by  the  Knglish  fleet. 

904.  Germany.  Konigsmarck,  an  oflicer  of  George  of  Hanover  and  a 
lover  of  his  wife  Sophia  Dorothea,  is  murdered. 


905.  England.    Danby,   Duke   of  Leeds,   is  proved  guilty  of   r^M 
comiption  in  the  granting  of  a  new  charter  to  the  East  India    ^ 
Company,  and  is  forced  to  retire      An  Act  to  restrain  and   punish 
bribery  at  elections  is  jwissed  by  Parliament. 

William  re>ives  the  *  Board  of  Trade  and  Plantations,'  the  germ  of 
the  Colonial  Office. 

906.  Scotland.    A   Company   trading    to   Africa    and  the    Indies  i^ 
formed. 

907.  France.    Luxembourg  dies,  and  Villeroi,  who  succeeds  him  in 
command  of  the  army  in  the  Netherlands,  bombards  Brussels. 

Namur,  defended  by  Boufflers,  surrenders  to  William  and  Cohom, 
his  first  success  in  the  war  and  the  greatest  triumph  of  his  life  (Aug.). 

908.  Italy.     Casale  is  taken  from  the  French  by  the  Duke  of  Savoy. 

909.  Turkey.    The  Turks  defeat  the  Venetians  at  sea,  and  rout  part 
of  the  Imperial  army. 


189S]  CULTURE  187 

13S4.  Xdacation.  Locke's  Thoughts  on  Education  declare  that  the 
study  of  individuality,  the  formation  of  character,  and  the  acquisition 
of  right  methods  of  thought  rather  than  the  communication  of  know- 
ledge are  the  objects  to  be  pursued. 

13So,  Law.  Leibnitz'  Codex  Juris  Gentium  Diplomaticus  deserts 
Natural  Law  for  Positive  Law. 

liS^,    Politics.    Penn  suggests  the  establishment  of  an  European  Diet. 


1S87.    Sng.  Oh.    George  Fox's  Journal  is  published.  [1694 

138S.    French  Oh.  Mme  Guyon  is  released.  F^nelon  issues  an  Ex-    '■ 
plication  des  Maximes  des  Saints  sur  la  Vie  Int^rieure,  with  the  approval 
of  NoaiUes  and  Tronson,  but  without  the  knowledge  of  Bossuet.     At 
the  same  time  Bossuet's  Instruction  sur  TOraison  appears,  and  dis- 
pleases F^nelon. 

1389.    nench  Lit.    St  Simon  begins  notes  for  his  Memoirs. 
The  Academy  publishes  its  Dictionary. 

ISSftK    Art.    PurceU's  Te  Deum  and  Jubilate. 

la^l.  Science.  Toumefort's  Elements  de  la  Botanique  adopt  the  flower 
or  cornlla  as  a  basis  of  classification. 

lJf<?.  Education.  Mary  AstelFs  Serious  Proposal  for  a  Woman^s 
College  is  combatted  by  Burnet  and  others  as  too  closely  resembling 
a  convent. 

A  University  is  founded  at  Halle. 

iS^.    D^Uhs.     Amauld,  Malpighi,  PufTendorf. 


l^^i  Eng.  Ch.  Locke's  Reasonableness  of  Christianity  incurs  riogc 
tiie  charge  of  Socinianism.  *- 

Grabe  deserts  the  Lutheran  for  the  Anglican  Church. 

^•f^>.  Scotch  Oh.  The  first  Catholic  Bishop  is  appointed,  and  the 
Boman  Church  in  Scotland  flourishes  till  1745. 

/j^.    Eng.  Lit.    The  Licensing  Act,  imposed  1662,  is  allowed  to  lapse. 
Congreve's  Love  for  Love  introduces  the  second  period  of  the 
Bestoration  Comedy,  developed  by  Vanbrugh  and  Farquhar. 

^W.  Science.  Woodward  founds  a  Geological  Museum  which  he 
bequeaths  to  Cambridge,  and  publishes  his  Natural  History  of  the 
Earth,  in  which  he  investigates  fossils  and  the  succession  of  strata. 

l^*S,  Education.  Francke  opens  a  School  at  Halle  for  poor  children, 
the  success  of  which  leads  to  the  creation  of  a  number  of  other  institu- 
tions, including  a  school  for  pa3ring  children,  a  training  college  for 
teKherSi  and  a  ooarding-school  for  orphans.  The  classics  are  neglected, 
tad  all  studies  are  subordinated  to  that  of  practical  theolog}'. 

1$^,    ffiitory.    Tanner's  Notitia  Monastica. 

LI^A    Deaths.    D'Herbelot,  Halifax,  Huyghens,  La  Fontaine,  Purcell. 


188  POLITICS  [1896 

910.  England.    The  Kind's  proposal  to  give  Bentinck,  Earl  of  r^^^ 
Portland,  a  large  estate  m  Wales  is  resisted  by  the  Commons  ^ 
and  by  public  opinion. 

The  Jacobites  plan  with  Louis  that  Barclay  should  murder  the  King, 
and  Berwick  invade  England.  The  plot  is  discovered,  and  a  reaction  in 
William's  favour  sets  in.  An  association  to  support  the  war  and  to 
secure  the  succession  of  Anne  in  the  event  of  nis  death  is  joined  by 
most  members  of  Parliament  and  by  many  thousands  throughout  we 
country. 

Persons  charged  with  treason  are  allowed  to  have  a  copy  of  the 
indictment  and  a  list  of  the  jury  before  the  trial,  witnesses  are  to 
be  examined  on  oath,  and  two  witnesses  are  necessary  to  the  same  or 
a  similar  overt  act  of  treason. 

Montagu,  aided  by  Locke's  pamphlets  and  by  Newton,  reforms  the 
coinage  and  introduces  milled  eages, 

911.  Prance.  Desiring  to  stop  the  drain  of  money  and  to  have  his 
hands  free  for  eventualities  in  Spain,  and  failing  to  obtain  peace  by 
direct  negociations,  Louis  resolves  to  break  up  the  league,  and  detaches 
Savoy  by  the  restitution  of  its  territories  with  the  addition  of  the 
fortresses  of  Pinerolo  and  Casale.  The  Duke's  daughter  is  to  many 
Louis'  grandson,  the  Duke  of  Burgundy. 

912.  Russia.     Peter  the  Great  conquers  Azov. 

913.  Montenegro.  The  Prince-Bishops  become  hereditary,  i.e.  each 
Prince-Bishop  nominates  his  nephew. 


914.  England.  Fen  wick,  who  has  plotted  the  King's  death,  is  rj^^g^ 
executed.  '■ 

915.  Prance.  Weakened  by  the  defection  of  Savoy,  the  allies  accept 
the  mediation  of  Sweden  and  open  a  conference  at  Ryswick.  Louis 
recognises  William  as  King  of  England  and  Anne  as  his  heir,  agrees  to 
withhold  assistance  from  his  enemies,  but  refuses  to  expel  James.  The 
Dutch  are  to  gsurison  the  frontier  towns  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands. 
All  places  won  since  1678  by  either  side  are  restored.  By  the  treaty 
with  the  Emperor,  signed  a  month  later,  Louis  retains  Alsace  and 
Strassburg,  but  surrenders  Luxembourg,  Freibui^,  Breisach  and 
Philippsbur^,  and  withdraws  from  beyond  the  Rhme.  Lorraine  is 
restor^  to  its  duke,  and  the  French  claims  in  Cologne  and  the  Pala- 
tinate are  withdrawn. 

916.  Poland.  Augustus  the  Strong,  of  Saxony,  becomes  a  Cathoh'c, 
and  secures  the  Polish  crown,  defeating  the  French  candidate,  the 
Prince  of  Conti. 

917.  Russia.  Peter  sets  out  on  a  journey  to  the  west,  spending  most 
of  his  time  in  studying  the  industries  of  Holland  and  England.  He 
induces  several  hundred  artisans  to  return  with  him. 

918.  Turkey.  Prince  Eugene  takes  command  and  routs  the  Turks  at 
Zenta,  failing,  owing  to  floods,  to  follow  up  the  victory. 


1687]  CULTURE  189 

1401,  Bng.  Cb.  Toland's  Christianity  not  Mysterious,  professing  r  ^w^ 
to  rest  on  Locke,  founds  the  Deist  movement  in  England,  but   ^ 

is  burnt  by  the  hangman,  and  disowned  by  Locke. 

1402,  French  Ch.  Quesnel's  commentar}*  is  examined  and  disapproved 
by  Bossuet;  and  NoaiUes,  Archbishop  of  Paris,  who  sanctioned  the 
edition  of  1693,  becomes  further  identifietl  with  Jansenism  by  refusing 
to  pablish  Bossuet's  attack  on  Quesnel. 

140s.     Kng.  Lit.    Baxter  s  autobiography  is  published. 
1404^    French  Lit.    Regnard's  Le  Joueur. 

Mnralt,  a  Swiss,  visits  and  describes  England,  which  also  becomes 

known  through  the  writings  of  the  refugees,  Rapiu,  Boyer,  Desmaizeaux, 

and  the  works  of  Provost. 
I4O0.    Philology.    Hardouin  declares  most  of  the  classics  to  be  written 

by  monks  in  the  13th  centur}'. 
14O6.    Economics.     In  his  Essay  on  the  East  India  Trade  Davenant 

contends  for  free  exchange  at  home,   but    remains  substantially  a 

mercantilist. 
14fi7.    SociaL    John  Bellers,  a  Quaker,  urges  the  formation  of  Colleges 

of  Industry,  the  members  of  which  are  to  produce  and  consume  in 

common. 

The  journeymen  hatters,  who  have  formed  a  permanent  organisation 

or  Trade  Union,  proclaim  a  strike. 
I4O8.    Deaths.    Luxembourg,  Mme  de  S^vign^,  SobieskL 


14fi^,     Eng.  Ch.     Speakers  and  writers  against  the  divinity  of  riggy 

Christ  are  declared  outlaws.  ^ 

The  Lord  Mayor,  after  receiving  the  Sacrament,  proceeds  in  state 

to  the  Congr^iational   chapei,  and    renders   Occasional    Conformity 

fashionable. 

Wilson  becomes  Bishop  of  the  Isle  of  Man. 
1410.    French  Ch.    F^nelon  appeals  to  Kome,  and  is  banished  to 

Cambrai  br  the  king,  who  urges  the  Pope  to  condemn  him.     He  is 

sappoited  by  the  Jesuits,  and  the  controversy  reopens  with  Bossuet's 

Belation  sor  le  Qui^tisme,  to  which  F^nelon  replies. 

Bsyle's  Dictionnaire  Historique  et  Critique,  based  on  that  of  Moreri, 

diacnsseB  religions  from  a  purely  sceptical  standpoint. 
1411^    Oennan   Ch.    Thomasius    denies  heresy  to  be  a  punishable 

oflTence  and  the  right  of  a  king  to  punish. 
1412.    Sng.  Ut.    Dryden's  Alexander's  Feast,  perhaps  modelled  on 

Bedi's  Bacchus. 
14^3,    Oennan  Ut.    Wernicke's  Epigrams  attack  the  extravagances  of 

Lohenstein,  Hoffmannswaldau,  and  other  members   of  the    Second 

Silesian  SchooL 
1414^    Philosophy.    Shaftesbury's  Inquiry  concerning  Virtue  and  Merit 

seeks  a  basis  in  the  harmony  of  natural  impulses. 
14I0.    Philology.    D'Herbelot's  Biblioth^ue  Orientale. 

Gnevina,  with  the  aid  of  Bentley,  edits  Callimachus,  the  first  critical 

leconatmction  of  the  fragments  of  an  author. 


190  POLITICS  [1687 

919.  West  Indies.    France  gains  the  west  of  Hispaniola. 

920.  Aftica.    De  Bnie  is  sent  out  as  director  of  the  Senegal  Companj, 
and  lays  the  foundations  of  French  West  Africa. 


921.  England.  The  army  is  reduced  to  10,000  and  a  few  rjggg 
months  later  to  7,000,  despite  the  opposition  of  the  King.         ^ 

922.  Ireland.  To  prevent  the  unders^ling  of  the  English  drapers  in 
foreign  markets,  Parliament  forbids  the  export  of  the  Irish  drapery, 
a  new  industry,  practised  in  the  North,  expressly  exempting,  howeTer, 
the  frieze  industry,  long  practised  by  the  South.  Molyneux*  Case  of 
Ireland  being  bound  by  Act  of  Parliament  made  in  England,  protests 
against  this  policy,  but  is  burnt  by  the  hangman.  Many  Presbyterians 
begin  to  emigrate  to  America. 

923.  Prance.  Unable  to  secure  approval  for  his  own  claims  to  the 
Spanish  succession  derived  through  his  mother,  eldest  daughter  of 
Pnilip  III.,  and  his  wife,  eldest  daughter  of  Philip  IV.,  and  unwilling  to 
see  it  fall  to  the  Emperor,  who  claims  through  his  mother  and  wife, 
younger  daughters  respectively  of  Philip  III.  and  Philip  IV.,  Louis  XIV. 
accepts  a  partition  proposed  by  England  and  the  Ihitch,  giving  the 
Milanese  to  the  Archduke  Charles,  the  Emperor's  younger  son  by 
a  second  marriage,  Naples  and  Sicily  to  France,  and  the  rest  to  the  son 
of  the  Elector  of  Bavaria,  who  has  married  the  only  daughter  of  the 
Emperor.  The  treaty  is  made  without  consulting  Spain,  and  the  King, 
to  avoid  partition,  makes  a  will,  declaring  the  Bavarian  prince  sole  heir. 
This  arrangement  is  accepted  by  the  naval  powers. 

924.  Russia.  During  Peter's  absence,  the  Streltsi,  or  Russian  guartb, 
revolt.  On  his  return  they  are  dissolved  and  replaced  by  an  army  on 
an  European  pattern. 

925.  Africa.  The  Imam  of  Muscat  establishes  his  authority  at  Mom- 
basa, and  Portuguese  authority  north  of  Cape  Delgado  disappears. 


926.  England.    William  is  forced  to  dismiss  his  Dutch  guards,  r^ggg 
and  for  a  second  time   is  tempted  to  abdicate.     The  Junto  '• 
becomes  so  unpopular  that  Russell  and  Montagu  resign,  the  King 
returning  to  a  mixed  ministry. 

927.  Prance.  The  Bavarian  prince  dies  (Jan.),  and  the  claim  of  his 
father  to  stand  in  his  place  is  resisted  by  France  and  England. 

928.  Turkey.  By  the  Peace  of  Carlowitz,  the  King  of  Hungary  obtains 
North  Hungary,  Transylvania,  and  the  greater  part  of  Slavonia  and 
Croatia,  Poland  recovers  Podolia,  Russia  keeps  Azov,  Venice  retains  the 
Morea,  though  restoring  her  concjuests  in  Aorth  Greece,  and  Turkey 
obtains  the  Banate  of  Temesvar. 

929.  Russia.    A  Russian  Ambassador  is  sent  to  the  Hague. 

930.  America.  The  export  of  wool  or  woollens  to  Europe  or  to  any 
other  colony  is  forbidden. 


10W]  CULTURE  191 

liJC.    Economics.    Boisguillebert's  Detail  de  la  France  draws  a  gloomy 

picture.     His  theoretical  works  vigorously  attack  mercantilism. 
2^7.    Death.    Molinos: 


lilS.    Sng.  Ch.    The  Society  for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge    ri  ggg 
i»  fnonded.  '- 

2^9.     Scotch  Ch.    Aikenhead  is  executed  for  blasphemy  at  Edinburgh. 

li^X    French  Ch.    Brousson,  a  Protestant  preacher,  is  executed  at 
MoDtpellier. 

24^1.  Eng.  Lit.  Jeremy  Collier,  a  Nonjuror,  attacks  the  immorality  of 
the  drama  in  his  Short  View  of  the  StHge,  to  which  replies  are  attempted 
by  CoDgreve  and  Dennis,  but  which  proves  the  death-olow  of  the  English 
dnma. 
Ii22.  Art  The  finest  period  begins  of  the  work  of  Stradivarius,  the 
Uet  and  greatest  of  the  Cremona  school  of  violin-makers. 

1423.  Science.  Savery  patents  a  pumping  engine,  which  he  recom- 
meodA  for  clearing  mines  of  water. 

1424,  Politics.  Toland  publishes  the  works  of  Sydney  and  Harrington, 
and  contributes  biographies.  He  also  writes  a  life  of  Milton,  and  in  his 
Al^m  Libera  declares  on  behalf  of  the  old  republican  party  that  he  is 
flUufied  with  the  Revolution  Settlement. 

lliS.    Law.    Daguesseau  begins  his  Mercuriales,  or  addresses  on  the 

duties  of  magistrates. 
liX.    SociaL    Defoe's  Essay  on  Projects  recommends  income-tax,  the 

ffitablishment  of  benefit  societies,  the  higher  eilucation  of  women  and 

other  changes. 
027,    Deaths.    Frontenac,  Kedi,  Temple,  Tillemont. 


Ji^'S.    French  Ch.    The    Pope   condemns  23  articles  of  the    r,gQQ 

Kaximes  des  Saints,  though  not  describing  them  as  heretical,    I- 

iDd  F^nelou  makes  unreserved  submission, 
ii^.    French    Lit.    F^uelon  is  exiled  from  the  Court  for  writing 

Tel^maqoe,  in  which  he  reflects  on  the  king's  government,  and  the  book 

i«  oppressed 

The  Duchesse  du  Maine  settles  at  Sceaux,  near  Paris,  and  gathers 

rrjttnd  her  a  literary  circle,  including  Mme  de  Staal,  Foutenelle,  ChauHeu, 

hk  Fare,  and  later,  Voltaire. 
i-t^A    Science.    Fontenelle  becomes  secretary  to  the  Acadt^mie  des 

Sciences,  and  commences  the  series  of  his  Eloges. 
liSl.    Fhilology.    Bentley  exhaustively  exposes  the  Epistles  of  Phalaris, 

ami  closes  the  controversy  begun  by  Sir  William  Temple  and  continued 

by  Boyle  and  Atterbury. 
l-i^J,    Bistory.   The  Unparteiische  Ketzergeschichte  of  Gottfried  Arnold, 

a  [rteti^  and  mystic,  rescues  heretics  from  misrepresentation  and  neglect. 


192  POLITICS  [IflW 

Iberville  aud  Bienville  lead  a  French  expedition  to  the  month  of  tlie 
Mississippi,  and  found  a  settlement  on  one  of  the  islandA. 

Gold  IS  discovered  in  lar^e  quantities  in  Brazil,  which  has  graduaUy 
become  the  most  valuable  of  the  Portuguese  colonies. 


931.  England.    The  Commons  attack  the  grants  of  Irish  land  r«mwi 
made  by  the   King  to   his  favourites,  and  tack  the   Bill   of  ^ 
Forfeitures  to  the  grant  of  supplies.    To  avoid  a  rupture,  the  King  dis- 
misses Somers  and  recalls  Goaolphin  and  Rochester. 

932.  Scotland.  Colonising  expeditions  sent  to  Darien,  1698-9,  suffer 
from  the  climate  and  want  of  food,  and  are  expelled  by  the  Spaniards, 
the  blame  of  the  disaster  bein^  thrown  on  William. 

933.  Spain.  A  Second  Partition  Treaty  is  arranged  by  Lonis  tod 
William  (March).  The  Archduke  Charles  is  to  have  Spain,  the  Nether- 
lands and  the  colonies,  France  to  obtain  the  Sicilies  and  Lorraine,  and 
the  Duke  of  Lorraine  to  have  Milan.  The  Emperor  refuses  his  assent 
The  King  of  Spain  makes  a  new  will,  owing  to  pressure  from  Harcouit, 
the  French  Ambassador  and  Cardinal  Portacarrero,  leaving  his  entire 
possessions  to  the  Duke  of  Anjou,  second  son  of  the  Dauphin,  on  condi- 
tion that  he  renounces  the  French  throne.  Charles  dies  (Nov.),  and  the 
will  is  accepted  by  Louis.  Philip  marries  a  Savoy  princess  and  enten 
Spain,  and  the  Princesse  des  Ursins,  who  accompanies  them,  qoicklj 
gains  unbounded  influence  over  them. 

934.  Sweden.  A  league  against  Sweden  is  arranged  by  Patknl 
between  Russia,  which  desires  an  outlet  on  the  Baltic,  Denmark,  whick 
desires  to  terminate  the  independence  (guaranteed  by  Sweden)  of  the 
Duke  of  Holstein,  and  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  who,  as  King  of  Poland, 
is  anxious  to  recover  Livonia  and  Esthonia.  The  yonng  King, 
Charles  XII.,  forces  Denmark  to  recognise  the  independence  of  the 
Duke  of  Holstein  and  to  withdraw  from  the  League,  routs  the  Russians 
at  Narva,  and  defeats  a  Saxon  army  in  Livonia. 


935.  England.  In  consequence  of  the  death  of  the  Duke  of  riM 
Gloucester,  an  Act  of  Settlement  gives  the  crown,  on  Anne's  '■ 
death,  to  Sophia,  Electress  of  Hanover,  granddaughter  of  James  I. 
The  future  sovereign  must  belong  to  the  Church  of  England,  must  not 
declare  war  on  behalf  of  his  Continental  possessions,  nor  leave  England 
without  consent  of  Parliament.  No  royal  pardon  can  protect  from 
impeachment,  and  Judges  can  only  be  removed  by  an  address  firom  both 
Houses. 

The  Tories  impeach  the  leading  Whigs,  Somers,  Orford  rRu.««ell), 
Portland  (Bentinck),  Halifax  (Montagu),  for  their  share  in  the  rartition 
Treaties,  but  find  the  Lonls  hostile. 

On  the  expulsion  of  the  Dutch  garrisons  from  the  Barrier  forts  by 
the  French,  a  petition  is  presented  by  live  gentlemen  of  Kent,  be^i^ 
the  Commons  to  support  the  King  and  to  grant  supplies.  The  reti- 
tioners  are  arrested  on  the  ground  tnat  the  constituencies,  having  elected 
their  members,  liave  no  rigiit  to  interfere. 


ITDl.  CULTURE  193 

and  censures  Melanchthon  for  introducing  Scholasticism  into  Protestant 

Christianity. 
USS.    Geography.    De  Lisle's  Mans  are  nublished,  aided  by  Cassini, 

who  perfects  the  measurement  of  longituae. 
1^4.    I>€ttlhB.    Domat,  Racine,  Stillingfleet,  Temple. 


I^3o.    Eng.  Ch.    A  severe  Act  is  passed  against  Catholics,  for-    riyQn 
bidding?  a  priest  to  exercise  his  functions,  or  a  Catholic  to  hold,    *- 
bay  or  inherit  property,  or  to  have  his  children  educated  abroad. 
liS*}.    French  Ch.    Bossuet  and  Noailles  preside  over  an  Assembly  of 
the  French  Church  which  condemns  Probabilism  and  the  Jesuit  policy 
in  regard  to  Chinese  ceremonies. 
H37.    Oerman  Ch.    The  plan  of  the  Ein^  of  Pnissia  to  unite  his 
Cilrinist  and  Lutheran  subjects  on  an  Anglican  model  is  supnort^  by 
Us  chaplain,  Jablonski,  Leibnitz  and  Archbishop  Sharp.     The  liturgy  is 
truislated,  and  Dodwell  urges  the  adoption  of  episcopacy  in  his  Parae- 
weAn  to  Foreigners.    The  negociations,  however,  are  endea  by  the  death 
of  King  Frederick,  1713. 

li-fS.    ]>atch  Ch.    Van  Espen's  Jus  Ecclesiasticum,  an  exposition  of 
GtDican  principles,  is  placed  on  the  Index. 

/^.    Church  mat.    Uyde*s  Beligio  Persarum,  the  first  competent 
account  of  Zoroaster. 

Ei«enmen£er  attacks  the  Jews  in  his  Eiitdecktes  Judenthum. 

mo.    Sng.  ut.    The  Cottonian  Library  is  presented  to  the  nation. 

lill.    Science.    An  Academy  of  Science  is  founded  in  Berlin  by  the 
influence  of  Leibnitz,  who  is  anointed  its  first  president. 
Sauveor  measures  and  expuiins  musical  vibrations. 

/ii^.    Education.    A  college  is  founded  at  Newhaven,  Connecticut, 
ind  called  after  Tale,  who  bequeathes  his  fortune  and  library  to  it. 

lUi.    SociaL    Sewall's  Selling  of  Joseph,  the  first  American  protest 
miDst  slavery. 

liU.    Dealha.    Dryden,  De  Ranc^. 


IU5.    Kng.  Ch.    Bray  founds  a  mission  branch  of  the  Society    ri  ^ai 
hr  Promoting   Christian    Knowledge  for    America,   which    is    ^ 
fikutered  as  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel. 

Shower's  Letter  to  a  Convocation  Man,  urging  the  right  of  meeting 
iod  debate,  is  attacked  by  Wake,  but  supported  by  Atterbury,  to 
whfUD  Bomet,  Kennett  and  Wake  reply.  Convocation  is  allowed  to 
neet.  bat  noisy  disputes  take  place. 

'•U^'.  Church  Hist.  Mechitar,  an  Armenian  monk,  who  has  become  a 
GttboKc,  founds  the  order  of  the  Mechitarists  in  Venice,  where  they 
print  Armenian  works. 

c.  13 


194  POLITICS  [1701 


William  signs  the  Grand  Alliance  with  the  Dutch  and  the  Emperor, 
to  restore  the  Dutch  control  of  the  barrier  fortresses,  to  secure  die 
Milanese  for  the  Emperor,  and  to  prevent  the  union  of  France  and 
Spain  (Sept.).  At  the  same  moment,  James  II.  dies,  and  his  sod  is 
acknowledged  King  of  England  by  Louis.  William  promptly  dissolves 
Parliament  and  obtains  a  Whig  majority. 

936.  Italy.    Prince  Eugene  attacks  the  Milanese  and  defeats  VilleroL 

937.  Germany.  The  Elector  of  Brandenbiu^  is  authorised  to  call 
himself  King  of  Prussia,  on  condition  of  joining  the  Emperor  against 

.  France. 

938.  Sweden.  Charles  defeats  the  Saxons  and  Poles  and  takes 
Warsaw. 

939.  En^and.  William  dies  from  an  accident,  and  Marl-  ryfM 
borough,  Godolphin  and  Nottingham  become  the  chief  advisers   *- 

of  Anne.    War  is  declared  by  the  Grand  Alliance. 

940.  Scotland.  In  accordance  with  the  wish  of  the  late  King.  Com- 
missioners meet  to  discuss  terms  of  union  between  England  and  Scotland, 
but  fail  to  agree  on  matters  of  trade. 

941.  France.  Marlborough,  who  commands  in  the  Netiierlands,  takes 
Li^ge  and  Spanish  Guelderland.  Si)anish  galleons  are  destroyed  in 
Vigo  Bay,  and  the  French  and  Spanish  fleets  are  defeated. 

942.  Germany.  The  Elector  of  Bavaria  declares  war  against  the 
Emperor. 

943.  Holland.  The  Stadtholderate  lapses,  and  Heinsius  becomes 
Grand  Pensionary. 

944.  Sweden.  Charles  attacks  Augustus  and  reduces  the  chief  cities 
of  Poland. 

945.  West  Indies.  Benbow  is  wounded  by  the  French  in  the  West 
Indies  and  disobeyed  by  his  captains,  who,  however,  are  n»urt- 
martialled. 

946.  En^and.  A  disputed  election  at  Aylesbury  pnxluces  a  mm^ 
conflict  between  the  Houses.  '• 

947.  Scotland.  The  Parliament  resolves  that  the  King  of  England 
may  not  declare  war  without  its  consent,  and  that  it  will  name  a  sa^ 
cessor  from  the  family  of  Sophia,  but  not  that  member  selected  by 
England,  unless  satisfactory  assurances  are  given  in  regard  to  religion 
and  trade. 

948.  France.  Marlborough  takes  Bonn  and  drives  the  French  (pm 
the  Electorate  of  Cologne. 

Villars  joins  the  Elector  of  Bavaria,  and  repulses  two  AustiiaD 
armies,  Tallard  at  the  same  time  recovering  ground  in  Alsace.  Savoy 
and  Portugal,  however,  desert  the  French  tuliance,  and  the  Pnitestant« 
revolt  in  the  Cevennes,  under  Chevalier. 

949.  Russia.    Peter  founds  St  Petersburg,  and  creates  a  navy. 

950.  Sweden.  Charles  continues  to  take  towns  in  Poland  and  West 
Prus$<ia.  Patkul  renews  the  Russian  alliance,  and  a  Russian  army  joins 
Augustus. 


ITOS]  CULTURE  195 


H47.  Sng.  Lit.  Defoe  defends  King  William  in  his  poem,  The  True- 
bnm  En^shman. 

144if.  Kconomics.  The  anonymous  author  of  Considerations  on  the 
East  India  Trade  first  completely  discards  Mercantilist  theories.  No 
fbrther  progress  is  made  in  Economics  until  Hume. 


i^.    Eng.  Ch.    Defoe's  Short  Way  with  Dissenters  satirises    ri^Ao 

the  sentiments  of  extreme  High  Churchmen.  ^ 

HofJ.    French  Ch.    A  Cas  de  Conscience,  in  which  a  cleric  confesses  on 

hLs  death-bed  that  he  has  never  believed  the  Church  infallible  in 

a  question  of  fact,  resuscitates  the  Jansenist  Controversy.    The  attitude 

of  *rMpectful  silence'  is  approved  by  40  doctors  of  the  Sorbonne. 
lioL    I/atch  Ch.    The  apostolic  vicar,  Peter  Kodde,  Archbishop  of 

Utrecht,  declares  for  the  Jansenists  and  is  suspended  by  the  Pope. 

The  Chapter,  however,  refuses  to  recognise  the  rope's  nominees  and 

i$  encouraged  in  its  resistance  by  the  States-General. 
lioJ.    Boflsian  Ch.    The  Patriarchate  of  Moscow  is  abolished. 
H5-i.    Entflah    Lit.    The    Daily  Courant,   the   first  daily  paper,   is 

foanded. 
;j5^    American  Lit.    Cotton  Mather  s  Magnalia,  a  history  of  religion 

b  the  American  colonies. 
H55,    Fhiloeophy.    Bishop  King's  Origin  of  Evil  attempts  to  reconcile 

dirine  goodness  with  omnipotence,  and  is  answered  by  Bayle. 
li^J.    SociaL    The  Asiento  Guinea  Company  is  formed  to  transport 

oegroes  to  Spanish  America. 
i^7.    Death.    Hooke. 


HoS.    Sng.    Ch.    A    bill    to   prevent    Occasional  Conformity,    ri^Ao 
receody  practised  by  Abney,  the  Lord  Mayor,  and  others,  passes   ^ 
die  Coomions  but  is  thrown  out  by  the  Lords,  where  the  Whigs  are  in 
a  najority  and  do  not  wish  to  alienate  the  Dissenters. 
Xekon's  Fasts  and  Festivals  of  the  Christian  Church. 

ii59.  Hiitory.  Mabillon  commences  the  Annals  of  the  Benedictine 
Order  (cofnjpleted  by  Mart^ne),  and  replies  to  Germon's  sceptical  attack 
on  the  De  Ke  Diplomatica. 

ijA/.  Fhilolc^.  Hickes'  Grammar  of  the  old  Northern  languages, 
Ifriandic,  Anglo-Saxon,  Gothic. 

li^L  SociaL  By  the  Methuen  Treaty,  Portugal  admits  English  manu- 
factures, and  England  admits  port  wine  at  a  lower  duty  than  Frencli 
vines.    Fort  becomes  the  popular  drink. 

iK'.    Deaths.    Pepys,  2St  ^vremond,  Wallis. 


13—2 


196  POLITICS  [1703 

951.  Hungary.  Rakoksy,  son-in-law  of  Tokoli,  leads  a  revolt,  aided 
by  Louis  XIV. 

952.  Portugal.  The  Methuen  Treaty  draws  Portugal  into  a  dose 
alliance  with  England. 

953.  England.     Nottingham    is    dismissed,    and^  Harley    and   ry^ 
St  John  enter  the  Government,  and  aid  in  defeating  the  Occa-   •• 
sional  Conformity  Bill. 

954.  Scotland.  In  view  of  the  danger  abroad,  the  Queen  assents  to 
the  Act  of  Security.  England,  however,  retaliates  by  depriving  Scotch 
residents  of  their  rights  under  the  Post-Nati  decision  until  the  English 
Settlement  is  adopted  in  Scotland. 

955.  Germany.  Owing  to  danger  to  Vienna  from  the  successes  of  the 
Elector  of  Bavaria,  Manborough  leaves  a  small  force  in  the  NetheriaiMk 
and  marches  to  the  Danube,  drives  back  the  Elector,  joins  Eugene,  sod 
defeats  Tallard,  Marsin  and  the  Elector  of  Bavaria  at  Blenheim.  Bayiro 
is  overrun,  French  power  in  Germany  is  brought  to  an  end,  and  the 
prestige  of  French  arms  is  destroyed. 

956.  Spain.  The  Archduke  Charles,  with  the  consent  of  the  allies, 
claims  the  throne  of  Spain,  and  is  conveyed  in  the  English  fleet  to 
Lisbon,  the  ftrst  foothold  being  won  at  Gibraltar  by  Admiral  Rooke. 

957.  Sweden.  Augustus  is  declared  deposed,  and  Stanislas  Lecxyiuld 
elected  King  of  Poland,  by  the  will  of  Charles. 


958.  Germany.  The  Celle  dominions  fall  to  the  Elector  of  i^^ 
Hanover.  *• 

959.  Prance.  Owing  to  the  opposition  to  the  wishes  of  Marlborough 
and  Joseph,  the  new  Emperor,  oy  Louis  of  Baden,  the  Allies  give  up 
their  plan  of  invading  France,  and  Marlborough  returns  to  the 
Netherlands. 

960.  Italy.    The  Allies  are  beaten  back  by  Venddme. 

961.  Spain.  Gibraltar  is  successfully  defended  against  the  French 
and  Spanish,  and  Barcelona  is  captured  by  Lord  Peterborough,  on  which 
Catalonia,  Valencia  and  Aragon  recognise  Charles. 

962.  AfWca.  The  Husseinite  dynasty  of  Beys  is  founded  in  Tunis,  in 
virtual  independence  of  the  Sultan. 


963.  En^and.    The  article  of  the  Act  of  Settlement  excluding   n^ 
placemen  is  modified,  the  holder  of  an  office  created  before  1705    *• 
being  hencefon^-ard  allowed  to  retain  it  on  re-election. 

964.  Prance.  Marlborough  defeats  Villeroy  at  Ramillies  (May)  vA 
sweeps  the  French  out  of  Flanders,  where  the  Archduke  Charles  is  pio- 
claimed  King.     Louis' projwsals  for  peace  are  rdected. 

965.  Germany.  The  Electors  of  Bavaria  and  Cologne  are  deprived  ci 
their  dominions. 

966.  Italy.  Eugene  joins  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  routs  the  French  wht» 
are  besieging  Turin,  and  drives  them  out  of  Italy. 


1706]  CULTURE  197 

14^3.     ISng.  Ch.    Queen  Anne  surrenders  the  claim  of  the  crown    [1704 
to  tir8t-fruit8  and  tenths  as  a  provision  for  the  poorer  clergy.  ^ 

Clarke's  Being  and  Attributes  of  God  attacks  Hobbes  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  ontological  argument. 

Swift's  Tale  of  a  Tub,  a  dialogue  of  Catholic,  Calvinist  and  Lutheran, 
bitterly  satirises  the  sectarian  spirit. 

Matthew  Henry's  Exposition  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament. 
Toland's  Letters  to  Serena  (the  Queen  of  Prussia)  discuss  the 
growth  of  belief  in  immortality, 
i^;^    Asiatic    Ch.    Clement  XL   sends  a  legate  to  report  on  the 
inisi»ions,  and  in  consequence  condemns  several  of  the  Malabar  and 
Chinese  Rites.     Christian  missions  in  the  East  are  henceforth  less 
successful 
i4«5.    Eng.  Lit,    Defoe  begins  the  Review,  which  appears  till  1713, 
a  political  and  miscellaneous  journal  entirely  written  by  himself,  under 
the  patronage  of  Harley. 

bwift's  Battle  of  the  Books,  suggested  by  the  discussion  of  ancient 
and  modern  learning. 
ij<^'.    French  Lit.    The  first  European  translation  of  the  Arabian 

Xights  is  made  by  Galland. 
lif^.    American  Lit.    The  Boston  Newsletter,    the    first  American 

paper,  is  instituted. 
l^jif,    G(cience.    Newton's  Optics  explain  and  defend  the  corpuscular 
or  emission  theory  of  light,  and  reject  the  wave  theory,  chiefly  on 
accoant  of  its  uiability  to  explain  the  rectilinear  path  of  rays. 
1^!9.    History.    Clarendon's  History  of  the  Rebellion. 
li^O.    SociaL    Beau  Nash  becomes  Master  of  the  Ceremonies  at  Bath. 
HjI.    Deaths.    Bossuet,  Bourdaloue,  Locke. 


li7J.    Eng.  Ch.    The  struggle  between  the  Lower  House  of  ri^Qc 
Convocation  and  the  Bishops,  creates  a  panic  in  the  country,    ■- 
and  both  Houses  declare  tnat  the  Church  is  not  in  danger. 

I-PS,  French  Ch.  At  the  demand  of  Louis  XIV.,  Clement  XL  issues 
the  boll,  Vineam  Domini,  reasserting  the  heretical  character  of  Jansen's 
teaching,  and  thus  destroys  the  Peace  of  Clement  IX. 

1474.  Science.  Halley  conjectures  that  a  comet  seen  1682  was  identical 
vith  comets  seen  1456,  1531,  1607,  and  predicts  its  return  in  1758. 

Newcomen  improves  the  steam-engine  by  forming  a  vacuum  under 
the  piston.  A  machine  for  the  raising  of  water  is  set  up  at  Wolver- 
hampton 1711. 

i^*>.    Art.    Vanbrugh  designs  Blenheim  for  the  Duke  of  Marlborough. 

Ii7ti.  Politics.  Thomasius'  Fundamenta  Juris  Naturalis  et  Gentium 
distinguishes  between  law  and  ethics,  the  duty  of  the  Stat«  being  to 
seciue  happiness,  not  morality. 

IiT7.    Sdiusation.    Moscow  Lniversity  is  founded  by  Peter  the  Great. 

li^if.    Deatha.    James  Bemouilli,  Spener. 

J-J"^.  American  Ch.  The  first  Presbytery  is  organised  at  rjyQg 
Phikdelphia.  >- 


198  POLITICS  [1706 


967.  Spain.  Philip,  aided  by  a  French  fleet,  in  vain  attempts  to 
recapture  Barcelona. 

Iluvigny,  Earl  of  Galway,  occupies  Madrid  with  EWlish  and  Portu- 
guese troops,  and  the  Archduke  Ciiarles  is  proclaimed  King.  Thej 
withdraw  on  the  news  of  the  approach  of  reinroreements  ander  Berwick, 
a  son  of  James  II. 

968.  Sweden.  The  Swedes  rout  a  superior  armv  of  Saxons,  Poles  and 
Russians  at  Frauenstadt.  Charles  marches  into  Saxony  and  oicampsat 
Altranstadt,  near  Leipsig,  and  compels  Augustus  to  acknowkdge 
Stanislas  and  to  surrender  Patkul,  who  is  executed  as  a  rebel. 


969.  En^and.    The  royal  veto  is  for  the  last  time  exercised.         r^^ 

970.  Scotland.  Largely  owing  to  Godolphin  and  Harley,  and  *- 
despite  the  opposition  of  Belhaven  and  Fletcher  of  Saltoun,  the  Union 
is  accomplished.  England  pays  £400,000  to  cancel  the  Scotch  debt  and 
as  indemnity  for  the  Darien  shareholders,  and  concedes  free  trade  and 
commercial  equality.  Scotland  retains  her  Church,  her  law  and  her 
fortresses,  and  sends  45  members  to  the  Lower  House  and  16  to  the 
Upper.     No  new  Peers  are  to  be  created. 

971.  France.  An  attempt  to  take  Toulon  by  a  joint  attack  oi  Eogeoe 
on  land  and  Sir  Cloudesley  Shovel  by  sea  fails,  Shovel  being  wrecked 
and  drowned  off  the  Scilly  Isles  on  his  return. 

972.  Spain.    Ruvignv  is  routed  at  Almanza  by  Berwick,  and  Catalonii    \ 
alone  holds  out  for  Charles.  I 

973.  Germany.    Prussia  obtains  Neuch&tel  by  inheritance. 

974.  Sweden.  Louis  and  Marlborough  urge  Ciiarles  to  interveiie  iu 
the  war ;  but  he  refuses,  and  leaves  Altranstadt 

975.  Hungary.    Kakoksy  declares  the  deposition  of  the  Ha^un». 

976.  Asia.  Aurungzebe  dies,  and  the  Moghul  dynasty  rapidly  decays. 
Tiie  Peshwa  of  the  Mahrattas  builds  up  a  confederacy  at  Poona. 

Russia  takes  Kamskatka. 


977.  England.    The   Whigs  cximjI  St  John  and  llarley,  the  M^Qg 
latter  of  whom  has  been  intriguing  against  them  with  the  aid  of  '- 
his  cousin,  Mrs  Masliam,  who  displaces  the  Duchess  of  Marlborough  io 
the  confidence  of  the  Queen.     Somers  and  Walpole  join  the  Miuistr}*. 

The  Old  and  New  East  India  Companies  are  unitecL 

978.  Scotland.  The  Pretender  sets  out  on  an  invasion  with  a  French 
fleet,  which  is  put  to  flight  by  Byng  at  the  moutli  of  the  Forth. 

Stanhope  and  Leake  capture  Sardinia  and  Minorca. 

979.  France.  Vend^me  and  Burgundy  are  routed  at  Oudenarde  by 
Eugene  and  Marlborough  (July),  Lille  is  taken  from  Boufflera  after 
a  long  siege,  and  the  whole  of  Flanilers  submits. 

980.  Italy.     The  Emperor  takes  the  Duchy  of  Mantua. 

981.  Sweden.  Ciiarles  sets  out  for  Moscow,  but  turns  south  owin^'  to 
a  promise  of  help  by  Mazeppu.  On  reaching  the  Ukraine  he  timi« 
Mazeppa  is  powerless. 


ITOB]  CULTURE  199 

liSo,     Sng.  Lit.    Defoe's  Apparition  of  Mrs  Veal. 

US  J,     Fliilolc^.    Schultens   Use  of  Arabic  in  the  Interpretation  of 

Scriptnre  shows  the  comparative  value  of  the  Semitic  tongues. 
liS2,     XdncaUon.    The  first    Real-Schule  is   founded    at  Halle    by 

ChriiKtoph  Semler,  a  follower  of  Francke,  for  instruction  in  mathematics 

wbA  ann^ied  science.    The  curriculum  is  extended  by  J.  J.  Hecker. 
liS'i.    Art,    Schliiter  designs  the  Arsenal  at  Berlin  and  the  Palace  at 

ChariotlenbuTg. 
HSi.    Deaths.    Bayle,  Evelyn. 


1^'».    Eng.  Ch.    Watts'  hymns  largely  supersede  the  compo-    nyoy 

siitions  of  Tate  and  Bradv,  Stemhold  and  Hopkins.  '- 

l^H,    German  Ch.    HolW  Examen  Theologicum,  the  last  great  dog- 
matic work  of  orthodox  Lutheranism. 

Thomasias  leaves  the  Pietist  movement. 
liS7.    Chiurch  Hist.    Clement  XI.  excommunicates  Joseph  I.  for  his 
dealings  with  Parma  and  Piacenza,  over  which  the  Pope  claims  suzer- 
ainty.   The  Emperor,  however,  resists,  and  the  Pope  pelds. 
lii<S. '  Scienee.    Stahl's  Theoria    Medica    Vera    declares    that  while 
animals  are  merely  machines,  man  possesses  an  Auima,  which  performs 
tbe  oidiDary  functions  of  animal  life,  and  which  attempts  by  illnesses  to 
rill  itiielf  of  morbid  influences. 
li^.4,    Fhilolc^.    Mill's  New  Testament,  based  on  Walton's  Polyglot, 

Diites  3<),000  various  readings. 
1^*9.    Soonomios.    Vauban's  Dime  Royale  attacks  exemptions   and 
pieauls  for  a  uniform  land  and  income  tax.     The  book  is  burnt  by  order 
«^the  Kin^. 
/;<;.    Deaus.    Filicaja,  Mabillon,  Vauban. 


l^<    Scotch  Ch.    Simson  begins  to  teach  Arianism.  ri708 

I9*'i-    French  Ch.    Saurin's  Sermons  are  collected,  and  are    ^ 

widely  read  by  Protestants. 
/>V    French  Lit.    Lesage's  Turcaret,  a  comic  drama,  influenced  by 

Spanish  models. 
ijT^.;.    Italian  Lit.    Gravina's  Bella  Ragion  Poetica  contends  tiiat  the 

idea  of  a  literary  work  is  more  important  than  its  form. 
/j>;.    Science.    Boerliave's  Institutiones  Medicae  trace  disease  to  the 

YitiatioD  of  the  fluids  of  the  body,  and  develope  the  doctrines  of  in- 
flammation, obstruction  and  plethora. 
l^<.    BQitory.    Bindiam's  Antiquities  of  the  Christian  Church. 
lif*^.    Geography.    Jesuit  missionaries  survey  China,  and  make  an 

icnirate  map. 
iiy#.    Fhilolc^.  Montfau^n's  Pal^graphie  Grecque  applies  Mabillou's 

method  to  Greek. 
/>'''.    Deaths.    Beveridge,  Toumefort. 


200  POLITICS  [1709 


982.  England.    Sacheverell   preaches  before  tlie  Liord  Mayor   r^^ 
(Nov.),  reflecting  on  the  Revolution,  decrying  the  toleration  of  ^ 
Dissenters,  and  denouncing  the  Ministers  as  traitors  to  the  Ghureh,  aiid 
is  impeached. 

Marlborough  begs  to  be  made  Captain-General   for  life,  but  i< 
refused. 

983.  France.  Louis  undertakes  that  his  grandson  shaU  surrender 
Spain,  but  refuses  to  promise  to  aid  in  his  expulsion.  When  the  allies 
insist  on  the  latter  point,  he  appeals  to  the  nation.  A  new  anuy  is 
formed,  and  Marlborough  and  Eugene,  who  defeat  Villars  at  Malpla(|net, 
lose  more  heavily  than  the  French. 

984.  Sweden.  Charles  is  crushed  by  Peter  at  Pultowa,  and  takes 
refuge  at  Bender.  Poland  and  Denmark  renew  their  alliance  with 
Russia,  which  completes  the  conquest  of  Esthonia  and  Livonia,  and 
Augustus  recovers  the  crown  of  Poland. 

985.  Asia.    Russian  prisoners  are  first  sent  to  Siberia. 


986.  En^and.  At  Sacheverell's  trial,  the  Whigs  make  a  f^no 
declaration  of  Revolution  principles,  and  Sacheverell  replies  in   ^ 

a  speech  composed  by  Bishop  Atterbury.  The  popularity  of  the  Doctor 
increases,  and  Dissenters'  chapels  are  attacked  The  sentence  of  the 
Lords,  ordering  the  sermon  to  be  burnt  and  silencing  Sacheverell  hi 
three  years,  is  regarded  as  a  Whig  defeat,  and  encourages  the  Queen  to 
dismiss  her  ministers  and  to  recall  Harley  and  St  John.  The  new 
Parliament  proves  strongly  Tory,  and  the  new  ministers  open  secret 
negotiations  with  France,  on  the  basis  of  leaving  Spain  to  Phflip. 
Swift  joins  the  Tories. 

987.  Prance.  A  Congress  opens  at  (iertruydenburg,  but  fails  owing  to 
Louis'  refusal  to  aid  in  expelling  liis  grandson.  Meanwhile  the  fnmtier 
fortresses  are  taken  by  the  allies. 

988.  Spain.  Cliarles  is  reinforced  by  English  troops  under  Staulmpe 
and  Austrian  troops  under  Stareml)erg,  takes  the  offensive  and  enters 
Madrid,  but  is  nuickly  forced  to  evacuate  it.  Vendome  enters  Spain 
and  defeats  Stannope  at  Brihuega  and  Staremberg  at  Villa  Viciosa. 

989.  Russia.  Charles  XII.  persuades  the  Sultan  to  declare  war  against 
Russia. 

990.  America.  An  English  fleet  sent  to  take  Quebec  faiU,  but 
captures  Port  Royal  and  changes  its  name  to  Annapolis. 


991.    England.    The  Whig  Peers  vote  for  the  Occasional  Con-   rJy^ 
formity  Bill,  in  order  to  secure  the  support  of  Nottingham  for   ^ 
the  war ;  and  Harley  creates  1 2  peers.     Meanwhile  Harley  has  secretly 
sent  Gautier  and  the  poet  Prior  to  France,  and  signs  preliminarie>  t^f 
peace. 

To  exclude  the  Whigs,  who  are  mostly  traders,  the  Government 
imposes  a  (qualification  of  £6(K)  a  year  in  land  for  county  members  and 
£2(K)  a  year  in  land  for  borough  members. 


1711]  CULTURE  201 

1501.  French  Ch.    Port-Royal  des  Champs,  dissolved  by  the   m^qq 
Pope,  1708,  is  demolished  and   its  members  dispersed.     The    \ 
corpses   are   disinterred,   and   the  Cliurch   demoli8he<l.     Archbishop 
Noaille8  deserts  the  Jansenist  cause. 

1502.  Eng.  lit.    Pope's  and  Ambrose  Philips*  Pastorals. 
Steele's  Tatler,  a  literary  periodical  to  which  Swift  contributes. 
Rowe  publishes  the  lirst  critical  edition  of  Shakespeare. 
Prior's  poems. 

The  first  Copyright  Act  is  passed. 
150S.     Science.    Berkeley's  New  Theory  of  Vision  asserts  that  the  eye 
only  conveys  sensations  of  colour,  ancl  that  perceptions  of  form,  and 
distance  are  gathered  by  touch. 

1504.  ffistory.    Strype's  Annals  of  the  Reformation. 

1505.  Death.    Bull. 


1506.     Dutch  Ch.    Gichtel,  a  mystical  German  ascetic  resident    riyin 
in  Amsterdam,  dies,  leaving  a  small   band  of  Gichtelians  or    ^ 
Angelic  Brethren. 
15(f7.     Eng.  Lit.    Swift's  Journal  to  Stella  begins  (1710—14). 
Swift,  Prior  and  other  Tory  writers  edit  the  Examiner. 
Bentley's  struggle  with  the  Fellows  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
of  which  he  is  Master,  begins. 
150S.    French  Lit.    Madame  de  Lambert  commences  her  Salon,  which 
is  firequented  by  Fontenelle,  Abb^  St  Pierre,  D'Argenson,  Montesquieu, 
Marivaux 

Ramsay  visits  F^nelon,  becomes  a  Catholic,  remains  with  him  till 
his  death,  and  writes  his  life. 
Io09.     Art.    Handel  arrives  in  London  and  produces  his  opera  Rinaldo, 
1711. 

Bottiger  manufactures  hard  porcelain  and  becomes  director  of 
a  factory  at  Meissen  near  Dresden. 

1510.  FhiloBophy.  Leibnitz  publishes  his  Th^odic(*e,  an  attack  on  Bayle 
saggested  by  discussions  with  the  Electress  of  Hanover  and  Soi)hia 
Charlotte,  Queen  of  Prussia. 

Berkeley's  Principles  of  Human  Knowledge  develope  the  theories 
of  Malebranche. 

Vico's  De  Italorum  Sapientia  explains  his  doctrine  of  metaphysical 
points  or  centres  of  forc«,  which  is  afterwards  adopted  by  Boscovitch. 

1511.  Agricnltnre.  Enclosures  for  tillage  become  frequent,  in  i)art 
owing  to  the  bounlnr  on  export. 

1512.  Social.  F^nelon's  M^moire  sur  la  Situation  deplorable  de  la 
France  en  1710  denounces  the  power  of  the  King,  and  his  PLxamen  de 
Conacience  sur  les  Devoirs  de  la  Royaut^,  composed  for  his  pupil  the 
Duke  of  Burgundy,  recommends  the  summoning  of  the  States-General. 


1513.    Eng.  Ch.    Whiston,  who  has  been  deprived  of  his  post  at    vyi-y-i 
Cambridge,  1708,  pleads  in  his  Primitive  Christianity  Revived    '- 
for  the  addition  of  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  and  Clementine  Recog- 


202  POLITICS  [1711 

Harley  forms  the  South  Sea  Company,  to  which  is  promised  the 
monopoly  of  trade  with  Spanish  Soutli  America. 

992.  France.  The  Emperor  dies  childless,  and  the  Aichdiike  Qurles, 
who  is  elected,  recalls  his  troops.  Marlborough  is  not  supported  from 
home,  and,  after  breaking  through  Villars'  hnes  at  Boucoain,  is  re- 
called. 

993.  Hungary.  The  treaty  of  Szathmar  ends  the  Rakoksy  revoh. 
The  Hapsburgs  retain  Transylvania  and  the  crown  of  Hungary,  and  the 
Emperor  promises  to  respect  the  Magyar  liberties  and  Protestantism. 

994.  Russia.  Peter  advances  south,  but  is  not  met  by  the  allies  he 
expects,  and  hastily  makes  peace.  He  restores  Azov,  destroys  RossiiQ 
fortresses  in  Turkey,  and  promises  not  to  meddle  with  Poland. 

Peter  creates  the  Senate  for  judicial  and  administrative  duties. 


995.  France.     The  diplomatists    meet    at  Utrecht.  ^   Ormond   r^^ 
receives  orders  forbidding  him  to  light,  but  directing  him  to  con-   •• 
ceal  these  orders  from  the  Butch.    They  are,  however,  communicated  to 
the  Dutch,  who  are  defeated  at  Denain  by  VillanS,  and,  thinking  it 
impossible  to  carry  on  a  war  without  England,  withdraw. 

The  Duke  of  Burgundy,  who  has  become  heir  by  the  death  of  the 
Dauphin,  1711,  dies,  followed  by  his  eldest  son.  His  second  son,  Loai^, 
aged  two,  becomes  heir. 

996.  Switzerland.    The  second  Vilmergen  (or  Toggenbuig)  war  Irntb 
out,  and  the  Protestant  Cantons  regain  supremacy. 

997.  Denmark.    The  Danes  take  Schleswig  from  the  Duke  of  Holstein- 
Gottorp,  and  conquer  the  Swedish  duchies  of  Bremen  and  Verden. 


998.  En^and.  The  Tories,  seeing  the  health  of  the  Queen  is  ry^^ 
failing,  propose  the  suei^ession  of  the  Pretender  ;  but  his  refusal   *■ 

to  change  his  religion  splits  the  party. 

By  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  the  Stuarts  are  excluded  from  France,  the 
Protestant  Succession  guaranteed,  and  the  possession  of  Gibraltar  i»l 
Minorca  confirmed.  The  Asiento  allows  the  dispatch  of  one  ship  yeirij 
to  the  Spanish  Colonies,  and  transfers  the  monopoly  of  shipping  sUve^ 
to  Spanish  America  from  France  to  England  for  30  years. 

999.  America.  Newfoundland,  Nova  Scotia.  Acadia,  and  Hadson^ 
Bay  Territory  are  ceded  by  France  to  England.  France  retains  the 
right  of  fishing  on  the  east  of  NewfoundlMid. 

1000.  Spain.  Philip  renounces  his  claim  to  the  French  throne,  bui 
retains  Spain  and  tlie  Indies.     The  Catalans  are  deserted. 

1001.  Netherlands.  The  Spanish  NetherUnds  are  to  be  given  xo 
Austria ;  but  the  barrier  fortresses  are  ceded  to  the  Dutch,  PruKt 
regaining  Lille  and  a  few  other  towns. 

1002.  Savoy.  The  Duke  of  Savoy  regains  his  territories  and  receive^ 
Sicily,  with  the  title  of  King. 

1003.  Germany.  Prussia  receives  from  France  Upper  Guelderiand,  iihI 
the  recognition  of  her  possession  of  NeucliAtel. 


1713]  CULTURE  203 

iiidons  to  the  Canon.    He  leaves  the  Church  of  England  and  joins  the 

General  Baptists. 
15 1^,     CkK>tc!h  Ch.    Greenshields,  an  Episcopalian,  uses  the  English 

liturgy  in  Edinburgh  and  is  condemned  by  the  Court  of  Session ;  but 

the  decision  is  reversed  by  the  House  of  Lords. 
lolo^     Sng.  Lit.    Pope's  Essay  on  Criticism,  an  adaptation  of  the  ideas 

ofBoileau. 

Steele  and  Addison  edit  the  Spectator,  to  which  Budgell  contributes. 
Swift's  Conduct  of  the  Allies  attacks  the  war. 
lol^K    Art.    The  Zwinger  is  built  at  Dresden  by  Poppelmann  in  a  style  of 

exaggerated  rococo. 
1517.    French  Lit.    Cr^bilhm's  Rhadamiste  et  Z^nobie. 
r»lS.    Fhiloflophy.    Shaftesbury's  Characteristics  of  Men  and  Manners, 

vritten  from  the  standpoint  of  Deism,  point  out  the  excellence  of  virtue 

without  regard  to  rewaids  and  punishments.    Ridicule  is  declared  to  be 

I  test  of  truth. 
1519.    Philology.    Bentley  edits  Horace. 
IS^f,    Deaths.    Boileau,  Ken. 


ISJl.    Sng.  Ch.    Clarke's  Scripture  Doctrine  of  the  IVinity  be-    nyio 

comes  the  text-book  of  modem  Arianism.  ^ 

loJJ.    Scotch  Ch.     In  opposition  to  the  feeling  of  the  Church,  an  Act 

r&<torei«  the  old  rights  of  lay  patronage,  but  is  not  recognised  by  strict 

Presbyterians,  as  violating  the  Act  of  Security. 
ISli.    Church  Hist.    Mechitar* s  Order  for  uniting  ArmeniaiLs  to  the 

R<jnian  Church  and  for  the  study  of  Armenian  literature  and  history  is 

<nmfirmed  by  the  Pope. 
15^4'    Sng.  Lit.    Pope's  Rape  of  the  Lock,  a  mock  heroic  modelled  on 

Boileau's  Lutrin. 

Arbathnot's  John  Bull,  a  political  satire,  modelled  on  Swift. 
A  Newspaper  Stamp  Act  is  passed,  and  many  journals  are  crushed. 
Addison  contributes  his  criticisms  of  Milton  to  the  Spectator. 
/*i>.    Art.    Crousaz'  Traits  du  Beau,  the  first  French  discussion  of 

Mhetica 
IS^j.    Riiloflophy.    Wolff  begins  the  literarj^  exposition  of  his  system, 

an  adaptation  of  Leibnitz'  determinism  and  optimism,   without   the 

doctrine  of  monads. 
15^.    SociaL    The  last  execution  for  witchcraft  in  England  takes  place. 
l-yis.    Death.    Cassini. 


lo£*.    Kng.  Ch.    Anthony  Collins,  the  friend  of  Locke,  publishes    ri«i « 

a  Db^course  on  Freethinking,  which  is  attacked  by  Bentley,  Swift    '- 

and  many  others. 

Gibnon's  Codex  Juris  Ecclesiastici  Anglicani,  a  comprehensive  study  of 

the  legal  ri^ta  and  duties  of  the  English  clergy,  and  of  the  constitution 

oftiieLlmrch. 
I'>^t.   French  Ch.    The  Bull    Unigenitus,   procured   by  the  King's 

r««ies«or,  Le  Telher,  condemns  101  propositions  from  Quesnel's  Jan- 


I 


204  POLITICS  [171S 

1004.  Austria.  The  Emperor  refuses  to  accept  the  Treaty,  but  is  forad 
by  Villars  to  come  to  tenns. 

The  Emperor  brings  forward  but  does  not  publish  the  Pragmitic 
Sanction,  fixing  the  succession,  in  default  ot  male  heirs,  on  hi^ 
daughters. 

1005.  Sweden.  The  Swedes  defeat  the  Danes,  but  are  defeated  by  the 
Russians.  Danes  and  Poles  invade  Pomerania,  and  Prussia  occupie) 
Stettin. 


1006.  En^and.    Harley  is  driven  from  office  ^July  27).    The  m^j^ 
Queen  is  taken  ill ;  but  Somerset  and  Argyle,  suddenly  appearing  ^ 

in  the  Council,  secure  the  appointment  of  Shrewsbury  as  Treasurer  in 
succession  to  Harley.  The  Queen  dies  (Aug.  7),  and  the  Elector  *i 
Hanover  is  proclaimed  George  I.,  his  mother,  Sophia,  having  died  i  few 
weeks  earlier.  The  King  dismisses  the  Tories,  and  calls  Towusheod, 
Stanhope,  and  Walpole  to  office.  Being  unable  to  understand  Engbsh, 
the  King  does  not  appear  at  meetings  of  the  Cabinet 

1007.  Prance.  The  Duke  of  Berry  dies,  and  Orleans,  the  KiiigV 
nephew,  becomes  heir  to  the  Regency.  Louis  confers  the  rank  of 
pnnces  of  the  royal  blood  on  his  two  sons,  Maine  and  Toulouse,  deeUrei 
them  heirs,  and  makes  a  will  appointing  Maine  guardian  of  the  heir, 
and  a  Council  of  Regency  of  which  Orleans  is  to  be  president, 

1008.  Germany.  The  Emperor  makes  i>eace  with  France  at  RasUdi, 
by  which  he  receives  as  his  share  of  the  Spanish  Empire  Naples,  the 
Milanese,  Sardinia,  Mantua  and  Breisach.  The  Electors  of  Bavarii 
and  Cologne  are  restored,  and  the  Electorate  of  Brandenburg  is  reo^g- 
nised.  France  restores  all  con([uests  east  of  the  Rhine.  The  Empewr. 
however,  does  not  recognise  the  S|)anish  King. 

France  makes  a  secret  treaty  with  Bavaria,  promising  to  support  the 
Elector  if  he  becomes  a  candidate  for  the  Empire. 
1(H)1>.     Spain.     Barcelona  is  stonned  by  Berwick,  and  Catalonia  deprived 
of  her  privileges. 

Philip  marries  Elizabeth  Farnese,  and  Alberoni  becomes  chief 
minister.  Mme  des  Ursins,  the  representative  of  French  influence,  is 
exi)elled. 

1010.  Svireden.  Charles  XII.  returns  from  Turkey,  and  Pnissia,  Saxony, 
Denmark  and  Russia  ally  against  him. 

1011.  AArica.     Trij)oli  becomes  inde|)endent  of  Constantinople. 


1012.     England.     The  now  Pariiament  impeaches  Bolingbroke,    m^^j 
Onnond  and  Harley  for  st\-ret  negotiations  with  France  previous   '■ 
to  the  peace.     The  two  fonner  flee  to  France,  where  Bolingbroke,  wh'» 
defends  himself  in  his  I^etter  to  W>^ulham,  enters  the  service  of  the 
Pretender.     Ilarley,  who  remains,  is  imprisoned  for  two  years. 
llie  Riot  Act  is  passed. 


1716]  CULTURE  205 

seuist   Reflexioiis.     Xoailies  aud  others  protest,   and  the   Church  is 
divided  into  Ac^eptaiits  and  Appellants. 

Mme  Joaidan,  a  Jausenist,  institutes  the  Filles  de  Saint€-Marthe» 
established  as  a  Congregation  1 722,  for  the  education  of  girls  and  the 
care  of  the  sick. 
loSl.     French  Lit.    Hamilton's  Memoires  de  Grammont. 

F^nelon's  Lettre  k  TAcad^nie  Fran^aise  approves  the  composition  of 
a  Dictionary,  and  discusses  the  duties  of  the  Academy  as  arbiter  of 
literary  taste. 

1532,  Science.    Roger  Cotes  edits  a  second  e<lition  of  Newton's  Prin- 
eipia,  and  maintains  the  doctrine  of  action  at  a  distance. 

1533,  FhiloBophy.    Colliers  Non-Existence    of   an    External  World 
reaches  Berkeley's  position  independently. 

J5S4.    Politics.    The  Abb^  Saint  Pierre  explains  a  Projet  pour  la  Paix 

Perp^tuelle. 
loSo,     Philology.    Bentley  infers  a  lost  digamma  from  considerations 

of  metre. 

1536,  Law.     Gravina's  Origines  Juris  Civilis. 

1537,  Geography.    A  Boanl  of  Longitude  is  created  in  England. 
153S,    Death.    Shaftesbur}-. 


1539,  Sng.  Ch.    Bolinj^broke  introduces  the  Schism  Act,  aimed   riyi^ 
at  Dissenting  Academies,  forbidding  nonconformists  to  t^ach;   ^ 
but,  owing  to  the  death  of  the  Queen  almost  immediately  aft^r,  the 
Act  is  not  enforced. 

1540,  Italian  Lit.    Maffei's  Merope  imitates  classical  tragedy. 

1541,  Spaniah  Lit.  The  foundation  of  the  Spanish  Academy  marks 
the  epoch  of  the  prevalence  of  French  taste. 

1542,  Philosophy.  Leibnitz'  La  Monadologie  explains  the  world  and 
humau  life  by  monads  working  according  to  a  Iiarmonv  pre-established 
by  God. 

1543,  History.    Helyot's  Histoire  des  Onires  Monasti([ues. 

1544,  Law.  Bohmer's  Jus  Ecclesiasticum  Protestantium  traces  the 
modification  of  Canon  Law  by  the  Reformation,  and  developes  Tho- 
masins'  territorial  theory,  according  to  which  the  prince  possesses  the 
highest  ecclesiastical  authority  as  sovereign  ruler  of  the  State,  not  as 
the  chief  member  of  the  Church,  as  the  *ej)iscopar  system  of  Carpzov 
maintained. 

In  1719,  Pfaff  of  Tubingen  suggests  the  'collegial'  system,  accord- 
ing to  which  the  h^idship  of  the  Church,  jus  circa  sacra,  belongs  to  the 
sovereign,  while  the  matters  pertaining  to  doctrine  and  worship  belong 
to  the  whole  body  of  Cliurch  members. 
1545,    Death,    id^liabecchi. 


1546,    French  Ch.    Antoine  Court  becomes  pastor  at  Ninies  and   m  7  jg 
leader  of  French  Protestantism  till  his  death,  1760.    He  restores   *- 
the  sfyiiodal  system,  which  has  been  upset  since  the  Revocation,  and 
discourages  the  *inspin?s'  survivors  of  the  Camisard  wars. 


206  POLITICS  [171B 


1013.  Scotland.  The  Pretender  orders  Mar,  his  chief  adherent  in 
Scotland,  to  take  the  field.  A  drawn  battle  is  fought  at  SheriSmuir, 
but  Mar  allows  Argyle  to  secure  the  advantages  of  a  victoiy.  On  the 
same  day  Forster,  a  Northumberland  gentleman  who  has  declared  for 
the  Pretender  and  been  joined  by  Lord  Derwentwater  and  others,  8^^^ 
renders  at  Preston. 

1014.  Netherlands.  The  Barrier  Treaty  is  arranged,  the  Empaw 
receiving  the  Spanish  Netherlands  and  the  Dutch  garrisoning  iterenl 
fortresses. 

1015.  France.  On  the  King  s  death  his  will  is  set  aside  and  Orleans  u 
appointed  Regent  by  the  Paris  Parliament.  Maine  remains  guardian  of 
the  King ;  but  the  Duke  of  Bourbon  is  appointed  president  of  the 
Council  of  Regency.     Seven  Councils  are  created. 

1016.  Germany.  The  Danes  sell  the  duchies  of  Bremen  and  Verden  to 
Hanover,  which  undertakes  to  enter  the  war  against  Sweden. 

101 7.  Turkey.    The  Turks  expel  the  Venetians  from  the  Morea. 


[1716 


1018.  England.  The  Pretender  appears  in  Scotland,  but  quickly 
returns  to  France.  Despite  the  easy  suppression  of  the  rebellion, 
the  Whigs  pass  a  Septennial  Act. 

The  treaty  of  Hanover  is  made  by  Dubois,  England  promising  to 
support  Orleans  in  his  claims  to  the  throne,  if  the  young  lung  dies  the 
Regent  in  return  promising  to  support  the  Hanoverian  succession.  The 
Dutch  shortly  join  the  alliance. 

Walpole  establishes  a  Sinkinir  Fund. 

1019.  Turkey.     Moldavia  and  Wallachia  receive  Phanariot  ffovemor^. 
The  Turks  are  defeated  at  Petcrwardein  by  Eugene,  and  Teme^^■*r, 

the  last  Turkish  possession  in  Hungary,  falls. 


1020.  England.    Goertz,  the  Swedish  minister  at  the  Hague,   Mm« 
plots  to  aid  the  Pretender  in  an  invasion  of  England ;  but  his   ^ 
scheme  is  discovered  through  the  Swedish  ambassador  in  London. 

1021.  France.    Orleans  makes  a  Convention  with  Russia  and  PniSfrii 
to  maintain  the  treaties  of  1713,  his  succession  being  guaranteed. 

Law,  a  Scotch  adventurer,  persuades  the  Regent  to  transform  hi:> 
bank,  established  1716,  into  a  Government  institution,  and  fonos 
a  Mississippi  Company,  to  wliich  the  Regent  grants  Louisiana  and  the 
tobacco  monopoly.  The  Company  advances  money  to  the  Government) 
and  its  shares  are  eagerly  bought.  The  opposition  from  the  Parliament 
leads  to  the  withdrawal  of  tlie  right  of  protest.  D'Aguesseau  and 
Noailles  are  dismissed,  the  administrative  Councils  are  suppressed,  and 
Law  is  appointed  minister  of  finance. 


1 


717]  CULTURE  207 

F^elon's  Traits  de  TExistence  de  Dieu. 

The  Jans^nists  commeuce  to  publish  the  Nouvelles  EccMsiastiques, 
which  appear  reffularly  from  1729  and  with  brief  intervals  till  1803. 
[547.    Itauan  Cn.    The  Duke  of  Savoy,  who  has  become  King  of  Sicily 
without  the  sanction  of  the  Pope,  claims  to  exercise  the  'spiritual  rights 
Off  the  Sicilian  monarchy/    Clement  thereupon  proclaims  an  Interdict. 
15iS.    Kng.  Lit.    Pope  translates  the  Iliad. 

1549.    French  Lit.    Le  Sage's  Gil  Bias,  a  tale  of  the  times  of  Kings 

Philip  III.  and  IV.  of  Spain,  modelled  on  the  Spanish  picaresque  novels. 

Io50.   Science.    Taylor  s  Methodus  Incrementorum  invents  the  calculus 

of  finite  differences,  and  proves  the  theorem  that  the  functions  of  a 

sio^e  variable  can  be  expanded  in  powers  of  it. 

l^iol.    Fhilosophy.    Leibnitz  repeats  his  criticisms  of  the  Principia, 

outlined  in  the  Acta  Eruditorum  1689  and  in  the  Th^odicde,  in  a  letter 

to  the  Princess  of  Wales,  declaring  that  Newton's  theories  lead  to 

a  materialistic  view  of  the  universe,  and  repeating  his  own  theorv  of 

pre-established  harmony.     Caroline  gives  the  letter  to  Clarke,  whose 

reply  leads  to  a  correspondence. 

Anthony  Collins'  Inquiry  into  Human  Liberty  reaches  determinist 
conclusions, 
iiv?.    Philology.    Facciolati's  Polyglot  Lexicon. 
l^il   History.    The  Benedictines  of  St  Maur  commence  the  publication 
«f  the  Gallia  Christiana. 
i^ji   DMthB.    Burnet,  F^nelon,  Malebranche. 


ii>>.   Eng.  Ch.    Dr  Williams  founds  the  Williams  Library.  ri716 

Areenius,  Metropolitan  of  Thebais,  visits  London,  and  the  ^ 
NoD-jurors  negotiate  for  reunion  with  the  Greek  UhurcL  The  Tsar 
kymn  the  proposals  and  refers  them  te  the  Patriarchs,  who  refuse  all 
coocesfauns,  1721.  After  further  correspondence,  the  Patriarchs  send  an 
altimatum  requiring  acceptance  of  all  the  dogmas  of  the  Eastern  Church. 
Wtke  denounces  the  Non-jurors  to  the  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem. 

^*%    Science.    De  Moivre's  Doctrine  of  the  Chances. 

i'W7.    History.    Le  Neve's  Fasti  Ecclesiae  Anglicanae. 
Heame  begins  to  edit  the  English  Chronicles. 

1-^,   Deaths.    Leibnitz,  Somers. 


in  a  sermon  On  the  Nature  of  Christ's  Kingdom,  in  which 
declares  against  tests  of  orthodoxy,  are  censured  by  Convo- 
cilioDy  which  is  in  consec^uence  prorogued  by  the  Government,  and  does 
ioC  leaaBemble  for  business  till  1852.  Hoadley  replies  to  the  censure, 
ttd  the  Baogorian  Controversy  begins,  in  which  Law  and  others  take 

IS^j,    French  Oh.    Four  Bishops  appeal  to  a  (General   Council  and 
reooniice  the  bull  Unigenitus.     Tliey  are  joined  by  the  Sorbonne, 


208  POLITICS  [171T 


1022.  Spain.    A  Spanish  army  is  sent  to  conquer  Sardinia,  prufeuedly 
owing  to  the  arrest  of  a  Spanish  subject  in  Italy. 

1023.  Turkey.    Eugene  annihilates  the  Turkish  army  at  Belgrade  lod 
captures  the  town. 

1024.  Russia.    An  expedition  against  Khiva,  sent  out  by  Peter  under 
Bekovitch,  completely  fails. 


1025.  Spain.  A  Spanish  army  seizes  Sicily.  The  Emperor  m^ 
appeals  to  the  Triple  Alliance  to  aid  him  in  upholding  the  ^ 
articles  of  Utrecht,  and  Dubois  frames  a  treaty  by  which  tlie  Emperor, 
who  joins  the  Triple  Alliance,  resigns  all  claims  on  Spain,  na&Y 
renounces  Austria's  share,  Savoy  exchanges  Sicily  for  Sardmia,  and  the 
succession  to  Parma  and  Tuscany  is  secured  to  the  children  of  Philip's 
second  marriage.  These  tenns  are  declined  by  Spain,  and  the  Spanuh 
fleet  is  destroyed  by  Admiral  Byng  off  Cape  rassaro.  Alberoni  here- 
upon invites  the  Pretender  to  Spain,  and  prepares  an  expedition  for 
hmi,  and  concerts  with  Goertz,  Charles'  chief  adviser,  for  the  reconcilia- 
tion of  Sweden  and  Kussia.  He  also  plots  with  the  Duchess  of  Miine 
and  other  malcontents  in  France  to  depose  Orleans  and  give  the  regenc}' 
to  Philip. 

1026.  Sweden.  Sweden  and  Russia  agree  to  ally,  Russia  to  aid  Sweden 
to  recover  her  German  possessions,  Sweden  to  cede  part  of  FinliDd. 
Carelia,  Esthonia,  and  Livonia,  and  both  to  expel  George  I.  Charles  XIL. 
however,  is  killed  at  the  siege  of  Friedricnshall,  and  the  treaty  is 
annulle(l.  The  nobles  regain  power,  and  the  Diet  revises  the  Constitn- 
tiou,  and  elects  the  late  King  s  sister,  Ulrica,  who  gives  the  government 
to  her  husband,  Frederick  of  Hesse-Cassel. 

1027.  Turkey.  By  the  peace  of  Passarowitz,  Austria  completes  her 
possession  of  Hungary,  gams  Belgrade  and  a  strip  of  Servia  and  Bosoia. 
the  Banate  of  Temesvar  and  Little  Wallachia ;  Venice  retains  Corfa 
and  her  conquests  in  Albania  and  Dalmatia ;  the  Sultan  keeps  the 
Morea  and  Aegina,  but  promises  to  throw  over  Rakoksy. 

1028.  America.  Tlie  French  found  New  Orleans,  and  the  Spaniard^ 
found  Pensacola. 


1029.  England.  Sunderland  and  Stanhope  repeal  the  Occasional  r«mg 
Conformity  and  Schism  Acts.  Fearing  another  wholesale  crea-  ^ 
tion  of  Peers  by  a  Tory  ministry,  they  intnxluce,  but  fail  to  cany, 
a  Peerage  Bill,  forbidding  the  King  to  increase  the  existing  number 
(178)  of  peerages  by  nu»re  than  six,  except  for  members  of  Uie  Rojil 
Family. 

108(K  Scotland.  S|)aniards  invade  Scotland,  and  are  joined  by  aome 
Highlanders,  but  are  defeated  at  Gleushiel. 

1031.  Ireland.  A  Declarator}'  Statute  is  ixassed  that  Ireland  has  beeu 
and  is  de]>cndent  on  the  crown,  inseparably  united,  and  King  aihi 
Parliament  may  make  binding  laws. 


1719]  CULTURE  209 

Noailles  and  over  twenty  bishops.    The  Pope  puts  the  Appellants  to 

the  ban,  1718. 

Massillon's  Petit  Car^me,  a  course  of  sermons  preached  before  the 

King. 
1561,    Church  Hist.    Wake,  sometime  chaplain  to  the  British  Embassy 

to  Paris,  seizes  the  opportunity  of  the  appeal  of  the  four  Bishops  to 

discuss  reunion  with  Dupin,  who  proceeds  to  report  on  the  Articles  in  his 

Commonitorium.    The  scheme  fails  owing  to  the  disfavour  of  Dubois  and 

the  Jesuits  and  the  death  of  Dupin,  1719. 
15^2.    Art    Watteau's  Embarkation  for  the  Isle  of  Venus,  his  diploma 

incture  (Louvre). 
15(Sd.    Science.    Gravesande  begins  to  lecture  at  Leyden  on  Newton's 

discoveries. 

John  Bemouilli  perceives  the  universal  applicability  of  the  principle 

of  virtual  displacements  to  all  cases  of  equilibrium. 
ISB^    Social.    After  the  rebuilding  of  the  City  of  London  and  of 

St  Paul's,  most  masonic  lodges  die  out.    The  four  which  remain  in 
'   London  unite  and  renounce  material  masonry.     A   constitution  is 

drawn  up,  1721,  lodges  are  formed  in  Paris,  Berlin,  and  elsewhere, 
and  the  movement  is  condemned  by  the  Pope,  1736. 

1^.    Death.    Mme  Guyon. 

1^66.  Bng.  Ch.  Jeremy  Collier  reprints  the  first  Prayer-Book  riyio 
of  Edward  VI.  with  additions  from  antiquity,  and  the  so-called  ^ 
Uttges,  and  leaves  the  Non-jurors.  Both  continue  the  succession  of 
bishops.  A  further  split  occurs  in  reference  to  the  question  of  lay 
btptiflD,  1733.  The  last  regular  bishop  dies  1 779,  the  last  irregular,  1805. 
Toland's  Nazarenus  contrasts  the  positions  of  Jew,  Gentile  and 
XihoDietan. 

Clarke's  Reformed  Prayer-Book,  an  Arian  liturgy. 

I^.    French  Ch.    Montfau9on  edits  Chrysostom. 

IM,  Science.  Halley  discovers  that  certain  of  the  fixed  stars  have 
"proper  motions.' 

IS69,  Politica.  The  Abb^  Saint-Pierre's  Discours  sur  la  Polys3modie 
FKommends  the  Regent  Orleans'  S3rstem  of  Councils,  and  attacks  the 
nanory  and  greatness  of  Louis  XIV. 

i>'>  (Geography.  IXAnville  becomes  Greographer  to  the  King,  and 
begins  to  construct  his  charts. 

1-^71.    Deatha.    Baluze,  Penn. 

ISTi,  Xng.  Oh.  A  meeting,  chiefly  of  Presbyterians,  takes  place  ri  71  g 
at  Salters  HaU,  to  protest  against  the  subscription  of  a  belief  in  ^ 
tfce  Trinity  by  the  clergy.  Pierce  omits  everything  relating  to  the 
IVinity,  but  without  attacking  it.  Though  Calamy,  Watts  and  Neal 
^iiwoantenaiice  the  movement,  English  Presbyterianism  loses  strength, 
ttd  Unitarianism  spreads. 

Wateriand's  Importance  of  the  Doctrine  of  the  Trinity  replies  to 
OaAe. 

CoL  Gardiner  believes  himself  to  have  a  vision  of  Christ. 

6.  14 


210  POLITICS  [17U 

1032.  Spain.  Alberoni's  schemes  fail,  Qotz  is  executed,  Orleaas  detect 
and  punishes  his  opponents.  A  French  army  under  Benrick  enten 
Spain,  and  the  Emperor  expels  the  Spaniards  from  Sicily.  The  allies 
compel  Philip  to  dismiss  Alberoni,  and  Spain  sinks  back  into  lethargy. 

1033.  Sweden.  The  Swedes  make  a  treaty  with  Hanover,  which  retuns 
Bremen  and  Verden,  and  pays  one  million  thalers. 


1034.  En^and.    A  mania  of  speculation  attacks  the  country,   m^ 
the  shares  in  the  South  Sea  Company  beinff  sold  for  £1,000,  and  ^ 
cr^tors  of  the  National  Debt  accepting  shares  in  lieu  of  payment.   A 
panic,  however,  sets  in,  and  the  shares  fall  to  135. 

1035.  France.  Law's  reckless  issue  of  notes  (3,000  million  francs), 
based  on  the  land,  raises  prices  and  drives  specie  out  of  circuUtioo. 
Holders  of  paper  hasten  to  realise,  the  bank  is  forced  to  suspend  pay- 
ment, and  Law  is  exiled. 

1036.  Spain.  Philip  accepts  the  terms  of  the  Quadruple  Alliance,  the 
Emperor  obtains  Sicily,  and  Sardinia  passes  to  Savoy,  the  Duke  of 
which  assumes  the  title  of  King  of  Sardinia. 

1037.  Austria.  Having  no  sons,  the  Emperor  publishes  the  Pragmatic 
Sanction,  which  is  accepted  by  the  different  parts  of  the  Empire  aod 
proclaimed  irrevocable  law,  1724. 

1038.  Sweden.  After  the  long  war,  Denmark  restores  all  conone^ 
and  Sweden  recognises  the  annexation  of  Schleswig.  Prussia  ootain* 
Stettin  and  the  aajacent  district,  thus  reaching  the  Baltic,  and  pays  tiro 
million  thalers. 


1039.  En^and.  Aislabie,  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  is  sent  m^ 
to  the  Tower  for  his  share  in  the  frauds,  Sunderland  resig[ns,  and  ^ 
Stanhope  dies  in  a  fit  caused  by  a  false  accusation.  Amidst  the  enish, 
Walpole,  who  has  re-entered  the  government  1720,  forms  a  ministry, 
including  Townshend,  Carteret  and  Pulteney,  restores  public  credit,  and 
becomes  the  first  real  Prime  Minister,  retaining  his  hold  on  Parliament 
in  part  through  comiption. 

1040.  France.  Dubois  obtains  the  Cardinalate,  and  wins  the  gooiiwill 
of  Spain  by  betrothing  Ijouis  to  the  daughter  of  Philip.  A  defensive 
alliance  between  France,  Spain  and  England  is  also  arranged.  The  two 
former  secretly  agree  to  the  first  Pacte  ramille. 

1041.  Russia.  Peter  issues  an  Tkase  declaring  the  right  of  the 
sovereign  to  name  his  successor  (repealed  by  Paul  I.). 


TU]  CULTURE  211 

S73,    Iriih  Ch.    A  Toleration  Act  is  passed  by  the  Irish  Parliament 
574^  ^  Chnroh^  Hist.    J.  S.  Assemanni,  the  Maronite  librarian  of  the 

Vatican,  pablishes  his  Bibliotheca  Orientalis,  chiefly  relating  to  the 

Neetorians  and  Monophysites.     His  work  is  aided  and  continued  by 

hid  nephews. 
U^To.    sng.  Idt.    Defoe's  Robinson  Crusoe,  suggested  by  the  story  of 

Alexander  Selkirk. 
1ST€,    Datoh  Idt.    Holberff's  comic  epic,  Peder  Paars. 
I''t77,    Art.    The  Abb^  Duoos'  Reflexions  critiques  sur  la  Po^sie  et  la 

Peinture  supply  hints  to  Lessing. 
l-yTS.    Philology.    Montfau^on's  Antiquity  Expliqu^. 
157^.    ffistory.    Le  Long's  Biblioth^iue  historique  de  la  France,  an 

account  of  books  and  manuscripts. 
ix^A    DeathB.    Addison,  Flamsteed,  Mme  de  Maintenon,  QuesneL 


IW.    Scotch  CSh.    Boston's  Human  Nature  in  its  Fourfold  Estate. 
l^^,    French  Ch.    Dubois,  who  hopes  for  a  Cardinal's  hat,    riynQ 

persoades  Parliament  to  acknowledge  the  Bull  Unigenitus,  with    ^ 

express  reservation  of  Gallican  liberties,  and  begins  to  persecute  the 

Appellants. 
r*l    German  Ch.    The  Irenicum  of  Pfaff  of  Tubingen  is  bitterly 

micked  by  the  strict  Lutherans. 
liSi   Sng.  Lit.    The  Cato  Letters,  by  the  Wliig  journalists  Grordon 

i&d  Tienchaid,  denounce  the  authors  of  the  South  Sea  Bubble. 
1^5,   Science.      Fahrenheit    employs    mercury    in    a    thermometer ; 

K^ramur  uses  spirits  of  wine ;  and  Celsius  divides  the  scale  into  100 

/fcgiees. 
^>^'.    Philology.    Bentley's  Proposals  for  printing  the  New  Testament 

ftdTocate  the  study  of  the  oldest  mss.,  independently  of  the  Textus 

R«eptu8. 
'•>^.    History.    P^  Anselme  discusses  the  value  of  ancient  records, 

lid  Pooilly  and  Beaufort  criticise  the  authenticity  of  the  early  history 

^Bome,  which  is  defended  by  Fr^t. 
^^.    Law.    Vico's  De  Uno  Uuiversi  Juris    Principio  connects  the 

piiiloeophy  of  law  with  general  philosophy,  and  applies  the  historical 

whod. 


i^.    Xng.  Oh.    Waterland's  Case  of  Arian  Subscription  Con-    rj^^gi 

■docd  attacks  Clarke's  interpretation  of  the  Articles.  ^ 

^^.    German  Ch.    Brockes  Earthly  Pleasure  in  God,  a  metrical  work 

4f  optimistic  deism. 
^^1.    RnMlan  Ch.    In  place  of  the  Patriarchate  of  Moscow,  the  Holy 

Ssrnod  is  af^inted  to  rule  the  Church  under  the  Tsar,  who  chooses  its 

feeabers,  ainl  may  veto  its  decisions. 
'*i.    French  Idt.    Montes<iuieu's  Lettres  Persanes  trenchantly  criti- 

CHe  political  and  ecclesiastical  methods  and  ideas. 

U— 2 


212  POLITICS  [1721 

1042.  Sweden.  By  the  Treaty  of  Nystad,  Sweden  cedes  to  Bxatk 
Livonia  and  Esthonia  and  Ingermannland,  Russia  promising  not  to  inter- 
fere with  the  internal  affairs  of  Sweden  and  restoring  inland.  Hie 
treaty  confirms  Russia's  supremacy  in  the  North. 

1043.  Denmark.  Frederick  founas  a  fort  in  Greenland  and  phnth 
a  colony.     The  Government  reserves  to  itself  the  monopoly  of  trade. 

1044.  AfWca.  France  occupies  Mauritius,  deserted  by  Holland  1712, 
and  calls  it  He  de  France. 


1045.  England.  Atterbury,  Bishop  of  Rochester,  is  arrested  for.  n^ 
corresponding  with  the  Pretender,  and  is  banished  1723.  ^ 

1046.  iTetitierlands.  Desiring  to  revive  Flemish  commerce,  but  not 
daring  to  re-open  the  Scheldt,  the  Emperor  forms  an  ^t  Indii 
Company  at  Ostend,  which  is  hotly  opposed  by  England. 

1047.  Russia.  Alexis  is  executed  for  nis  opposition  to  his  father's 
policy. 

Russia  seizes  Derbeut  and  Baku  on  the  Caspian. 


1048.  En^and.    Bolingbroke  is  allowed  to  return,  though  he  is  n^ 
not  allowed  to  sit  in  the  House  of  Lords.    He  b^ins  to  organise  ^ 
an  opposition  to  Walnole,  but  never  regains  much  political  influence 

1049.  France.  The  King  s  minority  ends,  Dubois  and  Orleans  die,  imi 
Bourbon,  Condi's  grandson,  becomes  chief  minister.  The  real  power, 
however,  is  exercised  by  the  King's  tutor,  the  Abb^  Fleury,  who  con- 
tinues Orleans*  policy  of  friendliness  to  England. 

1050.  Hungary.  By  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  Hungary  and  Ani$tiu 
are  declared  inseparable  under  the  same  ruler,  but  Hungary  is  to  remain 
independent  and  to  be  governed  by  her  own  laws. 


1051.  England.    Carteret  resigns  his  place  in  the  ministry,  dis-   nM 
approving  of  Walpole's  alliance  with  France,  and  becomes  Lord   *• 
Lieutenant  of  Ireland.     Newcastle  and  his  brother,  Henry  PeQiaiD, 
enter  the  Cabinet. 

1052.  Ireland.  To  supply  the  want  of  copper  coin,  a  patent  is  given  to 
the  King's  mistress,  who  sells  it  to  Wood,  1 723.  Though  the  coins  are 
good,  the  Irish  of  both  races  strongly  protest  against  the  whole  affair. 
Swift  gives  utterance  to  Irish  sentiments  in  his  Drapier's  Letters,  which 
denounce  the  job  and  plead  for  national  self-government  Walpok 
withdraws  the  grant  and  compensates  Wood. 


1724]  CULTURE  213 


1593.  American  Lit.    Duminer's  Defence  of  the  New  England  Charters. 

1594,  Politics.  Wolffs  Politics  derive  Natural  Right  from  the  moral 
nature,  and  vindicate  inborn  rights  for  man. 

Jo9o,    History.    Vico  attacks  the  credibilitjr  of  early  Roman  History. 

1596.  Social.  Inoculation  for  small-pox,  mtroduced  into  Englana  by 
Lady  M.  W.  Montagu,  wife  of  the  English  ambassador  at  CoiLstantinople, 
is  rendered  fashionable  by  the  Princess  of  Wales. 

1597.  Deaths.    Huet,  Watteau. 


1598.  Eng.  Ch.    Wollaston's  Religion  of  Nature  imitates  Clarke   r ^^22 
and  anticipates  the  Utilitarians.  *• 

1599.  Bohemian  Ch.    Zinzendorf  collects  the  remnants  of  the  Bohe- 
mian Brothers  and  forms  the  Moravian  Brotherhood  at  Herrnhut. 

1600.  Asiatic  Ch.    The  Christian  Churches  in  China  are  destroyed. 

1601.  Art.    Augustus  founds  a  Picture  Gallery  at  Dresden. 
Farinelli  makes  his  d^but. 

Bach's  Fugues. 

1602.  Social.    Workhouses  are  erected  in  England. 

1603.  Deaths.     Mariborough,  Toland. 


1604.  Dutch  Ch.  The  Utrecht  Chapter  elects  an  Archbishop  n723 
who  is  consecrated  by  the  Bishop  of  Babylon,  and  is  defended    •- 

by  Van  Espen,  but  is  excommunicated  by  the  Pope.     Suffragan  bishops 
of  Harlem  and  Deventer  are  consecrated  1742  and  1752. 

1605.  French  Lit.    Voltaire's  Henriade. 

1606.  Italian  Lit.  Metastasio's  Didone  Abbandonata,  an  operatic 
libretto. 

1607.  Philosophy.  Mandeville's  Fable  of  the  Bees,  attacking  the 
optimism  of  Shaftesbury  (published  1705,  expanded  1714,  and  1723),  is 
prosecuted  by  the  Grand  Jury  of  Middlesex,  and  is  criticised  by  Law 
and  Berkeley. 

The  King  of  Prussia  banishes  Wolff  from  Halle. 

1608.  History.  Giannone's  Civil  History  of  Naples  defends  the  civil 
power  in  its  conflicts  with  the  hierarchy. 

Muratori  collects  the  works  of  the  historians  of  mediaeval  Italy. 

1609.  Deaths.    Leeuwenhoek,  Wren. 


1610.    Eng.  Ch.    Anthony  Collins'  Grounds  and  Reasons  of  the    1-^^24 
Christian  Religion  maintains  that  the  Old  Testament  prophecies    >- 
on  which  Christianity  rests  were  never  literally  fulfilled,  and  that 
Christianity  is  simply  'Mystical  Judaism.' 

Hutchinson's  Moses'  rrincipia  attacks  Newton  as  the  enemy  of 
inspiration. 


214  POLITICS  [1734 


1053.  Spain.  Philip  resigns  the  throne  in  a  fit  of  religious  mani&,  uA 
perhaps  also  to  be  tree  for  the  French  succession,  but,  on  the  death  of 
nis  son,  resumes  his  place  owing  to  pressure  from  his  wife. 


1054.  France.    Louis  suddenly  dismisses  the  Infanta  and  marries  ^^25 
Marie  Leszczynski,  the  daughter  of  Stanislas,  sometime  King  of  *> 
Poland. 

1055.  Spain.  Angered  by  this  insult,  and  spurred  on  by  Ripperda, 
a  Dutchman  in  the  pay  of  Austria,  Spain  allies  with  the  Emperor,  who 
desires  Spanish  conftrmation  of  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  by  the  Treaty 
of  Vienna  (April).  Parma  and  Tuscany  are  to  pass  to  Don  Carlos,  the 
Emperor  to  aid  in  the  restoration  of  Gibraltar  and  Minorca,  Philip  to 
open  Spanish  ports  to  the  Ostend  Company  and  transfer  the  commercial 
privileges,  hitnerto  enjoyed  by  England  and  the  Dutch,  to  Germans. 
Kipperaa  also  concludes  a  secret  treaty  by  which  the  Emperor  promwes 
to  aid  Spain  to  forcibly  recover  Gibraltar,  if  necessary,  and  to  support 
a  Jacobite  invasion  of  England.  Marriages  of  the  Emperor's  daughters 
with  Philip's  sons  are  also  discussed.  Russia  and  several  (German  states 
join. 

1056.  England.  To  counterbalance  this  confederacy,  England  allien 
with  France  and  Prussia  by  the  Treaty  of  Hanover  (Sept.).  Tie 
integrity  of  the  contracting  powers  is  guaranteed,  the  Prussian  claims 
on  Jiilich  are  recognised,  and  the  Ostend  Companj  is  to  be  abolished. 
Sweden,  Denmark,  and  Holland  shortly  join  the  alliance. 

Pulteney  resigns  his  place  in  the  Ministry. 

1057.  Russia.  Peter  the  Great  dies.  His  wife  Catherine  succeeds  him, 
and  niles  with  the  aid  of  MenshikoflF  and  Ostermann. 


1058.  En^and.     Bolingbroke  and  Pulteney  combine  in  opposi-   r^Mft 
tion  to  Walpole,  and  found  a  weekly  jounial,  the  Craft^sman,  in    ^ 
which  the  Government  is  denounced  as  a  despotism  based  oncomiption. 

1059.  Prance.  Fleur}^  procures  the  dismissal  of  Bourbon,  and  becom€> 
first  minister,  and  restores  credit  and  economy. 

1060.  Austria.  Seckendorf  detaches  Frederick  William,  King  of 
Prussia,  who  repents  of  his  alliances  of  1725,  and  whose  poliiy  is  now 
for  some  time  dictated  from  Vienna  through  Grumkow.  The  friendli- 
ness of  the  Emperor  to  Spain,  on  the  other  hand,  cools,  Charles  di'*- 
liking  the  idea  of  a  Spanish  duchy  in  North  Italy  and  a  Siianish 
inamage. 

1061.  Spain.  Ripwrda  falls,  but  his  successor,  Patifto,  continues  his 
policy.     An  Englisn  fleet  blockades  Porto  Bello. 

1062.  Russia.  A  Treaty  with  Austria  is  arranged  for  30  years,  for 
common  action  against  tlie  Turks  and  for  defence  against  other  poweiK 


1726]  CULTURE  215 

1611.  French  Ch.    Bourbou  forbids  Protestant  worship. 

1612.  Polish  Ch.  The  Protestants  who  have  attacked  the  Jesuit 
College  are  massacred  at  the  'Blood-bath  of  Thorn/ 

1613.  German  Lit.  The  Patriot  of  Hambuig,  by  Brockes  and  Hagedorn, 
extends  English  influences.  Gottsched  b^mes  Professor  at  Leipsig 
and  criticises  the  extravagances  of  Lohenstein  and  his  school. 

Gunther's  Poems. 

1614.  History.    Burnet's  Histoiy  of  hia  Own  Time. 

1615.  Economics.  Possoschkoff  recommends  schemes  of  economic  and 
social  reform  from  a  mercantilist  standpoint,  and  supports  the  policy  of 
the  Tsar. 

1616.  Death.    Harley. 


1617.  Eng.  Lit.    Man  Ramsay's  Gentle  Shepherd.  r^y25 

1618.  American  Lit.    Ames'  Astronomical  Diary  and  Almanac    ^ 
introduces  English  literature,  and    is  followed  by    Franklin's   Poor 
Richard's  Alnmnac,  1733. 

1619.  Philosophy.  Hutcheson's  Our  Ideas  of  Beauty  and  Virtue  de- 
fends Shaftesbury's  Ethics  against  Mandeville,  and  maintains  that  we 
perceive  Beauty  by  'an  internal  sense'  and  independently  of  any 
advantage  to  l>e  derived. 

1620.  History.  Vico's  Scienza  Nuova  declares  that  there  is  a  special 
science  of  human  history  and  traces  the  cycles  of  progress. 

1621.  Oeography.    Behring  (a  Dane)  discovers  Behnng  Straits. 

1622.  SociaL    Guy's  Hospital  is  founded. 


162S.     Eng.  Ch.    Butler's  15  Sermons  assert  that  man  possesses    riyofi 
rational  benevolence  as  well  as  self-love,  and  that  both  are    ■- 
under  the  authority  of  conscience. 

1624.  Eng.  Lit.    Thomson's  Seasons  initiate  a  contest  against  the 
supremacy  of  town  models. 

Swift's  Gulliver's  Travels. 
Theobald  edits  Shakespere. 

Voltaire  comes  to  reside  in  England  for  three  years  and  studies 
English  drama,  Locke's  philosophy  and  Newton's  discoveries. 

1625.  French  Lit.    Mme  de  Tencin  opens  her  Salon,  which  is  fre- 
quented largely  by  the  guests  of  Mme  de  Lambert. 

1626.  Science.    Harrison  invents  a  compensating  balance  for  clocks. 

1627.  History.    Mascou  b^ns  the  first  valuable  Histor}'  of  Germany 
in  the  Middle  Ages. 


I 


216  POLITICS  [17J7 

1063.  Ireland.    The  Catholics  are  deprived  of  the  franchise.  mhm 

1064.  Spain.    Spain  besieges  Gibraltar  (Feb.),  France  standing  1^ 
aloof.     The  Emperor,  losing  his  strongest  ally  by  the  death  of  Catherine 
of  Russia,  agrees  with  England  and  the  Dutch  to  the  Preliminaries 
of  Paris,  promising  to  suspend  the  Ostend  Company,  and  resolving  on 
a  Congress. 

1065.  KUBsia.     Menshikoff  falls,  and  is  exiled  to  Siberia. 


1066.  En^and.  The  publication  of  debates  is  declared  a  breach  ry^ 
of  privilege.  '• 

1067.  Spun.  The  Siege  of  Gibraltar  is  raised,  and  a  convention  with 
England  is  signed.  The  Emperor  informs  Spain  that  the  marriages 
arranged  in  1725  will  not  take  place.  A  Congress  meets  at  Soissons, 
without  result. 

1068.  Germany.  By  the  secret  treaty  of  Berlin,  between  Frwlerick 
William  and  the  Emperor,  the  former  recognises  the  Pragmatic  Sanc- 
tion and  promises  his  support  to  Charles'  son-in-law  as  a  candidate  for 
the  Empire,  and  Charles  transfers  his  rights  on  Berg  and  Ravenstein. 


1069.  Spain.  Seeing  he  can  obtain  nothing  from  the  Emperor,  r^»Ag 
and  his  claims  on  France  being  barred  by  the  birth  of  an  heir,  *■ 
Philip  deserts  the  Austrian  alliance  and  allies  with  France  and  England 
by  the  Treaty  of  Seville,  which  is  sliortly  joined  by  the  DutcL  Don 
Carlos  is  to  succeed  to  Parma  and  IHiscany,  which  are  to  be  occopied  hj 
troops,  and  the  privileges  to  the  Emperor's  subjects  granted  oy  tl« 
Treaty  of  Vienna  to  be  revoked.  No  mention  is  made  of  Gibraltar  and 
Minorca. 

1070.  Italy.  The  series  of  revolts  in  Corsica  a^inst  Genoa  b^'iis,  led 
by  several  able  adventurers.  For  some  years  tne  island  is  given  up  to 
anarchy. 

1071.  America.  The  Charter  being  forfeited  for  misgovemment,  the 
proprietors  of  Carolina  sell  their  titles,  and  the  colony  becomes  a  royal 
government,  and  is  divided  into  North  and  South. 

1072.  Asia.  Nadir,  a  robber-chief,  aids  the  deposed  Shah  of  Persia,  and 
defeats  the  Afghans.  In  1732,  he  deposes  the  Shah  on  the  ground  of 
incompetence,  and  sets  up  his  infant  son. 


1073.  En^and.  Townshend  resigns,  refusing  to  recognise  Wal-  r,»gQ 
pole  as  Prime  Minister,  and  leaves  political  iSe.  ^ 

1074.  France.  The  Kin^  holds  a  Lit  de  Justice  to  compel  Parliament 
to  reg^ister  the  Bull  Unigenitus,  and,  on  its  refiisal,  issues  an  Edict 
declaring  that  it  cannot  meddle  with  politics. 

1075.  Germany.  Hotham  is  sent  to  Berlin  to  arrange  the  double 
marriage  desired  by  the  Queen  of  Prussia,  but  is  dismiss^  with  insult 
The  Queen  hereupon  makes  Frederick  and  Wilhelmina  promise  to  hold  to 
the  English  mamages  ;  but  the  King  discovers  what  she  has  done,  and 
Frederick  is  imprisoned  at  Eustrin. 


1730]  CULTURE  217 

1628,  Eng.  Ch.  Woolston  attacks  the  credibility  of  Miracles,  ri727 
and  is  answered  by  Sherlock's  Trial  of  the  Witnesses.  •- 

Lardner^s  Credibility  of  Gospel  History. 

Walpole  introduces  the  first  annual  bill  of  indemnity  for  neglect  of 
the  Test  and  Corporation  Acts. 

1629,  Clmrch  mst  Orsi  attacks  the  Jesuits  for  allowing  mental 
reservation.  Zaccaria  defends  the  Order,  and  is  attacked  by  Patuzzi 
and  Concina. 

16S0.    Eng.  Idt.    Gay's  Beggar's  Opera. 

Chambers'  Cyclopaedia. 
1^7.     Science.    Stephen  Hales'  Statical  &says  explain  the  nutrition  of 

plants,  and  measure  the  flow  of  blood. 
1^;?.    Agriculture.    Lawrence's  Duty  of  a  Steward  reveals  the  plan  of 

the  huge  landowners  to  expropriate  the  yeomen  or  small  farmers. 
I63S.    Deaths.    Prancke,  Newton. 


1634^     Eng.  Ch.    A  Moravian  Mission  is  planted  in  England.         ri7Qft 
I6S5.    Death.    Thomasius.  L^'^® 


2636.    Eng.  Ch.    Law's  Serious  Call.  ^^29 

IX)ddridge  establishes  a  Presb3rt«riau  Academy  at   Market    ^ 
Harborou^ 

Middleton's  Letter  from  Rome  introduces  the  historic  method  into 
the  deistic  controversy,  maintaining  that  the  Roman  Church  adopted 
many  PAgan  ceremonies. 

John  Wesley  and  his  friends  begin  to  meet  at  Oxford. 

Aiminianism  is  sprc^id  in  Wales  by  Jenkin  Jones,  and  many  adopt 
Arianism  and  Unitananism. 
26S7.    American  Ch.    Jonathan  Edwards  begins  to  preach. 

Berkeley  visits  Rhode  Island,  hoping  to  Christianise  Benuuda  and 
the  Indians  by  a  missionary  college. 

1638.  Art    Bach's  St  Matthew's  Passion. 

1639.  Science.    Gray  finds  that  some  bodies  can,  and  others  cannot, 
conduct  electricity. 

Bradley  discovers  the  aberration  of  light 

1640.  Law.    D'Aguesseau  be^ns  to  issue  ordinances  for  the  reform  of 
French  law,  and  j^ans  its  codification. 

1641.  Deaths.    Clarke,  Congreve,  Menshikoff,  Steele. 


1642.  Eng.  Ch.    Tindal's  Christianity  as  old  as  the  Creation   n73Q 
declares  that  Christ  merely  confirmed  the  law  revealed  by  the   ^ 
light  of  Nature.    The  book  is  vigorously  attacked  by  Law. 

1643.  Scotch  Ch.  Glas  attacks  the  civil  establishment  of  tlie  Church, 
is  deposed  and  forms  the  Glassite  Sect,  which  is  developed  by  his  son- 
in-law  Sandeman. 

1644^  French  Ch.  Antoine  Court  leaves  France  and  founds  a  Hugue- 
not seminary  at  Lausanne. 

Adrienne  Lecouvrenr,  the  actress,  is  refused  Christian  burial. 


218  POLITICS  [1730 


1076.  Russia.  With  Peter  II.,  grandson  of  Peter  the  Great,  the  male 
line  of  the  Romanoffs  ends. 

1077.  America.  Walpole  allows  Carolina  and  Georgia  to  export  their 
rice  and  the  West  Indies  their  sugar  in  English  ships,  and  repeakthe 
duties  on  the  importation  of  timber  from  the  colonies. 

1078.  AfHca.    The  Portuguese  finally  lose  Mombasa. 


1079.  France.    The  Parliament  of  Paris  declares  the  ministers  of  m^^^ 
the  Church  accountable  to  itself,  under  the  King,  whereon  Fleury  •• 
exiles  several  of  its  members. 

1080.  Italy.  On  the  death  of  the  Duke  of  Parma,  the  Emperor,  indig- 
nant at  the  Treaty  of  Seville,  seizes  on  his  territory.  Fiance  sad 
England  refuse  to  aid  Spain  in  expelling  him.  Walpole,  however,  actiiig 
independently  of  France,  forms  the  second  treaty  of  Vienna  with  the 
Emperor,  which  is  joined  bv  Spain.  England  guarantees  the  Pragmatic 
Sanction,  on  condition  Maria  Theresa  does  not  marry  a  BoarboD. 
Charles  agrees  to  dissolve  the  Ostend  Company,  and  allows  Don  Carlos 
to  occupy  Parma  and  Piacenza. 

1081.  Poland.  Kussia,  Austria  and  Prussia  propose,  but  do  not  agree, 
to  oppose  Stanislas  and  to  settle  the  succession. 

1082.  America.  English  and  Spaniards  come  into  conflict  in  South 
America,  the  former  feeding  the  one  ship  allowed  to  them  by  treaty 
from  tenders  kept  beyond  sight  of  land,  the  latter  insisting  on  we  right 
of  search. 


1083.  Germany.    The  Pragmatic  Sanction  is  accepted  by  the  m^ 
German    Princes,   except    the    Elector    Palatine,   Saxony   and   *• 
Bavaria. 

1084.  America.  To  secure  the  western  part  of  Carolina  before  it  i* 
claimed  by  France  or  Spain,  Oglethorpe,  Berkeley  and  others,  as  truateei^ 
for  the  crown  for  21  years,  found  the  colony  of  Georgia,  chiefly  a» 
a  refuge  for  persecuted  Protestants  and  for  criminals.  Thoogfa  the 
Cliarter  forbids  slavery,  the  colonists  *  hire '  slaves  from  Carolina. 


1085.  En^and.  To  suppress  smiiggling  and  frauds,  Walpole  r^^ 
proposes  that  tobacco  sliaU  be  import^  free  of  duty  into  super-  *• 
vised  warehouses  and  sold  at  licensed  shops,  the  duty  being  paid  by  the 
purchaser.  Goods  destined  for  re-exportation  equally  pay  no  duty. 
Walpole  also  abolishes  the  sinking-fund  of  1716,  and  assures  the  Com- 
mons that  he  will  be  able  to  reduce  the  Land-Tax  to  one  shilling  in  the 
£.  Pulteney  and  Bolingbroke,  however,  persuade  the  country  tnat  the 
minister  is  imposing  a  general  excise  and  raising  the  price  of  tobacco, 
and  force  Walpole  to  withdraw  the  scheme.  Cliesterfield  and  other  dis- 
loyal members  of  the  (jovenimeut  are  in  consetpience  dismissed. 

1086.  Italy.  Fleury  allies  with  Spain  and  Sardinia  by  the  League  of 
Turin,  by  which  Don  Carlos  is  to  renounce  Parma  and  the  suocessiiHi 
to  Tuscany  to  his  younger  brother,  and  to  obtain  Naples  and  Sicily. 


1788]  CULTURE  219 

J64o,  Science.  De  Moivre's  theorems  create  (with  Lambert)  that  part 
of  trigonometry  which  deals  with  imaginary  (quantities. 

J646,  Fhilology.  Vico  (in  the  2nd  edition  of  the  Scienza  Nuova) 
declares  the  Homeric  poems  to  be  composed  by  different  hands,  and  the 
Iliad  to  be  the  earlier. 

i6*-^7.     History.     RoUin's  Histoire  Ancienne. 

1648.  Agrictdtare.    Townshend    be^nns    the    Norfolk  or  four-course 
•  system  of  husbandry,  improves  marling,  and  cultivates  clover  and  tuniips. 

Jethro  Tull  also  experiments  on  his  farm  at  WalliugfonL 

1649.  French  Ch.    Miracles  commence  at   the  tomb  of  the    riyoi 
Jausenist,   Abb^  Paris.     At  first  approved  by   the  Jansenist    ^ 
leaders,  they  soon  d^enerate,  and  the  government  closes  the  cemeter}-. 

1650.  German  Ch.  20,()00  Protestants  of  the  diocese  of  Salzburg  are 
expelled  by  the  Archbishop,  and  take  refuge  in  Pnissia,  Holland  and 
America. 

Tersteegen's  Spiritual  Flower-Garden,  a  collection  of  pietist   and 
mystical  hymns. 
I6ol.     Eng.  Lit.    The  Gentleman's  Magazine  is  founded. 

1652,  French  Lit.  Marivaux'  Marianne  creates  Marivaudage,  or  af- 
fectation posing  as  simplicity. 

1653,  Dutch  Lit.     Van  Effen  edits  the  Dutch  Spectator. 

1654,  Science.  Stahl's  Oljservationes  Cliemicae  introduces  the  first 
consLstent  theory  of  the  composition  of  compounds  and  of  chemical 
action,  and  declares  that  there  are  four  elements,  Water,  Air,  Earth, 
Phlogiston. 

Hadley  invents  the  ciuadrant  for  use   at  sea.  which  supersedes 
the  astrolabe  and  the  cross-staff.     DoUond  shortly  invents  the  sextant. 
165-1,    Death.    Defoe. 


165fJ.     Eng.  CSh.    Berkeley  attacks  the  Deists  in  Alciphron.  ri732 

1657,     Church  Hist.  The  Redemptionists  are  foundecl  by  Liguori,    ^ 

principally  for  missions  to  the  rural  poor. 
16oS.     mng.  Lit.    Pope's  Es.say  on  Man. 

1659,  French  Lit     Voltaire's  tragedy,  Zaire. 

1660,  German  Lit.  The  translation  of  Paradise  Lost  by  Bodiner  of 
Zurich  is  attacked  by  Grottsched,  and  leads  to  a  controversy  extending 
over  10  years  between  the  Swiss  and  Saxon  schools. 

Haller's  The  Alps  praises  the  beauty  of  nature. 

1661,  Swedish  Lit.    Dalin's  Argiis  copies  the  Spectator. 

1662,  Science.  Boerhaave's  Elements  of  Chemistr}^  founds  organic 
chemistry,  analysing  the  compounds  of  plants  and  animals. 

1663,  History.    Maffei's  Verona  Illustrata. 

1664,  Law.  J.  J.  Moser's  Foundaticms  of  Inteniational  Law,  the  first 
systematic  work  on  positive  international  law. 

1665,  Xng.  Ch.    Hoadley's  Plain  Account  of  the  Ijonl's  Supper,    (-1733 
describing  the  ceremony  as  purely  memorial,  is  attacked  in  Water-    ^ 
land's  Doctrine  of  the  Eucharist. 


220  POLITICS  [ITS 


The  King  of  Sanlinia  is  to  annex  the  Milanese,  and  Savoy  is  to  be 
handed  over  to  France. 

France  overruns  Lorraine  and  the  Milanese. 

1087.  Spain.  A  family  compact  is  made  by  the  Treaty  of  the  Becaritl, 
by  which  France  and  Spain  agree  that  their  forces  shall  act  together, 
France  promising  the  recovery  of  Gibraltar,  Spain  the  withdrawal  of  ha 
concessions  to  English  trade.  Walpole  hears  of  the  secret  treity 
through  the  King  of  Sardinia. 

1088.  Foland.  Augustus  dies,  and  the  war  party  in  France  force  the 
King  and  Fleury  to  promise  support  to  Stanislas,  who  goes  to  PoIaikI 
and  is  re-elected  King  by  a  majority  of  the  nobles.  Russia  suppom 
the  son  of  Augustus,  and  the  Emperor  is  won  over  by  a  promise  of  the 
young  Augustus  to  recognise  the  Pragmatic  Sanction.  Stanislas  \f^ 
expelled  by  Russian  and  Saxon  troops,  French  aid  proves  too  small  to 
be  effective,  and  Augustus  is  acknowledged  King  by  the  Poles. 

1089.  America.  By  the  Sugar  Act,  the  colonies  are  forbidden  to  trade 
with  the  French  islands  and  confined  to  the  English  West  Indies. 


1090.  France.  France  and  Sardinia  conquer  the  Milanese  and  r^^^ 
occupy  Lorraine.  ^ 

1091.  Italy.  Don  Carlos  enters  Naples,  where  he  is  welcomed.  Taniu*ci 
becomes  his  chief  minister,  and  reforms  are  introduced.  The  clergy  ire 
taxed,  and  feudalism  is  partially  broken  up. 

1092.  Poland.  Danzig  is  taken  by  Russia,  and  Stanislas  is  forced  to 
escape  from  Poland. 


1093.  En^and.     Bolingbroke  retires  to  France.  m^ 

1094.  Italy.     Don  Carlos  wins  Sicily.  '• 
France  deserts  Spain  and  arranges  preliminaries  of  peace  with  the 

Emperor.  Stanislas  is  to  renounce  the  Polish  crown  in  favour  *i 
Augustus,  and  to  receive  in  compensation  Lorraine,  which  on  his  death 
is  to  pass  U)  France.  Francis  of  Lorraine  is  to  receive  Tuscany  as 
indemnification  on  the  death  of  the  reigning  Grand  Duke.  Don  Cmw 
hands  over  Parma  and  Piacenza  to  the  Emperor,  and  is  recc^ised  as 
King  of  Naples  and  Sicily.  Other  com^uests  are  restored,  and  France 
guarantees  tne  Pragmatic  Sanction. 

1095.  Africa.  Iiabourdonnais  becomes  (rovemor  of  Mauritius  and 
Reunion  under  the  French  East  India  Company,  and  establishes  the 
sugar  industry  in  the  islands. 

1096.  Asia.    The  war  between  Turkey  and  Nadir  ends. 


1097.  Scotland.    Porteous,  captain  of  the  Edinburgh  City  Guard,   r^^^^ 
fires  on  the  mob  at  the  execution  of  Wilson,  a  smuggler,  is   ^ 
sentenced  to  death,  and  reprieved.     He  is  hung  by  the  mob,  and  the 
riots  in  Edinburgh  reveal  the  latent  hostility  felt  by  Scotland  to  the 
English  crown. 

1098.  Spain.    The  Preliminaries  of  Vienna  are  accepted  by  Spain. 


1736]  CULTURE  221 

l^i^i,  Scotch  Ch.  The  restoration  of  lay-patronage  is  attacked  by 
Ebenezer  Erskiue,  who  is  suspended.  He  protests  against  the  authority 
of  the  General  Assembly,  forms  a  new  church,  and  is  deposed. 

W»7.    Polish  Ch.     Non-Catholics  are  excluded  from  office. 

It)»j8.    French  Lit.    Cresset's  Vert- Vert,  the  story  of  a  parrot 

i(^.  Art  Rameau  begins  to  compose  operas  and  becomes  recognised 
as  Lulli's  successor. 

WO,  History.  Vaissette  and  Devic,  Benedictines  of  St  Maur,  compile 
\  Histoire  de  Languedoc.  Others  commence  a  Histoire  litt<5raire  de 
la  France. 

iff?/.    Law.     Proceedings  in  Court  are  to  be  in  English. 


I*n2,    Qerman  Ch.    Baumgarten  becomes  Professor  of  Theology    ri  734 
it  Halle  and  developes  a  Pelagian  rationalism.    About  this  time   '- 
Pietism  loses  its  influence  in  the  Lutheran  Church. 

2CJ.    French  Lit.    Voltaire's  Lettres  sur  les  Anglais  introduce  the 
ideas  of  Locke  and  Newton,  and  direct  attention  to  England. 

Ki,    Art    The  Dilettanti  Society  is  fonned  to  encourage  art. 

/iT.v.    Philosophy.    Berkeley's  Analyst  declares  that  mathematics  can- 
not justify  its  axioms  any  more  than  theolog}'. 

lOj.    Education.     Mme  de  Lambert's  Avis  d'une  M^re  ^  sa  Fille 
Approves  of  the  study  of  classics  and  Cartesiauism  by  women. 

I*u7,    History.    Montesquieu's  Grandeur  et  Decadence  des  Romains. 

m.    Death.    Stahl. 


iO.    Eng.  Ch.    Scougal's  Life  of  God  in  the  Soul  of  Man.  nyas 

/%    American  Ch.    John  Wesley  goes  to  work  in  Georgia.        '- 
i'^/.    Science.    Linnaeus'  Systema  Naturae  introduces  a  second  or 

fpecific  name  for  plants  and  animals,  and  proves  the  sex  of  plants,  which 

tie  cla&siiies  according  as  the  organs  of  reproduction  are  visible  or  not. 
La  Condamine  is  sent  to  South  America  and  Maupertuis  to  Lap- 

lud  to  measure  an  arc  of  the  meridian. 
/ftS?.    Economics.    Berkeley's  Querist  points  out  the  true  nature  of 

Boney. 
l^.    Law.    Heineccius  declares  Roman  law  inapplicable  in  (Jermany. 
l^i.    Death.    Peterborough. 

/«S5.    En^   Ch.    Butler's   Analog}-  of  Religion,  Natural   and    nyog 
Berealed,  with  the  Constitution  and  Course  of  Nature  contends    '- 
tbat  the   difficulties  of  Christianity  are  no  greater  than  those   of 
natural  religion,  which  his  opponents,  the  Deists,  recognise  to  proceed 
from  God. 

Warbnrton's  Alliance  of  Church  and  State  contends  for  the  necessity, 
buth  theoretical  and  practical,  of  an  Establishment  and  a  test  law. 

Walpole  supports  the  Quakers  in  their  protest  against  tithes,  but  is 
fciced  uj  the  outcry  to  withdraw. 
'W*.    (German  Ch.    WolflTs  Theologia  Naturalis,  distinguishing  Veritas 
Aetema  and  Veritates  Contingentes,  such  as  miracles,  initiates  the 


222  POLITICS  [1788 


1099.  Italy.  Baron  Neuhof,  of  Westphalia,  becomes  King  Theodore  L 
of  Corsica. 

1100.  Turkey.  The  Czarina  Anne,  desiring  to  recover  Axoy,  decUiw 
war  against  Turkey,  and  seizes  Azov.  Russia's  ally,  Austaia,  sends  in 
army  under  Seckendorf,  a  Protestant 

1101.  Asia.  The  infant  Shah  dies,  the  Sufi  dynasty  ends,  and  Nadir 
becomes  Shah  of  Persia. 


1102.  En^and.    The  King  quarrels  with  the  Prince  of  Wales,  m^ 
who  retires  to  Leicester  House  and  becomes  the  head  of  the  ^ 
opposition.     Walpole*s  position  is  further  weakened  by  the  death  of 
Queen  Caroline. 

The  Treaty  of  Vienna  is  ratified,  and  the  war  of  the  Polish  Sll^ 
cession  is  closed. 

1 103.  Italy.    The  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany  dies,  and  is  succeeded  by  the 
Duke  of  Lorraine. 

1104.  France.    Stanislas  succeeds  to  Lorraine  and  Bar. 
The  Corvine  is  established  throughout  France. 

1105.  Turkey.    The  Emperor's  troops  are  repulsed,  and  Seckendorf  is 
disgraced. 

1106.  Russia.    Courland,  which  is  legally  under  the  overlordship  of 
Poland,  is  obtained  by  the  Empress  Anne  for  Biron. 


1107.  En^and.    The  opposition  is  joined  by  Pitt  and  other  mma 
young  men  iudignant  at  the  corruption  of  Walpole,  who  calls   ^ 
them  the  Boys. 

Captain  Jenkins,  who  claims  to  have  lost  an  ear  in  a  scuffle  with 
a  Spanish  coast-guard,  is  brought  forward  by  the  opposition,  and  a  ciy 
for  war  with  Spain  becomes  general. 

1108.  Austria.    The  Treaty  of  Vienna  is  definitively  signed. 

1109.  Sweden.  The  Hats,  or  the  war-party,  overthrow  the  Cans,  the 
party  of  i)eace.  Gyllenborg  becomes  cliaucellor,  and  the  French  aUiance 
IS  renewed. 

1110.  Turkey.  The  new  Austrian  General,  Konigseg^,  is  driven  back 
to  Belgrade,  and  several  fortresses  are  lost.     Fleury  ol^rs  mediation. 

1111.  Asia.  Nadir  Shall  seizes  the  cities  and  territories  of  Kftn<^iih*y 
and  Cabul,  the  latter  an  outpost  of  the  Moghul  Empire. 


1112.  En^and.     Walpole  obtains  an  indemnity  from  Spain  for   t«M 
actual  damage  to  Englishmen  in  South  America;    but  Spain   *- 
tlireatens  to  cancel  the  monopoly.     Walpole  is  forced  to  enter  on  mi 
for  the  right  of  searclt     Porto  Bello  is  captured  by  Vernon,  and  Anson 
attacks  Peru  in  the  coarse  of  his  voyage  round  the  world. 

1113.  France.  By  a  secret  treaty  with  Austria,  the  House  of  Sulzbach 
is  guaraiiteeil  provisional  occupation  of  Jiilich  and  Benr  on  the  death 
of  the  Elector  Palatine  (Jan.).      Three  mouths  later,  France  secretly 


1799]  CULTURE  223 

16S7,  Science.  Euler  founds  analytical  mechanics,  retaining  the  old 
geometrical  modes. 

l^S.  Art  The  exploration  of  Herculaneum,  discovered  1711,  is  com- 
menced. 

Pi89.    Law.    B3mker8hoek'8  De  Foro  Legatorum. 

i^#j^>.  Social.  The  English  statutes  against  witchcraft  are  repealed, 
descpite  the  protest  of  the  Presbyterian  ministers. 

U)9L    Deaths.    Eugene,  Leclerc,  Pergolesi. 

»     l^^.    Bng.  Ch.    Gruden  compiles  a  Concordance  of  the  Bible.       ri7Q7 
i     ims,    Italian  Ch.    St  Paul  of  the  Cross  founds  the  Passionists.     ^'^' 
l&^i.    American  Ch.    Arminianism  and  Socinianism  begin  to  spread. 
1^,    Bng.  Lit.    The  Lord  Chamberlain  undertakes  the  licensing  of 

plays. 
/(;.%'.    Science.    R^umur's  History  of  Insects. 

i')r<r.    Education.    Grottingen  University  is  founded  by  the  King  of 
Hinorer.     Haller  and  Blumenbach  teach  science,  Gesner  and  Heyne 
cUasics,  Putter  and  Schlozer,  history  and  politics. 
l^.   Law.    J.  J.  Moser's  German  Law,  a  collection  from  treaties  and 
other  original  sources  of  the  rules  of  law  at  this  time  in  force. 

Bynl^rshoek's  Quaestiones  Juris  Publicis  discuss  the  positions  of 
belligerent  and  neutral  in  sea  warfare. 

I'Siff.   Eng.  Ch.    Weslev  returns  from  Georgia,  falls  under  the    riyoo 
inJaence  of  Peter  Bohler,  a  Moravian,  ana  is  *  converted*  on    ^ 
May  24.     He  visits  Hermhut  and  is  much  impressed  with  the  life  of 
tke  community. 

Warbnrton  s  Divine  Legation  of  Moses  declares  that  Jewish  society, 
IttTiDff  DO  doctrine  of  a  future  life,  was  supported  by  an  extraordinary 
horideoce. 

1700.  American  Ch.    Whitfield  undertakes  a  mission  in  America. 

1701,  Eng.  Lit.    Johnson's  London. 
17(^    Science.    Voltaire  introduces  Newton's  ideas  into  France ;  but 

the  Gaitesian  Academy  of  Sciences  declares  that  they  revive  scholastic 

Mlioiig  of  occult  (qualities. 
Dioiel  Bemouilli  asserts  that  gases  are  composed  of  molecules  in 

ttnstant   motion,  and  anticipates  the    doctrine  of   Conservation  of 

hem. 
170i.    rditlca.    Bolingbroke's  Patriot  King  urges  that  the  monarch 

dionld  stand  outside  and  above  party. 
170]^    Social,    Kay's  fljring-shuttle  enables  weavers  to  produce  double 

tW  quantity  of  cauco. 
^.   Death.    Boerhaave. 


'^%    Eng.  Ch.    Wesley  follows  Wliitfield's  example  of  preach-    nyog 
i^  IB  the  open  air,  and  finds  himself  excluded  from  the  majority    *- 
flfpii^iita. 

Cnibb'a  True  Gospel  of  Jesus  Christ  explains  Deism  to  the  working- 


224  POLITICS  [1791 

agrees  with  Prussia  to  allow  the  latter  to  share  the  duchies  with  Sah- 
bach.     The  two  Powers  agree  to  stand  together  in  case  of  war. 

1114.  Turkey.  The  Turks  rout  the  Austrians  at  Crocyka  and  thrateii 
Belgrade.  A  treaty  of  Belgrade  is  therefore  made  by  French  inflneDce. 
Austria  cedes  all  territories  gained  by  the  Treaty  of  Passarowitz,  bat 
retains  Teinesvar,  of  which  the  fortresses  are  to  be  dismantled.  Kmat, 
being  deserted  by  her  ally,  is  forced  to  make  peace,  ceding  all  her  con- 
quests except  Azov,  which  she  is  to  dismantle,  and  promising  not  to 
maintain  vessels  on  the  Black  Sea  or  the  Sea  of  Azov. 

1115.  Asia.  Nadir  Shah  of  Persia  invades  India,  sacks  Delhi,  and 
restores  the  dethroned  Emperor. 

Bassein,  second  in  importance  to  6oa  alone,  and  nearly  all  the 
Portuguese  possessions  on  the  North-west  coast  of  India,  are  taken  by 
the  Mahrattas. 


1116.  Austria.  On  the  death  of  the  Emperor,  the  male  line  of  ri»^ 
the  Hapsburgs  becomes  extinct  (Oct.).  Opposition  to  the  sue-  '- 
cession  of  Maria  Theresa  is  made  by  the  Elector  of  Bavaria,  husband  oi 
the  second  daughter  of  Joseph  I.  and  claimant  by  the  will  of  Ferdband  L. 
by  Augustus  of  Saxony,  through  his  wife,  eldest  daughter  of  Joseph  I, 
and  by  Philip  of  Spam,  as  heir  of  the  Spanish  Hapsburgs.  Bosat, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  neutral,  and  England  and  Holland  friendly. 

1117.  Russia.  Anne,  daughter  of  Peter  the  Great,  dies,  and  Munnich, 
one  of  her  German  generals,  sets  aside  her  will,  and  deserts  Austria  for 
Prussia. 

1118.  Germany.  Frederick  the  Great  succeeds  his  &ther  (May),  ind 
takes  advantage  of  the  contested  succession  to  the  Empire  to  seiie 
Silesia  (Dec.),  basing  his  claim  on  the  purchase  of  Jagemdorf,  1524,  ind 
the  treaty  of  1537  with  the  Duke  of  Liegnitz. 

1119.  Asia.  On  his  return  from  India,  Nadir  Shah  receives  the  sub- 
mission of  the  Uzbek  ruler  of  Balkh  and  Bokhara,  and  extends  bL< 
dominions  to  the  Oxus. 

The  capitulations  granted  to  France  by  the  Porte  are  collected  md 
confinned,  and  the  Protectorate  over  the  S}Tian  Pilgrims  is  e^^citlj 
stated. 


1120.     Germany.     Frederick  meets  the  Austrians  at  Mollwitz,    rj-j, 
where  his  cavalry  is  routed  and  he  himself  flies,  the  day,  how-   »• 
ever,  being  retrieved  by  the  infantry  under  Schwerin  (April). 

Louis  and  Fleury  are  persuaded  by  Belleisle  to  attempt  the  partition 
of  Austria,  and  agree  by  the  secret  Treaty  of  Nymphenniirg  to  sap^ 
the  claims  of  the  Elector  of  Bavaria  to  the  Empire  (May).  Frederick. 
who  fails  to  obtain  the  cession  of  Silesia  from  Maria  Theresa,  allies  with 
France,  promising  to  support  Bavaria,  Louis  guaranteeing  Lower  Sflena. 
Saxony  also  joins  France,  on  the  promise  of  Upper  Silesia  luid  Moririi 
(July).  Georpe  II.  declares  Hanover  neutral,  and  promises  his  eldctoni 
vote  to  Bavana.  Belleisle  crosses  the  Rhine,  joins  the  Bavaiian  troops, 
and  takes  Linz,  three  days'  march  from  Vienna  (Sept.). 


1741]  CULTURE  225 

1707,    Oerman  Lit.    The  Gottinger  Gelehrte  Anzeigen  are  commenced 

by  Haller. 
17(Js,    Russian  Lit.    Lomonosof  write«t  an  ode  on  the  taking  of  Ehotin 

from  the  Turks. 
17(iO,    Literature.    The  President  de  Brosses  visits  Italy  and  describes 

its  art  and  society,  in  letters  to  his  friends  in  France. 

1710.  Philosophy.  Hume's  Treatise  on  Human  Nature  declares  that 
only  the  particular  exists ;  that  the  elements  of  all  knowledge  are 
simple  perceptions,  received  passively;  that  the  echo  or  survival  of 
these  forms  impressions  or  ideas,  association  taking  place  according  to 
likeness,  contiguity  and  causal  connection ;  that  the  ideas  of  a  self  or 
ego  and  of  a  cause  are  illusions  ;  that  the  process  of  willing  and  acting 
is  mechanical,  being  based  chiefly  on  the  pursuit  of  pleasure  and  the 
avoidance  of  pain. 

1711,  History.    Blomefield's  Histor}'  of  Norfolk. 


1712.  Eng.  Ch.  Wesley  severs  his  connection  with  the  Mora-  xyjAn 
Tians.  ^ 

Challoner  s  Garden  of  the  Soul,  a  Catholic  manual. 

171S.  Italian  Ch.  Benedict  XIV.  becomes  Pope  and  gathers  round 
him  Norift,  Orsi,  Saccarelli,  and  other  scholars. 

17 H.  Asiatic  Ch.  Wahab  commences  a  Puritan  movement  in  Persia, 
which  rapidly  spreads. 

1715.  Church  Mist.  Muratori  discovers  and  publishes  a  fragmentary 
Latin  Canon  of  the  Christian  Scriptures,  dating  from  the  second  century. 

1716.  Eng.  Lit.  Richardson's  Pamela  commences  the  novel  of 
steutiment. 

1717.  Gennan  Lit.  Frederick  the  Great  patronises  Gottsched  and 
Gellert;   but  the  influence  of  the  Gallic  scliool  begins  to  decline. 

1718.  Art.    Tlie  French  Salon  begins  to  be  held. 

1719.  Science.  Lazzaro  Moro  exnlains  the  order  of  strata  by  the 
action  of  the  sea,  rivers,  earth([uaKes,'  and  volcanoes. 

17 20.  Law.  WolflTs  Jus  Naturae  first  completely  separates  the  Law  of 
Nations  fit)m  the  duties  of  individuals,  basing  the  former  on  a  pre- 
sumed consent 

1721.  Politics.  Frederick  the  Great's  Anti-Machiavel  portrays  the  king 
as  the  'premier  domestique'  of  his  people. 

1722.  Geography.    Anson  sails  round  the  world  in  the  Centurion. 


172S.  Eng.  Ch.  Wesley  employs  lay  preachers  and  builds  ny^i 
chapels  for  them.  ^ 

Whitfield  returns  from  America,  and  engages  in  a  controversy  on 
predestination  with  Wesley. 

1724.  Axnerioan  Ch.  The  Moravians  found  Bethlehem  and  other 
colonies  in  Pennsylvania. 

1725.  French  Ch.  With  the  death  of  MontfauQon,  the  Benedictines  of 
St  Maiir  decline,  their  place  in  the  van  of  scholarship  being  to  some 
extent  taken  by  the  Acad^mie  des  Inscriptions. 

o.  15 


226  POLITICS  [1741 

In  face  of  this  formidable  alliance,  Maria  Theresa  concedes  to 
Hungary  the  right  of  arming  and  constitutional  privil^;e8 ;  whereon 
the  country  rises  in  her  favour  and  recognises  her  husband  as  joint 
ruler.  She  also  concludes  a  secret  treaty  with  Frederick  at  Klein 
Schellendorf,  promising  the  cession  of  Lower  Silesia  (Oct.).  At  this 
moment,  however,  Fn^e  is  taken  by  the  allies;  a  palace  revolation 
substitutes  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Peter  the  Great,  wno  is  inclined  to 
a  French  alliance,  for  the  Kegent  Anne  ;  and  Frederick  breaks  the  con- 
vention, and  sends  Schwerin  to  invade  Moravia. 

1121.  Austria.    The  Bohemian  Aulic  Chancery  in  Vienna,  the  kst 
representative  of  Bohemian  interests,  is  suppressed. 

1122.  West  Indies.    Vernon  fails  to  take  Carthagena  and  Santiago. 

1123.  America.    A  Russian  expedition  under  Behring  opens  up  a  fiir 
trade  in  Alaska. 


1124.  England.  Walpole  is  defeated,  and  resigns,  and  Carteret  rin^ 
and  Newcastle  take  office.  *• 

1125.  Germany.  The  Elector  of  Bavaria  is  chosen  Emperor  (Feb.),  bat 
Bavaria  is  ovemin,  the  Austrian  provinces  are  recovered,  and  Frederick's 
campaign  in  Moravia  fails.  He  again  negotiates,  with  English  media- 
tion ;  but  Maria  Theresa  insists  on  his  joining  her  to  expel  the  French. 
He  defeats  her  at  Chotusitz  (May),  but  accepts  her  request  for  peace. 
By  the  Treaty  of  Breslau  he  obtains  almost  all  Silesia  and  the  coantj 
of  Glatz,  takes  over  the  debt  on  Silesia,  and  makes  a  defensive  alliance 
with  England.  Saxony  also  deserts  France  by  the  Treaty  of  Dresden, 
but  fails  to  obtain  territory.  France  again  wins  Bavaria,  but  is  driven 
out  of  Bohemia. 

1126.  Italy.  Maria  Theresa  allies  with  Sardinia  to  keep  a  SpanLih 
army  out  of  Lombardy.  Modena  is  captured,  and  an  English  fleet 
anchored  before  Naples,  compels  Don  Carlos  to  withdraw  from  the 
war.  Sardinia  and  England,  however,  refuse  to  aid  Maria  Theresa  in 
attempting  to  win  back  Naples  and  Sicily. 


1127.  Ireland.    Charles  Lucas  demands  Home  Rule.  rmM 

1128.  Germany.    Austria  retakes  Bavaria,  which  is  ceded  by  '- 

a  convention  till  a  general  treaty.     The  French  give  up  ^^r,  their  last 
Bohemian  stronghold. 

A  mixed  English  and  Hanoverian  army  that  has  entered  the  Nether- 
lands is  joined  by  Dutch  troops,  sent  by  the  reviving  Orange  party. 
George  H.  arrives  and  defeats  Noailles  at  Dettingen  (June).  The 
victory  is  not  followed  up,  Carteret  and  Newcastle  quarrel,  and  a  pn^ 
posed  invasion  of  France  fails. 

1129.  Italy.  Savoy  refuses  to  fi^ht  further  without  territorial  coo- 
cessions  ;  but  bv  English  mediation,  the  Treaty  of  Worms  is  made, 
between  England,  Sardinia  and  Austria  (Sept).    Maria  Theresa  cedes 


743]  CULTURE  227 

726,     Oerman  Ch.    Ernest  Augustus  of  Saxe- Weimar  founds  a  mission 

to  the  Jews. 

The  Society  of  Alethophils  is  founded  to  spread  the  philosophy  of 

Wolff,  especially  among  the  younger  clergy.    A  large  number  accept 

the  principles  of  the  Aufklarung. 
7^.     Italian  Ch.    Benedict  XI v.,  by  a  Concordat  \i'ith  Naples,  allows 

the  laity  partialiurisdiction  over  the  clergy. 

728,  Cnurch  aist.  Benedict  XIV.  issues  a  Declaration  to  the  bishops 
of  Holland,  allowing  mixed  marriages  where  the  Protestant  swears  not 
to  molest  the  Catholic  in  the  exercise  of  religion,  and  promises  to 
educate  the  children  as  Catholics.  A  similar  brief  is  sent  to  Poland, 
1748,  and  is  extended  to  the  whole  Church,  1777. 

The  Pope  forbids  missionaries  to  take  part  in  the  slave  trade. 

729,  Eng.  Lit.  Garrick  achieves  his  first  great  success  in  the  part  of 
Richard  III. 

730,  Science.    Linnaeus  plans  a  botanical  garden  at  Upsala. 

731,  Politics.  Hume's  Essays  expose  the  notion  of  a  historical 
contract,  and  adopt  the  principle  of  Utility. 

732,  Philosophy.  Brucker's  Historia  Philosophiae,  the  first  systematic 
attempt  at  a  history  of  thought. 

733,  Social.  The  Highway  Act  imposes  tolls,  and  English  roads  are 
greatly  improved. 


734.     Eng.  Ch.    Dodweirs  Christianity  not  founded  on  Argu-    ny^o 
ment  attacks  both  Deists  and  Christians  for  asserting  the  harmony    ■- 
of  reason  and  revelation,  and  declares  Rational  Faith  a  contradiction 
in  terms. 

Edward  Young's  Night  Thoughts  on  Life,  Death  and  Immortality 
obtain  immense  success. 

736,  German  Ch.  Frederick  the  Great  grants  equal  rights  to  Catho- 
lics and  Protestants  in  Prussia. 

Bengel's  Gnomon  of  the  New  Testament,  a  Lutheran  Commentary, 
becomes  classical. 

At  the  Imperial  election,  gravamina  against  the  Curia  are  discussed. 

736.  American  Ch.  Muhlenberg,  a  pietist  from  Halle,  becomes  the 
leader  of  the  Lutherans  in  Pennsylvania. 

737.  Eng.  Lit.  Fielding's  realistic  novel,  Joseph  Andrews,  commenced 
as  a  parody  on  Richardson's  Pamela. 

738.  Oerman  Lit.  Elias  SchlegeFs  work  on  Imitation  discusses 
Aesthetics  from  the  classical  standpoint  afterwards  adopted  by  Lessing. 

739.  Science.  Maclaurin  presents  the  first  systematic  account  of 
FluxioDS  ^which  he  regards  as  velocities),  suggested  by  Berkeley's  attack 
on  the  principles  of  the  calculus  in  the  Analyst. 

740.  Art    Handers  Messiah. 

741.  Deaths.    Bentley,  Massillon,  Walpole. 


742.    Eng.Ch.  The  Welsh  Calvinistic  Methodist  body  is  founded    vyj^^ 
\j(f  Whitfield  and  Howell  Harris,  once  a  churchman,  who  has   '■ 
been  preachinff  in  Wales  for  some  years  as  a  layman. 

15—2 


228  POLITICS  [174S 

part  of  the  Milanese  to  Savoy,  and  directs  her  troops  to  serve  under  the 
King  of  Sardinia.  England  promises  subsidies  ;  and  secret  articles  pro- 
vide for  the  expulsion  of  the  Bourbons  from  Italy. 

1130.  France.  Fleury  dies,  and  the  Belleisle  party  becomes  supreme. 
To  meet  the  Treaty  of  Worms,  France  and  Spain  make  a  new  Facte 
Famille  at  Fontainebleau,  France  promising  to  declare  war  against 
England  and  Sardinia,  and  to  aid  Spain  to  seise  the  Milanese  aod 
Parma,  Gibraltar,  Minorca  and  Georgia  (Oct.). 

1131.  Sweden.  After  capitulating  in  the  campaign  of  1742,  Sweden 
cedes  South  Finland  to  Russia  by  the  Treaty  of  Abo,  and  the  succession 
is  guaranteed  to  the  House  of  Holstein-Grottorp. 


1132.  England.    Carteret  is  ejected  by  Newcastle,  owing  to  his   ri»^ 
unpopular  foreign  policy.   *Henry  Pelham,  Newcastle's  brother,   ^ 
becomes  supreme. 

1133.  France.  An  expedition  to  restore  the  Younff  Pretender  is  defeat6d 
by  a  storm.  War  is  declared  against  England  and  Austria.  S&xe 
captures  several  fortresses  in  the  Netherlands.  Charles  of  Lorraine 
crosses  the  Rhine  with  an  Austrian  army  and  overruns  Alsace. 

1134.  Germany.  Meanwhile  Frederick  forms  the  Union  of  Frankfort 
(May),  joined  by  Charles  of  Bavaria,  the  Elector  Palatine  and  the  Land- 
grave of  Hesse,  to  forc«  Maria  Theresa  to  restore  Bavaria  and  m&ke 
a  general  peace.  As  Maria  Theresa  hopes  to  recapture  Silesia,  Frederick 
renews  his  alliance  with  France,  promising  to  conquer  Bohemia  for 
Charles  of  Bavaria,  in  return  for  the  cession  of  part  to  him.  He  com- 
mences the  second  Silesian  War  by  taking  Prague.  Charles  of  Lorraine 
is  recalled  from  Alsace,  and  Saxony  sends  troops  to  aid  Austria. 
Frederick  falls  back  to  Silesia.  Bavaria,  however,  is  meanwhile  recap- 
tured. 

East  Friesland  passes  by  reversion  to  Prussia. 

1135.  Russia.  Elizabeth's  nephew  and  heir  marries  Catherine  of 
Anhalt. 

1136.  America.    The  French  take  Annapolis. 


1137.  Scotland.    The  Young  Pretender  lands  in  Scotland  (July),    ry,^ 
and  marches  to  Edinburgh.     Cope  is  defeated  at  Preston  Pans   '- 
(Sept.),  and  Charles  crosses  the  Border  and  reaches  Derby  (Dec  5),  bat 
turns  back  in  fear. 

1138.  Prance.     Mme  de  Pompadour  becomes  supreme. 

1139.  Germany.  The  Emperor  dies  (Jan.),  and  the  Austrians  again 
overrun  Bavaria  and  force  the  young  Elector  to  renounce  his  daim  and 
to  promise  to  vote  for  Francis.     France  urges  Augustus  of  Saxony  to 


1T4B]  CULTURE  229 

17i3.  Church  Hist.  Swedenborg  becomes  convinced  of  his  mission  by 
revelations,  retires  from  his  post  in  a  mining  college,  and  composes 
his  Alcana  Gelestia.  His  claims  are  little  recognised  in  Sweden, 
hot  are  introduced  into  Grermany  by  Oetinger.  No  Swedenborgian 
Church  is  founded  in  England  till  towards  the  close  of  the  century. 

1744,  Literature.  Voltaire  visits  Frederick  the  Great,  with  whom  he 
has  been  in  correspondence  for  several  years. 

1745,  Science.  Ualler  begins  to  publish  his  anatomical  drawings,  and 
discovers  the  contraction  of  muscles. 

Clairaut's  Th^rie  de  la  Figure  de  la  Terre  measures  the  length  of  a 
meridian  degree. 

D'Alembert's  Dynamique,  developing  the  work  of  James  and  John 

Bemouilli  and  Taylor,  states  that  forces  equal  to  the  product  of  the 

masses  and  their  acceleration,  but  acting  in  a  contrary  direction,  are  in 

equilibrium  with  the  impressed  forces. 

174ti.    Education.    The  Margrave  of  Bayreuth  founds  a  University  at 

Eriangen.  * 

1747.    Death.    Bynkershoek. 


17^8,  Eng.  Ch.  The  first  Methodist  Conference  is  held  at  the  n  744 
Foundry  Chapel,  Loudon,  consisting  of  John  and  Charles  '■ 
Wesley,  four  clergy  and  four  lay  preachers.  An  outline  of  dogmatic 
teiching  is  drawn  up,  the  Bishops  are  to  be  obeyed  'in  all  things 
indifferent,'  the  canons  to  be  observed  'as  far  as  can  be  done  with 
a  safe  conscience,'  and  *  societies  are  to  be  formed  wherever  the 
preachers  go.' 

Annet  replies  to  Sherlock's  Trial  of  the  Witnesses,  and  denies  the 
nsurrection  of  Christ. 

174^.  Church  Hist.  Amort's  Demonstratio  Catholica,  an  Irenicon  to 
Protestants,  attempts  to  prove  the  rationality  of  Boman  practices. 

17^yj,    Bng.  Lit.     Akenside's  Pleasures  of  Imagination. 

^751,    Science.     Trembley  investigates  fresh-water  Polj'ps. 

i7Ji.  Philosophy.  Berkeley's  Siris  commends  the  healing  virtues  of 
tar-water  and  pai^s  on  to  reaffirm  the  unsubstantial  ity  of  material 
things,  and  to  declare  spirit  their  foundation. 

^7'^i.    History.     Muraton's  Annals  of  Italy. 

H^pault,  President  of  the  Parliament  of  Paris,  compiles  an  Abr^gd  de 
THi^toire  de  France. 

^7Sl    Deaths.    Pope,  Vico. 


17.^.    Mng,  Oh.     Many  of  the  Non-jurors  are  implicated  in  the    n  745 

Jacobite  rebellion.  '■ 

Henrey's  Meditations  and  Contemplations  popularise  Wesley's  theo- 

}^,  and  obtain  unrivalled  popularity. 
176^J.    Ftench  Ch.    The  persecution  of  Protestants  recommences,  and 

Bttay  ministers  lose  their  lives. 
^^7,   Ttallan   Ch.    Bianchi's  Ecclesiastical  Power,  written  from  an 

extreme  Ultramontane  standpoint,  becomes  a  text-book. 


230  POLITICS  [1746 

stand  as  Emperor ;  but  Maria  Theresa  bribes  him  to  renew  the  Austrian 
alliance  and  to  promise  to  regain  Silesia.  Saxe  defeats  the  Duke  of 
Cumberland  at  Fontenoy  (May).  Charles  of  Lorraine  invades  Silesii 
and  is  routed  by  Frederick  at  Hohenfriedberg  (June).  Geoige  II.  deserts 
Austria,  and  makes  the  Convention  of  Hanover  with  Frederick,  promis- 
ing to  negotiate  a  peace  with  Austria  (Aug.).  Traun  chives  the  French 
over  the  Rhine,  and  Francis  is  chosen  Emperor  at  Frankfort  (Sept). 
Frederick  repulses  the  Austrians  at  Soor,  but  sends  his  troops  into 
winter  quarters.  Austria  and  Saxony  determine  to  invade  Silesia  and 
Brandenburg ;  but  Frederick  hastily  collects  troops  and,  with  the  aid  of 
Leopold  of  Dessau,  defeats  the  Saxons  at  Kesselsdorf  and  enters  Dresden 
(Dec).  By  the  Treaty  of  Dresden,  Maria  Theresa  confirms  and 
Augustus  guarantees  the  cession  of  Silesia,  and  Frederick  recognises 
the  Emperor. 

1140.  Italy.  Aided  by  France  and  Grenoa,  the  Spaniards  take  Parma, 
Piacenza,  and  Milan  (except  the  citadel).  Charles  Emmanuel  of  Sar- 
dinia feels  hurt  at  the  want  of  support,  but  rejects  D'Aigenson's  plan  of 
expelling  the  Hapsburgs  from  Italy. 

1141.  America.  Colonial  troops  take  Louisburg,  on  Cape  Breton 
Island. 


1142.  England.    Owii^  to  the  refusal  of  the  King  to  employ  ry,^ 
Pitt,  the  Ministry  resigns.     Carteret  fails  to  form  a  Ministry,   *■ 
and  the  Pelhams  return  to  power  with  Pitt  and  Fox. 

1143.  Scotland.  The  Pretender  defeats  Hawley  at  Falkirk  (Jan.), 
but  is  defeated  by  Cumberland  at  Culloden  (April).  He  evades 
capture  by  the  devotion  of  Flora  Macdonald  and  others,  and  escapes  to 
France.  The  Highlanders  are  disarmed,  and  the  hereditary  jurisdiction 
of  the  chiefs  is  abolished. 

1144.  Italy.  The  Austrians  and  Sardinians  expel  the  French  and 
Spaniards  from  the  greater  part  of  Lombardy  and  Piedmont,  and  defeat 
them  at  Piacenza  (June).  The  death  of  Philip  causes  the  withdrawal 
of  nearly  all  the  Spanish  troops.  Genoa  is  therefore  forced  to  surrender, 
and  Sardinia  takes  Finale  and  Savona. 

1145.  Netherlands.  Saxe  takes  Brussels  and  Antwerp,  and  defeats 
Charles  of  Lorraine  and  the  Duke  of  Cumberland. 

1146.  Austria.  Maria  Theresa  makes  a  defensive  alliance  with  the 
Empress  Elizabeth,  secret  articles  providing  for  the  restoration  of 
Silesia. 

1147.  Asia.  Labourdonnais  takes  Madras,  but  is  hampered  by  Dupleix, 
Governor  of  Pondicherry.  The  English  stir  up  the  Nawab  of  the 
Camatic  to  attack  Madras ;  but  Dupleix  sends  a  small  force,  which 
routs  a  large  Hindoo  army  at  the  battle  of  San  Thom^. 


1T46]  CULTURE  231 

1758.  French  Lit    Cr^billon's  (Fils)  Le  Sopha. 

1759.  Art.     Hogarth's  Manage  k  la  Mode. 
Sans  Souci  is  built  for  Frederick  the  Great. 

77^.    Science.    The  Leyden  jar,  which  accumulates  and  preserves 

a  store  of  electricity,  is  invented  by  Musschenbroek  and  Cunaeus. 

The  discovery  is  made  independently  by  Eleist,  a  Pomeranian  clergyman. 
Bonnet's  Traits  d'Insectologie  minutely  studies   moss-gnibs  and 

records  experiments  on  polyps  and  worms. 
17*U,    Philosophy.    Lamettne's  Histoire  naturelle  de  I'Ame,  followed 

by  L'Homme  Machine,  leads  to  his  expulsion  from  France.     He  takes 

lefuge  in  Berlin,  where  he  is  joined  by  Cabanis  and  Destutt  de  Tracy. 

His  work  may  be  regarded  as  the  first  systematic  presentation  of  the 

Diterialism  which  dominates  French  thinking  till  the  appearance  of 

Boyer-Gollard. 
1762.    Sducation.    Van  Swieten,  a  Dutch  physician,  settles  in  Vienna, 

aod  for  30  years  directs  education  in  the  dominions  of  Maria  Theresa. 
17CS,    Agricaltnre.    Bakewell,  a  Leicestershire  farmer,  begins  to  reform 

iitock- breeding,  and  gradually  doubles  the  weight  of  sheep. 
i>;i    Death.    Swift. 

ir*;).    Eng.  Ch.    Jones'  Free  and  Candid  Disquisitions  on  the    [1740 
(.lurch  of  England,  urging  the  abolition  of  subscription,  are    ^ 
presented  in  manuscript  to  a  Bishop  to  lay  before  Convocation.     They 
are  published  1749,  and  are  defended  by  Clayton,  Bishop  of  Clogher, 
lad  Blackbume,  who  becomes  leader  of  the  movement. 

i'ft».  Scotch  Oh.  In  consequence  of  the  rebellion,  the  Scotch  episcopal 
deigy  are  bitterly  persecuted  for  Jacobitism.  Meetings  of  more  than 
irt  besides  the  family  are  forbidden,  and  clergy  are  forbidden  to  act  as 

Svate  chaplains.     Some  resign  their  orders,  others  flee  to  America, 
e  strin^ncy  of  the  persecution  is  not  relaxed  till  the  accession  of 

George  III. 
mr.    Bng.Iiit.    Collins' Odes. 

J%    Treach  Lit.    Vauvenargues'  Maximes  et  Pens($es, 
/?«».    German  Lit    Gellert's  Fables. 
1770.    Science.    Guettard  shows  the  distribution  of  rocks  and  minerals  in 

FiiDce,  points  out  the  analogy  of  the  disposition  of  mineral  substances 

with  those  of  England,  and,  later,  discovers  the  volcanoes  of  Auvergne 

•od  lays  the  foundation  of  the  theory  of  *  Vulcanism.' 
Eaier  and  Daniel  Bemouilli  discover  the  law  of  the  Conservation  of 

.Vieas. 
^^1.   Fhiloeophy.    Condillac's  Origine  des  Connaissances  humaines 

MIovB  Locke  in  deriving  knowledge  from  sensation  and  reflection.    His 

ftfiii  des  Sensations,    1754,   derives  the  faculties  themselves  from 

ie&tttion. 

^  Diderot's  Pens^  Philosophiques  criticise  Pascal, 
i^i.   Law.    Goeceji  undertakes  a  revision  of   Prussian  law  at  the 

i^eqoest  of  Frederick.     The  Corpus  Juris  Fredericiani,  however,  is  not 


%ted. 


Death.    Hutcheson. 


232  POLITICS  [1747 


1148.  England.  Lords  Lovat  and  Derwentwater  are  executed  ryj^ 
for  their  share  in  the  rebellion.  *■ 

1149.  France.  Negotiations  for  peace  that  have  been  opeped  at  Breda 
during  the  winter  are  broken  off,  owing  to  the  determination  of  Maiii 
Theresa  to  continue  the  war. 

1150.  Holland.  The  French  invade  Holland.  The  Orange  Pirty 
revives,  and  William,  grand-nephew  of  William  III.,  is  made  hereditary 
Stadtholder.  Saxe  defeats  Cumberland  at  Lauffeld  (July),  and  Bei^gen- 
op-Zoom  is  stormed  (Sept.). 

1151.  Italy.    Austria  besieges  Genoa,  which  receives  aid  irom  Fiance, 
■    but  is  forced  to  raise  the  siege,  as  Sardinia  refuses  assistance. 

Negotiations  are  recommenced  ;  but  Maria  Theresa  refuses  to  create 
a  principality  for  Don  Philip  in  Italy,  having  already  given  part  of 
Lombardy  to  Sardinia. 

1152.  Asia.  On  the  death  of  Nadir,  his  Cavalry-Greneral,  Ahmed  Shah 
Durani,  seizes  the  throne,  and  founds  modem  Afghanistan,  extending 
from  Herat  to  Peshawar,  and  from  Cashmere  to  Scinde. 


1153.  France.  Marshal  Saxe  lays  siege  to  Maestricht,  and  a  q^^ 
Russian  army  enters  Germany.  Before,  however,  any  fighting  *■ 
occurs,  England,  France  and  Holland,  failing  to  persuade  Maria  Theresa 
to  terminate  the  war,  sign  preliminaries  of  peace  at  Aix-la-Chapelle 
(April),  and  force  Europe  to  sign  a  peace  (Oct.).  The  war  of  the 
Austrian  Succession  ends,  and  Maria  Theresa  is  recognised. 

France  evacuates  the  frontier  fortresses,  which  are  restored  to  the 
Dutch,  and  undertakes  to  exclude  the  Pretender.  The  war  leaves  her 
without  acquisitions  and  without  prestige. 

1154.  Germany.    The  title  of  Prussia  to  Silesia  is  recognised. 
Francis  is  acknowledged  Emperor. 

1155.  Italy.  Don  Philip  receives  Parma  and  Piacenza ;  the  King  of 
Sardinia  recovers  Savoy,  Nice,  and  the  portions  of  Lombardy  ceded  by 
the  Treaty  of  Worms. 

1156.  America.     England  surrenders  Cape  Breton. 

The  Ohio  Company  is  chartered  by  the  English  crown,  and  annoys 
the  French  settlers. 

1157.  Asia.  An  English  fleet  fails  to  take  Pondicherry,  which  i* 
defended  by  Dupleix. 

The  Treaty  of  Aix-la-Chanelle  transfers  Madras  to  England. 
Ahmed  Shah  invades  the  Punjab. 


[174B 


1158.  France.  Machault,  a  friend  of  the  Opposition,  attempts 
to  tax  the  clergy  at  one-twentieth  of  their  revenues,  but  is  forced 
to  withdraw. 

1159.  Spain.  Ferdinand  retires  from  the  Family  Compact,  and  devot« 
himself,  in  company  with  Ensenada,  to  domestic  reform.  A  navy  tf 
created,  the  fiscal  system  is  refonned,  mining  is  developed,  and  the 
Inquisition  deprived  of  its  power. 


1749]  CULTURE  233 

177i.    Kng.  Lit.    Johnson  and  Lauder  conspire  to  prove  Milton   r-inAn 
a  plagiarist  ^ 

1775.  French  Lit.  Nivelle  de  la  Chauss^e's  La  Gouvemante,  a  type  of 
the  Commie  Larmoyante. 

1776.  Italian  Lit.    The  Magliabecchian  Library  in  Florence  is  opened. 

1777.  Rnaaian  Lit.  Sumarokov's  Hovev  founds  Russian  drama  on 
French  models. 

1778.  Science.  Bradley  finds  the  nutation  of  the  Earth's  axis,  in 
I  cycle  of  18  years,  to  be  due  to  the  Moon.  His  results  are  verified  by 
Simnson  and  others. 

Maupertuis  enunciates  the  principle  of  least  action. 

1779.  History.    Florez'  Christian  Spain. 

1780.  Law.  Burlamaqui's  Principes  du  Droit  Naturel,  written  from  the 
standpoint  of  rational  utilitarianism. 

1781.  beaths.    Lesage,  Vauvenargues. 


1782.    Eng.  Ch.     Middleton's  Free  Inquiry  concerning  the  Mira-    rj^y^ 
culous  Powers  of  the  Christian  Church  introduces  tne  historic    '- 
method. 

Hume's  Essay  on  Miracles  introduces  the  test  of  probability. 
John  and  Charles  Wesley's  Hymns. 
1781    Italian  Ch.    Liguori  s  Moral  Theolocy  refounds  equiprobabilism. 
1781    Eng.  Lit.    Richardson's  Clarissa  Hanowe. 
Smollett's  Roderick  Random. 

1785.  German  Lit.    Klopstock's  Messias. 

1786.  Italian  Lit.    Goldoni  be^ns  his  comedies. 

1787.  Science.  De  Maillet  insists  on  the  explanation  of  the  earth  by 
the  forces  now  in  operation,  and  suggests  the  transformation  of  specie& 

Baler's  Analysis  Infinitorum,  an  introduction  to  pure  analytical 
itathematics. 

1788.  Politics.  Montesquieu's  Esprit  des  Lois  discusses  the  connection 
of  Uws  with  the  natural  and  historical  characteristics  of  a  people,  and 
declires,  as  against  Hobbes,  that  justice  precedes  the  rise  of  states, 
pontive  laws  merely  supplementing  natural  laws.  Forms  of  Govem- 
»ent  vary  with  the  character  of  the  country  and  people,  England 
pMsessing  the  best,  owing  to  the  separation  of  powers. 

178^.   Archaeology.    The  excavation  of  Pompeii  is  begun. 
^%    SociaL    Paul  invents  a  wool-carding  machine. 
/;&/.   Deaths.    Giannone,  Halley. 


17tt2,  Bug.  Ch.  The  Calvinists  under  Whitfield  desert  Wesley.  ri  749 
^tfield  becomes  chaplain  to  Lady  Htmtingdon.  ^ 

17^3.   Sng.Lit.    Fieldinc's  Tom  Jones. 
Johoflon's  Vanity  of  Human  Wishes. 

^'^l  French  Lit.  On  the  death  of  Mme  Tencin,  Mme  Geoffrin's 
•km  becomes  pre-eminent,  and  is  frequented  by  D'Alembert,  Diderot, 
Uannontel,  Morellet,  and  others,  who  also  meet  at  the  houses  of 


234  POLITICS  [1748 

1160.  Anstiia.  On  his  return  from  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Kaunitz  receives 
a  seat  in  the  Cabinet  and  becomes  chief  adviser.  The  Empress  reque^ 
all  her  councillors  for  their  ideas  on  the  situation.  Kaunitz  urges  the 
recovery  of  Silesia,  pointe  out  the  uselessness  of  the  English  alliance  aod 
the  insufficiency  of  Russia  and  Saxony  as  allies,  and  recommends  an 
alliance  with  France.  Despite  the  opposition  of  the  Emperor  and  the 
other  councillors,  his  policy  is  approved  by  the  Empress. 

Maria  Theresa  separates  tne  judiciary  frx)m  the  legislative  and 
executive  functions. 


1161.  England.    England  joins  the  Austro-Russian  alliance  (of  MycA 
1746),  though  refusing  to  recognise  the  articles  directed  against   ^ 
Prussia.     Saxony  signs  unconditionally.     England  remonstrates  against 
the  efforts  of  Maria  Theresa  to  restore  the  commerce  of  the  Nethe^ 
lands. 

The  Asiento  is  abolished,  Spain  paying  England  an  indeomity. 

1162.  Austria.  Kaunitz  is  sent  as  envoy  to  Versailles  to  carry  out  his 
scheme  of  a  French  alliance  against  Prussia.  He  wins  over  Mme  de 
Pompadour,  but  fails  to  convert  the  King,  who  is  at  this  time  under  the 
influence  of  the  Prince  de  Couti. 

1163.  Portugal.  Joseph  I.  succeeds  his  father,  John  V.,  and  leaves  the 
government  to  Pombal,  who  becomes  supreme. 

1164.  America.  Spain  and  Portugal  agree  to  exchange  their  colonies 
of  Paraguay  and  San  Sacramento.  The  Jesuits  disapprove  the  tnuufer, 
persuade  the  Indians  of  Paraguay  to  resist,  and  stur  up  a  war  of  six 
years. 

Disputes  take  plac«  between  England  and  France  in  relation  to  the 
boundary  between  Canada  and  Nova  Scotia. 

1165.  Asia.  France  and  England  support  different  candidates  for  the 
throne  of  Arcot.  The  French  candiaate  is  victorious,  and  appoints 
Dupleix  Governor  of  the  Carnatic. 


1166.  England.    Frederick,  Prince  of  Wales,  dies.  rytn 
The  Calendar  is  assimilated  to  that  of  the  Continent,  at  the   ^ 

instance  of  Chesterfield,  by  moving  the  date  1 1  days  forward. 

1167.  Sweden.  Adolphus  of  HoTstein-Gottorp  becomes  king,  and  the 
elder  BernstorfF  his  chief  minister. 

1168.  Asia.  Dupleix,  regardless  of  the  Peace  of  1748,  threatens  Madras. 
CHve,  a  clerk  at  Madras,  who  arrived  in  India  1744,  volunteers  as 
a  soldier  and  is  sent  to  seize  Arcot.  He  takes  it,  and  holds  it  against 
an  attack  by  French  sepoys. 

1169.  America.  The  English  surveyors,  Mason  and  Dixon,  detennine 
the  boundaries  of  Pennsylvania,  Delaware  and  Maryland,  and  continue 
the  line  west  till  their  proceedings  are  stopped  by  the  Indians. 


1761]  CULTURE  235 

Holbach,  Helv^tius,  Mme  d'Epinay,  and,  in  a  less  degree,  of  Mme 
da  Beffand. 

1795.  Oerman  Lit.    Eleist's  Spring. 

1796,  Science.    Buifon's  Histoire  Natiirelle,  a  large  part  of  the  detail 
of  which  is  furnished  by  Daubenton  and  Lac^pMe. 

J797.    Philosophy.    Hartley's    Observations    on    Man  maintain  that 

rimple  sensations,  solely  by  the  law  of  contiguity,  synchronous  and 

roccessiye,  become  thought,  emotion,  voluntary  and  involuntary  action. 

Diderot  is  imprisoned  for  expressing  the  doctrine  of  relativity  in  his 

Lettre  sur  les  Aveugles. 


1798.    Oerman  Ch.    Frederick  issues  a  privilege  for  the  Jews.       ri7i;n 

m.   ItaUan  Ch.    Liguori's  Glories  of  Mary.  ^  ^-^^ 

two,    Eng.  Lit.    Mrs  Montagu  begins  parties  of  'blue-stockings '  and  is 
imitated  by  Mrs  Chapman,  Hannah  More,  Elizabeth  Carter,  Mrs  Thrale. 

W)l.    Literature.    Voltaire  visits  Berlin,  and  quarrels  with  Maupertuis. 

I90i,    Science.    Euler  revives  the  undulatory  theory  of  light. 

WJi.    Art.     Baumgarteu  founds  modern  Aesthetics,  and  assumes  the 
existence  of  a  special  psychological  organ. 

i*)i    History.    Turgot  s  Progr^s  Successif  de  TEsprit  Humain,  a  dis- 
course given  at  the  Sorbonne,  maintains  that  progress  follows  laws  of 
derelopment 
The  Benedictines  compile  L'Art  de  verifier  les  Dates. 
Frederick  the  Great's  M^moires  k  THistoire  de  Brandenburg. 

1^,    Politics.    Rousseau  maintains  that  Science  and  Art  have  been 
decrimeDtal  to  morals. 

l^.    Deaths.    Bach,  Muratori,  Saxe. 


W/t,    Eng.  Oh.    Byrom's  poem  on  Enthusiasm.  [1751 

Antinomian  excesses  occur  among  the  Moravians  in  England,    ^ 

•nd  are  sternly  rebuked  by  Wesley  and  Whitfield. 
l^M.    (German  Ch.    Wetstein's  enlarged  edition  of  the  New  Testament 

coDtiins  variants  and  commentaries  from  classics  and  Rabbinical  works. 
m,   Eng.  Lit    Fielding  s  Amelia. 

Gray's  Ele^. 
^^10.   French  Iiit.    The  first  two  volumes  of  the  Encyclopedic  appear, 

rfited  by  Diderot  and  D'Alembert  (who  writes  an  Introduction),  aided 

W  Voltaire,  Turgot,  Marmontel,  Duclos,  Daubenton,  etc. 
^^11.   Art.    The  Worcester  Porcelain  Company  is  formed. 

Stnnge  begins  to  work  at  line  engraving. 
WU   PhuoloiQr-    Harris*  Hermes,  a  philosophical  inquiry  concerning 

^versal  grammar. 
^UJ.   Economics.    Hume  distinguishes  wealth  from  money,  of  which 

>  nation  may  possess  too  much,  and  condemns  the  majority  of  re- 

itrietions  on  commerce. 
^^U   Deaths.    D'Aguesseau,  Bolingbroke. 


236  POLITICS  [170 

1170.  Scotland.    The  estates  forfeited  by  the  rebellion  of  1745  r^^^^ 
are  bestowed  on  the  Crown,  the  revenue  being  employed  for  the  '- 
improvement  of  the  Highlands. 

1171.  France.  De  Broglie  is  sent  to  Poland  to  counteract  the  influeDce 
of  Russia  and  Austria,  and  to  work  for  the  election  of  GontL 

1172.  Austria.  Spain  allies  with  Austria  by  the  Treaty  of  Aranjnei. 
^aranteeing  each  other  s  European  possessions.  The  alliance  is  joined 
by  Sardinia,  Naples  and  Parma. 

1173.  America.  The  Tnistees  of  Georgia  surrender  their  charts  to  the 
Crown. 

1174.  Asia.    Trichinopoly  surrenders  to  Clive. 

1175.  Af^ca.  The  Portuguese  recognise  the  Imam  of  Muscat  aod 
declare  their  limits  to  be  Cape  Delgado  and  Delagoa  Bay. 


1176.  England.  The  Levant  Company,  the  last  of  the  old  r^y^ 
trading  associations,  is  dissolved.  ^ 

1177.  Prance.  The  King  intervenes  on  the  side  of  the  Archbishop  of 
Paris,  and  exiles  the  Parliament  of  Paris,  which  has  forbidden  the  cleigj 
to  withhold  the  sacraments,  and  ordered  the  seizure  of  the  Archbishop's 
possessions.  The  provincial  Parliaments  support  the  Parliament  of 
Paris. 

1178.  Germany.  Frederick  learns  the  secret  articles  of  the  Austro- 
Russian  Treaty  of  1746 ;  but  war  is  prevented  by  England's  refusdto 
aid  Russia.  France  informs  England  that  she  will  defend  Prussia,  if 
attacked,  in  accordance  with  the  Treaty  of  1741. 

1179.  Austria.  Kaunitz  leaves  Paris  and  becomes  chief  minister, 
persuaded  of  the  impossibility,  at  the  present  moment,  of  the  French 
alliance. 

Maria  Theresa  resolves  to  introduce  uniform  legislation  for  all  hff 
dominions. 

1180.  America.  Duquesne,  Governor  of  Canada,  claiming  the  Misws- 
sii)pi  and  the  St  Lawrence  and  the  country  west  of  the  AU^hanie^. 
seizes  Fort  Duquesne,  in  the  valley  of  the  Ohio,  and  arrests  triders  of 
the  Ohio  Company.  Virginia,  in  whose  dominions  lie  the  Compally'^ 
lands,  loudly  protests. 


1181.  England.  Pelham  dies,  and  is  succeeded  by  his  brother,  tyj^ 
Newcastle,  who  attempts  to  induce  Fox  to  lead  the  Commons.       *• 

1182.  Prance.  Failing  to  obtain  recognition  for  the  Court  which  he 
substitutes  for  the  Parliament,  the  King  recalls  that  body,  forbids  the 
refusal  of  the  sacraments,  and  exiles  the  Archbishop. 

1183.  Spain.  Ensenada,  who  has  attempted  to  dn^  Spain  into  the  var 
of  France  and  England,  falls.  Wall,  an  Irishman,  bte  Spanish  Ambi»- 
sador  in  London,  becomes  tirst  minister. 


]  CULTURE  237 

French  Ch.    A  Parisian  Cur^  refuses  the  sacramenta  to    rincn 
'SOUS  suspected  of  JaDsenism,  and  is  supported  by  the  Arch-    ^ 
hop  of  Paris. 

German    Cli.    Amort's  Theologia  Moralis  et  Scholastica,  an 
deal  text-book  on  anti-probabilist  lines. 

Science.  Franklin  draws  lightning  to  his  conductor,  thus  proving 
5o  be  electricity. 
Clairaut  explains  the  motion  of  the  moon's  apse. 

Philosophy.    Samuel  Johnson,  an  American  disciple  of  Berkeley, 
blishes  his  Elements  of  Philosophy. 

Politics.     AchenwalFs    European     Constitutions,    a    statistical 
"▼ey. 
.     History.    Voltaire's  Si^le  de  Louis  XIV. 

Deaths.    Alberoni,  Bengel,  Butler,  R^umur. 


Eng.  Ch.    Bishop  Lowth's  Lectures  on  the  Sacred  Poetry    M753 
the  Jews  apply  the  ordinary  standards  of  literary  criticism,    ^ 
d  call  attention  to  parallelism. 

.     French  Ch.    Astruc,  Professor  of  Medicine  at  Paris,  publishes 
J  Conjectures  sur  les  Mtooires  originaux  de  Moses,  in  which  he 
tects  two  distinct  conceptions, — the  Elohistic  and  Jehovistic,  thus 
plaining  the  contradictions  and  repetitions  of  Genesis. 
.     Spanish  Ch.     Frederick  and  Ensenada  arrange  a  Concordat,  by 
lich  the  Pope  acknowledges  the  king's  right  of  patronage  to  nearly 
.  the  benefices  of  Spain,  and  control  over  the  introduction  of  Bulls. 
.     Eng.  Lit.    Sir  Hans  Sloane  bequeathes  his  collections  to  the 
.tion.     From  these,  the  Harleian  mss.,  and  the  Cottonian  library,  the 
itish  Museum  is  formed.     The  royal  librar}',  chiefly  formed  by  Prince 
enry,  son  of  James  L,  is  presented,  1757. 
•.     French  Lit.    Grimm's  Correspondance  Littdraire  b^ns. 
'.     Art    After  three  years'  study  in  Italy,  Reynolds  begins  to  paint 
^rtraits  in  London. 

A  royal  porcelain  manufactory  is  established  at  Sevres. 
^.    Philosophy.    Liguori's  Theologia  Moralis,  a  via  media  between 
xity  aod  severity. 

K     Social.    Lord  Hardwick's  Marriage  Act  necessitates  the  services 
'  an  Anglican  clergyman  for  all  but  Jews  and  Quakers. 
h    Deaths.    Berkeley,  Labourdonnais. 


t.    Eng.  Ch.    Bolingbroke's  Philosophical  works,  written  from   [175^ 
deistic  standpoint,  are  published  by  Mallet.  ^ 

Fletcher  becomes  Rector  of  Madeley,  in  Shropshire. 
?.     Oenoian  Ch.    Reimanis'  Chief  Triiths  of  Natural  Religion,  pro- 
>anced  by  Kant  the  best  proof  of  the  existence  of  Grod. 
f.     Science.    Black  discovers  '  fixed  air,'  i.e.  carbonic  acid  gas,  by 
sating  limestone. 


238  POLITICS  [1761 

1184.  America.  Fighting  begins,  and  Washington,  who  is  sent  to  Obio 
with  the  Virginia  militia,  is  defeated.  Newcastle  sends  Braddock, 
accompanied  by  Washington,  to  capture  Fort  Duquesne. 

Hawke  is  ordered  to  seize  French  shipping,  though  war  is  not 
declared. 

By  direction  of  the  British  Board  of  Trade  and  Plantations,  a  Con- 
ference meets  at  Albany,  and  is  persuaded  by  Franklin  to  draw  up 
a  plan  of  union  of  all  the  colonies  under  a  President  appointed  by  m 
Crown.  A  grand  council  of  delegates,  elected  by  the  colonial  assemblies, 
in  numbers  proportional  to  the  taxation  of  the  colony,  is  to  possess  the 
right  of  legislation,  subject  to  the  veto  of  the  President  and  the  approval 
of  the  Crown.  Connecticut  objects  to  the  veto  and  refuses  to  sign,  aod 
the  Albany  plan  is  rejected  by  the  colonies  and  the  Crown.  The  Con- 
gress, nevertheless,  greatly  contributes  to  the  growth  of  a  sense  of  unity 
among  the  colonies. 

1185.  Asia.  Dupleix  is  recalled,  in  order  to  conciliate  England.  His 
conquests  are  sacrificed  and  peace  is  made. 


1186.  England.    Pitt,  Legge,  and  Grenville  are  dismissed  for  r,»jj 
op]>osing  subsidies  which  are  promised  to  Russia  and  Hesse  for  ^ 
the  protection  of  Hanover  in  tlie  war  which  appears  imminent.    Heniy 
Fox  becomes  the  leader  of  the  Commons. 

Thurot  and  French  troops  land  in  the  Isle  of  Man. 

1187.  Prance.  Kaunitz  renews  his  offers  to  France,  through  Stahrem- 
berg,  and  Mme  de  Pompadour  entnists  the  negotiations  to  Abb^  Bemis. 
When  France  refuses  to  desert  Frederick,  Kaunitz  suggests  German 
neutrality. 

1188.  Italy.  Paoli. ejects  the  Genoese,  who  have  re-entered  Corsica  on 
the  abdication  of  King  Theodore,  and  becomes  Dictator  for  14  years. 

1189.  Germany.  Elizabeth  is  asked  and  promises  to  defend  Hanover  if 
attacked.  Austria  refuses  to  strengthen  her  garrisons  against  a  possible 
French  invasion  of  the  Low  Countries,  and  the  alliance  with  England 
comes  to  an  end. 

1190.  America.  Braddock  falls  into  an  ambush  and  is  defeated  and 
killed  (July).  Washington  saves  part  of  the  Virginian  militia.  French 
ships  are  captured  by  Boscawen,  and  war  becomes  inevitable. 

An  attack  is  made  on  Crown  Point,  and  forts  are  built  at  Ticon- 
deroga  and  on  Lake  George. 


1191.  France.  The  King  curtails  the  jurisdiction  of  Parliament  r^»cA 
in  ecclesiastical  cases.  ^ 

1192.  Germany.  England  allies  with  Prussia,  bv  the  Treaty  of  West- 
minster, to  oppose  attacks  in  Germany  (Jan.).  Tnis  leads  to  the  Treaty 
of  Versailles,  oetween  France  and  Austria,  by  which  the  latter  is  to 
remain  neutral  in  the  Franco-English  war,  and  to  conclude  a  ddfensiTe 


1766]  CULTURE  239 

1834,  Philosophy.    Jonathan  Edwards'  Freedom  of  the  Will. 
Martinez  Paschalis,  a  Portuguese  Jew,  teaches  mysticism  in  South 

France,  and  founds  an  order,  of  which  St  Martin  is  the  most  prominent 
member. 

1835,  Politics.  Rousseau's  Origine  de  Tln^galit^  declares  inequality 
inconsistent  with  Natural  Law,  and  vehemently  denounces  the  existing 
social  order. 

1836,  History.    Hume's  History  of  England,  vol.  I. 
Voltaire's  Essai  sur  les  Moeurs. 

1837,  Deaths.    Fielding,  Holberg,  Wolff. 


1838.    Eng.  Ch.    Hervey's  Dialogues  between  Theron  and  As-    [1755 
pftsia  are  attacked  by  Wesley  and  revive  the  Calvinistic  con-    '- 

troverey. 
Mi    Irench  Ch.    Benedict  XIV.  advises  the  concession  of  the  sacra- 
ments to  the  Jansenists,  if  not  *  notoriously'  refractory. 
IS^J.    American  Ch.    Mayhew  publishes  his  sermons,  the  first  Uni- 

Urian  volume  appearing  in  America. 
IS^.    Eng.   Lit.    Johnson  completes  his  Dictionary  of  the  English 

Lanjpiage,  and  writes  a  sarcastic  letter  to  Lord  Chesterfield. 
ISa.    Russian  Lit.    Lomonosof  attempts  to  reorganise  the  Academy, 

tke  stronghold  of  German  influences. 
l^ii.    Art.     Winckelmann's  Thoughts  on  the  Imitation  of  the  Ancients 

demands  a  return  to  Greek  art. 
Soufflot  designs  the  Pantheon,  Paris. 
i8H,    Science.    Kant's  Theory  of  the  Heavens  suggests  the  nebular 

kjpothesis. 
i^^.   Philosophy.    Hutcheson's  Moral  Philosophy  argues  for  a  special 

iMnl  sense  and  approves  of  what  tends  to  the  general  happiness, 

tkoQ^  we  are  virtuous  from  pure  benevolence. 
^8^fi,   Politics.    Brissot's  Recherches  sur  la  Propri^t^  and  Morellet's 

Code  de  la  Nature  become  text-books  of  communism. 
^^V,   History.    Mosheim  writes  the  first  impartial  survey  of  Church 

Bistory,  but  treats  the  Church  as  a  state. 
^^.   Economics.    CantiUon's  Nature  du  Commerce  anticipates  the 

Phyaocrats. 

The  first  Chair  of  Economics  is  created  for  Genovesi. 
^^f.   Social.    A  destructive  earthquake  occurs  at  Lisbon. 
'^%  Deaths.    Mafiei,  Montesquieu,  St  Simon,  Bishop  Wilson. 


i8Si  Xng.  Ch.    Wesley's  Twelve  Reasons  against  a  separation   r]^75Q 
im  the  Church  attempt  to  counteract  a  growing  tendency   ^ 
>Mtt  a  certain  section  of  his  foUowers. 

Albtn  Butler's  Lives  of  the  Fathers,  Martyrs  and  other  principal 
Sitota. 

lUl  Sng.  ut,    Amory's  John  Buncle. 


240  POLITICS  [1786 

alliance,  while,  by  secret  articles,  the  two  countries  are  to  aid  each 
other  if  attacked  by  an  ally  of  England  (May).  Russia,  indignant  &t 
England's  alliance  with  Frederick,  offers  to  join  Austria,  and  promiaes 
to  obtain  the  dismemberment  of  Prussia.  Frederick  learns  of  the 
treaties,  and  commences  the  *  Seven  Years  War'  by  advanciog  into 
Saxony  (Aug.),  though  Augustus  is  not  a  member  of  the  league.  He 
takes  Dresden,  compels  18,000  Saxons  to  join  the  Prussian  army,  and 

fublishes  the  correspondence  relating  to  the  plots  for  dismemberment  of 
*ru8sia.     A  drawn  battle  is  fought  with  the  Austrians  at  LobodU 
(Oct.). 

1193.  England.  England  declares  war  on  France  (May).  A  French 
fleet  and  army  assails  Port  Mahon,  in  Minorca.  Byug  sets  out  to 
relieve  it,  but  withdraws  without  serious  fighting,  and  Port  Mahon 
is  taken. 

Fox  and  Newcastle  resign.  Pitt  becomes  Secretary  of  State  under 
the  Duke  of  Devonshire,  sends  away  the  foreign  troops  brought  over  to 
protect  England  from  invasion,  reorganises  the  militia,  and  raises  regi- 
ments in  the  Highlands. 

1194.  Holland.    The  Dutch  resolve  to  remain  neutral  in  the  war. 

1195.  America..    Montcalm  takes  Oswego  and  builds  forts  in  Illinoi&. 

1196.  Asia..  Surajah  Dowlah  takes  Calcutta  and  thrusts  146  English 
into  a  small  room,  the  '  Black  Hole,'  whence  only  23  issue  alive  on  the 
following  day. 


1197.  Prance.  The  King  is  attacked  by  Damiens  (Jan.),  and  ri»r» 
Mme  de  Pompadour,  in  fear,  dismisses  D'Argenson  and  promotes  *• 
Bernis,  who,  with  Belleisle,  henceforth  directs  French  policy.  The  King 
is  induced  to  sign  the  Second  Treaty  of  Versailles  with  Austria  to  di^ 
member  Prussia,  the  Netherlands,  excepting  Ostend,  to  go  to  Don  Philip 
(May). 

1198.  Germany.    The  Diet  authorises  the  Emperor  to  defend  Austria 
and  Boiiemia. 

Russia  adopts  the  defensive  Treaty  of  Versailles  (Jan.),  and,  a  month 
later,  makes  an  offensive  alliance  with  Austria  against  Prussia,  to 
recover  Silesia  and  Glatz. 

Frederick  defeats  Charles  of  Lorraine  at  Prague,  but  is  routed  hj 
Daun  at  Koliu  (June),  and  expelled  from  Bohemia.  Cumberland  is 
defeated  at  Hastenbeek  by  the  French  (July),  and  capitulates  at  Clo8t«r- 
Seven,  surrendering  Hanover  and  Brunswick  (Sept.).  A  Russian  amy, 
at  the  same  moment,  defeats  tiie  Prussians  at  Grossja^mdorf  (Aug.), 
but  withdraws ;  and  Sweden  attacks  Pomerania.  In  this  critical  sitna- 
tion,  Frederick  routs  the  Frencli  at  Rossbach  (Nov.) ;  the  Swedes  iw 
expelled ;  Pitt  becomes  supreme  in  England,  and  disavows  the  terms  of 
Closter-Seven ;  and  finally,  Frederick  routs  Charles  of  Lorraine  it 
Leu  then,  and  recovers  Silesia  (Dec). 

1199.  America.    Montcalm  captures  Fort  William  Hemy. 


1757]  CULTURE  241 


ISoS.    Gfrerman  Ut.    Gessner's  Idylls. 

Frederick's  battles  are  celebrated  in  war-songs  by  Gleim,  Eleist, 
Bamler,  and  Abbot 

Zimmermann  publishes  the  first  sketch  of  his  Essay  on  Solitude. 

1854,  RoMdan  Lit.  A  Russian  theatre  is  erected  at  St  Petersburg, 
and  Von  Visin  developes  the  national  comedy. 

185o,  Art  Burke's  Treatise  on  the  Sublime  and  Beautiful,  the  first 
aesthetic  treatise  produced  in  England,  sharply  contrasts  the  two 
qualities,  declaring  Deauty  to  consist  in  smallness,  smoothness,  bright- 
ness and  softness  of  colour,  variety  of  outline,  delicacy  suggesting 
fragility. 

1856,  Science.  Aepiniis  experiments  on  tourmaline,  which  exhibits 
positive  and  negative  poles  on  the  application  of  heat. 

1857,  Economics.  Mirabeau's  Ami  des  Hommes  discusses  the  im- 
provement of  agriculture. 

1858,  Law.  Mansfield  becomes  Lord  Chancellor  and  developes  mercan- 
tile law. 

By  the  'Rule  of  1756,'  the  Powers  agree  that  a  neutral  cannot 
exercise  in  war  a  trade  forbidden  in  time  of  peace. 

1859,  Deaths.    Cassini,  Maifei. 


1860.  Sng.  Ch.    Hume's  Natural  History  of  Religion  introduces    vyivi 
the  comparative  method,  and  declares  polytheism  the  original   ^ 
form  of  belief. 

1861.  French  Ch.  In  consequence  of  Damien's  attack  on  the  king, 
Busenbaum's  Ethics  are  burnt  on  the  ground  that  they  countenance 
tyrannicide. 

1862.  German  Ch.    Gellert's  Hymns. 

1863.  Portogaese  Ch.  Pombal  dismisses  the  king's  confessor,  a  Jesuit, 
forbids  the  Jesuits  to  appear  at  Court  or  engage  in  trade,  and  denounces 
the  Order  to  the  Pope  m  the  name  of  the  king.  The  Pope  appoints  a 
friend  of  Pombal,  Ccu-dinal  Saldanha,  Visitor  and  Reformer  of  tne  Order. 

1864.  Russian  Ch.  The  Skopzi  (or  Mutilated)  form  a  sect,  which  grows 
rapidly. 

1865.  Sng.  Lit    Gra/s  Pindaric  Odes. 

John  Brown's  Estimate  of  the  Manners  and  Principles  of  the  Times 
declares  that  England  is  in  every  respect  degenerating. 

Horace  Walpole  sets  up  a  press  at  Strawberry  Hill. 
1866.^  French  tit.    Diderot's  Pils  Naturel  reforms  the  theatre   by 
reviving  naturalism.    Beaumarchais  introduces  the  reforms  into  comedy. 

The  Encyclop^ie  is  forbidden  by  Parliament  to  proceed,  but  is  again 
antliorised,  1765. 

1867.  Italian  Lit.  Carlo  Ghzzi  attacks  Groldoni  for  introducing  French 
modeLsi  and  parodies  the  new  style. 

1868.  Science.  Haller's  Elementa  Physiologiae  rejects  epigeuesis  and 
adopts  'evolution,'  or  the  pre-existence  of  organs  in  the  germ. 

DoUond  constaracts  actu-omatic  lenses. 

a  16 


242  POLITICS  [17IT 


1200.  Asia.  Olive  marches  to  Bengal  to  avenge  the  Black  Hole,  tikes 
Chandemagore,  defeats  Surajah  Dowlah  at  Plassey,  and  retakes  Calcatta 
(June).  Surajah's  chief  oincer  is  made  Nawab  of  Bengal,  over  wlueh 
English  influence  becomes  supreme. 

Ahmed  Shah  overruns  the  Punjab,  which,  on  his  retirement,  1758, 
is  occupied  by  the  Mahrattas. 


1201.  England.    Pitt  presents  a  new  army  to  Ferdinand  of  ri»eg 
Brunswick,  who  rids  Hanover,  Westphalia  and  Hesse  of  the   *- 
French.     The  Prussian  alliance  is  confirmed,  each  promising  not  t» 
make  peace  alone  (April).     Pitt  liarasses  the  French  coast 

1202.  France.  Bemis  counsels  peace,  but  is  overruled.  He  transfen 
the  Foreign  Ministry  to  Choiseul,  French  ambassador  at  Vienna,  who 
insists  on  a  modification  of  the  alliance. 

1203.  Germany.  Frederick  defeats  the  Russian  army  at  Zomdorf 
(Aug.),  but  is  sbortlv  repulsed  by  the  Austrians  at  Hochkirch  (Oct). 

1204.  Portugal.  The  Marquis  of  Tavora  and  his  wife,  Malagrida,  i 
Jesuit,  and  others,  angered  by  Pombal's  monopoly  of  power,  plot  a  rero- 
lution,  and  wound  the  King  (Sept).  They  are,  however,  taken  and 
executed,  1759. 

1205.  America.  The  greater  part  of  Cape  Breton  is  taken,  and  the 
way  is  opened  into  Canada.  Abercrombie  is  repulsed  from  Ticonderogi ; 
but  Fort  Duquesne  is  captured  and  renamed  Pittsburg. 

1206.  Asia.     Lally  Tollendal  attacks  Madras. 

Clive  compels  the  Dutch  by  land  and  sea  to  capitulate  at  Chinsonh. 
Tlie  Chinese  invade  and  conquer  Eastern  Turkestan. 


1207.  Ireland.  Flood  enters  Parliament  and  leads  the  Opposi-  r^jSA 
tion.    He  urges  the  shortening  of  Parliaments,  and  the  reduction   ^ 

of  the  pension  list. 

A  rumour  of  contemplated  union  leads  to  fierce  riots  in  Dublin. 

1208.  Germany.  Ferdinand  of  Brunswick  defeats  Choiseuls  plan  of 
invading  Hanover  at  Mindeu,  though  Lord  Sackville  refuses  to  lead  the 
cavalry  to  action  (Aug.). 

Frederick  is  defeated  by  the  Russians  and  Austrians  at  Kunersdoif 
(Aug.),  but  the  Russians  retire.  Saxony,  however,  is  lost,  and  12,000 
men  are  forced  to  capitulate  to  Dauii,  at  Maxen. 

1 209.  Prance.  Choiseurs  second  plan  of  a  direct  invasion  of  Engknd 
is  defeated  bv  Boscaweii's  naval  victory  at  La^os  over  the  Toulon  fleet 
(Aug.),  and  by  Hawke's  destruction  of  the  Brest  fleet  oflF  Uaibeit» 
(Nov.). 


ITn]  CULTURE  243 

JS69.  Tliilosophy.  Price's  Review  of  the  Principal  Questions  of 
Monk  dedares  that  right  and  wrong  are  perceived  by  Reason,  i.e. 
intuitiTelv,  and  imposed  on  the  will  as  a  law. 

!S70.  FUlology.  Ruhnken  becomes  assistant  Professor  to  Hemsterhuys 
at  Leyden. 

1S7J.    beathfl.    D'Argenson,  Fontenelle,  Hartley. 


lf<7J.    Church  Hist.    The  last  thorough  revision  of  the  Index  is    ri  750 

made.  ^ 

1S7S,    French  Lit.  Voltaire's  Candide  satirises  the  fashionable  optimism. 
Rousseau's  Letter  to  D' Alembert,  vehemently  condemning  the  Stage, 
__rk8  his  severance  from  the  party  of  the  Philosophes. 
1874.    Spanish  Lit.    Jos^  de  Isla's  Fray  Gerundio  satirises  the  preach- 
ing of  the  monks. 
1S75.    Art.    Roubiliac's  Shakespere  (British  Museum). 
18i6.    Science.    Halley's  comet  returns. 

BoBoovitch's  Philosophia  Naturalis  explains  a  theory  of  centres  of 
Mte. 
1S77.    Fhiloeophy.    Gondillac's  residence  in   Parma   introduces    sen- 
iidoiiaiism  into  Italv,  where  it  is  developed  by  Gioja  and  Romagnosi. 

Helv^us'  De  I'&prit  (burned  by  the  hangman,  and  condemned  by 
the  Pope  and  the  Sorbonne)  declares  mind  the  sum-total  of  ideas 
trisiiig  from  impressions,  the  character  of  which  is  chiefly  determined 
bf  iM  educational  and  {>olitical  system  of  the  country.  Happiness 
ii  tdtf-love,  and  public  ethics  should  be  founded  on  utility. 

lS7if.  Xconomica.  Quesnai's  Tableau  Economique  pronounces  govern- 
nent  a  necessary  evil,  existing  in  order  to  fulfil  contracts,  advocates 
freedom  of  exchange  and  competition,  declares  that  increase  of  raw  mate- 
rials is  alone  productive,  and  recommends  a  direct  land  tax.  His  ideas 
ire  developed  and  popularised  by  the  elder  Mirabeau,  Groumay,  Dupont 
ie  Nemours,  Mercier  ae  la  Riviere,  Turgot,  who  form  the  so-called  Physio- 
mdc  school  Adam  Smith  makes  the  acquaintance  of  Quesnai  and 
Tvgot,  and  becomes  deeply  influenced  by  their  ideas. 

i^.    Deaths.    Jonathan  Edwards,  Jussieu,  Allan  Ramsay. 


i^K    Qtrman   Ch.      Hamann's  Socratic   Memories  vindicate    ^759 

ChistiaDity  against  the  Aufklarung.  ^ 

iWi.    Fortogneae  Ch.    The  Jesuits  are  expelled  by  the  king  and 

Posbal,  and  their  estates  sequestrated.     The  Viceroys  of  India  and 

Baal  also  receive  orders  to  expel  them. 
i9$i,    Sng.  Ut.    Johnson's  Rasselas. 

Goldsmith's  The  Bee,  and,  later.  The  Citizen  of  the  Worid,  aid 

Mmaon  in  the  revival  of  the  Essay. 
W,    Vtench    Lit.     D'Alembert    retires    from    the    control    of   the 

iKjdopMie. 
'^    Gtoman  Lit.     Nicolai   b^ns  his  Letters,   the  organ  of  the 

AsfUimng. 

16—2 


244  pouTics  [1781 


1210.  America.  Ghoiseiil  fails  to  detach  Pitt  from  the  war;  but  Pitt 
and  Frederick  suggest  an  European  Conference,  which  is  r^arded  u 
a  sign  of  weakness,  and  rejected. 

rort  Niagara  and  Ticonderoga  are  taken ;  and  Quebec  is  woo  by 
Wolfe,  who,  with  Montcalm,  is  slain  in  the  battle  (Sept). 

1211.  Asia.    Lally  fails  to  tjEtke  Madras. 


1212.  England.  The  new  king,  George  III.,  begins  to  work  for  ry^^ 
peace  as  a  means  for  overthrowing  Pitt.  ^ 

The  extension  of  the  Militia  Bill  to  Scotland  is  opposed  by  the 
Ministry.  Its  rejection  leads  to  the  creation  of  the  Poker  Club  in 
Edinburgh. 

1213.  Germany.  Austria  is  forced  to  make  a  new  treaty  with  Ruswa, 
allowing  her  permanent  possession  of  East  Prussia  (March).  Thi* 
greatly  irritates  France  and  the  Baltic  Powers. 

Frederick  loses  a  detachment  near  Landshut,  but  defeats  Landon 
at  Liegnitz  (Aug.).  Berlin,  however,  is  occupied  by  Rusdaus  and 
Austrians.  Frederick  defeats  Daun  in  a  fierce  attack  on  Torgan  (Nov.), 
the  last  pitched  battle  of  the  war. 

Ferdmand  of  Bninswick  defends  Westphalia  and  Hanover  agaiost 
the  French. 

1214.  Austria.  Maria  Theresa  institutes  a  CTouncil  of  State  to  watch 
over  the  whole  administration,  and  gradually  withdraws  administrative 
power  from  the  provincial  diets.  She  ]>r()tects  the  peasants,  taxes  the 
landowners,  and  substitutes  central  magistrates  for  the  local  courts. 

1215.  America.  Montreal  surrenders  to  Amherst,  and  Canada  becomes 
wholly  English. 

1216.  Asia.  Sir  Eyre  Coote  defeats  Lally  at  Wandewash  (Jan.),  and 
the  French  power  in  India  collapses.     Lally  is  shut  up  in  Pondicheny. 


1217.  Prance.     Turgot  becomes  Intendant  of  the  Limousin,  re-   n^j 
duces   the  faillej  commutes  the  corvee,  allows  substitutes  for  ^ 
service  in  the  militia,  frees  the  peasiintry  from  the  duty  of  collecting  the 
taxes,  and  introduces  the  potato. 

Negotiations  for  peace  breiik  down,  and  Choiseul  persuades  Spain  to 
make  a  new  Family  Compact,  which  guarantees  the  possessions  of  all 
Bourbon  Powers,  and  by  which  Spain  is  to  declare  war  against  Bigland 
unlesspeace  is  concluded  by  May,  1762  (Aug.). 

1218.  ifngland.  Pitt  suspects  the  alliance  between  France  and  Spain, 
and  proposes  to  attack  the  Si)anish  Indies.  He  is  however,  dismissed, 
and  succeeded  by  Bute,  who  stands  for  peace  (Oct.). 


.TBI]  CULTURE  245 

!M5.    Science.    Wolff's  Theoria  Generatiouis  defeucls  epigenesis. 

Smeaton  designs  the  Eddystone  Lighthouse. 
tSS6,    Art.    Diderot  begins  his  criticism  of  tlie  Salon. 

1887.  Philosophy.    Adam  Smith's  Theory  of  Moral  Sentiments  attri- 
butes emotions  to  the  S3rmpathy  felt  by  an  impartial  spectator. 

1888.  History.    The  Annual  Register  is  planned  and  largely  written  by 
Burke. 

188^4,    Politics.    F.  C.  Moser's  Master  and  Servant  sketches  a  political 
»Ute,  in  which  all  is  done  for,  nothing  by,  the  People. 

1890.  Law.    Hilbner's  Seizure  of  Neutral  Vessels  supports  neutrality, 
but  warns  neutrals  to  avoid  blockaded  places. 

1891.  Deaths.    Handel,  Maupertuis. 

1892.  Kig.   Ch.     Wesley's  lay-preachers  take  out  licenses  as   riyoA 
dissenting  teachers  and  administer  the   sacraments.     Charles   ^ 
Wesley  is  shocked,  and  Grimshaw  disowns  the  Methodists. 

Pitt  asks  and  obtains  from  the  ^Pheological  Faculties  of  the  Sor- 

bonne,  Louvain,  and  other  Universities,  a  declaration  that  the  Pope  has 

DO  civil  authority  in  England,  that  he  cannot  absolve  from  the  Oath  of 

Allegianoe,  and  that  faith  must  be  kept  with  heretics. 

1993.    French  Ch.    Diderot's  La  Keligieuse  fiercely  attacks  monastic 

life. 
1^4.    Oerman  Ch.    Sender  explains  his  doctrine  of  accommodation. 
Ii95.    Bn^  Ut.    Sterne's  Tristram  Shandv. 

Ossian's  poems  are  published  by  Macpherson. 
Ilt96.    Prencn  Lit.    Rousseau's  Jja  Nouvelle  H^loise  introduces  senti- 
ment and  a  sense  of  the  picturesque,  and  founds  the  romantic  school  in 
nodem  literature. 
1^.    Science.    Brisson's  Omithologie. 

Black  discovers  latent  heat. 
iW.    Art.    Horace  Walpole  begins  to  build  his  house  at  Strawberry 

Hill  in  Gothic  style. 
1S99.    Social.    Roebuck  erects  blast  furnaces  working  entirely  with  coaL 
A  flying  shuttle  is  used  in  the  cotton  trade. 

The  Abb^  de  I'Ep^  founds  an  Institute  for  the  education  of  the 
deif  and  dumb. 
iW.    Deaths.    Antoine  Court,  Zinzendorf. 

iW.     £kx>tch  Ch.    tiiliesuie  is  expeUed  for  his  opposition  to    m^qj^ 
pitrcma^,  and  forms  tlie  'Presbytery  of  Relief.'  ^ 

'•'^i.    Smence.    Morgagni  collects  particulars  of  diseases,  post  mor- 
tans^etc. 

Avenbrugger  adopts  percussion  of  the  chest  for  the  recognition  of 


Beq;mann  proves  that  fixed  air  is  an  acid,  and  works  at  the  chemical 
afinity  of  a  number  of  substances. 

Cuiton  demonstrates  the  compressibility  of  water. 
M3,    Art    Oreuxe's  first  freat  picture,  L' Accords  de  Village. 

Gainsborough  first  exhibits  in  i«ondon,  and  founds  English  landscape. 


246  POLITICS  [IW 

1219.  Germany.  No  important  battles  are  fought ;  bat  the  AostriiDs 
and  Russians  winter  in  Silesia. 

1220.  America.  Otis  argues  against  the  introduction  of  writs  rf 
assistance  (i.e.  warrants  to  the  Customs  officers  to  seize  any  goods 
suspected  to  be  smuggled),  on  the  ground  that  Parliament  cannot 
legalise  tyranny. 

1221.  West  Indies.    Dominica  is  taken  by  England  from  France. 

1222.  Asia.  The  Mahrattas  are  defeated  by  the  Afghans  under  Ahmed 
Shah  at  Panipat.  The  Confederacy  is  broken  up  into  five  dynasties,  the 
Peshwar  at  Poonah,  Sindhia  at  Gwalior,  Holkar  at  Indore,  the  Gaikwir 
at  Baroda,  and  Bhonslar  at  Nagpur.  The  Moghul  Emperor  become 
virtually  dependent  on  the  Mahrattas. 

Coote  captures  Pondicherry,  which  is  restored,  1763. 


1223.  Ireland.    The  Whiteboys  appear  and  attack  tithe  proctors,   r^f^ 

1224.  Spain.    Bute  declares  war  with  Spain  (Jan.).     England,  ^ 
aided  by  Portugal,  defeats  the  Spanish  invasion  of  Portu^,  and  takes 
Havannah  and  Manila. 

1225.  Germany.  Bute  refuses  to  continue  subsidies  to  Prussia,  wUdi 
however,  is  saved  by  the  death  of  Elizabeth  of  Russia  and  the  accessioD 
of  Peter  (Jan.),  who  deserts  the  Austrians  and  makes  an  offensive  aod 
defensive  alliance  with  Prussia  (May).  The  Swedes  are  forced  to  foUow 
suit.  The  new  Tsar,  however,  alienates  all  classes,  and  is  depowd 
(July),  and  is  murdered  by  his  wife  Catherine  and  the  Orloffs.^  The 
Russian  troops  are  recalled ;  but  the  alliance  with  Austria  ia  not 
renewed.  Frederick  recovers  part  of  Silesia,  and  Prince  Henr}'  compek 
the  Diet  at  Ratisbon  to  declare  neutrality,  and  a  truce  is  arrangedf  for 
Silesia  and  Saxony.  Preliminaries  are  arranged  between  EogUnd. 
France  and  Spain  (Nov.). 

1226.  England.    The  King  dismisses  all  who  oppose  the  peace. 

1227.  America.    France  cedes  to  Spain  Louisiana  and  New  Orleans. 

1228.  West  Indies.  Martinique,  St  Vincent,  and  Grenada  are  Uken 
from  the  French. 


The    King  summons   Grenville,   who  has  supported  Bute,  and  who 
associates  with  himself  the  Bedford  Whigs. 

Wilkes  attacks  the  Kinc's  speech  in  the  Nortli  Briton,  No.  -45,  tw 
a  general  warrant  is  issued  for  its  authors  and  printers.  Wilkes  i^ 
arrested,  but  is  discharged  by  Pratt  (Lord  Camden)  as  a  member  of 
Parliament,  l^tt  declares  general  warrants  ille^[aL  The  Commoo*. 
nevertheless,  deny  his  privilege,  and  vote  the  North  Briton  a  Kbel 


1782]  CULTURE  247 

1904.  Philosophy.  Kobinet's  Be  la  Nature  attacks  optimism  an<l 
pessimism  and  finds  the  beauty  and  truth  of  the  world  in  the  balance  of 
truth  and  error,  pleasure  and  pain.  A  first  cause,  though  we  know 
nothing  of  it,  must  be  taken  for  granted. 

1905.  Politics.  Wallace's  Prospects  of  Mankind  declares  a  large  popu- 
lation an  obstacle  to  Communism. 

190f},  Social.  Protests  against  the  slave-trmie  are  raise<l  in  England 
by  the  Quakers  and  in  France  by  the  Amis  des  Noirs. 

The  Buke  of  Bridgewater  employs  Brindley  to  make  a  canal  from 
his  coal-mine  to  Manchester,  a  distance  of  7  miles,  through  tunnels  and* 
over  aqueducts. 

1907.    Deaths.     Hoadley,  I^aw,  Richardson. 

190^.  Eng.  Ch.  Warburton  attacks  Wesley  and  'Enthusiasm'  in  ri^go 
his  Doctrine  of  Grace.  ^ 

1909.  French  Ch.  Jean  Galas,  a  Protestant,  is  broken  cm  the  wheel 
at  Toulouse  on  the  charge  of  murdering  his  son,  a  convert  to 
Catholicism. 

La  Valet te,  a  Jesuit  trader,  loses  ships  on  which  he  lias  borrowed, 
and  the  deficit  is  ordered  to  be  ma4le  up  by  the  whole  Order  in  France. 
At  the  instigation  of  Choiseul  and  Mme  de  Pompadour,  the  king 
deserts  the  Society,  which  is  supported  only  by  the  AR'hbishop  of  Paris, 
and  forbids  teaching  and  the  enlistment  of  recruits,  and  orders  the  sale 
of  their  property. 

Voltaire  publishes  the  Abb^  Meslier's  Testament,  a  document  at 
once  deistic  and  communistic. 

1910.  RoBsian  Ch.  Platon,  afterwards  Metropolitan  of  Moscow,  com- 
piles a  Catechism.  He  rapidly  gains  an  unrivalled  reputation  as  a 
preacher. 

1911.  French  Lit.    Diderot's  Neveu  de  Kameau. 

1912.  Swiss  Lit.  The  Helvetic  Society,  half  political,  half  literar}-,  is 
formed,  containing  Gessner,  Lavater,  Balthasar,  Iselin,  and  others  of 
both  races. 

1913.  Science.  Bonnet  and  Spallanzani  find  that  the  limbs  of  the 
lower  animals,  when  cut  off,  grow  again,  and  suggest  tliat  these  organs 
become  more  complicated  till  they  reach  man. 

1914.  Art.  Gluck  s  Orfeo  interprets  the  words,  improves  the  recitative, 
and  does  not  break  the  music  up  into  airs. 

Tiepolo  is  invited  to  paint  in  Spain. 
J915.  Fblitics.  Koosseau's  Contrat  Social  imagines  a  sovereign  power 
to  which  every  man  gives  up  his  individual  rights.  The  surrender, 
however,  is  onlv  apparent,  being  made  not  to  an  individual  but  to  the 
community.  Neither  the  l^slature  nor  the  executive  are  sovereign, 
the  community  retaining  supreme  power.  Representatives  are  merely 
delegates,  and  the  ideal  state  is  small  enough  for  the  sovereign  people 
to  meet  together  in  person. 

1916.  Geography.    Carsten  Niebulir  visits  Arabia  and  Persia. 

1917.  Deaihs.    Bradley,  Marivaux. 


248  POLITICS  [ITU 

(Nov.),  aud  tlie  Lords  attack  Wilkes  for  his  Essay  on  WomaD  (anpob- 
lished).    Wilkes,  however,  obtains  damages  for  imprisonment 

The  Peace  of  Paris  is  signed  by  England,  Spain,  France,  ud 
Portugal  (Feb.)>     France  restores  Minorca  to  England 

1230.  Spain.  Cuba,  Manila  and  the  Philippines  are  restored  hj 
England,  which  receives  Florida,  while  France  cedes  Louisiana. 

1231.  America.  France  surrenders  all  her  possessions  in  North  Amoica, 
except  the  islands  of  Saint-Pierre  and  Miguelon,  as  fishing-statioiM, 
reserving  the  right  to  fish  off  Newfoundland.  The  French  ClapadiaM 
are  guaranteed  their  religion. 

The  Mississippi  is  fixed  as  the  Western  boundary  of  the  English 
colonies. 

Pontiac  plots  to  expel  the  English,  seeing  that,  with  the  defeat  of 
France,  the  English  will  be  supreme.  He  is  encouraged  by  French 
traders,  but  his  revolt  is  suppressed  after  great  difficmties,  1766. 

The  King  annuls  a  Virginian  law  that  clergy  may  chum  part  of  their 
salary  in  money  when  tobacco  is  below  the  usual  price,  and  forbids  the 
repeal  or  modification  of  any  law  till  his  pleasure  is  known.  Patrick 
Henry,  a  Virginian  advocate  declares  thiat  the  Kin^  has  become  a 
'tyrant/  and  forfeited  all  rignt  to  his  subjects'  obedience 

1232.  West  Indies.  France  regains  Guadeloupe,  Martinicine  ami 
St  Lucia  ;  England  retains  Grenada,  Tobago,  Dominica  and  St  Vincent 

1233.  AMca.  Goree  is  restored  to  France,  and  Senegal  becomeg 
English. 

1234.  Asia.  All  conquests  since  1749  are  restored;  but  the  French 
possessions  are  not  to  be  fortified  or  garrisoned. 

1 235.  Germany.  Austrian  and  Prussian  ambassadors  meet  at  Hubertns- 
berg,  a  castle  of  Augustus  of  Saxony,  and  restore  the  status  before  the 
war.  Frederick  evacuates  Saxony,  Maria  Theresa  restores  Glatx,  ind 
Frederick  promises  to  support  Joseph's  candidature  as  the  King  of 
Rome  (Feb.). 


1236.  England.     Wilkes  is  expelled  by  the  House  of  Commons  m^ 
and  condemned  by  the  King's  Bench,  flies  to  France,  aud  is  out-   ^ 
lawed.     Riots  take  place  in  his  favour. 

Grenville  imposes  customs  duties  on  the  colonies,  and  gives  notice 
of  the  Stamp  Act,  in  order  to  raise  money  for  the  support  of  an  tnur 
sent  over  after  the  conspiracy  of  Pontiac. 

1237.  America.  Samuel  Adams  draws  up  instructions  to  the  BtistoD 
representatives  in  the  (General  Court,  denying  the  right  of  Pariiameot 
to  execute  Greiiville*s  Stamp  Act. 

1238.  France.    Mine  de  Pompadour  dies,  but  Choiseul  remains  sumiDe. 

1239.  Poland.  On  the  death  of  Augustus  III.,  1763,  Stanislas  Poou- 
towski,  the  protege  of  Catherine  and  Frederick,  becomes  king,  de^Hte 
the  resistance  of  a  Nationalist  party  and  the  jealousy  of  Fmnce  isi 
Austria,  who  support  the  Saxon  dynasty.  Russia  aud  Prussia  agree  to 
guarantee  the  constitutions  of  Poland  and  Sweden,  to  control  the  eie^ 
tion  to  the  Polish  throne,  and  to  protect  the  Dissenters. 


ITM]  CULTURE  249 

1918.  Xng.  Ch.    Veun's  Complete  Duty  of  Man.  r^^^^ 

1919.  Oennan  Ch.    Febromus  (Nicolas  von  HoDtheim),  Suf-   ^ 
fragan  Bishop  of  Treves,  in  his  De  Statu  Ecclesiae,  ur^es  the  supremacy 
ofGeuend  Councils,  and  episcopal  independence,     llie  work  is  con- 
demned by  the  Pope,  1764,  and  is  attacked  by  Ballerini  and  Mamachi. 
Tlie  author  recants,  1778,  though  without  changing  his  opinions. 

19JiO.     KniS.  Lit.    Boswell  meets  Dr  Johnson. 

1921.  Italian  Ut.    Parini's  II  (iiomo,  a  social  satire. 

1922.  Art.    The  Madeleine,  Paris,  is  built  after  classical  models. 

19j^.    Politics.    Mably's  E^tretiens  de  Phocion,  strongly  influenced  by 
Plato's  communism. 

1924,  EducatioxL    Frederick  the  Great  institutes  village  schools  in 
Pnuaia. 

1925.  History.    The  Almanacb  de  Gotha  is  published. 

192t).    £k>cial.    Almack  opens  his  gaming-house  iu  London,  which,  later, 

becomes  Brooks'. 
1927.    Deaths.    Carteret,  Dupleix,  Abb^  Provost. 


l^S.    French  Ch.  The  Jesuit  Order  is  suppressed.  Clement  XIII.,    rinaA 
ill  a  Bull,  confirms  the  Order  and  denies  the  charges  against  it.      ^ 
\roltaire'8  Dictionnairc  Philosophique. 
lf^29,    Bohemian  Ch.    Spangenberg  reforms  the  constitution  of  the 

Moravians,  and  suppresses  the  extravagances  of  the  brotherhood, 
i-^.    Portogaese  Ch.    Malagrida  is  burnt  by  Pombal  as  a  heretic. 
Communication  between  Portugal  and  the  Papacy  is  broken  off  for  two 
yean.    Pombal  in  consequence  works  for  the  suppression  of  the  Jesuits. 
i931.    En^  Lit.    Dr  Johnson  founds  the  Literary  Club. 

Walpole's  Castle  of  Otranto  founds  the  romantic  school  of  fiction  in 
Engiand. 

Goldsmith's  Traveller,  and  the  Deserted  Village  (1770),  the  last 
nooessfol  poems  in  the  French  or  classical  style, 
i^i.    French  Lit.    Mile  de  Lespinasse  and  Mme  Necker  open  Salons 

inPiris. 
^W    Archaeology.    Winckelmann's  History  of  the  Art  of  Antiquity 
iBtroduces  the  conception  of  development  into  the  study  of  Greek 
Kohture. 

The  Dilettanti  Society  send  three  members  to  Asia  Minor  and 
Gieece,  publish  'Ionian  Antiquities,'  and  aid  the  publication  of  Stuart's 
Athenian  Antiouities  and  Chandler's  Travels, 
^^i  Ihiloaopny.  Reid's  Inquiry  into  the  Human  Mind  on  tlie 
IViDciples  of  Common  Sense  attacks  Hume  and  founds  natural  realism, 
declarmg  that  we  have  direct  knowledge  of  objects. 

^5.  Kdnoation.  Kousseau's  ^mile  first  wholly  renounces  the  renais- 
iioce  ideal  of '  Knowing,'  partially  rejected  by  Montaigne  and  Locke. 
Till  the  age  of  12,  the  m)y  is  to  learn  nothing,  and  then  science,  hand- 
work, and  the  elements  of  natural  religion. 


250  POLITICS  [17N 

1240.  Russia.    Catherine  confiscates  the  ecclesiastical  lands,  giving  the 
clergy  a  salary. 

1241.  Asia.    Munro  defeats  the  Nabob  of  Oudh  at  Buxar. 

1242.  Africa.    France  takes  Reunion. 


1243.  America.  Despite  the  protest  of  six  colonies  and  of  ri»gr 
Benjamin  Franklin,  Grenville  imposes  a  duty  on  stamps  on  legal  ^ 
documents,  and  cases  under  it  may  be  tried  without  a  juiy.  Tie 
Americans  attack  the  officers  who  distribute  the  stamped  ^jupett. 
Patrick  Henry  carries  a  Resolution  a^inst  the  Stamp  Act  m  the 
Virginia  Convention,  compares  George  III.  to  Caesar  and  Charles  l. 
and  denies  the  right  of  Parliament  to  legislate  on  the  domestic  concenu 
of  the  Colonies.  Governor  Hutchinson's  house  in  Boston  is  boned, 
and  Samuel  Adams  carries  the  Massachusetts  Resolves  declariiu;  the 
right  of  the  Colonials  to  tax  themselves.  Delegates  from  nine  coTonies 
meet  at  New  York,  on  the  suggestion  of  Samuel  Adams,  inm  up 
memorials  to  King  and  Parliament,  and  adopt  a  Declaration  of  Rights 
and  Liberties.  Grenville  is  surprised  by  the  opposition,  and  offers  to 
raise  the  money  in  any  other  way. 

1244.  England.  The  King  dismisses  Grenville  and  Bedford  and 
appoints  Rockingham,  who  is  weak,  owing  to  the  opposition  of  the 
King  and  to  his  refusal  to  employ  corruption. 

The  King  shows  the  first  symptoms  of  madness,  and  a  Tiegeucj  Bill 
is  discussed. 

The  sovereignty  of  the  Isle  of  Man  is  bought  by  the  Govemmeot 
from  the  Athol  family. 

1245.  Austria.  Francis  dies,  and  his  son  Joseph,  chosen  king  of  the 
Romans,  1764,  becomes  Emperor  and  joint-ruler,  with  his  mother,  of 
the  Austrian  states. 

1246.  Hungary.  Maria  Theresa,  in  gratitude  for  aid  against  Pni^sU. 
extends  the  area  of  self-government. 

1247.  Italy.  The  Archduke  Leopold,  the  second  son  of  the  Emperor, 
begins  to  govern  Tuscany,  abolisnes  the  Inquisition,  and  reforms  the 
])enal  laws  on  the  principles  of  Beccaria. 

1248.  Asia.  Clive  obtains  from  the  Great  Mo^hul  the  financial  admioi- 
stration  of  Bengal,  Behar  and  Orissa,  and  ^ies  with  Oudh  and  the 
Moghul  Emperor. 


1249.  America.    On  pressure  from  Benjamin  Franklin,  the  agent  mm^ 
of  Pennsylvania,  Pitt,  Burke  and  Camden,  Rockingham  repeals  ^ 
the  Stamp  Act,  whidi  has  brought  in  no  revenue  (Feb.),  but  pM8» 
a  Declaratory  Act  asserting  the  right  of  the  English  Parliament  to  IhikI 
the  Colonies  *  in  all  ca.ses  whatsoever.* 

1250.  England.  The  King  dismisses  Rockingham  and  summons  Pitt, 
now  create  Earl  of  Chatham,  and  Grafton  (July).  Chatham's  bnltk 
however,  sliortly  gives  way. 

1251.  France.    Stanislas  Leczynski  dies,  and  Lorraine  falls  to  Pnnce. 


1T86]  CULTURE  251 

19S6,    Law.    Beccaria's  Grimes  and  Punishments  urges  the  humani- 

aation  of  the  penal  law. 
1U.}7,    Death.    Hogarth. 


I93Jf.  French  Ch.  Owing  to  the  persistent  championship  of  ryf^K 
Voltaire,  the  Galas  family  is  declared  innocent.  '- 

La  Baire,  a  youth  of  18,  is  tortured  for  irreverence  to  a  procession 
beari^^  the  Sacrament. 

I9S9,  Dutch  Ch.  The  Jansenist  Church  of  Utrecht  names  itself  the 
Old  Roman  Catholic  Church  of  the  Netherlands,  acknowledges  the  Poi)e 
as  the  visible  head  of  the  Church,  and  accepts  the  Tridentine  decrees. 
The  Pope  declares  the  Council  null. 

1940.  Cnurch  Hist.  The  celebration  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  founded  by 
Hamiet  Alacoque  and  encouraged  by  the  Jesuits,  is  sanctioned  by 
the  Pope. 

1941.  Emg.  Lit.  Bishop  Percy,  aided  by  Shenstone,  edits  Keliques  of 
Ancient  Poetry,  which  contribute  to  the  romantic  revival. 

Chatterton  forges  the  Rowley  Poems. 

1942.  French  Lit.    Sedaine's  Philosophe  sans  le  savoir. 

li*iS.    German  Lit.    Nicolai  edits  the  Universal  Grerman  Library. 
1944,    Science.    Watt  constructs  a  steam-endne,  in  which  the  piston  is 

moved  by  the  expansion  of  steam,  aided  by  the  model  of  Newcomen  and 

hy  Black's  work  on  latent  heat. 
19^.    Fhiloflophy.    Tucker's  Light  of  Nature  connects  the  universal 

motive  of  pleasure,  through  the  will  of  God,  with  the  general  good. 
194^,    PoliucB.     D'Argenson    advocates    communal    government    and 

decentralisation,  and  attacks   the   feudal   regime  and   restraints  on 

commerce. 
1947.    Law.    Blackstone's  Commentaries  on  the  Laws  of  England  describe 

the  Ic^  theory  of  the  Constitution,  reject  the  state  of  nature  as  a 

histoncal  fact,  reduce  the  contract  to  an  instinctive  holding  together, 

ind  state  the  necessity  of  a  sovereign  power. 


.  i948,    Xn^   Ch.    Blackbume's  Confessional,  published  anony-   riygg 

ttoady,  denies  that  churches  have   the  rignt  to  make  any   *■ 

ooofinsions  of  fiuth. 
i9j9,    French   Ch.    The  observance  of  the  Articles  of  1682  is  re- 

nipoeed. 
^,    Rn— ian  Ch.    Catherine  permits  liberty  of  worsliip,  and  allows 

Mohamedaos  to  build  mosc^ues. 
1961.    Xn&Lit.    Goldsmith's  Vicar  of  Wakefield. 


Henry  Brooke's  Fool  of  Quality. 
mi    German  Lit    Wieknd's  Comic  Tales, 
/ay.    Science.    Cavendish  discovers  hydrogen,  or  *  inflammable  air. ' 
/^i    Art.    Lessing's  Laocoon  contends  that  poetry  an<l  the  plastic  arts 

•le  eaeh  subject  to  definite  conditions,  and  approves  an  ideal  or  universal 

type  in  sculpture. 


252  POLITICS  [17M 


1252.  Spain.  D'Aranda  becomes  chief  minister  and  introduces  secular 
education,  the  nomination  of  the  Rota  (the  chief  Ecdesiastical  Court), 
supervision  of  monasteries  and  taxation  of  Church  lands. 

A  revolt  is  caused  by  sumptuary  laws  and  the  domination  of 
foreigners. 

1253.  Poland.  Russia  attempts  to  secure  full  civil  rights  for  the  Dini- 
dents ;  but  the  strongly  CatnoHc  Diet  resists  and  is  dissolved.  Tke 
Russian  ambassador,  Kepnin,  oi^nises  confederations  of  the  Dissident 
which  are  joined  by  the  *  Patriot '  party,  and  force  the  Diet  to  promwe 
eqasA  rights  and  administrative  reforms. 


1254.  Ireland.    An  Octennial  Act  is  passed.  ry^^ 

1255.  America.  Despite  the  opposition  of  Shelbnme,  Towns-  ^ 
hend  imposes  import  duties  on  glass,  lead,  paper,  t^  estimated  it 
£40,000,  which  is  to  be  spent  in  paying  jud^e»  and  governors  in 
America.  The  revenue  officers  are  attack^,  and  juri^  r^use  to  coin 
vict  the  offenders.  Dickinson  attacks  the  scheme  in  his  Pannen*' 
Letters. 

Samuel  Adams  issues  a  circular  letter  urging  concerted  action, 
though  disclaiming  independence. 

Tne  legislative  power  of  New  York  is  suspended  in  consequence  «jf 
its  refusal  to  make  provision  for  troom  quartered  in  the  colony. 

1256.  Germany.  Frederick  renews  nis  alliance  with  Russia,  promifiiiK 
to  support  the  Polish  Dissenters,  to  enter  Poland  if  Austria  enters,  swi 
to  support  Catherine  in  the  event  of  a  war  with  'IHirkey. 

1257.  Russia.  Catherine  appoints  a  Commission,  the  first  Assanblj 
since  Peter  the  Great,  to  oraft  a  new  code. 

1258.  Denmark.  Catherine  of  Russia  re.si^s  Holstein-Gottorp  a»l 
Sclileswig  to  Denmark. 

1259.  Asia.  Clive  leaves  India,  and  chaos  ensues  until  the  arrival  «»f 
Warren  Hastings. 


1260.  England.    Chatliam  formally  resigns  office.  n^jg 
In  the  General  Election,  Wilkes  is  returned  for  Middlesex.   ^ 

An  attempt  is  made  to  prevent  him  taking  his  seat,  and  riots  break  out 
A  Secretary  for  the  Colonies,  or  *  American  Department,'  is  creatol. 
though  the  Board  of  Trade  and  Plantations  still  continues. 

1261.  America.  The  new  Board  of  Commissioners  at  Boston  seizes  tbf 
*  Liberty,*  which  attempts  to  avoid  payment  of  customs.  A  riot  enw», 
and  a  Convention  of  del^ates  from  the  towns  of  Massachusetts  nieet^ 
Hutchinson  asks  for  two  reginients  to  be  sent  to  Boston. 

1262.  France.  France  purchases  Corsica  from  Genoa,  which  is  unakk" 
to  suppress  the  revolt  of  Paoli. 

1263.  Germany.  Maria  Theresa  formally  renounces  all  claim  t<^ 
Silesia. 

1264.  Italy.  The  l?o\ye,  as  feudal  superior,  confiscates  Parma,  the 
weakest  of  the  enemies  of  the  Jesuits.  Don  Ferdinand,  who  has  rnleil 
since  1765,  is  supported  by  his  minister  Du  Tillot^  and  tlie  insult  to  the 


1768]  CULTURE  253 


195o,  Politios.  Ferguson's  Essay  on  Civil  Society  ascribes  progress  in 
large  measure  to  war  and  the  well-being  of  states  to  activity  in  the 
acquisition  and  defence  of  liberty,  and  praise.^  the  military  states  at  the 
expense  of  the  commercial. 

19o6.  Eoonomics.  Tnrgot's  Reflexions  sur  la  Formation  et  la  Distri- 
bution des  Kichesses,  a  ph^siocratic  treatise. 

i9->7'.     Geography.  Bougainville  commences  his  voyage  round  the  world. 

19oS.    Deaths.    Astruc.  Elizabeth  Famese,  Gottsched. 


19o9.     French  Ch.    Oberlin  becom&s  minister  in  Steinthal,  x\lsace.   ^1707 
19t;0.     Spanish  Ch.    Cluirles  and  Aranda  banish  the  Jesuits,   l-      ' 
whom  they  suspect  of  provoking  a  rising  in  Madrid  against  a  new  tax. 
They  are  also  expelled  from  the  Sicilies  and  Parma. 
1961,     German  Lit.    Lessing's  Minna  von  Bamhelm. 

Lessing's  Hamburg  Dramaturgy  attempts  to  establish  a  national 
theatre  independent  of  French  models  and  inspired  by  Shakespere. 
Lavater  s  Swiss  Songs. 

1965.  Science.    Sprengel  discovers  the  fertilisation  of  plants  by  insects. 
Spallanzani  attacks  the  theory  of  spontaneous  generation. 

19(S3.    Art    Allan  Ramsay  becomes  iwrtrait  painter  to  George  III. 
1964*    Philology.    Heyne,  editor  of  Virgil,  with  Emesti  and  Gesner, 
founds  German  classical  scholarship. 

1966.  Economics.    Steuart's  Political  Economy,  the  last  and  most 
complete  statement  of  moderate  mercantilism. 

1966.     Geography.     Ma.«tkelyne,  Astronomer-Royal,  publishes  the  Nau- 
tical Almanack,  which  he  conducts  for  40  years. 


1967.    Eng.  Ch.    Oswald's  Appeal  to  Common  Sense  founds,  with    1 1 7^^ 

Beattie  and  Soane  Jenyns,  the  'Common  Sense  School'  of  English    '- 

apologists. 

Lady  Huntingdon  founds  a  seminary  at  Trevecca,  of  which  Fletcher 

of  Madeley  becomes  President. 

Abraham  Booth,  a  Particular  Baptist,  publishes  his  Reign  of  Grace. 
J96S.     Swiss  Ch.    Felix  Balthasar's  Fre^om  of  the  Confederates  in 

Religious  Matters  attacks  Ultramontanism  and  the  Jesuits. 
J969.    Eng.  Lit.     Sterne's  Sentimental  Journey. 
J970.     Art    The  Roval  Academy  is  founded  by  Reynolds,  who  becomes 

first  President  and  delivers  Discourses  on  Art. 

1971.  History.  Schrockh's  Church  History,  with  Splittler,  Planck  and 
Heuke,  forms  the  pragmatist  school,  mostly  indifiFerent  to  dogma,  and 
attributing  everything  to  individuals. 

1972.  Gec^praphy.  Cook  accompanies  a  party  sent  by  the  Roval  Society 
to  Tahiti  to  watch  the  Transit  of  Venus.  -He  surveys  the  smaller 
Pacific  islands,  sails  round  New  Zealand,  visits  the  east  coast  of 


254  POLITICS  [1788 


Bourbons  gives  Pombal  the  opportunity  of  combining  the  states  against 
the  Jesuits.  France  seizes  Avignon,  and  the  King  of  Naples  iDvades 
the  Papal  States. 

1265.  Poland.  The  opponents  of  toleration  form  the  Gonfedeiaqr  of 
Bar  and  attempt  to  kianap  the  King.  Civil  war  follows,  and  Staoidw 
is  supported  by  Russian  arms. 

Kaunitz  discusses  the  partition  of  Poland  in  a  memoir  to  Joseph. 

1266.  Turkey.    Turkey  declares  war  against  Russia. 

1267.  England.  Wilkes  is  expelled,  but  is  re-elected.  The  m^ 
House  again  expels  him,  and  incapacitates  him  from  sitting  ^ 
during  the  existmg  Parliament  A  new  election  is  held,  and  thon^ 
Wilkes  is  at  the  head  of  the  poll,  the  House  declares  his  opponent, 
Colonel  Luttrell,  to  be  elected.  Grenville,  Rockingham  and  Cnathim 
point  out  that  only  an  Act  could  deprive  the  electors  of  the  right  of 
choosing  whom  they  will.  Wilkes  is  imprisoned,  but  the  mob  tikes 
his  part. 

Throughout  the  year  the  Kiuff  and  the  Ministry  are  attacked  in  the 
Letters  of  Junius,  probably  Sir  Philip  Francis. 

1268.  America.  Parliament  urges  the  King  to  bring  colonists  chaised 
with  treason  to  England  for  trial,  as  authorised  by  an  Act  of  Heniy  VIII. 
The  Virginia  Assembly  therefore  passes  '  Resolves,'  protesting  against 
sending  for  trial  outside  the  colony,  and  repeating  that  it  alone  can  tai 
itself,  and  that  the  colonies,  singly  and  collectively,  may  petition  tat 
redress  of  grievances.  The  Assembly  is  dissolved,  but  the  boigessM 
agree  not  to  use  nor  import  goods  taxed  by  Parliament  The  pohcy  of 
non-importation  is  adopted  by  the  other  colonies. 

1269.  France.     France  expels  Paoli  from  Corsica. 

1270.  Germany.  Russia  and  Prussia  renew  their  aUiance  for  eleven 
years.  Catherine  guarantees  the  succession  of  Anspach  and  Baireath, 
and  Prussia  the  constitution  of  Sweden  of  1720,  and  undertakes  to  enter 
Pomerania  if  it  is  attacked. 

Frederick  meets  Joseph,  whom  lie  wishes  to  detach  from  France,  and 
offers  a  Polish  partition. 

1271.  Russia.  Russia  defeats  the  Turks,  and  occupies  Moldavia  tnd 
Bucharest. 

Russia  allies  with  Denmark  to  guarantee  the  Swedish  Constitution 
of  1720. 

1272.  AfHca.    Portugal  loses  its  last  foothold  in  Morocco. 


1273.  England.  Grafton  resigns  and  Lonl  North  becomes  Prime  m^ 
Minister.  ^ 

Grenville  secures  the  hearing  of  election  petitions  by  a  Committee  of 
13  instead  of  by  the  House. 

The  printers  and  publishers  of  Junius*  Letters  are  tried  and 
at'([uitted.  Lord  Mansfield  declares  that  a  jury  cannot  decide  whether 
the  publication  is  libelloiis,  but  only  whether  it  has  been  published. 

W  ilkes  is  elected  Alderman  and  Sheriff  of  London. 


ITTO]  CULTURE  255 

Amtnlim,  names  Botany  Bay,  and  claims  possession  of  New  South 
Wales  for  the  fiiglidi  Crown. 

Pdlas  joomeys  through  Russia  and  Siberia,  as  a  naturalist  on  the 
expedition  sent  to  observe  the  Transit  of  Venus,  1769. 
1S7^.    Pwithii     Asscumanni,  Reimarus,  Sterne. 


1974^    Xng.  Ch.    Price's  Dissertations,  written  from  the  stand-    [1759 

point  of  <^mistic  Deism.  ^ 

197o.  German  Ch.  The  Coblenz  Articles,  or  list  of  grievances  against 
die  Pope,  are  drawn  up  hr  the  Archbisho])s  of  Mainz,  Cologne  and 
Trier,  under  the  direction  of  Febrouius,  and  presented  to  Maria  Theresa, 
who  takes  no  notice  of  them. 

Mendelssohn  publishes  an  Epistle  to  Lavater,  who  has  urged  him 
lo  desert  Judaism. 
/97e^.    CSbiiireh  Hist    Spain,  France  and  Naples  demand  the  abolition 
of  the  Order  of  Jesuits ;  but  Clement  XIII.  dies,  and  Gaugauelli,  a  man 
vitboat  strong  views,  is  chosen. 
1-fTT,    IVench  Lit.    Ducis  adapts  Hamlet  and  other  plays  of  Shakespere 
for  the  stage.     Voltaire  renews  his  protest  against  idolatr}',  and  is 
edioed  by  Marmontel  and  La  Harpe.     Diderot  and  Grimm,  however, 
enkgise  Shakespere,  who  is  henceforth  widely  studied  in  France. 
19iS.    Art.    Wedgwood  opens  potteries  at  Etruria  in  Staffordshiro  and 

cnpies  Greek  desims.     Flaxman  helps  to  design  and  model  reliefs. 
/^.    Science.    Soulton  and  Watt  become  partners. 
l^K    Fbilocophy.    Bonnet's  Paling^n^ie  upholds  the  belief  in  the 

iBwuieition  of  the  body. 
l-'SJ.    Tbilology.    Ihro's  Glossarium  Suio-Gothicum. 

Wood's  Essay  on  the  Original  Genius  of  Homer  asserts  that  the  art 
of  writing  was  unknown  to  Homer. 
M^,    nStory.    Robertson  s  History  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V. 
i^i,    Gtoograpihy.    Bruce  attempts  to  penetrate  to  the  sources  of  the 

Xile  from  Massowah. 
I'^i    Bocial.     Arkwright  patents  a  spinning  roller  worked  by  water- 
power. 
/'A<>.    Death.    Tersteegen. 


i*^;.    Xng.  Ch.  Wesley  denounces  Calvinism  and  Antinomianism    ri  77Q 

It  the  CoDfinoice.  '- 

The  orthodox  members  of  the  General  Baptists  se])ar«ite  under  the 

Uie  of  the  General  Baptists'  New  Communion.    The  Old  Communion 

gndoaliy  merges  with  L  nitarians. 
i'<.    American  Ch.    John  Murray,  a  Wesleyau,  crosses  to  America 

tti  introdaces  Universalism,  which  he  lia^  leameil  from  James  Kelly, 

tt  rnitarian  Minister,  in  England. 
^.    Xng.  Lit.    Chatterton  comes  to  London  and  commits  suicide. 
^^'.    Oerman  Lit.    Claudius'  Wandsbeck  Messenger. 
/Sir«/.    Daniflh  Ui.    Ewald's    Rolf   Krage,   the  first  original  Danish 

ttigedy. 


256  POLITICS  [17T0 

1274.  Spain.  At  ChoiseuFs  iiLstigation,  Spain  sends  a  force  to  the 
Falkland  Isles,  which  are  claimed  by  England,  and  expek  the  Eng&L 
England  clamours  for  war ;  bnt  Choiseul  falls,  and  Charles  is  forced  to 
surrender  the  islands.    Aranda  falls,  and  is  succeeded  by  Gampomanes. 

1275.  Germany.  Joseph  and  Frederick  meet  to  concert  steps  against 
the  Russian  advance  towards  the  Austrian  border. 

1276.  Denmark.  Stniensee  becomes  supreme  in  Denmark,  supported 
by  the  Queen,  and  introduces  freedom  of  religion  and  the  press,  im- 
proves education  and  the  law,  and  reor^nises  tfie  army. 

1277.  America.  North  repeals  all  duties  but  Sd.  a  pound  on  tea, 
retained  as  an  assertion  of  the  right  to  tax.  Some  soldiers  in  Boston 
fire  on  the  crowd,  and  the  *  Boston  Massacre '  ends  in  the  withdrawal  of 
the  troops. 


1278.  England.  Tlie  Ministry  receives  support  from  the  Gren-  r^m 
ville  and  Bedford  Whigs,  and  from  Grafton  and  Wedderbum,  who   '• 

is  made  Solicitor- (Jeneral. 

Freedom  of  reporting  is  secured  by  tlie  Chatham  and  Rockingham 
sections  and  the  influence  of  Wilkes.  Henceforth  publication  of 
debates,  though  still  a  breach  of  privilege,  is  rarely  interrupted. 

1279.  France.  The  Parliaments  are  attacked  by  Maupeou,  and  refiue 
to  try  cases.  Maupeou  abolishes  the  Parliaments  and  creates  a  new 
court. 

1280.  Germany.  Baden-Baden  falls  to  Charles  Frederick,  Margrave  of 
Baden,  a  model  niler  of  the  Aufklaning  type,  who  introduces  physio- 
cratic  ideas  into  Germany. 

1281.  Poland.  Prince  Henry  of  Prussia  is  sent  to  St  Petersburg  to 
discuss  partition.  Negotiations  drag  on,  and  Maria  Theresa's  objec- 
tions are  overruled  by  Josepli  and  Kaunitz. 


1282.  England.     The  Royal  Marriage  Act  forbids  the  descend-   r^^ 
ants  of  George  II.  to  marry  without  the  consent  of  the  sovereign,   ^ 
unless  tliey  are  25  and  have  given  one  year  s  notice   to   the  Privy 
Council  and  the  marriage  lias  not  been  opposed  by  Parliament 

1283.  America.  Adams  organises  Local  Committees  of  Correspondence, 
for  the  discussion  of  the  rights  of  colonists. 

The  Gaspee,  a  small  vessel  of  war  used  for  enforcing  the  Navigation 
Acts,  is  captured  and  burnt.  A  Commission  of  Inquiry  is  sent  out  Iwt 
the  authors  are  not  surrendered  for  trial. 

1284.  Poland.  The  first  IVeaty  of  Partition  is  signed  at  St  Petersboij:. 
Russia  obtains  White  Russia,  the  territor}'  beyond  the  Dnieper ;  Anstm 
the  county  of  Zips,  which  she  incorporates  in  Hungary,  and  part  »»f 
Galicia  :  Prussia  renounces  Danzig  and  Thorn,  but  obtains  West 
Prussia,  ceded  to  Poland  by  the  Teutonic  knights,  1466  (Aug.).  Troop 
are  sent  to  oc<*upy  the  territories,  and  the  consent  of  the  Diet  a 
extorted,   1773. 


1T72]  CULTURE  257 

1991.    Art     Gainsborough's  '  The  Blue  Boy.' 

Cosway,  the  miniaturist,  exhibits  at  the  Academy. 
Chodowiecki,  'the  Berlin  Hogarth/  illustrates  Minna  v.  Barnhelm, 
and  many  other  works  with  scenes  from  bourgeois  life. 
199ii.    FhUOBophy.    Holbach's  Syst^me  de  la  Nature,  borrowed  in  part 
from  FAlembert  and  Naigeon,  is  attacked  by  Voltaire,  Frederick,  and 
other  Deists. 

Beattie's  Essay  on  Truth  attacks  Hume. 

Kant  writes  De  Mundi  sensibilis  et  intelligibilis  Forma  et  Principiis, 
after  being  'awakened  by  Hume  from  his  dogmatic  slumber.' 
lff9S.    Politics.    Burke's  Thoughts  on  the  present  Discontents  attack 

the  influence  of  the  king  in  pohtics. 
lifOi,    Education.    Von  Felbiger,  of  Silesia,  organises  elementary  edu- 
cation in  Maria  Theresa's  dominions. 
1995.    lOLW.    Romagnosi's  Origin   of   Penal    Law  aids    the  work    of 

Beccaria. 
l-*9€.    Economics.    Galiani's  Dialogues  sur  le   Commerce    des    Bids 

attack  the  rigidity  of  the  Physiocrats  and  recommend  different  policy 

for  different  circumstances. 
1^^7.    Social.    Hargreaves  patents  the  spinning-jenny,  which  works 

leveral  spindles  at  once. 
im.    Deaths.    Tiepolo,  Wliitfield. 

1999.  Eng.  Ch.  Blackbume  issues  Proposals  for  a  Petition  to  nyyi 
Parliament  against  subscription.  A  petition  from  the  clergy  is  ^ 
dairn  up  at  the  Feathers  Tavern,  but  it  is  rejected  by  217  to  71. 
lindsey,  Jebb  and  other  clergy  leave  the  Church  and  become  Uni- 
tariansy  and  Lindsey  founds  a  congregation  in  London,  1774.  Priestley 
joins  the  Unitarians,  1782. 

In  face  of  a  fierce  attack  on  the  Minutes  of  Conference,  Wesley  dia- 
arows  justification  bv  works,  but  publishes  Fletcher's  Checks  to  Anti- 
nomianism.     The  Calvinist  case  is  stated  by  Toplady  and  Berridge. 

^0JO.    Oerman  Ch.    Semler's  Free  Investigation  of  the  Canon. 

^fOl.    Eng.  Lit.    Smollett's  Humphry  Clinker. 
Mackenzie's  Man  of  Feeling. 

*^.  Art  Sulzer's  Theory  of  the  Fine  Arts  declares  that  beauty  con- 
Sttta  in  perfection,  and  that  our  pleasure  in  it  rests  on  the  feeling  of 
beig^tened  intellectual  activity. 

^W.  Science.  Hewson  establishes  the  essential  character  of  the  pro- 
cess of  coagulation  of  the  blood  and  the  forms  of  the  red  corpuscles. 

^i    Philology.    Anquetil  du  Perron  translates  the  Zend  Avesta. 
Forcellini's  Lexicon  Latinum. 

^jOo,  History.  Raynal's  Histoire  des  Indes,  a  romantic  picture  of 
aaeivilixed  life. 

m.    Deaths.    Gray,  Helv^tius,  Smollett. 

im.    Oerman  Ch.    Albrecht  v.  Haller's  Chief  Truths  of  Reve-   rj^^g 
IttioD,  and    Euler's   Letters    to   a    German  Princess,  defend   ^ 
Clriatianity. 

fi.  17 


258  POLITICS  [1772 


1285.  Sweden.  Gustavus,  by  a  bloodless  coup  d'Stat,  revokes  the 
Constitution  of  1720,  becomes  absolute,  and  ends  the  fifiction  of  HiU 
and  Caps.  By  the  new  Constitution  the  King  appoints  the  Senaton 
and  summons  the  Diet  at  will,  which  only  discusses  what  he  chooseB  to 
lay  before  them.  He  abolishes  torture,  allows  a  free  press,  and  refonns 
the  currency,  the  army  and  the  navy. 

1286.  Denmark.  The  King  is  forced  to  sign  the  arrest  of  the  Qoeeo 
and  Struensee,  who  is  executed. 

1287.  Turkey.  A  truce  is  arranged  and  a  Congress  meets ;  but  the 
Kussian  terms  are  not  accepted,  and  war  breaks  out  afresh. 

1288.  Asia.  Warren  Hastings  is  sent  out  as  (Jovemor  of  Bengil, 
restores  order,  and  organises  the  administration  on  English  principles. 


1289.  America.     Lord   North  sends  ships  htden  with  tea  to   r^M 
Boston.    Hutchinson  refuses  to  send  them  away,  and  young  men   *- 
rush  on  board  and  fling  the  tea  overboard. 

1290.  Ireland.  Mood  obtains  the  recall  of  the  hated  Lord  Townshend, 
and  joins  the  administration  of  Lord  Harcourt. 

1291.  France.  A  legacy  from  his  patron  to  Beaumarchais  is  dispated 
b3^  the  heir,  who  loses  the  case  and  appeals.  Beaumarchais  bribes  the 
wife  of  Goezman,  the  judge  appointed  to  report,  who  neverthelesB 
pronounces  against  him,  and  is  therefore  exposed  by  Beaumarchais  in 
a  Mdmoire,  which  damages  the  prestige  of  Maupeou's  Parliament 

Avignon  is  restored  to  the  Papacy  on  the  suppression  of  tlie  Jesuits. 

1292.  Denmark.  The  disputes  with  the  line  of  Holstein-Gottorp  tie 
ended  by  the  cession  of  Olaenburg  to  the  vounger  Une  in  exchange  for 
their  share  of  Holstein,  which  is  now  entirely  incorporated  in  the  Danish 
monarchy. 

1293.  Russia.    Pougatcheff"  pretends  to  be  Peter  IIL,  revolts,  and  is 
'  joined  by  the  Cossacks  of  the  Don.     The  rebellion  checks  Kussian 

advance  in  Turkey. 

1294.  Asia.  Lord  North's  Regulating  Act  establishes  a  Supreme  Court 
under  Elijah  Impey,  makes  the  Governor  of  Ben^j^al,  Warren  Hastings 
Governor-General  of  India,  and  appoints  a  Council  of  four  to  aid  sod 
control  him.  The  election  of  the  Governor-General  is  given  to  the 
Directors. 


1295.  England.    Clive's  mind  is  affected  by  the  charges  against   ryms 
him  during  the  discussions  on  the  Regulating  Act,  and  he  com-   ^ 
mits  suicide. 

Wilkes  is  re-elected  for  Middlesex  and  allowed  to  take  his  seat,  anil 
is  also  elected  Lord  Mayor. 

1296.  America.  The  petition  of  Massachusetts  for  the  removal  of  it 
governor  is  rejected  by  the  Privy  Council,  and  Franklin  is  insulted. 
The  port  of  Boston  is  closed,  the  Assembly  of  Massachusetts  is  dis- 
solved by  Gage,  the  charter  is  annulled,  troops  are  qiuirtered,  swi 
public  meetings  are  forbidden  without  the  leave  of  the  governor.  Mutt- 
chu  setts  calls  a  Congress,  attended  by  all  the  Colonies  but  Georgia,  and 


]  CULTURE  259 


J.  Lit.    The  Momiii^  Post  is  founded 

Oerman  Lit.    Wieland  settles  in  Weimar  as  tutor  to  Karl 
igost. 

Science.    Bom^  de  Tlsle's  Essai  de  CrystaUographie  proves  that 
i  angles  in  each  class  of  minerals  are  constant 
Butherford  describes  nitrogen. 

Fhilology.    Herder  declares  language  to  have  had  a  natural 
gin,  and  to  be  the  necessaiy  expression  of  man's  inner  life. 

Law.    Mansfield  declares,  in  the  case  of  Somerset,  that  slavery 
mot  exist  in  England. 

Geography.    Cook  sets  out  to  explore  the  Southern  Continent, 
irhich  rumours  had  reached  Dampier,  and  discovers  New  Caledonia. 

Agricnltore.    Coke  be^ns  to  farm  at  Holkham,  Norfolk,  and 
roduces  bones,  oil-cake,  and  stall-feeding. 

Death.    Swedenborg. 


Church  Hist.    The  Society  of  Jesus  is  abolished  by  the    ri  773 
11  Dominus  ac  Kedemptor.     The  Order  continues  to  exist  in    ^ 
asia  and  Prussia. 

Eng.  Lit.    Groldsmith's  She  Stoops  to  Conquer. 
Johnson  and  Boswell  visit  Scotland. 

Steevens  revises  Dr  Johnson's  edition  of  Shakespere.     Malone  ap- 
ids  his  investi^tions  into  the  order  of  the  plays. 

Oerman  Lit.    Goethe's  Gotz  von  Berlichingen  begins  the  Sturm 
d  Drang  period. 
Burger's  Lenore. 

Science.    The  brothers  Monti^lfier  raise  balloons  by  hot  air. 

Fhilology.    Lord  Monboddos  Origin  of  Language  anticipates 
pp. 

Law.    John  Erskme's  Institutes  of  the  Law  of  Scotland. 

SociaL  Export  of  com  firom  England  on  a  large  scale  ceases, 
reign  com  is  admitted  at  M,  when  the  price  is  48^.,  at  2s.  Zd. 
:ween  44«.  and  48jr.,  and  at  24^.  M.  when  under  44^.  Exportation  is 
bidden  above  44^.,  and  5^.  bounty  is  given  below  that  prica 
Pombal  decrees  Uie  freedom  of  the  grandsons  of  slaves  in  Portugal, 
i  of  all  bom  subsequent  to  this  declaration. 

Death.    Chesterfield. 


Iriflh  Ch.  Catholics  are  allowed  to  take  a  simple  oath  of  nyy^ 
igianoe  to  the  king.  '- 

Clerman  Ch.  Lessing  publishes  fragments  of  Reimarus,  which 
attacked  by  Pastor  Grocse  of  Hamburg  and  defended  by  Lessing. 
Isenbiehl  refers  Isaiah's  reference  to  the  Virgin-bora  Emmanuel  to 
it  history. 

American  Ch.  Anna  Lee,  a  Shaker,  settles  in  New  York  State 
h  30  oompaoions,  who  possess  in  common,  remain  unmarried  aud 
sriah  millenarian  ideas. 

17—2 


260  POLITICS  [1774 

by  Samuel  and  Johu  Adams,  WashingtoD,  Patrick  Henry,  Dickmscm, 
Jay,  Peyton  Randolph.  Jefferson  draws  up  a  Summary  View  of  the 
Kights  of  British  America,  denying  the  legislative  supremacy  of  Parlia- 
ment. A  moderate  Declaration  of  Rights  is  issued,  and  the  Americu 
Association  is  formed  to  organise  a  non-importation  agreement,  boy- 
cotting individuals  who  refuse  to  join.  Burke  speaks  on  AmericaD 
taxation. 

The  Quebec  Act  secures  the  legal  establishment  of  CSatholicism  and 
the  restoration  of  French  civil  law. 

1297.  France.  Maurepas  becomes  Premier,  Turgot  Gontroller-GeneiaL 
Ver^ennes  Foreign  Secretary,  and  Malesherbes  Controller  of  the  Hoiue- 
hold.     Maurepas  recalls  the  Parliaments,  against  the  wish  of  Torgot 

1298.  Turkey.  Romanzov  wins  a  decisive  victory,  and  the  peace  of 
Kutchuks  Kainardji  ends  the  war  with  Russia.  The  Tartars  of  die 
Crimea  are  declared  independent  of  Turkey  and  are  brought  imder 
Russian  influence  ;  Russia  sends  an  ambassador  to  Constantinople,  sur- 
renders the  conquered  provinces  except  Azov,  obtains  privil^^  for  the 
Christians,  and  promises  for  the  better  government  of  tne  Principalitiets 
free  navigation  in  Turkish  waters,  and  a  footing  in  the  Crimea.  To 
compensate,  Austria  obtains  part  of  the  old  temtory  of  Thnansylvania. 
a  link  with  her  recent  acquisitions  from  Poland. 

Aided  by  Russian  influence  in  the  Levant,  Greek  commerce  makes 
great  progress. 

1299.  Asia.  To  combat  the  Mahrattas,  Hastings  allies  with  Oudhand 
lends  troops  to  the  Nawab  to  aid  in  seizing  Rohiicund  from  the 
Rohillas. 

1300.  Scotland.     Dundas  becomes  Lord  Advocate  and  rules   r^m 
Scotland  till  1803,  stubbornly  resisting  the  cry  for  Borough  and   '• 
Parliamentary  reform. 

1301.  America.  Chatham  and  Burke  propose  schemes  of  conciliatioD 
for  the  colonists,  which  are  rejected,  and  new  repressive  measures  aie 
passed.  A  small  British  force  sent  to  seize  stores  at  Concord  scattos 
some  American  volunteers  at  Lexin^n  (April),  and,  on  its  return,  u 
attacked.  Boston  is  besieged,  and  Bunker's  Hill  is  held  against  two 
British  attacks,  but  captured  in  the  third.  An  offer  of  I^rd  North 
before  the  battle  to  abandon  the  claim  to  tax  an^  colony  which  vill 
provide  for  its  own  defence  and  government  now  amves,  and  is  rejectei 
A  second  Congress,  attended  by  all  the  Colonies,  is  held  at  Philadelphia, 
and  sends  an  Olive  Branch  Petition  for  rep^  of  tiie  obnoxious  tain». 
whi(;h  is  rejected  in  England.  An  army  is  raised,  and  Washington  i> 
made  General. 

Franklin  drafts  the  first  plan  of  federal  union. 

1302.  Prance.  Turgot  establishes  free  trade  in  com  within  the  countiT. 
and,  with  Malesher&s,  who  becomes  Minister  of  the  Interior,  is  hotlr 
attacked  by  the  nobles  and  clerg>\  Maurepas  begins  to  intrigue  against 
his  colleagues. 

The  Comte  de  Saint-Germain  reorganises  the  army,  and  Sartine 
increases  the  nav}\ 


rS]  CULTURE  261 


r/.     jr%juau.  Ch.    The  Jesuits  are  expelled. 

S^.    Sn^  Lit.    Chesteriield's  Letters  to  his  Son. 

Walton's  History  of  English  Poetry. 
*9.     Oerman  Lit.    Goethe's  Sorrows  of  Werther  introduces  the  senti- 
aentalism  of  Rousseau. 

Justus  Moser's  Patriotic  Phantasies  attack  the  ideas  of  Rousseau 
jdd  the  Aufklarung. 

50.     Science.    Priestley  discovers  oxygen  (discovered  independently 
y  Scheele  in  Sweden,  1775)  and  calls  it  dephlpgisticated  air. 

Maskel}'ne,  Astronomer  Royal,  aided  by  Hutton,  estimates  the 
lensity  of  the  earth,  measured  from  Mount  Schiehallion  (Lioch  Tay),  to 
«  41  times  that  of  water. 

iJesmarest's  Essay  on  Volcanoes  declares  basalt  volcanic 
*I.    Art    Paris  is  divided  into  Gluckists  and  Piccinists. 
r£.    Education.    Basedow  applies  Rousseau's  methods  in  his  Phi- 
inthropinum  at  Dessau,  whicn  points  the  way  to  the  creation  of 
lealschulen.    J.  H.  Campe  becomes  Director,  1776. 
IJ.    Fhilosophy.    Dom  Deschamps,  a  Benedictine,  dies,  leaving  a 
reatiae,  in  manuscript,  which  anticipates  the  ideas  of  H^el. 
•^    Politics.    Gartwright's  American  Independence  the  Glory  and 
nt^rest  of  Great  Britain. 
*o.    Deaths,    dive.  Goldsmith,  Quesnai. 


^.    French   Ch.    St  Martin,  who   \m»  been  introduced  to   m^c 

nysticism  by  the  Portuguese  Jew,  Martinez  Paschalis,  and  by   *• 

he  study  of  the  writings  of  Bohme,  publishes  his  mystical  work,  Des 

SneuiB  et  de  la  Vdrit^. 

7.    Oerman    Ch.    Griesbach's    Greek  Testament,  the  first  really 

ritical  edition,  based  on  that  of  the  Elzevirs. 

S.    Eng.  Lit.    Sheridan's  Rivals,  and  The  Duenna. 

9.    French  Lit.    Beaumarchais'  Barbier  de  Seville. 

0.    Oerman  Lit.    Goethe  settles  in  Weimar,  as  the  friend  of  Earl 

Ingost,  and  obtains  the  post  of  Court  preacher  for  Herder. 

J.    Italian  Lit.    Alfieri's  first  play,  Geopatra. 

2.  Polish  Lit.    Krasicld  satirises  the  State  and  the  monks. 

3.  Science.  Werner  begins  to  lecture  at  the  Saxon  School  of  Mines 
t  Freiburg,  explaining  the  crust  of  the  earth  by  the  action  of  water, 
Btablishing  geological  succession,  and  classifying  minerals. 

FabricinSy  a  pupil  of  Linnaeus,  classifies  insects  in  his  Systema 
Sntomologiae. 

Kant's  Antluropology  anticipates  the  idea  of  the  evolution  of  man 
rom  ai^imals. 
u^    Politics.    Burke's  speech  on  the  conciliation  of  America. 

Delolme's  Treatise  on  the  English  Constitution. 

Thomas  Spence,  a  schoolmaster,  and  Ogilvie,  Professor  at  Aberdeen, 
dvocate  the  nationalization  of  the  land. 

Necker^s  Legislation  et  le  Gonmierce  des  Grains  attacks  Turgot. 


262  POLITICS  [ITTt 

1303.  Austria.    Turkey  is  compelled  to  cede  Bukovina. 

1304.  Spain.     D'Aranda  falls,  owing   to   an  unsuccessful  campaign 
against  the  Moors,  and  Florida  Blanca  becomes  chief  minister. 

1305.  Asia.    To  support  Francis  Nuncomar  forges  evidence  of  pecnk- 
tion  by  Hastings,  but  is  hung  by  the  Supreme  Court 


1306.  England.    Cartwright  and  Stanhope  begin  to  agitate  for  m^ 
Parliamentary  reform.     Wilkes'  motion,  however,  is  lost  in  the  '- 
Commons  without  a  division. 

The  Whigs  cease  to  attend  Parliament,  in  protest  against  the  war. 

1307.  America.  A  colonial  invasion  of  Canada  is  repulsed  (March). 
Oage's  successor,  Howe,  is  forced  by  Washington  to  evacuate  BoRtoo 
(March).  Failing  to  obtain  soldiers  in  Ei^land,  George  III.  him 
German  mercenaries. 

On  the  suggestion  of  Virginia,  Congress  votes  a  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence, written  by  Jefferson,  revisea  by  Franklin  and  John  Adams, 
and  defended  and  carried  by  Adams  (Julv  4). 

Howe  occupies  New  York  and  Khode  Island  (Sept),  but  Washington 
drives  in  outpK>sts  on  the  Delaware  and  in  New  Jersey.  Tb«  towps. 
however,  desert  in  great  numbers,  and  Congress  flees  to  Baltimore. 
Washington  ends  the  year's  campaign  by  capturing  the  German  camp. 

Lee  of  Virginia  proposes  Articles  of  Confederation ;  and  new  State 
Constitutions  are  drawn  up. 

Silas  Deane  is  sent  to  Paris  to  beg  for  alliance,  and  obtains  a  mm  of 
money. 

1308.  France.  Turcot  abolishes  the  Corv^  and  the  Jurandes,  or  priTJ- 
leged  corporations,  alters  the  Gabelle,  and  reduces  the  expenses  df  the 
royal  household.  The  King  is  induced  to  hold  dk  lit  de  justice,  but  b 
won  over  by  the  party  of  reaction,  and  Turgot  and  Mtdesherbes  are 
dismissed,  owing  to  the  Queen  and  Maurepas.  Necker  becomes  Compt- 
roller-General. The  Cor\'^e,  the  Jurandes  and  the  customs  on  com  are 
restored. 

1309.  Italy.    Tanucci  falls,  and  is  succeeded  by  Sir  John  Acton. 


1310.  America.     Franklin  arrives  in  Paris  to  seek  help  for  the   m^ 
colonies.     His  mission  is  aided  by  Vergennes  and  Beaumarchais,    >> 
and  Lafayette  and  other  volunteers  join  Washington. 

Tlie  Colonials  win  at  Princeton  and  recover  New  Jersey  ;  but  Howe 
defeats  Washington  at  Brandy  wine  (Sept.),  and  occupies  Philadelphia. 
Burgoyne,  however,  emissary-  from  Canada  to  join  Clmton,  ia  forced  to 
capitulate  at  Saratoga  (Oct.).  Conway  plots  to  sunersede  Waahinflton 
by  Gates.  Washington  winters  in  Valley  Foi^,  rennsvlvania,  wiere 
troops  suffer  from  want  of  food  and  clothing,  but  where  tney  are  driUed 
by  Sterbeu,  a  Genuan  veteran. 

The  Articles  of  Confederation  replace  the  King  of  England  by  Oon- 
gress,  to  which  little  power  is  given. 

131 1.  Portugal.    Joseph  dies  and  Pombal  is  dismissed.    By  the  Treaty 


1777]  CULTURE  263 

Bonoerf  A  Inconv^nients  des  Droits  F^odaux  shows  that  the  lords 
woqM  be  better  by  commutation  of  rights,  and  adds  that  if  they  oppose, 
the  king  can  enforce  it. 


^j45,    Sng.  Ch.    Kennioott  points  out  the  untrustworthiness  of  M77A 

die  Textus  Rei*eptus.  •■ 

^j^.    (German  Ch.    Weishaupt  founds  the  Illuminati  in  Bavaria.    The 

neoibent,  though  Deist,  Rousseauist,  and  believeis  in  perfectibility,  are 

oeitfaer    Antinomian  nor   revolutionary,  but  are  suppressed  by  the 

Btvarian  tiovemment,  1786. 
SO147.    Ttalian  Lit.    Ganganelli's  Letters  are  published,  perh^M  with 

interpolations. 
^'48,    Politics.    Bentham's  Fragment  on  Government  attacks  Black- 

8loiie>  d  priori  theories  of  law  and  contract. 

Tom  Paine's  Common  Sense  encourages  the  American  colonies  to 

itTott,  and  shows  why  reunion,  even  if  possible,  is  undesirable. 
^Jff,    History.    The  first  volume  of  Gibbon's  Decline  and  Fall  of  the 

Bonan  Empire  appears.    The  chapters  relating  to  Christianity  are  hotly 

ittMrkcd. 
iOoO.    Xoonomics.    Adam  Smith's  Wealth  of  Nations,  influenced  by 

die  writings  of  Hume  and  the  physiocrats,  attacks  the   theory  and 

{nctice  of  Mercantilism,  discusses  the  canons  of  taxation,  recommends 

the  division  of  labour,  and  asserts  that  rent,  wages  and  profits  are  the 

ekments  of  price. 
iu»7.    Oeo^raphy.    Cook  sets  out  on  his  third  voyage,  to  attempt  the 

5orth  West  Passage  from  the  Asiatic  side,  discovers  the  Sandwich 

Uaoda^  bat  is  tumra  back  by  the  ice-fields,  and  is  killed  by  the  natives 

It  Hawaii,  1779. 
^iSI.    Social.     Parliament  passes  a  resolution  against  the  Slave  Trade. 
Bb»5.    DestlL    Hume. 


^fSi.    Sng.  Ch.    Priestley's  Disquisitions  on  Matter  and  Spirit,   n^Ty 

inliieDced  by  Hartley  and  Boscovitch,  declare  the  soul  material.    *- 

At  the  same  time  his  Doctrine  of  Philosophical  Necessity  attacks  the 

bdief  in  the  freedom  of  the  wiU. 
Blair  8  Sermons. 
^>.    (German  Ch.    Sailer,  a  mystical  and  conciliatory  Catholic,  begins 

to  teach  at  Ingoldstadt. 
^^.    Sng.  Lit.    Sheridan's  School  for  Scandal. 

Clara  Reeve's  Old  English  Baron. 
^.    Beienoe.    Coulomb  invents  the  torsion  balance. 

Lavater's  Physiognomy. 
^.    Xoonomics.    James  Anderson's  Nature  of  the  Com  Laws  ex- 

piuns  Uie  true  theory  of  rent     His  work,  however,  probably  remains 

lakiiown  to  Malthus  and  West. 
^J$9,    SociaL    A  Tailors'  Co-operative  Workshop  is  formed  at  Birming- 

btai  to  employ  men  on  strike. 


264  POLITICS  [17TT 

of  San  Udefonso,  Spain  and  Portugal  settle  their  disputes  in  South 
America. 
1312.     Switzerland.     The    Cantons,    in    fear   of   Austria,  ally  with 
Louis  XVI. 


1313.  Ireland.  Grattan  obtains  a  Relief  Bill  for  the  Catholics,  m^ 
and  a  few  commercial  concessions.  ^ 

1314.  America.  France  openly  allies  with  the  Colonies,  undertaking  to 
ii^ht  till  their  independence  is  recognised  (Feb.),  and  sends  a  fleet  to 
New  York.    Lord  North  hereupon  declares  war  against  France. 

The  English  evacuate  Philadelphia  (June),  but  reach  New  York, 
owing  to  the  treason  of  Lee.  The  cam^ign  in  the  south,  suspended 
since  1776,  is  resumed,  and  Savannah  is  taken. 

Jefferson  proposes  that  all  slaves  bom  henceforward  be  free. 

Nootka  Sound  is  discovered. 

1315.  Germany.  In  consequence  of  the  death  of  the  Elector  of  Bavam, 
the  younger  House  of  Wittelsbach  becomes  extinct,  and  the  Electorate 
ends.  The  heir,  by  the  original  partition  of  1310,  the  childless  Chvles 
Theodore,  Elector  Palatine,  is  led  by  Joseph  to  recognise  old  claims  on 
Lower  Bavaria  and  })art  of  the  Upper  Palatinate.  Austrian  txocf^ 
occupv  the  ceded  districts.  Frederick  the  Great  u^otiates  with  diaries 
Theodore's  heir,  the  Duke  of  Zweibrucken,  and  encourages  him  to 
protest.  Frederick  and  Joseph  join  their  armies ;  but,  owing  to  the 
protests  of  Kussia  and  the  timidity  of  Maria  Theresa,  nothing  but 
skirmishing  on  the  Bohemian  frontier  takes  place. 

1316.  Spain.  A  treaty  of  perpetual  alliance  is  concluded  with 
Portugal. 

1317.  AfHca.     Spain  acquires  Fernando  Po,  in  the  Gulf  of  Guinea. 


1318.  America.  The  English  invade  South  Carolina  without  rym^ 
resistance.  ^ 

1319.  West  Indies,    ^rhe  French  fleet  takes  St  Vincent  and  Grenada. 

1320.  Ireland.  Nearly  all  the  troops  being  withdrawn  for  tlie  wir, 
Protestant  volunteers  come  forward,  in  fiiU  sympathy  with  the  'Patriots/ 
who  are  led  by  Flood  and  Grattan,  and,  on  the  re-assembling  of  Parlia- 
ment, demand  free  trade.  Lord  North  concedes  free  export  of  woollens 
and  free  trade  with  the  Colonies. 

Dissenters  are  admitted  to  civil  and  military  office. 

1321.  Prance.  Necker  suppresses  sinecures,  and  orders  a  report  on 
tolls. 

1322.  Spain.  War  is  declared  against  England,  and  French  awl 
Spanish  fleets  beside  Gibraltar  and  sail  up  the  Channel  unchallenged. 

1323.  Germany.  Maria  Theresa  writes  to  Frwierick,  and  a  Congress 
takes  place  at  Teschen,  ^ith  French  and  Russian  mediation.  The  war 
of  the  Bavarian  Succession  is  tenniiiated,  Joseph  obtaining  the  Jon 
district,  and  the  rights  of  the  Duke  of  Zweibrucken  being  confirmed. 
Austria  agrees  to  the  future  union  of  the  margravates  of  Anspach  and 
Baireuth  with  the  Prussian  monarchy. 


I]  CULTURE  265 

Howard's  State  of  the  Prisons  announces  the  result  of  his  travels 
d  investigations.    Certain  of  his  recommendations  are  embodied  in  an 
•t,  1778. 
.    Death.    Haller. 


Ch.    Sir  George  Savile  obtains  privileges  for  Catholics   ryrna 
reference  to  the  holding  of  land  and  to  education.  *- 

,  French  Ch.  The  Commission  des  R^ffuliers,  instituted  by  the 
n^  to  reform  the  regulars,  inspires  an  edict  which  regulates  the 
mission  and  establishes  a  minimum  number  in  monastic  houses.  As 
result  of  the  edict,  nine  congregations  disappear.  The  Commission  is 
olished  1784. 

Eng.  Lit.    Fanny  Bumey*s  Evelina. 

French  Lit.     Voltaire  visits  Paris  and  meets  with  a  remarkable 
^tion. 

.  German  Lit.  Herder's  collection  of  national  songs  leads  to  the 
idy  of  folk-lore. 

.  Science.  Benjamin  Thompson  (later  Count  Kumford)  commences 
peiiments  on  heat  by  friction. 

Lavoisier  explodes  phlogiston,  })roving  that  in  burning  a  gas  is  taken 
out  of  the  air.     This  discovery  is  accepted  by  Black,  but  rejected  by 
iestley. 

Geography.    Rennell's    chart   of    banks   and  currents  founds 
sanography. 

.  SociaL  Mesmer,  who  has  discovered  Animal  Magnetism,  visits 
lis.  A  committee,  of  which  Franklin  and  Bailly  are  members, 
amine  him  and  denounce  him  as  an  impostor. 

Deaths.    Chatham,  Linnaeus,  Bousseau,  Voltaire. 


Ch.    Dissenting  Ministers   and   schoolmasters  are    nyyg 
ieved  from  subscription.  ^ 

Cowper  and  Newton's  Olney  Hymns. 
.     Scotch  Ch.    A  riot  takes  place  in  Glasgow  against  the  Catholics. 
shop  Hay  writes  to  King  Greorge  and  begs  for  protection. 

German  Ch.  Princess  (ralitzin  settles  in  Miinster  and  gathers 
ind  her  most  of  the  distinguished  Catholics  of  Germany. 

Eng.  Lit.    Dr  Johnson's  Lives  of  the  Poets. 

German  Lit.    Lessing's  Nathan  the  Wise  (a  portrait  suggested 
the  character  of  Mendelsohn)  contributes  to  the  spread  of  ideas  of 
eratioD. 
Campe's  Robinson  the  Younger. 

Science.  Ingenhousz  investigates  the  power  possessed  by  vege- 
Jes  to  purify  or  poison  the  air,  and  experiments  on  the  nutrition 
plants. 

Art.  Gillray  and  Bowlandson  commence  English  caricature  and 
ire. 

Philosophy.  Hume's  Dialogues  on  Natural  Religion  reject 
ism. 


266  POLITICS  [1779 

1324.  AfHca.    England  takes  French  possessions  in  Sen^;al  and  Goree. 

1325.  Asia.    The  First  Mahratta  war  is  caused  by  the  iiiter?enti<m  of 
France  and  England  in  a  disputed  succession  of  the  Peshwa. 


1326.  England.    After  a  petition  from  Yorkshire  and  public  mmq 
meetings  throughout  the  country,  Burke  introduces  a  Bill  for  ^ 
Economical  Reform,  to  abolish  sinecures. 

Dunning  carries  a  resolution  that  '  the  influence  of  the  crown  bs 
increased,  is  increasing,  and  ought  to  be  diminished.' 

On  the  same  day  that  the  Duke  of  Richmond  proposes  manhood 
suffrage  and  annual  Parliaments,  a  mob,  led  by  Lora  ueorge  Gordon, 
President  of  the  Protestant  Association,  founded  1778,  marches  to 
Westminster  with  a  petition  to  repeal  Savile's  Act  of  1778,  and  ads 
the  Chapels  of  the  Catholic  Ambassadors,  bums  Newgate,  and  for  ax 
days  ravages  London. 

1327.  America.  Clinton  takes  Charlestown,  GomwaUis  defeats  Gates 
in  South  Carolina,  and  Virginia  is  attacked.  Greene,  however,  begins 
to  drive  the  English  out  of  the  Carolinas  and  Georgia. 

Benedict  Arnold,  one  of  Washington's  ablest  lieutenants,  plote  to 
betray  the  American  forts  on  the  Hiidson.  Major  Andr^,  the  Brituh 
agent,  is  caught  and  hung  ;  but  Arnold  escapes. 

1328.  Ireland.  Grattan  and  the  Irish  Volunteers  demand  Home  Bnk. 
subject  only  to  the  King.     Free  Trade  is  granted. 

1329.  France.  Necker  abolishes  the  farming  of  taxes,  and  cmte» 
a  provincial  assembly  for  the  Province  of  Berry,  to  which  the  duties  of 
the  intendants  are  to  pass. 

1330.  Holland.  England  learns  that  the  Pensionary  of  Amsterdsm 
had  projected  a  treaty  with  the  Colonies,  1778,  And  sent  supplies,  and 
therefore  declares  war. 

1331.  Spain.  Rodney  defeats  the  Spanish  fleet  ofl"  Cape  St  Vincent 
and  relievos  Gibraltar. 

1332.  Austria.  Joseph  determines  to  transfer  the  Austrian  territories 
of  independent  Bishoprics  to  native  sees.  The  small  states  resohe  oo 
a  league,  and  appeal  to  Prussia  to  support  it  Frederick  attempts  to 
obtain  the  support  of  Russia,  which,  however,  plunges  into  a  Turkidi 
war.     Josepli  meets  Catherine,  and  further  alienates  ner  from  Prusria 

Jose))h  abolishes  serfdom  in  Bohemia,  Hungary  and  the  Southen 
provinces,  and,  later,  in  Austria  proper. 

1333.  Russia.  To  prevent  English  ships  searching  neutral  vessels  for 
enemies'  goods  and  seizing  neutral  vessels  trading  with  their  enemies' 
ports,  Catherine  declares  that  neutral  vessels  carrying  enemies'  goods 
may  trade  with  belligerents  in  non-contraband  articles.  This  declan- 
tion  is  confirmed  by  France,  Spain,  Austria,  Prussia  and  the  Northern 
Powers,  which  form  the  *  Armea  Neutrality.* 

1334.  Asia.    Hyder  Ali  overruns  the  Camatic. 


1335.     England.    The  Secretary  of  State  for  the  Colonies  and  the   Mygj 
Council  of  Trade  and  Plantations  are  abolished.  ^ 


11]  CULTURE  267 


8.  Geography.    Renneli's  Bengal  Atlas. 

9.  SociaL    (>oiuptoD   invents  a  .spinning-machine  known  as  the 
male.' 

O.    Death.    Garrick. 


1.  Eng.  Ch.  Raikes  founds  Sunday  Schools  at  Gloucester.  ri»oA 
lie  Sunday  School  Union  is  founded  1785.  '- 

The  Bampton  Lectureship  in  Christian  Apologetics  is  endowed  and 
he  first  Sermons  are  delivered. 

Martin  Madan,  an  Anglican  clergyman,  advocates  polygamy  as 
anctdoned  by  Mosaic  law. 

2.  Oerman  Ch.  Lessing's  Education  of  the  Human  Race  describes 
he  religions  of  the  world  as  steps  in  an  evolution  not  yet  completed. 

3.  Oerman  Lit.    Wieland's  Oberon. 

Frederick  the  Great's  De  la  Litt^rature  fran^aise  praises  Gellert  and 
lesner,  and  is  criticised  by  Justus  Moser. 

4^  Bohemian  Lit.  The  Czech  language  is  expelled  from  the  schools, 
od  a  great  patriotic  revival  begins,  to  which  Dobrowsky's  Commen- 
Btfies  on  Bohemian  Literature  contribute. 

5.  Art.    Erard  manufactures  his  first  piano. 

6.  Science.  John  Brown's  Elementa  Medicinae  teaches  that  most 
iseases  arise  from  debility,  not  from  strength,  and  attacks  the  lowering 
reatment. 

Lagrange  explains  the  libration  of  the  moon. 

7.  Law.  Bentham's  Principles  of  Morals  and  L^slation  proclaim 
be  minciple  of  utility  and  urge  codification. 

Klangieri's  Science  of  L^slation  pleads  for  the  reform  of  procedure. 

8.  Pontics.  Gartwright  founds  the  Society  for  Constitutional  infor- 
latioii,  from  which  the  Corresponding  Society  springs. 

9.  History.    Johannes  Muller's  mstorv  of  Switzerland. 

0.    Social.    The  twelfth  Earl  of  Derby  founds  the  ! Derby'  race. 
i.    Deaths.    Blackstone,  Condillac,  Maria  Theresa. 


2.    Eng.  Ch.    Lady  Huntingdon,  who  has  built  a  chapel  in   nygi 
pa  Fields,  is  compelled  to  register  it  under  the  Toleration  Act,    '- 
ad    becomes    recognised    as  a  Dissenter.     She  is,   in   conset^uence, 
eserted  by  Venn,  Berridge,  Romaine  and  other  clerg>\ 
S,    Oerman  Ch.    Plandc's  History  of  Protestant  Dogma. 
4,    Austrian  Ch.    The  Emperor  grants  Toleration  to  Protestants 
ad  members  of  the  Greek  Church,  though  the  practice  of  their  worship 
onains  limited,  and  opens  offices  to  all. 

700  out  of  the  2000  monasteries  in  the  dominions  of  the  Emperor 
re  dissolved,  and  Bulls  are  excluded  until  they  receive  the  Emperor's 
pproval,  a  German  Bible  and  German  hymns  are  to  be  used,  and  no 
loney  to  be  sent  to  Rome.  Six  new  bishoprics  are  created  by  the 
!mperor.  The  Pope  comes  to  Vienna  to  protest,  but  effects  nothing, 
782. 


268  POLITICS  [1781 

1336.  America.  Cornwallis  routs  Greene  in  North  Carolina,  but  v 
forced,  by  lack  of  numbers,  to  withdraw  to  Virginia.  He  fortifet 
Yorktown,  on  the  shores  of  the  Chesapeake,  but  is  blockaded  1^ 
De  Grasse's  West  Indian  fleet  and  by  an  American  army,  and  op- 
iates (Oct.).    De  Grasse  seizes  several  of  the  West  Indies. 

1337.  Prance.  Necker  publishes  his  *  Compte  rendu '  in  order  to  retam 
the  confidence  of  the  moneyed  classes,  but  is  dismissed  (May).  The 
period  of  reform  ends,  and  the  feudal  reaction  increases.  Rotnrios  aK> 
excluded  from  military  command. 

1338.  Netherlands.  The  Emperor  obtains  the  surrender  of  the  Barrier 
towns. 

1339.  Austria.  Joseph  and  Catherine  form  a  close  alliance,  Joseph 
allowing  Catherine  a  free  hand  in  Turkey,  on  the  tacit  understandiDii: 
that  Russia  will  help  him  in  Germany. 

1340.  Asia.  Hastings  demands  money  from  the  Sajah  of  Benares  for 
the  war,  and,  on  his  refusal,  deposes  him.  He  next  demands  money 
from  the  Nawab  of  Oudh,  and  helps  him  to  secure  his  Other's  treasnie, 
retained  by  his  mother  and  CTandmother. 

Eyre  Coote  defeats  Hyder  Ali,  with  whom  a  French  fleet  undfir 
Suffren  co-operates. 

1341.  Africa.  The  Kaffirs,  who  have  been  slowly  drifting  south,  fii^ 
come  into  conflict  with  the  Boers. 

England  sends  a  fleet  to  seize  the  Ca|)e ;  but  Suflfren  interposes,  and 
a  French  regiment  garrisons  Cape  Town  till  the  Peace. 


1342.  England.  North  resigns  (March),  and  Rockingham  re-  ri^M 
turns  with  Fox  and  Shelbunie,  the  leader  of  the  Chatham  Whigs.  ^ 
Burke's  Bill,  which  has  been  thrown  out,  1781,  is  modified  and  pa9w?«L 
Government  contractors  are  exchule<l  from  the  House,  and  wnsions  Are 
reduced.  Rockingham  dies  (July),  and  Shelbume,  with  Pitt  as  Chan- 
cellor of  the  Exchetjuer  and  leader  of  the  House,  becomes  Premier. 
Pitt*s  motion  to  consider  the  state  of  represiMitation  is  lost.  The  pT»> 
ceedings  against  Wilkes  are  expunged  from  the  Journals. 

1343.  Ireland.  Grattan  and  tlie  Protestants  pass  resolutions  for  imle- 
pendence  and  free  trade,  and  rejHjal  of  anti-Catholic  laws,  and  P>x 
carries  the  repeal  of  the  Act  of  1 720.  *  Grattan's  Parliament,*  however, 
is  chosen  by  Protestants  alone,  and  has  no  control  over  tlie  executive. 

1344.  Spain.  Minorca  is  taken  from  England  by  Spain,  after  a  hm 
siega 

1345.  West  Indies.  Rodney  defeat*;  De  Grasse,  and  saves  the  En^i*h 
West  Indies  (April). 

1346.  America.  The  Preliminaries  of  PeJice,  arranged  by  Franklin. 
John  Adams,  and  Jay,  are  signed  (Nov.),  and  acquiesced  in  hjr 
America. 

1347.  Asia.    Hyder  All  dies,  and  his  son,  Tippoo,  makes  peace. 


r82J  CULTURE  269 

^5.    Eng.  Lit.    Tlie  Clarendon  Press  is  founded  at  Oxford. 

96.  French  Lit.    Rousseau's  Confessions. 

97.  German  Lit.  Voss'  Tninslation  of  the  Odyssey  aids  the  classical 
revival 

Schiller's  Robbers,  his  first  romantic  play,  is  foUowed  by  Fiesco, 
1783,  and  Kabak  u.  Liebe,  1784. 

98.  Science.    William  Herschel  discovers  Uranus. 

Lavoisier  declares  tliat  nothing  in  nature  is  lost  and  nothing  created. 
Monge's  paper  on  the  curves  of  curvature. 

99.  Art.     Hiller  founds  the  Gewandhaus  concerts  at  Leipzig. 
Houdon  sculptures  a  statue  of  Voltaire  (Paris). 

90.  Philosophy.  Kant's  Critic^ue  of  Pure  Reason  declares  know- 
ledge to  arise  jointly  from  impressions  and  from  the  forms  or  moulds  of 
the  mind  which  receives  them,  and  discusses  the  arguments  for  the 
existence  of  6o<l.  His  teaching  is  spread  by  Reinhold,  Fichte,  and 
Schiller,  and  criticised  by  Nicolai,  Scnulze,  and  Herder. 

91.  Education.  Pestalozzi,  who  has  received  a  number  of  children 
in  his  house  at  Neuhof  near  Bern,  unfolds  his  theories  of  educatitm  in 
his  Leonard  and  Gertrude. 

Warren  Hastings  founds  a  Mohammedan  College  at  Calcutta. 

92.  Deaths.    Lessing,  Turgot. 


[1782 


93.  Eng.  Ch.  Priestley's  Corruptions  of  the  Christian  Church 
is  attacked  by  Horsley,  but  imitated  by  Gilbert  Wakefield  and 
others. 

Charles  Simeon  is  ordained  curate  of  Trinity  Church,  Cambridge, 
and  introduces  the  evangelical  movement  into  the  University. 
9i.     (German  Ch.    Herder's  Spirit  of  Hebrew  Poetry  applies  the 
conception  of  evolution,  and  shows  that  the  Psalms  were  the  work  of 
many  hands. 

95.  Church  Hist.  Bartolotti  projects  an  union  with  the  Eastern 
Church,  suggesting  that  the  Filio(|ue  shall  be  declared  a  '  theological 
truth,'  not  a  dogma,  and  that  the  primacy  of  Rome  should  be  recognised 
as  in  primitive  times. 

96.  fang.  Lit.  Mrs  Siddons,  engaged  by  Sheridan  for  Dniry  Lane 
theatre,  makes  her  d^but,  and  acts  henceforward  with  her  brother 
J.  P.  Kemble. 

Fanny  Bumey's  Cecilia. 

97.  Italian  Lit.    Tiraboschi's  History  of  Italian  Literature. 

98.  Science.  Herschel  catalogues  the  double  stars,  and  discovers 
that  the  solar  system  is  moving  towards  the  constellation  of  Hercules. 
09.  Social.  Gilbert's  Act  allows  parishes  or  unions  to  nominate 
Guardians,  who  are  obliged  to  find  work.  Wages  are  supplemented 
from  the  rates,  and  out-door  relief  for  the  able-bodied  becomes  common. 
W.    Deaths.    D'Anville,  Lord  Eames,  Metastasio,  Pombal,  Tanucci. 


270  POLITICS  [1TB 

1348.  England.    Shelburne  is  deserted  by  his  colleagues,  and  r^mj 
replaced  by  a  coalition  of  Fox  and  North,  with  Portland  as  *- 
nominal  Premier  (April). 

Fox  introduces  an  India  Bill,  framed  by  Burke,  and  transfening  the 
government  from  the  Board  to  seven  Commissioners  appointed  by  the 
ministers  for  four  years  and  after  by  the  Crown.  The  KU  is  rejected  m 
the  Lords,  and  the  ministry  falls  (Dec.).  Pitt  becomes  Premier,  widi 
a  large  majority  against  him  in  the  Commons.  His  resolution  far 
refonn  obtains  149  votes. 

1349.  America.    A  treaty  is  signed  at  Paris  (Sept),  and  the  inde- 

Sendence  of  the  United  States  is  acknowledged.     Their  boundaries  are 
eclared  to  be  the  Mississippi,  the  Floridas,  and  Canada. 

The  Colonials  promise  mercy  to  loyalists,  undert4ike  to  pay  priTite 
debts  to  British  creaitors  at  the  outset  of  the  war,  and  obtain  a  share  in 
the  fisheries  off  Newfoundland. 

1350.  France.  By  the  Treaty  of  Versailles  with  France  and  Spain,  the 
latter  retains  Minorca  and  receives  back  Florida ;  France  may  fortifr 
Dunkirk,  forbidden  by  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht,  and  recovers  her  idajm 
in  the  Antilles,  and  Senegal  and  Goree  in  Africa. 

Calonne  becomes  finance  minister,  and,  by  disguising  the  state  of 
the  finances,  obtains  loans. 

1351.  Holland.  England  obtains  right  of  trafiic  with  the  Dutch  Eist 
Indies. 

1352.  Russia.  Russia  annexes  the  Crimea  and  Kuban,  and  reaches  the 
Black  Sea. 

1353.  Bohemia.  Joseph  enforces  the  German  language,  suppresses  the 
permanent  Committee  of  the  Diet,  and  transfers  its  authority  to  the 
central  goveniment,  leaving  the  Estates  the  right  to  Vote  the  taxe;^ 
These  measures  lead  to  the  growth  of  a  nationalist  movement. 

1354.  Asia.  Agha  Mohammed,  a  Persian  chief,  invades  Greorgia,  ami 
sacks  TiHis.     llussia  intervenes,  and  takes  Baku. 


1355.  England.    Pitt  appeals  to  the  country,  and  obtains  a  large   Mog^ 
,  majority  (May).     His  first  budget  reduces  the  duties  on  tea  and   ^ 

spirits. 

In  consecjuence  of  Fox's  exclusion  after  the  Westminster  election, 
the  poll  18  reduced  from  forty  to  fifteen  days. 

1356.  Scotland.    The  Disarming  Act  is  rei>ealed. 

1357.  Netherlands.  Joseph  demands  free  navigation  of  the  Scheldt, 
and  revives  old  claims  in  Maestricht.  The  Dutch  resist  and  are  joine«l 
by  Prussia  and  Sweden. 

1358.  Denmark.  Bernstorft'  becomes  supreme,  and  abolishes  serfdom, 
improves  education,  encourages  commerce,  and  allows  liberty  of  the 
press. 

1359.  Hungary.  Joseph  outrages  national  sentiment  by  removing  the 
crown  of  Hungjiry  to  Vienna  and  making  German  the  official  language. 
On  the  other  hand  he  suppresses  the  feudal  courts  and  taxes  the  laud- 
owner^i. 

A  rebellion  breaks  out  in  Transylvania. 


ITM]  CULTURE  271 

2111.  Oerman  Ch.    Eichhom's  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testa-   Ty^^ 
ment  first  exhaustively  investigates  the  sources  and  contents  of  '- 
the  writings,  most  of  which  he  attributes  to  several  hands. 

2112.  Am&rian  Gh.  The  Emperor  makes  marriage  a  civil  contract, 
and  allows  divorce.  In  1784  he  reserves  a  veto  on  the  ordinances  of 
the  Bishops,  whom  he  proposes  to  appoint  without  the  confirmation  of 
the  Pope.  He  also  suppresses  the  diocesan  seminaries,  and  institutes 
schools,  the  teachers  of  which  he  apjxoints. 

211S,    American  Ch.    The  Mennonites  settle  in  America. 

2114.  Churoh  Hist.  Moses  Mendelssohn's  Jerusalem  pleads  for  the 
eoiaacipation  of  the  Jews. 

2115.  Eiig.Lii.    Grabbe's  The  Village. 
Blair's  Lectures  on  Rhetoric. 

2116.  Science,  Hunter  foimds  a  museum  in  Leicester  Square  for  Gom- 
parmtive  Anatomy. 

ill7.    Fhiloaophy.    Kant's  Prolegomena  to  any  possible  Metaphysic 

rephes  to  attacks  on  the  Critioue  of  Pure  Reason. 
ill8.    SociaL    Karl  Friedrich  ot  Baden  abolishes  serfdom. 
im.    Deaths.    FAlembert,  Euler. 


*120.  Sng.  Ch.  Wesley  leaves  the  government  of  his  societies  m  704 
to  a  Ccmference  of  100  preachers  in  his  Deed  of  Declaration,  ^ 
on  condition  that  they  accept  his  notes  on  the  New  Testament  (based 
00  Beogel),  and  his  sermons.  He  also  secretly  ordains  Coke  and 
Adiboiy  '  superintendents '  in  America,  and  two  elders  retire  fiK)m  the 
aofement  in  disgust 

UU.  Scotch  Ch.  At  the  instigation  of  Bishop  Skinner,  the  Scotch 
Bkihops  consecrate  Seabury  Bishop  of  Connecticut.  This  departure 
cills  attention  to  the  Scotch  Church,  and  earns  the  gratitude  of  the 
En^Bsh  Oiurch,  which  cannot  conveniently  consecrate  owing  to  the  war. 

Uil    Sng-iat.    Beckford's  Caliph  Vathek. 

ili-i,    French  Lit.    Beaumarchais'  Figaro. 

Bemardin  de  St  Pierre's  £tudes  de  la  Nature. 
iUi,    Swedish  Lit.    Gustavus  III.  founds  an  Academy  of  Arts  and 

dcienosa 
*lt5.    Science.    Atwood's  Machine  exhibits  and  verifies  the  accelerative 
idioQ  of  gravity. 

Ga?eiiaish  explodes  oxygen  and  hydrogen  into  water. 

Cnllen's  Practice  of  Physic  displaces  Boerhaave  and  the  pathologists, 
vho  trsoe  diseases  to  the  vitiation  of  the  fluids  of  the  body,  but  attri- 
bate  too  much  to  the  solids  of  the  body. 

Li^Jsoe  e3q>Iains  the  long  inequality  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn  puUiiig 
one  another,  biit  ultimately  reoccupying  their  old  position. 

Haav's  Crystallographie  discovers  the  law  of  symmetry  and  the  law 
of  the  alteration  of  axes. 
*126.    Art.    David's  Vow  of  the  Horatii,  and  Brutus,  found  the  classic 
reaction  in  France. 

Bewick's  Engravings  to  his  Select  Fables  revive  wood-eugraving. 


272  POLITICS  [ITK 

1360.  Asia.  Pitt  passes  aii  India  BiU,  establishing  a  Board  of  CootnL 
composed  of  Ministers  and  Privy  Councillors,  which  revises  despatcbo, 
and  can,  if  necessary,  issue  orders  without  the  consent  of  the  Directon 
Except  for  the  Governor-General  and  tiie  highest  officers,  patronage 
remains  with  the  Directors.  The  authority  of  the  Govemor-Genenl 
over  the  Governors  of  Madras  and  Bombay  is  increased. 

1361.  America.    Slavery  is  partially  abolished  in  Connecticut 


1362.  England.     Pitt's  third  attempt  at  Parliamentary  Reform,  q^ 
voting  one  million  pounds  to  buy  up  and  disfranchise  72  nomina-  ^ 
tion  seats,  giving  the  seats  to  London  and  the  Counties,  is  rejected,  ind 
he  never  makes  another  attempt. 

John  Adams  arrives  in  London  as  ambassador  of  the  United  States, 
and  is  coldly  received. 

1363.  Ireland.  Pitt's  pn)i)osals  for  a  commercial  union,  complete  free 
trade,  and  a  contribution  to  the  navy,  are  thrown  out  by  the  Engiifii 
manufacturers.     His  modified  proposals  are  rejected  at  Dublin. 

1364.  France.  Cardinal  Kohan  is  falsely  informed  that  the  Queen 
wishes  for  a  valuable  diamond  necklace.  When  the  jeweller  demAiids 
the  first  instalment  of  payment,  the  fraud  is  exposed,  but  the  Comt 
loses  prestige. 

1365.  Germany.  The  Emperor  attempts  to  induce  Charles  Theodore  to 
exchange  Bavaria  for  the  Austrian  Netherlands  except  Luxemburg  and 
Namur.  The  Duke  appeals  for  help  to  FredericK,  who  forms  tbe 
Fiirstenbund  with  Saxony  and  Hanover,  joined  by  the  Archbishop  of 
Mainz  and  many  princes,  and  defeats  the  scheme  (July). 

Joseph  makes  a  treaty  with  the  Dutch  by  French  mediation.  His 
sovereignty  is  recognised  over  part  of  the  Scheldt,  and  he  selk  E< 
claims  to  Maestricht  aud  the  part  of  the  Scheldt  outside  his  dominions 

1366.  Asia.  Hastings,  finding  himself  unsupported  by  Pitt,  resigns,  and 
returns  to  England. 


1367.  England.     Pitt  abrogates  the  Methuen  IVeatv,  and  con-   r^^ 
eludes  a  commercial  treaty  with  Vergennes,  by  which  duties   ^ 
between  France  and  England  are  largely  decreased. 

Pitt  creates  a  sinking  fund,  by  which  one  million  pounds,  raided 
every  year  by  extra  taxes,  is  to  accumulate  for  the  payment  of  the 
National  Debt.     The  scheme  is  dropped,  1807. 

A  Committee  of  Council  for  Trade  is  formed. 

1368.  France.  Calonne  informs  the  King  of  the  state  of  affairs,  and 
proiM)ses  sweeping  reforms  on  the  lines  of  Turgot  and  Necker,  such  to 
the  revival  of  provincial  assemblies,  a  land-tax  without  exemptions,  frw 
trade  in  corn,  abolition  of  the  corvee  and  tolls.  The  King  agrees  t«» 
summon  the  Notables  in  1787. 

1369.  Austria.    The  p]m|)eror  promulgates  a  new  code  of  laws. 

1 370.  Holland.  The  *  Patriot '  Party  deprives  the  stadtholder,  William  V.. 
of  the  command  of  the  army. 


1786]  CULTURE  273 

2127,  Fliiloaophy.  Herder's  Ideas  for  a  Philosophy  of  History  hints 
the  development  of  men  from  animals,  and  animals  from  plants. 

2128,  History.  Kant's  Ideas  of  an  Universal  History  approves  the 
notion  of  perfectibility,  and  regards  the  human  race  as  exemplifying 
streams  of  tendency. 

2129,  FUlology.  The  Royal  Asiatic  Society  is  founded,  its  first  Presi- 
dent being  Sir  William  Jones. 

21*Ki,    Geography.    The  Ordnance  Survey  of  England  is  commenced. 
2131.    Deaths.    Diderpt,  Johnson. 


2132,  Austrian  Ch.    Joseph  II.  abolishes  all  secret  societies    ^1705 
except  the  Freemasons,  whose  numbers,  in  consequence,  increase    '- 
▼ery  rapidly. 

2133.  American  Ch.    Madison's  Religious  Freedom  Act  removes  all 
reb'gious  tests  in  Virginia. 

2131    Bng.  Lit.    CJowper's  The  Task. 

2135.  German  Lit.    Schiller's  Don  Carlos. 

Baron  Munchausen's  Marvellous  Travels  and  Campaigns  in  Russia, 
piohably  written  by  Raspe. 

2136.  Science.    Watt  enters  into  partnership  with  Boulton  and  con- 
itracts  a  double-acting  steam-engine. 

2137.  Philosophy.     Kant's  Metaphysic  of  Ethics  declares  the  Good 
Will  the  only  virtue. 

Paley's  Moral  Philosophy,  a  system  of  theological  utilitarianism. 

Jacobi's  Letters  on  Spinoza  to  Moses  Mendelssohn  defend  the  con- 
ception of  •  Glaube '  or  belief  * 

Joseph  Balsamo,  Count  Cagliostro,  settles  at  Strassburg,  where  he  is 
pfttronised  by  Cardinal  Rohan,  and  founds  a  lodge  of  Egyptian  masonry. 

2138.  SociaL     Cartwright  patents  a  *  power-loom,'   which  weaves  by 
machinery  and  is  improvea  by  Johnson,  RadclifFe,  and  Horrocks. 

2139.  Deaths.    Choiseul,  Mably. 


21^),    Sng.  Ch.    Bishop  Wilson's  Sacra  Privata.  n7Qft 

2lil,  German  Ch.  The  Bishops  of  Mainz,  Colopie  and  Trier,  ^^^^ 
aod  the  Archbishop  of  Salzburg,  fearing  the  Nunciature  established  in 
Munich,  1785,  draw  up  the  Punctation  of  Ems,  which  contests  Papal 
intocracy  and  ui^es  the  abolition  of  nuncios.  The  scheme,  though 
SQf^rted  by  the  Emperor,  is  opposed  by  the  majority  of  the  bishops. 

2142.  Italian  Ch.  Kicci,  Bishop  of  Pistoja,  holds  a  diocesan  synod, 
which  adopts  the  Gallican  Articles  of  1682  and  the  doctrines  of  Quesnel, 
which  have  been  spread  in  Italy  by  Tamburini  and  others.  The  Pope 
orders  him  to  wait  till  a  Council  of  Tuscan  bishops  meets  at  Florence. 
In  this  Council,  Ricci  is  outvoted.  Leopold  breaks  with  Rome,  but  on 
leaving  Tuscany,  1790,  deserts  Ricci,  who  submits. 

2H3.    ing.  Lit    Bums'  Poems. 

21H    Datch  Lit.    Bilderdyck's  Elias  founds  the  romantic  revival. 
Baggesen's  Comic  Tales. 

G.  18 


274  POLITICS  [IW 

1371.  Asia.  Pitt  obtains  permission  for  the  new  Goveniorflcnaal, 
Cornwallis,  to  overrule  his  Council. 

Penang  is  ceded  to  England  by  its  Rajah. 

1372.  America.  An  insurrection  breaks  out  in  Massachusetts  under 
Shays,  who  attempts  to  nrevent  the  coUection  of  debt«.  The  wetknea 
of  the  Union  is  revealea,  and  Virginia  proposes  a  convention  to  form 
a  stronger  constitution. 


1373.  England.  Beaufoy's  motion  for  the  repeal  of  the  Test  m^ 
and  Corporation  Acts  is  lost  ^ 

1374.  Prance.  The  Notables  meet  (only  7  out  of  144  belonging  to  the 
Tiers  fitat),  and  reject  the  proposals  of  Calonne,  who  is  succeeiled  by 
Loni^nie  de  Brienne  (Feb.).  The  Notables  are  dissolve(l,  but  the 
Parliament  of  Paris  protests  against  Brienne's  measures,  demands  the 
convocation  of  the  States-General,  and  is  banished  (Aug.).  A  few  weeb 
later  it  is  recalled,  and  the  King  declares  the  States-Greneral  shall  meet 
1792. 

1375.  Holland.  England  and  Prussia  interfere  on  behalf  of  the  Prince 
of  Orange,  who  has  been  driven  out.  The  Prince  is  restored,  aud 
Amsterdam  surrenders. 

1376.  Netherlands.  The  Emperor  declares  the  Netherlands  a  woniKt 
of  the  Austrian  Monarchy,  but  is  forced  by  opposition,  led  by  Van  d«t 
Noot,  to  revoke  the  Union. 

1377.  Russia.  Catherine  visits  the  Crimea,  the  poverty  of  which  i* 
partially  concealed  by  Potemkin.  She  forms  a  defensive  alliance  with 
the  Emperor,  and  forces  Turkey  to  declare  war. 

1378.  America.  A  Convention  meets  at  Philadelphia,  Rhode  Island 
alone  being  unrepresented.  Washington  presides,  and  among  the  dele- 
gates are  Franklin,  Madison,  Edmund  Randolph,  Mason,  IHckinsoD. 
(jouverneur  Morris,  Sherman,  Rufus  King,  Hamilton  and  the  Pincknevs. 
A  Constitution  is  formed,  providing  for  a  President  chosen  by  electi>R. 
a  Senate  composed  of  two  representatives  of  each  state,  a  House  '>f 
Representatives  chosen  according  to  i)opulation,  and  a  Supreme  C<«rt. 
The  (juestion  of  slavery  is  postponed. 

The  Ordinance  of  1787  creates  five  states  out  of  the  territor>'  X.W. 
of  the  Ohio,  and  provides  for  the  creation  of  others,  guarantees  etiual 
rights  and  freedom  of  religion,  and  forbids  slaver}*. 

1379.  Afirica.  England  obt^iins  Sierra  Leone  for  the  settlement  d 
liberated  slaves. 


1380.     En^and.    The  King  loses  his  reason,  and  Pitt  and  Fox  riMg 
agree  that  the  Prince  of  Wales  sh«all  be  Regent     Fox  declare.s  '• 
that  he  possesses  a  right  to  the  post,  and  therefore  ought  not  to  be  snl»- 
jected  to  restriction.s. 

Pitt  consents  to  an  imi)eachment  of  Warren  Hastings,  which  is 
chiefly  conducted  by  Burke  and  Sheridan.  After  four  years,  Ha&ting* 
is  acquitted. 


TB8]  CULTURE  275 

^245.    Science.    Herschers  first  catalogue  of  Nebulae. 

CUadni  founds  Acoustics  by  his  experiments  ou  vibrations. 
Goethe  discovers  the  intermaxillary  bone. 
UiS.    Art.    Mozart's  Figaro. 
il4^.    Law.    Bentham  writes  fragmentary  essays  on  International  Law, 

one  of  which  sketches  M>^^  ^^  ^  league  for  universal  peace. 
214s.    Philology.    Sir  William  Jones  declares  Sanskrit  to  be  related  to 
European  languages. 

2149,  Oeography.    John  Perthes  founds  a  Geographical  Institute  at 
Gotha. 

2150.  SociaL    Glarkson's  Essay  on  the  Slavery  and  Commerce  of  the 
Human  Species  denounces  the  traffic  in  slaves. 

ilol.    Deaths.    Frederick  the  Great,  Mendelssohn. 


ilo2,    Sng.  Ch.    Porteus  becomes  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  and    m  707 

letds  the  Evangelical  revival  within  the  Church,  aided  by  Hannah    ^ 

More,  Cowper,  Milner,  Scott,  Simeon,  Wilberforce,  and  the  Clapham 

fleet 

A  selection  from  Wesley's  Sermons  is  published. 
i/>i.    French  Ch.    The  Edict  of  Versaflles  grants  rehgious  freedom 

lod  legal  civil  status  to  Protestants, 
•ioi    German  Lit.    Goethe's  Iphigenie  reveals  the  influence  of  his 

joamey  to  Italy. 
*/5a.    Science.    Laplace  explains  the  secular  acceleration  of  the  moon's 

Deaa  motion. 
•I06.    Art.    Mozart's  Jupiter  Symphony. 
Talma's  d^but. 

Canova's  monument  to  Clement  XIV.  is  finished. 
Blake  iUustrates  his  poems. 
^57.    Politics.    John  Adams'  Defence  of  the  Constitution  of  Govem- 

aent  of  the  United  States  of  America  answers  Turgot's  Letter  to  Price, 

which  blames  the  Americans  for  adopting  checks  and  balances  like 

Gnglaod. 
•^•>^.    Sconomics.    Bentham's  Defence  of  Usury. 
i/oS.    Fhilology.    Catherine  II.  orders  the  composition  of  an  Imperial 

Biedonaiy,  in  which  285  words  are  translated  into  51  European  and  149 

Asiatic  huiguages. 
il^f.    Social.    A  public  Committee  for  the  abolition  of  Slave  Trade  is 

(onned  in  England,  nine  out  of  the  original  twelve  members  being 

Qoakers.     Granville  Sharp  and  Clarkson  are  added  1788. 
•^^A    Deaths.    Boscovitcn,  Galiani,  Gluck,  Liguori,  Lowth,  Wahab. 


il^.    Scotch  Ch.    The  Pretender  dies,  and  the  Episcopal  clergy   m  703 
CM  henceforth  conscientiously  recognize  George  III. ;  but  Skin-   ^ 
aer's  plea  for  the  repeal  of  the  persecuting  laws  is  defeated  by  Thurlow. 

^^i.  QermBn  Ch.  WoUner,  Minister  of  Religion  in  Prussia,  revives 
the cenflOTship  and  imposes  penalties  for  heresy  in  the  clergy;  but  the 
edict  18  lepealed  by  Frederick  William  III.,  1797. 

18—2 


276  POLITICS  [1788 

1381.  France.  Brienne  fails  to  overcome  the  oppositioD  of  Pariiament, 
announces  a  national  bankruptcy,  and  is  dismissed  (Aug.).  Necker  b 
recalled,  and  the  States-General  are  summoned  for  May  1,  1789,  with 
a  double  representation  of  the  IMers  !6tat. 

1382.  Germany.  Hertzberg  induces  England  and  Holland  to  join 
Prussia  in  a  Triple  Alliance  to  maintain  the  peace  of  Europe,  more 
especially  to  defend  Turkey  against  Joseph  and  Catherine. 

1383.  Spain.  With  the  accession  of  the  new  king,  Charles  IV.,  the 
reformers  lose  power,  which  is  grasped  by  the  Queen,  Marie  Louise, 
and  her  favount-e  Godoy. 

1384.  Russia.  Austria  and  Russia  invade  Turkey.  Suvoroff  repulses 
an  attack  on  the  Crimea,  and  Uczakov  is  taken  by  Potemkin;  bat 
Joseph  is  repulsed  from  Belgrad. 

Gustavus  of  Sweden  declares  war  against  Kussia,  and  ioTade^ 
Finland.  His  fleet,  however,  is  defeated,  Sweden  is  invaded  by  the 
Danes,  and  he  is  persuaded  by  the  Triple  Alliance  to  retire. 

1385.  Turkey.  Ali,  an  Albanian  in  the  service  of  the  Sultan,  seiies  the 
town  of  Janina  and  obtains  the  Pashaliks  of  Janina,  Arta,  and  AcamaniA. 
He  subsequently  drives  the  Suliots  out  of  Epirus,  and  rules  south-wert 
Macedonia  and  Thessaly. 

1386.  America.  The  Constitution  is  ac<jepted  by  all  the  States  except 
Khode  Island  and  North  Carolina,  despite  the  strenuous  opposition  J 
Patrick  Henry,  Samuel  Adams,  Lee,  Mason,  Clinton  and  others,  who 
fear  that  the  liberty  of  individual  States  is  threatened  by  the  powers 
granted  to  the  Federal  Govenunent. 

1387.  Australia.  Captain  Philip  lands  convicts  at  Botany  Bay,  bat, 
finding  it  unsuitable,  moves  to  Sydney.  Coal  is  found  and  sheep  are 
introduced,  and  New  South  Wales  is  colonised. 


1388.  England.    Pitt  moves  that  the  Prince  be  Regent,  without   t^^ 
power  to  create  peers  or  to  grant  pensions  or  places.     The  King,   *■ 
however,  recovers. 

Erskiue  successfully  defends  Stockdale,  who  is  charged  with  libelling' 
the  Commons  by  publishing  a  defence  of  Warren  Hastings. 

The  Revolution  Society,  founde<l  to  commemorate  the  Revolution  "f 
1688,  meets  in  London  and  congratulates  the  French  National  ARseiuhly 
on  the  fall  of  the  Bastille. 

1389.  Prance.  The  States-General  meet  (May  5).  The  deputies  of  the 
Tiers  feat  declare  themselves  the  National  Assembly  (June  17),  and. 
meeting  in  the  Tennis  Court  at  Versailles,  swear  to  establish  a  Constitu- 
tion (June  20).  They  are  joined  by  the  other  Estates  ;  but  Necker  i^ 
dismissed  and  troops  are  collected  round  Paris.  The  Bastille  is  there- 
fore stormed  (July  14) ;  Necker  is  recalled  ;  Artois,  Polignac  and  uUwr 
nobles  fly  to  Italy  ;  Bailly  becomes  Mayor,  and  Lafayette  commander  of 
a  newly-raised  National  (luanl.  Feudal  privileges,  serfdom,  con*^ 
guilds,  seigneurial  jurisdictions,  are  abolished  (Aug.  4),  and  a  declAn- 
tion  of  the  Rights  of  Man  is  published.    The  A^embly  decides  thit 


1788]  CULTURE  277 

2164.  American  Ch.  The  Presbyterians  revise  the  Westminster 
Catechism,  and  introduce  the  principles  of  religious  liberty  and  the 
equality  of  all  Churches  before  the  law. 

2165.  Church  Hist.  Abb^  6r^goire\s  Rebirth  of  the  Jews  pleads  for 
their  emancipation. 

2166.  Eng.  Ui.     Walker,  a  bookseller,  founds  the  Times. 

2167.  French  Lit.    Bemardin  de  St  Pierre's  Paul  et  Virginie. 

2168.  German  Lit.    Goethe's  E^mont. 

2169.  Science.  Lagrange's  M^nique  Analytique  deduces  the  whole 
of  mechanics  from  the  law  of  virtual  work  by  the  aid  of  the  Calculus  of 
Variations. 

2170.  Philosophy.  Kant's  Critique  of  Practical  Reason  declares  God, 
Freedom,  and  Immortality  moral  postulates. 

Cabanis'  Rapports  du  Physique  et  du  Moral  restates  the  theories  of 
Condillac. 

2171.  Philology.  Porson's  Letters  to  Travis  prove  the  spuriousness  of 
the  text  relating  to  the  three  heavenly  witnesses,  1  John  v.  7. 

2172.  Geography.     Banks  and  Reunell  form  the  African  Association. 
il?S.    Social.    Clarkson  publishes  evidence  relating  to  the  slave-trade, 

and  wins  over  Wilberforce.     The  Committee  on  Trade  and  Plantations 
hold  an  inquiry,  and  a  Bill  to  improve  the  siinitatiou  of  the  slave- vessels 
is  introduced,  but  mutilated  by  the  peers. 
il74.    Deaths.    Buffon,  Charles  III.,  Filangieri,  Cainsborough,  Hamann. 


il7o.    French  Ch.    Mirabeau  carries  a  motion  that  the  property    ri  709 

rfthe  Church  belongs  to  the  nation.  '- 

•/r6\    German  Ch.    The  three  ec<;lesiastical  Electors  submit,  and  re- 

cognixe  the  right  of  the  Pope  to  send   Nuncios.     Pius  refutes  the 

Articles  of  Ems. 
«/rr.    American  Ch.    Carroll  becomes  the  first  Catholic  Bishop  in 

America,  which  has  hitherto  been  under  the  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Liondon. 

A  Jesuit  College  is  established  at  Georgetown.     At  this  time  there  are 

tbuat  30,000  Catholics,  mostly  in  Maryland  and  Pennsylvania. 
*i78.    Church  Hist.    In  his  communication  to  the  German  Church  the 

Pope  surrenders  the  authenticity  of  the  Isidorian  Decretals. 
il79.    Sng.  Lit.    Blake's  Songs  of  Innocence. 
White'a  Natural  History  of  Selbome. 
Bowies,  a  forerunner  of  the  romantic  movement,  publishes  Sonnets 

vhich  influence  Coleridge, 
•/ft/.    French  Lit.    Barth^lemy's  Voyage  du  jeune  Anacharsis  en  Gr^ce 

piesentB  the  first  real  living  picture  of  Greek  Ufe,  and  contributes  to  the 

growth  of  classical  and  republican  ideas. 
Joseph  Ch^nier  s  drama,  Charles  IX. 
The  Journal  des  D^bat«  is  founded. 

2181,  Oerman  Lit.    Kotzebue's  drama.  Hatred  and  Remorse. 

2182.  Science.  Galvani  accidentally  discovers  the  'Galvanic  fluid*  in 
a  frog^s  W  and  assumes  that  the  electricity  exists  in  the  frog.  Volta 
hears  of  the  discovery  and  declares  that  the  electricity  is  not  in  the 
frog  bat  is  produced  by  metals,  acted  on  by  the  moisture  of  the  flesh. 


278  POLITICS  [ITO 

there  shall  be  only  one  Chamber  in  the  new  Le^slature,  and  that  the 
King's  veto  shaU  be  merely  suspensive.  Owing  m  part  to  the  plots  of 
Orleans,  who  covets  the  throne,  a  large  band  of  women  marches  to 
Versailles  and  compels  the  return  of  the  Court  to  Paris  (Oct.  6). 
Lamarck  conveys  a  message  from  Mirabeau,  urging  the  Kinff  to  escipe. 
Members  of  the  Assembly  are  forbidden  to  accept  office,  as  Mirabeaa  is 
believed  to  be  striving  to  enter  the  Ministry  (Nov.).  Political  clnl» 
spring  up,  and  the  second  emigration  of  nobles  takes  place.  The 
provinces  with  their  institutions  are  abolished,  and  France  is  divided 
into  80  departments   with  districts  and  cantons. 

1390.  Netherlands.  Joseph  revokes  the  Constitution  of  Hainault  aod 
Brabant,  which  therefore  rises  in  revolt  under  Van  der  Noot  The 
Prince  Bishop  is  expelled  from  Li^ge,  but  is  restored  by  Prussia. 

1391.  Sweden.    Gustavus  makes  the  monarchy  absolute. 

1392.  Turkey.  Austria  and  Russia  renew  the  alliance  of  1781  for 
another  eight  years.  Suvoroff  and  Potemkin  win  victories,  and  Loudon 
takes  Belgrad  and  Passarowitz. 

1393.  America.  Washington  becomes  President  of  the  United  States, 
John  Adams  Vice-President,  Jefferson  Secretary  of  State,  Hamilton 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  and  Jay  Chief  Justice. 

The  first  Tariflf  Act  is  introduced,  and  the  City  of  Washington  laid 
out. 

Tammany  is  founded  as  a  benevolent  society,  but  shortly  becomes 
a  political  organisation. 

Spain  attacks  England  at  Nootka  Sound,  in  Vancouver  Island,  but 
in  the  following  year  retires,  owing  to  the  refusal  of  France  to  aid,  and 
offers  indemnity. 


1394.  England.  Fox  declares  liis  sympathy  with  and  Burke  his  r^-gQ 
detestation  of  the  French  Revolution.  ^ 

Motions  for  Parliamentary  reform  and  the  repeal  of  tests  are  widi- 
drawn  without  a  division. 

1395.  Prance.  Mirabeau  becomes  the  secret  agent  of  the  Crown  (May), 
for  which  he  composes  a  series  of  Notes.  He  fails  to  win  the  contideilce 
of  Lafayette  or  Necker,  who  retire  (Sept.). 

In  the  discussion  as  to  the  duty  of  France  under  the  Familv  Com- 
I)act  to  aid  Spain  in  her  (piarrel  with  England  in  rei^ard  to  Nootka 
Sound,  the  Assembly  proi>oses  to  take  the  nght  of  declaring  war  ftvm 
the  King.  Mirabeau  obtains  a  c<)U)])romise,  re(|uiring  the  consent  of 
the  King  and  the  Assembly.  Louis  is  henceforth  described  as  King  of 
the  French,  and  a  civil  list  is  allowed  him  in  place  of  his  domains. 

1396.  Germany.  By  a  treaty  with  Prussia,  Poland  agrees  to  cede 
Thorn  and  Danzig  in  exchange  for  the  retrocession  of  Austrian  Galicia 
(March) ;  but  the  new  Emperor,  Leopold,  makes  the  IVeaty  of  Reichen- 
bach,  Frederick  William  of  Pnissia  withdrawing  from  his  patronage  <)f 
the  Belgian  rebels  and  liis  engagements  with  Sweden,  Poland  and 


1790]  CULTURE  279 

Jnssieu's  Genera  Plantarum  founds  the  'natural  system*  of  classi- 
fication of  plants,  i.e.,  by  all  observable  |)oints,  and  sketches  the  cha- 
racters of  *  Families,  or  Natural  Orders/ 

Herschel  constnicts  a  reflector  40  feet  long. 

Lavoisier's  Traits  ^l^mentaire  de  Chimie  contains  a  new  chemical 
nomenclature  and  a  list  of  elements.     Fourcroy,  Guyton  de  Morveau, 
Berthollet,  assist  in  establishing  the  system. 
21SS,     Philology.   Sir  William  Jones  translates  the  Sakuntala  of  Kalidasa. 

Reiske's  Historical  Annotations  on  Abulfeda. 
2184.     Politics.     Sieves'  pamphlet,  Qu'est-ce  (lue  le  Tiers  fitat  ?    main- 
tains the  right  of  the  bourgeois  to  a  share  in  the  government  of  the 
country. 

Price  preaches  a  sermon  on  the  Love  of  Our  Couutr}'  before  the 
Revolution  Society,  which  sends  congratulations  to  the  National 
Assembly  of  France. 

The  fall  of  the  Bastille  is  welcomed  in  Germany  by  Klopstock, 
Stolberg,  Kant,  Fichte,  Schiller,  J.  Miiller,  and  other  distinguished 
thinkers. 

Bentham's  Principles  of  Morals  and  Legislation  develope  the  prin- 
ciple of  Utility,  borrowed  from  Priestley. 

Malouet's  Considerations  sur  le  Gouvemement  qui  convient  a  la 
France  recommends  limited  monarchy. 

The  Declaration  of  the  Rights  of  Man,  based  on  Si^yes'  Exposition 
des  Droits  de  T Homme,  declares  men  born  free  and  ecjual  in  regard  to 
rights ;  that  the  object  of  political  association  is  the  defence  of  the 
Natural  Rights  of  Man,  liberty,  property,  personal  safety  and  resistance 
to  oppressi(m.  All  citizens  are  eligible  to  all  posts  according  to  ca- 
pacity; nobody  may  be  molested  for  expressing  his  opinions,  even 
religious,  unle&s  he  disturbs  public  order. 
2186.     Law.    Martens'   Precis  du  Droit  des  Gens  Moderne,  the  first 

svstematic  positive  and  historic  treatment  of  International  Law. 
2186.     Death.     Holbach. 


2187.  Eng.  Ch.     Paley's  Horae  Paulinae.  [1790 

2188.  French  Ch.  Church  j)n)perty  is  confiscated,  and  monas-  •- 
teries  abolished.  The  Constitution  Civile  du  Clerg^  abolishes  the  Con- 
cordat of  1516,  and  reduces  the  Bishops  to  one  for  each  department. 
The  Bishops  are  to  be  chosen  by  the  Parliamentary  electors  and  insti- 
tuted by  me  Metropolitan;  the  clerg}'  by  the  electors  to  communal 
offices.  The  Pope's  confirmation  is  dispensed  with.  The  clergy  are  to 
take  the  oath  to  the  Constitution  Civile.  After  long  hesitation,  the 
Kin^  sanctions  the  law.  Protestants  become  eligible  for  ofiice  and 
receive  back  the  property  confiscated  by  Louis  XIV. 

2189.  Oennan  Ch.    At  the  Imperial  Election,  the  Gravamina  against 
the  Roman  Church  are  discussed 

2190.  Church  Hist.    The  Jews  are  declared  free  in  France  and  receive 
civic  rights. 


280  POLITICS  [1790 

Turkey.     The  treaty  marks  the  failure  of  the  plan  to  make  PniHsia  the 
arbiter  of  Europe,  and  Hertzberg  is  dismissed. 

1397.  Netherlands.  A  Republic  is  proclaimed,  but  the  DemocntK,  or 
Vonckists,  are  driven  from  the  country  by  the  party  of  Van  der  Xoot 
Leopold,  who  succeeds  his  brother  as  Emperor,  offers  to  restore  the  oH 
Constitution.  The  offer  is  rejected  ;  but  the  countiy  is  reoccupied 
without  a  blow.  The  project  of  exchanging  the  Netherlands  for  Bavaria 
is  formally  renounced. 

1398.  Hungary.  The  Emperor  refuses  to  grant  semi-independence,  and 
marches  to  Pesth.  The  Magyars  submit  and  Leopold  restores  the  old 
Constitution ;  but  a  strong  Nationalist  movement  remains,  which  i$ 
fostered  by  Kazinczy,  who  edits  the  first  Ma^ar  literary  magazine. 

1399.  Poland.  Stanislas  is  won  over  by  the  Reformers  and  grants 
a  Constitution,  drawn  up  by  KoUontai,  establishing  responsible  goven- 
ment,  making  the  crown  hereditary  in  the  house  of  &ucony  after  the 
death  of  Stanislas,  abolishing  the  liberum  veto,  allowing  religioufi 
toleration  and  taxing  the  nobility.  The  Constitution  is  acEnowledgeii 
by  Prussia  and  Austria,  but  not  by  Russia. 

1400.  Russia.    Peace  is  made  with  Sweden  by  the  Treaty  of  Verela. 

1401.  Turkey.    Suvoroff  takes  Ismail. 

1402.  America.  Hamilton  reports  on  the  Finances,  and  carries  the  fall 
payment  of  the  *  foreign '  and  *  domestic '  debt,  and  part  of  the  State 
debt*i. 

The  first  Anti-Slavery  petitions  are  presented ;  but  no  settlement  w 
reached. 

1403.  Asia.  Lord  Cornwallis  enters  on  the  second  Mysore  War,  defeats 
Tippoo  at  Seringapatam,  1791,  and  compels  him  to  cede  half  hi< 
territory,  1792. 


1404.  England.  Anti-Jacobin  riots  take  place  at  Birmingliam,  rywi 
and  Priestley's  house  is  destroyed.  '■ 

Burke  publicly  renounces  Fox's  friendship. 

1405.  Ireland,     ilitford's  Bill  removes  certain  Catholic  disabilities. 
The  United   Irishmen  are  formed  at   Belfast  by  Wolfe  Tone,  a 

Presbyteriau,  to  widen  the  franchise  and  open  Parliament  and  office 
to  all. 

1406.  Prance.  Mirabeau  is  chosen  President  of  the  As.sembly,  but 
(lies  (April).  The  royal  family  fly  from  Paris,  bnt  are  arrested  at 
Varennes  (Jnne).  The  Jacobins  and  Orleanist-s  clamour  for  a  republic, 
and  Lafayette  loses  his  influence  by  firing  on  the  mob.  Tlie  new  Con- 
stitution is  completed  and  accepted  by  the  King.  Ministers  are  to  be 
resj)<)nsible  to  the  Legislative  Chamber,  which  is  to  be  elected  by  almost 
universal  suffrage.  The  King's  veto  only  holds  good  for  six  monthx 
The  country  is  divided  into  80  De|Kirtments,  with  electa  Councils,  and 
the  Parliaments  are  replaced  by  judges  locally  elected,  with  a  Court  rf 
ApjH'al  in  Paris.  The  Constituent  Assembly  dissolves  itself  (Sept.  30K 
The  Legislative  Assembly,  from  which  members  of  the  Constituent  are 
excluded,  meets  (Oct.  1 ).     Lafayette  ceases  to  command  the  National 


W]  CULTURE  281 

91,    German  Lit.    Goethe's  Tasso. 

91  Rmwian  Lit.  Derzhavin,  the  Homer  of  Catherine,  writes  an  Ode 
OB  the  taking  of  Ismail  by  Suvoroff. 

9S,  Science.  Goethe's  Metamorphosis  of  Plants  shews  the  funda- 
mental unity  of  floral  and  foliar  parts.  All  organs  are  modifications  of 
tk  leaf,  and  all  plants  modifications  of  a  common  type.  The  discovery 
receives  little  notice  until  taught  by  De  Candolle. 

94.  Art.  Alison's  Essay  on  Taste  declares  that  beauty  is  not  a 
qoality  of  things  but  a  product  of  the  association  of  ideas. 

Albrechtsberger's  Guide  to  Composition. 

95.  Fhiloeophy.  Kant's  Critique  of  Judgment  recognises  a  third 
department  of  philosophy,  namely  the  Faculty  of  Pleasure  and  Pain 
(in  addition  to  the  Faculty  of  Knowledge  and  the  Will).  The  r)  priori 
principles  of  the  lesthetic  consciousness  are  that  beauty  gives  a  dis- 
nteresEted  pleasure  and  a  pleasure  felt  by  all,  and  must  therefore  be 
Rnrded  as  the  outcome  of  universal  reason  and  as  transcending  the 
mbjective  and  phenomenal. 

9^;.  Politics.  Burke's  Reflections  on  the  French  Revolution  divides 
the  English  nation  into  two  parties,  and  creates  an  unparalleled 
eiritement  throughout  Europe.  The  work  vehemently  denounces 
tke  attack  on  the  Church  and  the  Monarchy  and  the  abstract 
doctrines  of  the  Rights  of  Man,  and  foretells  the  breakdown  of  the 
constitutional  compromise  and  the  rise  of  absolutism.  Burke,  however, 
jod^  the  Revolution  as  a  purely  political  phenomenon,  and  shews 
ranself  altogether  blind  to  the  existence  of  the  social  and  economic 
)n)Uems  that  underlie  it. 

W.    Law.    Hufeland's  Text-book  of  Naturrecht,  influenced  by  Kant. 
i9S.    Oeography.    Vancouver  explores  the  N.W.  coast  of  America. 
Mk    SociaL     Raditschef,  influenced  by  Ra}'nal    and  other   French 
writers,  pleads  for  the  emancipation  of  the  serfs  in  his  Journey  from 
St  Petersburg  to  Moscow. 

Cartwright  invents  a  wool-combing  machine. 

Kelly  applies  water  as  the  motor-power  for  machinery  in  spinning. 

He  gnfllotine  is  brought  into  use. 

Count  Rumfoitl  arrests  all  the  beggars  in  Munich  simultaneously. 
%>.   Deaths.     CMllen,  Febronius,  Franklin,  Howard,  Adam  Smith. 


^1,   Xng.  Ch.     Robert  Hall  becomes  pastor  of  a  Baptist  con-    riygi 
option  at  Cambridge  for   15  years  and  preaches  his  most    ^ 
trifliaot  sermons. 

%  Trench  Ch.  Volney's  Ruines  des  Empires  compares  the  historic 
write  of  the  chief  religions  of  the  world,  to  the  disadvantage  of 
Christianity. 

W.  American  Ch.  The  Sulpicians  found  the  first  Catholic  seminar}' 
a  the  United  States. 

H   Xn^  Ui.    Boswell's  Life  of  Johnson. 
Mn  Inchbald's  A  Simple  Story. 


282  POLITICS  [1791 

Guard.  Louis  vetoes  decrees  for  the  return  of  the  emigrants  under  pain 
of  confiscation  and  death,  and  for  the  taking  the  oath  to  the  Gonstita- 
tion  Civile  by  the  clergy  ;  but  the  Assembly  declares  that  they  are  not 
laws,  and  that  the  vet<>  is  therefore  null. 

The  Comte  d'Artois  and  other  French  nobles  settle  at  Cobleiiz(Jalj). 
The  Emperor  calls  on  the  Powers  to  rescue  Louis  XVL,  and  persuades 
the  King  of  Prussia  to  join  him  in  issuing  the  Declaration  of  Filnitx  for 
joint  action  against  France,  if  Europe  will  cooperate.  Pitt  refuses  to 
join,  and,  when  Louis  accepts  the  Constitution,  Leopold  declares  that 
the  need  for  a  coalition  has  ceased.  The  Girondins,  however,  uige  war. 
and  the  King  is  forced  to  inform  the  Emperor  and  the  Archbishop  of 
Trier  that  if  the  military  force  of  the  emigrants  is  not  disbanded  within 
a  month,  he  will  attack  (Dec).  The  Elector  orders  the  cessation  of  the 
military  preparations,  but  the  emigrants  refuse  to  obey.  The  Emperor 
expresses  his  desire  for  peace,  but  declares  that  he  will  regard  an  attack 
on  Trier  as  a  casus  belli;  and  Gustavus  of  Sweden  offers  to  lead 
a  crusade. 

France  decrees  the  annexation  of  Avignon  and  the  Venaissin. 

1407.  Germany.  The  principalities  of  Anspach  and  Bayreuth  fiall  to 
Prussia  in  accordance  with  the  Gera  Bond,  1598. 

1408.  Turkey.  In  defiance  of  the  Treaty  of  Reichenbach,  the  Sultao  y 
forced  to  cede  the  district  of  Orsowa  ana  part  of  Croatia  to  Austria  bj 
the  Treaty  of  Sistowa.  Odessa  is  founded,  the  commerce  of  which  is 
almost  monopolised  by  the  Greeks. 

Pitt  considers  but  dismisses  the  idea  of  supporting  Turkey  against 
Russia. 

1409.  America.  The  first  ten  Amendments  to  the  Constitution  ire 
added,  securing  the  sei^ration  of  Church  and  State,  free  press  and  peti- 
tion, trial  by  jury,  etc.,  and  declaring  that  powers  not  expressly  delegated 
to  the  Federal  Government  are  reserved  to  the  States. 

Hamilton  imposes  an  excise  on  whisky,  and  founds  a  Xationil 
Bank.     These  extensions  of  federal  power  are  opposed  by  Jefferson. 

The  prt)vinces  of  Upper  and  Lower  Canada  are  separated,  and  receive 
representative  institutions. 

1410.  West  Indies.  A  Negro  insurrection  takes  place  in  the  Frecch 
part  of  San  Domingo,  and  the  Commissioner  of  the  French  Republic 
declares  the  natives  free,  1793. 

1411.  Africa.     Spiin  is  finally  expelled  from  Oran. 


1412.  England.     Fox's  Libel  Bill  allows  juries  to  decide  what   r^^M 
constitutes  a  libel.  ^ 

The  Society  of  the  Friends  of  the  People  is  formed  to  prouK^te 
Parliamentary  Reform. 

Tom  Paine  is  tried,  and  defended  by  Erskine. 

Pitt  refuses  to  accept  Grev's  motion  for  Parliamentary  Reform  w 
unseasonable,  and  a  Proclamation  against  seditious  writings  is  issuetl 

1413.  Prance.     Three  French  anuies  are  collected   on   the  frimtier. 
The  Emperor  therefore  makes  an  offensive  and  defensive  alliance  with 


ITM]  CULTURE  283 

Wordsworth  visits  France,  and  is  carried  away  by  enthusiasm  for 

the  Revolution,  the  influence  of  which  also  appears  in  the  early  works 

of  Southey  and  Coleridge. 
SS^,    Qeiman  Lit.    Goethe  becomes  Director  of  the  theatre  at  Weimar 

tiD  1817. 
£9^.    £kdence.    Herschel  ceases  to  believe  that  all  nebulae  consist 

of  stars. 

Bennie  sets  up  in  business  in  London  as  an  engineer,  and  builds 

bridges,  canals,  harbours,  breakwaters  and  lighthouses. 
£997.   Art.     Haydn  composes  his  six  first  Grand  S3rmphonies  for  a  series 

of  concerts  in  London. 
!SQ$.    Politics.     Mackintosh,  in  his  Vindiciae  Gallicae,  Tom  Paine,  in 

lus  Rights  of  Man,  and  many  others,  reply  to  Burke's  attack  on  the 

French  Revolution. 

Borke  writes  his  Appeal  from  the  New  to  the  Old  \Miigs,  and  his 

Letter  to  a  Member  of  the  National  Assembly,  in  the  latter  of  which  he 

irst  advocates  the  intervention  of  the  Great  Powers  in  the  affairs  of 

Fruice. 

W.  V.  Humboldt's  Attempt  to  determine  the  Limits  of  the  Functions 

of  the  State  protests  against  the  principle  that  the  securing  of  the 

nniil  well-being  of  the  community  lies  within  the  sphere  of  State  action. 
!9».   History.     Martens'  Recueil  des  principaux  Trait^s,  1671—1791. 
BlO.   Social.    Bentham  presents  his  scneme  of  a  Panopticon  prison  (i.e. 

a  building  every  part  of  which  is  made  visible  from  a  single  point  by 

itflectors)  to  the  Government;  though  empowered  to  proceed,  nothing 

iiuther  is  done. 
&l.   Deaths.    Mirabeau,  Mozart,  Potemkin,  Semler,  Wesley. 


^^-.   Scotch  Ch.    The  penal  laws  against  tlie  Scotch  episco-    nygo 

}JaMia  are  rescinded,  partly  owing  to  tlie  influence  of  Horsley.    '- 

^we  disabling  clauses,  however,  are  inserted  by  Thurlow. 
^A   Trmch  Ch.    A  law  by  which  priests  may  be  banished  on  the 

Ntion  of  20  citizens  is  rejected  by  the  King.     After  Aug.  10,  the 

xa-jurois  are  civen  14  days  to  leave.     The  religious  orders  are  dis- 

xmd,  and  civu  marriage  and  divorce  are  introduced, 
ftii   Oenaan  Ch.    Fichte's  Critique  of  all  Revelation,  the  ideas  of 

•kich  he  declares  to  be  a  development  from  the  philosophy  of  Kant, 

"Qect*  doctrinal  Christianity. 
•i/J.   American  Ch.    The  first  Swedenborgian  Church  is  founded  at 

Utimore. 
w.   Bnij.  Lit.    The  Libel  Act  is  passed,  and  is  strongly  attacked  by 

Bobert  Hall  and  others. 
Hannah  More's  Village  Politics,  designed  to  prevent  the  spread  of 

RTDlatiooaiy  principles. 

Bige   Bud    Holcroft  write    didactic   novels  with  a  revolutionary'' 
teadeocy. 
ft/7.    American  Lit.    Cobbett's  Journal,  Peter  Porcupine,  attacks  the 
imerican  Republic. 


284  POLITICS  [17M 

Pnissia,  and  declares  that  the  security  of  Europe  demands  order  in 
France.  The  Girondins  take  office  and  force  the  King  to  declare  war 
against  the  Emperor  (April  20).  In  an  attack  on  Belgium  a  ptnic 
occurs.  The  cry  of  treachery  is  raised,  20,000  volunteers  fipom  the 
departments  are  collected,  and  a  camp  of  80,000  men  outside  Paris  is 
decreed.  The  King  vetoes  the  latter  measure,  dismisses  the  ministtv. 
and  appoints  Feuillants,  but  fails  to  support  them.  The  continnieiit 
from  Marseilles  for  the  volunteers'  camp  arrives  sinking  the  Maneil- 
laise.  When  war  is  declared  against  Prussia  (Juj^  8).  Bnmswick 
threatens  Paris  with  destruction  if  the  royal  family  is  harmed.  The 
mob  demand  the  deposition  of  the  King  and  Danton  takes  contnJ  nf 
Paris.  The  Swiss  guards  are  massacred  (Au^.  10),  the  King  is  shut  up 
in  the  Temple,  and  a  National  Convention  is  summoned  to  revise  the 
Constitution.  Lord  Gower,  the  English  ambassador,  is  at  this  moment 
recalled.  The  capture  of  Longwy  and  Verdun  by  the  Prussians  (Sept.  2) 
is  followed  by  tlie  September  massacres  of  nobles  and  others.  The 
Convention  meets,  declares  France  a  Republic,  and  inaogurates  a  nev 
Calendar.  The  tide  of  sucxress  at  this  point  turns.  Dumouriez  holifc 
Valmy  against  the  Pnissians,  and  Savoy  and  Nice  are  annexed.  Custine 
invades  the  Rhine  Provinces,  and  takes  Spii^,  Worms  and  Mainz,  the 
Princes  fleeing  without  a  blow.  Dumounez  defeats  the  AustriaDs  at 
Jemappes  (Nov.),  enters  Belgium,  and  opens  the  Scheldt.  Thesie 
victories  impel  the  Assembly  to  offer  aid  to  all  nations  revolting  against 
their  governments  (Nov.). 

The  Jacobins  become  powerful  and  demand  the  King's  death  (Nor. . 
Louis'  correspondence  with  Mirabeau  is  discovered,  and  serves  as  a  hazi^ 
for  the  trial. 

The  last  remains  of  the  feudal  regime  are  abolished. 

The  Colonies  are  granted  representation  in  Parliament. 

1414.  Sweden,     (justavus  III.  is  assassinated. 

1415.  Poland.  Catherine  invades  Poland  and  is  joined  by  the  Patriot*, 
who  form  the  Confederation  of  Targowicz,  and  demand  the  restoniti«in 
of  the  old  Constitution.  The  Poles,  led  by  Kosciuzko,  are  defeated. 
Stanislas  is  terrified,  and  the  new  (]k)nstitution  is  abolished  by  Rn:«u. 
Catherine  begins  to  negotiiate  with  Austria  and  Prussia  for  a  partition. 

1416.  Spain.     Godoy  becomes  supreme. 

1417.  Turkey.  The  Peace  of  Jassy  is  made  with  Russia,  which  obtain? 
Oczakov.     The  Dniester  is  fixed  as  the  boundary. 


1418.  England.     Pitt  issues  Exchequer  Bills.  n^ 
Grenville's  Alien  Act  enjpowers  to  remove  suspected  foreigners,   ^ 

and  a  Treasonable  (■orrespondence  Act  is  passed.      Muir  and  other 
republican  propjigandists  are  heavily  punished. 

1419.  Ireland.  Alanned  by  the  United  Irishmen,  Pitt  frees  the 
Catholi(*s  from  some  penalties,  and  allows  them  to  vote. 

1420.  Prance.  The  King  is  executed  (Jan.  21),  and  France  declare 
war  against  England  and  Holland.  The  coalition  is  joined  by  Spain. 
Portugal  and  Tuscany.     Dumouriez  is  defeated  at  Neerwinden,  and 


179S]  CULTURE  285 

^18.  Science.  Pinel  becomes  physician  at  the  asylum  of  BicOtre, 
didcards  the  theory  of  possession,  dispenses,  where  possible,  with 
physical  restraint,  and  introduces  humane  treatment  of  the  insane. 
In  the  same  year  Tuke  applies  similar  principles  in  the  asylum  at 
York. 

8219.  Art.  Raphael  Morghen  settles  in  Florence,  and  engraves  Ijeon- 
ardo's  Last  Supper,  and  other  works. 

2220.  Fhilosopny.  Dugald  Stewart's  Philosophy  of  the  Human  Mind 
popularises,  without  adding  to,  the  ideas  of  Keid. 

Schulze's  Aenesidemus  or  the  fundamental  Principles  of  the  Ele- 
mentary Philosophy  of  Reinhold,  declares  it  a  contradiction  to  say  that 
categories  apply  only  to  phenomena  and  that  things  in  themselves  are 
causes  of  impressions,  and  asserts  that  criticism  ought  logically  to  deny 
the  possibility  of  things  in  themselves. 

2221.  Nnmiamatics.     Eckhel's  Doctrina  Nummonim  Vet^rum. 

2222.  Social.  Kelly  invents  the  self-acting  mule,  which  is  improved  by 
Roberts. 

Mary  Woktonecraft's  Rights  of  Woman  declares  the  chief  end  of 
marriage  to  be  inteUectual  comuanionship,  contends  for  greater  free- 
dom of  divorce,  and  recommencis  stat€  ^ucation. 

The  King  of  Denmark  first  forbids  the  buying,  selling  or  transport 
of  slaves. 
222S.    Death.    Reynolds. 


2224.     Bng«  Ch-    Elkanah  Winchester,  an  American  Unitarian, 


[1793 


founds  South  Place  Chapel,  London. 

2225.  Scotch  Ch.     Privileges  are  conceded  to  the  Scotch  Catholics. 

2226.  French  Ch.  Hubert's  P^re  Duchesne  advocates  atheism,  and 
with  the  aid  of  the  Cordeliers  Club,  Chaumett^,  Anacharsis  Qootz  and 
others,  forces  the  Convention  to  abolish  the  Catholic  faith  and  to 
threaten  non-juring  priests  inith  death.  On  Nov.  10th  they  celebrate 
the  Feast  of  Reason  m  the  Church  of  St  Eustache. 

2227.  Italian  Lit.  Monti's  Bassvilliana,  an  epic,  attacks  the  French 
Revolution. 

2228.  Science.  Sprengel's  Secret  of  Nature  Displayed  explains  the 
fertilisation  of  plants  by  insects  which  carr}'  pollen-dust  from  flower  to 
flower.     In  certain  cases  pollen-dust  is  carried  by  the  wind. 

Chappe  constructs  the  aerial  telegraph. 

2229.  Art.    The  Louvre  is  transformed  into  a  national  museum  of  art. 
22S0.     Philosophy.     Kant's    Religion   within    the  Limits  of   Reason 

declares  the  religious  life  of  the  individual  independent  of  the  truth  or 
fiilsehood  of  historical  Christianity. 

The  Decade  Philosophique,  a  review  of  science  and  philosophy  at 
home  and  abroad,  is  nublished  as  the  oi^au  of  the  Ideologues,  Sa.y, 
Gingu^D^  Condorcet,  Sdyes,  Roederer,  Volney,  Saint-Lambert,  Cabanis, 
Garat 

CondorGet's  Tableau  du  Progr^s  de  TEsprit  Humain  surveys  the 


286  POLITICS  [17tt 

« 

deserts  to  the  Austrians  (March).  The  Committee  of  Public  Safety  » 
formed,  the  Reign  of  Terror  begins,  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal  com- 
mences. The  Girondins  fall,  and  Marat  is  murdered  by  Chailotte 
Corday  in  revenge  for  their  death.  Robespierre,  St  Just,  BillaiuL 
Collot,  Bar^re,  and  Couthon  become  supreme.  Toulon,  Lyons  and 
La  Vendde  rise  against  the  Government.  The  English  troops,  oDder 
the  Duke  of  York,  are  repulsed  near  Dunkirk  (Sept),  the  Austnansare 
defeated  at  Wattignies,  and  Austrians  and  Prussians  are  driven  back  to 
the  Rhine  (Oct.).  Lyons  surrenders,  the  Vendeans  are  suppressed,  lod 
Toulon  is  captured  by  Bonaparte  (Dec). 

Equal  division  of  real  property  is  introduced. 

1421.  Foland.  Russia  and  Prussia  secretly  sign  the  second  Partition, 
(Jan.).  Frederick  William  occupies  the  stipulated  districts,  Danzig, 
Thorn,  with  the  provinces  of  Great  Poland,  Posen,  Ealisch,  and  Gne^eo. 
Russia  takes  the  remainder  of  Lithuania,  and  Volhjmia  and  Podoiii, 
and  obtains  free  entrance  for  her  troops,  the  conduct  of  wars  and  the 
confirmation  of  treaties  made  with  foreign  powers.  At  Vienna,  Thugut, 
the  new  minister,  refuses  to  accept  the  treaty. 

1422.  America.  The  first  Fugitive  Slave  Act  is  passed,  but  proves 
inoperative  in  the  North. 

Washington  issues  a  proclamation  of  Neutrality  on  the  outbreak  of 
the  great  war,  despite  the  treaty  with  France  of  1778.  In  defiance  of 
this,  Genet,  the  French  agent,  fits  out  privateers,  but,  at  the  reque^  of 
Washington,  is  recalled. 

1423.  Asia.  Bengal  is  assessed  for  land-tax  by  the  order  of  Loid 
Comwallis,  and  the  Permanent  Settlement  comes  into  operation. 

Lord  Macartney  is  sent  to  China  to  obtain  commercial  privileges  for 
the  East  India  Company,  but  fails. 


1424.  England.     The  Habeas  Corpus  Act  is  suspended.     The   r^^ 
Wliig  party  splits  into  two  parts,  and  Portland.  Grenville  and   •■ 
Wiiulham  enter  the  Cabinet.    Fox  and  Grey  remain  with  only  a  haiKiful 
of  supporters.      Home  Tooke,  Hardy  and  Thirlwall  are  acquitted  <»f 
treason. 

1425.  Ireland.  Pitt  is  persuaded  by  his  new  Whig  allies  to  pur«ne 
a  policy  of  conciliation,  and  selects  Fitzwilliam,  who,  however,  is  for 
biaden  to  expel  any  officials  for  misconduct  Fitzwilliam  gathers  that 
Pitt  authorises  a  complete  change  of  system  and  justice  to  the 
Catholics. 

Curran  begins  to  take  part  in  the  great  State  Trials. 

1426.  Prance.  Jourdan  defeats  the  allies  at  Fleurus  (June),  and  Anr» 
them  out  of  the  Netherlands.  Pichegru  enters  HollancL  York  i* 
beaten  at  Bois-le-Duc. 

Howe  defeats  a  French  fleet  near  the  mouth  of  the  Channel  (June), 
but  the  victor}'  has  no  decisive  results.  Hoche  defeats  a  bixly  <i 
Eniigrds  at  Quiberon  Bay  (July). 

Robespierre  crushes  Hubert,  Cliaumette,  and  Clootz  (March),  and 
Danton  and  Camille  Desmoulins  (April).     Carrier  at  Nantes  and  Lebon 


M]  CULTURE  287 

ntdleetnal  development  of  mankind,  and  foretells  perfectibility  and  a 
^Rttly  increased  longevity. 

U.  Fdlitics.  Godwin's  Political  Justice,  the  only  attempt  by  an 
KigKuhman  during  the  18th  century  at  a  system  based  on  French 
Conmanism,  exerts  a  wide  influence,  especially  over  young  men.  Its 
fdnciples  are  continued  by  Charles  Hall  and  others. 

Spence  edits  a  Journal,  entitled  Pigs'  Meat,  in  which  he  contends 
for  land  nationalisation. 

]lallet  du  Pan*s  Considerations  sur  la  Revolution  Fran^aise. 

Gentz    translates    and    edits  Burke's  Ileflections  on  the   French 
BeTolution. 

Anacharsis  Clootz  proposes  that  the  Convention  shall  decree  the 
creation  of  an  universal  republic. 
U.    Education.    The  French  Assembly  decides  on  a  free  and  com- 

Khory  elementary'  education  from  6  to  8 ;  but  education  ceases  to  be 
e  or  compulsor}'  1795. 
W.  Philology.  Porson  becomes  Professor  of  Greek  at  Cambridge, 
md  edits  Euripides  and  Aeschylus.  With  Gaisford,  Elmsley,  Dobree, 
Blomfield,  Monk,  he  revives  English  classical  scholarship. 
y.  Agriculture.  An  Agricultural  Board,  suggested  by  Lord  Eames, 
is  founded,  with  Sir  John  Sinclair  as  President,  and  Arthur  Young  as 
Secretary.  The  Board  collects  statistics  and  advocates  enclosures  and 
tbe  cnltivation  of  potatoes. 

i>.    Social.     Eli  Whitney  invents  a  cotton  gin,  which  increases  the 
pice  of  cleaning  cotton  three  hundredfold,  and  facilitates  the  export  of 
cotton  from  the  Southern  states  of  the  American  Union. 
England  becomes  dependent  on  foreign  c^)m. 
Slaver}'  is  abolished  m  French  possessions. 
A».    Deaths.    Hunter,  Mansfield,  Robertson,  Gilbert  White. 


''^.    Eng.  Ch.    Paley*s  Evidences  of  Christianity  assume  the   M794 
mstence  of  a  Personal  God,  and  infer  the  probability  of  a   •■ 
lerelition,  the  reality  of  which  he  proves  chiefly  by  miracles.     Though 
•iaitting,  like  Butler,  that  the  evidence  is  not  complete,  he  considers  it 
niEcient,  and  declares  the  discrepancies  of  the  N.T.  to  be  in  no  way 


mronsistent  with  its  general  inspiration. 

Paine*s  Age  of  Reason  attacks  Christianity  and  the  Old  Test<iment 
fcwn  a  Deistic  standpoint,  declaring  the  conduct  attributed  to  Jehovah 
aoonsistent  with  moral  ideas. 

Stonyhurst  College  is  founded. 
*f.    French  Ch.    Robespierre  carries  a  decree  formally  recognizing 
tike  existence  of  a  Supreme  Being  and  immortality  (May).     In  June  he 
preqdes  over  the  Feast  of  the  Supreme  Being. 
S».    Kiig.Lit.    Godwin's  Caleb  Williams. 

Giffoid's  Baviad  and  Maeviad  satirise  the  affectation  and  sham 
nmaoticiffln  of  the  Delia  Cruscans. 

MiB  Badcliffe's  Mysteries  of  Udolpho. 


288  POLITICS  [1794 

at  Arras  supervise  the  revolution  in  the  provinces.     Robespierre  carries    < 
a  law  by  which  deputies  may  be  tried  by  an  order  of  the  Committee  of 
Public  Safety,  and  no  proof  of  guilt  is  required.     The  deputies  ire 
frightened,  and  Robespierre  is  arrested,  with  Gouthon  and  St  Jurt, 
and  execute  (July  28).    The  Moderates  and  Dantonists,  Sieves,  TalUen, 
Barras,  Boissy  d'Anglas,  seize  power  and  crush  Billaud,  Collot,  Bar^. 
Tinville,  and  Carrier,  abolish  the  Commune  of  Paris,  close  the  Jacobin    j 
Club,  amnesty  the  Vend^ans,  and  recall  the  Girondins,  expelled  from    { 
the  Assembly  in  1793. 

Paoli  appeals  to  the  English  fleet  to  aid  him  to  expel  the  Frenefa. 
The  island  is  taken,  and  Paoli  retires  into  private  life,  but  EngUnd 
withdraws,  1796. 

1427.  Poland.  Kosciuzko  leads  a  revolt  against  the  Russians,  who  are 
expelled  from  Warsaw.  A  Prussian  army  in  vain  besieges  the  capiul : 
but  Suvoroff  arrives,  defeats  and  captures  Kosciuzko,  and  takes  the 
city. 

1428.  America.  Exasperated  by  the  retention  of  posts  in  the  North- 
west, the  capture  of  neutral  vessels  carrying  provisions  to  French  porf, 
and  the  search  of  American  vessels  for  British  seamen.  Congress  lays  an 
embargo  on  British  shipping  in  American  ports  for  30  days.  To  avoid 
war  Jay  is  sent  to  England  t'O  negotiate  a  treaty.  England  promises  u* 
evacuate  the  posts,  to  appoint  commissioners  to  settle  the  debts  and 
the  North-west  Boundary  dispute,  but  yields  nothing  in  regard  to  nentnl 
trade  and  impressment.  Ijie  12th  article  of  the  treaty  opens  the 
British  West  Indies  to  American  vessels  under  70  tons,  provided  the 
United  States  do  not  export  molasses,  sugar,  coftee,  cocoa,  and  cotton. 

1429.  West  Indies.  An  English  invasion  of  Hajti  leads  to  the  emaDci- 
ptition  of  the  slaves.     Toussaint  L'Ouverture  dnves  out  the  British. 

Guadeloupe,  Martiniiiue  and  Santa  Lucia  are  taken  by  England  from 
France.     Guadeloupe  is  recaptured. 

1430.  Africa.     England  takes  the  Seychelles  from  France. 


1431.  England.  A  Treason  Act  declares  writing  or  speaking  r,»gc 
against  the  Kings  authority  treason,  and  stirring  up  liatred  '• 
against  the  King's  person  and  the  Constitution  a  misdemeanour ;  and 
a  Sedition  Act  forbids  political  meetings  unless  advertised  beforehand, 
and  i>ennits  two  justices  to  disi>erse  them  if  they  consider  them 
dangerous. 

1432.  Ireland.  FitzwilHam  arrives,  but  at  once  dismisses  two  uotoriou* 
jobbers.  The  Irish  Chancellor,  FitzGibbon,  and  the  victims  complain 
to  the  King.  Fitzwilliam  is  promptly  recalled,  and  Pitt  sends  Loni 
Camden  and  begins  to  contemplate  a  Union.  Orange  lodges  are 
organised  by  Protestants,  and  the  United  Irishmen  take  up  the  cause  of 
the  Catholics. 

1433.  Prance.    The  Dauphin  dies  in  the  Temple. 

Bread  riots  take  place  in  Paris,  and  a  revolt  of  the  Sections  is  sup- 
pressed by  Napoleon  (Oct.^.  La  Vendt5e  and  the  Chouans  of  Brittanv 
negotiate  with  England,  which  sends  ships  to  Quiberon  ;  but  the  expeili- 
tion  fails. 


16]  CULTURE  289 

O,  French  Lit.  Andr^  Ch^nier's  Podsies,  the  highest  point  of  the 
lassical  influence  in  French  poetry. 

Xavier  de  Maistre's  Voyage  autour  de  ma  Chambre. 
7.     German  Lit.    Schiller  edits  the  Horen,  to  which  Goethe,  Herder, 
acobi,  Gleim,  the  Humboldts,  Fichte  and  the  Schlegels  contribute. 

Fichte's  Vocation  of  a  Schokr. 
2.     Spanish  Lit.    Jovellauos'  come<ly,  El  Delincuente  honorado. 
S,     Art.    Flaxman  returns  to  England  from  seven  years'  residence  in 

4^     Science.    Legendre's  Elements  de  G^omdtrie,  widely  adopted  as 
substitute  for  Euclid. 

Darwin's  Zoonomia  declares  species  are  evolved  from  each  other,  not 
eparat^ly  created. 

John  Hunter's  IVeatise  on  the  Blood,  Inflammation,  and  Gunshot 
Vounds. 

S.  Philosophy.  Fichte's  Science  of  Knowledge  adopts  the  trau- 
eendeutal  method  of  Kant,  but  shews  that  self-consciousness,  the 
iltimate  ground  of  reality,  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  individual.  He 
Bttls,  however,  to  connect  the  development  of  reason  with  history  and 
latnre  or  to  advance  beyond  a  position  of  ethical  solipsism. 
[6.  Politics.  Fichte's  Rectification  of  Public  Opinion  concerning  the 
'rench  Revolution  fully  accepts  Rousseau's  theory  of  Contract,  which 
16  translates  into  the  terms  of  Kantian  ethics. 

c7.  Philology.  Hermann  begins  to  lecture  on  classical  literature  at 
jeiprig. 

18,  Education.  The  Ecole  Normale,  for  the  training  of  teachers, 
knd  the  Ecole  Polytechnique  for  instruction  in  science  are  founded 
it  Paris. 

19.  Law.  The  Prussian  Landrecht,  a  system  of  State  Socialism, 
{hiefly  prepared  by  Carmer,  becomes  law. 

tO.  Deatns.  Beccaria,  Camden,  Chdnier,  Condorcet,  Gibbon,  Goldoni, 
iV.  Jones,  Kaunitz,  Lavoisier,  Justus  Moser,  Tiraboschi. 


>i.    Eng.  Ch.    Stapleton,  late  Rector  of  St  Omer,  brings  the    riygK 

itudents  of  St  Omer  and  Douai  to  England  and  founds   St    ^ 

Edmund's  Hall,  Ware. 

}2,    Irish  Ch.    The  Grovemment  found  the  College  of  Maynooth  to 

)revent  priests  going  to  Paris  for  education  and  bringing  back  revo- 

utionary  ideas. 

}S.     American  Ch.    Ballou,  an  Universalist,  maintains  that  punish- 

nent  is  confined  to  this  life  and  borne  by  the  sinner,  and  in  no  way 

>y  Christ. 

)^    Eng.   Lit.    Lewis'    The  Monk  carries   on  the  romanticism   of 

Vfrs  Radcliffe  and  Horace  Walpole. 

Wordsworth  and  Coleridge  meet. 
}5.    French  Lit.    Mme.  Roland's  Memoirs. 

As  a  substitute  for  the  Academies,  abolished  1793,  the  Institute 
s  founded  by  Lakanal,  Daunou  and  Camot,  and  consists  of  three 

o.  19 


290  POLITICS  [1796 

A  Constitution  is  drawn  up,  creating  a  Council  of  Ancients  and 
a  Council  of  500,  in  both  cases  one-third  to  be  replaced  yearly,  and 
a  Directory  of  five,  chosen  by  the  Ancients  from  a  list  drawn  up  by  the 
500,  one  to  retire  each  year.  The  executive  and  l^islative  power  ire 
thus  separated.  Two-thirds  of  the  new  Assembly  are  to  be  cho»eo 
from  the  present  Convention.  Camot,  Lareveill^re-Lepeaux,  RewbeD, 
Letoumeur,  and  Barras  are  chosen  Directors. 

Prussia  makes  peace  at  Basle  with  France,  which  cedes  the  cod- 
quered  districts  on  the  riglit  bank  of  the  Rhine.  Prussia  promises^  t'> 
cede  her  possessions  on  the  left  bank  in  return  for  ecclesiastical  e&ut^ 
to  be  secularised  in  Germany.  A  line  of  demarcation  secures  the 
neutrality  of  Northern  Germany.  Peace  is  also  made  with  Sweden  ami 
some  German  States. 

After  the  Treaty  of  Basle,  England  and  Austria  renew  their  alliance. 
France  is  driven  across  the  Rhine,  Pichegru  attempting  to  turn  traitiff. 

1434.  Spain.  Spain  concludes  peace  with  France,  ceding  Spaubh 
St  Domingo. 

1435.  Holland.  Piche^u  overruns  HoUand,  captures  the  Dutch  fleet 
in  the  Texel,  and  establishes  a  Batavian  republic.  The  British  evariiate 
Holland. 

1436.  Italy.  Tuscany  makes  peac€  with  France.  The  Austrian:;  are 
defeated  by  Sch^rer  at  Loano. 

1437.  Poland.  The  third  partition  is  arranged,  and  Stanislas  abdii^ates 
Russia  takes  East  Poland,  and  Austria  West  Galicia.  The  remainder, 
with  Warsaw,  is  assigned  to  Prussia.  Austria  and  Russia  secretly  sijpi 
a  declaration  by  which  Austria  is  to  assist  Russia,  in  any  war  with 
Turkey,  to  take  the  Danubian  principalities,  and  to  be  comjiensated  br 
acquisitions  in  France  or  Venice.  The  Duke  of  Courlaud  is  compeUtd 
to  abdicate,  and  his  duchy  becomes  a  Russian  province. 

1438.  America.  Jay's  treaty  is  hotly  attacked,  but  is  ratified,  ilie 
Federalists,  however,  being  inudi  weakened. 

A  treaty  between  the  Unit^l  States  and  Spain   determines  the 
southeni  boundary,  and  secures  free  navigation  of  tne  Mississippi. 
The  PVench  retake  Santa  Lucia. 

1439.  Africa.  War  being  declared  against  the  Dutch,  the  Cape  of  (amI 
Hope  is  captured  by  Kngland. 

1440.  Asia.  Agha  Mohammed  defeats  and  exterminates  the  Zend  liof 
and  becomes  a  ruler  of  all  Persia,  and  founds  the  Kajar  dynasty,  lu 
1796  he  seizes  Khorasan. 


1441.  England.     Lord  Malmesbury  is  sent  to  Paris  to  negotiate   m^ 
a  peace,  asking  France  to  withdraw  from  the  Austrian  Nether-   ^ 
lands  and  from  Italy.     The  Directory  pnmiptly  refuses  (Oct.). 

1442.  Ireland.  Wolfe  Tone  is  sent  to  France  by  the  United  Irishman 
to  urge  the  Directory  to  invade  Ireland  and  establish  a  RepuMic 
Hoche  siiils  from  Brest  with  20,000,  but  the  fleet  is  dispersed  and  ouly 
a  few  vessels  reach  Bantry  Bay,  whence  they  are  driven  oy  a  storm. 


r96]  CULTURE  291 

diviHions,  the  Natural  Sciences,  the  Moral  and  Political  Sciences,  and 
the  Arts. 

a6.  German  Lit.  Goethe's  Wilhelm  Meister.  The  Confessions  of  a 
Beautiful  Soul  are  modelled  on  the  personality  of  his  early  friend, 
F.  V.  Elettenberg. 

57.  Art.  Carstens  exhibits  his  collected  pictures  in  Kome,  copied 
from  the  antiuue. 

Schiller's  Letters  on  Aesthetic  Culture,  modelled  on  the  teaching  of 
Kant,  declares  a  sense-impulse  and  a  form-impulse  to  exist  in  us,  which, 
irorkin^  t<^ether,  give  rise  to  a  play-impulse  (spiel-trieb),  the  object  of 
irhich  IS  living  shape,  or  beauty. 

58.  Science.  GteotFrey  Saint-Hilaire  suspects  that  all  species  are 
variants  on  a  primordial  form  of  life.  Goethe  reaches  a  similar  con- 
viction about  the  same  time. 

Button's  Theory  of  the  Earth  founds  Uniformitarianism,  and  recog- 
nizes the  activity  of  heat.  His  ideas  are  developed  in  Playfairs 
Illustrations  of  the  Huttonian  Theory,  1802,  and  extended  by  the 
experiments  of  Sir  James  Hall,  but  are  attacked  by  Jameson,  a  rigid 
Wemerian. 

59.  Politics.  Kant's  Perpetual  Peace  hopes  for  peace  by  a  world 
republic  with  a  central  Diet.  A  somewhat  similar  scheme  is  put  forward 
by  Gorres,  1797. 

SO.     Philology.    Wolfs  Prolegomena  to  Homer  declares  part  of  the 

poems  by  the  Homeridae,  composed  without  writing,  and  therefore  much 

changed.     The  work  opens  the  modem  period  of  classical  scholarship. 

His  view  is  worked  out  by  Lachmann  and  Hermann. 

^I.     Education.    Lakanal  persuades  the  Convention  to  create  100 

'&oles  Centrales'  for  higher  education. 

Si?.     Geography.     Muiigo  Park  undertakes  a  journey  in  West  Africa. 

SJ.     History.    Dupuis'  Origine  de  tons  les  Cultes,  a  mythological 

analysis  of  the  Gospel  and  one  of  the  earUest  studies  in  comparative 

religion. 

34.     Social.    Some  Berksiiire  Justices  of  the  Peace  meet  at  Speeniiam- 

land,  declaring  their  conviction  of  the  necessity  of  making  an  allowance 

>ut  of  the  rates  to  every  poor  family  in  proportion  to  its  numbers. 

rhe  *  Speenhamland  Act  of  Parliament '  becomes  very  widely  adopted, 

ind  the  allowance  system  goes  far  to  demoralise  the  working  classes. 

io.    Death.    Boswell. 


>6.     Eng.  Ch.    Watson's  Apology  for  Christianity,  a  reply  to   n^gg 
Paine's  Age  of  Reason,  defends  the  moralitv  of  the  Old  Testa-   »■ 
nent,  but  admits  the  existence  of  errors  and  contradictions  in  reference 
/O  matters  of  fact 

?7.  French  Ch.  Lareveill^re-Lepeaux  inaugurates  the  Theophilan- 
ihropy  movement,  a  creed  natural,  primitive  and  universal,  and  destined 
o  unite  all  sects  and  form  an  Institut  Moral.  It  is  practised  by 
10  churches  in  Paris,  till  forbidden  by  Napoleon,  1802. 

19—2 


292  POLITICS  [1W6 


1443.  France.    BrittaDy  and  La  Vend^  are  pacified  by  Hoche. 
Baboeuf  8  conspiracy,  aided  by  Sylvain  Marshal  and  Buonarotd,  to 

restore  the  constitution  of  1793  and  destroy  the  govemmeiit,  is  detected 
Baboeuf  is  executed. 

Prussia  agrees  to  the  cession  of  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  to  France, 
in  return  for  ecclesiastical  territories  on  the  right  bank,  which  it  hope:* 
to  secularise. 

1444.  Germany.  Jourdan  and  Moreau  enter  Germany,  but  are  forced 
to  re-cross  the  Rhine. 

1445.  Italy.  Bonaparte  receives  the  command  of  the  Italian  annv, 
defeats  the  Austrians  and  Sardinians  at  Montenotte  and  Dego,  compel^ 
the  King  of  Sardinia  to  withdraw  from  the  Coalition  and  to  cede  Savoy 
and  Nice.  He  then  enters  Milan,  expels  the  Austrians  from  Lombanly. 
and  besieges  Mantua,  beating  otF  Austria's  relieving  armies  at  Ca^- 
glione,  Bassano,  and  later  at  Areola. 

1446.  Spain.  At  the  instance  of  Godoy,  Spain  concludes  the  Treaty 
of  San  Ildefonso  with  the  Directory,  feanng  Emrlish  preponderance 
at  sea  (Aug.),  and  declares  war  (Oct.).  The  English  withdraw  finun 
Corsica. 

1447.  Portugal.  A  secret  treaty  is  made  by  France  and  Spain  to  parti- 
tion Portugal,  which  therefore  begs  England  for  aid.  Troops  are  sent 
and  an  invasion  is  prevented. 

1448.  America.  .John  Adams .  defeats  Jefferson  in  the  Presidential 
election  by  three  votes,  and  retains  Washington's  Hamiltonian  adviser^, 
who  intrigue  against  him. 

1449.  West  Indies.  England  takes  Santa  Lucia,  St  Vincent  and 
Grenada. 

1450.  Asia.    England  takes  Ceylon. 


1451.  England.    The  Bank  of  England  suspends  cash  payments.    ri»M 
Admiral  Jervis  defeats  the  Spanish  fleet  off*  Cape  St  Vincent,   ^ 

Nelson  disobeying  orders  and  dashing  in  (Feb.).  Admiral  Duncan  i* 
sent  to  blockade  the  Dutch  in  the  Texel,  while  Lord  Bridport,  at 
Spithead,  is  to  watch  the  French.  The  sailors  at  Spithead  mutiny  f-r 
better  ])ay  and  treatment  (Aj)ril),  and  Howe  is  authorised  by  the 
Admiralty  to  promise  them  justice.  The  sailors  at  the  Xore  aki 
mutiny,  and  demand  to  vote  on  the  management  of  the  ships  in  hattk 
and  are  joined  by  mutineers  in  the  fleet  off*  the  Texel  (May).  The 
mutiny  is  suppressed,  and  the  leailers  hanged  (June).  Dtmcan  defeat* 
the  Dutch  fleet  off*  Cam]>erdown. 

1452.  Germany.  Frederick  William  III.  becomes  King  of  Prussia,  ainl 
detennines  to  remain  neutral  in  the  struggle  with  France. 

1458.  Prance.  The  anti-republican  directors,  Caniot  and  Bartht^lemy. 
are  expelled  by  Augereau.  at  the  bidding  of  Bonaparte  and  the  othi*r 
Directors  (Sept.).  The  elections  are  annulled  in  49  departments,  ami 
the  Directors  are  given  absolute  power. 


1797]  CULTURE  •  293 

S^68,  Eng.  Lit.  Burke's  Letter  to  a  Noble  Lord  replies  to  the  Duke  of 
Bedford's  attack  on  the  OTant  of  a  pension  from  the  Crown. 

Leland's  Shakspere  forgeries  impose  on  Sheridan  and  Kemble,  but 
are  exposed  by  Mafone. 

2269.  Genaan  Lit.  Brockhaus  issues  the  first  edition  of  his  Conver- 
sationslexikon,  or  Cyclopaedia. 

Iffland  becomes  Director  of  the  National  Theatre  at  Berlin. 

2270.  Art.  Goya's  Los  Capriccios,  satirising  the  Government,  society 
and  religion,  are  seized  by  the  Inquisition. 

2271.  Science.  Laplace  s  Exposition  du  Syst^me  du  Monde  enunciates 
the  Nebular  Hypothesis,  probably  in  ignorance  of  the  work  of  Kant. 

Jenner  inoculates  a  ooy  with  cow-pox  as  a  preservative  against 
small-pox. 

2272.  Politics.  De  Bonald's  Pouvoir  Politique  et  Religieux  dans  la 
Soci^t^  Civile  bases  absolutism  on  traditionalism,  and  initiates  the 
speculative  reaction  in  France. 

Joseph  de  Maistre's  Considerations  sur  la  France  advocate  a  royalist 
restoration  and  denounce  the  French  Revolution  as  an  attack  on  religion 
and  society. 

Kant's  Metaphysical  Foundations  of  the  ITieory  of  Right  founds  the 
State  on  the  principle  of  contract,  and  opposes  absolutism  and  extreme 
centralisation. 

Fichte's  Naturrecht,  influenced  by  Kant,  contends  that  the  State 
exists  only  to  carry  out  the  law. 

Burke's  Letters  on  a  Regicide  Peace  subjects  the  different  periods 
and  parties  of  the  Revolution  to  indiscriminate  abuse. 

2273.  Law.  Cambacdr^s  issues  a  Projet  de  Code  Civil,  the  basis  of 
Napoleon's  Code  With  Merlin  de  Douay  he  is  commissioned  to  revise 
all  existing  laws  in  France,  and  publishes  the  Code  Fran9ais,  1797. 

2274.  Deaths     Burns,  Catherine  of  Russia,  Raynal,  Reid. 


2275.  Sng.  Ch.    Wilberforce's  Practical  View  of  the  prevailing   riogw 
reliffious  System  exercises  great  influence  among  Evangelicals.        ^ 

The  Methodist  New  Connexion  leave  the  Wesleyans  owing  to  a 
dispute  in  regard  to  the  position  of  the  laity  and  the  relation  to  the 
Church  of  England. 

2276.  Eng.  Lit.     Giffbrd,  Canning,  Hookham   Frere  and  other  con- 
servatives edit  the  Anti-Jacobin. 

The  works  of  Kotzebue  invade  the  London  stage,  but  are  parodied 
by  Canning  and  Frere  in  The  Rovers 

2277.  French  Lit.     Chateaubriand's  Essai  sur  les  Revolutions  attacks 
the  theory  of  perfectibility. 

2278.  German  Lit    Goethe's  Hermann  und  Dorothea. 
Augustus  Schlegel  and  Tieck's  translation  of  Shakspere. 
Wackeoroder's  Outpourings  of  a  Monk  quickens  the  reaction  to 

romanticism,  and  the  study  of  mediaeval  art. 
Holderlin's  Hyperion. 


294  '  POLITICS  [17S7 

1454.  Italy.  Napoleon  defeats  a  fourth  relieving  army  at  Bivoli  (Jan.). 
takes  Mantua  (Feb.),  and  crosses  the  Alps  to  invade  Austria.  Venice 
rises  behind  him,  and,  fearing  to  be  cut  off,  he  signs  the  Preliminariesf  of 
Leoben,  by  which  Austria  cedes  the  Netherlands  and  piyl  of  Lombiidy 
to  France,  and  recognises  the  Cisalpine  Republic  to  be  formed.  Austria 
is  to  be  indemnified  at  the  expense  of  Venice  (April). 

Napoleon  at  once  declares  war  on  Venice,  abolishes  the  Constitution, 
occupies  the  Ionian  Islands  (which  are  taken  by  Turkey,  1799).  The 
Cisalpine  Republic  is  proclaimed,  consisting  of  Milan,  Modena,  Femn. 
Bologna  and  the  Romagna,  and  Genoa  is  transformed  into  the  Ligumn 
Republic. 

The  Pope  surrenders  Avignon  and  the  Romagna. 

Hoche  advances  into  Germany,  and  Mainz  is  taken. 

1455.  Austria.  The  Peace  of  Campo  Formia  is  signed  (Oct).  Austria 
cedes  Belrium  to  France,  and  receives  Venetia,  as  tar  as  the  Adige,  with 
Istria  and  Dalmatia.  France  retains  the  Ionian  Islands.  By  secret 
articles,  Austria  promises  to  cede  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  from  Bade 
to  Audemach,  including  Mainz,  to  France,  the  princes  who  suffer  by  the 
cession  to  receive  indemnification  in  Germany.  France  is  to  help 
Austria  obtain  Salzburg  and  part  of  Bavaria.  A  Congress  meet*  at 
Rastadt  to  arrange  peac€  with  the  Empire. 

1456.  America.  The  American  Minister  in  Paris  is  expelled,  and 
a  Commission  sent  to  preserve  peace  is  also  ejected. 

1457.  West  Indies.    England  takes  Trinidad  from  Spain. 


1458.  England.  A  tax  of  10  per  cent,  is  imposed  on  incomes  r-^m^ 
over  £200.  ^^'^ 

Fox's  name  is  struck  off  the  list  of  Privy  Councillors,  and  Fox  and 
his  friends  temporarily  withdraw  from  Parliament. 

1459.  Ireland.  The  United  Irishmen  prepare  an  insurrection  ;  but  tlh* 
plot  is  betrayed,  and  Lord  Edward  Fitzgerald  is  arrested.  The  pea^^taDt^i 
rise  in  Wexford  and  massacre  the  Protestants,  but  are  defeated  at 
Vine^'ar  Hill,  near  Wexford,  by  Lake  (June).  1,100  French  troops  land 
(Aug.),  but  are  forced  to  surrender  (Sept.).  Lord  Comwallis  succeeds 
Camden  as  Lord  Lieutenant,  and  attempts  to  suppress  the  cnielty. 
Wolfe  Tone  is  taken  and  commits  suicide. 

1460.  Prance.    Jourdain  intro<luces  conscription. 

1461.  Africa.  The  Directory  urges  Bimaparte  to  attack  England  :  but 
he  ])refers  to  go  to  Egypt,  as  a  starting-point  for  the  creati4in  of  an 
Eastern  Em])ire  and  an  attack  on  the  English  in  India,  with  the  aid  of 
Tippoo.  He  seizes  Malta  from  the  Knights  of  St  John,  lands  in  &Tpt, 
and  defeats  the  Mamelukes  at  the  Battle  of  the  Pyramids  (Julvi. 
Nelson  follows  and  annihilates  the  French  fleet  in  Aboukir  Bay  (Aug.  1). 
Turkey  declares  war  on  France. 

1462.  Italy.  .Joseph  Bonaparte,  the  French  envoy  in  Rome,  provokes 
riots,  and  a  Frencli  general  is  shot  Berthier  seizes  Rome  ;  and  the 
Pope,  who  refuses  to  surrender  the  t^mjwral  power,  is  removed  to  Valence, 


1796]  CULTURE  295 

Gentz*  Open  Letter  to  Frederick  William  III.  King  of  Prussia,  on  his 
accession,  pleads  for  freedom  of  the  Press. 
2279.     Art    Haydn's  The  Creation. 

Girtin  exhibits  in  the  Royal  Academy  and  founds  modern  water- 
colour. 

Cherubini's  Medea. 

Thorwald.sen  settles  in  Rome,  and  becomes  profoundly  influenced 
by  the  spirit  of  Greek  sculpture. 
S2S0.     Science.    Lagrange  s  Th^rie  des  Fonctions  analytiques  rejects 
the  use  of  infinitesimals,  and  founds  the  differential  calculus  on  a  study 
of  algebraic  forms. 

Olbers'  method  of  reckoning  the  path  of  a  comet. 

De  Sanssure's  Recherches  Chimiques  sur  la  V^g^tation  investigates 
vegetable  physiology. 

Bewick's  British  Birds. 

The  Philosophical  Magazine  is  instituted. 

2281.  Fhilosopny.  Schelling's  Philosophy  of  Nature,  a  system  of 
Objective  Idealism,  in  which  the  individual  is  lost  in  the  whole,  separates 
him  from  Fichte.  Though  discarding  exact  science,  Schelling's  teaching 
increases  the  general  interest  for  science,  and  being  applied  by  Oken, 
Krause,  Solger,  Novalis,  SteflFens,  Schubert,  remains  dominant  for  a 
generation. 

Kant's  Metaphysic  of  Morals  declares  the  good-will  the  only  goodness, 
the  categorical  imperative  of  duty  an  ultimate  fact,  and  points  out  the 
duties  involved  in  membership  of  a  community  of  rational  beings. 
ViUers  introduces  Kant's  philosophy  into  France. 

2282.  Education.  Dr  Bell,  after  teacning,  as  Army  Chaplain  in  Madras, 
the  orphans  of  soldiers,  returns  to  England,  publishes  a  Report  on  his 
method,  that  of  pupil  teachers,  and  institutes  schools  of  his  own. 

2283.  Deaths.    Burke,  Hutton,  Horace  Walpole,  Wilkes. 


2284.     Scotch  Ch.    The  Evangelical  leaders,  Robert  and  James   nygg 
Haldane,  invite  Rowland  HiU  to  make  a  preaching  tour  in    ^ 
Scotland. 
228o.     Bng.  Lit.    The  Lyrical  Ballads,  by  Wordsworth  and  Coleridge 
(including  the  Ancient  Mariner),  give  an   immense  impetus  to  the 
romantic  movement  in  England. 

Coleridge  visits  Germany,  and  studies    German    philosophy  and 
literature. 

Joanna  Baillie's  Plays  on  the  Passions. 

Lander's  Gebir. 

Pitt's  Newspaper  Act  forbids  the  export  or  import  of  papers,  and 
demands  the  registration  of  proprietors. 

2286.  German  Lit.    The  Allgemeine  Zeitung  is  founded  at  Augsburg. 
The  Schlegels  edit  the  Athenseum,  and  attack  the  dry,  unmystical 

rationalism  of  Nicolai  and  the  Aufklaning.     The  romantic  movement  is 
aided  by  Kichter,  Tieck,  Brentano,  Arnim,  Novalis. 

2287.  Italian  Lit.    Foscolo's  Jacopo  Ortis,  an  Italian  Werther. 


296  POLITICS  [1T98 

where  he  dies,  1799.     A  Roman  Republic  is  proclaimed,  and  the  King 
of  Naples,  who  marches  on  the  city,  is  defeated. 

1463.  Switzerland.  Intrigues  are  provoked  in  the  Vaud.  Bern  inter- 
venes, and  France  declares  war.  Bern  is  taken,  the  old  Constitution 
abolished,  and  the  Helvetic  Republic  set  up  under  the  control  of  i 
Directory  of  five.  Geneva  is  united  to  France,  and  SwitzerlaDd  is 
forced  to  form  an  alliance. 

1464.  Spain.  Godoy  is  forced  to  resign,  and  the  reforming  party  for 
the  moment  obtains  power. 

England  recaptures  Minorca  without  a  blow. 

1465.  Holland.  The  Dutch  East  India  Company  is  dissolved,  \Xi 
possessions  passing  to  the  Government. 

1466.  Turkey.  Rhegas,  the  author  of  Greek  patriotic  songs,  is  executed 
by  the  Turks. 

1467.  AmericsL  The  'Alien  and  Sedition'  Act«  are  aimed  at  the 
Republicans,  many  of  whom  are  foreigners  and  sympathisers  with 
France.  Naturalisation  is  deferred  from  5  to  14  years,  and  dangerous 
aliens  may  be  expelled.  The  Sedition  Act  imposes  fine  and  imprison- 
ment on  all  who  attack  or  defame  the  Government.  They  are  opposed 
by  Gallatin  and  Jefferson,  who  help  to  draw  up  the  Kentucky  Resolu- 
tions, hinting  that  the  compact  of  the  States  is  not  irrevocable. 

British  Honduras  is  finally  conquered  from  Spain. 


[1799 


1468.  England.  Pitt  forms  the  second  coalition  with  Austria 
and  Russia,  Portugal,  Naples  and  Turkey  (June).  The  Duke  of 
York  leads  an  expedition  to  Holland,  ^ut  capitulates  at  Alkmaar  (Ort). 

1469.  Italy.  The  King  of  Naples  is  expelled  by  the  French,  and  the 
Parthenopean  Republic  is  formed  (Jan.).  The  King  of  Sardinia  and  the 
Duke  of  Tuscany  are  deposed.  Sch^rer,  however,  is  routed  in  N(»rth 
Italy  (April),  Suvorof  takes  Milan,  the  Cisalpine  Republic  collapt«». 
Joubert  is  routed  by  Suvurof  at  Novi  (Aug.),  Rome  is  surrendered 
(Sept.),  the  King  of  Naples  is  restored  with  the  aid  of  Nelson,  and  Italy 
is  for  the  time  lost  to  France. 

The  Society  of  the  Carbonari  is  formed  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples 

1470.  Austria.  To  settle  the  affairs  of  Germany,  Austrian  diplomatistj^ 
attend  the  Congress  of  Rastadt.  The  French  representatives  are 
murdered  on  their  journey  home,  and  fiernadotte,  the  French  aubts- 
sador  at  Vienna,  is  insulted.  The  Directory  declares  war  (March). 
Jourdain  is  defeated  by  the  Archduke  Charles,  and  driven  back  arro# 
the  Rhine  ;  but  Massena  defeats  the  Russians  at  Zurich  (Sept),  Suvonrf 
arriving  from  Italy  too  late  to  aid. 

1471.  AfHca.  Bonaparto  learns  that  a  Turkish  army  is  comiu^if  to 
attack  him,  and  sets  out  to  meet  it.  He  is  baffled  by  the  resistance  of 
the  Turkish  garrison  of  Acre,  aided  in  its  defence  by  Sir  Sidney  Smith 
(March— May).  He  withdraws  to  Egypt,  and  suppresses  the  Mame- 
lukes, who  had  risen.  Hearing  of  events  in  France,  he  leaves  Richer  iu 
command,  and  hurries  back. 


Q]  CULTURE  297 

8.  American  Lit.    Brockden  Brown  s  first  novel,  Wieland. 

9.  Science.  While  engaged  in  the  boring  of  cannon,  Count  Rum- 
Did  discovers  that  heat  is  generated  by  friction,  and  is  not  a  thing, 
cdoric'     He  also  melts  ice  by  friction. 

Oivendish  estimates  the  density  of  the  earth  at  5^  times  that  of 
nter. 

A  tall  of  meteorites  in  India  leads  to  their  study  by  Pictet,  Biot, 
Benselius  and  others. 

Legendre's  Science  des  Nombres  contains  the  law  of  quadratic 
reciprocity  between  any  two  odd  primes,  and  other  theorems. 

Lac^p^e's  Histoire  des  Poissons. 

Rants  Anthropology  hints  at  the  evolution  of  Man  from  a  lower 
animal  stage. 

»0.  Philosophy.  Fichte  is  expelled  from  Jena,  nominally  for  atheism, 
Int  chiefly  owing  to  his  Jacobinism. 

Rchte's  System  of  Morals  according  to  the  Principles  of  the  Science 
of  Knowledge,  declares  obedience  to  the  standard  set  by  conscience, 
without  regard  to  external  authority  or  advantage,  the  only  good. 
29/.  FoliMcB.  Malthus'  Essay  on  Population,  suggested  by  Godwin's 
optimism,  by  his  father  s  liking  for  Rousseau,  and  by  Pitt's  Allowance 
Sjstem.  He  contends  that  population  increases  in  geometrical  and  food 
io  arithmetical  progression,  but  that  population  is  checked  by  misery 
Hid  vice. 

'£^2.  Iaw.  Thibaut  8  Theory  of  Law  asserts  that  history  without 
piiilosopby  cannot  explain  law. 

A3.    Edacation.    Lancaster,  a  Quaker,  unaware  of  Dr  Bell's  experi- 
ment, begins  to  teach  in  Southwark  on  the  Monitor  system. 
39i    Oculography.     Bass    proves    that    Tasmania    is    separate    from 
Anstralia,  thus  completing  the  coast  map. 
95.    DeaXhM.    Galvani,  John  Hunter. 


2W.    Kng.  Ch.    The  Church  Missionary  Society  is  resolved  on    n799 
b^  VeDD,  Wilberforce,  Granville  Sharp,  Mason,  and  is  established    '- 
1801,  with  Thomas  Scott  as  Secretary.     The  Society  first  devotes  its 
ittentioD  to  Sierra  Leone,  Thornton's  colony  for  freed  American  slaves. 
9?.    Oennan  Ch.    Schleiermacher's  Discourses  on  Religion,  strongly 
idlaeoced  by  the  Moravian  Brethren  and  by  Spinoza,  lay  stress  on 
inaid  feeling  and  the  sense  of  personal  dependence  on  God. 
M.    Kn^  Ut.    Campbell's  first  poems,  the  Pleasures  of  Hope. 
B89.    TreDch  Lit.    Laharpe's  Cours  de  Litt^rature  first  offers  a  review 
of  the  entire  development  of  literature  from  the  classical  standpoint. 
W.    Oennan  Lit    Schiller's  Wallenstein  and  Song  of  the  Bell. 

Frederick  Schlegel's  Lucinde  applies  romanticism  to  married  life,  and, 
though  defended  by  Schleiermacher,  is  hotly  attacked. 
W.    Science.    Laplace's  M^anique  Celeste  (1799—1825)  states  and 

rim  methods  for  calculating  the  motions  and  determining  the  figures 
the  planets,  and  resolving  tidal  problems,  and  adds  a  number  of 
tttioQomical  tables. 


298  POLITICS  [ITM 

1472.  France.  Bonaparte  lands  at  Fr^jus  (Oct.),  and  is  warmly  greetei 
He  agrees  with  Si^yes,  now  a  Director,  to  overthrow  the  Directory  od 
18th  Bnimaire  (Nov.  9).  The  members  of  the  Lower  House  are  expelH 
and  the  recalcitrant  Directors  arrested.  Bonaparte  becomes  Fim 
Consul,  with  two  colleagues,  Talleyrand  becomes  Foreign  Minister,  tod 
Fouch^  becomes  Minister  of  Police.  Prefectures  and  sub-prefectoieji 
are  created,  and  the  present  system  of  administrative  centralisation  i* 
introduced.     Taxes  are  fairly  levied  and  collected. 

Bonaparte's  offer  of  peace  to  the  Emperor  and  Greoige  III.  w 
rejected. 

1473.  Germany.  Montgelas  becomes  supreme  in  Bavaria,  and  intro- 
duces Josephine  ideas. 

1474.  America.  Further  Kentucky  resolutions  recommend  the  nnllifi- 
cation  of  all  unauthorised  acts  by  the  States. 

1475.  Asia.  Seringapatam,  Tippoo's  capital,  is  stormed,  and  Tippoo 
slain  (May).  His  territories  are  divided  between  England  and  the 
Nizam.  About  the  same  time,  the  Gamatic  and  the  Principalitv  of 
Taniore  are  placed  under  British  administration,  and  the  Presidency  of 
Madras  obtains  approximately  its  present  form. 


1476.  England.    Malta  is  taken,  after  a  long  sie^  (Sept.).  r^oQQ 
Russia,  Sweden,  and  Denmark  agree  to  resist  the  English   '- 

search  of  neutrals,  and  are  soon  joined  by  Prussia. 

1477.  Ireland.  Despite  the  opposition  of  Grattan  and  the  Nationaliste, 
the  Union  is  carried,  Pitt  having  agreed  to  compensate  owners  of  smte 
with  £15,()00  each  and  distributed  peerages.  Ireland  is  to  return  lOi) 
members,  and  28  peers  are  elected  to  sit  in  the  House  of  Lords  for  life, 
with  four  Bishops.     PVee-Trade  is  established  with  England. 

1478.  Prance.  The  revolt  in  La  Vend^  comes  to  an  end,  and  many 
^mitrrds  are  allowed  to  return. 

The  Bank  of  France  is  founded. 

1479.  Italy.  Genoa  is  forced  to  surrender ;  but  Mass^na  holds  Mebu  at 
bay  till  Napoleon,  w^itli  an  army  collected  at  Dijon,  cro.s8es  the  Alpsaml 
takes  the  Austrian  anny  in  the  flank  at  Marengo  (June  14). 

1480.  Austria.  Moreau  crosses  the  Khine  and  drives  the  Austiiiib 
back  to  Ulm,  but  is  forbidden  by  Napoleon  to  advance.  On  the  arrival 
of  the  news  of  the  battle  of  Marengo,  Moreau  takes  Munich  and  o«- 
cludes  an  armistice.  Austria,  however,  refuses  to  make  peace  apart 
from  England,  and  the  Archduke  Joseph  is  routed  by  Moreau  at  Hohen- 
linden  (Dec),  after  which  another  armistice  is  concluded. 

1481.  Spain.  Godoy  regains  power  and  makes  the  Treaty  of  San 
Ildefonso,  by  which  Spain  restores  Louisiana,  and  Napoleon  secretlj 

t)romises  Tuscany  and  the  title  of  King  to  the  Duke  of  rarma,  son-in- 
aw  of  Charles  IV. 

1482.  America.  An  American  Commission  is  received  by  Napoleon, 
who  declares  the  treaty  of  1778  no  longer  binding,  but  refuses  to  pay 
for  property  seized  before  his  accession. 


1800]  CULTURE  299 

Alexander  Humboldt  sets  out  on  his  five  years'  voyage  of  discovery 
in  America. 

The  Royal  Institution  is  founded  by  Rumford,  Banks  becoming  its 
first  president     Davy  is  chosen  by  Rumford  as  first  lecturer. 

2502.  Science.  Dav}'  rubs  two  pieces  of  ice  together  in  the  vacuum  of 
an  air-pump,  the  temperature  being  kept  below  freezing-point,  and  finds 
that  they  melt,  thus  confirming  Rumford's  opinion  in  regard  to  the 
nature  of  heat. 

2503.  Philosophy.  Herders  Metakritik  hotly  attacks  the  Critical 
Philosophy  of  Kant  and  Fichte,  chiefly  on  the  ground  of  danger  to 
religion. 

2^4^  Politics.  Mackintosh's  Lectures  on  the  Law  of  Nature  and 
Nations  attack  Crodwin,  and  reveal  a  modification  of  his  earlier  opinions 
under  the  influence  of  Burke. 

2^05.  Education.  Fellenberg  founds  a  school  and  farm  at  Hofwyl, 
near  Bern,  to  some  extent  on  Pestalozzi's  lines. 

2S06.  Philology.  The  French  find  a  stone  at  the  Rosetta  mouth  of  the 
Nile,  which  is  taken  with  other  spoil  by  the  English,  containing  in- 
scriptions in  Greek,  Coptic,  and  Hieroplj'phics. 

2S07  Deaths.  Aranda,  Beaumarchais,  black,  Marmontel,  Lord  Mon- 
boddo,  Parini,  Spallanzani,  Washington. 


2308.     Eng.  Ch.  Geddes,  a  Catholic,  declares  that  the  Pentateuch    m  oqa 
wms  not  written  by  Moses,  but  by  several  hands,  and  not  earlier   ^ 
than  the  time  of  David. 

2M9.  Gtorman  Gh.  Schleiermacher  s  Monologues  emphasise  the  ele- 
ment of  freedom  and  personality  in  the  religious  life. 

Count  Stolberg  becomes  a  Catholic,  largely  owing  to  the  influence 
of  Princess  Gallitzin.  His  conversion  is  bitterly  attacked  by  Voss,  but 
is  followed  by  that  of  F.  Schlegel,  Overbeck,  Tieck,  Novalis  and  Werner. 

2310.  American  Gh.  Otterbein  and  Boehm  found  the  United  Brethren 
in  Christ 

2311.  Eng.  Lit.  Wordsworth  prefixes  a  manifesto  of  romanticism  to  the 
second  edition  of  the  Lvrical  Ballads. 

Maria  Edgeworth's  Castle  Rackrent. 

2312.  French  Lit.  Mme  de  Stael's  De  la  Litt^rature  relates  literature 
to  the  manners,  laws,  and  religion  of  the  time. 

Belille  publishes  his  poems,  and  with  Ducis,  Lemercier  and  Lebrun 
leads  the  pseudo-classicists  or  Raciuists. 

2313.  Science.  The  Voltaic  pile  or  batter}'  is  completed.  Two  metals 
pioa  moistore  produce  a  supply  of  electricity  which  is  increased  by  adding 
acid  to  water. 

Hersehel  discovers  that  there  are  infra-red  solar  rays. 
The  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  is  founded. 
231^    Philosophy.     Fichte's  Vocation  of  Man  preaches  the  religion  of 

duty. 
2315.     Philology.    Panduro's  Lenguas  de  las  Xaciones  Conocides  de- 
scribes 300  tongnea 


800  POLITICS  [1800 


Jefferson  is  elected  President,  despite  the  intrigues  of  Hamilton  and 
Burr,  and  the  Federalist  party  wanes.     Madison  becomes  SecreUij, 
Gallatin  Treasurer,  and  John  Marshall  Chief  Justice. 
1483.     Africa.     Kl^ber  defeats  the  Turkish  and  Mameluke  troops  at 
Heliopolis,  but  is  shortly  assassinated. 


1484.  England.  Pitt  proposes  a  measure  for  the  relief  of  Catho-  r^w^^ 
lies,  but  resigns  on  finding  the  King  and  nation  refuse  to  endow  ^ 
the  Irish  Catholic  priests  or  to  admit  Catholics  to  office  or  Parliament 
Addington  succeeds,  with  Pitt's  support,  and  IBldou  becomes  Lord 
Chancellor.  The  King  becomes  insane  for  a  short  time,  and  on  his 
recovery  Pitt  promises  never  to  again  bring  forward  Emancipation. 

The  Nortnern  Confederation  is  treated  as  a  declaration  of  wv. 
The  Danish  and  Swedish  West  India  Islands  are  seized.  A  fleet  is  seDt 
to  break  up  the  confederacy,  and  Nelson  bombards  Copenhagen  and 
forces  Denmark  to  leave  the  League  (April).  The  Tsar  Paul  is  mur- 
dered, and  his  successor,  Alexander,  makes  a  treaty  admitting  the  right 
of  search. 

The  ruling  in  Home  Tooke's  case  establishes  that  clergy  of  the 
Church  of  England  may  not  sit  in  Parliament. 

1485.  France.  The  Emperor  asks  for  peace,  which  is  signed  at  Lan^ 
ville  (Feb.).  France  extends  her  border  to  the  Rhine.  Austria  retaiu 
Venice,  Tuscany  is  given  to  the  son  of  the  Duke  of  Parma,  and  Ferdioaiid 
is  allowed  to  retain  Naples,  on  promising  to  exclude  English  ships.  The 
Cisalpine  and  Ligurian  Republics  are  restored. 

Napoleon  establishes  special  tribunals  in  which  the  majority  b 
nominated  by  himself  The  Tribunate  opposes  this  step,  and  its  recal- 
citrant members  are  expelled.  Taking  advantage  of  an  attempt  oo  hi* 
life  by  a  few  Chouans.  Napoleon  exiles  130  Jacobins. 

1486.  Holland.    The  Batavian  Republic  is  organised. 

1487.  Portugal.  Napoleon  makes  impos.sible  demands,  and  Port^igal 
declares  war  on  Spain,  but  is  defeated  and  sues  for  peace  at  Badajt«. 
ceding  half  Cuiana  to  France,  and  undertaking  to  shut  its  ports  agaiD>t 
England. 

1488.  Russia.  The  Tsar  of  Georgia,  despite  his  former  professions  of 
allegiance  to  Persia,  resigns  his  crown  to  Russia.  His  subjects  itMsX, 
and  Persia  joins  in  the  war.  Persia  recognises  the  cession  of  Georgia, 
1813. 

The  Tsar  Paul,  an  enthusiastic  admirer  of  Napoleon,  is  assassinated, 
and  is  succeeded  by  Alexander,  a  man  of  strong  liberal  sympatkie^ 
which  are  encouraged  by  Adam  Czartoryski.  Speranski  becomes  State 
Secretary,  and  strives  for  reform. 
14K9.  West  Indies.  Toussaint,  once  a  slave,  appointed  to  commaud  the 
anny,  1797,  is  made  President  of  Hayti  for  life,  proclaims  the  ind^ 
pendence  of  the  island,  and  expels  the  French.  Napoleon  re-establu^he» 
slavery,  and  sends  a  large  fleet  and  army. 


1]  CULTURE  301 


Henras,  a  Spanish  Jesuit,  compiles  a  Catalogue  of  Languages, 
iticipating  the  recognition  of  the  Malay  and  Polynesian  family  of 
teech,  and  the  relationship  of  Greek  and  Sanskrit. 
?.  Politics.  Pichte's  Exclusive  Commercial  State  sketches  a  com- 
unity  which  has  no  external  commercial  relations,  in  which  all  must 
ork,  and  where  wagas  and  prices  are  fixed. 

r.     SociaL    The  Combination  Act  forbids   associations,   which    in 
)nsequence  become  secret. 
!^.     Death.    Cowper. 


?.     Eng.  Ch.     Marsh's  dissertation  on  the  origin  of  the  Syn-    ^^oQ^ 

[)tics  is  hotly  attacked.  •■ 

'y.     French  Ch.     A  Concordat  is  made  with  the  Papacy,  the  details 

F  which  are  arranged  by  Talleyrand  and  Consalvi.     Catholicism  is 

KTOgnised  as  the  religion  of  the  nation.     The  State  guarantees  salaries 

ad  chooses  the  bishops,  whom  the  Pope  confirms.     The  clergy  are 

tiosen  by  the  bishops  but  confirmed  by  the  State.    A  few  bishops  refuse 

)  recognise  the  Concordat  and  fonn  La  Petite  E^lise,  which  lasts  over 

alf  a  centur}'.     P^re  Delpuits  forms  the  Congregation. 

/.     American  Ch.    The  Episcopal  Church  adopts  the  39  Articles. 

;?.     Eng.  Lit.    Southey's  Tbalaba  introduces  onentalism. 

3,     French  Lit.     Chateaubriand's  Atala  inaugurates  the  Catholic 

jvival. 

i.    Art.    The  French  expedition  to  Egypt  leads  to  the  study  of 

igy^tian  art. 

Boieldieu's  Caliphe  de  Bagdad. 
5.     Science.    Young  confirms  Huyghen's  emission  theory,  discovers 
be  'interference  of  light,*  and  declares  the  original  colours  to  be  red, 
ellow,  and  blue,  but  later  asserts  that  red,  green,  and  violet  are  the 
riginals. 

Lamarck's  Organisation  of  Living  Bodies  explains  the  development 
f  an  animal  in  response  to  new  needs,  and  asserts  that  such  develop- 
[lents  become  hereaitary. 

BerthoUet's  Lois  de  rAflfinit^  investigates  salts. 

Bichat's  Anatomic  G^n^rale  appliqu^e  k  la  Physiologic  et  h  la 
if^ecine,  influenced  by  the  Vitalist  school,  reduces  the  structure  of 
iving  beings  to  simple  tissues,  the  character  of  the  disease  varying  with 
he  tissues  attacked. 

Gauss's  Disquisitiones  Arithmetical  introduce  a  new  notation  and 
aethods  of  analysis,  and  discuss  the  theory  of  numbers. 

Piazzi  discovers  a  planet,  Ceres,  revolving  between  Mars  and  Jupiter. 
)lber8  discovers  another,  Pallas,  at  nearly  the  same  distance  from  the 
un  as  Ceres. 

?^.     Philosophy.    Destutt  de  Tracy's  fil^mens  d' Ideologic  develope 
iie  ideas  of  ConcUllac. 

Schelling  and  Hegel  found  the  Critical  Journal  of  Philosophy  for 
)he  discussion  of  the  philosophy  of  Identity. 


802  POLITICS  [1801 

1490.  America.  Napoleon  obtains  an  extension  of  French  Guiana  from 
Portugal. 

1491.  Africa.  Abercromby  lands  in  Egypt,  and  defeats  the  French 
outside  Alexandria  (Aug.).  The  French  army  agrees  to  evacuate  the 
country,  and  Egypt  is  restored  to  the  Porte. 


1492.  England.    By  the  Treaty  of  Amiens,  England  abandons   r^gM 
her  colonial  conquests  except  Ceylon  and  Trinidad,  surrenders   '• 
Malta  to  the  Knights,  restores  Minorca  to  Spain,  and  drops  the  rojil 
title  of  France  (March). 

Napoleon  agrees  to  evacuate  the  Sicilies  and  the  Papal  State!!t, 
Portugal,  and  Egypt. 

Napoleon  vainly  demands  restrictions  on  the  English  press  and  the 
dismissal  of  FVench  persons  obnoxious  to  him. 

1493.  France.  Napoleon  organises  a  plebiscite,  which  confers  on  lib 
the  Consulate  for  life,  with  i)ower  to  nominate  his  successor.  The 
Tribunate  is  reduced  to  impotence,  and  the  Senate  is  allowed  to  meet 
only  by  his  summons. 

Napoleon  institutes  the  Legion  of  Honour. 

1494.  Italy.  Piedmont,  Parma,  Piacenza  and  Elba  are  annexed  to 
France  (Aug. — Oct.),  and  Napoleon  is  nominated  President  of  the 
Italian  republics.  His  deputy,  Melzi,  introduces  many  reforms  and 
governs  with  conspicuous  success. 

1495.  Austria.  Gentz  enters  the  Austrian  service  and  writes  a  series) 
of  pamphlets  exhorting  to  war  against  France  and  the  Revolution. 

1496.  Russia.     Alexander  creates  eight  ministers. 

1497.  West  Indies.  Moreau's  array  is  sent  to  San  Domingo.  Toussaint 
is  kidnapped  and  sent  to  France  as  a  prisoner.  Next  year,  however,  an 
insurrection  takes  place,  and  the  French  retire. 

1498.  Asia.  By  the  Treaty  of  Bassein,  the  Peshwa  surrenders  his  inde- 
pendence to  the  East  India  Company,  in  return  for  help  against  Holkar. 
Sindhia  and  the  Rajah  of  Nagpur  join  Holkar  against  the  English 


1499.  England.  Fearing  French  designs  on  E^'pt,  England  r^AQ3 
refuses  to  give  up  Malta,  and  demands  the  evacuation  of  Holland  *■ 
and  Switzerland.  Napoleon  is  angered  by  the  attacks  of  Peltier,  anJ 
insults  Whitworth,  the  English  envoy  (March).  England  declares  wir 
(May).  Nanoleon  seizes  1(),()00  English  travellers,  occupies  Hanover, 
despite  the  Treaty  of  Basle,  and  leads  an  army  to  Boulogne. 

1500.  Ireland.  Encouraged  by  France,  Emmett  revolts  in  Dublin,  bnt 
is  arrested  and  executed. 

1501.  Germany.  The  redistribution  agreed  on  at  the  Treaty  rf 
Lundville  takes  place.  The  ecclesiastical  states  are  secularised,  nomi- 
nally to  compensate  the  princes  who  suffer  by  the  cession  of  the  left 
bank  of  the  Khine  to  France  ;  but  the  princes  who  profit  most  are  thn* 
of  Pnissia,  Bavaria,  Baden,  Wiirtemburg  and  Hanover.  Forty-four  citiw 
of  the  Empire  are  suppressed,  Hamburg,  Lubeck,  Bremen,  Frankfort. 


18Q2]  CULTURE  303 


1^27,     Law.     Anselm    Feuerbach's    German    (criminal   Law  dominates 

theory  and  practice  for  half  a  century. 
iS28,     Social.    The  first  Census  is  taken  in  England. 

The  first  Greneral  Enclosure  Act  passes. 
2S29.    Deaths.    Lavater,  Rivarol,  Suvorof. 


2550,  Eng.  Ch.  Paley's  Natural  Theology  developes  the  argu-  no^n 
ment  from  design.  1-^^^ 

Bishop  Milner's  End  of  Religious  Controversy,  a  defence  of  Catho- 
licism. 

2551,  French  Ch.  The  Concordat  is  promulgated,  and  with  it  the 
Organic  Articles  which  have  not  been  discussed  by  the  Pope.  No  bull 
nor  legate  may  enter  France  and  no  synod  be  held  without  the  consent 
of  the  Government;  the  Articles  of  1682  must  be  accepted,  and  the 
Council  of  State  constitutes  the  court  of  appeal  in  case  of  abuses.  The 
Protestant  clergy  are  recognised  and  paid. 

Chateaubriand's  G^nie  du  Christianisme  defends  Catholicism  from 
the  emotional  and  the  aesthetic  standpoint. 

2552,  Asiatic  Ch.  England  first  interferes  with  religion  in  India  by 
forbidding  the  sacrifice  of  children  at  a  festival. 

2SSS,     Eng.  Lit.    The  Edinburgh  Review  is  founded  to  support  Whig 

Erinciples  by  Sydney  Smith,  Brougham,  Horner  and  Jeffrey,  the  latter 
eing  appointed  Editor. 

Coboett  edits  the  Political  Register. 

2334.  Science.  Treviranus  declares  that  all  creatures  are  modified 
by  circumstances,  and  that  one  species  transfonns  into  another. 

Davy  finds  that  he  can  take  a  photograph,  but  cannot  prevent  it 
fading  away. 

Herschel  discovers  that  some  double  stars  revolve  round  one 
another. 

Wollaston  observes  seven  dark  lines  in  the  Solar  Spectnim. 

The  tug  'Charlotte  Dundas'  is  tried  on  the  Forth  and  Clyde 
canaL 

2335.  Philosophy.  Schelling's  Esthetic  declares  that  each  living  unit, 
in  developing  its  life,  carries  out  the  type  of  the  species  to  which  it 
belong 

2336.  Law.    Bentham's  Civil  and  Penal  Legislation. 
Noah  Webster's  Rights  of  Neutrals. 

2337.  Education.  Dorpat  University,  which  has  ceased  to  exist  since 
the  wars  of  Peter  the  Great,  is  restored. 

2338.  Philology.    Porson  edits  the  Hecuba. 

2339.  Social.  Telford  constructs  roads  in  Scotland.  Macadam  intro- 
duces angular  granite  fragments,  1815. 

The  first  Factory  Act  is  passed  by  Sir  Robert  Peel  to  protect 
apprentices  in  the  cotton  trade. 
2Sj^.    Death.    Bichat. 


304  POLITICS  [1808 

Augsburg,  Nuremberg  alone  remaining.  The  College  of  Electors  is 
increased  from  8  to  10  ;  the  Electorates  of  Trier  and  Cologne  are 
suppressed,  and  new  ones  are  created  for  Baden,  ^iirtemburg,  SaUmi]^ 
and  Hesse-Cassel.  Mainz  alone  remains  an  eccIesiastioEd  Electorate. 
In  the  Chamber  of  Princes,  the  votes  are  reduced  from  100  to  82.  of 
which  the  Protestants  form  a  majority.  The  power  of  the  Emperor  in 
the  Diet  almost  disappears. 

1502.  Italy.     The  French  enter  Naples. 

1503.  Spain.  Spain  agrees  to  pay  monthly  subsidies  to  France,  and  is 
allowed  to  remain  neutral. 

1504.  Switzerland.  The  Federalists  and  Centralists  quarrel,  the 
Helvetic  Constitution  falls,  and  a  French  army  enters  the  country.  By 
the  Act  of  Mediation,  the  federal  power  is  weakened,  and  the  cantonal 
rights  restored.  F'eudalism,  liowever,  is  not  revived.  Six  new  cantoD!» 
are  added  (Vaud,  Aargau,  Thurgau,  Ticino,  St  Gall,  and  the  Gri^msl 
Napoleon  is  recognised  as  Mediator.  He  retains  Geneva  as  part  of 
France,  and  establishes  the  independent  republic  of  the  Valais. 

1505.  Austria.  The  Emperor  obtains  the  secularised  possessions  of  the 
bishoprics  of  Trent  and  Brixen  ;  but  Salzburg  and  the  Breisgau  are 
given  to  the  Dukes  of  Tuscany  and  Modena,  m  compensation  for  the 
loss  of  their  Italian  principalities. 

1506.  America.  Napoleon  sells  Louisiana,  the  territory  between  the 
Mississippi  and  the  Rocky  Mountains,  for  £3,000,000.  The  Fede- 
ralists oppose  the  ratification,  as  not  contemplated  by  the  Constitution, 
and  propose  the  secession  of  the  Federalist  states. 

British  Guiana  is  finally  taken  from  the  Dutch. 

1507.  West  Indies.    England  takes  Tobago  and  St  Lucia  from  France. 

1508.  AfWca.  The  Cai)e  uf  Good  Hope  is  restored  to  the  Dutch,  but  m 
recaptured,  1806. 

1509.  Asia.  Arthur  Wellesley  defeats  Sindhia,  the  Mahratta  chief,  at 
Assaye  (Sept.),  and  Lake  crushes  him  at  Laswaree,  and  captures  DelhL 
Sindhia  and  the  Rajah  of  Berar  submit,  and  surrender  temtor}'. 


1510.  England.     Addingt4)n  resigns,  and  Pitt  returns  to  power,    rigiu 

1511.  Prance.     A  plot  against  Napoleon,  arranged  by  Cadoudal,    ^ 

a  Chouan,  Pichegru,  and  the  Count  of  Artois,  with  the  sympathr  i^ 
Moreau.  is  discovered  (Feb.).  Naj)oleon  seizes  the  Duke  of  Enj^« 
near  Strassburg,  though  not  jmvy  to  the  plot,  and  has  him  shot  »t 
Vincennes.  Picliegru  and  Cadoudal  are  executed,  and  More.au  banished 
for  life  to  America.     Napf)le()n  tjikes  advantage  of  the  plot  to  make 


Austria. 
1514.     Portugal.     Napoleon  allows  Portugal  to  buy  neutrality. 


:]  CULTURE  306 


.    Irish  Gh.    Castlereagh  increases  the  Regium  Donum  to    riono 
e8b3rterians.  L 

Eng.    Lit.    John    Murray  sets  up  a    publishing    business    in 
ndon. 

French  Lit.    'fhe  Institute  is  reorganised  by  Napoleon,  the 
ad^mie  des  Sciences  Morales  et  Politiques  being  suppressed. 

German  Lit.    Tieck's  collection  of  Minnelieder  stimulates  the 
idy  of  old  German  Literature. 

Henrietta  Herz  loses  her  money,  and  the  place  of  her  salon  in 
rlin  is  taken  by  that  of  Rahel  Levin. 

Greek  Lit,     Korais'  Present  Condition  of  Civilisation  in  Greece 
lis  attention  to  the  country. 

Science.     Poisson's  Traits  de  M^canique. 
Camot's  Geometric  de  Position, 

Art.     Beethoven's  Fidelio. 
Crome  gathers  the  artists  of  Norwich,  Stark,  Vincent,  B.  Crome, 
d  others,  into  a  society,  and  organises  an  annual  exhibition. 

Philosophy.     Maine  de  Biran's  M^moires  sur  THabitude  initiates 
i  reaction  against  materialism. 

Politics.    The  second  edition  of  Malthus'  Principles  of  Popula- 
n  adds  moral  restraint  to  the  list  of  checks. 

Economics.    Say's  Traits  d'  Economie  Politique  systematises 
i  ideas  of  Adam  Smith. 

Social.    Johnson  invents  a  dressing-machine. 
Deaths.    Samuel  Adams,  Alfieri,  Campomanes,  Herder. 


Eng.  Ch.  The  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  is  moa^ 
mded.  J- 

Scotch  Ch.    The  Synod  of  Lawrencekirk  signs  the  39  Articles. 

French  Ch.  Napoleon  dissolves  the  congregation  of  Fathers  of 
5  Faith,  restores  the  laws  against  perpetual  vows,  forbids  the  forma- 
D  of  associations  without  his  approval,  and  demands  the  presentation 
the  statutes 'of  existing  Orders  for  the  inspection  of  the  Council  of 
ite. 

French  Lit.    Senancour's  Obermann. 

Eng.  Lit.  William  Blackwood  sets  up  a  publisher's  business  in 
inburgh. 

Oerman  Lit.  Jean  Paul  Richter's  Flegeljahre  greatly  influences 
)  Romantics. 

Art.  The  Water  Colour  Society  is  founded  by  seceders  from  the 
yal  Academy. 

Science.    The  first  engine  to  draw  carriages  is  constructed. 

Poinsot's  Elements  de  Statique. 
Jomini's  Grandes  Operations  Militaires. 

Philosophy.  Kiause's  Plan  of  a  System  of  Philosophy  explains 
heory  of  the  All  not  as  God  but  in  God,  i.e.,  panentheism. 

3.  20 


306  POLITICS  [UM 

1515.  Russia.  Alexander  demands  the  evacuation  of  Hanover  and 
Naples,  breaks  off  diplomatic  relations  with  France,  in  conseqaenoe 
of  the  death  of  Enghien,  and  makes  a  preliminary  agreement  with 
Austria. 

1516.  America.  The  Twelfth  Amendment  is  carried,  by  which  the 
electors  vote  for  the  President  and  Vice-President  in  separate  ballots. 

1517.  Australasia.  Hobart  is  founded  as  the  capital  of  Tasmania,  and 
the  inhabitants  of  Norfolk  Island  are  transferred  to  it. 

1518.  Asia.  Holkar  annihilates  an  English  force  in  the  MakundraPa». 
but  is  defeated  in  the  following  year. 


1519.  England.  A  motion  by  Grenville  and  Fox  to  consider  rigQc 
Catholic  disabilities  is  rejected.  ^ 

Dundas,  Lord  Melville,  is  impeached  for  peculation. 

1520.  Austria.  A  third  coalition  against  France  is  formed  bv  £ngUo<i 
and  Russia,  and  joined  by  Austria  and  Sweden  (April).  Prussia  remains 
neutral. 

The  defeat  of  a  French  and  Spanish  fleet  in  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  bj 
Calder  (July),  leads  Napoleon  to  transfer  his  army  from  Boulogne  to 
the  Danube.  He  compels  Mack  to  capitulate  at  Ulm  (Oct.),  ent^n 
Vienna  (Nov.),  and  defeats  the  Russians  and  Austrians  at  Austerlitx 
(Dec.  2).  Francis  signs  the  Treaty  of  Pressburg,  abandoning  Venetii, 
Istria,  Dalmatia,  and  Cattaro  to  the  Italian  kingdom,  the  Voraribeig 
and  the  Tyrol  to  Bavaria,  and  Outer  Austria  to  Baden  and  Wiirt^mbeijt 
The  nilers  of  Bavaria  and  Wiirtemberg  receive  the  title  of  king,  and, 
with  Baden,  are  declared  independent  of  the  Emperor. 

1521.  Prance.  On  the  day  after  Mack's  capitulation.  Nelson  destn»T< 
the  French  and  Spanish  fleets  at  Trafalgar  (Oct.  21). 

1522.  Italy.  Napoleon  crowns  himself  King  of  Ital)'  (May),  join.**  Panni 
and  Piacenza  to  the  Italian  kingdom,  annexes  Genoa,  and  grants  Lut-ca 
to  his  sister  Eliza.     Eugene  Beauharnais  is  appointed  viceroy. 

1523.  Germany.  Prussia,  which  had  allied  with  Austria  (Nov.),  h 
compelled  by  Napoleon,  after  the  battle  of  Austerlitz,  to  cede  Neuchitd 
and  tlie  remainder  of  Cleves  to  France,  and  Anspach  to  Bavaria.  Phlssi 
receives  Hanover  provisionally,  and  promises  to  exclude  English  vessel 
from  tlie  North  Sea  harbours. 

1524.  America.  Pitt  proliibits  American  trade  to  the  West  Indies: 
vessels  are  seized,  and  war  is  in  all  but  name  declared. 

1525.  West  Indies.  The  French  and  Spanish  fleets  £eu1  to  take 
Dominica. 


1526.  England.  Pitt  dies  (Jan.),  and  the  Ministry  of  All  the  r^^ 
Talents  is  formed  under  Grenville.  ^ 

1527.  Italy.  Ferdinand  is  ejected  by  a  French  army,  and  Josepk 
Napoleon  becomes  King  of  Naples,  the  English  fleet  holding  Sicily  for 
Ferdinand  (March). 

1528.  Austria.  Francis  is  compelled  to  abandon  the  title  of  Holy 
Roman  Emperor.     The  Holy  Roman  Empire  comes  to  an  end. 


M]  CULTURE  307 

Brown's  Relation  of  Cause  and  Effect  declares  the  relation  to  be  one 
of  antecedence  and  sequence,  but  admits  an  intuitive  belief  in  the 
pennanence  and  universality  of  the  causal  connection. 
^,  Economics.  Lauderdale's  Nature  and  Origin  of  Public  Wealth 
tttteks  Smith's  account  of  value,  and  condemns  the  importance  attached 
to  saving. 

^S.  Law.  The  Code  Civil,  inspired  by  Bentham's  Theory  of  Legisla- 
tioD,  b^un  by  the  Constituent  and  Convention,  is  issued.  Compiled 
chiefly  by  Tronchet,  Portalis,  Cambacdr^s,  and,  to  some  degree,  by 
N^leon  himself,  from  Roman  law,  royal  ordinances,  customs,  the 
teaching  of  the  great  French  jurists,  and  the  legislation  of  the  Revolu- 
tionaiy  period,  the  Code  is  rapidly  adopted  by  many  countries  in 
Europe  and  America. 
tS4.    Deaths.    Alexander  Hamilton,  Kant,  Necker,  Priestley. 


fiS5.    Eng.  Ijit.    Scott's  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel.  ri805 

Gary  translates  Dante's  Inferno.  '■ 

^,  <%iirch  Hist.  The  Pope  is  allowed  by  Napoleon  to  return  to 
Itily ;  but  on  being  crowned,  Napoleon  refuses  to  respect  the  Concordat 
concluded  with  the  Cisalpine  Republic  1803,  and  occupies  Ancona  on 
tbe  Pope's  refusal  to  divorce  his  brother  Jerome. 

K7.  nench  Lit.  Chateaubriand's  Ren^  may  be  said  to  inaugurate 
tbe  period  of  romanticism  in  French  literature. 

K$.    Danish    Lit.    Chlenschlager    meets    Stefiens,  fresh    from    the 
inihience  of  Schelling,  bums  his  old  verses,  and  founds  romanticism  by 
bis  tragedy  of  Hakon  Jarl. 
IS9.    Art.    David's  Coronation  of  Napoleon. 

Paganini  begins  his  violin  tours. 

Pye,  'the  father  of  landscape  engraving,'  begins  to  engrave  for 
Tomer. 

fiO,  Scifince.  Monde's  Application  de  TAlg^bre  k  la  Gdom^trie  helps 
to  create  modem  synthetic  geometry. 

Akxander  Humboldt  and  Bonpland's  Essai  sur  la  G^ographie  des 
Phntesw 

til.    Pliilology.    Colebrooke's   Essay  on  the  Vedas,  the  first  critical 
enouDation  to  which  they  are  subjected,  introduces  the  period  of  the 
Kieiitific  study  of  oriental  literatures  and  religions. 
Ti.    Nmnimiatics.    Lord  Liverpool's  Coins  of  the  Realm. 
Si-i,    Law.    Zacharise's  Key  to  Law  attempts  to  found  on  the  mles 
of  grammar  and  logic  a  system  of  interpretation  applicable  to  all 
ffstems  of  law. 
I7i    Deaths.    Greuze,  Schiller. 


ttS,    nrench  Ch.    Napoleon  convokes  a  Sanhedrim,  to  which    viqqq 
be  jRitg  Questions  relative  to  military  service  and  other  duties  of  >- 
otoeitthip,  and  establishes  a  consistorial  organisation  for  the  Jews  of 
Fmnce.    The  State  commences  to  pay  the  Rabbis,  1831. 

20—2 


308     *  pouncs  [1808 

1529.  Germany.  Napoleon  unites  Bavaria,  Wiirtembuiv,  Maim,  Baden 
and  eight  lesser  principalities,  into  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  under 
his  patronage  and  control,  with  Dalberg  as  Prince-Primate  (July).  In 
the  next  three  years,  16  other  members  join.  The  German  Knights  are 
abolished,  and  their  territories  annexed  to  the  larger  states.  Serfdom 
and  other  feudal  abuses  are  suppressed. 

Napoleon  forms  Berg  (taken  from  Bavaria)  and  (Aleves  into  the 
Grand  Duchy  of  Berg,  which  he  gives  to  his  brotner-in-law  Murat 

Prussia  is  compelled  by  Napoleon  to  definitely  accept  Hanover,  in 
consequence  of  which  England  declares  war  (April).  Napoleon  next 
offers  to  restore  Hanover  to  England,  and  war  is  therefore  declared  bjr 
Prussia  (Oct.).  A  new  coalition  is  formed  by  England,  Prussia,  Ruaai 
and  Saxony  ;  but  the  Pnissian  armies  under  Hohenlohe  and  Brunswick 
are  destroyed  at  Jena  and  Auerstadt  (Oct.  14),  and  Berlin  is  occupied 
Hesse-Cassel  and  Brunswick  are  formed  into  the  kingdom  of  WestptuJii. 
Saxony  enters  the  Oonfederation  of  the  Rhine,  promises  20,000  men  to 
Napoleon,  and  obtains  the  royal  title. 

The  Berlin  Decrees  close  all  European  ports  under  Napoleous 
influence  against  English  commerce.  AU  British  ports  are  declared  is 
a  state  of  blockade,  and  all  goods  coming  from  England  or  her  colonie 
are  to  be  destroyed. 

1530.  Holland.  The  Grand  Pensionary  Schimmelpenninck  is  depneed, 
and  Louis  Bonaparte  and  Hortense  Beauhamais  are  crowned  King  and 
Queen. 

^531.    Denmark.    Holstein  is  taken. 

1532.  Turkey.  The  Servians  revolt  under  Kara  George,  owing  to  the 
refusal  of  the  Sultan  to  garrison  the  forts  with  native  troops. 

France  conquers  the  republic  of  Ragusa. 

1533.  America.     Miranda  fails  to  raise  a  revolt  in  Venezuela. 
Popham    takes    Buenos  Ayres,   but   is  quickly  expelled   bv  the 

Spaniards  and  censured.     A  further  expedition  is  sent  to  attack  (liili 

1534.  Asia.  Ranjit  Singh,  ruler  of  the  Sikhs,  makes  a  treaty  with  the 
English,  and  peace  is  maintained  till  his  death,  1839. 


1535.  England.  The  first  series  of  Orders  in  Council  is  issued  nttw 
(Jan.).  P*' 

The  King  expels  Grenville  for  not  promising  never  to  propose  con- 
cessions to  the  Catholics.  Portland  succeeds,  with  Canning  as  ¥owp 
Secretary. 

Cardinal  Henry  of  York,  the  last  male  in  the  direct  line  of  the 
Stuarts,  dies. 

1536.  Germany.  Schanihorst  reforms  the  Prussian  Army,  and  Stein* 
Emancinating  Edict,  based  on  the  report  of  a  commission  appointed  ly 
Hardenberg.  declares  serfs  free  after  1810,  establishes  free  trade  in  bni 
and  opens  all  occupations  to  all  classes. 

1537.  Prance.  Frederick  William  renews  the  struggle  with  RoMtn 
aid,  but  is  defeated  at  Eylau  (Feb.  8).  By  the  T^-eaty  of  Bartemton. 
Russia,  Prussia  and  Sweden  agree  to  carry  on  the  war  till  a  satiafiictoix 


1807]  CULTURE  309 


2S76.  German  Ch.  De  Wette's  Contributions  to  an  Introduction  to 
the  Old  Testament  declares  Deuteronomy  to  be  a  late  priestly  summary 
of  law,  and  Chronicles  a  late  priestly  recast  of  early  history.  The 
other  books  of  the  Old  Testament  are  successively  investigated,  and 
the  legendary  character  of  most  of  the  miraculous  narratives  is 
assertel. 

Stolberg's  Church  Historj-,  a  Catholic  counterpart  to  the  work  of 
Milner,  presents  an  apologia  for  the  Catholic  Church. 

2377,  Asiatic  Ch.  Buchanan,  a  Bengal  chaplain,  urges  an  Ecclesias- 
tical Establishment  for  India.  The  plan  is  supix)rted  by  Lord  Teign- 
mouth  and  other  Evangelicals  in  England,  but  is  attacked  by  most 
Anglo-Indians. 

2578.  Eng.  Lit.  Mrs  Hutehinson's  Memoirs  of  the  Great  Civil  War 
are  published. 

2579.  German  Lit.  Arnim's  and  Brentauo's  The  Boy's  Wonder- horn, 
a  collection  of  popular  songs,  begins  the  second  or  mediaevalist  genera- 
tion of  romantics. 

Amdt's  Spirit  of  the  Age  attacks  Napoleon  and  the  French  influence, 
and  attempts  to  create  the  spirit  of  nationality. 

2580.  Science.    Latreille*s  Genera  Cnistaceonim  et  Insectorum. 
Davy  discovers  pota.ssium  and  sodium  by  electrolysis. 

Poisson  discusses  the  question  of  the  stabilitj'  of  the  planetary 
orbits. 
238  1,  Art.  BelFs  Anatomy  and  Philosophy  of  Expression  as  connected 
with  the  Fine  Arts  investigates  the  relations  net  ween  feeling  and 
muscular  movements,  and  recommends  the  artist  to  keep  close  to  reality 
instead  of  seeking  ideals  in  his  own  mind. 

2382,  Philology.  Adelung's  Mithridates,  a  history  of  languages  and 
dialects. 

2383,  History.     Lysons'  Magna  Britannia. 

2384,  Education.  Herbart,  who  has  had  practical  experience  of 
teaching,  introduces  Psychology  into  the  theory  of  Education,  em- 
phasises 'apperception/  or  the  combination  of  perception  with  memor}% 
and  points  out  how  education  should  make  for  moral  ends. 

2385,  Social.  Hauy  founds  an  Institute  for  teaching  the  blind  by 
means  of  touch. 

2386,  Deaths.     Fox,  Princess  Gallitzin. 


2387.  Eng.   Ch.    Wilberforce,   Thornton,   Sir  James   Stephen,    ngQ^ 
Lord  Teignmouth,  Granville  Sharp  and  other  Evangelicals  gather   ^ 
round  John  Venn,  Rector  of  Clapham,  and  form  the  Clapham  Sect. 

2388.  German  Ch.     Schleiermacher  maintains  that  the  First  Epistle  to 
Timothy  was  not  written  by  Paul. 

2389.  Axnerican  Ch.    The  first  Conference  is  held  of  the  Evangelical 
Association,  founded  by  Jacob  Albright 

2390.  Asiatic  Ch.    The  organisation  of  Thugs,  a  society  for  the  com- 
mission of  mnrders,  becomes  known. 


310  POLITICS  [1807 

arrangement  is  made  (April).  The  Russians  and  Prussians,  however, 
are  defeated  at  Friedland  (June  14),  and  Napoleon  and  the  Tsar  meet 
at  Tilsit,  where  a  treaty  is  signed  (July).  Napoleon  forms  West  Prussis 
into  a  kingdom,  Westphalia,  for  his  brother  Jerome,  and  grants  Prussian 
Poland  as  the  *  Grand  Duchy  of  Warsaw  *  to  the  Kinff  of  Saxony.  Etst 
Frisia  is  given  to  Holland.  The  Confederation  of  the  Rhine  is  to 
include  all  German  States  but  Austria  and  Prussia.  Prussia  is  forced 
to  support  French  garrisons.  Russia  cedes  the  Ionian  Islands  and  pin 
of  Dalmatia,  and,  by  secret  clauses,  accepts  the  blockade  and  is  to  be 
allowed  to  conquer  Finland  from  Sweden  and  is  allowed  to  tiy  and 
obtain  Moldavia  aud  Wallachia  from  Turkey.  Russia  declares  war  od 
Endaiid  (Nov.),  which  retaliates  by  a  second  series  of  Orders  in  Council, 
declaring  all  ports  of  France  and  her  allies  in  a  state  of  blockade,  and 
vessels  prize  unless  they  touch  at  a  British  port  (Nov.).  To  this 
Napoleon  replies  by  the  Milan  Decree,  declaring  all  neutral  vessel* 
liable  to  seizure  if  they  touch  at  a  British  port  (Dec.). 
The  Tribunate  is  suppressed. 

1538.  Denmark.  Canning  learns  that  Napoleon  is  about  to  seize  the 
Danish  fleet,  aud  use  it  against  England.  He  therefore  boxubaids 
Copenhagen,  seizes  the  fleet,  and  takes  Heligoland  (Sept.). 

1539.  Portugal.  Napoleon  agrees  with  Spain  to  partition  Portugal 
which  alone  refuses  the  Continental  System.  Junot  invades  Portugal 
and  occupies  Lisbon,  the  royal  family,  on  the  advice  of  Eogiaiii 
escaping  to  Brazil  (Nov.). 

1540.  America.  Burr,  who  has  planned  an  Empire  in  Texas  or  Mexico. 
is  tried  for  treason,  but  acquitted  by  Marshall. 

The  American  frigate,  Chesapeake,  is  fired  on  and  boarded  bv  an 
English  ship.  Jefferson  therefore  lays  an  embargo  on  all  vessels  in 
American  ports.     Napoleon  retaliates  by  the  Bayonne  Decree,  1808. 

Whitelocke  fails  to  recover  Buenos  Ay  res. 

1541.  Africa.  Sierra  Leone  and  Gambia  are  organised  as  English  Oown 
Colonies. 


1542.  Prance.     Napoleon  and  Alexander  meet  at  Erftirt  (Oct.),   r^ggg 
and  Napoleon  confirms  the  promise  of  Moldavia  and  Wallachia.    '■ 
Alexander  promises  aid  against  Austria,  in  the  event  of  war.    After  the 
conference.  Napoleon  hurries  off  to  Spain. 

1543.  Italy.  French  troops  occupy  Rome,  the  Pope  liaviug  refused  w 
recognise  the  King  of  Naples  and  the  French  bishops,  and  to  cloee  hi* 
ports  to  England. 

1544.  Russia.    Speranski,  a  Liberal,  becomes  supreme. 

Russia  invades  Finland,  at  this  time  a  possession  of  Sweden.    An 
English  army  is  sent  to  Stockholm,  but  achieves  nothing. 

1545.  Spain.  A  mob  rises  against  Godov,  and  Charles  abdicates  in 
favour  of  his  son,  Ferdinand  VII.,  but  quickly  withdraws  his  abdicitioiL 
Father  and  son  api)eal  to  Napoleon,  who  forces  both  to  abdicate 
Napoleon  appoints  his  brother  Joseph  king,  and  sends  Murat  to  snooeed 
him  at  Naples.     A  French  army,  however,  under  Dupont,  is  finted  to 


1808]  CULTURE  311 

^91,     Eng.  Lit.    Wordsworth's  Ode  on  the  Intimations  of  Immortality. 

Moore's  Irish  Melodies. 

Charles  and  Mary  Lamb's  Tales  from  Shakespeare. 

Crabbe's  Parish  Register. 
2S92.     Prench  Lit.    Mme  de  Stael's  Corinne. 

2393.  Oerman  Lit.    Hagen  edits  the  first  correct  text  of  the  Nibel- 
uugen  Lied. 

2394.  Art.    Prud'hon's  Justice  and  Vengeance  Pursuing  Crime. 
Turner* s  Liber  Studiorum. 

M^hul's  Joseph. 

2395.  Science.  Fulton  builds  a  steamboat,  the  Clermont,  in  which  he 
sails  up  the  Hudson. 

Sommering  constructs  an  electric  telegraph  by  means  of  the  Voltaic 
pile. 

2396.  Philosophy.  Fries'  New  Critique  of  Reason  developes  the  ideas 
of  Kant,  and  insists  on  psychology  as  the  basis  of  all  metaphysics. 

Hegel's  Phenomenology  of  Spirit  finally  jmrts  from  Schelling  by 
vindicating  the  power  of  consciousness  and  reflection  to  rise  to  the 
absolute  standpoint.  The  conditions  through  which  the  individual  and 
humanity  pass  before  they  arrive  at  absolute  knowledge  are  traced  by 
means  of  a  dialectic,  borrowed  in  part  from  Fichte. 

2397.  History.     Wilken's  History  of  the  Crusades. 
Sismondi's  History  of  the  Italian  Republics  \i\  the  Middle  Age. 

2398.  Social.  The  slave  trade  is  forbidden  in  English  dominions, 
largely  owing  to  the  Clapham  Sect,  aided  by  Brougham,  Wilberforce, 
Clarkson,  Zachary  Macaulay. 

2399.  Death.    Paoli. 


2400.  German  Ch.    Sulpiz  Boisser^e  begins  to  agitate  for  the    moao 
completion  of  Cologne  Cathedral,  and  excites  interest  in  mediaeval    ^ 
art 

2401.  Spanish  Ch.  Napoleon  abolishes  the  Inquisition,  suppresses  most 
of  the  monasteries  and  forces  the  clergy  to  profess  Gallican  principles. 

2402.  Italian  Ch.     Napoleon  abolishes  the  Inquisition. 

2403.  Eng.  Lit.  The  Quarterly  Review  is  founded  by  Scott,  Lockhart, 
Gifford,  Southey  and  other  Tories,  in  order  to  counteract  the  Whiggism 
of  the  Edinburgh  Review. 

Leigh  Hunt  edits  the  Examiner,  an  organ  of  the  Opposition,  and  is 
imprisoned  for  a  'libel'  on  the  Prince  Regent,  1811. 

Scott's  Marmion. 

Sidney  Smith's  Peter  Plymley's  Letters  attack  the  disabilities 
imposed  on  Catholics,  and  exert  a  very  wide  influence  throughout  the 
country. 

Lamb's  Specimens  of  the  English  Dramatists  first  interpret  the 
Elizabethans. 

Grabb  Robinson  is  sent  by  the  '  Times'  to  the  Peninsular  Campaign 
as  Special  Correspondent. 

2404.  Oerman  Lit    Goethe's  Faust,  part  I. 


312  POLITICS  [180B 

ft 

capitulate  at  Baylen  (July).  Joseph  flies  from  Madrid,  and  the  amy 
retreats  behind  the  Ebro.  Napoleon  enters  Spain,  and  retakes  Madrid 
(Dec).  Sir  John  Moore,  who  nas  advanced  towards  Borgos  to  aid  the 
Spaniards,  learns  that  Napoleon  has  joined  Soult  and  is  marching 
against  him,  and  in  consequence  retreats. 

1546.  Portugal.  On  the  news  of  the  rising  in  Sjiain,  the  Portuguese 
revolt  and  appeal  to  England  for  aid.  Wellesley  is  sent  to  Portuj»l, 
and  defeats  Junot  at  Vimiera  (Auff.  21),  but  is  superseded.  By  the 
Convention  of  CSntra,  Junot  is  allowed  to  return  with  his  army  to 
France. 

1547.  Germany.    Stein  reorganises  the  Prussian  municipalities. 
Napoleon  is  compelled  by  the  Spanish  war  to  reeiol  his  army  of 

occupation,  and  therefore  forces  Prussia  to  dismiss  Stein,  to  limit  its 
army  to  42,000,  and  to  promise  16,000  men  in  the  event  of  a  war  with 
Austria  (Sept.). 

The  Tugendbund  is  instituted,  but,  despite  its  undertaking  to  sToid 
politics,  is  disapproved  by  Stein,  and  dissolved  1809. 

1548.  America.  The  importation  of  slaves  into  the  United  States  i:^ 
prohibited. 


1549.  England.  Burdett's  motion  for  reform  (the  first  since  r^e^ 
1797),  is  lost.  ^  ^"^ 

Castlereagh  forms  a  coalition  with  Austria  (April),  and  sends  in 
expedition  to  take  Antwerp.  Flushing  is  taken,  but  disputes  arise,  and 
fever  ravages  the  army  left  in  the  Isle  of  Walcheren.  Canning, 
Castlereagh  and  Portland  resign,  and  Perceval  becomes  Prime  Minist^. 

1550.  Italy.  Napoleon  annexes  the  Papal  States.  The  Pope  refuse?  to 
recognise  the  annexation,  excommunicates  its  author,  and  is  impriA>Ded 
in  Savona. 

1551.  Austria.  Napoleon  is  recalled  from  Spain  by  the  news  that 
Austria  has  declared  war  on  Bavaria,  and  that  the  T^rolese  {leasanti^. 
under  Hofer,  have  risen  (May).  Russia  declares  war  against  Au^trii. 
Napoleon  fails  to  cross  the  banube  at  Aspem  (May),  out  crosses  by 
night  on  rafts  and  defeats  the  Austrians  at  Wagram  (July  5 — 6).  The 
Treaty  of  Vienna  gives  Napoleon  the  Illyrian  Provinces,  cedes  the  Tyn^l 
and  Salzburg  to  Bavaria,  West  Galicia  and  Cracow  to  the  Duchy  of 
Warsaw,  East  Galicia  to  Russia  and  Bohemia,  and  the  iiosse^sioD!*  in 
Lusatia  to  Saxony  (Oct.). 

Stadion  and  the  Archduke  Charles  retire,  and  Mettemich  becomes 
Chancellor. 

1552.  Portugal.  Soult  overtakes  Moore's  army,  for  which  the  tran^ipori? 
have  not  arrived,  at  Corunna,  but  is  defeated  (Jan.  16).  Moore  is  killed, 
but  his  army  is  safely  removed. 

Wellesley  is  restored  to  command,  and  defeats  Soult  at  Oporto  iihI 
Victor  at  Talavera  (July).  The  Spanish  army,  however,  gives  no  aid, 
and  Wellesley  is  obliged  to  fall  back. 


1809]  CULTURE  313 

2405.  Science.    Malus  discovers  the  polarisation  of  light  by  reflection. 
Dalton  explains  the  law  of  constant,  definite  and  mnltiple  propor- 
tions, and  weighs  the  elements.     The  atomic  theory  is  accepted  by 
French  chemist^,  but  is  rejected  by  Davy. 

Cuvier  and  Brongniart  publish  their  investigations  on  the  basin  of 
the  Seine,  and  found  stratigraphical  geology. 

Gay-Lussac  discovers  the  laws  of  the  combinations  of  gases  by 
volume. 

Wilson's  American  Ornithology. 

2406.  Philosophy.  James  Mill  makes  the  acquaintance  of  Bentham, 
of  whom  he  becomes  an  interpreter. 

2407.  Politics.  Fourier's  Th^orie  des  Quatre  Mouvements  advocates 
the  removal  of  restraints  and  the  creation  of  communities  or 
Phalanges. 

Fichte's  Addresses  to  the  German  Nation  lay  stress  on  Education, 
and  broach  the  idea  of  national  unity  under  Prussian  headship. 

2408.  Education.  The  Royal  Lancastrian  Institution  for  promoting 
the  education  of  the  Poor,  afterwards  the  British  and  Foreign  School 
Society,  is  formed. 

Napoleon  institutes  the  University  of  France. 

2409.  Philology.  F.  Schlegel's  Language  and  Wisdom  of  the  Indians 
suggests  the  relationship  of  Sanskrit  with  European  languages. 

2410.  Law.    Eichhorn*s  History  of  German  Law  and  Institutions. 
2411-     SociaL     Romilly  agitates  for  the  reduction  of  the  list  of  capital 

offences. 
2412.    Deaths.    Florida  Blanca,  Porson. 


241s,     French  Ch.    The  Pope  refuses  institution  to  Napoleon's   ngQg 
bishopt.  '■ 

2414,  Italian   Ch.     The  French  Omcordat  is  extended  to  Italy. 

2415,  German   Ch.    Tschokke's  Hours  of  Meditation  revive   Evan- 
gelicalism in  Germany. 

2416,  American  Ch.    Elizabeth  Seton  (converted  to  Catholicism  during 
a  tour  in  Italy,  1804)  founds  the  Sisters  of  Charity  of  St  Joseph. 

2417,  Eng.  Lit.     Byron's  English  Bards  and  Scotch  Reviewers  replies 
to  an  attack  in  the  Edinburgh  Review  on  his  Hours  of  Idleness. 

Coleridge  edits  The  Friend. 

Hannah  More's  Coelebs  in  Search  of  a  Wife,  a  treatise  on  the 
education  of  young  women. 

Campbell's  Gertrude  of  Wyoming. 

2418,  French  Lit.     Chateaubriand's  Les  Martyrs  marks  the  beginning 
of  the  historical  novel. 

2419,  German  Lit.    Goethe's  Elective  Affinities. 

August  Schl^el's  Lectures  on  Dramatic  Art  and  Literature  intro- 
duce modem  principles  of  literary  criticism. 

2420,  Rnssian  Lit.    KrilofTs  Fables. 

2421,  American  Lit.    Washington  Irving  s  Knickerbocker's  History  of 
New  York. 


314  POLITICS  [180» 


1553.  Sweden.  Finland  and  part  of  West  Bothnia  are  surrendered  to 
Russia,  Finland  being  guaranteed  a  separate  Diet  and  army.  Charles 
recognises  Bernadotte  as  his  heir. 

1554.  Russia.  Russia  begins  a  war  for  the  conquest  of  Wallachia  and 
Moldavia  (April),  and  gains  several  victories. 

1555.  America.  The  embargo  is  removed,  except  in  regard  to  Fnnce 
and  England,  from  which  countries  no  goods  are  to  be  imported. 

An  attempted  revolt  in  Mexico  is  suppressed. 

1556.  West  Indies.    England  takes  Martinique  and  Guadeloupe. 


1557.  England.  Grattan's  motion  for  the  relief  of  Catholics  is  r^g^Q 
rejected.  ^ 

Burdett  is  sent  to  the  Tower  by  the  House  of  Commons  for  contempt, 
and  riots  take  place. 

The  King  loses  his  reason,  which  he  never  recovers. 

Nathan  Meyer  Rotlischild,  of  Frankfurt,  assists  the  Englifch  Govern- 
ment with  a  loan,  and  founds  the  world-wide  influence  of  ms  house. 

1558.  France.  Napoleon,  who  has  divorced  Josephine,  1809,  marries 
Marie  Louise,  daughter  of  the  Emperor  of  Austria.  13  out  of  26 
Cardinals  in  Paris  absent  themselves  from  the  religious  ceremony. 

Napoleon  annexes  the  Valais. 

1559.  Holland.  Louis  Bonaparte  resigns,  refusing  to  ruin  the  coantir 
by  enforcing  the  Continental  System,  and  Holland  is  incorporated  with 
France,  on  the  ground  that  it  is  *  the  alluvial  deposit  of  French  rivers.' 

1560.  Germany.  The  coast  of  North  Germany,  including  Hambuig 
and  most  of  the  Hause  Towns  and  the  Duchy  of  Oldenburg,  is  annexed 
and  the  Elbe  and  Weser  are  closed  against  England. 

Hardenberg  founds  a  National  Bank,  secularises  Chureh  lands,  and 
reforms  taxation. 

1561.  Austria.     Ilofer  is  captured  and  shot  at  Mantua. 

1562.  Spain.  The  French  troops  ovemin  the  Peninsula;  but  the 
attempt  to  capture  (^adiz,  whither  the  Cortes  are  summoned,  failsw 

1563.  Portugal.  Masst^na  captures  Ciudad  Rodrigo  (July),  but  i* 
defeated  by  Wellington  at  Busaco  (Sept.).  Wellington  entrenches  him- 
self for  the  winter  behind  lines  at  Torres  Vedras,  extending  from  the 
Tagus  to  the  sea,  which  Mass^na  does  not  attempt  to  force. 

By  the  mediation  of  Russia,  the  Treaty  of  Paris  is  concluded  with 
France. 

1564.  Sweden.  Sweden  ioins  the  Continental  System,  and  obtains  the 
restoration  of  Swedish  romerania  (Jan.).  In  the  autumn,  Sweden 
declares  war  against  England. 

1565.  Russia.  Angered  by  the  ejection  of  his  kinsman,  the  Pake  of 
Oldenberg,  by  the  cession  of  Galicia  to  the  Duchy  of  Warsaw,  and  br 
the  Austrian  marriage,  Alexander  deserts  the  Continental  System. 


1810]  CULTURE  315 

2422,  Science.    Gauss'  Theoria  Motus  Corporum  Caelestium  improves 

f>ractical  astronomy,  and  introduces  the  principle  of  curvilinear  tnangu- 
ation. 

Maclure's  Geological  Survey  of  the  United  States. 
Camot's  Defense  des  Places  Fortes. 

2423,  Philosophy.  Oken*s  Text-book  of  the  Philosophy  of  Nature 
declares  the  classes  of  animals  a  representation  of  the  sense-organs,  and 
must  be  arranged  in  accordance  with  them. 

2424,  Politics.  Adam  Miiller's  Art  of  Politics,  influeuceil  by  Burke, 
violently  attacks  the  ideas  of  the  French  Revolution,  declares  the 
State  organic,  and  exalts  the  position  of  the  executive. 

De  Maistre*8  Principe  G^nerateur  des  Constitutions  Politiques 
declares  that  all  political  institutions  are  divine.  The  rights  of  the 
ruler  and  aristocracy  liave  no  known  author ;  those  of  the  people  are 
concessions  from  the  other  classes.  No  nation  therefore  can  obtain 
liberty  if  it  does  not  possess  it. 
2420.  Economics.  Ricardo  denounces  the  over-issue  of  paper-money 
in  his  High  Price  of  Bullion. 

2426.  Social.  Restrictions  on  the  English  cloth  trade  are  removed,  as 
the  manufacture  is  now  carried  on  chiefly  under  the  factor}'  system  and 
trade-marks  have  become  a  guarantee. 

2427.  Death.    Johannes  v.  Miiller. 


2428.  Eng.  Ch.    Bishop  Milner*s  Elucidation  of  the  Veto  opposes    mqiq 
the  claim  of  the  Government  to  exercise  a  veto  on  the  ap-    '■ 
pointment  of  Catholic  Bishops,  a  claim  approved  of  by  Butler  and  other 
Catholics. 

2429,  German  Ch.  Paulus  offers  natural  explanations  of  the 
miracles. 

24SO.  Swiss  Ch.  The  members  of  Zinzendorf's  circle  in  Geneva  form 
a  Soci^t^  des  Amis  and  begin  a  revival  of  Protestantism.  C^sar 
Malan,  Fr^^ric  Monod  and  Haldane  join  the  movement  and  preach 
Justification  by  Faith.  The  revivalists  are  attacked  by  the  Calvinist 
clergy,  and  the  Church  of  Le  T^moignage  is  founded  1820. 

2431.  American  Ch.  The  'Cumberland  Presbytery'  leaves  the  Presby- 
terian Church,  owing  to  its  rejection  of  the  Calvinist  view  of  reprobation. 

24S2,  French  Lit.  Mme  de  Stael's  L'AUemagne  introduces  the  know- 
ledge of  German  philosophv  and  literature. 

24SS.  Gtonnan  Lit.  Perthes  edits  the  Vaterlandisches  Museum,  to 
which  almost  every  distinguished  writer  and  thinker  in  Germany 
contributes. 

2434.  Swedish  Lit.  Atterboom  founds  the  Phosphorus  to  introduce 
romanticism  and  combat  foreign  influences. 

2435.  Roaaian  Lit.  Jukovski  intitxluces  romanticism  in  his  ballad 
Ludmila. 

2436.  Art.  Overbeck  settles  in  Rome,  is  joined  by  Cornelius,  Schadow 
and  Veit,  and  later  by  Schnorr,  Fuhrich  and  Steinle,  and  revives 
Catholic  art    The  painters  are  named  '  Nazarenes.' 


316  POLITICS  [IMO 

On  the  suggestion  of  Speranskiy  the  Council  of  State  is  refonned, 
and  is  divided  into  the  three  departments  of  Legislation,  Finance  tod 
Church  and  Civil  Administration,  which  examine  ministerial  projects  of 
laws.     Speranski  begins  to  be  fiercely  attacked,  and  Calls,  1812. 

1566.  America.  Napoleon's  Rambouillet  decree  orders  the  sale  of  all 
American  vessels  that  have  been  seized  for  violating  the  French  decrees. 
Madison  now  declares  that  if  England  or  France  revoke  its  decrees,  the 
United  States  will  prohibit  trade  with  the  other.  The  French  decrees 
are  accordingly  revoked,  and  a  non-importation  act  is  enforced  against 
England. 

Harrison  crushes  Tecumseh's  confederation  of  tribes  on  the  Tippe- 
canoe River. 

Mexico,  Argentina.  Chili  and  Upper  Peru  refuse  to  acknowledge 
Joseph  Bonaparte. 

Miranda  proclaims  a  Republic  in  Venezuela  and  New  Granada  or 
Columbia.  He  aims  at  a  federation  of  the  South  American  Colonies,  bat 
jealousies  arise,  and  he  capitulates,  1812,  and  dies  in  prison. 

1567.  Africa.    England  takes  Mauritius  and  the  lie  de  Bourbon. 


1568.  England.  The  Prince  of  Wales  becomes  Regent  by  a  Bill  m««i 
modelled  on  that  of  1 788.  •• 

1569.  Prance.  A  son  is  bom  to  Napoleon,  and  receives  the  title  of 
King  of  Rome. 

1570.  Spain.  Wellington  defeats  Mass^na  at  Fuentes  d*()non>  and 
tjikes  Almeida.  Beresford  defeats  Soult,  who  is  hastening  to  the  relit?f 
of  Badajos,  at  Albnera  (May  16),  but  fails  to  take  Badajos. 

1571.  Italy.  Lord  William  Bentinck,  British  Envoy  Kxtraordinar}' aud 
Commander,  rules  Sicily. 

1572.  Sweden.     The  Continental  System  ceases  to  be  strictly  observeii 

1573.  Germany.  Pnissia  negotiates  with  Napoleon  for  a  reduction  ^ 
her  contribution  and  the  removal  of  the  restriction  of  her  army  to 
42,000  men. 

Hardenberg  creates  peasant  proprietorship  in  Prussia,  giving  the 
peasants  absolute  possession  of  two-thirds  of  tneir  holdings,  the  remaiii- 
mg  third  passing  to  the  lord  as  compensation.  Representative  assemblies 
come  into  existence  for  a  few^  years. 

1574.  Austria.  After  fifty  years  preparation,  the  Civil  Code  comes  into 
force  throughout  the  Empire,  except  in  Hungary. 

1575.  Russia.  Karamsin's  Memoir  on  Old  and  New  Russia  prot^te 
against  any  deviation  from  the  traditional  autocratic  system. 

1576.  Turkey.  The  Russians  take  Belgrade;  and  a  Turkish  annr 
which  crosses  the  Danube  is  made  captive. 

1577.  America.     Paraguay  declares  its  independence  of  Spain. 

An  engagement  takes  place  between  an  American  and  a  British  skipi 


1811]  CULTURE  317 

2437,     Science.    Davy  discovers  that  chloriDe  is  a  simple  body. 

Robert  Brown  applies  the  natural  system  of  the  Jussieus  to  his 
specimens  collected  in  Van  Diemen's  Land  and  New  Holland. 

Goethe's  Theor}'  of  Colours  asserts  that  yelli»w  is  light  seen  through 
a  thickened  medium,  blue  is  darkness  seen  through  an  illuminated 
medium. 

Berzelius  investigates  the  proportions  and  weights  of  atoms. 
(jsU  and  Spurzheim  declare  psychology  a  branch  of  biology,  and 
assign  definite  functions  to  definite  organs  of  the  brain.     The  doctrines 
of  phrenology  are  attacked  by  Flourens,  Majendie,  Wagner  and  other 
physiologists. 

Hahnemann's  Organon  of  Therapeutics  founds  Homoeopathy. 
243s.     FhiloBOi^y.    Royer-Collard  becomes  Profe.ssor  of  Philosophy  at 

the  Sorbonne,  and  introiluces  the  ideas  of  Reid  into  France. 
^jf'i^.     Politics.    Stahl's  Philosophy  of  Law  from  a  historical  standpoint 

makes  the  State  the  picture  of  the  absolute  life  or  G04I. 
2440.     Philology.    Creuzer's  Symbolism  of  the  Ancients   pronounces 
classical  myths  to  be  borrowed  from  Eg}'pt  and  India. 
Sylvestre  de  Sacy*s  Arabic  Grammar. 
244^'     Education.    Berlin  University  is  founded  on  the  plans  of  Wolf, 
Fichte,  Schleiermacher  and  Wilhelm  v.  Humboldt. 

W.  v.   Humboldt,  Prussian   Minister  of  Education,   introduces  a 
matriculation  before  entering  the  university  and  an  examination  of 
candidates  for  teaching,  and  undertakes  a  reform  of  the  Gymnasien, 
which  is  continued  by  Schulze. 
244^'    Oeography.    Maltebrun's  G^ographie  Universelle. 
244^3,    Deaths.    Cavendish,  Queen  Louisa  of  Pnissia. 


2444^  Eng.  Ch.  The  Welsh  Calvinistic  Methodists  leave  the  r^g^^ 
Ghnrch.  ^ 

244^.  French  Ch.  Napoleon  calls  a  Council  in  Paris  to  sanction 
a  project  for  the  institution  of  Bishops.  Most  of  the  members,  yielding 
to  intimidation  or  promises,  approve  the  project,  subject  to  the  Pope's 
approval  The  Pope  approves,  with  a  few  trifling  restrictions;  but 
Napoleon  refuses  the  Papal  brief  and  dissolves  the  Council. 

2446.  American  Ch.  Hobart  becomes  Bishop  of  New  York,  and 
fitrengthena  the  Episcopal  Church  by  his  loyalty  to  the  Republic. 

2447'    Eng.  Lit.    Jane  Austen's  Sense  and  Sensibility. 

Coleridge's  Lectures  on  Shakespeare  and  Hazlitt's  Characters  of 
Shakespeare  introduce  the  aesthetic  study  of  the  dramas. 

244^.  Norwegian  Lit.  Christiania  University  is  founded,  and  stimu- 
lates the  growth  of  a  national  literature. 

2449.     Oerman  Lit    Goethe's  autobiographical  Truth  and  Poetry. 
Fouqn^'s  Undine. 


318  POLITICS  [1811 

1578.  Africa.     Mehemet  Ali,  Pasha  of  Egypt,  destroys  the  Mamelukes. 

1579.  Asia.    Lord  Minto  takes  Java^  of  which  Stamford  Raffles  becomes 
GoverDor. 


1580.  England.    Grattan  carries  the  second  reading  of  a  BiU  rvm 
for  Catholic  relief ;  but  admission  to  Parliament  is  lost  in  Com-  '• 
mittee. 

Perceval  is  murdered,  and  Liverpool  becomes  Prime  Minister,  with 
Castlereagh  Foreign  Secretary,  Sidmouth  Home  Secretaiy,  Palmerstoo 
Secretary  at  War,  and  Peel  Secretary  for  Ireland. 

1581.  Germany.  Prussia  promises  aid  in  a  Russian  war  and  a  passage 
for  French  troops  through  her  territories,  and  joins  the  Continenul 
System  (Feb.).  Schamhorst,  Gneisenau  and  other  nationalists  resign 
in  disgust. 

1582.  Sweden.  Bemadotte  secretly  allies  with  Russia,  promising  t4> 
effect  a  diversion  in  North  Germany,  with  Russian  aid,  and  renounoDg 
his  claim  to  Finland  in  return  for  an  indemnity  and  a  promise  of  Norvij 
(April).     The  alliance  is  joined  by  England  (July). 

1583.  Russia.  Stratford  Canning  persuades  Turkey  to  make  theTrettj 
of  Bucharest,  by  which  Russia  gains  part  of  Bessarabia  and  Moldavia, 
and  becomes  free  for  the  French  war  (May). 

Napoleon  re-establishes  the  Polish  kingdom,  despite  the  stipulation 
of  the  Treaty  of  Tilsit,  and  the  Poles  warmly  espouse  his  cause.  He 
crosses  the  Niemen  with  an  army  of  nearly  500,000  men,  including 
contingents  from  all  countries  subject  to  him  (June  24),  storms  Smolea<k 
(Aug.),  drives  back  the  Russians  at  Borodino  (Sept.  7)  and  enters 
Moscow  (Sept.  14),  which  is  deserted  and  set  on  fire  by  Rostopchin.  in 
governor.  Owing  to  the  climate,  the  lack  of  provisions  and  the 
shrinkage  of  his  army,  Napoleon  sets  out  on  his  return  (Oct.  19)  with 
only  100,000  men,  and  wins  a  fierce  battle  at  Jaroslavetz  (Oct.  24).  Tlie 
frost  begins  (Nov.  6),  and  20,000  cross  the  Beresina  under  heavy  fire 
(Nov.  27).  At  this  point  the  retreat  becomes  a  rout,  and  Napoleoo 
hurries  back  to  Paris  on  news  of  the  plot  of  Malet.  The  survivors  crris* 
the  Niemen  (Dee.  13),  about  250,000  having  perished  in  the  camniign. 

General  Yorck,  the  commander  of  the  Prussian  contingent  in  French 
service,  concludes  the  Convention  of  Tauroggen  with  Russia,  by  which 
he  undertakes  to  remain  neutral  (Dec.  30). 

1584.  Turkey.  The  Treaty  of  Bucharest  leaves  Turkey  free  to  invide 
Servia,  which,  after  nine  years  struggle  for  independence,  is  subdued.  \ 
second  revolt  breaks  out  under  Milosch  Obrenovitch,  1815. 

1585.  Spain.  Wellington  storms  Oiudad  Rodrigo  (Jan.),  and  Badajo?. 
which  bar  his  entry  into  Spain  (April),  routs  Marmont  at  Salamanca 
(July  22),  and  enters  Madrid.  The  French  armies,  however,  leave  the 
south  and  compel  Wellington,  who  fails  to  take  Burgos,  to  retire  to 
Portugal. 

The  Cortes  issue  a  constitution,  framed  on  French  models,  with 
a  single  assembly  and  limited  monarchy,  free  press,  abolition  of  feudal 
rights,  and  confiscation  of  Church  lands.  Gatnolicism,  however,  is  pro- 
claimed the  only  true  religion. 


1812]  CULTURE  319 

2^50.    Eksience.    Bell  distinguishes  sensory  and  motor  nerves. 

Avogadro  founds  the  mechanical  theory  of  gases,  proving  that  equal 
volumes  of  gases  under  the  same  conditions  of  temperature  and 
pressure  contain  the  same  number  of  molecules. 

Arago  discovers  that  double  refraction  is  possessed  by  the  smallest 
plates  of  a  crystal. 

Oppel  first  satisfactorily  classifies  reptiles. 
Cnevreul  investigates  oils,  soap  and  other  fatty  bodies. 
Leslie  investigates  heat-rays,  out  finds  no  affinity  between  radiant 
heat  and  light. 
2^51,    Art.     Thorwaldsen  sculptures  the  Procession  of  Alexander  the 

Great,  commissioned  by  Napoleon  for  the  Quirinal. 
2^52,    Philology.    Boeckh,   a    pupil    of   Wolf,  becomes    Professor  of 
Classical  Philology  at  Berlin. 

Rask,  a  Dane,  compiles  an  Icelandic  Grammar. 
2i5S,    Education.    The  National  Society  for  educating  the  Poor  in  the 
Principles  of  the  Established  Church  is  founded  by  Joshua  Watson, 
Marsh,  Archbishop  Sutton,  and  other  churchmen. 
i|5i    History.     jNiebuhr  s  History  of  Rome. 
£|>5.    Economics.    The  Bullion  Committee  of  the  Commons  vainly 

nrge  the  resumption  of  cash  payments. 
2^.    Social.    Believing  that  mechanical  inventions  diminish  oppor- 
tunities of  employment  and  reduce  wages,  many  working  men,  who  are 
mekiuuned  Luddites,  destroy  machinery  in  the  Yorkshire  towns. 
m.    Deaths.    Karl  Friedrich  of  Baden,  Kleist. 


^^.    Eng.  Ch.    The  Act  of  Wilham  III.  against  Non-Triui-    r^gj^ 

tariana,  and  the  Conventicle  and  Five-Mile  Acts  are  repealed.       >- 
^59.   Snssian  Ch.    The  Tsar  founds  a  Bible  Society,  which,  however, 

ii  SQppreBsed  by  his  successor. 
^J,    Eng.  Lit    Byron's  Childe  Harold,  Cantos  1—2. 
James  and  Horace  Smith's  Rejected  Addresses. 
Landor^s  Count  Julian. 
^1.    Oerman  Lit.    Grimm's  Fairy  Tales. 
^2.    Eteience.    Laplace's  Th^rie  Analytique  des  Probabilit^s. 

John  Herschel,  Peacock   and    Babbage  introduce  the  anal3rtical 
methods  in  use  on  the  Continent. 

Cavier's  Recherches  sur  les  Ossements  Fossiles  des  Quadruples 
(muds  palaeontology. 

Hennr  Bell's  steam-boat,  the  Comet,  plies  on  the  Clyde. 
^.    FhUosophy.    Hegel's  Logic  unfolds  the  logical  genesis  of  the 
Ahsolate,  which  is  conceived  as  a  spiritual  and  self-conscious  principle> 
bjr  meaQB  of  a  dialectic. 
^i    Philology.    6esenius'  Hebrew  and  Chaldaic  Dictionary. 


320  POLITICS  [18U 

1586.  Hungary.    The  Diet  is  dissolved,  the  Emperor  promising  to  call 
it  again  within  three  years. 

1587.  America.    Louisiana  is  admitted  to  the  Union  as  a  slave  state 
Exasperated  by  the  Orders  in  Council  and  by  the  search  for  deserter, 

the  United  States  declare  war  against  England.     American  privat^rs 
do  considerable  damage  ;  but  an  attack  on  Canada  is  repulsed. 


1588.  Spain.    Wellington  routs  Joseph  at  Vittoria  (June  21),  Mgja 
and  Soult  at  the  battle  of  the  Pyrenees,  storms  St  Sebastian  and  '- 
takes  Pampeluna. 

1589.  Germany.  The  King  of  Prussia  annuls  the  Convention  of 
Tauroggen  and  condemns  lorck.  On  his  own  responsibility,  Stein 
summons  a  Diet  at  Kiinigsberg  (Feb.),  which  decrees  a  levy  in  anns  of 
the  whole  population  against  France.  The  King,  finding  his  hand 
forced,  makes  the  Treaty  of  KaUsch  with  the  Tsar,  who  promises  to 
restore  Prussia  to  her  position  before  the  battle  of  Jena  (Feb.).  Frederick 
William  -declares  war  (March),  but  Napoleon,  with  an  army  of  young 
reoniits,  defeats  the  Russians  and  Prussians  at  Lutzen  and  BautKD 
(May),  and  is  joined  by  troops  from  Denmark  and  Saxony.  He  mikes 
an  armistice,  hoping  to  win  over  Austria.  Mettemich,  however,  agrees 
with  Prussia,  by  the  secret  Treaty  of  Keichenbach,  to  mediate,  aM,  if 
rebuffed,  to  declare  war  against  France  (June).  His  demands  ire 
refused,  and,  on  receiving  a  large  English  subsidy,  he  declares  wir 
(Aug.).  Oudinot  is  defeated  by  Bemadotte  and  Macdonald  by  Blocher, 
and,  after  Napoleon's  victory  at  Dresden  (Aug.),  Vandamme  d^itolites 
to  Russia  at  Culm,  and  Ney  is  crushed  by  Bemadotte  (Sept).  By  the 
Treaty  of  Toplitz,  Austria  and  Prussia  confirm  their  alliance  and  agree 
to  recognise  the  nilers  of  S.  and  W.  Germany.  Bavaria  ioins  the 
allies,  \mo  rout  Napoleon  at  Leipsic  (Oct.  16 — 19),  where  tne  Saxon 
troops  desert.  The  French  are  driven  across  the  Rhine,  and  the  Con- 
federation of  the  Rhine  dissolves.  From  the  camp  at  Frankfort,  terms 
are  offered  to  Napoleon,  leaving  him  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  but  ire 
refused  (Dec),  otein  induces  the  Tsar  to  break  oflF  negotiations,  and 
the  Austrian  armies  enter  France  through  Switzerland. 

1590.  Italy.     On  the  news  of  the  battle  of  Leipsdc,  Italy  rises  and 
Eugt^ne  Beauharnais  is  defeated  by  the  Austrians  (Oct.). 

1591.  Holland.     On  the  news  of  the  battle  of  Leipsic,  the  French  ire 
expelled,  and  the  son  of  the  former  Stadtholder  is  restored  as  William  L 

1592.  Denmark.    Denmark  is  forced  to  abandon  the  French  alliance, 
and  Norway  is  ceded  to  Sweden.     Heligoland  is  ceded  to  England. 

1593.  Switzerland.     The  Constitution  of  1803  is  abolished. 

1594.  Montenegro.     British  and  Montenegrin  forces  take  Cattaro  from 
the  French  ;  but  Russia  agrees  with  Austria  to  take  and  keep  it 

1595.  Russia.    By  the  Peace  of  Uulistan,  Persia  cedes  Shirvan  ami 
Russia  gains  access  to  the  Caspian. 

1596.  America.     The  English  are  defeated  on  Lake  Erie. 

1597.  Asia.     Trade  with  India  is  opened  to  all,  the  East  India  CompanT 
still  retaining  the  monopoly  of  the  Chinese  trade. 


MX]  CULTURE  321 


2^5,    Archaeology.    Leake's  Researches  in  Greece. 
L'406.    Agriculture.    Thaer's  Rational  Agriculture. 
2407.    SooiaL    Grillion's  Club  is  founded  in  London. 


J4^-  French  Ch.  Realising  the  absolute  necessity  of  terminat-  n  01 3 
ing  his  feud  with  the  Pope,  Napoleon  has  him  conveyed  from  ^ 
Italy,  and  resorts  to  intimidation.  A  Concordat  is  made  at  Fontaine- 
bleaa,  providing  that  the  Pope  shall  give  Napoleon  the  nomination 
of  bishops  in  France  and  Italy  and  that  tne  Metropolitan  shall 
iofltitute  if  the  Pope  does  not  do  so  within  six  months  of  nomination. 
After  signing  the  document,  Pius  consults  with  Consalvi  and  Pacca, 
who  penuade  him  to  withdraw  his  concessions. 

S409,  Oerman  Ch.  Rohr's  Letters  and  Wegscheider's  Institutes  of 
Rationalism  assert  that  reason,  the  supreme  authority  in  matters  of 
religioD,  possesses  the  right  to  reject  all  doctrines  which  are  repugnant 
to  it,  which  go  beyond  natural  religion,  or  which  have  no  moral  end. 

2i70,  Asiatic  Ch.  The  new  Charter  of  the  East  India  Company  provides 
for  a  Kflhop  for  India,  and  allows  the  introduction  of  missionanes. 

SiTI.    Eng.  Lit    Southey's  Life  of  Nelson. 
Shelley's  Queen  Mab. 

tfj£,  Oerman  Lit.  Komer,  Amdt,  Uhland  and  Jahn  compose 
patriotic  songs. 

2-ffS.    Science.    Brewster  distin^ishes  single  and  double  axis  crystals. 
Gay-Lossac's  Memoir  on  Iodine. 

De  CandoUe's  Th^rie  de  la  Botanique  retains  Jussieu's  divisions  of 
aootyledons,  monocotvledons  and  dicotyledons. 

2474^    Art.    The  Philharmonic  Society  is  founded  in  London. 

Bishop's  opera.  The  Miller  and  his  Men,  containing  When  the  Wind 
Blows,  and  other  songs. 

2475.  Fhiloeophy.  Herbart*s  Introduction  to  Philosophy  leads  a 
reaction  against  the  pantheism  of  Fichte  and  Schelling,  to  some  extent 
OD  the  lines  of  Leibnitz. 

2476.  Folitica.  Benjamin  Constant's  De  I'Esprit  de  Conquete  et  de 
rCioipation  vigorously  attacks  Napoleon. 

2477.  Anthropology.  Pritchard's  Physical  History  of  Man  founds 
antlm^loffy  in  England,  and  contends  for  the  primitive  unity  of  the 
speciea  He  discusses  peoples  in  regard  to  language,  bodily  form  and 
aviiisation. 

247s.    BociaL    Elizabeth  Fry  begins  to  visit  the  prisons. 

Insolvent  debtors  are  released  from  prison. 

The  Apprenticeship  and  Wages  Act  of  1563  is  repealed. 
2479.    Dealha.    Komer,  Lagrange,  Scharnhorst,  Wieland. 


o.  21 


322  POLITICS  [U14 


1598.  England.  Lord  Cochrane  is  accused  of  defrauding  the  r^^^ 
Stock  Exchange  by  inventing  a  rumour  of  the  death  of  Napoleon.  ^ 

1599.  France.  Negotiations  begin  at  the  Congress  of  Chatillon  (Feb.); 
but  Napoleon  wins  a  few  trifling  successes,  and  refuses  the  boandaries 
of  1792,  which  are  offered  by  the  Allies.     Castlereagh  joins  the  Allies 

g larch),  and  Schwarzenburg  and  Blucher  fight  their  way  to  Puk 
apoleon  abdicates  (April  6),  and  is  allowed  to  retire  to  Elba.  At  the 
same  moment  Wellington  defeats  Soult  at  Toulouse.  Louis  XVIIL 
becomes  King,  and  is  forced  by  Alexander  to  grant  a  Cbsrteir  of  repr^ 
sentative  government. 

Louis  concludes  the  first  Treaty  of  Paris  (May  30).  The  fnmtier  ti 
1790  is  increased,  France  obtaining  Avignon,  the  Venaissin,  and  part  of 
Savoy,  and  regaining  idl  her  Colonies  except  Mauritius,  St  Lucia,  and 

Tobago.  England  retains  Malta,  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  the  tie 
de  France.  Belgium  is  to  be  united  to  Holland,  and  Gc^Doany  to  fora 
a  Confederacy.  Secret  clauses  resolve  that  (jennau  Princes  are  to  be 
compensated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine.  Sardinia  is  to  reoeire 
(}enoa,  and  Austria,  Lombardy  and  Venice.  Details  are  to  be  amogri 
at  a  Congress  which  meets  at  Vienna  (Nov.  1),  and  is  attended  by 
Mettemich,  Talleyrand,  Hardenberg,  Nesselrode,  Castleroagh  and 
Wellington. 

1600.  Spain.    Ferdinand  returns  to  Madrid  (May),  and  at  first  promises 
'  to  respect  the  Constitution  of  1812,  but  soon  dissolves  the  Cortes,  and 

restores  the  nobles'  exemptions. 

1601.  Italy.  Murat  joins  the  Allies  (Jan.).  Beauhamais  defeat  the 
Austrians  (Feb.),  but  Genoa  is  taken  hy  the  English  (April).  The  Pqie 
returns  to  Rome,  and  Victor  Emanuel  is  restored  to  his  dominions. 

1602.  Sweden.  By  the  Peace  of  Kiel,  Norway  is  transferred  from 
Denmark  to  Sweden,  which  cedes  Swedish  Pomerania  and  Rogen  u 
Denmark  (Jan.).  Charles  XIIL  accepts  the  Constitution  and  deelait^ 
Norway  independent  and  indivisible  (PJov.). 

1603.  America.  The  English  troops  bum  the  public  boildingB  ^i 
Washington  ;  but  their  invasion  via  Lake  (]lhamplain  is  repulsed.  A 
large  army  is  sent  to  take  New  Orleans.  In  the  summer,  the  Americm 
commissioners,  Clav,  Quincy  Adams  and  Ghdlatin,  are  sent  to  Ghent, 
and  sign  a  treaty,  the  indirect  cause  of  war  beinsr  removed  by  the  hU  d 
Napoleon  (Dec.).  Meanwhile  the  New  England  States,  wh^e  the  var 
is  strongly  disapproved,  meet  in  convention  at  Hartford,  and  proper 
States  Rights  Ainendmeuts  to  the  Constitution. 

Argentina  forces  Monte  Video  to  desert  Spain. 
Francia  becomes  Dictator  of  Paraguay. 

1604.  Asia.  By  the  Treaty  of  Teheran,  En^hind  promisee  to  aid  Peivi« 
if  attacked,  and  Persia  to  attack  Afghanistan  if  tJ^e  latter  invade!! 
India. 


1814]  CULTURE  323 

iiSO.    Xng.  Ch.    The  Weslejan  MLssionary  Society  is  oiganised.    ri  014 
A  gieftt  outborst  of  missionaiy  activity  takes  place  at  the  same   ^ 
time  in  Holland,  Switierland  and  Germany. 

Joanna  Sonihoote,  the  prophetess,  who  declares  she  is  the  woman 
wpfkea  of  in  Revelation,  mes,  leaving  followers,  the  New  Israelites, 
who  foond  a  chapel  in  London. 

Bonth's  Beliquiae  Sacrae  collect  literary  fragments  of  the  early 
Quislian  ChnrcL 
HSl.    Sootch  Ch.    Chalmers  becomes  minister  at  Glasgow, 
i^.    Italian  Ch.    The  Inquisition  is  restored. 

H8S.    Spaniflh  Ch.    Ferdinand  restores  the  Inquisition,  and  renews 
the  Index. 

William  Hark,  Consul  at  Malaga,  introduces  Protestantism,  which 
it  extended  by  Borrow  and  Rule. 
US4,    Roiwian  Ch.    Mme  de  Krudener  b^ins  to  preach,  and  gains 

inflaenoe  over  the  Tzar. 
^S9.    Church    Hist.     The   Order   of  Jesuits   (already   revived    in 
Rnasia   and    Naples)    and   the   Index   are    restored    by   the   Pope, 
and  BiUe  Societies,  which  are  founded  in  Prussia  and  Russia,  are 
eoodemned. 
H86.    Aaiatio  Ch.    The  first  English  Bishopric  in  India  is  established 

atCdeotta. 
^S7,    Xng.  Ut.    Walter  Scott's  Waverley  (anonymously  published) 
wmencee  the  series  of  Waverley  Novels. 
Wordsworth's  Excursion. 
Walter  b^pns  to  print  the  '  Times'  with  steam. 
Edmund  kean  makes  his  d^but  as  Shylock. 
2iS8,    German  Ut.    (Torres'  German  Mercury  demands  the  left  bank 
of  the  Bhine,  and  earns  for  its  author  the  tide  of  the  Fifth  Great  Power 
agunst  Napoleon. 

Chamisso's  Peter  SchlemihL 
Bdckert's  Poems. 
2iS9,    geienoe.    Wells  explains  the  phenomenon  of  dew. 

Fiaiinhofer  discovers  576  black  lines  in  a  ray  of  sunlight,  but  &ils 
to  exphin  them. 

Omia's  Toxicologie  creates  the  science  of  poisons. 
iiW.    Art.    David  Cox  writes  a  treatise  on  landscape-painting,  and 
with  Pkout^  de  Wint,  Creswick  and  Bonington,  continues  the  work  of 
GoostaUe. 
l(9L    Philology.    Young  b^ns  to  decipher  the  Bosetta  Stone. 

Abd  Btonsat  transUtes  the  Chinese  romance,  The  Two  Cousins, 
and  studies  Japanese  Literature, 
i^.    Fblitioa.    Benjamin  Constant's  Esquisse  de  Constitution  recom- 
mends the  constitutional  government  of  England  and  influences  the 
oompontion  of  the  Charter. 

Niebohi^s  Prussia's  Bight  to  Saxony  supports  the  annexation  on  the 
ground  of  nationality. 

Chateaubriand's  Bonaparte  et  les  Bourbons  bitterly  attacks  the 
and  recommends  the  restoration  of  the  latter. 

21—2 


^24  POLITICS  [1815 

1605.  England.  A  secret  treaty  is  made  with  Austria  and  r^mt 
France  to  counteract  the  ambitions  of  Russia  and  Prussia.        ^ 

1606.  France.  Napoleon  escapes  from  Elba,  and  lands  in  FiiDce 
(March).  Russia,  Austria,  Prussia,  and  England  at  once  ally  to  resLn 
him.  Ney  is  sent  against  him,  but  joins  him,  and  Louis  XVIII.  eecipes 
to  Belgium.  He  enters  Paris  (March  21),  and  issues  the  Acte  Adcy- 
tionnel,  drawn  up  by  Constant.  His  ofifer  to  accept  the  Treaty  of  Paris 
is  refused,  and  he  marches  north.  Sending  Ney  to  keep  the  English  in 
check  at  Quatre  Bras,  he  defeats  the  Prussians  at  Ligny  and  detacheii 
Grouchy  to  keep  them  from  joining  Wellington  (June  16).  Napokon 
attacks  Wellington  at  Waterloo.  Wellington's  troops  repulse  evefy 
attack  until  the  Prussians  arrive,  and  then  charge  (June  18).  The 
Allies  enter  Paris,  Napoleon  abdicates,  and  is  removed  to  St  HeleiuL 
and  Louis  is  restored.  By  the  Second  Peace  of  Paris,  France  is  to  ptr 
30  millions  and  maintain  a  garrison  for  five  years,  to  cede  the  portion  <i 
Savoy  retained  in  1814  to  the  King  of  Sardinia,  and  small  districts  to 
Belgium,  Prussia,  and  Switzerland,  and  to  restore  the  works  of  art 
removed  during  the  wars.  Richelieu  succeeds  Talleyrand,  Ney  is  shot 
(Dec.  7),  and  the  White  Terror  breaks  out  in  Marseilles,  Nlmes, 
Toulouse,  and  other  parts  of  the  South. 

1607.  Italy.  On  the  landing  of  Napoleon  in  France,  Murat  attacks  the 
Papal  States,  but  is  defeated  by  Austrian  troops.  Ferdinand  IV. 
returns,  and  Murat,  who  attempts  to  raise  an  insurrection,  is  captured 
and  shot  (Oct.).  Ferdinand  secretly  agrees  with  Mettemich  not  to 
introduce  constitutional  liberty,  and  suppresses  the  Parliament  granted 
to  Sicily  in  1813. 

Consalvi  obtains  the  restoration  of  the  Marches  and  the  LegatioiB 
to  the  Papacy,  and,  aided  by  Capaccini,  begins  to  reorganise  the  Papii 
States. 

Genoa  is  annexed  to  the  Sardinian  Kingdom.  Austria  receives 
Lombardy  and  Venetia.  The  Dukes  of  Modena  and  Tuscany  are 
restored.  Marie  Louise,  Napoleon's  wife,  receives  Parma  and  Piacentt, 
with  succession  to  the  rightful  heir,  who  receives  for  the  time  the  dachj 
of  Lucca. 

1608.  Germany.  A  Staaten-bund  is  formed,  consisting  of  39  States, 
each  sending  representatives  to  the  Diet  at  Frankfort,  jyresided  over  by 
Austria.  The  Diet  may  order  federal  execution  against  recalcitniit 
States,  each  of  which,  however,  is  to  have  an  assembly.  Prussia  receives 
the  Khineland,  part  of  Saxony  (Lusatia),  the  provinces  of  Posen  sod 
Thorn,  and  Swedish  Pomerania  and  Rugen.  Bavaria  obtains  Anspsrh 
and  Bavreuth.  Hanover  becomes  a  Kingdom  and  gains  East  Friesuuid 
and  Hildesheim. 

Frederick  William  promises  a  Constitution  to  Prussia. 

1609.  Austria.  'IVieste,  Istria,  Dalmatia,  Ragusa,  Camiola,  Croatia. 
South  Tyrol  and  part  of  Southern  Galicia  are  restored  to  the  Emperor. 

1610.  Sweden.  Sweden  is  confirmed  in  the  possession  of  Nonrar. 
Denmark  loses  Swedish  Pomerania,  and  receives  the  Duchy  of  Lanen- 
burg. 

161 1.  Holland.    Belgium  is  united  to  Holland  under  William  Fiederick 


1816]  CULTURE  325 

249s,    Law.    Savigny's  work,  The  Claim  on  our  Age  of  Legislation  and 
a  Science  of  Law,  declares  law  part  of  the  organic  life  of  a  nation. 
Thibaut  urges  the  necessity  of  a  national  code  for  Qennany. 

£494>  SociaL  Sweden  and  Holland  abolish  the  Slave  Trade  in  their 
dominions.  On  his  return  from  Elba  Napoleon  follows  their  example. 
The  Congress  of  Vienna  refuses  Castlereagh's  proposal  for  a  Council  of 
Ambassadors  charged  with  the  duty  of  exp^iting  the  close  of  the  traffic, 
and  contents  itself  with  a  formal  condemnation.  Spain  and  Portugal 
alone  continue  the  commerce  (the  latter  only  on  the  south  of  the  line), 
alleging  in  their  defence  that  their  colonies  are  not  so  well  supplied 
with  slaves  as  those  of  England  when  prohibition  was  carried. 

£4ys.    Death.    Fichte. 


2496,     German  Ch.   Wessenberg,  Vicar-General  of  the  diocese  of  moik 
Constance,  urges  the  Vienna  Congress  to  found  a  German  national   '■ 
Church  under  a  German  primate. 

Each  state  makes  its  own  Concordat  with  the  Pope. 
£497,    French  Lit.    B^rancer's  first  collection  of  songs. 

Benjamin  Constant's  Adolphe,  a  romance  based  on  his  relations  with 
Mme  de  Stael. 
i^498.    American  Lit.    Bryant's  Thanatopsis. 
24W.    Literature.    Beowulf  is  found  and  published  by  Thorkelin. 

2500,  Art.    Schubert  composes  music  to  Goethe's  ballad,  the  Erlking. 

2501,  Science.  William  Smith  completes  liis  stratigraphical  map  of 
England  and  Wales,  after  25  years'  surveying. 

Leslie  investigates  radiant  heat. 

Dupuylnren  becomes  chief  surgeon  of  the  H6tel-Dieu  at  Paris  and 
improves  diagnosis. 

Presners  Memoir  on  the  Diffraction  of  Light  independentlv  reaches 
Young^s  discovery  of  the  principle  of  interference.  Arago  adopts  the 
undcdatory  theory,  which  now  becomes  generally  accepted. 

Von  Buch  visits  the  Canary  Isles,  which  he  attnbutes  to  volcanic 
action. 

2502,  Philosophy.  Cousin  becomes  Professor  of  Philosophy  at  the 
Sorbonne,  and  aids  Royer-Collard  in  the  revival  of  idealism. 

2oOS.  EconomicB.  Malthus  and  West  independently  state  the  true 
doctrine  of  rent,  already  outlined  by  Anderson,  1779,  namely,  that  rent 
is  equal  to  the  excess  of  the  price  of  the  produce  of  land  over  the  cost 
of  production,  the  price  of  the  entire  supply  being  regulated  by  the 
cost  of  production  on  the  worst  land. 


326  POLITICS  [1815 

of  Nassau.  Luxemburg  becomes  a  member  of  the  Bund,  and  is  ghren  to 
the  Kingof  the  Netherlands  in  return  for  a  renunciation  of  his  Nsasaa 
lands.    The  town  is  made  a  Bund  fortress. 

1612.  Switzerland.  The  Congress  of  Vienna  adds  Geneva,  Valais,  lod 
Neuchd,tel  (the  latter  with  reservation  of  Prussia's  sovereign  rights),  lod 
guarantees  neutrality. 

1613.  Poland.  The  Grand  Duchy  of  Warsaw  is  formed  into  the  King- 
dom of  Poland  in  union  with  Russia,  but  with  responsible  government 
a  national  army,  flag,  and  budget,  a  free  press,  and  the  official  use  of  the 
native  language.     Cracow  is  made  a  free  state. 

1614.  Russia.  Under  the  influence  of  Madame  de  Erudener,  the  Tsar 
forms  the  Holy  Alliance  with  Austria  and  Prussia  for  the  application  of 
Christian  principles  to  politics  (Aug.). 

1615.  Greece.  The  Ionian  Islands  become  an  independent  repablk 
under  English  protection.  Sir  Thomas  Maitland  being  appointed  High 
Commissioner. 

1616.  America.  Before  the  news  of  the  Treaty  of  Ghent  arriTen. 
Jackson  routs  the  English  at  New  Orleans. 

Brazil  becomes  a  kingdom  under  the  Prince  Regent  of  Portugal 

1617.  West  Indies.    France  retains  Guadeloupe  and  Martinique. 

1618.  AiMca.    England  occupies  and  garrisons  Ascension  Island. 
Reunion  is  restored  to  France. 


1619.  England.  The  income-tax  is  abolished,  and  silver  is  rrgi| 
demonetised.  ^ 

1620.  France.  After  a  violent  conflict  between  the  Government  and  the 
Ultra-royalists,  an  Amnesty  Bill  is  carried  by  Richelieu.  The  Chamber 
demands  other  reactionary  measures,  but,  by  the  advice  of  Becues, 
is  dissolved  by  the  King,  who,  on  his  own  authority  introduces  direct 
representation.  A  moderate  majority  is  returned,  and  the  ministnr  of 
Richelieu  receives  support  from  the  party  of  Doctrinaires,  led  by  Royw- 
CoUard,  De  Serre,  Camille  Jordan  and  De  Broglie.  The  new  dynashr. 
however,  is  attacked  in  the  Chamber  and  the  Press  by  the  L^  led  br 
Benjamin  Constant,  Lafayette,  Manuel  and  Laffitte,  by  the  Bonapartiste 
Fouch^  and  B($ranger,  and  by  Courier.  The  Government  contmues  to 
be  attacked  by  the  Ultra-ro^alists,  of  whom  VillMe  becomes  tlie  leader. 

1621 .  Germany.  Saxe- Weimar  obtains  a  Constitution ;  and  its  example 
is  shortly  followed  by  Hanover,  Bavaria,  Baden. 

1622.  Austria.  By  the  Treaty  of  Munich,  Salzburg  and  the  CSrcle  of 
the  Inn  are  restoreJto  Austria. 

1628.  America.  A  Tariff  Act  is  passed  which  imposes  heavy  duties  oa 
cotton,  woollens,  salt  and  iron,  ana  introduces  the  minimum  principle. 

A  second  United  States  Bank  is  chartered  for  20  years. 

Chief  Justice  Marshall  pronounces  a  series  of  decisions  in  favour  of 
the  United  States,  and  diminishes  State  Rights. 

The  provinces  of  La  Plata  proclaim  their  independence  as  the 
Argentine  Republic. 


1816]  CULTURE  827 

2604,     Sooial.    The  Apothecaries'  Act  forbids  medical  practice  without 

a  qualification. 

The  importation  of  wheat  into  England  is  forbidden  until  the  price 

reaches  80^.    Bounties  on  com  cease,  and  export  is  allowed. 
S506,    Death.    Rumford. 


2506.  Eng.  Ch.  A  motion  for  the  relief  of  Catholics  is  rejected  n  oi  o 
by  the  Lords.  '- 

2507.  Eng.  Lit.    Jane  Austen's  Emma. 
Scott's  Old  Mortality. 

Cobbett's  Political  Kegister,  the  first  cheap  periodical,  is  published 
St  2d, 

Byron's  Childe  Harold,  Canto  in. 

Coleridge's  Christabel  is  published. 

Peacock's  Headlong  Hall  satirises  the  romanticists. 

2508.  French  Lit.  The  King  revives  the  French  Academy,  and  the 
Academies  of  Science,  Art,  and  Belles-Lettres. 

2509.  Art.    Parliament  purchases  the  Elgin  Marbles. 
Rossini's  Barber  of  Seville. 

2510.  Science.    Brewster  invents  a  Kaleidoscope. 

2511.  PoliticB.  Owen's  New  View  of  Society  sketches  a  communistic 
association,  and  declares  character  the  product  of  circumstances. 

Haller's    Restoration  of   Political    Science  attacks    the    contract 
theory  and  supports  autocracy,  aristocracy  and  ultramontanism. 

2512.  Philology.  Bopp's  S3rstem  of  Conjugation  proves  the  common 
origin  of  grammatical  torms. 

251S.  Education.  Froebel  organises  a  community  at  Keilhau  in 
Thnringia. 

Polytechnic  schools  for  Applied  Science,  borrowed  from  French 
models^  are  established  in  Germany. 

2514.  Iaw.    Niebuhr  finds  the  Commentaries  of  Gains  at  Verona. 

2515.  History.    Karamsin's  History  of  Russia. 

2516.  SociaL  Unusual  distress  is  caused  by  a  bad  season,  and  riots 
occur  at  Spa  Fields  and  elsewhere.  A  stream  of  emigrants  begins  to 
leave  England  for  America  and  the  colonies. 

2517.  DeaUi.    Sheridan. 


828  POLITICS  [Uli 


1624.  Afirica.  Lord  Exmouth  bombards  Algiers  and  releases  msDj 
Christian  slaves.    The  Dey  is  forced  to  abolish  Christiaii  slaTeiy. 

The  Gambia  colony  is  formed,  chiefly  by  settlers  forced  to  ktve 
Senegal  when  restored  to  France. 

1625.  Asia.  Lord  Amherst  is  sent  on  a  mission  to  Pekin,  bat  refdfles  to 
'  kow-tow/  and  in  consequence  returns  without  obtaining  an  audience  of 
the  Emperor. 

The  war  between  the  East  India  Company  and  Nepal,  a  tributarj 
state  of  China,  caused  by  a  frontier  outrage,  is  terminated,  and  an 
English  Resident  is  placed  at  the  capital. 

Java  is  restored  by  England  to  the  I)utcL 


1626.  England.    The  Regent  is  attacked  and  the  Blauketeers  ^g^^ 
march  from  Manchester,  but  are  dispersed.    The  Habeas  Corpus  *■ 
Act  is  suspended,  and  the  Sidmouui  Circular  to  the  Lords  lixeateniot 
authorises  the  arrest  of  libellers. 

The  Princess  Charlotte,  only  child  of  the  Regent,  married  in  1816 
to  Prince  Leopold  of  Saxe-Coburg,  dies.  In  consequence,  the  Dukes  of 
Cambridge,  Cmrence,  and  Kent  marry,  1818. 

The  Military  and  Naval  Officers'  Oath  Bill  opens  all  ranks  in  the 
army  and  navy  to  Catholics. 

1627.  Ireland.  The  two  Exchequers  are  united,  the  Irish  Tkki  is 
joined  to  the  National  Debt,  and  equal  taxes  are  levied  on  articles  in 
both  countries.  Exemptions  and  abatements  may  be  granted  wheneTer 
necessary. 

1628.  France.  The  partial  renovation  of  the  Chamber  still  Antiier 
weakens  the  Ultra-royalists.  Part  of  the  troops  are  recalled,  and  the 
Tsar  diminishes  the  indemnity.  Financial  credit  is  restored  ud 
arrangements  for  a  loan  are  made. 

1629.  Germany.  The  Grand  Duchy  of  Weimar,  where  alone  a  coDSti- 
tution  has  been  granted,  becomes  the  centre  of  liberal  propaganda.  The 
celebration  of  the  third  centenary  of  Luther's  protest  and  the  battle  of 
Leipsig  by  German  students  at  the  Wartburg,  and  the  burning  of  the 
writings  of  Haller,  Schmalz,  and  other  reactionaries,  frightens  the 
Powers.  The  Duke  of  Weimar  is  forced  to  curtail  the  liberties  of  hi* 
subjects. 

1630.  Turkey.  Milosh,  who  lias  murdered  his  rival,  Kara  George,  u 
declared  hereditary  prince  of  Servia  Turkish  troops  continue  t^ 
garrison  the  fortresses,  and  the  Sultan  receives  tribute.  The  quarrel 
between  the  families,  however,  continues  through  the  century. 

1631.  Russia.  A  Secret  Society  is  founded  to  obtain  constitutioiul 
government.     Among  its  members  are  manv  republicans. 

1632.  America.  The  United  States  send  Commissioners  to  establish 
commercial  relations  with  the  revolted  colonies  of  Spain. 

The  Portuguese  of  Brazil  conquer  Montevideo. 
Bolivar,  after  several  repulses,   defeats  the    Spanish  troops  and 
becomes  the  head  of  the  Government  of  Venezuela 


I 


1817]  CULTURE  329 

2518.  En^  Ch.  By  the  efforts  of  Joshua  Watson,  the  Church  r^^yj 
Building  Society  is  founded,  few  churches  having  been  erected  ^ 
since  the  leign  of  Queen  Anne.  Application  for  assistance  is  made  to 
Lord  liverpool,  who  persuades  Parliament  to  grant  one  million  pounds 
for  the  purpose,  and  appoints  a  Commission  to  superintend  its  distribu- 
tion. 

2619,  French  Ch.  Lamennais'  Essay  on  Indifference  attacks  indi- 
Yidnalism  and  scepticism. 

A  new  Concordat  abolishes  that  of  1801  and  restores  the  instrument 
of  1516,  but  is  attacked  by  Frayssinous  and  is  never  adopted. 

3520.  Geixnan  Ch.  At  the  wish  of  King  Frederick  William,  the 
Lutheran  and  Reformed  Churches  unite  in  the  Evangelical  Union  to 
commemorate  1517.  The  Union  spreads  from  Prussia  to  Wurtemburg, 
Baden,  Anhalt,  Nassau,  and  the  Rhine  Provinces. 

An  ultramontane  Concordat  is  made  by  Bavaria  with  Rome,  on  the 
£dl  of  Montgelas. 

2521.  Spanish  Ch.  Llorente,  late  Secretary  of  the  Inquisition, 
publishes  a  History  of  the  Spanish  Inquisition. 

2522.  AMcan  Ch.  Robert  Moffat  b^ns  mission  work  in  South 
Africa^ 

252S.    Eng.  Ut.    Blackwood's  Magazine  is  founded,  edited  by  Chris- 
topher North  (Wilson),  who  contributes  his  Noctes  Ambrosianae. 
Mary  Shelley's  Frankenstein. 
Moore's  Lalla  Rookh. 

2524.  Science.  Cuvier's  R^e  Animal  classifies  animals  as  vertebrata, 
moUusca,  articulata  and  radiata. 

2525.  Art.    Chantrey's  Sleeping  Children.     (Lichfield.) 

2526.  Philosophy.  Schubert  lectures  at  Munich  on  magic  and  mag- 
netism, and  carries  romanticism  into  philosophy. 

2527.  Fhilolotfy.    Boeckh's  Domestic  Economy  of  the  Athenians. 
Ottfried  Miller's  Hellenic  Races. 

2528.  Politica.  Ballanche  explains  his  theory  of  Palingenesis,  i.e.,  a 
return  through  trials  to  the  state  before  the  fall. 

2529.  EconcHEnica.  Ricardo's  Political  Economy  and  Taxation  explains 
the  theory  of  rent,  and  states  that  wages  tend  to  the  level  of  suosist- 
ence.  His  ^rstem  is  popularised  by  James  and  John  Mill,  Malthns, 
McCulloch,  Torrens,  and  Harriet  Martineau. 

2580.     Oeography.     Ritter's  Geography  in    relation   to    Nature  and 

History  founds  comparative  geography. 
1581.    Deaths.    Jane  Austen,    Dalberg,    Kosciusko,    Mme   de    Stael, 

Werner. 


330  POLITICS  [1818 


1633.  England.  The  Habeas  Corpus  Act  is  leetored,  and  is  not  i^g 
again  suspended.  ^ 

RomiUy  and  Brougham  fail  to  repeal  the  Septennial  Act 

1634.  Russia.  Alexander  addresses  the  Polish  Diet  in  a  rery  liberal 
strain,  and  announces  his  intention  of  extending  representative  instito- 
tions  to  Russia.  A  few  weeks  later,  however,  he  is  thought  to  hare 
received  information  of  the  existence  of  numerous  anti-dynastic  secret 
societies.  At  any  rate  he  abandons  his  liberalism  at  this  momoit,  and 
adopts  the  views  of  Mettemich,  and  inspires  an  alarmist  pamphlet  by 
Stourdza,  a  Moldavian. 

1635.  France.  The  Ultra-royalist  reaction  having  almost  spent  itself, 
the  Tsar  summons  the  Powers  to  a  Confess  to  meet  at  Aix-la-Ghapelle, 
and  decrees  the  evacuation  of  France,  though  five  years'  occapation  had 
been  originally  contemplated  Louis  agrees  with  the  Powers  to  act 
together  for  peace,  and  in  any  disturbance  to  concert  measures  at 
a  Congress.  A  tacit  understanding  to  combine  against  liberal  mote- 
ments  is  arrived  at.  England  is  prevented  by  Ganmng  from  joining  the 
Concert. 

1636.  Germany.  Under  the  influence  of  Wilhelm  v.  Humboldt,  the 
King  of  Prussia  determines  to  grant  a  Constitution ;  but  Metternick 
advises  the  creation  of  provincial  Diets. 

The  King  of  Bavaria  grants  a  Constitution. 
List  conceives  the  idea  of  the  ZoUverein,  or  Customs  Union,  and 
Prussia  abolishes  duties  on  transit  through  its  territories. 

1637.  Sweden.    Bemadotte  becomes  King  of  Sweden. 

1638.  America.  Jackson,  while  pursuinjg  some  Indians  in  the  Seminole 
war,  crosses  the  border  of  Florida  and  seizes  two  Spanish  towns. 

England  and  the  United  States  agree  to  occupy  Oregon  jointly  for 
ten  years.  The  Northern  boundary  is  fixed ;  the  question  of  fisheries 
is  settled ;  and  England  gives  up  her  rights  to  the  navigation  of  the 
Mississippi. 

Chill  proclaims  her  independence,  and  San  Martin  defeats  a  Spanish 
army. 

1639.  Asia.  The  Pindarics  are  suppressed  by  the  Marquis  of  Hastinp: 
the  Peshwas  are  extinguished  and  their  dominions  annexed ;  the  Rajah 
of  Nagpur  is  put  under  British  guardianship,  and  the  Rajputana  States 
place  tnemselves  under  British  protection. 


1640.    En^and.    Burdett's  motion  for  annual  Parliaments,  the   ngig 
ballot,  and  universal  suffrage  is  lost.  ^ 

A  Manchester  reform  meeting  is  broken  up  by  the  militaiy  at  the 
Peterloo  massacre  (Aug.).  The  Six  Acts,  carried  aeainst  strong  opposi- 
tioii,  forbid  training  to  arms,  take  steps  against  libels,  empower  Justices 
of  the  Peace  to  search  for  and  seize  arms,  impose  a  newspaper  stamp  on 
pamphlets,  prevent  meetings  of  more  than  50  without  six  days'  notice 
to  the  Justice  of  the  Peace,  and  forbid  the  attendance  of  all  but  free- 
holders or  residents,  and  deprive  defendants  in  cases  of  misdemeaooor 
of  the  right  of  traversing. 


1819]  CULTURE  331 

SSSfS.    French  Ch.    Vianey  becomes  Gur^  d'Ars.  [1818 

B5SS.     German  Ch.    Representatives  of  several  West  and  South    ^ 
G^inan  states  meet  at  Frankfurt  and  revive  the  ideas  of  Febronius ; 
bat  the  nationalist  movement  is  combated  by  Niebuhr,  the  Prussian 
envoy  at  Rome. 
£534,    2ng-  14^    '"^^  Quarterly  Review  (probably  Gifford)  and  Black- 
wood's  Magazine  roughly  attack  Keats'  Endymion.    Shelley  protests. 
Shelley  s  Revolt  of  Islam. 
Scott's  Heart  of  Midlothian. 
Susan  Ferrier's  novel,  Marriage. 
£5S5.    French  Lit.    Mme  de  Stael's  Considerations  sur  la  Revolution 
Fran^aise  eulogise  Necker,  and  discriminate  the  lasting  benefits  from 
the  temporary  extravagances. 
B5S6.    Qermaxi  Ut.    Grillparzer's  Sappho. 
£5^.    Art.    Landseer's  Fighting  Dogs  getting  Wind,  his  first  great 

saccess. 
SoSS,     Science.    De  Gandolle's  Prodromus  Systematis  Naturalis  de- 
scribes 80,000  species. 

Bessel's  Fundamenta  Astronomise  contain  reduced  places  of  stars 
observed  by  Bradley. 

Encke's  comet  is  discovered,  revolving  round  the  sun  in  3^  years. 
S5S9.    Education.    The  king  of  Prussia  founds  a  University  at  Bonn. 
2540.    History.    Hallam's  History  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
Blill's  History  of  British  India. 
^  £541.    Geography.    Sir  John  Ross  is  sent  to  find  the  North  Pole. 
£64£>    SociaL  An  agricultural  pauper  colony  is  planted  at  Fredericksoord 

in  Holland. 
254s.    Deaths.    Monge,  Thugut. 


£544-  Irish  Ch.  Doyle  becomes  Bishop  of  Kildare  and  ng^^g 
Leighlin.  ^ 

2545.  French  Ch.  De  Maistre's  Du  Pape  contends  for  infallibility  and 
for  the  temporal  power,  not  only  as  an  ecclesiastical  right,  but  as  a 
political  and  social  precaution. 

2546.  QermBU  Ch.  Hermes'  Philosophical  Introduction  to  Christian 
Theology  asserts  that  the  belief  of  reason  precedes  and  strengthens  the 
belief  of  revelation. 

2547.  American  Ch.  Chanuing,  a  minister  at  Boston,  preaches  a 
sermon,  which  becomes  the  manifesto  of  Unitarianism.  The  Unitarian 
body  is  joined  chiefly  bv  Congregationalists. 

2548.  Eng.  Ut.    Keats  Odes  to  a  Nightingale  and  to  a  Grecian  Urn. 
Shelley's  Prometheus  Unbound,  the  Cenci,  and  Ode  to  the  West 

Wind. 

Scott's  Bride  of  Lammermoor. 
BjTTon's  Don  Juan. 


332  POLITICS  [Ittf 

Richard  Carlile  is  imprisoned  for  seven  years  for  pablishing  free- 
thinking  and  republican  works. 

Peel  effects  the  resumption  of  cash  payments  by  the  Bank  <^ 
England. 

1641.  France.  The  election  of  the  Abb^  Gr^oire  as  a  Deouty  is 
regarded  by  the  King  as  an  attack  on  the  throne,  and  firightens  Deoies 
into  a  less  liberal  policy. 

1642.  Germany.  Sand,  a  student,  murders  Eotzebue,  a  Russian  agent, 
who  is  thought  to  have  caused  the  Tsar's  apostasy  from  liberalism,  aod 
has  written  against  the  German  universities  (March).  Mettemich  there- 
fore calls  a  meeting  of  ministers  at  Carlsbad,  and  recommends  the 
muzzling  of  the  p^ress,  the  control  of  the  teaching  of  the  universities  by 
Government  officials,  and  a  commission  to  sit  at  Mainz  to  investigate 
the  conspiracy.  The  Carlsbad  resolutions  are  framed,  and  are  adcmted 
by  the  Diet.  Metternich's  proposal  to  suspend  the  constitutions  of  the 
minor  States  is  defeated  by  the  Tsar's  influence.  The  pronosed  RoasiaB 
constitution  is  given  up,  and  W.  v.  Humboldt  and  other  Liberals  with- 
draw from  the  service  of  the  State.  Gorres'  Germany  and  the  Bevoln- 
tion  passionately  denounces  the  breaking  of  their  promises  by  the 
Governments. 

1643.  Russia.    Araktcheief  forms  the  first  military  colonies. 

1644.  Turkey.  Ali  Fasha,  of  Jannina,  obtains  Farga,  the  last  d  the 
Venetian  possessions,  and  reaches  the  highest  point  of  his  power. 

1645.  America.    A  treaty  is  concluded  with  the  King  of  Spain  (who  is 
in  need  of  money),  giving  up  his  claim  to  West  Florida  (occupied  by  the ^ 
United  States  since  1810)  and  ceding  East  Florida.    The  United  Statei 
surrender  their  claim  to  Texas. 

Missouri's  petition  to  be  admitted  as  a  slave  state  is  discossed,  bat 
no  decision  is  reached.  Maine,  joined  to  Massachusetts  since  1676,  abo 
petitions  for  admission. 

Bolivar  defeats  the  Spaniards,  forms  the  Republic  of  Columbia  from 
the  union  of  New  Granada  and  Venezuela,  and  becomes  its  first  Fresi- 
dent. 

1646.  Asia.    Speranski  becomes  Governor-General  of  Siberia. 
Singapore  is  occupied  by  Sir  Stamford  Rafiles. 

1647.  England.  Thistlewood's  conspiracy  to  kill  the  ministers  r^MA 
is  detected.  ^ 

The  new  King  attempts  to  dissolve  his  marriage  on  charges  of  mis- 
conduct ;  but  the  project  is  resisted  by  public  opinion,  led  by  Brougham 
and  Denman,  and  abandoned. 

Russell's  Bill  for  disfranchising  four  rotten  boroughs  passes  the 
Commons  and  is  rejected  in  the  Lords. 

London  merchants  petition  for  Free  Trade. 

1648.  Prance.  The  Duke  of  Berry,  son  of  the  Count  of  Artois,  i« 
murdered  ;  but  his  widow  gives  birth  to  a  son,  afterwards  the  Comte  de 
Cliambord.     A  strong  royalist  reaction  sets  in  and  Decazes  resigna 

1649.  Spain.  The  army  declares  for  the  Constitution  of  1818.  The 
King  is  forced  to  yield,  and  appoints  Liberals  to  office  (Feb.),  bot 


lOO]  CULTURE  333 

2649.    Uteratare.    Mai  becomes  Librarian  of  the  Vatican,  and  dis- 

corers  Cicero's  De  Republica,  which  he  publishes,  1822. 
2550.     £k)ience. .   The  first  steamboat  crosses  the  Atlantic. 

Mitscherlich  discovers  isomorphism,  i.e.,  that  an  equal  number  of 
atoms  in  compounds  of  the  same  class  can  replace  each  other  in  the 
oompound  without  altering  its  crystalline  form. 

Oersted  discovers  electro-magnetism.  Ampere  repeats  the  experi- 
ments and  reaches  the  laws  of  electro-dynamical  action. 

Dolong  and  Petit  discover  the  connexion  between  the  specific  heats 
and  the  atomic  weights  of  the  elements. 

Laennec  invents  auscultation. 

2661.  Art    Weber^s  Der  Freischiitz. 

Turner  ceases  to  be  imitative  and  produces  Childe  Harold's  Pil- 
grimage, Ulysses  deriding  Polyphemus,  etc. 

G^cault's  Raft  of  the  Medusa  initiates  the  romantic  reaction. 

2662.  Philology.    H.  H.  Wilson's  Sanskrit  Dictionanr. 

Grimm's  German  Grammar  reaches  Bopp's  results  independently, 

and  states  the  law  of  Lautverschiebung,  or  permutation  of  consonants, 

already  guessed  by  Bask. 
265S.    Fkdlosophy.    Schopenhauer's  World  as  Will  and  Bepresentation 

declares  the  will  to  live  the  root  of  evil,  and  maintains  that  extinction 

shoold  be  the  Roal  of  endeavour. 
2554.    Law.     Kluber    publishes    a    system  of   positive    international 

law. 

2666.  SconomicB.  Sismondi's  Nouveaux  Principes  d'Economie  Poli- 
tique  lay  greater  stress  on  well-being  than  on  wealth. 

2666.  QeogrB,phy.  Parry  accompanies  Boss  on  an  unsuccessful  ex- 
pedition in  search  of  the  North  Pole.  In  the  following  year,  he  traces 
a  considerable  portion  of  the  North- West  passage. 

2657.    Deaths.    Blucher,  Watt. 


2558.  Xng.   Ch.     Darby,  an  Anglican  clerg3rman,  leaves  the   rionn 
Cliaich  and  founds  a  community  at  Plymoutn,  teaching  a  rigid    ^ 
Gdvinism  and  the  priesthood  of  all  believers.    Some  years  later,  he 
soes  to  reside  in  Switzerland,  which  becomes  the  headquarters  of  the 
Plymouth  Brethren. 

2559.  Bootoh.  Ch.  Erskine's  first  book,  Bevealed  Beligion,  adopts 
Coleridge's  method  of  discussing  theology.  McLeod  Campbell,  minister 
of  Bow,  shares  Erskine's  ideas,  and  is  expelled  from  the  kirk. 

26S0,    aennan  Ch.    Bretschneider  contests  the  authorship  of  St  John's 

Gospel  and  Epistles. 
2561.    AmeriMn  Ch.    John  England  becomes  Bishop  of  Charlestown, 

tod  increases  the  influence  and  prestige  of  Catholicism  by  his  ad- 

ministiation  and  his  writings. 


334  POLITICS  [inO 

appeals  for  aid  to  the  Holy  Alliance.      The  Cortes  abolish  the  monv 
steries  and  Inquisition,  and  secure  freedom  of  the  press  and  meeting 

1650.  Portugal.  Owing  to  the  rising  in  Spain,  a  revolt  takes  place  md 
a  constitution  is  introduced.     The  KiuK  returns  from  Brazil 

1651.  Italy.  The  Carbonari  revolt  in  Naples,  and  the  army  under  Pepe 
demands  the  Spanish  Constitution  of  1812.  The  King  forms  a  lAhem 
ministry  and  swears  to  the  Constitution,  but  informs  the  Emperor  of 
Austria  that  he  has  acted  under  restraint  Sicily  also  demands  inde- 
pendence. 

1652.  Germany.  On  news  of  the  revolutions  in  Southern  Europe, 
Metternich  convenes  a  Congress  at  Troppau  (Oct.),  (transferred  to 
Laybach,  Dec.).  Austria  is  authorised  to  mtervene  in  Italy.  GasUe- 
reagh  protests  against  united  action,  contemplated  in  the  Circular  of 
Troppau. 

The  Diet  adopts  the  Supplementary  Act  of  Vienna,  by  which  the 
Federation  obtains  power  to  interfere  to  maintain  order  in  the  weaker 
states. 

Wiirtemberg  receives  a  Constitution. 

1653.  America.  Maine  and  Missouri  are  admitted  as  states;  bat 
slavery  is  forbidden  in  the  Louisiana  purchase,  north  of  Arkansas.  The 
Missouri  Compromise  postpones  the  struggle  over  the  extension  of 
slavery  for  a  generation. 

Iturbide  marches  on  Mexico  and  establishes  a  R^^cy. 

1654.  AMca.    About  3,000  emigrants  are  sent  to  Ca^  dolony. 

The  Washington  Colonisation  Society  founds  Liberia  for  the  rqMitrii- 
tion  of  negroes. 

Mehemet  Ali  conquers  the  Sudan  and  Kordofan« 


1655.  En^and.  Grampound  is  disfranchised  by  Lord  John  r^M] 
Kussell,  and  the  two  seats  are  given  to  Yorkshire.  ^ 

1656.  France.  Richelieu,  failing  to  keep  pace  with  the  royalist  re- 
action, resigns,  and  Vill^le  forms  the  first  nomogeneous  Ministry  cl  the 
Right.     The  Congregation  becomes  a  formidable  organ  of  the  reactioo. 

1657.  Italy.  Ferdinand  is  allowed  to  go  to  meet  the  sovereigns  it 
Laybach.  An  Austrian  army  is  dispatched  to  Naples,  and  defeats  Pepe. 
Death,  imprisonment,  or  exile  are  meted  out  to  the  ConstitutioDaliste. 
Sicily  is  also  reduced. 

while  the  Austrian  troops  are  absent  a  revolt  breaks  out  in  Pieii- 
mont.  Victor  Emanuel  abdicates  in  favour  of  his  brother,  Charles  Felix, 
who  is  absent  in  Modena,  the  administration  being  ^ven  to  Charies 
Albert,  of  Carignano,  who  proclaims  the  Spanish  Constitution.  Chiiles 
Felix  declares  these  measures  void,  and  Austrian  troops  supjHress  the 
revolt. 

1658.  Greece.  A  revolt,  prepared  chiefly  by  the  Hetairia  Philike,  ml 
to  some  extent  by  literary  influences  and  Russian  intrigues*  begins  is 
Moldavia,  led  by  Hypsilanti,  in  the  expectation,  perhaps  totbmi  hj 


1821]  GULTURB  335 

25S2.    Sng.  Lit    Keats'  Eve  of  St  Agnes. 

De  Quince/s  Confessions  of  an  Opium-Eater. 
iS6S.     Franch  Ut.    Iiunartine's  Mutations,  the  first  poem  of  ro- 
manticism. 
1564.    American  Lit.    Washington  Irving's  Sketch-book. 
2566.    BoBsian    Lit.    Pushkin's    first   poems,    deeply    influenced    by 

2566.  Art    The  V^nus  de  Milo  is  found  (Louvre). 

2567.  Fhiloflophy.  Brown's  Lectures  on  the  Philosophy  of  Mind 
introdnce  the  idea  of  a  '  muscular  sense,'  and  reduce  most  of  Reid's 
first  principles  to  secondary  products. 

2568.  Philology.    Abel  B^musat's  Langues  Tartares. 

2569.  Politics.  Grote's  pamphlet  on  IBUtdical  Reform  and  James  Mill's 
arlacle  on  Government  in  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  advocate  a  low 
snfinige,  and  reveal  the  hostility  of  the  new  radicals  to  the  current 
Wl^  philosophy. 

&charia,  otefiens,  Rotteck,  and  Troxler  publish  works  in  support  of 
ooiistitationalism.    Ancillon  defends  autocracv. 

2570.  Law.  Romagnosi's  Science  of  Law  declares  civil  society  the 
oSbpring  not  of  an  arbitrary  contract  but  of  reason,  and  maintains  that 
ri^t  18  not  created  by  law. 

2571.  Deaths.    Banks,  Grattan,  Young. 


^57£.    Oermaxi  Ch.    Schleiermacher's  Christian  Belief  declares   r^g2i 
that  Christianity  is  accepted  on  the  strength  of  internal  expe-    ^ 
rience,  and  is  therefore  independent  of  miracles  or  history. 

Niebnhr,  on    behalf   ot    Prussia,  concludes  a  Concordat  highly 
fiiTOiuaUe  to  the  Roman  ChurcL 
2S7S.    Eng-Lit    Shelley's  Adonais. 

Gait's  Annals  of  the  Parish. 
^7i.    (Jerxnan  Lit    Platen's  Lyrics. 

WOhelm  Midler's  Songs  of  the  Greeks. 
•2575.    American  Ut    Fennimore  Cooper's  novel,  The  Spy. 
i576.    Bohemian  Lit    EoUar's  Daughter  of  Slava,  a  series  of  sonnets 

OB  love  and  Bohemian  nationality. 
i577,    Selenoe.    Faiaday  discovers  electro-magnetic  rotation. 

Sabine  commences  pendulum  measurements  in  order  to  ascertain 
the  shuie  <tf  the  eartL 

Seribeck  discovers  thermo-electricity. 
^8.    Philoeophy.    De  Maistre's  Soir^  de  St  P^tersbouig  attempt  to 

nadicate  the  existence  of  eviL 
iST9.    Fhilology.    Champollion's  L'Ecriture  hi^ratique. 

W.  Hnmboldt's  &say  on  the  Basques  and  their  Language. 
^oSO.    Polittca.    Hegel's  Philosophy  of  Right  advocates  constitutional 


336  POLITICS  [Ittl 

Capodistrias,  Foreign  Minister  of  Russia,  of  Russian  support  The 
revolt  is,  however,  disowned  by  the  Tsar,  and  the  Turks  are  Tietorioa& 
at  Dragatschan  (June).  At  this  moment,  the  Morea  and  Central  Greece 
rise,  and  are  joined  by  Ali  Pasha  of  Jannina. 
1659.  America.  Brazil  declares  itself  independent,  and  Don  Pedro, 
eldest  son  of  John  VI.,  is  elected  Emperor. 

Chilians  and  Argentines  enter  Lima,  the  capital  of  Peru  and  the 
stronghold  of  Spanish  power.  The  Viceroy  flies,  and  independence  if 
proclaimed.  Guatemala,  Costa  Rica,  La  Plata,  Uruguay,  Venexaek 
also  declare  their  independence. 

The  Republic  of  San  Domingo  is  formed. 


1660.  England.  Castlereagh  commits  suicide,  and  Canning,  rig^ 
despite  the  opposition  of  the  King,  becomes  Foreim  Secretary.       ^ 

Canning's  Bill  to  admit  Catholic  peers  to  the  House  €^  Iiords  passes 
the  Commons. 

1661.  Spain.  The  Powers  meet  at  Verona,  where  Wellington  representi 
England,  to  discuss  the  revolutions  in  Greece  and  Spain,  in  which  dvil 
war  again  breaks  out,  and  demand  a  modification  of  the  Spanish  Consti- 
tution and  the  restoration  of  the  authority  of  the  King.  In  the  efeet 
of  refusal,  France  is  authorised  to  use  compulsion.  A  propoaal  is  mads 
to  suppress  the  revolt  of  the  Spanish  colonies. 

1662.  (Greece.  The  independence  of  Greece  is  proclaimed,  and  a  national 
Convention  drawn  up  a  Constitution.  Ali  Pasha  is  defeated  and  skin 
by  the  Turks  (Feb.),  and  the  inhabitants  of  Chios  are  massacred.  The 
invasion  of  the  Morea,  however,  is  repulsed,  Missolonghi  is  unsuccess- 
fully besieged,  and  Admiral  Canaris  bums  part  of  the  Turkish  fleet 

1663.  Turkey.  The  Phanariot  rule  in  the  Danubian  Principalities  is 
ended  by  the  Greek  revolt,  and  Roumanian  nobles  are  i^poioted 
Hospodars  by  the  Porte. 

1664.  America.    San  Martin,  the  Dictator  of  Peru,  falls. 

Iturbide  becomes  Emperor  of  Mexico ;  but  he  is  deserted  by  hi^ 
supporters  and  abdicates,  1823.  The  United  States  recognise  the 
revolted  colonies. 

1665.  RiiBsia.  War  with  Turkey  is  averted  by  the  influence  of  Mettir- 
nich,  and  Capodistrias  resigns  his  position. 


1666.  England.  17,000  Freeholders  of  Yorkshire  demand  re-  r^g2S 
form.  *• 

Nugeut's  Bill  to  admit  Catholics  to  the  franchiae  and  to  oertiin 
officers  passes  the  Commons. 

1667.  Ireland.  The  Catholic  Association  is  formed  by  O'Connell  aul 
Sheil,  to  support  the  movement  for  Emancipation. 

1668.  Spain.  A  French  army,  under  the  Duko  of  Angouldme,  inTides 
Spain,  and  enters  Madrid  after  slight  resistance  (May).  Ferdinand,  who 
lias  been  deposed  (June),  is  restored,  revokes  everything  done  siooe 
1820,  and  inflicts  savage  penalties  on  the  Constitutionalistai 


J  CULTURE  337 

monarchy  as  a  historical  growth,  and  declares  the  State  the  realisation 
of  the  absolute  spirit 

Gdrres'  Eoiope  and  the  Revolution  depicts  Europe  as  a  prey  to 
alternate  fits  of  despotism  and  revolution. 

S681.    History.    The  £cole  des  Chartes  is  founded  in  Paris  for  the 

study  of  historical  documents. 
2682.    Deaths.    Keats,  Joseph  de  Maistre,  Napoleon. 


26SS,    En^  Ch.    Edward  Irving  begins  to  preach  in  London.  riAQQ 

2584.  German  Ch.  Walther's  Ecclesiastical  Law,  an  ultra-  ^^^^ 
montane  text-book. 

Tschimer^s  Protestantism  and  Catholicism  blends  evangelicalism 
and  rationalism  and  anticipates  the  theological  revolution. 

2585.  En^  Lit.    Lamb's  Essays  of  Elia. 
R^ers'  Italy. 

2586.  French  Ut.    De  Vigny  s  poems. 

2587.  German  Lit.    Heine's  first  poems. 

2588.  Russian  Lit.  Griboiedofs  The  Misfortune  of  being  too  Clever, 
a  satirical  play. 

2589.  Science.  Fourier's  Th^rie  anal3rtique  de  la  Chaleur  explains 
the  jvopaffation  of  heat,  but  assumes  that  the  conductivity  of  a 
substance  tor  heat  is  constant  for  all  temperatures. 

Flourens'  Syst^me  Nerveux  dans  les  Animaux  vert^bres. 

Poncelet's  rropri^t^  projectives  des  Figures  establishes  the  chief 
properties  of  conies  and  quadrics  by  means  of  projection. 

Oken  founds  the  German  Association  for  Science,  which  is  extended 
by  Alexander  Humboldt,  1828. 

2590.  Art.    Liszt's  d^but  as  a  pianist  at  Vienna. 

2591.  Philosophy.  Baader's  Fermenta  Co^itionis,  deeplv  influenced 
by  Bohme,  attempts  a  theosophic  system  m  which  the  kingdoms  of 
Grace  and  Nature  run  parallel 

Grote  elaborates  and  publishes  Bentham's  Analysis  of  the  Influence 
of  Natural  Religion,  a  vigorous  attack  on  theism. 

2592.  Philology.    Colebrooke  founds  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society. 

2593.  Education.  Spilleke  widens  the  curriculum  of  the  Real-Schule, 
and  leads  it  to  look  beyond  purely  commercial  ideals. 

2594-    Politics.    Charles  Comte's  Traits  de  Legislation  continues  and 

corrects  the  work  of  Montesquieu. 
2595.     Deaths.    Canova,  Hardenberg,  William  Herschel,  Shelley. 


2596.  French  Ch.    Lanjuinais,  a  Jansenist,  attacks  the  Jesuits.    Mono 

2597.  Science.    Arago  discovers  rotatory  magnetism.  '■ 
Faraday  liquefies  chlorine  and  other  gase^. 

2598.  Art    Ingres'  La  Source  (Paris). 
Schubert's  music  to  Rosamund. 
Spohr's  oratorio  Jessonda. 


338  pouTics  [US 

1669.  Portugal.  John  abrogates  the  Constitution,  but  orders  the 
preparation  of  one  on  the  English  model  The  Qaeen,  however,  and 
Don  Miguel,  the  younger  son  of  the  King,  prefer  absolutism,  and  letd 
a  revolt  against  the  King,  which  is  suppressed. 

1670.  America.  The  King  of  Spain  begs  the  aid  of  the  Holy  AUisace 
to  reduce  the  South  Amencan  Republics.  Canning  suggests  to  Rmh, 
the  American  envoy  in  London,  a  joint  declaration  against  the  expected 
move  of  Europe,  and  informs  France  that  if  the  Hmy  Alliance  attada 
the  Republics,  England  will  recognise  them.  Monroe's  Message,  com- 
posed by  John  Qumcy  Adams,  declares  that  '  the  American  contineots 
are  henceforth  not  to  be  considered  as  subjects  for  future  colonisatioo 
by  any  European  Power.'  The  Monroe  Doctrine  becomes  an  established 
principle  of  American  policy. 

Morales  capitulates,  and  Columbia  becomes  independent. 

1671.  Australia.     New  South  Wales  obtains  a  Constitution. 

1672.  Asia.  Ahmed  Khan  returns  from  a  pilgrimi^-  to  Mecca,  and 
introduces  Wahabism  among  the  Mohamedans  of  India.  He  establish^ 
a  camp  on  the  Punjab  frontier,  and  attacks  the  Sikhs. 


1673.  France.    A  new  organ  of  the  Opposition,  the  Globe  news-  r%g^ 
paper,  is  founded  by  Tmers  and  Mjgnet,  and  supported  by  ^ 
Sainte-Beuve,  Ampere,  Lerminier,  Jouffroy,  R^musat,  Duveigier  de 
Hauranue. 

Artois  succeeds,  and  restores  the  Jesuits  and  their  rights  of  educa- 
tion, revives  the  laws  of  sacrilege,  compensates  the  finigiants,  and 
threatens  the  principle  of  equal  division. 

1674.  America.  The  United  States  and  Russia  agree  on  a  line  which 
neither  is  to  cross,  and  open  the  Pacific  to  fishing  and  navigadon  by 
both. 

Duties  are  raised  from  25  per  cent  to  37  per  cent. 

The  Spanish,  who  have  won  back  the  greater  part  of  Peru,  aie 
finally  routed  by  Bolivar.  The  country  becomes  the  independoit 
republic  of  Bolivia,  and  Bolivar  becomes  President 

Canning  recognises  the  independence  of  the  South  American  B^ 

Publics,    thus  carrying   into   execution  one  of  the    latest   planii  of 
!astlereagh. 

1675.  Greece.  A  proposal  of  the  Czar  to  divide  Greece  into  three 
Principalities,  tributaiv  to  the  Sultan  and  garrisoned  by  the  Turks,  hat 
autonomous,  is  not  adopted.  Ibrahim  Pasha  is  sent  by  Mehemet,  at 
the  request  of  the  Sultan,  to  take  Crete,  and  overruns  the  Peloponnesii& 
The  Turkish  fleet,  however,  is  destroved  at  Mitylene.  Byron,  who  h» 
come  to  aid  the  struggle  for  independence,  dies  at  MissoIonghL 

1676.  AArica.    The  English  are  defeated  in  Ashantee. 

1677.  Asia.    The  East  India  Company  takes  Rangoon. 
England  restores  Sumatra  to  Holland,  and  receives  Malacca. 


14]  CULTURE  339 

}9.    Philology.    Klaproth's  Asia  Polyglotta. 

W,     History.    Thiers  History  of  the  French  Revolution. 

)1,    Education.    Jacotot  s  Enseignement  Universel  asserts  that  all 

{hildren  possess  equal  intelligence,  and  that  the  task  of  the  teacher  is 

uther  to  stimulate  than  to  instruct. 

Birkbeck  founds  the  first  Mechanics'  Institute. 
^.    Geography.    An  English  expedition  discovers  Lake  Chad. 
)S.    Social.    Owing  to  the  efforts  of  Romilly  and  Mackintosh,  Peel 
kbolishes  the  death  penalty  on  100  crimes. 

Huskisson  carries  his  Reciprocity  of  Duties  Bill,  largely  modifying 
:he  Navigation  Acts. 

Owen  plants  communistic  settlements  in  America,  which,  however, 
quickly  fail 

The  Oxford  Union  Society  is  founded. 
)4.    Death.    Ricardo. 


75.  Eng.  Ch.  The  Catholic  English  and  Irish  bishops  declare  ri  004 
hat  the  Popes  possess  no  civil  authority.  ^ 

76.  French  Ch.  Lamennais  visits  Rome,  is  warmly  greeted  by  the 
?ope,  and  on  his  return  attacks  Gallicanism,  and  advocates  theocracy 
ma  the  political  supremacy  of  the  Pope.  He  is  prosecuted  for  his 
Religion  consid^r^  dans  ses  Rapports  avec  I'Ordre  Politique  et  Civile, 
md  defended  by  Berryer. 

}7.     Xng.  Lit.    Lander's  Imaginary  Conversations. 

)8.     Italian  Ut.    Leopardi's  Canzoni. 

^.     £k)ience.    Liebig  establishes  a  chemical  laboratory  at  Giessen. 

Von  Buch's  geological  map  of  Germany. 

Camot's  Puissance  motrice  du  Feu  attempts  to  determine  mathe- 
oaticallv  the  power  of  a  steam-engine.  In  later  writings  he  grasps  the 
aw  of  the  conservation  of  energy. 

Bessel  introduces  '  Bessel's  Functions'  into  pure  mathematics. 
^0.     Art.    The  National  Gallery  is  founded  in  London,  with  Anger- 
.tein's  collection  as  a  nucleus. 

'/.  Philology.  Boeckh  begins  the  Corpus  Inscriptionum  Graecarum. 
f^.  Philosophy.  Herbart's  Psychology  as  a  Science  rejects  the 
heorv  of  the  mind  as  an  aggregate  of  &culties.  Ideas  become  asso- 
lated  in  groups,  the  strong  recalling  the  weak. 

The  Westminster  Review  is  founded,  Bentham  being  the  proprietor 
knd  Bowring  editor.  In  the  first  number  James  Mill  attacKs  the 
Sdinburi^h  &view.  Similar  Radical  principles  are  championed  by  Fon- 
ilanqae  m  the  Examiner. 

!S.  History.  Ranke's  Latin  and  Teutonic  Nations,  1494—1519, 
fiih  an  appendix  on  the  sources,  inaugurates  the  critical  period  of 
listoriograpny. 

Clinton's  Fasti  Hellenici. 
^4.     Social.    Hume  and  Huskisson  repeal  the  Combination  Laws. 
'5.    Deaths.    Byron,  Consalvi,  Joubert,  Wolf. 

22—2 


340  '    POLITICS 


1678.  Ireland.  The  Catholic  Association  is  suppressed  for  three  r^g25 
years ;  but  the  work  is  continued  without  the  name.  ^ 

Emancipation  resolutions  are  carried  by  Burdett  in  the  Commons. 

Bishop  Doyle  is  examined  by  Parliament  on  the  creed  of  Gatholka, 
and  his  evidence  greatly  contributes  to  remove  the  objections  agUDSt 
Emancipation. 

1679.  Netherlands.    A  movement  for  independence  b^;iiis. 

1680.  Germany.  Bavaria  and  Wiirtemberg  make  a  commercial  trettj. 
which  becomes  the  nucleus  of  the  Zollverein. 

1681.  Hungary.  In  consequence  of  the  rising  discontent  the  Diet  i$ 
allowed  to  meet  every  three  years.  Szechenyi  i^peftks  in  Hunguian 
and  founds  a  Hungarian  Academy  of  Sciences.  The  demand  for  the 
use  of  the  Magyar  language  excites  the  resentment  of  the  Slav  races. 

1682.  Russia.  Nicholas  succeeds,  after  putting  down  a  dangeroiu 
revolt  in  the  army,  and  declares  against  Western  methods  and  ideas. 
The  Slavophil  party,  led  by  Aksakov  and  Eoshelev,  rapidly  grows. 

1683.  Greece.  Ibrahim  besieges  Missolonghi,  and  the  Greeks  pbce 
themselves  under  the  protection  of  England 

1684.  Turkey.  Stratford  Canning,  first  cousin  of  George  Caoning, 
becomes  ambassador  at  Constantinople. 

1685.  America.  With  Monroe's  resignation,  the  'era  of  good  fediog' 
ends.  In  the  presidential  election,  Jackson,  the  victor  of  New  Oriaw. 
obtains  most  votes ;  but  Clay's  supporters  vote  for  Quincy  Adams,  wbo 
is  consequently  elected.  Jackson's  friends  raise  the  ciy  of  a  cmupi 
bargain. 

A  Confess  of  South  and  Central  American  States  is  summoned  br 
Bolivar  to  rauama.  Columbia,  Peru,  Mexico,  and  Central  Ammca  ally: 
but  Bolivar's  scheme  of  a  federal  army  and  navy  is  not  adopted 

Adams  desires  to  send  to  take  part  in  tne  Congress  in  order  to 
obtain  recognition  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine.  But  Congress  delays  iu 
sanction  till  the  Congress  is  over. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  '  Banda  Oriental'  (Montevideo,  etc.)  reTolt 
against  Brazil  and  found  the  Republic  of  Uruguay. 

England  makes  commercial  treaties  with  Columbia  and  Mexico. 

1686.  Australia.    Tasmania  becomes  a  separate  colony. 


1687.     Portugal.    The  King  dies,  and  his  son,  Pedro,  Emperor  of  Mg26 
Brazil,  issues  a  charter,  ana,  being  debarred  by  the  Constitution.   ^ 
gives  the  inheritance  to  his  daughter,  Maria.     Miguel  opposes  her.  ao'l 


1826]  CULTURE  841 

B616.    Eng.  Ch.    Thirlwall  translates  Schleiermacher's  Essay  on   ^1325 
Luke,  and  adds  a  prefieu^e,  in  part  composed  by  Hare,  on  German   ^ 
theology.     Hugh  James  Rose  preaches  a  course  of  sermons  at  Cam- 
bridge, denouncing  the  Protestantism  of  Germany  as  anti-Christian. 

Whately's  Peculiarities  of  the  Christian  ReUgion  founds  the  Broad 
Church  treatment  of  theology. 

The  E^  of  Brid^ewater  endows  a  lectureship  on  Natural  Science 
as  a  branch  of  Christian  evidence,  which  is  held  by  Chalmers,  Whewell, 
Bell,  and  others. 

Coleridge's  Aids  to  Reflection  base  religion  on  spiritual  apprehen- 
sion, not  on  '  Evidences.' 

W.  J.  Fox,  Minister  at  South  Place  Chapel,  founds  the  British  and 
Foreign  Unitaiian  Association. 
2617.    American  Ch.    Joe  Smith,  a  farmer,  publishes  the  Book  of 
Mormon,  which  he  declares  to  be  a  translation  irom  tablets  written  by 
the  remnants  of  the  ten  tribes  who  migrated  to  America. 
8618,    Eng.  Lit.    Lord  Braybrooke  edits  Pepys'  Diary. 

Macaula^'s  Essay  on  Milton  in  the  Edinburgh  Review. 

Scott  is  involved  in  the  niin  of  his  publishers. 

2619.  Italian  Lit.  Manzoni's  The  Betrothed  founds  the  romantic  school. 
Vieusseux    edits  the   Antologia,   a   review  to  which  Tommaseo, 

Mamiani,  Romagnosi,  and  other  reformers  contribute. 

2620.  Spanish  Lit.    Heredia's  Poems  mark  the  birth  of  Spanish- 
American  literature. 

2621.  Swedish  Lit.    Tegner's  Frithiofs  Saga. 

2622.  Russian  Lit.    Pushkin's  Boris  Godounoff  founds  the  historical 
drama. 

262S.     Soience.    Stephenson's  railway  from  Stockton  to  Darlington  is 

Poulett  Scrope's  Considerations  on  Volcanoes. 
Legendre's  Traits  des  Fonctions  Elliptiques. 
W.  E.  and  E.  H.  Weber's  Wave  Theory. 

2624.  Art.    Cornelius  frescoes  the  Ludwigskirche  at  Munich,  and  with 
Kaulbach  revives  fresco  painting. 

2625.  Archaeology.    Flint  tools  and  bones  of  extinct  animals  are 
found  in  Kent's  Cavern,  Torauay. 

2626.  History.    Neander's  Histor}-  of  the  Christian  Church. 

2627.  Econcmiics.    Dunoyer's  ik   Libert^  du  Travail,  an    extreme 
presentation  of  laissez-faire. 

2628.  Education.    The  University  of  London  is  founded  by  Brougham, 
Joseph  Hume,  and  others,  including  a  number  of  Dissenters. 

2629.  Social.    All  combinations  except  for  the  piu^ose  of  fixing  wages 
are  declared  ille^. 

26S0.    Deaths.    David,  Courier,  Richter,  St  Simon. 


2631.    Eng.   Ch.    Rose  preaches  at  Cambridge  on  the  duties    ^326 
of  the  clergy,  and  founds  the  conception  of  modern  High  Church-    '■ 
manship. 


342  POLITICS  [: 

Spain  e(}uips  an  expedition,  and  Canning  therefore  sends  English  troops 
to  her  aid. 

1688.  Greece.  Missolonghi  falls  after  a  year's  siege.  Canning  makes 
a  secret  convention  with  the  Tsar,  to  whom  Wellington  is  sent,  to 
obtain  antonomy  for  Greece.  Both  Powers  disolaim  the  intention  of 
seeking  any  territorial  or  commercial  adyantaffes.  France  joins,  bot 
Austria  and  Prussia  oppose  intervention.  The  Holy  Alliance  is  virtnillj 
dissolved  by  the  action  of  Nicholas. 

1689.  Turkey.  The  Janissaries  mutiny  and  are  massacred.  This 
occurrence  leaves  the  Sultan  without  an  army,  and  compels  him  to 
accept  the  whole  of  the  Tsar's  demands.  The  Convention  of  Acker- 
mann  confirms  the  Treaty  of  Bucharest.  Russia  is  to  occupy  the 
fortresses  on  the  East  coast  of  the  Black  Sea,  Russian  ships  to  have  the 
right  of  entering  all  Turkish  waters,  and  S&rnB,  to  elect  its  prince  and 
manage  its  internal  afifairs.  The  princes  of  Moldavia  and  Wiulachia  are 
to  be  elected  by  the  nobles  for  seven  years,  the  Saltan  not  to  refbe 
confirmation  nor  depose  without  consent  of  the  Tsar.  The  princes  are 
also  enjoined  to  pay  attention  to  Russian  representations. 

Russia  declai^  war  against  Persia. 

1690.  Asia.    The  East  India  Company  takes  Assam. 


1691.  En^and.    Lord  Liverpool  resigns;  Canning  becomes  Prime   nggf 
Minister,  and  gives  ofiice  to  Palmerston  and  a  few  other  Whigs.   '- 
Wellington,  Peel  and  Eldon   refuse  to  serve  with  him   (AprilX  aoil 
withdraw.     Canning  dies  four   months  later,  and    is    succeeded  by 
Goderich. 

1692.  France.  The  National  Guards  are  broken  up  for  demanding  the 
charter  and  a  iree  press.  Vill^le  creates  76  new  Peers  and  dissolves  the 
Chambers;  but  the  candidates  of  the  Government  are  routed,  and 
Vill^le  is  forced  to  resign. 

1693.  Portugal.    Miguel  becomes  Regent. 

1694.  Greece.  A  treaty  is  made  by  England,  France,  and  Ruwii 
pledging  themselves  to  offer  mediation  and  to  demand  an  armistice. 
Greece  to  become  autonomous.  Secret  articles  declare  that  if  the  Saltia 
refuses  mediation,  the  Powers  shall  themselves  take  steps  to  obtain  an 
armistice,  if  possible  without  recourse  to  arms  (July). 

Ibrahim  takes  the  Acropolis,  and  receives  laige  reinforcements.  The 
Sultan,  encouraged  by  Mettemich,  refuses  the  mediation  of  the  Pov«n. 
Lord  Cochrane  becomes  Admiral  of  the  Greek  fleet,  and  Richard  ChurA 
General  of  the  land  forces.  The  allied  fleets,  commanded  by  Codringtoo. 
call  on  Ibrahim  to  cease  hostilities,  and  enter  the  harbour  of  Navarioo 
to  enforce  submission  ;  the  Turkish  fleet  fires,  and,  after  a  sharp  battle, 
is  destroyed  (Oct.).  Ibraliim  is  recalled.  The  battle  is  described  bj 
Wellington  as  an  untoward  event,  and,  on  the  death  of  Caaning,  h» 


L8S7]  CULTURE  343 

26SS.    French  Ch.    Montlosier,  a  Gallican,  attacks  the  Jesuits,  the 

CoDgr^^tion,  and  the  non-observance  of  the  Articles  of  1682. 
XS3.    American  Ch.    Hicks,  a  Quaker,  denies  the  divinity  of  Christ, 

and  leaves  the  Society  with  many  others. 
i6S4.    Eng.  Lit.    Disraeli's  Vivian  Grey  and  Bulwer's  Pelham  introduce 

the  '  dandy  school.' 
26$6.    French  Lit.    De  Vigny's  Cinq-Mars. 
i636.    (German  Lit.    Heine's  Pictures  of  Travel. 
Hauff's  lichtenstein. 
Lachmann  edits  the  Nibelungenlied  texts. 
2637,    Art.    Schadow's  arrival  ushers  in  the  golden  age  of  the  Dusseldorf 

school  of  painting. 

26S8,    Science,    ^e  de  Beaumont  and  Dufr^noy  construct  a  geological 
map  of  France. 

Nobili's  galvanometer  proves  the  existence  of  an  electric  current  in 


Butrochet  studies  the  respiration  of  plants. 

Ohm's  Law  asserts  that  the  electromotive  force,  divided  by  the 
resistance,  equals  the  strength  of  the  current. 

Tiedemann  and  Gmelin  study  digestion. 

Raffles  founds  the  Zoolodcal  Society  and  Gardens  in  London. 
J6S9.    Eiconomics.    Bau,  Hermann  and  Nebenius  develope  the  ideas  of 
Adam  Smith  and  the  'classic'   Political    Economy.     Van  Thunen's 
Isolated  State  investigates  the  problems  connected  with  the  market  and 


^iO.    Politics.    Saint  Simon's  Nouveau  Christianisme  outlines  a  social 

system  afterwards  adopted  by  his  pupil  Comte. 
X41.    Law.    Kent's  Commentaries  on  American  Law. 
^4^.    History.    The    Monumenta  GrermanisB    Historica,  planned    by 

Stein  and  edited  by  Pertz,  begin  to  appear. 
•^.    Deaths.    Adams,  Heber,  Jefferson,  Oberlin,  Raffles. 


i^U-    Sn^  Ch.    Keble's  Christian  Year.  M327 

Heber's  Hymns.  '- 

•^.    Oerman  Ch.    Hengstenberg's  Kirchenzeitung  revives  Lutheran 

orthodoxy. 
^.    Sng.  Lit.    The  brothers  Hare  issue  Guesses  at  Truth. 
^.    Fraich  Lit.    Victor  Hugo's  Preface  to  his  drama  Cromwell 

exphbs  the  romantic  movement. 

Stendhal's  Racine  et  Shakspere  maintains  that  all  new  works  are 

vomaDtic,  and  become  classic  with  age. 
^.    Italian  Lit.    Leopardi  publishes  his  Moral  Works. 
^.    Danish  Lit.    Heiberg  edits  the  Copenhagen  Flying  Post 
^.    American  Lit.    Dana's  The  Buccaneer. 
^1.    Science.    Von  Baer's  Origin  of  the  Ovum  founds  scientific  Em- 

liyology,  and  shews  that  all  ova  are  at  first  identical     His  work  is 

eontinaed  by  Rudolph  Wagner. 

Gieen  states  his  theorem  concerning  'the  potential,'  of  which  he 


344  POLITICS  [IttT 

Solicy  18  reversed,  and  Russia  is  left  to  oontinue  the  oombat  giii|^ 
anded.    The  annihilation  of  the  Turkish  fleet,  however,  com^etdy 
alters  the  conditions  of  the  struggle. 

1695.  Africa.    Waghom  organises  transport  between  Cairo  and  Son, 

1696.  Asia.    A  diq>uted  succession  leads  to  British  interfentioii  in 
Bhurtpore. 


1697.  England.    Goderich  resigns  (Jan.),  and  Wellington  and  r^gag 
Peel  take  office,  leaving  Emancipation  an  open  question.    Hna-  ^ 
kisson,  Palmerston,  Lamb,  and  other  Ganningites  resign,  the  ministiT 
becoming  purely  Tory. 

Russell  carries  the  Repeal  of  the  Corporation  and  Test  Acts,  ad- 
mitting Nonconformists  to  Parliament,  though  retaining  the  declantioa 
against  Transubstantiation. 

1698.  Ireland.  The  Catholic  Association  is  revived,  and  O^Qmndl  i* 
elected  for  Clare.  His  election  is  regarded  as  rendering  finaneipatioD 
inevitable. 

1699.  France.  Marti^ac  forms  a  moderate  ministx3%  which,  howerer, 
is  distrusted  by  the  Einc,  and  receives  no  support  from  the  LiberaU. 

1700.  Portugal.    Miguel  seizes  the  crown  ana  revokes  Uie  GonatitatioiL 

1701.  Russia.    The  two  vears'  war  with  Persia  ends,  Russia  obtainini: 

g^rt  of  Armenia  and  forbidding  Persia  to  possess  armed  ships  on  tlie 
aspian. 

1702.  Greece.  Capodistrias  is  appointed  president  of  Greece  for  seTCD 
years,  and  is  informed  that  Greece  must  remain  tributary  to  the  SuIUn. 

A  French  army  is  sent  to  expel  Ibrahim  from  the  Morea,  and  Capcv* 
distrias  clears  the  countrj'  north  of  the  Gulf  of  CorintL 
yo8.  Turkey.  The  Sultan  summons  the  Mohamedan  world  to  m 
attack  on  Russia,  and  expels  the  Christian  residents  in  Constantinople. 
The  Tsar  declares  war  (April),  and  takes  Varna,  Ears,  and  Erzenun. 
The  failure  to  take  Silistria,  however,  encourages  Mettemich  to  another 
attempt  to  form  a  coalition  against  Russia. 

1704.  America.  The  'Tariff  of  Abominations'  imposes  high  duties  on 
raw  materials  and  on  manufactured  goods.  In  an  Exposition  &»! 
Protest,  drawn  up  by  Calhoun,  South  Carolina  suggests  a  convention  to 
declare  the  Act  null  and  void.  Webster  foreteUs  a  Southern  Coin 
federacy. 

Jackson  is  elected  President,  representing  a  nationalist  democnicT. 
and  Calhoun  Vice-President.     Van  Buren  is  chosen  Secretary  of  State. 

1705.  AMca.  The  African  Company  being  dissolved,  1821,  the  Govern- 
luent  grants  the  Gold  Coast  to  London  merchants,  wlio  create  the  Gohi 
Coast  Protectorate. 


1828]  CULTURE  345 

proves  the  chief  properties,  and  applies  the  results  to  electricity-  and 
magnetism.    Gauss  arrives  independently  at  the  same  results,  1839. 

2652,    Art    Strauss 'Kettenbrucke' waltzes. 

265S.    History.    Hallam's  Constitutional  History  of  England. 

2654.  Education.  A  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful  Knowledge  is 
founded  by  Brougham  and  his  friends. 

2655.  Philology.  W.  Humboldt's  Letter  to  R^musat  on  grammatical 
forms. 

2656.  Deaths.  Beethoven,  William  Blake,  Foscolo,  Fresnel,  La  Place, 
Pestalozzi,  Volta. 

2657.  Eng.  Ch.  Pusey  replies  to  Rose's  attack  on  German  r|023 
theology.  ^ 

Milman's  History  of  the  Jews  is  hotly  attacked. 

2658.  Oerxnan  Ch.  Ullmann  founds  the  journal,  Theologische  Studien, 
as  an  organ  of  the  disciples  of  Schleiermacher. 

Grunther's  Introduction  to  Speculative  Theology  is  accused  of  denying 
Christianity. 

2659.  Eng.  Lit.    The  Athenaeum  newspaper  is  founded. 

Carlyle's  Essay  on  Goethe  calls  attention  to  German  Literature, 
hitherto  studied  only  by  William  Taylor,  Coleridge,  and  Crabb 
Bobinson. 

2660.  French  Lit.    Villemain  lectures  at  the  Sorbonne  on  literature. 

2661.  Eksience.  Wohler  produces  urea,  an  organic  compound,  from  an 
inorganic  substance,  ammonium  cyanite,  thus  founding  organic 
chemistry. 

Abel  discusses  the  higher  transcendents  of  multiple  periodicity,  and 
founds  the  study  of  elliptic  functions. 
Cuvier's  Histoire  naturelle  des  Poissons. 
Brongniart's  Histoire  des  V^^taux  Fossiles. 

2662.  Alt.    Sontag  and  Malibran  make  their  d^but. 

Ainmiiller  becomes  director  of  the  new  painted  glass  manufactory 
in  Munich,  and  works  with  transmitted  light. 

2663.  Philosophy.  Herbart's  General  Metaphysics  asserts  that  the 
unit  of  being  is  the  monad,  the  states  of  which  are  ideas  and  their 
relations,  and  which  possesses  no  power  of  self-development. 

Combe's  Constitution  of  Man  popularises  phrenology  and  the  idea  of 
the  connexion  between  mind  and  body. 

2664.  Philology.    Noah  Webster's  English  Dictionary. 

2665.  History.    Guizot  lectures  at  the  Sorbonne. 
Napier's  History  of  the  Peninsular  War. 

266ti.    Law.    Jacob  Grimm's  Legal  Antiquities. 

2667.  Politics.  Coleridge's  Constitution  of  Church  and  State  maintains 
that  the  National  Church  should  embrace  the  whole  'spiritual  power'  of 
the  nation. 

Bazard  and  Enfantin  explain  and  develope  the  teaching  of  St  Simon. 

2668.  Social.  A  sliding  scale  duty  on  com  is  adopted,  36/8  when  the 
price  is  50/,  decreasing  as  it  rises  and  increasing  as  it  falls. 


346  POUTics  [Utt 


1706.  England.  Wellington  and  Peel  propose  Catholic  financi-  Mgjg 
pation,  and  overcome  the  King's  resistuice.  ^  ^ 

Hume's  motion  for  a  Committee  to  consider  the  repeal  of  the  Con 
Laws  obtains  12  votes. 

1707.  Ireland.  O'Connell  is  re-elected  for  Clare,  and  begins  to  agitite 
for  repeal.     The  Catholic  Association  is  suppressed. 

1708.  fSrance.  Martignac  is  dismissed,  and  Polignac  forms  an  ultn- 
royalist  ministry.  Lafayette  leads  an  agitation  against  the  Ooven- 
ment. 

1709.  Germany.    Prussia  joins  the  ZoUverein. 

1710.  Spain.  The  Ein^  marries  for  a  fourth  time,  and  issaes  a  prag- 
matic sanction,  abolishing  the  Salic  Law.  The  Kind's  brother,  Doii 
Carlos,  protests.  A  daugnter,  Isabella,  is  bom,  and  is  recognised  hj 
the  King  as  his  heiress. 

1711.  Portugal.  Chartists  and  Constitutionalists  revolt  against  Migad 
and  declare  for  Maria. 

1712.  Greece.  Russia,  England,  and  France  decide  on  the  complete 
independence  of  Greece,  and  resolve  to  place  a  prince  of  one  of  the  kner 
royal  houses  on  the  throne. 

1713.  Turkey.  The  Russians  cross  the  Balkans,  take  Silistria,  tnd 
threaten  Adrianople,  where  a  treaty  is  signed.  The  Sultan  recognises 
the  independence  of  Greece.  Russia  resigns  her  conquests,  except  some 
islands  at  the  mouth  of  the  Danube  and  a  strip  of  territory  m  Am 
Minor.  The  Sultan  is  to  pay  a  large  indemni^.  Moldavia  and 
Wallachia  become  virtually  independent,  paying^  a  fixed  sum  annniUr 
to  the  Porte,  which  withdraws  its  garrisons.    The  Hospodan  are  to  be 

I  appointed  for  life.  The  navigation  of  the  Danube  becomes  free,  ind 
vessels  of  neutral  powers  may  pass  through  the  Dardanelles.  PoligDic 
and  Charles  X.  propose  a  pa^ition  of  the  Ottoman  Empire,  and  & 
rearrangement  of  Europe. 

1714.  America.  Jackson  expels  a  large  number  of  officials  and  substi- 
tutes  his  own  friends  and  supporters,  thus  inaugurating  the  Spoik 
system.  He  neglects  his  official  ministers  for  a  group  of  perMud 
friends,  known  as  the  Kitchen  Cabinet. 

1715.  Australasia.    Captain  Stirling  founds  Western  Australia. 
Gibbon  Wakefield's  Letter  from  Sydney  lays  down  the  principles 

afterwards  elaborated  in  his  Art  of  Colonisation,  urging  the  cessation  of 
free  grants  of  land,  the  regulation  of  the  volume  of  emigration  accordini; 
to  the  needs  of  the  colony,  the  maintenance  of  proportion  in  the  seies, 
and  the  systematic  survey  of  territory. 


1716.  England.    The  Birmingham  Political  Union  leads  the  cry   mm 
for  reform,  but  Wellin^n  declares  that  the  constitution  admits  '- 

of  no  improvement.  He  is  defeated,  and  resigns  (Nov.).  GreyfoniH 
a  ministry,  including  Russell,  Althorp,  Melm)ume,  Brougham,  and 
Palmerston,  and  stipulates  that  reform  shall  be  a  Cabinet  measure. 

1717.  France.    The  Liberals  form  a  majority  in  the  new  Pariiament, 
leii  by  Royer-Collard  and  Guizot,  and  carry  votes  of  want  of  confidence. 


1880]  CULTURE  847 

2669.  Gennan  Ch.    Nitzsch's  System  of  Christian  Doctrine,   no2g 
an  orthodox  Lutiieran  presentation  deeply  influenced  by  Schleier-  ■- 
macher. 

2670.  American  Ch.    The  first  Catholic  Provincial  Council  is  held. 

2671.  Asiatic  Ch.    Suttee  is  forbidden  in  India. 

2672.  French  Lit.  Sainte-Beuve's  Joseph  Delorme,  Hugo's  Orientales, 
M^rim^'s  Charies  IX.,  and  Dumas'  Henri  III.  et  sa  Cour,  apply  the 
principles  of  romanticism. 

267S.  PoUah  Lit.  Mickiewicz'  Conrad  Wallenrod,  a  poem  on  the 
struggles  of  the  Poles  against  the  Teutonic  Knights. 

2674.  xCorw^an  Ut.    Wergeland's  Poems  introduce  romanticism. 

2675.  Science.    Jacobi's  Theory  of  Elliptic  Functions. 
Gauss  enunciates  the  principle  of  least  constraint. 
Lobatchewsky  continues  the  study  of  metageometry  inaugurated  by 

Granss,  and  declares  that  the  Euclidean  axiom  of  parallels  cannot  be 
deduced  from  the  others.  The  same  result  is  reached  independently  by 
Bolyai.  1832. 

Graham's  Law  states  that  the  diffusion  rate  of  gases  is  inversely  as 
the  square  root  of  their  density. 

Nicol  lays  the  foundation  of  microscopical  petrology  by  improving 
the  optical  methods  of  investi^tion  of  rocks. 

The  Liverpool  and  Manchester  railway  is  opened,  Stephenson's 
engine  moving  35  miles  an  hour. 

2676.  Art.    Chopin's  d^but  as  a  pianist. 
Rossini's  William  Tell. 

Solger^s  Aesthetics,  influenced  bv  Schelling  and  Herbart,  represent 
beauty  as  an  immediate  revelation  oi  (rod. 

2677.  Philosophy.  James  Mill's  Analysis  of  the  Human  Mind 
developes  Hartley's  doctrine  of  association. 

Hamilton's  article  on  the  Philosophy  of  the  Conditioned,  in  the 
Edinbur]^h  Review,  criticises  the  opinions  of  Cousin. 

2678.  Fmlology.  Lobeck's  Aglaopnamus  replies  to  Creuzer  and  declares 
that  the  Mysteries  possessed  no  important  esoteric  knowledge. 

Dobrovsky's  Grammar  of  the  Czech  Language. 

2679.  Education.    Thomas  Arnold  becomes  Head  Master  of  Rugby. 
^80.     SociaL    The  first  Temperance  societies  are  founded  in  England. 

Peel  creates  a  new  police  lor  London. 

Lady  Blessington  and  Count  D'Orsay  open  their  salon  in  London. 
2681.    Deaths.    Abel,  Davy,  F.  Schlegel,  Young. 


2682.    Sng.  Ch.    Mary  Campbell  of  Rosneath  begins  to  speak   moqq 

with  tongues,  and  cases  shortly  occur  in  Irving's  congregation  in    '- 

London. 
268S.    French  Ch.    The  Congregation  is  broken  up,  the  bishops  cease 

to  sit  in  die  House  of  Peers,  and  the  new  Government  proclaims  that 

Catholicism  is  no  longer  the  State  religion. 

i4uneunais  fonncu  a  journal  L'Avenir,  aided  by  Montalembert, 

Lacoidaiie,  Gerbet,  Salinis,  Rohrbacher,  and  advocates  a  firee  press  and 


348  POLITICS  [Un 

The  Chamber  is  dissolved,  but  ite  successor  proves  even  more  hostile. 
The  King  therefore  issues  Ordinances,  dissolving  ihe  diamber,  sop- 
pressing  the  Liberal  papers,  and  raising  the  property  qualification 
(July  25).    The  Revolution  of  the  '  Three  Dave '  (July  27—9)  tdm 

5 lace,  and  the  Elin^  dismisses  Polignac  and  withdraws  the  Ordinuxm 
leanwhile  a  provisional  government  is  formed  by  La&yetle,  Lifitti, 
and  Casimir-P^rier,  who,  with  Thiers,  invite  Louis  PhilipDe  to  beeonie 
Lieutenant-General  till  the  meetinffof  the  Chamber,  (m^ans  aanm 
Charles  of  his  fidelity ;  but  the  King  and  the  Bauidiin  resign  in 
favour  of  the  Duke  of  Bordeaux,  and  ask  Orleans  to  be  Ref^t  A 
rumour  spreads  that  Charles  meditates  an  attack  <m  Paris,  and  a  mob 
marches  to  Bambouillet.  Charles  flies  to  England,  and  Origans  becomes 
King.  A  new  Charter  is  issued.  The  press  is  freed,  hereditarv  peense 
is  abolished,  direct  election  is  restored,  the  franchise  is  lowered,  and  the 
King  is  forbidden  to  suspend  laws,  to  appoint  extraordinary  tribunak 
or  to  employ  foreign  troops.  The  new  ministry  iDcludes  Ltfitte. 
Casimir-Pmer,  Guizot,  and  De  Brodie. 

1718.  Belgium.  Rel3ring  on  French  support  the  Belgiims  rise  against 
the  King,  and  the  Dutch  troops  are  expelled.  The  provisional  govern- 
ment proclaims  independence,  and  summons  a  congress,  which  oonfinni 
the  declaration  and  pronounces  for  a  monarchy.  A  confereoce  of  the 
great  Powers,  to  whom  the  King  appeals,  meets  in  London,  and,  lar;^ 
owiuK  to  the  influence  of  Palmerston,  recognises  the  claims  of  Belgium 
to  inaependence.  Louis  Philippe  promises  not  to  accept  the  crown,  nor 
to  allow  the  formation  of  a  republic. 

1719.  Germany.  The  Duke  of  Bninswick  is  expelled  (Sept),  and 
risings  occur  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  Saxony,  Hanover,  and  Hesse-GMBeL 
Saxony  grants  a  Constitution,  and  concessions  are  made  in  several  of 
the  smaller  principalities.     The  Young  Germany  movement  revives. 

1 720.  Switzerland.  The  oligarchy  in  certain  of  the  large  towns  is  otct- 
thrown,  and  constitutional  reforms  are  introduced. 

172 J.  Poland.  Owing  to  breaches  of  the  constitution  since  1819,  ainl 
to  the  activity  of  secret  societies,  a  rising  takes  place  at  Warsaw,  the 
Russians  are  massacred,  and  Adam  Czartoryski  becomes  head  of  the 
provisional  government.  Terms  are  proposed  to  Nicholas,  but  are 
refused. 

1722.  Greece.  A  Conference  in  London  defines  the  frontier  of  Greece. 
A  constitution  is  granted,  and  the  crown  is  offered  to  Leopold  of  Saxe- 
Coburg,  who  refuses  it. 

1723.  Turkey.  Milosch  is  confirmed  as  Wnce  of  Servia,  under  the 
obligation  to  pay  tribute  to  the  Sultan  and  to  maintain  a  Turki>k 
garrison  in  Belgrade. 

1724.  America.  In  a  debate  on  the  disjxysal  of  public  lands,  Daniel 
Webster  replies  to  Hayne's  vindication  of  State  Rights,  and  declare^ 
that  the  Constitution  is  not  a  compact,  but  an  instrument  formed  by  the 
*  People  of  the  United  States.' 

After  several  attempts  to  throw  off  the  authority  of  Bolivar, 
Columbia  breaks  up  into  New  Granada  (Columbia),  Venesuela,  an»l 
Ecuador,  and  Bolivar  withdraws  from  public  life  and  dies. 


1880]  CULTURE  349 


education,  and  cessation  of  the  subsidy  for  the  clergy.    Montalembert 
and  Lacordaire  open  a  school,  which  is  quickly  suppressed. 
26S4'    Oerxnan  Ch.    Gerlach  denounces  Gresenius  and  Wegscheider  of 
Halle  as  non-Christians. 

2685.  Asiatic  Ch.  Bammohun  Roy  founds  the  first  Brahmo  Somaj,  or 
Theistic  Church,  in  Calcutta. 

2686.  Italian  Ch.    Rosmini  founds  the  Institute  of  Charity. 

2687.  Eng.  Lit    Carleton's  Traits  and  Stories  of  the  Irish  Peasantry. 

2688.  Trench  Lit.  Victor  Hugo's  Hernani  is  acted,  and  Gautier,  his 
disciple,  publishes  his  first  poems. 

M^m^'s  Colomba. 

Thiers  founds  a  review,  the  National,  and  is  shortly  succeeded  in 
the  editorship  by  Armand  Carrel. 

2689.  Gtorxnan  Lit.    Anastasius  Griin's  (Auersperg)  The  Last  Knight 

2690.  Scienoe.  Robert  Brown  studies  structural  and  physiological 
botany. 

Lyell's  Principles  of  Geolo^  continue  the  work  of  Hutton  and 
enforce  the  doctrine  of  UuiformitarianiAm. 
Audubon's  Birds  of  America. 

0.  St  Hilaire  and  Cuvier  discuss  the  evolution  or  creation  of  animal 
types. 

Vaughan  Thompson  discovers  that  barnacles  are  degenerate  Crus- 
tacea, and  studies  tne  ^ou{)  Polyzoa. 

2691.  Art  Rauch  begins  his  20  years'  work  on  the  statue  of  Frederick 
the  Great,  Berlin. 

King  Ludwi^  of  Bavaria  commissions  Elenze  to  build  the  Walhalla, 
on  the  model  of  the  Parthenon,  near  Regensburg,  and  fills  it  with  the 
busts  of  distinguished  Germans.  During  the  same  period,  Schinkel 
designs  the  Museum  at  Berlin  in  Classical  style. 

Auber's  Fra  Diavolo. 

2692.  Fhilosophy .  Comte's  Philosophie  Positive  declares  that  Thought 
has  passed  through  a  theolo^cal  and  a  metaphysical  stage,  and  has  now 
entered  a  positive  or  scientific  stage,  in  which  the  sciences  are  related 
and  classified,  and  a  sociology,  or  science  of  society,  is  reached. 

Rosmini's  Orifldn  of  Ideas  introduces  Kantianism  into  Italy. 
Mackintosh's  Dissertation  on  Ethical  Philosophy  supports  Intuition- 
ism,  but  adopts  the  Benthamite  view  of  utility  as  a  test  of  rightness. 

2693.  Philology.  Nitzsch  leads  a  reaction  against  Wolf  and  declares 
Homer  to  have  founded  the  Epopee,  i.e.,  to  have  blended  old  songs 
into  an  epic  Grote  adopts  this  view,  but  adds  that  Homer's  work,  the 
'  Achilleid,'  has  been  developed  into  an  Iliad. 

Freyti^s  Arabic  Lexicon. 

2694.  Politics.  Stahl's  Philosophy  of  Law  from  a  Historical  Standpoint 
sketches  the  Christian  state  and  attacks  the  conception  of  Naturrecht 
as  involving  too  much  human  freedom. 

Joufiroy  defends  the  conception  of  Droit  Naturel. 

2695.  Law.    Speranski  codifies  the  Russian  law. 

2696.  Sdocation.  King's  College,  London,  is  founded  for  members  of 
the  Established  Church. 


350  POLITICS  [1810 

1725.  Africa.  French  troops  land  in  Algiers  to  aveoge  an  insalt  to 
their  ambassador,  and  take  Algiers.  Constant  fighting  follows  with 
Abdul  Kader  in  East  Algeria. 

1726.  Asia.    Mysore  is  tanen  under  British  administration. 


1727.  England.  Russell  introduces  a  Reform  Bill,  to  abolish  r^^ 
60  boroughs,  and  to  deprive  46  others  of  one  member,  the  seats  ^ 
being  given  to  the  counties  and  the  great  towns,  eight  to  Scotland  snd 
five  to  Ireland.  In  the  counties  the  franchise  is  given  to  £10  ooot- 
holders  and  £50  leaseholders,  and  in  the  boroughs  to  £10  householdifn 
(March).  The  second  reading  is  carried  by  one,  and  on  an  amendment 
in  committee  against  the  reduction  of  members  for  England  and  Wal» 
it  is  withdrawn  and  Parliament  is  dissolved.  A  great  Whig  migoritr 
returns,  and  the  Bill,  slightly  amended,  is  passed,  with  the  additioD  of 
the  Chandos  amendment,  giving  the  franchise  in  counties  to  X50  tenants 
at  will,  but  is  rejected  by  the  Lords.  Riots  break  out  at  Bristol  and  in 
London,  and  the  Bill  is  again  introduced  (Dec.). 

Joseph  Hume  advocates  the  representation  of  the  coloniea. 

1 728.  Belgium.  The  London  Conference  detennines  that  Holland  siiall 
return  to  the  boundaries  of  1790,  widi  the  addition  of  Loxembnii^,  and 
that  Belgium  shall  pay  half  the  Dutch  debt.  These  terms  are  leiected 
bv  Belgium,  which  elects  Leopold  of  Saxe-Goburg,  the  English  candiditf. 
The  great  Powers  grant  Belgium  more  favourable  terms,  which,  how- 
ever, are  rejected  by  the  Dutch,  who  invade  Belgium,  but  retire  on  the 
appearance  of  a  French  army  and  an  English  fleet.  The  London  Con- 
ference draws  up  a  third  plan,  dividing  Luxemburg,  and  increasing 
Belgium's  contrioution  to  the  debt.  Be^ium  accepts  these  terms,  and 
is  recognised  by  all  the  Powers  but  Russia.  Its  neutrality  is  goaianteed 
by  the  Powers. 

1729.  Italy.  A  revolution  breaks  out  in  Modena,  in  the  Papal  States, 
where  Louis  Napoleon  joins  the  insurgents,  and  in  Parma.  The 
rulers,  however,  are  restored  by  the  Austrian  troops. 

The  direct  male  line  of  Savoy  ends  with  the  death  of  Charles  Felix, 
and  the  crown  passes  to  Charles  Albert.  Maadni  uiges  the  new  Ein^ 
to  fulfil  the  promise  of  his  youth. 

1730.  Poland.  Nicholas  is  deposed,  and  a  Russian  army  enters  Poland 
(Feb.),  and  after  meeting  with  a  heroic  resistance  at  Grochow  and 
Ostroleuka  takes  Warsaw  and  Cracow.  Many  thousand  Poles  are  sent 
to  Siberia. 

1731.  Denmark.  Frederick  VI.  creates  legislative  chambers  in  each 
province,  to  discuss  new  ordinances  and  approve  taxes. 

1732.  Greece.     Capodistrias  is  assassinated. 

1733.  America.  The  Liberator  newspaper  is  established  by  Uoyi 
Garrison  in  Boston,  urging  immediate  abolition  of  slavery  without  ctm- 
pensation. 


1831]  CULTURE  351 


iSG97.  Geography.  The  African  Association  becomes  the  Greographical 
Society. 

The  Brothers  Lander,  sent  out  by  the  English  Grovemment,  trace 
the  Niger  from  fiusa  to  the  sea. 

Start  traces  the  course  of  the  Murray. 

2698.  Social.    Cholera  first  appears  in  Europe. 

2699.  Death.    Fourier. 


2700,  Scotch  Ch.  McLeod  Campbell  is  deposed  from  the  ministry  riooi 
for  his  views  on  the  universality  of  the  Atonement.  *- 

2701,  American  Ch.    William  Miller  founds  the  Adventists. 
270£.    Bng.  Lit    Peacock's  Crotchet  Castle. 

2703.    French  Lit.    Victor  Hugo's  Notre  Dame. 

Stendhal's  Rouge  et  Noir. 

Buioz  founds  the  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes. 
2704^    German  Lit    Heine  settles  in  Paris. 

2705.  Rnsaian  Lit    Pushkin's  Eugene  Oni^jne. 

2706.  Science.  Murchison  and  Sedgwick  b^n  to  study  strata,  and 
differentiate  the  oldest  fossiliferous  formations  as  Cambrian,  Silurian, 
and  Devonian,  thus  completing  palaBozoic  stratigraphy.  Till  this  time 
nothing  is  known  of  the  succession  lower  than  the  Old  Red  Sandstone. 

Mdloni  constructs  the  thermo-multiplier  for  measuring  invisible 
heat  rays. 

Faraday  obtains  electric  currents  from  magnetism. 
The  British  Association  for  Science  is  founded. 

2707.  Art.    Bellini's  La  Somnambula. 

Delaroche's  Princes  in  the  Tower  founds  the  historic  school  of  French 
painting  (Louvre). 

The  works  of  the  Barbizon  School,  Rousseau,  Corot,  Diaz,  Dupr^ 
Danbigny,  are  exhibited  in  the  Salon. 

David  D' Angers'  sculptures  in  the  Pantheon  and  Bary^'s  first 
sculptures  of  animals  are  exhibited. 

2708.  Philosophy.  Hegel  dies,  and  his  work  is  continued  by  Gabler, 
Ghmz,  Hinrichs,  Michelet,  Daub,  Marheineke,  Vatke,  Rosenkranz.  It 
is  criticised  in  the  si)here  of  logic  by  Weisse,  Beneke,  Stahl,  Trendelen- 
burg, I.  H.  Fichte ;  in  theology  by  Strauss,  Feuerbach,  Fechner,  Bruno 
Bauer. 

2709.  Philology.  Lachmann's  edition  of  the  New  Testament  first 
throws  aside  the  Textus  Receptus. 

2710.  Anthropology.  Pritchard's  Eastern  Origin  of  the  Celtic  Na- 
tions declares  the  Celts  allied  by  language  with  the  Slav,  Grerman,  and 
Pelasgan  stocks. 

2711.  Education.  Stanley  founds  a  school  system  in  Ireland,  and  a 
grant  of  £30,000  is  made. 

Physical  science  and  modem  languages  are  adopted  in  the  curriculum 
of  the  Jesuits. 
d712.    History.    Bohmer  collects  and  edits  the  Regesta  of  the  medieval 
Emperors  from  Conrad  to  Henry  VII. 


352  POLITICS  [Un 


1734.  Asia.     Mehemet  Ali  invades  Syria  as  a  stepping-stone  to  CW 
stantinople,  and  Acre  is  besieged  by  Ibrahim. 

1735.  Australia.    Lord  Ripon  issues  r^^Iations  imposing  a  minimom 
price  on  unoccupied  lands,  i.e.  belonging  to  the  Crown. 


1736.  England.  The  Reform  Bill  passes  the  Commons  (March),  r^g^ 
and  the  Lords  pass  the  second  reading.  An  amendment  to  ^ 
postpone  the  discussion  of  the  disfrandiising  clauses  is  inserted  k 
Lyndhurst.  The  Ministry  asks  the  King  to  create  50  new  Peers,  and, 
on  his  refusal,  resits.  Wellington  offers  to  take  office  and  introduce 
a  partial  reform  Bill,  but  Peel  refuses  to  join  him.  Grey  retonifl,  the 
King  promises  to  create  Peers,  if  necessary,  and  Wellington  persuades 
his  mends  to  allow  the  passage  of  the  Bill  ^June).  Fifty-six  borooglb 
are  abolished,  and  30  lose  one  member.  Sixtv-five  seats  are  giveo  to 
the  counties,  two  to  22  towns,  and  one  to  21.  The  qualification  proposed 
in  1831  is  retained. 

1737.  France.  Legitimists  rise  in  La  Vend^  and  republicans  in  Paiis, 
but  are  suppressed,  and  the  Duchesse  de  Berry  is  arrested.  The  death 
of  the  Duke  of  Reichstadt  also  strengthens  the  throne. 

1738.  Belgium.  The  Dutch  King  rejects  the  proposals  of  ihe  Londoii 
Conference  A  French  army  t^es  Antwerp,  and  an  English  fleet 
blockades  the  Dutch  c^ast.  Leopold  marries  the  daughter  ot  ham 
Philippe. 

1739.  Germany.  The  Diet  forbids  popular  assemblies  and  festinb. 
and  promises  military  aid  to  any  soverei^  threatened  by  revolutiou. 

1740.  Italy.  A  new  revolt  breaks  out  m  the  Komagna,  and  Ausdiao 
troops  again  intervene  (Jan.).  To  appeajse  the  outcry  against  letting 
Austria  occupy  the  Romagiia,  Louis  rnilippe  seizes  Ancona. 

1741.  Switzerland.  The  Siebener-Concordat  is  formed  by  the  Pm- 
testant  and  liberal  Cantons,  and  the  Samer  Bund  by  the  oonsenratire 
and  Catholic  Cantons. 

1742.  Poland.  Poland  is  declared  a  Russian  province,  with  asqpante 
administration,  and  Alexander's  constitution  is  cancelled. 

1743.  Hungary.  Szeclienyi  comi)els  the  nobles  to  contribute  to  die 
building  of  a  bridge  to  unite  Buda  and  PestL 

1744.  Portugal.  Pedro,  late  Emperor  of  Brazil,  lands  in  Portugal  to 
support  his  daughter  against  Miguel,  who  is  defeated. 

1745.  Greece.    Otto  of  Bavaria  accepts  the  Greek  crown. 

174G.     Turkey.     Saraos  becomes  a  principality,  guaranteed  by  Frwce. 

England  and  Russia,  under  the  sovereignty  of  Turkey. 

The  Sultan  declares  war  against  Mehemet  Ali,  wno  lias  defeated  the 

Pasha  of  Acre,  but  is  himself  (lefeated. 
1747.     America.     Clay  carries  a  new  tariff,  returning  substantially  t** 

the  rates  of  1824.     South  Carolina,  led  by  Calhoun,  declares  the  Act* 

of  1828  and  1832  null  and  void,  and  forbids  the  ])a}'ment  of  duties. 


1882]  CULTURE  353 

^18,    Economics.    Richard  Jones  shews  that  Ricardo's  theory  does 

not  apply  to  peasant  rents. 
971J^     Social.    An   experiment    in    communal    farming   is    made   at 

Ralahine  in  Ireland  ;  out  the  land  is  shortly  seized  by  the  creditors  of 

die  landlord. 
9715.    Deaths.    Bilderdyck,  Gneisenau,  Robert  Hall,  Hegel,  Hermes, 

Krause,  Niebuhr,  Stein. 


2716.  Sng.  Ch.  Palmer's  Origines  Liturgicae  prepares  the  way  riooo 
for  the  Oxford  Movement;  and  Rose  foun(&  the  loritish  Magazine    '* 

for  the  defence  of  High  Church  principles. 

Hampden's  Bampton  Lectures  contend  that  our  theology  is  inherited 
from  scholasticism,  and  that  'an  atmosphere  of  mist'  parts  us  from 
primitive  truth. 

Dr  Arnold's  essay  on  Church  Reform  advocates  the  inclusion  of 
Dissenters  in  the  Church. 

2717,  French  Ch.  Lamennais'  ideas  are  condemned  in  the  bull, 
Mirari  Vos.  Montalembert  and  Lacordaire  submit,  but  Lamennais 
revolts. 

271S.     Oerman  Ch.    Mohler's  S3rmbology  insists  on  the  impossibility 

of  reunion,  attacks  the  theory  of  justification  by  faith  and  asserts  that 

Protestantism,  diough  bom  of  a  real  need,  has  degenerated.    He  is 

answered  by  Baur,  Nitzsch  and  Marheineke. 

The  Gustavus  Adolphus  Society  is  founded  to  combat  Catholicism  ; 

bot  the  strict  Lutherans  hold  aloof. 
2719.     Chturch  Hist.    Gr^ory  XVI.,  enraged  by  the  new  Belgian  Cou- 

stitotion,  issues  an  Encyclical  condemning  freedom  of  conscience  and  of 

the  press. 
9720.    Kng.  Lit.    Tennyson  publishes  the  Lotos-Eaters,  Oenone,  the 

Palace  of  Art^  the  Dream  of  Fair  Women  and  other  poems. 

2721.  French  Lit.    Greorges  Sand's  Indiana,  her  first  great  novel. 

2722.  Oerman  Lit    Goethe's  Faust,  part  2. 

2723.  Italian  Lit    Silvio  Pellico's  My  Imprisonment 

272J^  Norwegian  Lit  Welhaven  attacks  Wergeland  from  a  conserva- 
tive standpoint,  and  satirises  the  extravagances  of  romanticism. 

2725.  Science.    Grauss  anticipates  the  theory  of  equivalence  of  heat. 
Gaoss  measures  the  earth  s  magnetic  force. 

Joseph  Henry  discovers  electri^  self-induction. 

Steiner's  Mutual  Dependence  of  Geometrical  Figures  founds  S3mthetic 
geometry. 

Marshall  Hall  discovers  the  '  reflex  action'  of  some  nerve  centres 
simultaneouslv  with  J.  v.  Miiller. 

De  la  B^he  obtains  funds  from  the  Board  of  Ordnance  to  colour 
Ordnance  maps  geologically. 

2726.  Art    GrisTs  dJbut  in  Paris. 

Philippon,  Henri  Monnier  and  Gavami  found  French  caricature. 

2727.  Fmlosophy.    Hegel's  Philosophy  of  Religion  is  printed. 

272S.    Law.    Austin's  Province  of  Jurisprudence  Determined  reaches  a 

G.  23 


354  POLITICS  [18S2 

Jackson  issues  a  nullification  proclamation,  condemniug  the  doctriDe  of 
states'  rights,  and  orders  a  fleet  and  troops  to  Charleston,  and  obtains 
the  Force  Bill  from  Congress.  The  nullification  ordinances  are  in  con- 
sequence suspended. 

England  occupies  the  Falkland  Islands. 


1748.  England.  Resolutions  condemning  the  Com  Laws  are  r^g^ 
rejected  in  the  Commons.  ^ 

Grote's  motion  for  the  ballot  is  rejected. 

A  Judicial  Committee  of  the  Privy  Council  is  formed. 

1749.  Ireland.  Stanley  carries  a  Bill  for  trials  in  disturbed  districts  hj 
court-martial,  on  the  ground  of  systematic  intimidation  of  jnries. 

Ten  Bishoprics  are  suppressed,  and  their  revenues  are  applied  to 
make  up  church  cess,  which  is  abolished. 

1750.  Belgium.    A  preliminary  treaty  terminates  hostilities. 

1751.  Germany.  The  Tsar,  the  Emperor  of  Austria  and  the  Crown- 
Prince  of  Prussia  form  the  League  of  Munchengratz  to  guarantee  etch 
other's  rights  in  Poland  and  to  counteract  the  lioeralising  tendencies  of 
England  and  France. 

The  King  of  Hanover  grants  a  Constitution. 

A  rising  at  Frankfort  (April)  is  followed  by  the  introduction  of  an 
Austro-Prussian  garrison,  and  new  laws  against  the  press  and  Uni- 
versities. 

The  ZoUverein  is  adopted  by  all  the  German  states. 

1752.  Spain.  Ferdinand  leaves  the  crown  to  his  daughter  Isabelli. 
aged  three,  and  Christina  acts  as  Regent.  The  Regency  is  recognised 
by  England  and  France.  Don  Carlos  at  once  claims,  and  is  supported 
by  the  Basques  and  by  the  Church.  Christina  is  therefore  f<»red 
to  gain  the  liberals  by  signing  the  Estatuto  Real,  establishing  tm^ 
chambers  chosen  by  indirect  election.  French  and  English  volunteer 
*  legions'  are  formed  to  support  Christina. 

1753.  Portugal.  Saldanha  defeats  the  Miguelites  by  land,  and  Charle» 
Napier  destroys  Miguel's  fleet 

1754.  Turkey.  Menemet  Ali  is  compelled  by  Russian  intervention  u> 
cease  hostilities,  but  by  the  Peace  of  Eutaya  receives  the  government 
of  S^a  and  Egypt  (April).  The  Sultan  in  return  signs  the  Tretty  of 
Unkiar  Skelessi  with  Russia,  which  promises  aid  when  required,  secretlj 
binding  himself  to  close  the  Dardanelles  to  foreign  war-snipe  when  the 
Tsar  is  at  war  (July^. 

1755.  America.  Disliking  the  Bank,  which  is  managed  by  his  opp>- 
nents,  Jackson  removes  all  Government  deposits  to  local  banks. 

1756.  Asia.  The  dominion  of  the  East  India  Company  is  confirmed  ta 
20  years  ;  but  its  monopoly  of  the  Chinese  trade  is  aliolished.  A  le^il 
member  is  added  to  the  Governor's  Council,  and  a  penal  code  is  draM 
under  the  direction  of  Macaulay. 


1833]  CULTURE  355 

pure  science  of  positive  law  and  classifies  institutions  irrespective  of 

their  origin  and  justification. 
'J729,     Social.    Capital  punishment  for  forgery,  coining,  horse-stealing, 

sheep-stealing,  and  sacniege  is  abolished. 
^SO,    Deaths.    Bentham,  Champollion,  Cuvier,  Grentz,  Goethe,  Krause, 

Mackintosh,  Scott. 

iilSl,    Eng.  Ch.    Eeble's  Assize  Sermon  on  National  Apostasy    rigoo 

denounces  the  suppression  of  Irish  bishoprics,  and  is  afterwards    '- 

declared  by  Newman  to  have  inaugurated  the  Oxford   Movement. 

A  conference  takes  place  at  Rose's  house  at  Hadlei^h,  and  the  Tracts 

for  the  Times  begin  to  appear.     Newman  becomes  Vicar  of  St  Mary's. 
The  Congregational  Union  adopts  a  confession  and  discipline. 
Nonconformists  are  allowed  to  celebrate  marriages  in  tneir  chapels, 

and  Quakers  to  substitute  an  aifirmation  for  an  oath. 
27S2.    French  Ch.    The  Abb^  Bautain's  Philosophie  du  Christianisme, 

declaring  that  reason  cannot  reveal  God,  is  condemned  by  Rome. 

IVaditionalism  is  taught  by  Ubaghs  in  Belgium,  Donoso  Cortes  in 

Spain,  and  Ventura  in  Italy. 
27SS,     Church  Hist.    The  Church  of  Greece  declares  itself  independent. 
'^SJf.    Eng.    Lit.      Carlyle's    Sartor    Resartus    appears    in    Eraser's 

Magazine. 
^2735.    French  Lit.    The  Academic  des  Sciences  Morales  et  Politiques 

is  revived. 

Janin  becomes  theatrical  critic  of  the  Journal  des  D^bats. 
^36,     Swedish  Lit    Runeberg's  The  Elk-hunters,  an  epic. 
^S7,    Science.    Faraday  discovers  the  law  of  electro-cnemical  ei^uiva- 

lents. 

Weber  and  Grauss  construct  an  electric  telegraph. 

2738,  Art.    Rude's  Neapolitan  Fisher  Boy. 

Ivanof  paints  the  Appearance  of  the  Messiah  among  the  People. 

2739.  Philology.    Bopp's  Comparative  Grammar  first  niUy  reveals  the 
relationship  of  the  different  Indo-European  languages. 

Gesenius'  Lexicon  Hebiaicum. 

Pott's  Studies  in  the  Indo-Grermanic  Languages  bases  et3rmology  on 
phonology. 
27 ^p.    Law.    Edward  Livingston's  Code  of  Criminal  Law  and  Procedure. 
'2741.    Education.    Guizot  establishes  schools  in  every  French  Commune. 

The  first  government  ^nt  is  made  to  English  schools. 
27^2.     SociaL    By  the  efforts  of  Powell  Buxton,  Z&chary  Macaulay, 
Wilberforce  and  otiiers,  slavery  is  abolished  throughout  the  British 
Empire  by  20  millions  being  granted  in  compensation. 

Children  under  nine  are  excluded  from  cotton  mills,  and  Inspectors 
are  appointed. 

A  If  ational  Trades'  Union  is  organised  by  Owen  and  Fielden,  who 
urge  a  general  strike  for  8  hours.    The  money,  however,  is  lost  in 
several  small  strikes,  and  die  association  collapses,  1834. 
2743.    Deaths.    L^endre,  Bammohun  Roy,  Wilberforce. 

23—2 


356  POLITICS  [1881 

1757.  England.  Stanley,  Graham  and  Lord  Hipon  resign  on  r^tau 
a  proposal  to  appropriate  further  revenues  of  the  Irish  Qinrch  ^ 
(May).  Lord  Grey,  finding  himself  in  growing  discord  with  his  party, 
also  resigns,  and  Melbourne  forms  a  Cabinet.  But  when  Lord  Althorp, 
leader  of  the  Commons,  becomes  Earl  Spencer  by  his  frther's  d^tb 
(Nov.),  the  King  seizes  the  opportunity  to  dismiss  the  Ministry.  Peel 
who  is  staying  in  Rome,  is  appointed  Prime  Minister,  and,  in  an  addre» 
to  his  constituents  at  Tamworth,  declares  for  moderate  reform. 

Palmerston  forms  a  Quadruple  Alliance  with  France,  Spain  and 
Portugal,  to  prevent  the  defeat  of  constitutionalism  in  Spain  and 
Portugal 

Six  Dorsetshire  labourers  are  sentenced  to  seven  years'  transporta- 
rion  for  administering  an  oatL 

1758.  Ireland.  O'Connell's  motion  for  the  repeal  of  the  Union  b 
defeated  by  523  to  38. 

1759.  Italy.  Mazzini  foimds  Young  Europe,  and  an  Italian,  a  Germao 
and  a  Polish  section  are  organised.  He  also  organises  a  raid  into 
Savoy  from  Geneva. 

1760.  Spain.  The  Carlist  war  begins,  and  the  Queen  receives  nrom^e 
of  support  from  England  and  France.  The  Basque  proyinces,  m  their 
desire  to  escape  centralisation,  support  Don  Carlos. 

1761.  Portugal.  Bv  the  Trea^  of  Evoramente,  Maria  is  recoj^nisei 
and  Miguel  undertakes  to  quit  rortugal  and  renounce  his  claim  m  con- 
sideration of  a  pension. 

1762.  Switzerland.  The  Confederate  Assembly  dissolves  the  Saner 
Bund. 

1763.  Hungary.  The  Diet  of  Transylvania,  which  has  not  been  smn- 
moued  since  1811,  attacks  the  Court  and  is  dissolved,  and  Wesselenji. 
the  leader  of  the  opposition,  is  exiled. 

1764.  Australasia.  A  South  Australian  Association  is  formed  br 
BuUer,  Grote,  Molesworth,  Torrens,  to  carry  out  the  ideas  of  Gibbi>u 
Wakefield.     The  first  emigrants  settle,  1836. 


1765.  England.    Though  the  Conservatives  gain  in  the  election,   ngn 
Peel  finds  himself  in  a  minority  in  the  new  Parliament,  and  the   '- 
Whigs  make  the  '  Lichfield  House  Compact  *  with  O'Gonnell.    Peel  i* 
outvoted  and  resigns,   after  four    months  of  office,  and  Mdboaine 
succeeds,  with  Russell  as  leader  of  the  House  (April). 

By  the  Municipal  Corporations  Bill,  the  Mayor  and  Coiporation  are 
to  be  elected  by  the  ratepayers.  London  is  excepted  from  the  operatioo 
of  the  bill,  the  investigation  of  its  history  and  circumstances  being 
incomplete. 

1766.  Prance.    Fiaschi  attempts  the  King's  life,  and  the  'Ltwii  '-f 
September '  to  gag  the  press  and  control  political  trials  are  passed. 

1767.  Germany.    The  Diet  forbids  the  publication  of  the  worb  »»f 
Heine  and  B<)rne  and  of  other  writers  of  the  Young  Germany  school 


18S6]  CULTURE  357 

27 ii,  Eng.  Ch.  The  Lords  defeat  the  admission  of  noDconfonnists  [1004 
to  University  d^rees.  ^ 

2745,  Scotcn  Cn.  Chalmers  carries  a  Veto  Act  in  the  General 
Assembly,  giving  the  people  the  veto  on  an  unacceptable  candidate. 
The  Coi^  of  S^sion  and  House  of  Lords  support  the  right  of  patrons 
and  rdected  presentees  in  the  Auchterarder  case. 

2746,  Fortaguese  Ch.    The  monasteries  are  suppressed. 

2747,  Eng.  Lit.    Henry  Taylor's  drama,  Philip  van  Artevelde. 

2748,  French  Lit.    Balzac's  P6re  Goriot. 

Lamennais'  Paroles  d'un  Croyant,  a  theistic  and  socialistic  rhapsody. 

2749,  Rosaian  Lit.  Bielinski  begins  his  criticisms  of  Russian  lite- 
rature. 

2750,  Polish  Lit.    Mickiewicz'  poem,  Thaddeus,  sketches  Polish  Life. 

2751,  Science.  John  Herschel  reaches  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and 
commences  his  four  years'  survey  of  the  southern  heavens. 

Dumas  discovers  the  Law  of  Substitution. 

Faraday  discovers  electric  self-induction. 

Milne-£dwards'  Histoire  Naturelle  des  Crustac^s. 

Dum^ril's  Histoire  Naturelle  des  Reptiles. 

Ehrenberg  investigates  the  growth  of  coral  reefs. 

Schwann  discovers  the  envelope  of  the  nerve-fibres  ('Schwann's 
sheath'),  and  studies  muscular  contractility. 

Hamilton  enunciates  a  principle  for  obtaining  the  equations  of 
motion  in  dynamics. 

2752,  Art.    Meissonier's  Chess  Party. 
Schumann's  Symphonic  Studies. 

2753,  Philology.    Csoma  Korosi's  Tibetan  Dictionary  and  Grammar. 

2754,  History.    Bancroft's  History  of  the  United  States. 

2755,  Social.  The  New  Poor  Law,  framed  on  the  Report  of  Senior, 
Blomfield,  and  Sumner,  forbids  out-door  relief. 

2756,  Defl^B.    Lafayette,  Lamb,  Malthus,  Schleiermacher. 


2757.  Eng.   Ch.    Wiseman  returns  to  England,  and  lectures    tj^qor 
on  the  beliefe  and  svstem  of  Catholicism.     The  Dublin  Review    ^ 
appears  and  the  Catholic  revival  begins. 

A  proposal  to  abolish  subscription  at  matriculation  is  defeated  by 
the  High  Churchmen.  Pusey  joins  the  movement  and  contributes  a 
Tract  on  Baptism. 

Blanco  White  becomes  a  Unitarian. 

2758.  French  Ch.    Lacordaire  preaches  at  Notre  Dame. 

2759.  German  Ch.  Vatke's  Biblical  Theology  declares  the  Levitical 
law  post-exilic,  an  assertion  later  adopted  by  Graf  Reuss  reaches  a 
similar  conclusion  about  the  same  time. 

Strauss'  Life  of  Jesus  attacks  the  miracles  and  places  the  Gospels 
in  the  second  century. 

2760.  Italian  Ch.    JPerrone's  Praelectiones  Theologicae. 


358  POLITICS  [1835 

1768.  Spain.  Zumalacarregui,  the  ablest  Carlist  leader,  dies;  but  the 
Carlists  win  a  number  of  victories,  and  the  cause  of  the  Queen  u 
weakened  by  the  dissensions  between  the  Moderados  and  Progresistatf. 

1769.  Austria.    Ferdinand  I.  succeeds,  but  Mettemich  retains  power. 
6aj  advocates  '  Illyrism/  a  movement  to  unite  the  lUyrian  states ; 

but  the  scheme  is  opposed  by  Hungarians  and  Servians. 

1770.  America.  Jackson  compels  France  to  pay  indemnity  for  damige 
to  American  commerce  since  1803. 

War  breaks  out  with  the  Seminole  Indians. 

1771.  Australasia.    The  Port  Phillip  Association  founds  Victoria. 

1772.  Africa.    The  Sultan  reasserts  nis  authority  in  Tripoli. 


1773.  England.  The  division  lists  are  published  by  the  House  m^^^ 
of  Commons.  *• 

Tithe  in  kind  is  commuted  into  a  rent-charge,  to  vary  with  the  price 
of  com. 

1774.  Ireland.  The  Orange  Lodges,  which  have  increased  in  number 
and  activity,  owing  to  the  success  of  the  Catholics,  are  dissolved. 

The  Irish  Tithe  Bill  is  resisted  by  the  Lords  and  abandoned  by  the 
Government. 

1775.  Prance.  Louis  Napoleon,  son  of  Napoleon's  brother,  Louis,  Km^ 
of  Holland,  tries  to  stir  up  a  rising  among  the  troops  at  Strasbuig,  bot 
fails,  and  is  sent  to  America. 

Thiers  becomes  Premier,  but  fails  to  obtain  the  approval  of  the  Kio^' 
for  his  proposal  to  support  the  Spanish  constitutionalists,  and  resip.<. 

1776.  Spain.  The  rrogresistas  compel  Christina  to  re-establish  the 
Constitution  of  1812.  Espartero  takes  command,  and  defeats  the 
Carlists  with  the  aid  of  an  English  fleet  and  troops. 

1777.  Portugal.  The  Queen  confirms  the  Constitution  of  1822,  and 
the  adherents  of  Miguel  are  finally  suppressed. 

1778.  Switzerland.  In  conseciuence  of  an  attack  on  the  life  of  Loui" 
Philippe,  Thiers,  supported  by  Austria,  compels  Switzerland  to  expel  iH 
political  refugees. 

1779.  Italy.  Lambruschini,  the  leader  of  the  reactionaries,  becon» 
Papal  secretary. 

1780.  Bohemia.  The  publication  of  Palacky's  History  of  the  Bohe- 
mians first  acquaints  the  Czechs  with  their  past,  and  more  than  an}'thiii;; 
else  contributes  to  revive  the  spirit  of  Bohemian  nationality.  It  is  diA^ 
by  Safarik's  Slavic  Antiquities. 

1781.  Russia.  Tchadaieflf's  Philosophical  Letters  attack  the  govern- 
ment  and  the  country  for  their  resistance  to  western  ideas,  and  ridicule 
Aksakov  and  other  Slavophils. 

1782.  America.  Petitions  against  Slavery  are  presented  to  Congre»- 
and  'gag  resolutions'  are  passed,  forbidding  their  consideration.  A(Uii)> 
protests,  presents  a  petition  and  defends  mmself  against  the  proposal  of 
censure. 


1886]  CULTURE  359 

2761.    Eng.  Lit.    Browning's  Paracelsus. 

Walker's  humorous  periodical,  the  Original. 
^2762.    French  Lit.    Jasmin's  Gascon  poems,  Papillotos. 
276S.     Oerman  Lit.    Grimm's  German  Mythology. 

Bettina  v.  Amim  publishes  Groethe's  Correspondence  with  a  Child. 

2764.  Baniah  Lit.    Hans  Andersen's  first  Fairy  Tales. 

2765.  Finnish  Lit.    The  Kalevala  is  collected  and  published. 

2766.  Science.    Hooker  institutes  a  botanical  laboratory  at  Kew. 

2767.  Art.    Donizetti's  Lucia  di  Lammermoor. 

2768.  Philosophy.    Quetelet's  La  Physique  Sociale. 

2769.  Philology.    W.  Humboldt  investigates  the  Kawi  language  of 
Java. 

2770.  Politics.    De  Tocqueville's  Democracy  in  America. 

Cobden's  pamphlets,  England,  Ireland  and  America,  and  Russia 
advocate  free  trade  and  non-mtervention. 

2771.  Education.    The  introduction  of  Western  culture  and  the  use 
and  study  of  the  English  language  into  India  is  determined. 

University  College,  London,  is  allowed  to  grant  degrees. 

2772.  History.    Thirlwall's  History  of  Greece. 
277S.    Deaths.    Cobbett,  W.  v.  Humboldt. 


2774.  Eng.  Ch.    Newman's  Prophetical  Office  of  the  Church   r^^ooo 
defines  the  theory  of  the  Oxford  movement.  ^ 

Tithe-Commutation  is  effected. 

The  Ecclesiastical  Commissioners  are  incorporated. 

Hampden  is  appointed  Regius  F^fessor  of  Theology  at  Oxford,  but 
IS  fiercely  attacked  by  the  High  Churchmen  and  censured  by  the 
University. 

The  Presbyterian  Church  of  England  establishes  a  Sjmod. 

2775.  Gkerman  Ch.    Gorres'  Christian  Mysticism. 
Fliedner  institutes  deaconesses  in  the  Lutheran  Church. 

2776.  Italian  Ch.    The  Jesuits  control  the  Collie  of  the  Propaganda. 

2777.  Eng.  Lit.    Dickens'  Sketches  by  Boz,  and  Pickwick. 

2778.  ^  French  Lit.    De  Musset's  Confession  d'un  Enfant  du  Si^le. 

Emile  de  Oirardin  edits  La  Presse. 
Lamartine's  Jocelyn. 

2779.  Oermaii  Lit    Ruckert's  Wisdom  of  the  Brahmans. 

2780.  Russian  Lit.    Gogol's  The  Revisor  attacks  official  corruption. 

2781.  Hungarian  Lit.    Josika  writes  his  first  novel,  Abafi. 

2782.  American  Lit.    Emerson's  lecture  on  Nature  founds  Transcen- 
dentalism. 

2783.  Science.    Struve's  Investigations  of  double  and  composite  stars. 
'2784    ^^^    Meyerbeer's  The  Huguenots. 

Glinka's  opera.  Life  for  the  Tsar. 
278^.    Philology.    Bumouf  deciphers  inscriptions  at  Ecbatana. 
Die^  Grammar  of  the  Romance  Languages. 


360  POLITICS  [1836 

Emigrants  from  the  Southern  States  overturn  the  conatitatioii  of 
Texas  as  part  of  the  Mexican  republic,  adopt  a  new  constitutioD,  and, 
under  Houston,  proclaim  independence  from  Mexico.  The  Texms 
desire  to  be  admitted  as  a  slave  state;  but  Jackson  and  Van  Boren 
refuse. 

1783.  Australasia^  South  Australia  receives  a  government,  and  Ade- 
laide becomes  the  capital. 

1784.  Africa.  Owin^  to  inadequate  compensation  for  the  abolition  of 
slavery  and  for  the  aamage  done  by  Kaffir  inroads,  and  to  their  exclu- 
sion from  political  privileges,  a  large  number  of  Boers  'trek'  from  Cape 
Colony  and  settle  m  Natal.    After  desperate  fighting,  they  break  the 

gmer  of  the  Zulus,  depose  their  King,  Dingan,  and  set  up  another 
ing.  Panda. 


1785.  En^and.    Victoria,  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Kent,  be-  rjg^ 
comes  Queen.    In  the  interval  between  her  accession  and  her  ^ 
marriage,  she  is  guided  chiefly  by  Lord  Melbourne  and  by  Binn 
Stockmar,  a  close  friend  of  her  uncle,  King  Leopold. 

The  Working  Men's  Association  is  formed,  and  a  Charter  of  six 
points  is  adopted,  demanding  manhood  suffrage,  the  ballot,  annoil 
Parliaments,  payment  of  members,  abolition  of  property  qualificatioo, 
equal  electoral  districts. 

Grote  proposes  the  ballot. 

1786.  Germany.  On  the  death  of  William  IV.  of  England,  Hanorer 
passes  to  his  brother,  the  Duke  of  Cumberland,  who  ascends  the  throne 
as  Ernest  I.,  abolishes  the  Constitution  of  1833,  and  dismisses  Jtcob 
and  Wilhelm  Grimm,  Dahlmann,  Grervinus,  Ewald,  Weber,  and  other 
Gottingen  professors  who  protest. 

1787.  Spain.    Don  Carlos  is  decisively  defeated. 

The  Constituent  Cortes  draw  up  a  Constitution  of  two  Chambers* 
but  allowing  the  sovereign  greater  power  than  that  conferred  by  the 
Constitution  of  1812. 

1788.  Russia.  Vitkievitch  is  sent  as  the  first  Russian  agent  to 
Afghanistan. 

1789.  America.  Wendell  Phillips  joins  Garrison  in  his  crusade  agaiitft 
slavery.  The  first  abolitionist  martyr,  Lovejoy,  an  editor,  is  murderei 
Anti-slavery  opinion  begins  to  grow  rapidly  in  New  England. 

In  Canada  complaints  are  made  of  misgovemment  in  both  Freodi 
and  English  provinces,  and  a  rebellion  breaks  out  under  Papineau. 

The  National  Debt  being  paid  off,  Jackson  lends  the  surplib 
revenue  to  the  States  without  mterest,  his  policy  provoking  a  mania  for 
speculation. 

1790.  Asia.  Despite  the  protests  of  England,  the  Shah  of  Persia,  urnkr 
Russian  influence,  invades  Afghanistan  as  an  ancient  possesjaon  d 
Persia,  and  besieges  Herat.  After  10  months  the  Persians  withdraw, 
on  the  threat  of  English  intervention.  Lord  Auckland  in  alarm  senh 
Bumes  to  urge    Dost    Mohammed  to  ally  with    England.     Borneo 


18S7]  CULTUBE  361 

Z786.  Sslory.  Mignet  edits  the  negotiations  relative  to  the  Spanish 
Succession. 

Palacly's  History  of  Bohemia. 

2787,  FdUoca.    A  Communist  League  is  founded  in  Paris. 

2788.  Law.  Wheaton's  International  Law  developes  the  idea  of 
nentnlity. 

IT89,  XdncatioiL  London  University  becomes  a  purely  examining 
body,  the  teaching  bein^  carried  on  by  University  College. 

2790.  Deattis.  A.  M.  Ampere,  Armand  Carrel,  Godwin,  Jussieu,  James 
Mm,Siey^ 


2791.  French  Ch.    Ravignan  preaches  at  Notre-Dame.  ri8d7 

2792.  German  Ch.    The  Archbishop  of  Cologne  is  imprisoned   ^ 

by  the  Ein^  of  Prussia  for  rejecting  his  predecessor's  compromise  on 
mixed  marriages ;  the  Archbishop  of  Gnesen  and  Posen  and  others  are 
simibtfly  treated.  An  Ultramontanist  party  is  in  consequence  formed, 
led  by  Gorres  in  Munich.  On  the  accession  of  Frederick  William  IV., 
1840,  the  laws  cease  to  be  enforced 

Bothe's  B^innings  of  the  Christian  Church  declares  that  Christ  did 
not  found  a  Qiurch,  and  that  the  function  of  the  Church  is  to  create 
the  ideal  State  in  which  it  wiU  be  merged. 

27M.    Swiss  Ch.    Vinet  becomes  Professor  of  Practical  Theolog}'  at 
Lausanne,  and  advocates  the  entire  separation  of  Church  and  State. 

iTd^    Danish  Ch.    Grundtvig's  Songs  for  the  Danish  Church. 

2795.  American  Ch.    The  I^byterians  split  into  Old  School  and 
New  School,  the  latter  being  ch&t^  with  Arminianism. 

2796.  Oinxeh  Hist    Hodgson  discovers  Northern  Buddhist  literature 
in  NepaL 

2T97.    Kng.  Lit    Lockhart's  Life  of  Scott 

Bsiham  commences  to  write  the  Ingoldsby  Legends. 

2798.  Oerman  Lit    Eckermann   publishes    his    Conversations   with 
Goethe. 

2799.  Rnssian  Lit    Lermontof  s  Elegy  on  Pushkin's  death. 

2800.  flemish  Lit    Conscience's  Flemish  novel,  the  Year  of  Miracles. 

2801.  Literatore.    Pitman  invente  a  system  of  shorthand. 
28^.    Science.    Agassiz  proves  a  glacial  period. 

Dana's  System  of  Mineralogy. 

Schwann  attacks  the  theory  of  spontaneous  generation. 

M<diT8'  p^>er.  On  the  Nature  ot  Heat,  first  enunciates  the  theory 
of  the  conservation  of  energy. 

Cooke  and  Wheatstone  improve  the  electric  telegraph,  which  is 
perfected  by  Morse,  whose  instrument  and  alphabet  are  rapidly 
adopted. 

Gonld's  Birds  of  Europe. 
2903.    Art    Ouikshank  illustrates  Oliver  Twist. 
2804^    Fhikdogy.    Lepsius'  Hieroglyphic  Alphabet. 

Grotefend  deciphers  cuneiform  inscriptions  of  Persia. 


362  POLITICS  [18ST 

promises  him  aid  in  his  domestic  quarrels ;  but  Auckland  refoses  to 
ratiftr  this  agreement. 

A  British  ambassador  is  allowed  to  reside  at  Canton. 

1791.  Australasia.    The  New  Zealand  Association  is  established,  of 
which  Gibbon  Wakefield  becomes  managing  director. 

1792.  Africa.    Constantino  is  taken  by  the  French,  and  a  peace  is  mftde 
with  Abdelkader ;  but  war  breaks  out  again,  1839. 


1793.  England.  Villiers'  first  motion  to  consider  the  Com  Laws  r^gM 
is  r^'ected  by  300  to  95.     An  Anti-Corn  Law  League  is  formed   ^ 

in  Manchester  by  Cobden  and  Bright. 

1794.  Ireland.  Drummond,  the  Chief  Secretaiy,  announces  tfait 
property  has  its  duties  as  well  as  its  rights.  A  roor  Law  is  paased 
to  save  evicted  tenants  from  starvation ;  and  a  Tithe  Act  levies  tithe 
on  the  landowner  instead  of  on  the  tenant,  the  appropriation  cUiue 
having  been  dropped  to  disarm  the  Lords. 

1795.  France.  At  the  demand  of  France,  Switierland  expels  Loaii 
Napoleon,  who  settles  in  England. 

1796.  Italy.  The  Austrians  evacuate  the  Papal  States  (but  retain 
Ferrara),  and  the  French  withdraw  from  Ancona. 

1797.  America.  The  rebellion  is  suppressed.  Lord  Durham  is  ap- 
pointed Grovemor  Greneral  of  Canada,  and  on  his  arrival  transports 
rebels  to  Bermuda,  and  threatens  them  with  death  if  they  return.  He 
is  in  consequence  recalled  ;  but  his  advice,  contained  in  a  report  dravD 
up  chiefly  by  Charles  Buller  on  the  lines  of  Gibbon  Wakefiela,  is  takai, 
the  two  colonies  are  united,  and  the  legislature  receives  control  over  the 
executive. 

France  declares  war  on  Mexico,  and  captures  Vera  Cruz.    Peace  fc 
restored,  1839. 

1798.  Asia.  Dost  Mohammed  receives  a  Russian  mission  at  Cabal,  and 
England  declares  war. 

1799.  Aikica.  Mehemet  Ali  refuses  to  pay  tribute  to  the  Sultan,  and 
claims  the  hereditary  Governorship  of  Egypt  and  Syria. 


1800.  England.  Spring-Rice  announces  a  deficit  without  pro-  ng^ 
posing  a  remedv,  and  the  majority  falls  to  five.  Melbourne  '- 
resigns,  and  Peel,  wiio  forms  a  government,  demands  the  removal  of  thi* 
relatives  of  the  late  government  among  the  ladies  of  the  Queen's  bed- 
chamber. The  Queen  refuses,  Peel  declines  office,  and  Melbourw 
returns. 

Meetings  are  held  in  support  of  the  Charter,  and  a  national  cooven- 
tion  of  delegates  from  the  great  towns,  led  by  Fergus  O'Connor  awl 


1839]  CULTURE  363 

2805.  Education.    Froebel  institutes  his  first  Kindergarten. 
Horace  Mann  reforms  Education  in  Massachusetts. 

2806.  History.    RaiJce's  History  of  the  Popes. 
Carlyle's  History  of  the  French  Revolution. 
Prescott's  Ferdinand  and  Isabella. 
Spruner's  Historico-Geographical  Atlas. 

2807.  Anthropology.    Zeuss'  The  Germans  and  the  Neighbour  Races. 

2808.  Deaths.    Colebrooke,  Leopardi,  Pushkin. 


2809.     Sng.  Ch.    Newman's  Lectures  on  Justification.  [1838 

Fronde's  Remains,  edited  bjr  Newman  and  Keble,  condemn   '- 
the  Reformation.     Newman  is  joined  by  W.  G.  Ward. 
'2810.     French  Ch.    Lacordaire  revives  the  Dominican  Order  in  France. 

2811.  Eng.  Lit.    The  Sterling  Club  is  formed,  of  which  Carlyle,  Mill, 
Thirlwall,  Wilberforce,  TroUope,  Trench,  Hare,  Maurice,  are  members. 

2812.  French  Lit.    Rachel's  d^but  revives  the  French  classical  drama. 

2813.  Science.    Schleiden's  Cellular  Theory  of  Plants. 
Bessel  measures  the  distance  of  a  fixed  star  (61  Cygni). 
Miller  founds  geometrical  crystallography  on  a  true  basis. 

The   London    and    Birmingham    Railway,    the   work    of  Robert 
Stephenson,  is  opened. 

The  Sirius  and  the  Great  Western  cross  the  Atlantic. 

2814.  -Art    Jenny  Lind's  d^but. 

Menzel  illustrates  Kugler's  Life  of  Frederick  the  Great. 

2815.  Philosophy.    The  Hallische  Jahrbiicher,  edited  by  Ruge,  cham- 

Elons  H^elianism,  but  in  1841  turns  to  radical  politics,  supported  by 
lam,  Herwegh,  Marx,  Freiligrath,  Gutzkow,  B<)me. 

2816.  Philology.    Julius  Mohl  translates  the  Shah-Nameh  of  Firdusi. 

2817.  Politics.    Lieber's  Political  Ethics. 

2818.  Economics.    Coumot  applies  mathematics  to  economics. 

2819.  History.    Ranke  edits  the  Year-books  of  mediaeval  Germany. 
Arnold's  History  of  Rome. 

2820.  Oeography.    Eyre  explores  Australia  from  East  to  West. 

2821.  Social.    Father  Mattnew  undertakes  a  Temperance  crusade  in 
Ireland. 

Cbadwick  obtains  a  Sanitary  Commission  in  Whitechapel. 

2822.  Deaths.    MoUer,  Talleyrand,  Sylvestre  de  Sacy. 


2823.  Sng.  Ch.    Newman  studies  Monophysitism,  and  is  *  hit '    M339 
by  Wiseman's  article  in  the  Dublin  Review  on  the  Donatists.         ^ 

2824,  German  Ch.    Domer's  History  of  the  Doctrine  of  the  Person  of 
Christ 

JnliuB  Miiller's  Christian  Doctrine  of  Sin  defends  the  ideas  of 
perBonality  and  liberty  in  God  and  man  against  pantheism  and  deter- 
minism. 
28B5.    Rnssian  Ch.    Philaret,  Metropolitan  of  Moscow,  <x>mposes  a 


364  POLITICS  [: 


Ernest  Jones,  draws  up  a  petition  to  Parliament,  which,  however,  reftun 
to  consider  it. 

1801.  France.  Les  Saisons,  a  secret  Socialist  Society,  organises  a  revok 
in  Paris,  but  is  put  down. 

1802.  Spain.  Esnartero  compels  the  Basques  and  the  North  to  recog- 
nise Christina.  Von  Carlos  rasigns  his  claim  to  his  son.  The  Regot 
attempts  to  rule  with  the  Moderados,  who  are  supported  bj  France. 
England,  however,  supports  the  Progresistas. 

1803.  Belgium.    Holland  accepts  the  proposals  of  1831. 

1804.  Russia.  An  expedition  under  Perofski,  sent  to  attack  Khiva  and 
to  prevent  the  East  India  Company  gaining  influence  in  Central  Aai» 
fails. 

1805.  Turkey.  The  Sultan  determines  to  prevent  Mehemet  Ali  from 
becoming  completely  independent,  and  declares  war  on  B^prpt.  Ibnhim 
routs  the  Turks  at  Nisib  (June).  Sultan  Mahmoud  dies  a  few  dajs 
later,  and  is  succeeded  by  his  son,  Abdul  Mezid.  On  this  tlie  Tuikiah 
admiral,  who  has  orders  to  attack  the  Syrian  coast,  sails  to  Alexandm 
and  surrenders  his  fleet  to  Mehemet  Ali,  who  plans  to  supplant  the 
Sultan.  France  encourages  Mehemet;  but  Palmerston  resolves  to 
maintain  the  power  of  Turkey. 

Keshid  Pasha  persuades  the  new  Sultan,  Abdul  Mead,  to  istme 
a  scheme  of  reforms,  but  fails  to  obtain  support  in  their  execution,  mi 
a  reaction  sets  in. 

1806.  America.  The  Confederation  of  Central  America  is  dissolrei 
The  Republic  of  Honduras  is  proclaimed. 

1807.  Asia.  A  British  army  enters  Afghanistan,  deposes  Dost  Mohammed, 
and  places  Shah  Soojah  on  the  throne. 

The  English  in  Canton  are  forced  to  surrender  their  opium  and  to 
leave  China  (May).     War  breaks  out,  and  Hong  Kong  is  taken. 
Aden  is  annexed  by  England. 

1808.  Aftica.    A  French  settlement  is  founded  on  the  Congo  coast. 


1809.  England.  The  Queen  marries  Albert  of  Saxe-Cobuig-  Mg^ 
Gotha.  ^ 

1810.  Ireland.    The  Irish  Municii>al  Act  is  passed. 
O'Connell  renews  the  repeal  agitation. 

1811.  France.  Louis  Napoleon  lands  at  Boulogne  and  tries  to  excite 
an  insurrection  (Aug.),  but  is  captured  (Oct.),  and  condenmed  to  lifelong 
imprisonment  at  Ham,  whence  he  escapes  to  Ebffland,  1846. 

Thiers  fails  to  ))ersua(le  the  King  to  actively  support  Mehemet  .\li 
against  the  Coalition,  and  falls.     Guizot  becomes  supreme. 

The  remains  of  Napoleon  are  brought  from  St  Helena  and  buried  in 
the  Church  of  the  Invalides  at  Paris. 

Guizot  mentions  the  plan  of  a  Spanish  marriage  for  one  of  the  Kinir'<' 
sons,  in  conversation  with  Palmerston. 

1812.  Spain.    Christina  is  forced  to  retire  to  France. 


IMO]  CULTURE  365 

Catechism,  which  is  authorised  by  the  Holy  Sjruod  and  used  in  the 
schools  and  churches. 

The  two  million  Uniates  are  declared  by  a  Ukase  incorporated  with 
the  Greek  Church.  A  few  Uniate  Churches  continue  to  exist  in  Galicia, 
Soath  Hungary  and  Transylvania. 

2826,  Swiss  Ch.    Strauss  is  appointed  Professor  at  Zurich,  but  is 
expelled. 

2827,  Sng.  Lit.    Lever's  Harry  Lorrequer.  * 

2828.  American  Lit.    The  Lowell  Lectures  are  instituted  at  Boston. 
Longfellow's  Hyperion. 

2829.  Italian  Lit.    Carcano's  novel,  Angiola  Maria. 

£SiJi9.    Portugaese  Lit.    Almeida-Garrett's  works  found  the  romantic 

SCDOOi. 

28S1.    Polish  Lit.    Krasewski's  poem,  The  World  and  the  Poet 
2882,    Science.    Leverrier  studies  the  relations  of  the  planets. 

Daguene  invents  a  process  of  photography,  which  is  improved  by 
Talbot  by  introducing  a  negative. 

Schwann  studies  the  structure  of  the  elementary  textures,  and 
shews  that  the  same  cellular  structure  exists  in  the  simpler  plantis  and 
animals. 

Ehrenberg  points  out  the  share  of  the  remains  of  minute  organisms 
in  chalk  and  otner  formations. 

A^issiz'  Fresh-water  Fishes  of  Europe. 

Puridnje  founds  the  first  physiological  institute  at  Breslau  and 
appCes  the  microscope. 
:^^i.    Art.    Wiertz'  picture  of  Patroclus  (Brussels). 
Tamer's  Fighting  T^m^raire. 

2854,  PliiloBopny.    Qioberti's  Introduction  to  the  study  of  Philosophy 
tends  towards  Hegelianism. 

2855,  Pliilology.    Madvi^  edits  Cicero's  De  Finibus. 

2856,  Sdncation.    Russdl  founds  the  Committee  of  Council,  and  intro- 
duces a  system  of  inspection  and  report.    A  Vice-President  is  appointed 

18.56. 
28fT,    Death.    Speranski. 


2838.  Sng.  Oh.  Palmer  visits  the  Russian  Church  to  discuss  pig^A 
reunion.  '- 

28S9.     Scotch  Oh.    Thomas  Guthrie  begins  to  preach  in  Edinburgh. 

28Vf.  American  Oh.  Emerson  addresses  tne  Divinity  School  at 
Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  firom  a  frankly  rationalistic  standpoint. 

2841.  Chnxeh  Hist.  The  Jews  are  accused  of  human  sacrifice  in 
Rhodes  and  Damascus.  Montefiore  goes  to  the  East,  and  obtains  from  the 
Saltan  a  firman  dismissing  the  charges,  and  declaring  the  equality  of 
Jews  before  the  law. 

28iJ.    French  Lit.    Maurice  de  Gu^rin's  Le  Centaur. 
Sainte-Beuve's  Histoire  de  Port  RoyaL 

2SiS.    German  Lit.    Geibel's  Poems. 

2844.    American  Lit.    Margaret  Fuller  and  Emerson  edit  the  Dial,  the 


366  POLITICS  [18tt 


1813.  Turkey.  Palmerston  persuades  Prussia  and  Austria  to  oouclode 
the  Treaty  of  Loudon,  shortly  joined  by  Russia,  to  compel  Mefaemet 
Ali  to  restore  Syria  and  Crete  (July).  An  English  fleet  is  sent,  and  fe 
joined  by  Turkish  and  Austrian  smps ;  Ibrahim  is  defeated  in  Syrii 
and  Beyrout  and  Acre  are  bombarded.  Mehemet  receives  Elgypt  u 
a  hereditary  possession,  paying  tribute  to  the  Sultan. 

1814.  America.  To  cope  with  the  financial  crisis,  Van  Buren  makes 
large  vaults  in  the  chief  cities,  where  government  funds  are  to  be 
received  and  paid  out.  In  the  presidential  election,  Harrison,  the  Whk 
candidate,  is  successful,  but  dies  a  month  after  his  installation,  and 
is  succeeded  by  the  Vice-President  Tyler,  an  extreme  Democrat  of  the 
Calhoun  school. 

Lopez  succeeds  to  supreme  power  in  Paraguay. 

1815.  Australasia.  The  Treaty  of  Waitan^  is  concluded  with  the 
Maoris,  who  cede  their  sovereignty,  i.e.  their  political  rights,  to  the 
Queen.  Their  lands  are  guaranteed,  but  pre-emption  is  claimed  by  the 
Government. 

The  transportation  of  convicts  to  New  South  Wales  ceases. 

1816.  Asia.  An  English  fleet  blockades  Canton,  and  takes  ChunD, 
after  which  a  truce  is  concluded. 

Dost  Mohammed  surrenders,  and  leaves  the  country. 


1817.  England.  To  make  up  the  deficit,  a  fixed  dutnr  of  8«.  n^ 
a  quarter  on  com  and  a  sugar  duty  are  proposed.     Peel  carries  '- 

a  vote  of  want  of  confidence  by  one.  Melbourne  resigns,  Peel  obtaiD> 
a  very  large  majority,  and  includes  Stanley,  Graham,  and  Ripon  in  hii 
Ministry.     The  question  of  the  Queen's  household  is  compromised. 

Delane  becomes  editor  of  the  Times,  in  which  Henry  Reeve  not 
begins  to  write  the  leading  articles  on  foreign  policy. 

1818.  Germany.  Jacoby*s  Four  Questions  Answered  claims  thegrut 
of  the  constitution  promised  to  Prussia. 

1819.  Switzerland.  The  monasteries  are  abolished  in  Aargau«  tod 
Lucerne  answers  by  admitting  the  Jesuits  and  giving  them  the  control 
of  education. 

1820.  Spain.  Espartero  is  appointed  Regent  during  the  minority  d 
Isabelku 

1821.  Hungary.  Kossuth  and  Deak  supplant  Szechenyi  in  the  le$iet- 
ship  of  the  nationalist  party,  and  Kossuth,  who  has  been  imprisoned  bj 
Metteruich  and  is  now  released,  founds  a  political  daily  paper. 

1822.  Turkey.  Mehemet  Ali  restores  the  Turkish  fleet,  and  his  posi- 
tion in  Egypt  is  recognised.  The  Powers,  including  France,  sign  * 
convention  oy  which  the  Dardanelles  are  closed  to  all  ships  of  war, 
Russia  thus  sacrificing  her  rights  under  the  treaty  of  Unkiar  SkeletBi 
The  Sultan  is  placed  under  the  protection  of  Europe. 

Canning  again  becomes  British  Ambassador  at  Constantinople. 


1841]  culture'  367 

organ  of  the  American  Transcendentalists,  aided  by  Freeman  Clarke, 
Cmuming,  Theodore  Parker,  Thoreau,  Ripley. 
J8i5.    Soienoe.    Biot's  researches  on  the  polarisation  of  light. 

Liebig's  Chemistry  in  application  to  Amculture  and  Physiology. 
Reic^rt,  aided  by  KoUiker  and  Vircnow,  proves  all  organs  to  be 
derived  from  the  multiplication  and  combination  of  cells. 
Forbes'  British  Star-fishes. 
Hugh  Miller's  Old  Red  Sandstone. 
2846,    AxL    Clara  Wieck  marries  Schumann  and  performs  his  works. 
Barry  designs  the  Houses  of  Parliament,  aided  by  Pugin,  the 
greatest  work  of  the  Gothic  revival  in  England. 
JS47,    Archaeology.    Fellows  discovers  Xanthus   and   other   Lycian 

cities. 
JSJIS,     FhiloBophy.     Trendelenburg's   Logical    Investigations    attack 

HegeL 
28Ji9,    Politios.    Proudhon's  Qu'est-ce  que  la  Propri^t^  declares  that 
go?emment  will  become  unnecessary  when  the  causes  of  ill-doing  are 
removed. 
'ISaO,    Social.    Rowland  Hill  introduces  the  penny  post. 
'iSol.    Deaths.    Olbers,  Paganini,  Poisson. 


2852.  Sng.  Ch.  Tait  and  three  other  Oxford  tutors  issue  a  rio^i 
Protest  agfunst  Tract  90,  in  which  Newman  explains  the  '- 
39  Articles  in  a  Catholic  sense.  Newman  is  censured  by  the  Hebdo- 
madal Board,  and  the  Bishop  of  Oxford  persuades  him  to  bring  the 
Tracts  to  a  close.  Newman  is  deeply  affected  by  the  agreement, 
n^tiated  by  Bunsen,  for  Prussia  and  England  jointly  to  institute  a 
biuiopric  at  Jerusalem. 

Miall  founds  and  edits  The  Nonconformist. 

JSS3.    Italian  Ch.    Don  Bosco  founds  the  Oratory  of  St  Francis  de 
Sales  for  work  amonff  bo^ 

J804.    Amerioan  Cn.    Theodore  Parker  preaches  on  Transient  and 
Permanent  Elements  in  Christianity. 

:28So.    Afirioan  Ch.    Livingstone  begins  missionary  work  in  S.  Africa. 

J856.    Amtralarian    Ch.      Selvryn   becomes    first   Bishop    of    New 
Zealand. 

2857,    Church  Hist.    Cureton  publishes  the  Syriac  version  of  three  of 
Ignatius'  Emstles. 

28oS.    Sng.  Ijit.    Mark  Lemon  edits  Punch,  which  Leech  illustrates  and 
to  which  Gilbert  k  Beckett,  Douglas  Jerrold  and  Thackeray  contribute. 

2859.  Frenoh  Lit.    M^rim^'s  Colomba. 

2860.  Oennan  Lit.    Herw^h's  Poems. 
Hebbel's  Judith. 

Hacklander^s  Pictures  from  the  Life  of  Soldiers. 
J861.  Dntch  Lit.  Paludan-Miiller's  Adam  Homo. 
J862.    Italian  Lit.    D'Azeglio's  Niccolo  de  Lapi. 


368  POLITICS  [18tt 

1823.  America.    Negotiations  begin  concerning  the  frontier  line  between 
Venezuela  and  British  Guiana. 

Horace  Greely  bedns  to  edit  the  New  York  Tribune. 

1824.  Australasia,    rfew  Zealand  becomes  a  separate  colony. 

1825.  Asia.    A  treaty  made  by  the  Chinese  Commissioner,  ceding  Hong 
Kong,  is  disavowed  by  the  Emperor,  and  the  war  continues. 

An  insurrection  at  Cabul  takes  place,  and  Bumes  and  others  are 
murdered.    The  officers  agree  to  withdraw  the  army. 

1826.  AMoGL    The  Great  Powers  agree  to  allow  mutual  right  of  search 
in  order  to  suppress  the  slave  trade. 

A  treaty  of  commerce  is  made  between  England  and  Abyssinia,  and 
a  consul  is  shortly  appointed. 


1827.  England.     Peel   reimposes   Pitt's   income-tax   for  three   r^^y 
years,  and  lowers  a  number  of  duties.     In  regard  to  com,  he   ^ 
carries  a  sliding  scale  duty  of  208.  when  the  price  of  com  is  5U, 
decreasing  to  Is.  at  73^. 

A  great  Chartist  petition  is  drawn  up ;  but  a  motion  to  hear  coonsd 
in  its  support  is  lost. 

1828.  Ireland.  The  Young  Ireland  movement,  working  on  parallel  lines 
to  that  of  O'Connell,  is  begun  by  Davis  and  Gavan  Duffy,  who  edit  the 
Nation,  and  attempt  to  revive  the  interest  of  the  people  m  their  histofj 
and  literature. 

1829.  France.  The  dynasty  is  weakened  by  the  death  of  the  Duke  of 
Orleans,  leaving  two  infant  sons,  the  Comte  de  Paris,  and  the  Due  de 
Chartres. 

1830.  Servia.  The  son  of  Milosch  Obrenovitch  is  expelled,  and  a  Kan- 
georgevitch  is  chosen. 

1831.  America.  Lord  Ashburton  and  Daniel  Webster,  the  Secretary  of 
State,  arrange  the  frontier  between  Canada  and  Maine  by  the  Ashburtoo 
Treaty.  Both  agree  by  the  Treaty  of  Washington  to  watch  the  AfriciD 
coast  in  order  to  stop  the  slave  trade,  and  to  surrender  the  right  of 
search. 

1832.  Australasia.  The  Tahiti  Isles,  for  a  long  time  the  scene  of 
English  missionary  effort,  become  a  French  Protectorate. 

Partial  representation  is  introduced  in  N.  S.  Wales  and  South 
Australia. 

1833.  Asia.  The  English  retreat  begins,  almost  all  the  troops  being 
treacherously  slain  in  the  Khyber  Pass  (Jan.).  Pollock  is  sent  tu 
reoccupy  Cabul,  and  dismantles  the  fortifications ;  but  he  is  forced  to 
recognise  Dost  Mohammed,  and  Afghanistan  is  evacuated.  Sir  Charier 
Napier  is  sent  by  Lord  Elleiiborough  to  annex  Scinde. 

The  opium  war  ends  with  the  Treaty  of  Nankin.  Canton,  Shanghai, 
and  three  other  ports  are  opened  to  English  trade ;  Hong  Kong  i> 
ceded  ;  an  indemnity  is  paid  ;  a  tariff  is  framed ;  and  official  intercourse 
on  a  basis  of  e(iuality  is  provided  for. 


1842]  CULTURE  369 

f^63.     Spanish  Lit.    EsproDceda's  El  Diablo  Mundo. 

2864.    American  Lit.    Longfellow's  Ballads. 

i^6^.     Science.    Cauchy's  researches  on  determinants. 

Stas  studies  the  atomic  weights  of  a  number  of  elements,  and 
declares  that  there  are  no  simple  relations  between  them. 
James  Forbes  declares  glaciers  viscous  bodies. 
Rokitansky's  Handbook  of  Pathological  Anatomy. 
1^66.    Archaeology.    J.  L.  Stephens  explores  the  dead  cities  of  the 

Mayas  of  Yucatan,  and  studies  their  calculiform  writing. 
i867.    Philosophy.    Vatke's  Free  Will  in  relation  to  Sin  and  Grace 
attempts  to  combine  Hegel  and  Schleiermacher. 

Feuerbach's  Essence  of  Christianity  maintains  that  Christianity  is 
the  creation  of  human  hopes  and  fears. 
B868.     Politics.    Cabet's  Voyage  en  Icarie,  a  scheme  of  conmiunism. 
Louis  Blanc  recommends  national  workshops. 

2869.  Economics.    List  insists  that  absolute  free  trade  conflicts  with 
the  National  Idea. 

2870.  Geography.    Livingstone  discovers  Lake  Ngami. 
Sir  James  Ross  finds  the  great  Southern  continent. 

2871.  Education.    Degrees  are  granted  to  women  in  America. 

2872.  Deaths.    Baader,  Chantrey,  DecandoUe,  Lermontof. 


287S.    Eng.  Ch.    Isaac  Williams  is  defeated  in  a  contest  for  the   rig^o 
Chair  of  Poetry  at  Oxford  vacated  by  Keble.  ^ 

2874.  French  Ch.    Veuillot  becomes  editor  of  the  Univers,  which  he 
makes  the  organ  of  Ultramontanism. 

2875.  Spaniw  Ch.    Balmes*  Protestantism  and  Catholicism,  a  survey 
of  their  respective  contributions  to  civilisation. 

2876.  Swedish  Lit.     Fr^ierika  Bremer's  novel,  The  Neighbours. 

2877.  Church  Hist.    The  Refutation  of  all  Heresies  of  Hippolytus  is 
found  at  Mount  Athos. 

2878.  Eng.  Lit.    Macaulay's  Lays  of  Ancient  Rome. 
Tennyson's  Poems,  chiefly  l3rrical. 

^879.  French  Lit.  Scribe's  Verre  d'Eau. 
^80.  Russian  Lit.  Gogol's  Dead  Souls. 
^81.    American  Lit.    Brook  Farm,  near  Boston,  is  taken  by  Ripley 

and  the  Transcendentalists  for  the  purpose  of  a  common  life. 
-€8£.     Science.    Mayer  reaches  the  mechanical  theory  of  heat  without 
experiments. 

Steenstrup's  Alternation  of  Generations  shows  that  many  species 
are  represented  by  two  distinct  types. 

Dr  Braid,  a  Manchester  surgeon,  studies  *  Hypnotism.* 
Murchison  establishes  the  Permian  system. 

Schleiden  proves  that  the  plant  embryo  and  all  vegetable  tissuea 
spring  from  a  nucleated  cell. 

I^win  investigates  the  origin  of  coral  reefs. 

G.  24 


370  POLITICS  [Utt 

1834.  AfricGL  Morocco  enters  the  war  between  Fiance  and  Abd«d- 
Kader. 

The  Sultan  annexes  Tripoli  and  Barca. 

The  Dutch  settlers  in  Natal  are  expelled  by  an  English  expeditioo 
to  Durban,  and  the  greater  number  trek  into  the  Orange  Free  State  lod 
the  Transvaal,  where  they  engage  in  desperate  straggles  with  the 
Matabele.     Natal  is  declared  a  crown  colony,  1844. 


1835.  En^and.    Fergus  O'Connor  explains  his  land  scheme.         ngy 

1836.  Ireland.    O'Connell's  proposed  meeting  at  Clontarf,  near  ^ 
Dublin,  is  forbidden  by  the  Government,  which  is  anxious  to  SToid 
bloodshed.    O'Connell  thereupon  dissuades  his  followers  from  attending, 
but  is  arrested  for  sedition. 

Peel  passes  an  amended  Arms  Act,  forbidding  the  possession  of  anos 
except  by  special  license. 

1837.  France.  Louis  Blanc  founds  La  R^forme,  the  organ  of  tlK 
Radical-Socialist  party,  and  a^tates  for  Parliamentary  reform.  He  is 
supported  by  Ledru-RoUin  and  Arago. 

The  Entente  Cordiale,  establishcKi  by  Aberdeen  and  Gnixot,  and 
resting  on  their  mutual  confidence,  is  ratified  by  the  visit  of  the  Qoea 
and  Prince  Consort  to  Louis  Philipi)e  at  Eu.  The  King  assures  tk 
Queen  that  thev  are  not  contemplating  a  marriage  of  one  of  his  wu 
with  Isabella  of  Spain. 

1838.  Spain.  Espartero  becomes  unpopular,  and  is  forced  by  Nanraa 
to  fly  to  Endand.  Christina  is  recalled,  Isabella  is  declared  of  age,  and 
the  Moderados,  under  Narvaez,  supported  by  French  influence,  become 
supreme. 

1839.  Switzerland.  The  seven  Catholic  Cantons  make  the  Sonder- 
bund,  to  prevent  the  suppression  of  religious  houses  and  to  oppose  the 
revision  of  the  federal  constitution. 

1840.  Hungary.  The  Magyars  attempt  to  exclude  all  languages  bat 
their  own  from  official  use,  and  fightmg  between  Slavs  and  Magyar 
occurs  in  Croatia. 

1841.  Greece.  Otho  is  compelled  by  a  revolt  to  dismiss  his  BavaiiiD 
counsellors  and  to  grant  a  constitution.  The  country,  however,  con- 
tinues to  sufi'er  from  brigandage  and  bankruptcy. 

1842.  AfHcGL  The  Gambia  is  separated  from  Sierra  Leone  ;  and  the 
Gold  Coast  is  taken  over  by  the  Crown. 

France  establishes  a  port  on  the  Gold  Coast  as  a  base  for  French 
traders. 


1843.    England.    Peel's  Bank  Charter  Act  separates  the  depart-  r^^ 
ment  which  issues  notes  from  that  which  carries  on  ordinar}*  ^ 
banking  business,  limits  the  issue  of  notes  to  the  amount  of  bollion  in 


1M4]  CULTURE  371 

BS83.     Law.    Richter*s  Catholic  and  Lutheran  Church  Law  in  Germany. 

2884.  SociaL  A  Royal  Commission  on  Mines  first  reveals  the  evils  of 
women's  and  of  children's  labours,  which  is  forbidden  by  a  bill  introduced 
by  Ashley. 

(jodin  founds  a  Familist^re  at  Guise. 

2885.  Deaths.  Thomas  Arnold,  Bell,  Channing,  Espronceda,  Gesenius, 
Stendhal. 


^86.     Eng.  Ch.    Newman  resigns  his  position  at  St  Mary's.  [1843 

Pusey  is  forbidden  to  preach  for  two  years  owing  to  his    '- 

sermon  on  the  Eucharist. 
^887.     Scotch  Ch.    Four  hundred  and  seventy-four  clercy  leave  the 

established  Church,  led  by  Chalmers,  Guthrie  and  Hugn  Miller,  on 

account  of  lay  patronage  being  made  legal  by  the  Auchterarder  case. 

A  sustentation  rand  is  rapidly  raised. 
2888.    French    Ch.     Forbin-Janson    founds    TOBuvre   de    la    Sainte- 

Enfance. 
S889.     German  Ch.    Beck  revives  Evangelicalism  at  Tubingen. 

2890.  Italian  Ch.  Gioberti's  Primacy  of  the  Italians  declares  Italy 
morally  and  intellectually  pre-eminent  among  nations. 

2891.  American  Ch.  Joseph  Smith  authorises  polygamy  for  the 
Mormons. 

2892.  Eng.  Lit.    Carlyle's  Past  and  Present. 

2893.  French  Lit.  Hugo's  Les  Burgraves  marks  the  decline  of  the 
romantic  school,  and  Ponsard's  Lucr^e  revives  classicism. 

2894^    German  Lit.    Gutzkow's  Tassel  and  Sword. 

2895.  Polish  Lit.    Kraszewski's  social  novel.  The  Magic  Lamp. 

2896.  Science.  Logan,  of  the  Canada  Survey,  detects  pre-Cambrian 
formations,  which  he  calls  Laurentian. 

Henson  constructs  an  Aerostat. 

Quenstedt  classifies  the  Jurassic  rocks  of  Swabia. 

2897.  Art    Balfe's  Bohemian  Girl. 

Designs  for  the  decoration  of  the  Houses  of  Parliament  are  sub- 
mitted by  Watts,  Maclise  and  Madox  Brown. 
Ruskm's  Modem  Painters,  vol.  I. 

2898.  FhiloBophy.  Mill's  Logic  discusses  the  theory  and  method  of 
inductions,  and  maintains  that  the  conception  of  Causation  is  purely 
emj>iricaL  The  concluding  Book  applies  the  methods  of  Physical 
Science  to  moral  and  political  problems. 

2899.  History.    Ewald's  History  of  the  Jews. 

2900.  Economics.    Roscher  founds  the  Historical  School 

2901.  Agricnltore.    Lawes  and  Gilbert  practise  scientific  agriculture. 

2902.  Death.    Sonthey. 


2908.    Eng.Ch.   Ward's  Ideal  ofaChrLstian  Church  is  condemned   mqjj 
by  the  Hebdomadal  Board  at  Oxford.  l-«»» 

Miall  and  other  Nonconformists  found  the  Liberation  Society. 
2904.    Oermaa  Ch.    Bonge  and  Czerski  denounce  the  exhibition  of  the 

24—2 


372  POLITICS  [UM 

the  Bank,  plus  14  millions,  plus  two-thirds  the  amount  issued  by  any 
bank  that  ceases  to  exist,  and  restricts  the  issue  of  provincial  bank& 

Mazzini's  letters  are  opened  by  the  English  Gfovemment^  in  order 
to  discover  whether  he  is  plotting  against  me  despotic  govemmentB  of 
Italy. 

1844.  Ireland.  O'Connell  is  tried  and  sentenced  to  a  fine  and  a  ymt 
imprisonment ;  but  the  sentence  is  reversed  by  the  Lords  on  a  techoical 
error. 

1845.  Denmark.  Holstein  declares  Schleswig  and  Holstein  independent, 
indivisible,  and  governed  by  the  rule  of  male  descent. 

1846.  Germany.  Weavers'  riots  break  out  in  Silesia,  where  the 
economic  distress  is  ver}'^  grave. 

1847.  Russia.  On  his  visit  to  England,  Nicholas  proposes  to  Lord 
Aberdeen  to  act  together  in  the  event  of  a  disruntion  of  Turicey. 

1848.  America.  Tyler,  a  slave-holder,  and  CaUioun,  the  Secreteiy  «)f 
State,  secretly  negociate  the  annexation  of  Texas.  The  Senate  reject 
it;  but  in  the  presidential  election,  Polk,  who  stands  for  anuexation. 
defeats  Clay  and  a  Liberty  Party  candidate. 

1849.  West  Indies.    The  Republic  of  San  Domingo  is  founded. 

1850.  Africa.  The  Emperor  of  Morocco  invades  Algeria,  and  a  Urjie 
French  expedition  is  sent  out.  Tangier  and  Mogador  are  bombarded, 
and  the  Emperor  is  forced  to  make  the  Treaty  of  Tangier. 


1851.  England.  Peel  abolishes  or  diminishes  many  duties  on  ng^ 
imports,  and  removes  all  duties  on  exports.  A  letter  written  by  ^ 
Russell  from  Edinburgh  declares  for  complete  abolition  ;  but  Peel  fiul? 
to  persuade  his  Cabinet  to  take  the  step,  is  bitterly  attacked  bj*  Disraeli 
and  Bentinck,  and  resigns  (Dec).  Russell  fails  to  form  a  ministn*.  aoii 
Peel  returns  to  power. 

1852.  Ireland.  Catholics  are  permitted  to  hold  property  in  their  ow 
name. 

Peel  raises  the  grant  to  Maynooth  College.  Though  he  appf^?ve* 
the  step,  Gladstone  resigns  his  office  on  the  ground  that  the  grant  af- 
flicts with  the  views  expressed  in  his  published  works. 

The  Devon  Commission,  appointed  1844,  to  inquire  into  the  griev- 
ances of  tenants,  condemns  the  system  of  Leinster,  Munster,  idJ 
Connaught,  but  praises  the  Ulster  custom  of  tenantrright  Peel  thtw- 
fore  introduces  a  Bill  extending  compensation  to  tenants,  which  L« 
rejected  by  the  Lords. 

The  potato  crop  is  destroyed  by  disease. 

1853.  Itsdy.  Disturbances  break  out  in  the  Romagna ;  and  FruKV 
garrisons  Ferrara,  in  accordance  with  her  rights  under  the  Treaty  ••? 
Vienna. 

1854.  Spain.  The  Moderados  frame  a  reactionary  Constitution,  an-i 
abolish  the  right  of  the  Cortes  to  assemble  unsummoned. 

1855.  AmericGL    Texas  is  admitted  to  the  Union  as  a  slave  state. 


1M5]  CULTURE  373 

Holy  Coat  of  Treves,  and  found  a  German  Catholic  Church ;  but 
RoDge  loses  his  belief  in  the  divinity  of  Christ,  and  Czerski  withdraws, 
and  the  movement  collapses. 

The  Pope  condemns  the  rationalistic  teaching  of  Hermes. 
290o.     American  Ch.    John  Thomas  founds  the  Christadelphians. 

2906.  Eng.  Lit    Kinglake's  Eothen. 
Stanley^s  Life  of  Dr  Arnold. 
Disraeli's  Coningsby. 

2907.  French  Lit    Dumas'  Monte  Cristo. 

2908.  Science.  Chambers'  Vestiges  of  the  Natural  History  of  Creation 
asserts  that  all  forms  of  life  have  an  impulse  to  rise  and  to  modify 
according  to  environment 

2909.  Art    Joachim  makes  his  d^but. 

2910.  FhUoBophy.  Stirner's  The  Individual  and  his  Property  pro- 
pounds a  system  of  ultra-individualism  in  morals,  economics  and 
politics. 

291J.     Philology.   Castren  studies  North  Asiatic  philology  and  ethnology. 
29 J2.    History.    Waitz'  Constitutional  History  of  Germany. 
291S     Law.    Heffter's  International  Law  of  the  Present. 

2914.  Economics.  Mill's  Unsettled  Questions  of  Political  Economy 
discuss  the  theory  of  international  trade. 

2915.  SociaL    The  Rochdale  Pioneers  found  a  Cooperative  Store. 
29lt'.    Deaths.    Dalton,  Thorwaldsen. 


2yj7.    Eng.  Ch.  Ward  is  condemned  and  degraded  by  Convocation    rig^e 
and  joins  the  Roman  Church  (Sept.).    Newman  follows,  explaining   ^ 
his  step  in  his  Development  of  Christian  Doctrine.     After  the  secession, 
Posey,  Marriott  and  Mozley  lead  the  Anglo-Catholic  party.    Pusey 
fooiids  the  tirst  sisterhood. 

Wilberforce  becomes  Bishop  of  Oxford. 

291S.  aerman  Ch.  Rothe's  Theological  Ethics  leads  the  reaction 
against  the  rigidity  of  the  Hengslenberg  school,  and  asserts  that  the 
ooDScioosness  of  God  is  equally  immediate  with  the  consciousness  of 
the  Ego,  that  religion  lies  in  morality,  and  that  the  Church,  when  its 
work  is  done,  becomes  merged  in  the  moral  community,  the  State. 

2^419.    Hungarian  Lit    Eotvos'  novel,  The  Village  Notary. 

2920.  Danish  Lit     Hertz'  lyrical  drama,  King  Rent's  Daughter. 

2921.  American  Lit    Hawthorne's  Mosses  from  an  old  Manse. 

2922.  Science.    Lord  Rosse  constructs  a  large  reflector  at  Parsonstown. 
Adams  computes  the  orbit  of  an  unknown  planet,  which  would 

explaiD  the  irregularities  observed  in  the  motion  of  Uranus. 

Humboldt's  Cosmos,  a  survey  of  the  world. 

Faraday  discovers  the  connection  of  electro-magnetism  and  light. 

Annstroug  invents  the  hydraulic  crane. 

Neumann  states  the  mathematical  laws  of  magneto-electric  in- 
doctioD. 

Reichenbach's  researches  on  Magnetism  and  Vital  Force. 

Gayley  states  the  theory  of  Invariants. 


374  POLITICS  [1846 


1856.  AustralasiGL  The  first  Maori  war  breaks  out^  owing  to  the  breadi 
of  the  Treaty  of  Waitand.  Sir  Greor^e  Grey  arrives,  declares  that  the 
treaty  remaius  intact,  and  suppresses  the  revolt. 

1857.  Asia.  The  Sikhs  invade  British  territory,  and  are  defeated  in  two 
fierce  battles  at  Ferozeshah  and  Moodkee  (Dec.). 

1858.  AfHcGL  A  massacre  of  Christian  converts  takes  place  in  Mada- 
gascar. A  joint  French  and  Endish  expedition  is  sent,  but  fiuk  to 
effect  a  landing,  and  the  island  is  closed  to  European  commerce  for  some 
years. 


1859.  England.  Peel  carries  a  Bill  for  the  gradual  abolition  of  r^g^ 
the  com  duty,  which  is  to  sink  to  1«.  a  quarter  after  1849.  '■ 

Disraeli  and  the  Protectionist  conservatives  join  Russell  in  rejecting 
a  Coercion  Bill  for  Ireland,  Peel  resigns  (June),  and  Russell  fonns 
a  ministry. 

1860.  Ireland.  The  potato  crop  a^ain  fails,  and,  despite  the  sale  d 
Indian  com  and  the  institution  of  relief  works,  the  area  and  int^isity  of 
the  famine  increase. 

1861.  Italy.  Pius  IX.  becomes  Pope,  amnesties  political  offenders,  and 
appoints  a  Council  of  State.  Metternich  occupies  the  city  of  Fenaia, 
contrary  to  the  Treaty  of  Vienna.  Pius  protests,  and  prepares  ftr 
armed  resistance. 

Leopold  of  Tuscany  and  the  Duke  of  Lucca  are  forced  to  grant 
administrative  reforms  ;  but  the  latter  sells  bis  duchy  to  Tuscany  and 
retires  into  private  life. 

1862.  Spain.  Louis  Philippe,  on  the  advice  of  Guizot,  chooses  Vnxxk 
Duke  of  Cadiz,  her  cousin,  who  is  unlikely  to  have  children,  as  husband 
for  the  Queen  of  Spain,  and  marries  her  only  sister  to  the  Duke  of 
Montpensier,  his  own  son,  on  the  same  day,  despite  his  express  promise 
to  Queen  Victoria  to  wait  till  Isabella  had  an  heir.  Though  he  assert* 
that  Palmerston,  who  succeeds  Aberdeen,  was  intriguing  against  Mont- 
pensier,  his  conduct  arouses  great  resentment  in  England,  abruptly 
tenninates  the  Entente  Cordiale,  and  weakens  the  position  of  the 
Orleanist  dynasty. 

1863.  Portugal.  The  followers  of  Miguel  again  revolt,  but  are  sop- 
pressed  with  the  aid  of  an  English  fleet. 

1864.  Denmark.  Christian  VTll.  declares  the  whole  Danish  State 
indivisible  and  heritable  by  females  as  well  as  males.  This  decree 
excludes  the  Duke  of  Augustenburg  and  disappoints  the  Duchies,  which 
aspire  to  become  a  separate  j)rovince  under  a  German  prince. 

1865.  Poland.  A  revolt  of  the  pea.<«ants  in  Galicia  takes  place,  and  the 
republic  of  Cracow  is  annexed  by  Austria,  in  violation  of  the  Treaty  of 
Vienna. 

1866.  America.  On  a  proposal  to  buy  land  from  Mexico,  Wilmot 
carries  a  j)roviso  that  slavery  shall  be  forbidden  in  any  territon*  thib 
ac(iuired.  Owing,  however,  to  opposition  in  the  Senate,  an  Appropria- 
tion Bill  is  passed  without  the  slavery  proviso. 


18A6]  CULTURE  375 

tB92S.    Art.    Viollet  le  Due  begins  the  restoratioD  of  Notre-Dame  at 
Paris,  and  revives  Gothic  art. 

I)B.yB  Treatise  on  Harmony. 
S924^    Archaeology.    Layard  explores  Nineveh. 
t92o.    History.    Garlvle's  Letters  and  Speeches  of  CromwelL 

Thiers'  ICstory  of  the  Consulate  and  Empire. 

t926.    Economics.    Bastiat's  Sophismes  Economiques  defends  laissez- 

fiuie. 
1S927.    Education.    Peel  founds  Queen's  Colleges  in  Ireland  for  unsec- 

tarian  education  for  the  laity. 
£928.    Agricnltnre.    The  General  Enclosure  Act  is  passed 
S929.    Geography.    Abb^  Hue  enters  Thibet,  and  reaches  Lhassa. 
£930.    Deaths.    Jackson,  A.  W.  Schlegel,  Sydney  Smith. 


29S1.    Kig.  Ch.    The  Evangelical  Alliance  is  formed  to  oppose   riQ4a 
Romanism,  Puseyism  and  rationalism.    Many  Americans,  French    ^ 
and  Germans  join,  and  several  conferences  take  place  abroad. 
Holyoake  founds  the  National  Secular  Society. 

S9S2.    French  Ch.    The  Virgb  is  believed  to  appear  at  La  Salette. 

£933.  German  Ch.  Baur  places  the  Gospels  m  the  second  century 
and  declares  that  the  original  gospel  was  an  Ebionite  Gospel  of  the 
Hebrews,  which  'Matthew'  combmed  with  some  more  liberal  aocument; 
Luke  was  a  Pauline  protest  against  Judaism,  but  was  later  supplemented 
by  Ebionite  or  Jewish  hands ;  Mark  was  an  adapter  of  Matthew  and 
Luke ;  and  Paul  ex^kuded  a  Jewish  Messiah  into  an  universal  teacher. 

£934-  Italian  Ch.  Kosmini's  Wounds  of  the  Church  complains  that 
die  clergy  lack  education,  that  clergy  and  people  may  not  choose  their 
bishops,  etc. 

Gioberti's  Modem  Jesuit  replies  to  Curci's  attack  on  his  Primacy  of 
die  Italians. 

£935.    Eng.  Lit.    Browning  marries  Elizabeth  Barrett. 

The  Daily  News,  the  first  cheap  daily  paper,  begins  to  appear. 

£936.    German  Lit.    Freilicrath's  revolutionary  cycle  of  songs,  Qa,  ira. 

£937.  Italian  Lit.  D' Aze^uo  attacks  the  Papacy  and  the  revolutionists, 
and  urges  the  princes  to  adopt  a  national  policy. 

£938.    Hnngarum  Lit.    Maurus  Jokai's  first  novel. 

£939.    Russian  Lit.    Grigorovich's  The  Village. 

£940.  Sci^ace.  Independently  of  Adams,  Leverrier  infers  a  planet 
beyond  Uranus,  and  Galle  of  Berlin,  whom  he  asks  to  verify  it,  finds 
it  close  to  the  place  indicated.  The  planet  receives  the  name  of 
Neptune. 

Weber's  Determination  of  Electro-dynamic  forces  explains  the  laws 
of  action  of  electric  currents  and  of  the  resistance  of  conductors. 

294^.    Art.     Mendelssohn  produces  the  Elijah  at  Birmingham. 
Berlioz'  Faust. 

2942.  Philology.  Rawlinson's  work  on  the  Persian  cuneiform  inscrip- 
tions at  Behistan  opens  up  Assyrian  history. 


876  POLITICS  [iM 

War  with  Mexico  arises  over  the  question  of  the  boundaries  of 
Texas. 

To  propitiate  the  North,  Polk  claims  Oregon,  and  arranges  with 
England  to  fix  the  boundary  at  the  49th  parallel. 
1867.  Asia.  The  Sikhs  are  defeated  at  Aliwal  (Jan.),  and  their  en- 
trenched camp  is  stormed  (Feb.).  By  the  Treaty  of  Lahore,  En^Und 
obtains  territory  beyond  the  Sutlej.  Henry  Lawrence  is  appointed 
British  Resident. 


1868.  England.  Short  service  of  10  or  12  years  is  introduced,  rtAn 
with  option  of  joining  for  21  years.  ^^ 

Rothschild  is  elected  for  the  City  of  London,  the  first  Jewish 
member  of  Parliament. 

1869.  Ireland.  A  large  emigration  takes  place,  which,  with  the  fiuniiie, 
reduces  the  population  by  three  millions. 

1870.  France.  The  extension  of  the  franchise  is  demanded  by  Odikm 
Barrot,  Lamartine,  Ledru-RoUin,  6amier-Pag6s,  and  by  the  SociaKste 
Louis  Blanc,  Blanqui,  and  Marrast. 

1871.  Germany.  The  King  of  Prussia  is  forced  to  call  a  Luidtag ;  but 
he  declares  that  he  will  never  grant  a  constitution,  and  dissolves  the 
Diet. 

1872.  Belgium.    The  Liberals,  Rogier  and  Pr^re-Orban,  take  office. 

1873.  Italy.  Marie  Louise  of  Parma  dies,  Parma  passes  to  Lucca,  a&d 
Modena  receives  part  of  Tuscany.  Riots  ensue,  and  the  Austmib 
occupy  the  town  of  Ferrara. 

Charles  Albert  introduces  liberal  reforms  in  Piedmont,  and  Cav«)ar 
edits  the  Risorgimento. 

1874.  Switzerland.  War  breaks  out,  the  Sonderbund  is  routed  and 
dissolved,  and  the  Jesuits  are  expelled. 

1875.  Portugal.     England,  France  and  Spain  end  the  civil  war. 

1876.  Hungary.  Szechenyi  approves  proposals  for  reform  made  hj 
Vienna;  but  Deak,  Eotvos,  and  Kossuth  demand  more  far-reiurhing 
changes. 

1877.  America.    Gold  is  discovered  in  (California. 

1878.  AfWca.     Abd-el-Kader  surrenders  conditionally. 
British  Kaffraria  is  created. 

1879.  Asia.  Sattara  is  annexed  to  British  India  by  Lord  EHenboroodi 
though  Bartle  Frere  has  recognised  a  new  Rajah,  and  in  violation  of  Uie 
treaty  of  1819. 


1847]  CULTURE  377 

294s.     FhiloBophy.     Hamilton's  edition  of  Reid  expounds  the  theory  of 
relativity. 

Theodor  Waitz'  Foundation  of  Psychology  continues  the  teaching 
of  Herbart. 
2944,     Geography.    The  Hakluyt  Society  is  founded. 
f^45.     History.    Grote's  History  of  Greece. 

Herculano's  History  of  Portugal. 
2946.    Deaths.    Bessel.  List,  Tegner. 


2947.  Eng.  Ch.  Lord  John  Russell's  appointment  of  Hampden  rj^o^^ 
to  the  Bishopric  of  Hereford  raises  a  stonn  of  protest.  '■ 

F.  W.  Robertson  becomes  incumbent  of  Trinity  Chapel,  Brighton. 

2948.  Scotch  Ch.  The  United  Presbyterian  Church  is  formed  from  the 
union  of  the  Secession  Church  of  1733  and  the  Relief  Church  of  1752. 

2949.  German  Ch.  Hundeshagen's  Vital  Questions  for  German  Pro- 
testantism discusses  its  relation  to  the  political  and  intellectual  questions 
of  the  time. 

Baur  s  History  of  Dogma  teaches  that  dogmas  develope  logically, 
and  that  movements  are  greater  than  individuals. 

2950.  American  Ch.  Salt  Lake  City  is  founded  by  the  Mormons,  led 
by  Young.  Their  colony  is  made  a  Territor}%  1850,  and  silver  is 
found  in  Utah,  1870. 

Ward  Beecher  becomes  minister  of  a  Congregational  church  in 
Brooklyn. 

2951.  Asiatic  Ch.    The  Pope  revives  the  Patriarchate  of  Jerusalem. 

2952.  Eng.  Lit.     Charlotte  Bronte's  Jane  Eyre 
Bohn's  Libraries  begin  to  appear. 

2953.  American  Lit.    Emerson's  Poems. 

2954'    Italian  Lit.    Salvini,  a  pupil  of  Modena,  begins  to  act. 

2955.  Russian  Lit.  Herzen's  mio  is  to  Blame  ?  tuivocates  a  modifica- 
tion of  the  marriage  laws. 

2956.  Science.    Simpson  uses  chloroform  as  an  anaesthetic  in  operations. 
William  Thomson  introduces  the  modem  method  of  treating  electro- 
magnetism,  i.e.,  illustrates  electro-magnetic  forces  by  the  distortions  of 
an  elastic  solid. 

Joule  lectures  on  the  Mechanical  Eijuivalent  of  Heat,  which  he 
discovers  independently  of  Mayer,  and  which  is  at  once  adopted  by 
William  Thomson.  Helmholtz  reads  an  essay  on  the  Conservation  of 
Energy  before  the  Physical  Society  of  Berlin,  without  being  aware  of 
the  work  of  Mayer. 

Von  Staudt  and  Steiner  create  modem  synthetic  geometry,  a  system 
without  reference  to  number  or  magnitude. 

Herschel  publishes  his  Observations  made  at  the  Cape. 

2957.  Art.     Kaulbach's  six  studies  of  the  Historj'  of  Man  (Berlin). 
Vischer's  Aesthetic  elaborates  the  ideas  of  Hegel,  and  declares  that 

beauty  results  from  the  union  of  the  real  and  the  ideal,  i.e.  through 
the  partial  departure  of  each  individual  from  the  t>^. 

2958.  Philology.    Lassen's  Indian  Antiquity. 


378  POLITICS  [IM 

1880.  England.    Fergus  O'Connor  summons  a  Chartist  meeting  r^g|g 
to  carry  a  monster  petition  to  Parliament     About  25,000  meet,   ^ 
but  are  stopped  by  special  constables,  and  Chartism  as  an  oiganidl 
political  movement  comes  to  an  end. 

1881.  Ireland.    Russell  carries  the  Encumbered  Estate  Act. 

A  Treason  Felony  Act  punishes  seditious  writing  and  qieikiiig. 
Smith  O'Brien  attacks  a  police  station,  is  captured  and  transported,  and 
Mitchell,  editor  of  the  United  Irishman,  is  convicted. 

1882.  France.  A  proposed  Reform  banquet  is  prohibited,  and  riotB 
ensue.  Guizot  resigns  (Feb.  22),  and  Thiers,  who  is  invited  to  fona 
a  ministry,  insists  on  electoral  reform.  The  King  abdicates  to  his 
grandson  and  escapes  to  England.  A  republic  is  proclaimed,  and  a  pro- 
visional government  is  formed  by  Lamartine,  Arago,  Ledru-Kok 
Gamier-Pag^s  and  Cr^mieux.  Lamartine  announces  to  foreign  states 
that  France  is  peaceful.  Louis  Blanc  is  made  president  of  a  commiaaion 
for  the  '  organisation  of  labour,'  and  erects  national  workshops.  A 
national  assembly,  elected  by  universal  suffrage,  appoints  an  execatiTe, 
from  which  the  Socialists  are  excluded.  An  attack  on  the  Chamber  is 
repulsed,  and  the  Socialist  leaders  are  imprisoned  or  fly.  Unmanied 
workmen  of  18  to  25  are  ordered  to  enter  the  army,  and  all  others  are 
to  leave  the  capital  (June  22).  The  decree  is  resisted,  Cavaignac  is 
appointed  Dictator,  and  four  days  of  fierce  conflict  follow.     On  the  sap- 

J)ression  of  the  revolt,  the  workshops  are  abolished.  A  Constitation  is 
ormed  with  a  single  Chamber,  and  a  President  elected  b^  manhood 
suffrage  for  four  years.  Louis  Napoleon  receives  5}  million  votes 
against  li  million  cast  for  Cavaignac. 

1883.  Italy.  Sicily  obtains  a  Constitution,  but  establishes  a  provisional 
government  (Jan.),  and  deposes  the  King  (April).  Piedmont  Naples, 
and  Tuscany  also  obtain  Constitutions.  On  the  news  from  Paris,  the 
Pope  forms  a  ministry  under  Antonelli.  On  the  news  of  a  revolution  in 
Vienna,  Milan  and  other  Lombard  towns  revolt ;  the  Duke  of  Parma  i* 
expelled,  and  Venice  proclaims  a  republic  under  Manin.  Charies  Albert 
declares  war  against  Austria  (March  25),  and  marches  against  Radetikr. 
Lombardy  is  annexed  to  Piedmont,  Venice  declares  herself  incorporate 
with  them,  and  Tuscany,  the  Pope  and  Naples  send  troops.  The  Pope 
and  Ferdinand,  however,  quickly  recall  their  armies,  and  the  latter  over- 
throws the  Neapolitan  and  Sicilian  Constitutions.  Charles  Albert  is 
defeated  by  Radetzky  at  Custozza  (July),  Milan  is  recaptured,  Charle* 
Albert  signs  an  armistice,  withdrawing  to  Piedmont,  and  Kadetzky  turns 
to  the  siege  of  Venice. 

In  Rome  the  ministers  resign,  finding  that  the  Pope  does  not  a^weni 
to  their  measures,  and  Rossi  forms  a  new  ministry,  but  is  murdered. 
The  Pope  flees  to  Gaeta,  and  declares  ever^'thing  done  in  his  absenee 
void  (Nov.).  A  Constituent  Assembly,  in  which  Mazzini  and  (larihaldi 
sit,  decides  that  the  Pope  has  forfeited  his  temporal  power.  The  Dnke 
of  Tuscany  also  flees,  and  a  republic  is  proclaimed  under  Guerrazri. 

1884.  Germany.  The  King  of  Prussia  promises  a  free  press,  a  Lacdta^ 
and  the  formation  of  a  closer  German  federation  (March  9).  The  popu- 
lace demands  also  the  dismissal  of  the  soldiers ;  and,  after  a  fierce  fight 


1848]  CULTURE  379 

29S9.     History.    Lamartine's  Histoire  des  Girondins. 
29C0,     Anthropology.    Boucher  de  Perthes  publishes  an  account  of  the 
stone  weapons  found  by  him  in  the  gravel-pits  at  Abbeville. 

2961,  Economics.     Haxthausen    visits    Kussia,    at    the    request    of 
Nicholas,  and  describes  its  land  system. 

2962,  (Geography.    Franklin,  sent  by  the  British  Government  to  dis- 
cover a  North- West  passage,  1845,  is  lost. 

2963,  History.    Ferrari's   Philosophie   de   THistoire    points   out    the 
difficulties  in  any  theory  of  teleology. 

2964,  SociaL    Marx  and  Engels  issue  a  Communist  Manifesto,  urging 
the  proletariat  of  all  countries  to  unite. 

The  Ten  Hours*  Bill  for  women  and  children  of  13  to  18  is  carried. 
Father  Kolping  institutes  clubs  for  Catholic  workiug-men  in  Cologne ; 
at  his  death,  1865,  over  400  exist  in  the  Bhine  country. 

2965,  Deaths.    Chalmers,  O'Connell,  Vinet. 


2966,  Xng.  Ch.    Robert  Wilberforce's  Doctrine  of  the  Incama-   1-1040 

tion.  ^        .  .      . 

Fronde's  Nemesis  of  Faith  illustrates  the  reaction  from  the  Oxford 
movement,  and  leads  to  the  resignation  of  his  Fellowship  at  Oxford. 

2967,  French  Ch.  Many  liberal  Catholics  enter  the  National  Assembly 
and  help  Napoleon  to  the  Presidency.  Falloux,  Minister  of  Education, 
introduces  a  bill,  with  the  approval  of  Thiers,  by  which  Catholics  may 
be  educated  at  primary  ana  seconda^  Catholic  schools,  but  can  only 
obtain  degrees  at  the  University.  The  compromise  is  accepted  by 
Montalembert  but  fiercely  attacked  by  Veuillot. 

Frederick  Monod  founds  the  ^lise  Libre  in  Paris,  seceding  from 
the  National  Church,  the  Synod  refusing  to  acknowledge  the  (hvinity 
of  Christ.  Adolphe  Monod  remains ;  and  the  Church  soon  becomes 
more  orthodox. 

2968,  airman  Ch.  The  Pius  Verein  is  founded  at  Mainz  to  advocate 
clerical  direction  of  education,  and  independence  of  State  control. 

A  meeting  of  Bishops  held  at  Wiirzburg  resolves  to  work  for  the 
alHrogation  of  the  sovereign's  placet,  for  the  full  independence  of 
ecclesiastical  legislation,  administration  and  jurisdiction  and  the 
control  of  education.  Many  of  the  desires  expressed  at  Wiirzburg  are 
folfilled  by  Concordats  concluded  in  the  followmg  years  with  the  states 
of  Southern  Germany. 

2969,  American  Ch.  Members  of  the  Fox  family,  in  New  York  State, 
become  mediums  and  profess  to  hold  communication  with  the  departed. 
Andrew  Jackson  Davis  publishes  Nature's  Divine  B^velation,  alleged 
to  be  dictated  in  a  clairvoyant  trance.  Spiritualism  spreads  rapidly 
thioagfaout  the  States,  and  is  introduced  into  England  by  Home,  1855. 

2970,  Italian  Ch.  Ventura  recommends  the  surrender  of  the  Temporal 
Power. 

2971,  AMoan  Ch.    Gray  becomes  Bishop  of  Cape  Town. 

2972,  Sng.  Lit.  The  Bacon-Shakspere  controversy  is  begun  by  Hart's 
floepticism  as  to  Shakspere.    The  authorship  of  Bacon  is  suggested  by 


380  POUTics  [1MB 

in  Berlin,  the  King  orders  the  troops  to  withdraw,  dismisses  the  ministry, 
and  amnesties  political  prisoners.  A  National  Assembly  meets,  the 
almost  republican  Left  led  by  Waldeck  and  Jacoby,  the  Left  Centre  Kjr 
Rodbertus  and  Schnlze-Delitzsch,  the  Centre  by  Unruh,  and  the  Right  by 
Bismarck  (May).  The  Assembly,  however,  is  dissolved  (Dec.),  and  anew 
Constitution  is  issued,  with  two  Chambers  chosen  by  indirect  electioo. 

Baden  grants  a  liberal  Constitution  (March),  and  is  followed  hj 
Bavaria,  where  Louis  abdicates,  and  by  Saxony  and  Hanover. 

The  Liberal  leaders  meet  at  Heidelberg  ^March),  and  invite  pa^ 
and  present  members  of  constitutional  assemolies  to  a  Voiparlameit, 
which  meets  at  Frankfort,  and  decrees  a  federal  Parliament  with  a  aiiijde 
head  and  two  Chambers.  The  Parliament  opens  at  Frankfort,  with 
Gagern  as  Pr&sident  (May).  Blum  contends  for  a  federal  repaUic: 
Dahlmann,  Gervinus,  Amdt,  Jacob  Grimm  demand  a  constitntioial 
Emnire  under  the  King  of  Prussia.  The  Assembly  discusses  and 
publishes  the  Fundamental  Rights  of  the  German  People. 

1885.  Denmark.  Cliristian  dies,  and  Frederick  VH.  issues  a  libenl 
Constitution.  When  the  news  of  the  German  revolution  arme^ 
Schleswig  and  Holstein  demand  admission  to  the  Bund,  and  a  jcHot 
Constitution  on  the  German  model.  A  provisional  government  is  formed 
under  the  Duke  of  Augustenburg.  Frederick  sends  an  army  against 
the  Duchies,  which  obtain  help  from  Prussia. 

1886.  Austria.  The  populace  of  Vienna  demand  the  fall  of  Mettenirh. 
who  escapes  to  Englana  (March).  The  Emperor  promises  a  Constitu- 
tion, and  appoints  Deak,  Batthyany  and  Kossuth  ministers  for  HoDgary. 
They  abolisn  feudalism,  introduce  responsible  government,  and  ettfeni 
the  franchise.  Jellacic  tells  the  Croatians  that  if  Hungary  becomes 
independent,  she  will  oppress  them.  They  therefore  induce  the  Emperv 
to  make  Jellacic  Governor-General.  The  Magyars  repulse  Jelliric'? 
troops,  and  Kossuth  organises  a  riot  in  Vienna  to  prevent  the  departure 
of  reinforcements.  Ferdinand  flees  (May),  but  Jellacic  inarches  to 
Vienna  and  saves  the  dynasty.  A  Constituent  Assembly  meets,  and 
the  Emperor  returns.  Jellacic  and  Windischgratz  open  the  campai^s 
against  the  Hungarians.  Another  insurrection  breaks  out  in  Vitfiuii. 
and  the  Enii)eror  again  flees  (Oct.).  The  capital  is  retaken,  Schwaneu- 
berg  fonns  a  reactionar}'  ministry,  and  the  Emperor  abdicates  in  fiiTrtur 
of  his  nephew,  Francis  Joseph. 

1887.  Boneinia.  The  Czechs  meet  at  Prague,  and  demand  automiiDy 
(March) ;  but  the  meeting  is  broken  up  and  the  city  surrenders  i"? 
Windischgratz  (June).  A  Slavonic  Congress  is  held  at  Prague,  under 
the  presifiency  of  Palacky. 

1888.  Poland.    Prussia  and  Austria  crush  revolts  in  Warsaw  and  Cncow 

1889.  Holland.     Thorbecke  obtains  a  liberal  Constitution. 

1890.  Switzerland.  A  National  Council  and  a  Council  of  EsUtes^witt 
a  federal  executive  appointed  by  them,  and  a  federal  court  are  created. 

Neufchatel  throws  off*  allegiance  to  the  King  of  Prussia. 

1891.  America.  Mexico  relinciuishes  Texas,  New  Mexico,  Californii. 
Nevada,  Utah,  Arizona,  and  partes  of  Colorado  and  Wyoming. 

1892.  Africa.    The  Orange  Free  State  is  conquered  at  Boomplatz. 


1848]  CULTURE  381 

Miss  W.  H.  Smith,  1856,  and  reasserted  b^'  Nathaniel  Holmes,  an 
American  lawyer,  1866,  and  by  the  Bacon  Society  in  London,  1885. 

Thackera/s  Vanity  Fair  is  completed. 

Thackeray's  Book  of  Snobs. 

Mrs  Gaskell's  Mary  Barton,  one  of  the  earliest  studies  of  the  life  of 
the  poor. 

Aytoun's  Lays  of  the  Scottish  Cavaliers. 

Matthew  Arnold's  first  poems. 

2975.  French  Lit.    Murger's  Scenes  de  la  Vie  de  Boh^me. 

2974,  German  Lit.  Hoffmann  founds  and  edits  the  Kladderadatsch, 
a  comic  journal 

1^975.  Spanish  Lit.  Juan  Valera's  Pepita  Jimenez  marks  the  renais- 
sance of  the  novel. 

2976.  American  Lit.    Lowell's  Biglow  Papers. 

2977.  Science.    Du  Bois  Reymond's  Animal  Electricity. 

William  Thomson  establishes  the  absolute  thermodynamic  scale  of 
temperature. 

2978.  Art.  Holman  Hunt,  Millals,  and  Ros.setti  found  a  brotherhood. 
In  the  Academy  of  1849,  Millais  exhibits  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  The 
Germ  is  started  in  1850,  but  ceases  after  the  appearance  of  four 
nambers.  The  new  school  is  encouraged  by  Ford  Madox  Brown  and 
eulogised  by  Ruskin. 

Watts*  raolo  and  Francesca. 

Niels  Gade  returns  from  Leipsig  and  fosters  Norwegian  music. 

2979.  Archaeology.    Dennis'  Cities  of  Etruria. 

2980.  History.  Macaulay's  History  of  England  from  the  accession  of 
James  II.  defends  the  Whig  theory  of  government  and  depicts  William 
III.  as  a  hero. 

2981.  ESconomics.  Mill's  Principles  of  Political  Economy  present  a 
systematic  exposition  of  Ricardo's  ideas,  but  draw  a  marked  distinction 
between  production,  the  laws  of  which  are  based  on  unalterable  natural 
£ftct8.  and  distribution,  the  methods  of  which  may  readily  be  changed. 
In  subsequent  editions,  Mill  verges  steadily  towards  socialism. 

2982.  Pliuology.    Ritschl's  Edition  of  Plautus. 
Grimm's  History  of  the  Grerman  Language. 

2988.  C^eography.  Krapf  and  Rebmann  discover  the  mountains  Eenia 
and  Kilimanjaro. 

2984,  Social.  Cabet  founds  Icaria,  a  communistic  settlement  in 
America. 

The  Public  Health  Act  is  passed,  the  first  sanitary  measure  on  the 
Statute  Book. 

Slavery  is  abolished  in  French  colonies. 

Caird's  High  Fanning  the  best  Substitute  for  Protection. 

Maurice,  Ludlow,  and  other  Christian  Socialists  attempt  to  found  a 
Cooperative  movement. 

2985.  Deaths.  Berzelius,  Bahnes,  Bielinsky,  Chateaubriand,  Gorres, 
Hermann,  G.  Stephenson. 


382  POUTics  [18tt 

1893.  England.    The  Navigation  Laws  are  repealed.  r^^ 

1894.  Italy.    Charles  Albert  is  crushed  by  Kadetzky  at  Novara,  ^ 
and  abdicates    to  his  son,   Victor  Emanuel  (March).      A  reTolt  m 
Lombardy  is  suppressed  by  Haynau.     The  statiu  quo  before  the  wir  is 
restored,  and  Victor  Emanuel  pays  an  indemnity.     Venice  is  forced  to 
capitulate,  and  Sicily  is  reduced  by  Ferdinand. 

A  Republic  is  proclaimed  in  Rome,  and  Mazzini  assumes  control 
Oudinot,  sent  by  the  French  Government  to  the  Pope's  aid,  lands  at 
Givita  Vecchia  (April),  and  takes  Rome  after  a  long  siege  (July). 

1895.  Germany.  The  hereditary  headship  is  refused  by  Prassia,  and 
the  Austrians  withdraw  from  the  Assembly.  Frederick  William  fonu 
the  Dreikonigsbund  with  Hanover  and  oazony,  and  is  joined  b?  24 
minor  states.  Austria,  however,  induces  Prussia  to  join  in  a  Goo- 
mission  at  Frankfort  for  interim  management  of  the  ConfederatJoo. 
Hanover  breaks  away,  and  Saxony  shows  her  desire  to  do  so. 

Prussia  suppresses  revolts  in  Saxony,  Baden,  and  the  Palatinate 

1896.  Denmark.  The  Bund  sends  45,000  men  to  aid  the  Duchies ;  bot 
a  Danish  victory  at  Fredericia  leads  to  a  truce,  by  which  Schleswig  is  to 
receive  a  Danish  government  and  the  Grerman  troops  are  to  be  with- 
drawn.    The  Duchies  are  forced  to  accept  these  terms. 

1897.  Austria.  A  Gonstitution  is  granted,  'by  the  Grace  ot  the 
Emperor.' 

1898.  Hungary.  Indepeivlence  is  proclaimed,  and  Kossuth  beoomei 
head  of  the  Provisional  Government  ^April).  Bem  and  Gorge!  repuk 
Austria,  which  appeals  to  Russia.  The  Hungarians  are  defeated  tt 
Temesvar,  Kossutn  resigns,  and  Gorgei  capitumtes  at  Vilagos  (Aug.). 
Batthyany  is  shot,  and  Szechen3ri,  Kossuth  and  Bem  take  refuge  in 
Turkey,  which,  supported  by  England  and  France,  refuses  to  surrender 
them.     Hungary  is  deprived  of  all  constitutional  rights. 

1899.  Turkey.  A  revolution  in  Wallachia  and  Moldavia  is  suppressed, 
and  Russia  and  Turkey  jointly  nominate  the  princes  for  seven  yeais. 

1900.  America.  Taylor  secretly  urges  the  settlers  in  Califomii  t- 
apply  for  admission  to  the  Union  as  a  free  state.  Texas  claims  a  lai)zer 
part  of  New  Mexico. 

1901.  Africa.     Cape  Colony  forbids  convicts  to  land. 

1902.  Asia.  A  second  Sikh  war  breaks  out,  and  the  whole  of  the 
Punjab  is  annexed,  and  governed  by  Henry  and  John  Lawrence. 


1903.  England.    The  Queen  sends  a  memorandum  to  Palmer-  rigcQ 
ston,  demanding  to  be  kept  acquainted  with  the  business  of  the  ^ 
Foreign  Office. 

Palmerston  defends  his  policy  in  the  Don  Pacific©  debate. 

1904.  Ireland.     A  Tenant  Right  League  is  formed. 

1905.  France.    The  Parti  de  TOrdre,  headed  by  Thiers,  Broglie,  Mde. 


1850]  CULTURE  383 

2986.    Eng.  Ch.    Faber  founds  the  Oratory  in  London.  ri849 

liartensen's  Christian  Dogmatics  offers  a  philosophical  ex-   ^ 
planation  of  each  separate  Christian  tenet. 

F.  Newman's  treatise  on  The  Soul,  written  from  the  standpoint  of 
theism. 
S987,    French  Ch.    Dupanloup  is  induced  by  Falloux  to  accept  the 
Bishopric  of  Orleans. 

2988.  Oerman  Ch.  Canon  Hirscher's  Condition  of  the  Church,  an 
outspoken  criticism  of  Jesuit  influence  and  of  the  centralising  policy  of 
the  Church,  is  put  on  the  Index  and  provokes  many  replies. 

2989.  Italian  Ch.  The  Pope  issues  an  Encyclical  to  the  Italian  Bishops 
condemning  socialism  and  communism. 

2990.  Church  Hist.  The  Pope  issues  an  Encyclical  inviting  the 
expression  of  opinion  as  to  the  advisability  of  a  definition  of  the  Im- 
maculate Conception. 

2991.  Eng.  Lit.  Kingsley's  Alton  Locke  calls  attention  to  social 
problems  and  points  towards  Christian  Socialism. 

2992.  French  Lit.  Chateaubriand's  M^moires  d'Outre-Tombe,  a 
defence  of  his  public  life. 

Scribe's  Adrienne  Lecouvreur. 

Saiute-Beuve  contributes  Causeries  du  Lundi  to  the  Constitutionnel, 
which  react  against  the  rigid  methods  of  Nisard  and  develope  purely 
litenury  criticism  to  its  utmost  extent. 

2993.  Spanish  Lit.  Feman  Caballero's  first  novel,  La  Gaviota  (The 
Sea-GoU). 

Ticknor*s  History  of  Spanish  Literature. 

2994.  Science.  Fii^u  experimentally  determines  the  velocity  of  light. 
Tlie  construction  of  the  Menai  Bridge  is  undertaken. 

2995.  Art.    Kuskin's  Seven  Lamps  of  Architecture. 

2996.  Archaeology.  Lepsius'  Monuments  of  Egypt  and  Ethiopia 
presents  a  report  of  an  expedition  organised  by  Bunsen  and  paid  for 
Dy  the  Prussian  Government. 

2997.  Philology.  Tischendorf 's  edition  of  the  New  Testament,  strongly 
influenced  bv  Lachmann. 

Max  Miiller  translates  the  Big- Veda. 

2998.  EUstory.  Kemble  produces  the  first  trustworthy  account  of  the 
political  and  social  institutions  of  the  Anglo-Saxons. 

2999.  SociaL  Raififeisen  institutes  cooperative  loan  banks  in  Germany. 
In  the  following  year,  Schulze-Delitzsch  founds  credit  associations  for  the 
working-classes.     Both  movements  spread  rapidly  through  the  country. 

SOOO.    I^thfl.    Chopin,  Marheineke,  Mehemet  Ali. 

3O01.  Eng.  Ch.  -  The  Pope  appoints  Catholic  Bishops  to  English  r^ocQ 
Sees,  and  a  fierce  storm  of  inaiguation  is  aroused.  ^ 

Gorham,  presented  to  a  living  by  the  Lord  Chancellor,  is  refused  by 
the  Bishop  of  Exeter  in  consequence  of  denying  the  regenerative 
power  of  Baptism.  The  Bishop  is  upheld  by  the  Court  of  Arches,  but 
overruled  by  the  Privy  Council  As  a  result  of  this  decision.  Manning, 
Aabrey  de  Yere,  and  others  join  the  Boman  ChurcL 


384  POLITICS  [UN 

and  Montalembert,  restricts  the  franchise,  and  compels  the  aathon  of 
articles  in  the  press  to  sign  them. 

1906.  Italy.  The  Pope  returns  to  Rome,  abandons  all  his  refomu,  aod 
makes  Antonelli  Secretary  of  State.     A  French  garrison  remains. 

1907.  Germany.    The  King  of  Prussia  grants  a  new  Constitution. 
Beust  forms  a  scheme  of  a  Middle  Germany,  and  Saxony,  Bawia 

and  Wurtemberg  ally. 

A  Parliament  of  the  German  Union  meets  at  Erfurt,  to  form  a  Con- 
federation in  opposition  to  Austria  (March).  In  reply,  Austria  sum- 
mons the  old  Bundestag  to  Frankfort  (May).  A  rupture  is  broo^ 
within  sight  by  an  insurrection  in  Hesse-Gassel  (Sept.).  By  Roman 
mediation,  however,  Prussia  subordinates  herself  to  Austria  by  the  Con- 
vention of  Olmiitz,  by  which  she  recognises  the  Frankfort  Diet  (Xov.). 
The  two  powers  now  unite  in  the  pacification  of  Hesse-CasseL 

1908.  Denmark.  Prussia  and  Denmark  agree  that  Schleswig  shaD  he 
governed  by  Denmark,  and  Holstein  by  an  administrator. 

1909.  Greece.  Palmerston  blockades  the  Piraeus  and  seizes  GnA 
shipping  to  obtain  redress  for  an  assault  on  Don  Pacifico,  a  Portugiie§e 
Jew,  born  in  Gibraltar.  The  Greek  government  concedes  his  denoaiMk 
France  and  Russia,  the  sponsors  of  Greek  independence,  are  deepij 
annoyed,  and  peace  is  momentarily  endangered  oy  the  action  of  the 
English  Minister. 

1910.  America.  Clay  carries  a  series  of  Acts  known  as  the  ComprDmue 
of  1850.  California  is  admitted  as  a  free  state  ;  the  slave  trade  is  for- 
bidden in  the  District  of  Columbia ;  Utah  and  New  Mexico  beeome 
territ^iries  without  restriction  as  to  slavery ;  Texas  surrenders  her  eliim 
to  New  Mexico ;  a  severe  fugitive  slave  law  is  passed.  The  slave  liw 
is  largely  nullified  by  sympatliisers  in  the  North  and  by  the  *  Under 
ground  Railroad.' 

1911.  AfHca.     England  buys  the  Danish  forts  on  the  Gold  Coast 

1912.  Asia.  The  Tai-ping  rebellion  breaks  out  under  Hung,  a  Ghinepe 
schoolmaster,  who  promulgates  a  religious  system  tinctured  with  Christi- 
anity. He  takes  Nanking  and  Shanghai,  proclaims  himself  Emperor, 
and  vainly  attacks  Peking. 

1913.  Australasia.  Victoria  is  separated  firom  N.  S.  Wales,  with  Mel- 
bourne as  capital. 

The  Australian  Government  Act  grants  representative  gov^nment 
to  South  Australia,  Tasmania  and  Victoria. 


1914.     England.     Locke  King  carries  a  motion  for  assimilating   rig^ 
the  county  to  the  borough  franchise,  and  Russell  resigns.    Stanley   '- 
fails  to  form  a  ministr}',  and  Russell  returns.     Palmerston  is  dismiwed 
for  expressing  his  approval  of  the  coup  d'etat  to  the  French  ambassador, 
without  consulting  the  Cabinet  or  tne  Queen. 


1851]  CULTURE  385 


Posey  adapte  Catholic  books  of  devotion,  is  censured  by  Bishop 
Wilberforce,  and  refrains  from  preachii^  for  two  years. 
3fjOii,  Qerman  Ch.  The  King  of  Prussia  hands  over  the  almost 
unfettered  management  of  the  Evangelical  Churches  to  a  Church 
CounciL 
tM>J.  Italian  Ch.  The  Civilta  Cattolica  is  founded  and  edited  by 
Ciunci,  and  becomes  the  organ  of  the  Jesuits  and  the  CHiria. 

The  Siccardi  laws  abolish  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Church  in  Victor 
Emmanuers  dominions  over  heresy  and  sacrilege. 
300J^  Asiatio  Ch.  The  Bab,  who  has  come  forth  as  a  religious  leader 
in  Persia,  and  attacked  polygamy  and  the  formalism  of  the  Koran,  is 
ahot.  Many  of  his  followers  are  executed  or  tortured ;  but  their 
nambers  grow  rapidly. 
tl^A>.     Xng.  Lit.    Tennyson's  In  Memoriam. 

Mrs  Browning's  Sonnets  from  the  Portuguese. 
IXckeus'  David  Copperfield. 
Bevnolds'  Newspaper  is  founded. 
JM>^.    Amerioan  Lit.    Hawthorne's  Scarlet  Letter. 
SOC7.    Morwegian  Lit.    Ibsen's  first  play,  Catalina. 
dOOS.     Science.    Remak  studies  the  embrvology  of  the  chick  and  frog. 
Foncaolt  finds  that  the  velocity  of  li^ht  in  water  is  less  than  in  air. 
His  discovery  finally  discredits  the  emission  theory  of  light 

Mdloni  investigates  radiant  heat,  and  proves  that  heat  rays  var}' 
no  less  than  visible  rays. 

dausios  founds  die  kinetic  theory  of  gases. 
^¥Xii9.    Art.    Liszt  produces  Wagner's  Lohengrin  at  Weimar. 
'MO.    Archaeolofir.    Mariette  discovers  the  Serapeum. 
•lOi/.    Fhilology.    Lachmann's  edition  of  Lucretius. 
•>//;?.    Xconomics.    Mario's  (Winkelblech)  System  of  Economics  advo- 
cates Protection  and  the  reorganisation  of  industry  by  the  State  and  by 
GaiUs. 
301S.    History.    Laurent's  Etudes  sur  i'Histoire  de  I'Humanit^  present 
the  fint  picture  of  political  development  in  connexion  with  the  nistor}' 
of  ideas. 
¥j1J^    Xducation.    A  University  Commission  is  appointed  at  Oxford, 
and  orges  the  abolition  of  subscription,  and  the  opening  of  fellowships 
and  scholarships  to  all. 

Ewart's  Act  inaugurates  Free  Libraries. 
^flo.    Oeography.    Galton  explores  Damaraland. 
'PjVi.    SociaL    Titus  Salt  founds  Saltaire  works. 
4f)17.    Deaths.    Balzac,  Calhoun,  Oehlenschlager,  Lenau,  Neander,  Peel, 
Louis  Philippe,  Wordsworth. 


•IfjlH.    Xn^  Ch.    Greg's  Creed  of  Christendom.  ri85I 

Newman  lectures  on  the  Present  Position  of  Catholics.  '• 

The  Ecclesiastical  Titles  Bill  is  introduced  and  carried  agahist  the 
opposition  of  Gladstone  and  the  Peelites. 

40iy.    Bnfr  Ut    Carlyle's  Life  of  Sterling. 

6.  25 


386  POLITICS  [UBl 

Molesworth  moves  to  cease  civil  and  military  expenditure  on  the 
colonies  and  to  grant  self-govenmient 

1915.  France.  Uhangamier  is  dismissed  because  his  laments  bad  not 
cried  Vive  FEmpereur  (Jan.).  Petitions,  organised  by  Napoleon's  agento 
in  the  provinces,  demand  the  revision  of  the  Constitution.  The  amp 
d'etat  IS  carried  out  (Dec.  2).  During  the  night,  Gavaigpac,  Chaih 
gamier,  Lamorici^re,  Thiers,  Victor  Hugo  and  others  are  imprii^oMd, 
the  Assembly  is  dissolved,  and  a  new  ministry  is  formed,  mcladiiig 
Momy  and  Kouher.  Napoleon  issues  an  Append  to  the  People,  {co- 
posinfi:  the  election  of  an  executive  for  ten  years,  and  a  Constitntioi 
modelled  on  that  of  Brumaire.  250  deputies  who  meet  and  prqwie 
a  protest  are  arrested.  Revolts  take  place,  and  are  suppr^sed  witk 
bloodshed.  The  plebiscite  declares  in  favour  of  a  new  constitutioD  hj 
a  majority  in  the  proportion  of  twelve  to  one  (Dec  20). 

1916.  Germany.  Prussia  sends  a  representative  (Bismarck)  to  the 
Frankfurt  Diet,  and  the  return  to  the  Confederation  of  1815  become^ 
complete.  Legislative  decisions  of  the  Diet  need  the  confirmation  «if 
the  States  Chambers ;  executive  resolutions  become  operative  at  oore 
The  Fundamental  Bights  decreed  by  the  Parliament  of  Fninkfhrt  are 
repudiated. 

1917.  Austria.    The  Constitution  of  1849  is  abolished. 

1918.  Denmark.    Austrian  troops  occupy  Holstein. 

1919.  Montenegro.  The  ecclesiastical  and  political  functions  of  the 
Prince  are  separated,  and  he  is  permitted  to  marry. 

1920.  Australasia.    Hargraves  discovers  cold  in  New  Soath  Walfr. 
The  importation  of  convicts,  except  to  West  Australia,  cease^^ 

1921.  West  Indies.  Cuba  declares  its  independence  of  Spain ;  bat  the 
revolt  is  quickly  suppressed. 


1922.  England.  Palinerston  carries  an  amendment  to  a  Militia  ngn 
Bill,  and  Russell  resigns.  Derby  and  Disraeli  form  a  ministr}*  ^ 
(Feb.).  Derby  declares  protection  shall  be  settled  by  the  election^.  *wi 
Disraeli  frankly  approves  free  trade.  The  elections  leave  Derby  in  t 
minority.  Villiers  moves  that  the  repeal  of  the  Com  Law8  wa<  *  ww. 
just,  and  beneficial.*  Palmerstoii  softens  the  motion,  which  is  atrepi*J 
by  all  but  fifty-three,  and  the  Conservative  party  is  thus  freed  from  ihf 
burden  of  protection.  Disraeli's  budget  is  defeated,  Derby  resigns,  aiJ 
Lord  Aberdeen  forms  a  ministry  of  Whigs  and  Peelites,  with  Gladi^ine, 
Palmerston,  Russell,  Clarendon,  Sidney  Herbert,  and  Granville. 

A  Bribery  Act  enjoins  encpiiry  into  corrupt  practices. 

1923.  Ireland.  Owin^  to  the  Tenant  League,  fifty  tenant-right  adT«»- 
cates  are  returned.  Wlien,  however,  Sadler  and  Eeogh  join  Abeidaen. 
the  League  falls  to  pieces. 

1924.  France.  Napoleon  banishes  his  opponents,  and  coufiscates  the 
appanages  of  the  House  of  Orleans.    The  new  Constitution  is  fomallr 


^^  K^  MJ  JL  \^  *»  m^  ^^v^  ■ 


Borrow's  Lavengro. 

Macready  retires  from  the  stage,  and  Charles  Kean  aud  Phelps  take 
his  place. 
30i20,    French  Lit.    Barbey  d'Aurevilley's  Uue  vieille  Maltresse  antici- 
pates the  naturalistic  school. 
3021.    Oerman  Lit    Bodenstedt's  Songs  of  Mirza  Schaffy. 
302;3.    American  Lit.    Longfellow's  Golden  Legend. 
S0;i'3.     Greek  Lit.    Kangab^'s  Marriage  of  Kutrulis  revives  Aristophanic 

drama. 
JO24.     Science.    The  first  submarine  telegraph  is  laid  from  Dover  to 
Calais. 

Schwabe  proves  the  periodicity  of  sun  spots. 

Hohneister  proves  tliat  phanerogams  and  cryptogams  })ossess  many 
common  features. 

William  Thomson  independently  proves  the  law  of  thermodymimics 
discovered  by  Clausius. 

Perkin  discovers  aniline  purjJe  and  creates  the  industry  of  coal-tar 
colours. 

Ruhmkorif  constructs  a  coil  which  produces  sparks  in  air  two  inches 
in  length. 
JO^J.     Art.     Wagner's  Oj^era  and  Drama  attacks  the  work  of  Meyerbeer, 
and  explains  his  theory  of  the  relation  of  words  and  music. 
Kuskin's  Stones  of  Venice. 
Verdi's  o\)eTSk,  Rigoletto. 
Tenniel  begins  to  draw  for  Punch. 
'jOJO.    PoliticB.     Spencer  s  Social  Statics,  an  attempt  at  Sociologj'. 
'3027,    Edncation.    Owens,  a  Manchester  merchant,  founds  a  college  in 

his  native  town. 
'i028.    History.    Solovief's  History  of  Russia. 
J029.    Anthropology.     Schoolcraft's    Indian    Tribes    of  the    United 

States. 
30-30.    Social.    The  sale  of  intoxicants  is  prohibited  in  the  State  of 
Maine,  by  the  efforts  of  Neal  Dow. 

An  Exhibition  is  held  in  Hyde  Park,  at  the  suggestion  of  the  Prince 
Consr>rt. 
'30-31.    Deaths.    Karl  Jacobi,  Jjachmann,  Oersted. 


30-32.    Eng.  Ch.     Owing  to  the  efforts  of  Bishop  Wilberforce  and    riggo 
Lord  Redesdale,  and  on  tlie  assurance  of  Phillimore  that  no    '- 
legal  bar  exists,  Convocation  recommences. 

303-3.  French  Ch.  The  Oratory  is  revived  by  Perraud  and  five  other 
priests. 

Gaume's  treatise  on  Holy  Water  alienates  the  moderate  Catholics. 

3f/-34,  German  Ch.  The  Eisenach  biennial  conference  is  instituted, 
consisting  of  representatives  of  the  Protestants  in  each  state.  Several 
of  its  8ura;e8tioD8  are  adopted  by  the  legislatures.  By  its  direction,  a 
revision  ^Lntiier^s  Bible  is  made. 

30-35.    Spaniih  Ch.    The  Pope  aoor  '        Obliges  of  1836. 


388  POLITICS  [18B 


issued  (Jan.).  In  the  autumn  Napoleon  makes  a  ^nd  tear  throng 
the  provinces,  and  on  his  return  arranges  a  plebiscite  by  which  he  l< 
chosen  hereditary  Emperor. 

1925.  Germaoiy.    Hesse-Cassel  obtains  a  Constitution. 

1926.  Italy.  Cavour  becomes  Premier  in  Piedmont,  succeeding 
D'Azeglio. 

1927.  Denmark.  Holstein  is  delivered  to  the  Danes  with  the  Tigne 
condition  of  'respecting  the  rights  of  the  duchies.'  The  Treaty  of 
London,  signed  by  the  five  great  Powers  and  Sweden,  guaranteeB  the 
unity  of  the  monarchy,  and  promises  the  succession  of  the  moDizchj 
and  the  duchies  to  Christian  of  Glucksbuiv.  It  is  recognised  bj 
Austria  and  Prussia,  Hanover,  Saxony,  and  Wiirtemberg,  though  doc 
by  the  Bund. 

1928.  Turkey.  Napoleon  obtains  the  right  of  free  entry  to  the  Holy 
Sepulchre  for  Latin  Christians,  hitherto  contested  by  Greek  moDk^,  aod 
thereby  alienates  Russia. 

Montenegro  and  Herzegovina  revolt. 

1929.  Australasia.  A  federal  constitution  is  granted  to  New  Zeatiad. 
at  the  instance  of  Sir  George  Grey. 

1930.  Africa.  The  independence  of  the  Transvaal  is  recognised  by  the 
Sand  River  Convention. 

1931.  Asia.  The  second  war  in  Burmah  breaks  out,  and  Pegu,  or  the 
valley  of  the  Irawaddy,  is  annexed. 


1932.     England.    Gladstone's  Budget  abolishes  the  duty  on  soap,  Mgw 
reduces  133  taxes,  imposes  a  succession  duty,  and  suggests  the  ^ 
gradual  abolition  of  the  income-tax. 

1933.,  Prance.    Napoleon  marries  Eugenie  de  Montijo. 

1934.  Italy.     Mazzini  instigates  an  unsuccessful  insurrection  at  MiUn. 

1935.  Turkey.  The  Tsar  proposes  to  Sir  Hamilton  Seymour,  the 
English  ambassador,  that  if  the  Turk,  'the  sick  man/  dies,  Eo^fri 
shall  take  Crete  and  Egypt,  the  Sultan's  European  states  become  m«ie- 
pendeiit  under  Russian  protection,  and  Constantinople  be  temporarilr 
occupied  by  Russia.  England,  however,  disclaims  any  desire  to  ptrti- 
tiou  the  Turkish  Empire.  The  Tsar  orders  the  Sultan  to  recognise  him 
by  treaty  as  official  protector  of  his  Christian  subjects.  Encoumged  hr 
assurances  of  help  from  Stratford  de  Redcliife,  the  Sultan  refose*  tk 
demand.  Nicholas  occupies  Moldavia  and  Wallachia  (June),  «aJ 
Turkey  declares  war  (Oct.).  Austria  and  Prussia  refuse  to  einiA\v 
coen!ion ;  but  England  and  France  promise  their  aid  if  Russia  refiiv* 
reasonable  terms  (Nov.).  The  Russian  fleet  destroys  the  Turkish  Hert 
at  Sinope  (Nov.).  The  English  and  French  fleets  enter  the  Black  S«^ 
and  the  Russian  ships  retire  to  Sebastopol  harbour  (Dck?.). 


18S3]  CULTURE  389 

'PjSO.  American  Ch.  The  first  Plenary  Council  of  the  Roman  Church 
is  held  at  Baltimore. 

'i037.  Asiatic  Ch.  The  Shah  of  Persia  is  attacked  by  the  Babis,  who 
are  in  conseauence  cruelly  persecuted. 

SfJSS.    Churcn  Hist.    Frederick  Burton  visits  Medinah  and  Mecca. 

iOS^.    Eng.  Lit.    Thackeray's  Esmond. 

'MJ40.    American  Lit    Mrs  Stow's  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin. 

-»^.  French  Lit.  Dumas'  La  Dame  aux  Cam^lias  (an  adaptation  of 
the  noYel  published  1848)  introduces  realism  into  the  theatre,  the  ro- 
mantic drama  having  become  as  unreal  as  the  classical.  The  reaction 
is  strengthened  by  the  influence  of  £mile  Augier. 

'PJJi2,     German  Lit.    Freytag's  comedy,  The  Journalists. 

-J?/-^.     Roaaian  Lit.    Turgenief's  Sketches  of  a  Hunter. 

'i044.     Science.    Spencer  first  uses  and  explains  the  word  'Evolution.' 
Stokes  discovers  the  change  in  the  reirongibility  of  light. 
William  Thomson  discovers  the  law  of  the  dissipation  of  energy. 
Hamilton  publishes  his  lectures  on  Quaternions. 
Sabine,  Wolf,  and  Grautier  announce  the  coincidence  of  the  terrestrial- 
magnetic  and  sun-spot  periods. 

'PJi5.    Art.    M^ryon's  Etchings  of  Paris. 

SOiS,    Fhiloaophy.   Gury's  Theologia  Moralis  developes  Jesuit  casuistry. 

'iO^T.    Fhilology.    Mommsen's  Inscriptiones  B,egni  Neapolitani. 

'PfJiS.    Law.     Iherin^'s  Spirit  of  Boman  Law. 

•i049.  History.  Delisle  enters  the  Manuscript  department  of  the 
Biblioth^ue  Imp^riale,  and  issues  a  series  of  palaeographical  and 
bibliographical  studies. 

'if^^O.    Geography.    Maclure  achieves  the  North- West  Passage. 

Barth  explores  Lake  Chad  and  Hausa-land,  and  studies  the  languages 
of  the  central  Soudan. 

.».5/.  Deaths.  Bumouf,  Clay,  Froebel,  Gioberti,  Gogol,  Turner, 
Webeter,  Wellington. 


•i0o2.    Xng.  Ch.    Archdeacon  Denison  publishes  two  sermons  in   r^g53 

finvour  of  the  Real  Presence  and  is  condemned  by  an  Ecclesias-   '- 

tical  Court,  but  acquitted  by  the  Privy  Council. 

Maurice  is  ejected  fix)m  the  Professorship  of  Theology  at  King's 

CoQege,  London,  for  questioning  eternal  punishment. 
Spnigeon  b^ns  to  preach  in  London. 
3U53,    German  Ch.    Hupfeld  points  out  the  three  sources  of  Genesis. 
'iOo^,    Dutch  Ch.    The  Pope  creates  a  Catholic  hierarchy. 
4056.    American  Ch.    Muhlenberg  draws  up  a  Memorial  calling  on  the 

Epiaoopal  CSiorch  to  widen  its  activity. 
'i056.    mng.  Lit.    Eingsley's  Hypatia. 
'$057,    French  Lit.    Leconte  de  Lisle's  Po^mes  Antiques  found  the 

school  of  the  Pamasdens  or  devotees  of  form. 

Ciaatier's  Emaux  et  Cam^. 
-ifjoS.    Science.    Hugo  v.  Mohl  discovers  protoplasm  in  plants. 
Joseph  Hooper's  Flora  of  New  Zealand. 


390  POLITICS  [18R 


1936.  Greece.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  war,  the  Greeks  attempt  to  sos 
Thessaly  and  Epirus,  but  are  easily  repulsed. 

1937.  America.  The  Treaty  of  Idessilla  cedes  exteusive  territory  to  the 
United  States,  and  reduces  Mexico  to  its  present  limits. 

The  Central  American  Federation  of  Guatemala,  Salvador,  Himdans, 
Nicaragua,  Costa  Kica  is  dissolved. 

1938.  Africa.    Cape  Colony  obtains  representative  institutions. 

1939.  Australasia.    France  takes  possession  of  New  Caledonia. 

1940.  Asia.  An  India  Bill  continues  the  powers  of  the  Company  till 
Parliament  decides  otherwise  ;  but  the  Court  of  Direction  is  to  contain 
six  nominees  of  the  Crown,  and  the  Civil  Service  is  thrown  open  to  com- 
petition. 

England  annexes  Na^ur. 
The  first  railway  in  Jlndia  is  opened. 
Salar  Jung  becomes  Prime  Minister  of  Hyderabad. 
Commodore  Perry,  of  the  U.S.A.  navy,  signs  a  treaty  with  the 
Shogun,  opening  Japan  to  American  trade. 


1941.  England.  Russell  introduces  a  Reform  Bill,  which  is  n^i 
withdrawn  owing  to  the  war.  L"^ 

A  Corrupt  Practices  Act  makes  necessary  the  publication  of  accounts 
after  elections,  and  forbids  payments  except  through  authorised  agents 
The  Prince  Consort  is  charged  with  unconstitutional  interference. 
]  942.     France.    The  Cr^it  Foncier,  established  1852  to  provide  IuhI- 
owners  and  communes  with  cheap  loans,  becomes  a  state  institution. 

1943.  Spain.  O'Dounell  revolts,  and  the  Moderado  regime  of  elefn 
years  is  ended.  Christina  leaves  the  country,  and  a  constituent  Cort«i 
resolves  to  keep  Queen  Isabella  on  the  tlurone.  Espartero  bec<Hiie> 
Prime  Minister.     Castelar  becomes  famous  as  an  orator. 

1944.  Greece.  English  and  French  troops  land  at  the  Piraeus,  iD^i 
compel  Greece  to  abandon  the  Russian  alliance. 

1945.  Russia.  England  and  France  send  an  Ultimatum  to  the  Tar 
(Feb.),  and  declare  war  (March).  The  Russians  are  forced  to  witbdnv 
from  Moldavia  and  Wallachia,  owing  to  threats  of  intervention  fruo 
Prussia  and  Austria  (July),  the  latter  of  which  occupies  the  Princiuli' 
ties.  The  English  and  French  fleets  are  sent  to  the  Baltic,  but  enert 
nothing.  The  French  and  English  armies  land  in  the  Crimea  midet 
St  Amaud  and  Raglan  (later,  Canrobert  and  Simpson),  defeat  the 
Russians  at  Alma  (Sept.  20),  and  blockade  Sebastopol,  which  b 
defended  by  Todleben.  A  Russian  attempt  to  cut  off  the  commnnici- 
tion  between  the  English  base  at  Balaclava  and  Sebastopol  leads  to  the 
charge  of  the  Light  Brigade  (Oct.  25).  The  Russians  are  beaten  hack 
at  Inkermann  (Nov.  5) ;  but  winter  inflicts  terrible  sufferings  on  the 
invading  armies. 

1946.  America.     Douglas  moven  the  organisation  of  the  linni^iioa 


18M]  CULTURE  391 

Clande  Bernard  studies  the  liver. 
Bninel  constructs  Saltash  Bridge. 
3069,    Art.    Steinway  b^ns  to  manufacture  pianos. 
Brunn's  History  of  Greek  Sculpture. 

3060.  Archaeology.    Visconti  superintends  the  excavations  at  Ostia. 
Brugsch  organises  an  expedition  to  Egypt. 

3061.  Fbilosophy.    Kleutgen  attacks  tne  position  of  Gunther  and 
Hermes,  and  stimulates  the  study  of  scholasticism. 

Gratry's  Connaissance  de  Dieu. 

3062.  Philology.    Zeuss'  Grammatica  Geltica. 
Bothlingk  and  Roth's  Sanskrit  Dictionary. 

3065.  EdncatioxL    Thring  becomes  Head  Master  of  Uppingham. 

3064.  Anthropology.    Keller  finds  remains  of  the  Lake  dwellings  at  a 
depression  of  Lake  Zurich. 

306o.    History.    Mommsen's  Roman  History. 
Sybel's  History  of  the  French  Revolution. 

3066.  Economics.    Rodbertus'  Letters  to  v.  Kirchmann  predict  and 
approve  a  slow  progress  towards  socialism. 

3067.  Social.    The  Mayor  of  Mulhausen  founds  a  society  of  working 
men,  who  gradually  become  possessors  of  their  own  houses. 

Haussmann  rebuilds  laige  portions  of  Paris. 

3065.  Deaths.    Arago,  Von  Buch,  Diepenbrock,  F.  W.  Robertson. 


3069.  German  Ch.  The  New  Lutherans,  led  by  Stahl,  De-  r^g^^ 
litzsch,  Vilmar,  Kliefoth,  attack  pietism  and  individualism.  ^ 

Schweizer's  History  of  the  Central  Dogmas  of  Protestantism. 
Herzog  edits  an  Encyclopaedia  of  Protestant  Theology. 
A  Jewish  seminanr  is  instituted  at  Breslau. 

3070.  Italian  Ch.  The  immaculate  conception  of  the  Virgin,  the 
definition  of  which  is  prepared  by  Passaglia  and  Perrone,  is  declared  an 
article  of  faith. 

3071.  Danish  Ch.  Kierkegaard  attacks  and  Martensen  defends  Christi- 
anity. 

3072.  Eng.  Lit.    Coventry  Patmore's  Angel  in  the  House. 
Kingsley's  Westward  Ho. 

Sydney  DobelFs  Balder  founds  the  so-called  Spasmodic  School,  of 
which  Alexander  Smith  and  Bailey  are  members. 

3073.  Trench  Lit.    Tlie  journal  Le  Figaro  is  founded. 

3074.  German  Lit.    Hermann  Lingg's  Poems. 

3075.  Swiss  Lit.    Gottfried  Keller's  Per  Grune  Heinrich. 

3076.  Science.    Murchison's  Siluria,  based  on  travels  since  1827. 
Henry  Smith  studies  the  theory  of  numbers. 

Hehnholtz  explains  the  conservation  of  the  sun's  heat  by 
shrinkage. 

Riemann's  Hypotheses  of  Geometry  conceive  space  as  a  particular 
case  of  a  manifold. 

Hansen  infers  from  the  lunar  theory  the  necessity  of  reducing  Encke's 
estimate  of  the  sun's  distance. 


392  POLITICS  [1864 


Surchase  north  of  the  line  of  the  Missouri  Compromise  and  wej>t  of 
lissouri  and  Iowa  as  the  Territory  of  Nebraska,  asserting  that  the 
Missouri  Compromise  was  nullified  by  the  Compromise  of  1850.  A  Bill 
passes,  creating  Kansas  and  Nebraska  Territories,  in  the  emectation 
that  Kansas  will  become  a  slave  and  Nebraska  a  free  state,  and  declare* 
the  Missouri  Compromise  superseded  by  that  of  1850.  Some  opp»ueuts 
of  the  Kansas  Nebraska  Bill  issue  an  Appeal  of  the  Indejiendent  Demo- 
crats. Men  of  both  parties  settle  in  Kansas,  and  civil  war  easoes. 
The  opponents  of  the  Nebraska  Bill  assume  the  name  of  Repablicans. 

1947.  Africa.    De  Lesseps  plans  the  construction  of  a  canal  at  SaeL 
Faidherbe  extends  the  French  colony  of  Sene^. 

The  independence  of  the  Orange  Free  State  is  acknowledged  by  the 
Bloemfontein  Convention. 

1948.  Asia.    MuraviefF,  Grovenior  of  Eastern  Siberia,  seizes  the  Amur. 


1949.  England.    Russell  resigns  on  notice  of  Roebuck's  motion  Mg^ 
for  enquiry  into  the  conduct  of  the  war.    The  motion  is  carried,  '- 
and  Aberaeen  resigns.     Russell  and  Derby  fiBiil  to  form  government, 
and  Palmerston  is  chosen.     The  Peelites  soon  resign,  and  are  saoreeded 
by  Russell  and  Comewall  Lewis. 

1950.  Italy.  Cavour  joins  the  anti-Russian  alliance  (Jan.),  and  sends 
Sardinian  troops  to  the  Crimea  under  La  Marmora. 

1951.  Russia.  Nicolas  dies,  and  is  succeeded  by  his  son,  Alexander  H 
(March). 

A  Conference  takes  place  at  Vienna,  which  Russell  attends ;  bat 
Russia  refuses  to  agree  to  limit  her  Black  Sea  fleet.  After  the  uns^^ 
cessful  storming  of  the  Malakoff  Tower  by  the  French,  and  of  the  Redan 
by  the  English  (June),  a  Russian  attack  is  repulsed  by  the  French  ind 
Italians  on  the  Tchemaya  (Aug.).  The  French  storm  the  Malakoff,  and 
the  city  is  evacuated  (Sept  11).  General  Williams  surrenders  Kip, 
after  a  long  defence  (Nov.).  The  English  and  French  fleets  in  the 
Baltic  bombard  Helsiugfors.  Proposals  are  made  to  Russia  throujA 
Austria  (Dec). 

1952.  Germany.  The  King  of  Hanover  is  compelled  by  the  Diet  to 
abolish  the  constitution. 

1953.  Denmark.  Frederick  VII.  issues  a  'Common  Constitution/ 
though  allowing  the  Duchies  separate  provincial  Estates.  Seven! 
members  of  the  Duchies,  however,  protest,  and  the  Bund  declares  thit 
Denmark  has  broken  the  federal  law.  The  King  therefore  revokes  the 
constitution  in  regard  to  Holstein  and  Lauenbui|^. 

1954.  Australasia.  Responsible  government  is  introduced  int4»  all 
colonies  except  Western  Australia. 


1866]  CULTURE  393 

'^77.    Fhilo8ophy.    Kuuo  Fischer's  History  of  Modem  Philosophy. 

Renouyier's  Essais  de  Critique,  deeply  influenced  by  Kant,  attempt 
a  general  analysis  of  consciousness. 

Fenier's  Institutes  of  Metaphysics,  a  geometrical  demonstration  of 
Idealism. 
'1078.    Xducatioxi.    A  Catholic  University  is  founded  in  Dublin,  of 
which  Newman  becomes  Rector. 

Maurice,  Hughes,  and  Ludlow  found  a  Working  Men's  College,  in 
Great  Ormond  Street,  London. 

The  Hebdomadal  Board  of  Oxford  is  replaced  by  an  Elective  Council. 
4079,    Philology.    Cobet's  Variae  Lectiones. 

'i080.    Politics.    Colins'  La  Science  Sociale  founds  Belgian  socialism. 
'iOSl.    Archaeology.    Beul^  discovers  the  Propylaea  of  the  Acropolis. 
SKiS2.    History.    Milman's  History  of  Latin  Christianity. 
•P.ISS.    Geography.    Burton  and  bpeke  explore  Somaliland. 
-yjSJi^    Social.    The  English  usury  laws  are  repealed. 
'^)So,    Deaths.    Beneke,  Lamennais,  Mai,  Ohm,  Schelling. 


40SH.    Eng.  Ch.    Jowett  edits  the  Epistles  of  St  Paul.  r,«KK 

The  Society  of  the  Holy  Cross  is  founded.  "-^^^^ 

'i^j87.    Austrian  Ch.    Catholic  Bishops  may  issue  ordinances  without 
the  approval  of  the  civil  power,  decree  penalties,  and  supervise  educa- 
tion, marriage,  and  the  press. 
'9jS8,    Italian  Ch.    The  Sardinian  Monastic  law  abolishes  all  Orders 

bat  those  employed  in  preacliing,  education  and  the  care  of  the  sick. 
.¥)S9,    Church  Hist.    The  Pope  condemns  Traditionalism. 
'prj^,    Eng.  Lit    Thackeray's  The  Newcomes. 

The  Saturday  Review  is  founded. 
-W9i.    French  Int.    Gerard  de  Nerval's  Sonnets  and  Le  B^ve  et  la  Vie 
form  the  starting-point  of  the  S3rmbolist  movement. 

Angier^s  Le  Gendre  de  M.  Poirier. 
'¥]f92.    American  Lit.    Whitman's  Leaves  of  Grass. 
W9S.    German  Lit.    Scheffel's  Ekkehard. 

Frejrtag's  Soli  und  Haben. 
'VjOJ^    Science.    Maury's  Physical  Geography  of  the  Sea. 
W95.    Art.    Courbet  introduces  realism  into  French  Art. 

Adelaide  Ristori  acts  in  Paris. 

ifanns  becomes  musical  director  of  the  Crystal  Palace. 
'i^A^O.    Philosophy.    Buchner's  Force  and  Matter  expounds  materialism. 

Bain's  Senses  and  the  Intellect  explains  associationist  psychology. 

Herbert  Spencer's  Principles  of  Psychology  builds  on  biological 
evolution. 
'9^97.    Philology.    Kenan's  Histoire  G^n^rale  des  Langues  Sdmitiques. 
•lfii9S,    History.    Giesebrecht's  History  of  the  Mediaeval  Empire. 

Droysen's  History  of  Prussian  Policy. 

Hefele's  History  of  the  Councils. 

Lems  attacks  the  credibility  of  early  Roman  History. 
'i099.    Deaths.    Charlotte'Bronte,  Gauss,  Kierkegaard,  Rosmini. 


394  POLITICS  [UN 

1955.  England.    A  Committee  of  the  Lords  report  against  the  r^oM 
creation  of  life  peers  in  the  case  of  Sir  James  Parke,  created  ^ 
Baron  Wensleydale. 

1956.  Turkey.  Peace  is  signed  at  Paris  (March).  The  fortifications  of 
Sebastojpol  are  destroyed,  and  Russia  promises  not  to  re-fortify  it ;  no 
war  ships  are  to  enter  the  Black  Sea ;  the  Danube  is  to  be  free  to 
navigation;  the  Principalities  are  restored  to  their  former  positioa: 
Russia  restores  Kars  to  Turkey,  and  cedes  part  of  BessanUa  to 
Moldavia.  The  Sultan  undertakes  to  confirm  the  privileges  of  his 
Christian  subjects,  but  the  Powers  are  not  to  use  this  as  a  pretext  &r 
interfering  with  his  domestic  government.  The  Russian  protectorate 
over  the  Eastern  Christians  is  abolished.  The  Porte  is  admitted  to  aD 
the  advantages  of  Public  Law,  and  to  the  Concert  Two  weds  after 
the  treaty,  France,  England  and  Austria  guarantee  the  independence 
and  integrity  of  Turkey. 

In  gratitude  for  Servians  neutrality  in  the  war,  the  Powers  agree  that 
it  shall  remain  under  Turkish  suzerainty,  while  its  rights  and  privile^ 
are  guaranteed  by  the  Powers.  The  Porte  receives  tribute,  anid  retains 
the  border  fortresses,  but  cannot  invade  the  country  without  the  coin 
sent  of  the  Powers. 

Privateering  is  forbidden ;  a  neutral  flag  covers  an  enemy's  goodN 
except  contraband  of  war  ;  neutral  goods,  except  contraband  of  war,  are 
not  liable  to  capture  under  an  enemy's  flag ;  olockades,  to  be  bbding, 
must  be  effective. 

1957.  America.  The  Whigs  and  the  Enow-Nothings  disappear,  aod 
the  Republicans  and  Democrats  are  left  fSace  to  face.  Sumner  is 
assaulted  in  the  Senate  by  a  slave-owner. 

1958.  Asia.     Oudh  is  annexed,  on  the  ground  of  misrule. 

Some  Chinese  seize  the  Arrow  in  search  of  suspected  pirates  Canton 
is  therefore  bombarded  by  the  English  fleet. 

Persia  sends  an  expeaition  against  Herat,  and  England  declares  war. 
Troops  are  despatched  from  India. 


1959.  England.    Cobden  carries  a  motion  condemning  the  policy  rign 
of  the  Government  in  reference  to  the  seizure  of  the  Arrow   ^ 
(March).     Palmerston   appeals  to   the  country,  Bright,   Cobden.  and 
Milner  Gibson  lose  their  seats,  and  Palmerston  secures  a  laise  majoritr. 

A  commercial  panic  occurs,  the  Bank  Charter  is  suspended,  and  the 
Bank  Giarter  Indemnity  Act  is  carried. 

1960.  Germany.    The  King  of  Prussia  becomes  insane,  and  his  brother 
William  becomes  Regent.     Moltke  becomes  Head  of  the  Staff*. 

1961.  Itnly,    Mazzini  attempts  to  raise  an  insurrection  in  Genoa. 
Maximilian,  brother  of  tne  Emperor,  becomes  Viceroy  of  Lombanir 

and  Venetia. 

1 962.  Switzerland.     Pnissia  renounces  her  claims  in  NeuchAteL 


1867]  CULTURE  395 

3100,  Eng.  Ch.  McLeod  Campbell  applies  the  ideas  of  Erskine  morq 
of  Linlaihen  to  the  Atonement.  •• 

3101,  Irish  Ch«  Miall  proposes  the  disestablishment  of  the  Irish 
Church. 

3102,  German  Ch.  The  Catholic,  an  Ultramontane  journal,  directed 
by  KetteljBr  of  Mainz,  and  the  Stimmen  aus  Maria  Laach,  a  Jesuit 
organ,  oppose  the  Munich  School  of  DiUlinger  anH  Frohschammer. 

Bunsen's  Signs  of  the  Time,  a  series  of  letters  on  liberty  of  con- 
science and  the  rights  of  the  Christian  Churck  ' 
8103.    Eng.  Lit.    Charles  Read's  Never  too  late  to  Mend. 

3104.  Science.  Helmholtz'  Physiological  Optics  works  out  Young's 
colour-theory,  and  declares  red,  green  and  violet  the  three  primitives. 

Bessemer  invents  a  process  for  obtaining  a  new  and  cneai)er  steel 
for  rails.    Siemens  manufactures  more  ductile  steel  for  boiler  plating. 

Oppel  applies  Quenstedt's  classification  of  the  Jurassic  to  other 
countnes,  and  founds  detailed  stratigraphy  by  the  recognition  of  life 
zones. 

3105.  Art.    Rubinstein's  d^but  as  a  pianist. 
Holman  Hunt's  Scape  Goat. 
Bocklin's  Pan. 

3106.  FhiloBophy.  Lotze's  Microcosmus  supplements  Weisse's  idealistic 
monism  with  Herbart's  pluralistic  realism,  and  builds  metaphysics  on 
ethics.  The  change  of  monads  does  not  result  from  an  inner  law  but 
from  real  interaction.  The  seemingly  transient  is  the  immanent  working 
within  itself  of  one  all-embracing  Being. 

3107.  Fhilology.    Goldstiicker's  Sanskrit  Dictionary. 

3108.  History.    Motley's  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic. 
De  TocqueviUe's  Ancien  Regime. 

Le  Slant's  Inscriptions  Chr^tiennes  de  la  Gaule. 

3109.  Geography.  Burton  and  Speke  are  sent  by  the  Geographical 
Society  to  discover  the  great  Lakes,  of  which  rumours  abound.  Burton 
discovers  Tanganpka  and  Speke  the  Victoria  Nyanza. 

Livingstone  journeys  from  the  Cape  to  Angola,  and  thence  to  the 
East  Coast  exploring  the  Zambesi  from  source. to  mouth. 

3110.  Anthropology.  A  skull  discovered  in  Neanderthal  represents 
a  type  lower  than  those  found  in  the  Quaternary  deposits. 

3111.  DeaUiB.  Hamilton,  Heine,  Lobatschewsky,  Adolphe  Monod, 
Schumann. 


3112.  Eng.  Ch.    The  first  great  ritual  judgments  are  given.  [1857 
The  ecclesiastical  Courts  are  deprived  of  their  testamentary   ^ 

jurisdiction  and  control  over  the  law  of  marriage. 

3113.  Scotch  Ch.  Dr  Lee  introduces  written  prayer  and  a  richer 
ritual  into  the  Established  Church;  but  the  'Innovations'  are  hotly 
attacked. 

3114.  Irish  Ch.    Father  Burke,  a  Dominican,  beguis  a  series  of  missions. 
3116.    German  Ch.    Gunther's  works  are  condemned  for  dualism. 

Ritschl's  Growth  of   the  Early  Church  combats    the    Tubingen 
school. 


396  POLITICS  [18W 

1963.  Russia.    Herzen  demands  refonns  in  The  BelL 

1964.  America.  In  the  case  of  Dred  Scott,  Chief  Justice  Tane}*  de- 
clares that  slaves  are  property  and  that  Congress  cannot  legulate 
against  property,  and  that  the  Missouri  Compromise  is  therefore  void. 
This  decision  is  taken  to  mean  that  Congress  cannot  exclude  islaverr 
from  Territories. 

A  financial  crash  occurs,  and  the  Walker  tariff  is  modified  to  nte& 
lower  than  at  any  time  since  1816. 

1965.  Asia.  Owing  to  Lord  Dalhousie's  policy  of  annexation,  and  tu 
a  belief  that  the  new  cartridges  are  greased  with  cow's  fat,  a  mutiny 
breaks  out  at  Meerut  and  Delhi,  and  spreads  through  Oudh,  the  Xorth- 
West  Provinces,  and  Lower  Bengal  (March).  The  descendant  of  the 
Great  Moghul  is  proclaimed  Emperor.  Sir  John  Lawrence,  Grovemor  of 
the  Punjab,  disarms  the  Sepoys  in  the  Punjab  by  the  aid  of  the  Sikk, 
and  sends  troops  to  besiege  Delhi.  Salar  Jung  keeps  the  Mohammedaa 
state  of  Hyderabad  loyal.  Sir  Henry  Lawrence  holds  out  in  the  Re^- 
dency  at  Lucknow.  At  Cawnpore  about  a  thousand  English  are  besieged 
by  mna  Sahib,  and  allowed  to  depart  On  reaching  the  boats  thej  are 
shot,  only  four  surviving  (June  26).  Delhi  is  taken  (Sept  20),  bat 
Nicholson  is  killed  in  the  assault.  Havelock  and  Outram  save  Lucknow 
(Sept.  26),  which  is  finally  relieved  by  Sir  Colin  Campbell  (Nov.  17). 

England  allies  with  France  against  China,  and  sends  Lord  Elgin  v 
Envoy.     The  Chinese  fleet  is  destroyed,  and  Canton  is  captured. 

Before  any  decisive  contest  occurs  in  Persia,  a  treaty  is  signed  by 
England  and  Persia  at  Paris.  Herat  is  to  be  evacuated,  and  sUven*  ^) 
be  suppressed  in  the  Persian  Gulf. 

Ignatieff,  a  Russian  envoy,  is  sent  on  a  mission  of  militaiy,  noliticiL 
and  geographical  reconnaissance  to  the  Khanates  of  Khiva  and  Bokhan. 

Englana  occuuies  Perim. 

1966.  AfWca.    Algeria  is  finally  conquered  by  France. 


1967.  England.  On  Orsini\s  attempt  to  murder  Napoleon,  rt«g 
Palmerston  is  induced  by  the  Emperor  to  introduce  a  Conspiracy   ^ 

to  Murder  Bill,  which,   in  consequence  of  boastful   French  talk,  > 
defeated.     Palmerston  resigns,  and  Derby  becomes  Prime  Minister. 

Jews  are  admitted  to  Parliament. 

Property  qualification  for  members  of  Parliament  is  abolished. 

1968.  France.  Orsini,  a  Carbonaro,  plots  to  murder  Napoleon  (Jan.' 
Jules  Favre  gains  notoriety  by  defending  him,  enters  Parliament,  sttl 
becomes  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  opposition.  Napoleon  is  frighteneii. 
and  meets  Cavour  at  Plombi^res  (July),  promising  to  help  Vict^^r 
Emanuel  to  expel  Austria  from  Italy.  Victor  Emanuel  is  to  hare 
liombardy  and  Venetia,  and  Napoleon  to  take  Savoy  and  Nice. 

1969.  Svntzerland.  A  society  known  as  Helvetia  is  formed  by  Fair  <^ 
Geneva  to  resist  reaction  and  Cltramontanism. 

1970.  Montenegro.     Owing  to  boundary  disputes,  a  Turkish  aniiT 


1868]  CULTURE  397 

3116.  Eng.  Lit.    George  Eliot's  Scenes  from  Clerical  Life. 
Hughes*  Tom  Brown's  School  Days. 

Miss  Mulock's  John  Halifax  Gentleman. 

3117.  French  Lit    Flaubert's  Madame  Bovar}\ 
Baudelaire's  Fleurs  du  Mai. 

3118.  Science.    Joule  perfects  the  kinetic  theory  of  gases. 
Clerk  Maxwell  proves  Saturn's  Rings  to  be  meteoric. 

Pasteur  proves  the  vitalistic  theory  of  fermentation  against  Liebig, 
who  believes  the  process  to  be  purely  chemical. 
Clausius  explains  electrolysis  by  dissociation. 

3119.  Art.    Rossetti   frescoes  the  Oxford  Union,  aided  by  William 
Morris  and  Bume-Jones. 

Schwind  frescoes  the  Wartburg  with  scenes  from  the  history  of  the 
Lani^raves. 

The  National  Portrait  Gallery  is  founded. 

3120.  Archaeology.    Charles  Newton  discovers  the  tomb  of  Mausolus 
at  Halicarnassus. 

3121.  Philosophy.    Taine's  Philosophes  Classiques  attacks  Cousin  and 
the  eclectic  Idealists. 

On  the  death  of  Comte,  Lafitte  became  the  leader  of  the  Positivist 
movement.  Comte's  ideas  are  spread  in  England  by  Congreve,  Frederic 
Harrison,  Bridges,  Beesly,  Cotter  Morison  and  others. 

3122.  Philology.    Fiirst's  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  Dictionary. 

3123.  History.    Buckle's  History  of  Civilisation  traces  progress  to  the 
advance  in  physical  science. 

The  Calendar  of  English  State  Papers  and  the  Rolls  series  of 
Chronicles  b^n  to  appear. 

3124.  Law.    Gneist's  Modem  English  Constitutional  Law. 

3125.  Education.    The  Universities  of  Calcutta,  Bombay  and  Madras 
are  founded. 

Mary  Carpenter,  who  has  set  up  a  Reformatory  at  Kingswood,  1852, 
obtains  the  Industrial  Schools  Act. 

3126.  Deaths.    B^ranger,  Cauchy,  Comte,  De  Musset,  Ranch,  Reschid 
Pasha,  Manin. 


3127.  Eng.  Ch.    W.  G.  Ward  rehabilitates  the  Dublin  Review    r^ggg 
to  oppose  the  Rambler,  (later  the  Home  and  Foreign  Review)    '- 
whicn  under   Simpson   and    Acton    represents  the    liberal    Catholic 
movement. 

Mansel's  Bampton  Lectures,  based  on  Hamilton's  philosophy,  argue 
from  the  impotence  of  Reason  to  the  necessity  of  Faitn. 

3128.  Prencm  Ch.    The  Virgin  is  believed  to  appear  at  Lourdes. 

3129.  Russian   Ch.    The  Stundists,  who  approximate  to  Lutheran 
doctrine  and  reject  ceremonial,  form  a  sect. 

3130.  American  Ch.     Hecker  founds  the  Order  of  St  Paul,  aiming  at 
a  reconciliation  of  Catholicism  with  American  civilisation. 

3131.  Church  Hist.    A  Christian  servant  baptises  the  child  of  Mortara, 


398  POLITICS  [UN 

invades  Montenegro,  and  is  annihilated.    The  boundaries  are  fixed  by 
the  Great  Powers. 

1971.  Turkey.  The  Great  Powers  arrange  that  Moldavia  and  Walladiia 
shall  be  ruled  by  separate  princes,  chosen  by  the  assemblies,  and  duD 
pay  tribute  to  the  oultan.  Both  choose  the  same  prince,  Alexander 
Cusa,  and  are  allowed  to  form  one  state  as  Roumania. 

1972.  Russia.    Alexander  emancipates  the  serfs  on  the  roval  domain. 

1973.  America.  Lincoln  debates  with  Douglas,  and  declares  that  the 
stattis  qtio  cannot  last.  Seward  confirms  the  existence  of  an  '  inepre»- 
sible  conflict.' 

1974.  Asia.  The  Mutiny  is  finally  suppressed  by  Colin  Campbell  and 
Sir  Hugh  Rose.  The  East  India  Company  is  abolished,  andT  India  i> 
transferred  to  the  Crown,  and  governed  by  a  Viceroy  and  a  Secietaij  «f 
State,  with  15  advisers. 

Lord  Elgin  forces  China  to  sign  the  Treaty  of  Tientsin,  qieninc 
China  to  European  commerce,  establishing  diplomatic  relations,  and 
obtaining  reco^ition  of  ei^uality  between  foreigners  and  natives  and 
freedom  for  missionaries. 

After  the  murder  of  some  missionaries,  the  French  fleet  captures 
Saigon. 

By  the  Treaty  of  Ai^n,  China  recognises  the  dominion  of  Ra&da 
over  the  whole  of  Siberia. 

A  massacre  of  Christians  takes  place  at  Jeddah,  which  is  therefore 
bombarded  by  an  English  ship.  The  Sultan  is  forced  to  grant  repara- 
tion. 

Treaties  for  amity  and  unrestricted  commerce  with  England,  France. 
Russia,  and  the  United  States  are  signed  by  Japan,  and  Yokohama  ami 
Nagasaki  are  opened  to  trade. 

1975.  Afipica.  The  Grondwet  of  the  South  African  Republic  proride* 
for  a  President,  elected  for  five  years  by  burghers  over  sixteen,  and 
a  Volksraad. 


1976.  England.     Disraeli  announces  franchise  proposals,  but  is   Mgeg 
defeated,  and  Pahuerston  returns  to  power  with  Russell  and   ^ 
Gladstone.     ( -obden  refuses  the  Presidency  of  the  Board  of  Trade 

Volunteer  rifle  corps  are  formed. 

1977.  Ireland.  The  Phoenix  Club,  under  O'Donovan  Rossa  m\ 
Stephens,  fonns  the  nucleus  of  Fenianism. 

1978.  Italy.  At  the  New  Year's  Day  reception,  Nanoleon  regret^i  his 
relations  with  Austria,  and  begins  to  mobilise.  His  cousin,  Priurt 
Napoleon,  marries  a  dauj^hter  of  the  King  of  Sardinia.  Austria  refibe> 
to  allow  Sardinia  to  be  represented  at  a  congress  to  settle  the  affairs  «•! 
Italy,  and  demands  disarmament  within  three  days  (April  23).  Cavour 
refuses,  and  Napoleon  also  declares  war  (May  3).  The  Austrians  nianh 
on  Turin,  but  are  defeated  by  Victor  Emanuel,  who  ha.s  been  joined  by 
Nanoleon,  at  Magenta  and  Solferino  (June).  Tuscany,  Parma,  Mixlena, 
and  Bologna  are  deserted  by  their  rulers.  Napoleon,  fearing  a  stronir 
Italy,  dreading  a  ciuarrel  with  the  Pope,  and  learning  the  hostiUty  ot 


18S9]  CULTURE  399 

her  Jewish  employer,  believing  him  to  be  dyinc.  The  boy  recovers  and 
is  carried  off  to  be  educated  as  a  Christian.  His  parents  demand  his 
restoration,  which  is  refused  by  the  Pope. 

S132.    Bng.  Lit.    Tennyson's  Idylls  of  the  King. 

The  Spectator  is  bought  by  R.  H.  Hutton  and  Townsend. 

31S3.    American  Lit.    Holmes*  Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast  Table. 

3134,  French  Lit.    Feuillet*s  Roman  d'un  jeune  Homme  pauvre. 

3135,  Norwegian  Lit.    Komson's  Ame. 

3136,  Science.    Donati's  Uomet  appears. 
Helmholtz  enunciates  his  Vortex  Motion  theory. 

Wallace's  paper  on  Natural  Selection,  based  on  study  in  the  Malay 
Archipelago,  and  a  paper  by  Darwin,  both  reaching  the  theory  of 
Evolution,  are  simultaneously  communicated  to  the  Linnaean  Society. 

Sorbjr's  Microscopical  Structure  of  Crvstals. 

William  Thomson  invents  a  mirror  galvanometer,  which  detects  very 
small  electric  currents. 

3137,  Art.    Titiens  begins  to  sing  in  London. 

Alfred  Stevens  designs  the  Wellington  monument  in  St  Paurs. 
Prith's  The  Derby  Day. 

3138,  Philosophy.  Vacherot*s  La  M^taphysique  et  la  Science,  asserting 
that  as  the  individual  is  the  real  the  ideal  cannot  be  real,  is  attacked 
by  Garo,  Janet  and  Ravaisson. 

3139,  Philology.    Renier's  Inscriptions  Romaines  de  I'Alg^rie. 
Oppert  detects  *Accadian,*  a  Scythic  idiom  among  the  cuneiform 

alphabets. 
31jiO,    Education.    The  Oxford  and  Cambridge  Local  Examinations  are 
instituted. 

The   government    of   Cambridge  University  is    taken    from    the 
CSaput. 
3141.    History.    Carlyle*s  Prederick  the  Great. 

Villari's  Life  of  SEivonarola. 
SI42,    Deaths.    Robert  Brown,  .Johannes  Miiller,  Robert  Owen. 


SI43.    Eng.  Lit.    George  Eliot's  Adam  Bede.  r,geg 

George  Meredith's  Ordeal  of  Richard  PevereL  ^ 

Pitzgerald  translates  the  Rubaiyat  of  Omar  Khayyam. 
3144.    French  Lit.    Hugo's  L^gendes  des  Si^cles. 
Erckmann  and  Chatrian  begin  to  collaborate. 
SI40,    Russian  Lit.    Gontcharofs  Oblomof,  a  realistic  novel. 
3140,    Science.    Zirkel  investigates  the  lavas  of  the  Eifel  district. 

Eirchhoff  and  Bunseu  discover  that  the  dark  lines  of  the  solar 
spectrum  arise  from  the  presence  in  the  solar  atmosphere  of  substances 
which  in  a  flame  produce  bright  lines.  Kirchhoff  concludes  that 
sodium,  iron,  magnesium,  copper,  zinc,  barium  and  nickel  exist  in  the 
sun. 

Darwin  publishes  the  Origin  of  Species  by  Natural  Selection.     The 


400  POLITICS  [i8H 

Genuany,  suddenly  makeH  au  armistice  at  Villa  Franca  (July  11), 
Sardinia  to  receive  Lombard^,  Italy  to  be  federated  under  the  Pope, 
and  Austria  to  retain  Venetia  and  the  QuadrilateraL  Cavonrrttij^ 
in  disgust.  Victor  Emanuel,  however,  makes  Napoleon  promise  doc 
to  allow  any  forcible  restoration  of  the  refugee  rulers,  l^e  terms  of 
Villa  Franca  are  confirmed  at  Zurich  (Nov.).  The  Italian  states  are  to 
be  under  the  honorary  presidency  of  the  Pope ;  the  sovereigiu  of 
Tuscany  and  Modena  to  be  reinstated  ;  the  revolted  Legations  to  return 
to  the  Pope.  Modena,  Parma  and  Tuscany,  and  the  L^iatioDs,  how- 
ever, declare  in  favour  of  annexation  to  Swlinia. 

1979.  Germany.  The  German  National  Union  is  formed  by  Bamig^fen 
to  substitute  a  strong  executive  and  a  national  Parliament  for  the  Bun^L 
The  Union  dissolves,  1867. 

1980.  Russia.    Shamil.  a  Circassian  chief,  surrenders  to  Russia. 

1981.  Servia.    The  Karageorgevitch  dynasty  replace  ihe  Obrenovitch. 

1982.  America.  John  Bn)wn  appears  at  Harper's  Ferry,  Virginia^  with 
19  followers,  and  seizes  the  arsenal,  but  is  captured  and  executed. 

1983.  AuBtralasia.  Queensland  is  separated  from  N.  S.  Wales,  with 
Brisbane  as  capital. 

1984.  Africa.    Spain  attacks  Morocco. 

The  Senussi,  ruler  of  the  Mohammedan  sect  in  the  Libyan  desert, 
dies,  and  is  succeeded  by  the  present  ruler,  who  prepares  for  the  bolj 
war  from  his  capital  at  Jerabub. 

Sir  George  Grey  suggests  the  federation  of  British  and  Dutch  South 
Africa. 


1985.  England.    A  Bill  abolishing  the  paper  duty  is  rejected  by  r^^ 
the  Lords.     Palmerston  therefore  carries  resolutions  to  render  a   ^ 
similar  occurrence  impossible. 

Cobden,  supported  by  Gladstone,  arranges  a  commercial  treaty  with 
Nai)oleon,  the  duties  between  France  and  England  being  greatly  re- 
duced. 

1986.  Italy.  Cavour  returns  to  i)Ower.  Tuscany,  Parma,  Modena.  ao'i 
Romagna  declare  for  Sardinia  by  a  plebiscite,  and  are  annextii 
Napoleon  obtains  Savoy  and  Nice. 

Garibaldi  sails  with  1,00()  volunteers  to  Sicily  (May),  where  the 
ground  is  prepared  by  Crispi,  and  in  two  months  subdues  it.  Francis  II., 
of  Naples,  promises  a  Constitution  ;  but  Garibaldi  crosses  and  enteis 
Naples  (Sept.).  Victor  Emanuel  joins  Garibaldi,  takes  Capua,  be:«iet'es 
Gaeta,  ana  enters  Naples.  Cavour  annexes  Umbria  and  the  tw- 
Sicilies.  Garibaldi  acknowledges  the  authority  of  Victor  Emanuel 
and  retires  to  Caprera. 

The  Pope  fights  for  the  liCgations,  and  Lamorici^re  is  routed  by 
Cialdini  at  Castel  Fidazdo  (Sept.),  and  is  compelled  to  surrender  at 
Ancdua.  The  Papal  States,  with  the  exception  of  the  Patrimoniani 
Petri,  are  annexed. 

1987.  Prance.  Naj)oleon  allows  criticism  of  the  speec*h  from  the  Thn^nt- 
and  the  Budget. 


1800]  CULTURE  401 

theory  is  embraced  by  Lyell,  Hooker,  Huxley,  Haeckel,  and  otJiers, 
but  is  attacked  by  Oweu. 

Gegenbaur  s  Comparative  Anatomy. 

Darwin's  two  chapters  on  geology  in  the  Origin  of  Species  point  out 
the  imperfection  of  the  geological  record  and  the  vast  time  that  has 
elapsed  between  the  formations. 

Huxley's  Oceanic  Hydrozoa. 
SI47.    Art.    Millet's  Angdlus. 

Busch  begins  his  sketches  for  the  Fliegende  Blatter,  and  is  joined 
by  Oberlander. 

Gounod's  Faust. 

3148.  Politics.    Lazarus'  Psychology  of  Peoples. 

J.  S.  Mill's  On  Liberty  pleads  for  individualism. 
Hare  contends  that  all  candidates  who  obtain  a  minimum  number 
of  votes  should  be  elected  members  of  parliament. 

3149.  Economics.  Carey's  Principles  of  Social  Science  assume  a 
rational  system  of  benehcent  laws,  point  out  that  land  owes  a  large 
part  of  its  value  to  man,  and  strongly  advocate  protection. 

3150.  History.    Sybel  edits  a  Historical  Review. 

Maximilian  of  Bavaria  creates  the  Historical  Commission  under  the 
direction  of  Ranke. 

3151.  Education.  A  curriculum  is  framed  by  the  Prussian  Govern- 
ment for  boys  in  the  Realschulen  destined  to  callings  for  which 
University  studies  are  not  needed.  The  study  of  Latin,  however,  is 
retained. 

The  Duke  of  Newcastle's  Commission  reveals  the  inadequate  pro- 
vision for  elementary  education  that  exists  in  England. 

3152.  Philolbgy.  Tischendorf  discovers  the  Sinaitic  MS8.  of  the 
New  Testament. 

Max  Muller's  Lectures  on  the  Science  of  Language. 

3153.  Geography.     Livingstone  discovers  Lake  Nyasa. 

3154.  Deaths.  Aksakov,  Austin,  David  Cox,  De  Tocqueville,  Hallam, 
Alexander  Humboldt,  Edward  Irving,  Macaulay,  Mettemich,  Karl 
Ritter. 


3155.  Eng.  Ch.    A  series  of  Essays  and  Reviews,  by  Temple,    noftn 
Jowett,  Mark  Pattison,  Baden  Powell  and  others  are  condemned    ^ 

in  Convocation,  though  defended  by  Stanley,  and  are  praised  in  the 
Positivist  organ,  the  Westminster  Review. 

At  the  meeting  of  the  British  Association  at  Oxford,  Wilberforce 
attacks  and  Huxley  defends  the  theory  of  Evolution. 

The  English  Church  Union  is  founded  to  organise  the  High  Church 
movement. 

Bradlaugh  founds  and  edits  The  National  Reformer. 

Norman  Macleod  edits  Good  Words. 

3156.  Italian  Ch.    Dupanloup's  Letter  to  La  Guerroni^re  replies  to 

G.  26 


402  POLITICS  [1880 

1988.  Sweden.  Norway  protests  against  the  Goyenior-GeDenJ,  and 
asserts  its  right  to  suppress  the  post.  The  King  refuses  to  recognise 
the  claim. 

1989.  America.  In  the  Presidential  election,  the  Northen  Democrats 
split  oif  on  the  demand  to  recognise  slavery  as  morally  right  and  to  one 
Congress  to  assume  its  protection  in  the  territories.  Abraham  Lincom 
is  therefore  elected.  South  Carolina  summons  a  Convention,  which  dis- 
solves its  union. 

1990.  Australasia.    The  Second  Maori  War  breaks  out 

1991.  Asia.  The  Chinese  treacherously  attack  the  English  8(^aadron; 
Parkes,  the  English  ambassador,  is  imprisoned ;  the  French  Minister  is 
insulted.  France  and  England  join  their  forces,  Pekin  is  captured,  tnd 
the  Summer  Palace  burnt.  The  Treaty  of  Pekin  confirms  that  rf 
Tientsin,  and  imposes  a  large  indemnity.  Christianity  is  to  be  tolerated, 
and  the  tariff  is  revised. 

The  Druses  attack  and  massacre  the  Maronites,  and  the  Chruitiau 
at  Damascus  are  massacred  by  Mohammedans.  Order  is  restored  by 
a  French  army. 

1992.  Africa.  Morocco  is  forced  by  Spain  to  surrender  territonr,  and 
to  transfer  the  control  of  customs  in  default  of  payment  of  the  in- 
demnity. 


1993.  England.    The  abolition  of  the  Paper  Duty  is  combined   Mg^| 
with  the  financial  scheme  of  the  Government  and  passes  the   ^ 
Lords. 

The  Prince  Consort  dies. 

1994.  Italy.  The  surrender  of  Gaeta  terminates  the  resistance  «'i 
Ferdinand  (Feb.).  The  first  Italian  Parliament  meets  at  Turin  (Fob. 
18),  and  Victor  Emanuel  is  greeted  as  King  of  Italy.  At  this  moment. 
Cavour  dies. 

1995.  Germany.  William  I.  becomes  King  of  Prussia,  and  a  confliot 
over  the  reorganisation  of  the  anny  breaks  out.  The  Fort^chritts-Partoi 
is  formed  by  Waldeck,  Virchow  and  Karl  Twesteu,  and  demand* 
economy  ami  ministerial  resj)onsibility. 

1996.  Austria.  Schmerling  becomes  the  head  of  a  centralising  cabinet 
and  the  Council  is  changed  into  a  central  Parliament.  Bohemia  refu^** 
to  send  deputies. 

1997.  Hungary.  The  old  constitution  is  restored  to  Huugar}* ;  but  the 
Diet  is  dissolved  for  demanding  full  autonomy. 

1998.  Russia.  Alexander  frees  the  peasants,  who  become  ownei>  -f 
part  uf  tlieir  land  by  loans  from  the  State.  Immediately  after  the  is>nc 
of  the  Edict,  Milutin,  its  j)rincij)al  author,  falls  from  jwwer. 

1999.  America.  Mississippi,  Florida,  Alabama,  Georgia,  Louisiana,  ao-i 
Texas  secede  (Jan.).  A  Convention  of  the  Southern  States  meet.<  at 
^lontgomery,   adopts  a  provisional   constitution  for   the   Confeiieniw 


1861]  CULTURE  403 

Napoleon's  pamphlet,  and  advocates  the  maintenance  of  the  temporal 
power. 
Slo7,    Asiatic  CIl    Russia  builds  a  monastery  and  a  house  for  pilgrims 

at  Jerusalem. 
S15S,    French  Lit.    Labiche's  comed}*,  Le  Voyage  de  M.  Perrichon. 

Coquelin  makes  his  d^but  at  the  Com^e  &an9ai8e. 
S159.    German  Lit.    Spielha^n*s  Problematic  Natures. 

Fritz  Reuter  b^ns  a  series  of  stories  of  peasant  life,  called  Olle 
Kamellen,  written  in  Piatt  DeutscL 
SieO.     Russian  Lit.    Tolstoi's  War  and  Peace. 

Ostrowski's    The    Storm   and    Pisemski's    Bitter    Fate   introduce 
realism. 

5161.  Science.    Sir  John  Brown  invents  armour-plating  for  ships. 

5162.  Art.    Macfiuren's  Rudiments  of  Harmony. 

S16S.    Philosophy.    Fechner's  Psycho-Physics  applies  Weber's  law  of 

the  relation  between  stimulus  and  change  of  sensation. 
3164^    Philology.    Oppert's  Assjrrian  Grammar. 
Gabelentz'  Melanesian  Languages. 

5165.  Politics.    Mill's  Treatise  on  Representative  Government. 

5166.  History.    Montalembert's  Moines  de  TOccident 

5167.  Law.    Bruns'  Pontes  Juris  Romani  Antiqui. 

3168,  Geography.    Speke  and  Grant  discover  the  Victoria  Nyanza 
lake  to  be  the  main  source  of  the  Nile. 

3169.  Deaths.    Aberdeen,  Amdt,  Baur,  Bunsen,  Dalhousie,  Heibeig, 
Lobeck,  Szechenyi,  Theodore  Parker,  Schopenhauer. 


3170.  Eng.  Ch.    '  Essays  and  Reviews'  are  attacked  by  Wilber-   r^g^j^ 
force   in   the  Quarterly  Review,  and    by   Thomson,  Mansel,    ^ 
Ellicott,    Harold    Browne    and    others.     Wilson    and    Williams   are 
suspended  by  the  Court  of  Arches,  but  are  acquitted  by  the  Privy 
Council     Convocation  formally  condemns  the  book. 

The  first  Church  Congress  is  held  at  Cambridge. 

3171.  German  Ch.  DoUinger's  The  Church  and  the  Churches  first 
reveals  his  hostility  to  curiahsm. 

3172.  Italian  Ch.  Prota-Giurieo,  a  Dominican,  attempts  to  form  a 
National  Church,  demanding  the  election  of  the  priest  by  the  parish 
and  of  die  Bishop  by  clergy  and  people,  the  abolition  of  celibacy,  the 
circulation  of  the  Bible,  prayers  in  the  vernacular,  Conmiunion  in  both 
kinds.     The  movement,  however,  does  not  spread  beyond  the  SoutL 

Passaglia's  work  on  The  Temporal  Power  is  put  on  the  Index. 

3173.  Church  Hist.  Patteson  becomes  Bishop  of  Melanesia,  but  is 
murdered,  1871. 

3174^  Asiatic  Ch.  Chunder  Sen  joins  the  Brahmo  movement,  and 
works  for  education,  the  abolition  of  caste,  and  the  raising  of  the  position 
of  women. 

3175.    En^  Lit.    George  Eliot's  Silas  Mamer. 

26—2 


404  POLITICS  [Ittl 

States  of  America,  and  chooses  Jefferson  Davis  President,  and  A.  E 
Stephens  Vice-President  (Feb.).  Fort  Sumter,  in  Charleston  harbour, 
is  mred  on  and  reduced  (April).  Virginia,  North  GaioUna,  Tennessee, 
and  Arkansas  join  the  secessionists.  Delaware,  Maryland,  and  Ken- 
tucky, and,  in  1862,  Missouri  join  the  NortL  Lincoln  calls  for  75,000 
volunteers,  and  proclaims  a  blockade.  The  army  of  the  North  is  dri?eB 
back  at  Bull  Run,  in  North  Virginia  (July).  New  volunteers  are  there- 
fore called  out,  and  McLellan  is  put  in  command. 

Mason  and  Slidell,  sent  by  the  Confederates  to  seek  the  friendship 
of  England  and  France,  are  taken  from  the  English  ship  Trent,  by  id 
American  man-of-war.  Captain  Wilkes  is  congratulated  by  Congress. 
Palmerston  and  Russell  demand  the  surrender  of  the  agents  in  i 
despatch,  the  wording  of  which  is  modified  by  the  Prince  Cooaoit 
Adams,  the  American  ambassador,  strongly  ui^ges  submissioiL 

Seward  advises  a  forei^  war  in  order  to  rally  the  South. 

After  eight  vears'  civil  war  in  Mexico,  Juarez,  the  leader  ct  the 
advanced  Liberals,  enters  the  capital.  He  confiscates  Church  propertr, 
and  decides  to  suspend  pa3rment  to  foreigners  for  two  years,  idiglmd, 
France  and  Spain  therefore  claim  compensation  for  the  losses  of  thdr 
subjects,  and  send  a  joint  expedition. 

2000.  West  Indies.    San  Domingo  is  annexed  to  Spain. 

2001.  Africa.    The  ruler  of  Lagos  cedes  it  to  England. 


2002.  England.    The  Alabama  is  allowed  to  leave  the  Mersey  m^ 
under  pretence  of  a  trial  trip,  but  in  reality  ordered  by  the  Con-   •- 
federates.     After  doing  immense  damage  to  the  North,  it  is  sunk,  186i 

2003.  Prance.     Napoleon  obtains  Mentone  and  Roquebrune. 

2004.  Italy.  Garibaldi  plans  to  attack  Rome,  but  is  taken  prisoner  by 
Victor  Emanuers  troops  at  Aspromonte. 

2005.  Germany.  The  Prussian  Parliament  attacks  the  military  policy  «rf 
the  King  and  Roon,  and  is  dissolved.  A  still  larger  Progressive  oppoea- 
tion  is  returned,  and  the  King  prepares  to  abdicate,  but  is  dissuaaed  bj 
Bismarck,  who  becomes  chief  minister.  The  Lower  House  refuses  the 
military  credits,  and  Bismarck  governs  without  a  budget,  and  speab  of 
the  necessity  of  '  blood  and  iron.' 

2006.  Greece.  King  Otho  is  expelled,  and  the  crown  is  offered  to  the 
Duke  of  Edinburgh.  The  ruling  nouses  having  agreed  not  to  accept  the 
crown,  England  chooses  George,  second  son  of  uie  King  of  DeniuarL 
Representative  institutions  are  established. 

2007.  America.  Juarez  promises,  but  fails,  to  pay  the  arrear  of  debt 
and  an  indemuity.  England  and  Spain  withdraw  ;  but  Napoleon,  who 
dreams  of  a  Latin  Empire,  renews  the  attack. 

Mason  and  Slidell  are  surrendered  by  the  United  States.     Admiral 
Farragut  takes  New  Orleans,  and  obtains  control  of  the  lower  Mississippi 


1862]  CULTURE  405 

5176,  French  Lit.    Eu^^nie  de  Gu^rin's  Journals. 

5177,  Art.    Grarnier  designs  the  Opera-house  at  Paris. 
Patti  makes  her  d^but 

William  Morris  b^us  work  as  a  decorator  and  designer. 
Harpignies  b^ns  to  exhibit  his  landscapes. 

5178,  Science.    Pasteur  finds  anaerobic  Ufa 

5179.  Edacation.    Lowe  determines  the  scale  of  GoYemment  grants. 
Spencer's  Education,  Moral,  Intellectual,  Physical,  contends  that 

scientific,  rather  than  literary  culture,  is  best  adapted  for  gaining  a 
livelihood  and  performing  the  duties  of  a  citizen. 

5180.  Philology.    Dahl's  Dictionary  of  the  Russian  Language. 
Schleicher's  Comparative  Grammar  of  the  Indo-European  Languages 

summarises  all  work  done  since  Bopp  and  Grimm,  and  makes  each 
language  stand  out  clearly  from  a  conmion  background. 

5181.  Economics.    Walras  urges  that  the  State  should  appropriate 
rent. 

3182,    History.    Dahn's  Kings  of  the  Germans. 

S183,    Law.    Maine's  Ancient  Law  examines  the  ideas  on  which  ancient 

civilisation  rested 
3184^    Anthropology.    Bachofen  studies  the  position  of   women  in 

primitive  times. 

3185,  SociaL    The  American  Civil  War  stops  the  supply  of  cotton,  and 
leads  to  widespread  distress  in  Lancashire. 

3186,  Deaths.    Mrs  Browning,  dough,  Czartoryski,  Lacordaire,  Savigny, 
StahL 


3187,  Eng.  Ch.  Colenso's  The  Pentateuch  asserts  that  the  BiUe  r^g^ 
contains  '  nnhistorical'  parts.     He  is  urged  by  English  Bishops   ^ 

to  resi^  but  refuses,  and  Gr^,  Bishop  of  Capetown,  deposes  him. 
The  Pnvy  Cooncil  declares  that  Gray  possesses  no  jurisdiction,  and  the 
Bishop  therefore  excommunicates  him. 

The  Confiatemity  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  is  founded  to  teach  the 
doctrine  of  the  Real  Presence. 

Father  Iniatias  (Rev.  Joseph  Lyne)  attempts  to  revive  monasticism, 
and  founds  Uantbony  Abbey. 

3188,  Gtennaa  Ch.    Fmschanmier's  works  are  placed  on  the  Index. 
Hase's  Handbook  of  Polemic  against  the  Roman  ChuicL 

3189,  Chnrch  Hist  With  the  approval  of  Convocation  and  of  the 
American  ^iscopalians  an  attempt  is  made  to  unite  the  Anglican  and 
Greek  lAoichea. 

The  Pope  canonises  the  Japanese  martvra. 

3190,  Eng.  Ut    Henrv  Kingsle/s  Ravenshoe. 
George  M^edith's  Poems  and  Ballads. 

3191,  French  Lit.    Victor  Hogo's  Les  Miseiables. 

3192,  Amerlram  Lit.    Whittier's  Snow  Bound. 

3193,  Italian  Lit.    Wttte's  truislation  of  and  commentair  on  Dante. 

3194,  Art  Gilbert  Scott  deagns  the  Albert  Memorial  Kensiiigton 
Gardena 

Israels'  The  SUpwrecked  Man,  and  The  Cndle. 


406  POLITICS  [1882 

(April).  At  the  same  moment,  Grant  drives  the  Soudiemers  back  at 
Shiloh.  The  Merrimac  destroys  some  Northern  frigates,  but  is  worsted 
by  the  Monitor.  The  Alabama  leaves  the  Mersey,  despite  the  repeated 
protests  of  Adams.  Lee  and  'Stonewall'  Jackson  defend  Richmond,  and 
repulse  the  Federals  at  Bull  Run  (Aug.).  Lee  invades  the  North,  aod 
fights  a  drawn  battle  with  McLellau  at  the  Antietam  (Auk-),  then  with- 
draws and  repulses  an  attack  on  Fredericksburg  (Dec.).  In  Tennessee, 
Sheridan  repels  a  fierce  Southern  onslaught  at  otone  River. 

Congress  issues  paper  money  as  legal  tender ;  the  premium  on  gold 
reaches  200  p.c. ;  and  prices  and  rents  rise»  followed  at  a  distance  bj 
wages. 

Congress  abolishes  slavery  in  Territories  without  compensation. 

2008.  Anica.    France  purcnases  Obok,  opposite  Aden,   and  obtains 
a  foothold  on  the  Guinea  Coast. 

2009.  Asia.    The  Treaty  of  Saigon  closes  the  war  of  Prance  and  Annam, 
w^hich  cedes  parts  of  Cochin  China.     The  remainder  is  annexed,  1867. 

Hart  becomes  Inspector  of  maritime  customs  in  China. 


2010.  England.     The  Times  accuses   Cobden  and  Bright  of  m^^ 
preaching  spoliation.     Cobden  retaliates  by  addressing  I)elane  ^ 
Dy  name. 

2011.  France.    Thiers  returns  to  public  life,  and  forms  an  opposition. 
Napoleon  invites  the  nations  to  a  Peace  Congress ;   but  Russell 

refuses  on  behalf  of  Great  Britain. 

2012.  Germany.  Austria  proposes  a  meeting  of  princes  at  Frankfort  to 
reorganise  the  Bnnd  by  creating  a  Directory  of  five  princes,  with  the 
Emperor  as  hereditary  president.  Bismarck  persuades  the  King  d 
Prussia  to  refuse  to  attend,  and  the  scheme  lapses. 

Parliament  demands  the  dismissal  of  Bismarck,  and  is  prorogued 
and  the  press  is  muzzled.  The  Crown  Prince  disapproves  the  uncon>'ti- 
tutional  policy  of  the  King  and  Bismarck. 

2013.  Denmark.  Schleswig  is  incorporated  with  Denmark  (MarchX  bat 
Holstein  receives  independent  rights.  Frederick  dies,  and  Christian  II 
succeeds,  and  is  at  once  ordered  by  the  Bund  to  separate  the  Duchies 
from  Denmark  (Oct.).  The  Bund  sends  an  army  (Dec.),  and  Frederick 
of  Augustenburg,  for  whom  the  Holstein  Diet  declares,  is  procUimed 
Duke  of  Schleswig- Holstein  (Dec). 

2014.  Greece.    The  Ionian  Islands  are  united  to  Greece, 

2015.  Russia.  Katkof  edits  the  Moscow  Gazette,  which  obtains  iir 
mense  influence,  and  leads  the  reaction  against  liberalism. 

2016.  Poland.  Poland  revolts  against  conscription,  and  carries  on 
guerilla  warfare  for  two  years.  Prussia  offers  to  assist  Russia,  wbidi 
defies  the  remonstrance  of  the  remaining  Powers.  The  insurrection  t 
ruthlessly  suppressed  by  Muraviefi'. 


186S]  CULTURE  407 

J7^^5.    Archaeology.    Newtou  describes  the  Mausoleum  of  Halicar- 

nassus. 
S196,     Science.      Pasteur    disproves    spontaneous   generations.     The 
theory  is  revived  by  Bastian,  1876,  and  again  refuted  by  Pasteur. 
Andrews  proves  the  existence  of  a  critical  point  in  gases. 
The  Bonn  catalogue,  enumerating  the  stars  visible  in  the  Northern 
Hemisphere,  is  completed  by  Argelander,  a  pupil  of  Bessel. 

Rimnsay  suggests  that  certain  lake-basins  were  scooped  out  by 
glaciers. 

Darwin's  Fertilisation  of  Orchids  by  Insects. 
SHK.     Philosophy.    Spencer's  First  Principles  pronounces  the  nature  of 
things  unknowable,  and  declares  the  persistence  of  force  the  key  of  the 
physical  universe. 

Mill's  Utilitarianism  expands  the  teaching  of  Bentham  and  his 
&ther. 
319S,     Philology.    Bleek's  Comparative  Grammar  of  the  South  African 

Languages. 
3199,     History.    Potthast's  Bibliotheca  Historica  Medii  Aevi. 

Friedlander's  History  of  the  Civilisation  of  the  later  Roman  Empire. 
S^^Jtj.     Economics.    Lassalle's  Working-Class  Programme  recommends 
a  system  of  State  Socialism,  cooperative  production  to  be  begun  imme- 
diately by  State  aid. 
S2tJl.    Edacation.    A  college  is  founded  in  each  American  State  for 

scientific  and  technical  studies  on  an  equality  with  classics. 
Ji^>?.     Geography.    Gifford  Palgrave  joume3rs  through  Arabia. 
S^>S.    DeaUis.    Biot,  Buckle,  Nessebrode,  Uhland. 


S2iJi,    French  Ch.    Kenan's  Vie  de  J^sus  [1863 

S2o5.    Oeiman  CIl    At  a  Congress  of  Catholic  scholars,  held  at  ^ 

Munich,  Dollinger,   Keinkens,    Schulte   and   others   assume  an   Old 

Catholic  position. 

A  Protestant  Union  is  founded  by  Bluntschli,  Kothe,  Ewald,  Hitzig, 

Schenkel,  Hilgenfeld,  who  desire  a  federation  into  a  National  Church, 

the  concession  of  further  power  to  the  laity,  and  disapprove  subscription 

to  creeds. 
S2fJ6,    Danish  Ch.    Strife  breaks  out  between  Grundtvig  and  Martensen. 
S2I/7.     Church  Hist.    At  a  Catholic  Congress  at  Malines,  Moutalem- 

bert  demands  toleration  and  the  separation  of  Church  and  State. 
SitJS.    En^  Lit    George  Eliot's  Romola. 
SB^J^.    French  Lit.    Le  Petit  Journal,  a  halfpenny  })aper,  is  founded. 

3210.  Rnssian  Lit.    Tchemichevsky  attacks  current  ideas  on  marriage. 
Xekrasof 's  Frost  the  Ked-nose. 

3211.  Science.    Helmholtz  Sensations  of  Tone. 

Hiudey's  Man's  Place  in  Nature  interprets  Darwin's  ideas. 
Huxley  demonstrates  the  separation  of  Reptiles  and  Batrachians. 

3212.  Art.    The  Salon  des  Refuses  is  founded,  in  which  Manet  and 
other  Impressionists  exhibit. 

Whistler's  Symphony  in  White. 


408  POLITICS  [186S 


2017.  America.      Lincoln  issues  a   proclamation    aboluhiDg  slafoy 
(Jan.). 

Grant  captures  Vicksburg,  and  controls  the  Mississippi  from  sooroe 
to  mouth  (Julyl  Meanwhile  Lee  wins  at  ChancellorsviUe  (AprilX  iod 
again  invades  tne  North,  but  is  repulsed  at  Gettysburg. 

Two  rams,  construbted  by  Messrs  Laird  for  the  Confederate  Stately 
are  stopped  at  the  moment  of  completion  by  Kussell. 

The  creation  of  national  banks  is  authorised  on  the  deposit  of  bonds 
of  one-third  of  their  capital  with  the  Government,  which  issues  btnk 
notes  redeemable  in  green-backs  to  ninety  per  cent  of  the  value  of  the 
bonds. 

The  French  capture  Puebla,  and  the  crown  of  Mexico  is  offered  to 
Maximilian,  brother  of  the  Emperor  of  Austria 

2018.  Asia.    A  French  protectorate  is  proclaimed  over  Cambodia. 
Gordon  suppresses  the  revolt  of  the  Taipings. 

The  French,  English,  and  American  fleets  attack  Japan. 


2019.  Italy.    Napoleon  agrees  to  withdraw  the  French  garrison  r«g^ 
from  Rome  within  two  years,  on  condition  that  Victor  finanuel  *- 
undertakes  to  defend  the  Papal  States. 

2020.  Denmark.  Austrian  and  Prussian  armies  enter  the  Duchiei, 
and  the  lines  of  Diippel  are  carried  by  the  Prussians  under  Prince 
Frederick  Charles.  An  armistice  is.  made,  and  Russell  presides  onr 
negotiations  in  London.  Prussia  and  Austria  secede  from  the  London 
protocol,  according  to  which  Christian  was  to  succeed  to  the  entire 
monarchy.  The  Bund  desire  the  severance  of  the  Duchies  under  the 
Duke  of  Augustenburg.  Austria  and  Prussia  are  prepared  to  allow  tht 
personal  union  with  a  separate  constitution.  England  proposes  the 
division  of  Schleswig  into  a  German  and  a  Danish  half;  but  the 
boundary  cannot  be  fixed.  The  war  is  renewed,  Jutland  is  overrun,  the 
Danish  fleet  is  defeated  by  the  Austrian  admiral,  Tegethoff,  Christian  is 
forced  to  sign  the  Treaty  of  Vienna,  ceding  the  Duchif  s  and  Lauenbui^ 
to  Austria  and  Prussia  to  make  their  own  arrangements  (Oct.).  Hol^tm 
is  evacuated,  and  tlie  two  Powers  establish  a  common  government  in 
Schleswig. 

2021.  Russia.  Zeiustvos,  or  elective  provincial  governments,  are  insti- 
tuted 

2022.  Poland.  On  the  advice  of  Milutin,  the  peasants  are  made  ah»>- 
lute  owners  of  the  land  they  occupy,  in  order  to  separate  their  inten?>t» 
from  those  of  the  nobles,  and  to  bind  them  to  the  crown. 

2023.  America.  Sliennau  mai*ehes  through  Georgia  and  captun^ 
Savannah,  and  Thomas  destroys  a  Southern  army  at  Nashville  (iMr.K 

Grant  meets  Lee  in  the  Wilderness,  near  Chancellorsville,  aod 
fighting  lasts  a  month.  Though  Grant  loses  most  heavily,  his  raiib  are 
refilled. 


18M]  CULTURE  409 

5215.  History.    Gardiner  s  History  of  England  in  the  17th  century. 
Kinglake's  History  of  the  Crimea 

S214,    Philology.    Lfl^e's  Arabic  Lexicon. 

little's  Dictionary  of  the  French  Language. 
S21o.    Education,    fiobert  College  is  founded  at  Constantinople. 

5216,  Law.     Harcourt  discusses  'recognition*  in  Historicus*  Letters  to 
the  Times. 

32  17.    Anthropology.    Lyell's  Antiquity  of  Man. 
S218.    Deaths.      Jacob    Grimm,     Lyndhurst,     Steiner,     Thackeray, 
Whately. 


3219,  Eng.  Ch.  Newman's  project  for  a  Catholic  college  at  \iqqa 
Oxford  is  defeated  by  Manning  and  withdrawn.  *- 

In  answer  to  an  attack  by  Kingsley,  Newman  writes  his  Apologia 
pro  Vita  Sua. 

322f.K  £kK>tch  Ch.  Ministers  episcopally  ordained  in  Scotland  are 
allowed  to  hold  benefices  in  the  English  Church. 

3221.  Polish  Ch.  Catholic  monasteries  are  dissolved,  the  bishopric  of 
Chelm  is  united  with  the  Russian  Church,  and  the  control  of  Catholic 
affairs  is  given  to  the  Minister  of  Worship. 

3222.  Chorch  Hist.  The  Pope  issues  a  Syllabus,  condemning  80 
enors.  It  is  defended  by  Dupanloup  and  turned  to  extreme  anti- 
liberalism  by  Veuillot.  From  this  moment,  infallibility  is  widely 
discussed. 

3223.  Eng.  Lit.    Swinburne's  Atalanta  in  Calydon. 

322Jt.  Science.  CroU  explains  the  glaciations  of  the  earth  by  variations 
in  the  eccentricity  of  its  orbit 

dausius'  Mechanical  Theory  of  Heat  predicts  a  more  uniform  dis- 
tribution of  heat  and  a  diminution  of  local  movements,  and  discusses 
the  kinetic  theory  of  gases. 

Hnggins  proves  certain  nebulae  to  be  gaseous. 

Bertnuid's  treatise  on  the  Differential  and  Integral  Calculus. 

3225.  Art.    Du  Maurier  begins  to  draw  for  Punch. 
Nilsaon  makes  her  d^but 

3226.  Archaeology.    Rossi's  work  in  the  Roman  Catacombs. 

3227.  Philology-  The  Monumentum  Ancjrranum,  relating  to  Augustus, 
is  found. 

Mnnro  edits  and  translates  Lucretius. 

3228.  Philosophy.  Vera  and  Spaventa  introduce  Hegelianism  into 
Italy. 

Lanffe's  Histonr  of  Materialism  introduces  Neo-Kantianism. 

3229.  Hirtory.    ^istel  de  Coulanges'  La  Cit^  Antique. 

3230.  Law.  The  Geneva  Convention,  accepted  by  all  civilised  countries, 
prescribes  immunity  for  the  '  Red  Cross'  League,  and  e(iuality  of  treat- 
ment for  the  wounded  in  warfare  on  land. 

32S1.    Oeography.    Samuel  Baker  discovers  the  Albert  Nyanza  lake. 
3232.    Anthropology.    Mortillet  and  Quatrefages  maintain  the  existence 
of  man  in  Tertiary  times. 


410  POLITICS  [18M 

Lincoln  is  re-elected  President  by  an  enormous  majority,  defeatio£ 
McLellan,  the  candidate  of  the  Northern  Democrats,  who  are  opposed 
to  the  further  prosecution  of  the  war. 

Francisco  Lopez,  the  dictator  of  Paraguay,  invades  Brazil,  which 
allies  with  Uruguay  and  Argentina.  Paraguay  is  invaded  and  de- 
feated. 

Maximilian  accepts  the  Mexican  crown. 


2024.  England.    At  the  General  Election,  Gladstone  loses  his   r^g|^ 
seat  at  Oxford.     Palmersten  dies,  and  Kussell  becomes  Prime  ^ 
Minister. 

2025.  Italy.     Florence  becomes  the  capital 

2026.  Austria.  To  allay  discontent,  Austria  re-establishes  prorinciil 
diets,  revoking  the  centralised  Constitution  of  1861. 

A  Convention  is  made  at  Gastein  (Aug.),  by  which  both  Powers  iR 
te  retain  the  sovereignty  of  both  Duchies  in  common,  but  Austria  is  to 
provisionally  administer  Holstein  and  Prussia  Schleswig,  while  Pnuaa 
buys  the  duchy  of  Lauenburg,  and  controls  the  port  of  Kiel  Ansdii 
accepts  this  arrangement  unwillingly.  Prussia  begins  negotiaticms  witk 
Italy,  and  Bismarck  visits  Napoleon  at  Biarritz  in  order  to  obtain  his 
consent  to  tlie  union  of  Italy  and  Prussia  against  Austria. 

2027.  Hungary.     Transylvania  is  united  to  Hungary. 

2028.  Sweden.  Representation  by  orders  is  replaced  by  direct  repre- 
sentation. 

2029.  America.  Congress  passes  the  Thirteenth  Amendment  abolishiiu: 
slavery,  and  sends  it  to  the  State  legislatures  for  adoption. 

Sherman  enters  Columbia,  capital  of  South  Carolina,  Richmond  i< 
taken  by  Sheridan,  and  Grant  forces  Lee  to  capitulate  at  Appomattox 
(April  9).     Lincoln  is  murdered  (April  14). 

Juarez  revolts  against  Maximilian,  and  the  United  States  demand 
the  recall  of  the  French  troops. 

Chile  joins  Peru  in  war  against  Spain. 

2030.  West  Indies.  The  negroes  revolt  in  Jamaica,  in  part  owing  t^ 
labour  regulations,  and  are  severely  repressed  by  Governor  Eyre»  who  \& 
recalled  and  prosecuted.  Jamaica  is  made  a  Crown  Colony  ;  but  the 
elective  element  is  partially  restored,  1884. 

2031.  Australasia.     Convicts  cease  to  be  sent  to  Western  Australia 

2032.  Asia.    Tashkent  and  its  territory  are  annexed  by  Russia 

2033.  Africa.    Brand  becomes  President  of  the  Orange  Free  State. 


1866]  CULTURE  411 

S2SS.     Social.    The    Iiiterimtir)nal    Association    of   Working    Men    is 
founded,  and  is  shortly  joined  by  Bakunin,  an  Anarchist. 

Le  Play's  R^forme  Sociale  advocates  the  paternal  relation  of  the 
employer  to  employed  and  of  the  State  to  the  weak,  and  exhorts  the 
Church  to  aid  the  workers. 

Octavia  Hill  begins  to  reform  low  class  tenements. 
S2S4^     Deaths.     Hawthorne,  Landor,  Lassalle. 


S2S5,    Eng.  Ch.    General  Booth  begins  work  in  East  London.         •  j^gge 

The  Church  Association  is  founded  to  oppose  ritualism.  •- 

Manning  succeeds  Wiseman  as  Archbishop  of  Westminster. 

Lightfoot*s  Commentary  on  Galatians. 

Pusey's  Eirenicon  declares  the  Papal  supremacy,  Mariolatry,  the 
veneration  of  saints  and  sacred  pictures,  the  chief  obstacles  to  reunion. 

Seeley's  Ecce  Homo. 
S236,    Eng.  Lit.     Matthew  Arnold's  Essays  in  Criticism. 

Kuskin's  Sesame  and  Lilies. 

Lewis  Carroll's  (Dodgson's)  Alice  in  Wonderland. 

The  Fortnightly  Keview  is  founded  and  edited  by  G.  H.  Lewes,  who 
is  succeeded  by  John  Morley,  1869. 

T.  W.  Robertson's  play,  Society,  is  acted  by  Mrs  Bancroft. 

5257,  Italian  Lit.    Carducci's  Hymn  to  Satan. 

5258,  German  Lit.  A  German  Sh^pere  Society  is  founded  by 
Bodenstedt,  Delius,  Elze,  Leo  and  others,  and  a  new  translation  is 
undertaken  by  Bodenstedt,  FreiliCTath  and  Heyse. 

8239.  American  Lit.    Artemus  Ward  (C.  F.  Brown)  His  Book. 

8240.  Science.  Lister  introduces  antiseptic  surgery  in  Glasgow 
Infirmary,  excluding  the  bacteria  of  the  air  Dy  germecide  spray. 

Ludwig  investigates  the  pressure  of  the  blood. 

Kekule  explains  the  structure  of  benzene  and  the  aromatic  com- 
pounds, and  predicts  the  number  of  isomeric  compounds  producible 
mm  benzene  and  its  derivations. 

Pasteur  discovers  remedies  for  the  diseases  of  silkworms. 

Plucker  invents  Line  Geometry. 

8241.  Art    Wagner's  Tristan  and  Isolde. 
Ford  Madox  Brown's  picture,  Work. 

8242.  Philosophy.    Stirling's  Secret  of  Hegel. 
Mill  attacks  the  philosophy  of  Hamilton. 

Green's  Spiritual  Philosophy  explains  the  teaching  of  Coleridge. 

8243.  Philology.    Dillmann  s  Ethiopic  Lexicon. 
8244'     History.    Dexter's  History  of  Congregationalism. 

Gaston  Paris'  Histoire  Po^tique  de  Charlemagne. 
824s.    Education.    Duruy  creates  secondary  education  in  France. 

Ziller's  Doctrine  of  Instruction  developes  the  ideas  of  Herbart,  and 

adds  the  theory  of  'concentration,'  according  to  which  the  teacher 

must  group  the  more  abstract  and  difficult  subjects  round  the  simple 

and  concrete. 

3246.    Anthropology.    Lubbock's  Pre-historic    Times,   Tylor's    Early 


412  POLITICS  [ISM 


2034.  En^ond.    Gladstone  introduces  a  Reform  Bill,  which  is   ^^ 
attacked  by  Lowe.     Russell  resigns,  and  Derby  succeeds.     An  ^ 
agitation  for  reform  begins,  and  a  meeting  forces  an  entry  into  Hjde 
Park. 

2035.  Gennstny.    Austria  encourages  Holstein  to  demand  Frederick  u 
its  ruler.     Bismarck  complains  of  '  anarchy '  in  Holstein,  and  allien  vitk 
Victor  Emanuel  (April).    Prussia  is  accused  of  violating  the  Conventkm 
of  Gastein,  and  the  Bund  is  asked  to  mobilise.     Bismarck  propoemto 
divide  the  Bund  into  a  northern  federation  under  Pmssia,  and  a 
southern  under  Bavaria,  Austria  being  excluded.     The  Estates  meet  is 
Holstein,  which  Manteuffel  at  once  occupies,  and  the  Bund  leaohesto 
mobilise.     Prussia  secedes  from  the  Bund.     Beust,  of  Saxony,  wlio 
wishes  a  Central  German  Association,  declares  for  Aoistria.     Wtr  ii 
declared  against  Saxony,  Hanover  and  Hesse-CSassel      Hesse-Cassel  aad 
Saxony  are  occupied  without  resistance,  and  the  Hanoverian  anny,  after 
a  battle  at  Langensalza,  capitulates.    The  Austrians  are  routed  it 
Koniggratz  (July  3) ;    the  Bavarians  and  the  Federals  are  defeated 
separately,  and  Prussia  signs  peace  with  Wiirtember^  and  BsTaiia 
(Aug.  23).     By  the  Peace  of  Prague  (Aug.  23),  Austna  retires  bm 
the  Bund,  renounces  claims  to  the  jDuchies,  and  cedes  Venetia,  which  ii 
to  pass  to  Victor  Emanuel.     Prussia  restores  Saxony,  which  enten  tk 
North-German  Confederation,  promises  to  transfer  Northern  Schlenrif 
to  Denmark  if  the  inhabitants  wish,  and  annexes  Hanover  and  He«ee> 
Cassel,  with  Frankfort  and  Nassau.     The  King  is  dissuaded  by  Bi^ 
marck  from  annexing  Bohemia.    By  secret  treaties,  Bavaria,  W&rtemberg. 
and  Baden  agree,  in  the  event  of  a  foreign  war,  to  place  their  tnx^ 
under  Prussia.     After  the  war,  the  Prussian  National  Liberals  desrft 
the  Fortschritts-Partei,  and  support  Bismarck. 

2036.  Italy.  On  the  outbreak  of  war,  Austria  offers  Venetia  to  Victor 
Emanuel,  who,  however,  adheres  to  Prussia.  The  Italians  are  defeated 
at  Cnst^zza  (June),  and  their  fleet  is  almost  destroyed  oflF  Lissa  in  the 
Adriatic  (July). 

2037.  France.  After  the  war,  Napoleon  demands  Rhenish  Bavaria  and 
Rhenish  Hesse  as  a  reward  of  non-intervention  ;  but  Prus-sia  refiises. 

2038.  Austria.  Beust  resigns  his  post  in  Saxony,  and  becomes  Fowip 
Minister  and  Chancellor. 

2039.  Spain.  Isabella  appoints  a  ministry  under  Narvaez ;  O'DonneH, 
Prim,  and  Serrano  flee,  and  the  Cortes  are  dissolved. 

2040.  Greece.  Crete  revolts,  and  proclaims  it8  union  to  Greece :  hot 
war  between  Ttirkey  and  Greece  is  prevented  by  the  Powers,  and  the 
revolt  is  suppressed. 

2041.  Turkey.  Alexander  of  Roumania  is  deposed,  and  Charter  d 
Hohenzolleni-Sigmaringen  is  elected  Krince  by  a  plebiscite.  The  stue- 
rainty  of  the  Sultan  is  reduced  to  a  shadow. 

2042.  America.  The  President,  Andrew  Johnson,  comes  into  conflict 
with  Congress  over  the  Freedman's  Bureau,  the  ^ucation  of  nej^roe^ 
and  the  Civil  Rights  Bill  protecting  the  negroes,  and  giving  jurisdicticA 


1866]  CULTURE  413 

History  of  Mankind,  and  McLennan's  Primitive  Marriage  reconstruct 

primitive  society. 
9t^7.     Social.    The  Commons  Preservation  Society  is  founded  by  Shaw 

Lefevre  and  Pawcett. 

Jevons'  The  Coal  Question  foretells  the  exhaustion  of  the  coal-beds 

of  England  within  a  century. 
$2Ji8.    deaths.    Cobden,  Encke,  Rowan  Hamilton,  Hurter,  Wiseman. 


$2J^,  Eng.  Oh.  At  the  instance  of  Manning,  the  Pope  condemns  r  j^g^^ 
a  Society  of  Anglicans  and  Catholics  for  reunion.  '■ 

The  National  Secular  Society  is  founded. 
Si2d0,     Oerman  Ch.    Graf  repeats  Vatke's  hypothesis  that  the  priestly 

l^slation  of  the  Jews  was  incorporated  after  the  Hxile. 
9251,    Italian  Ch.     Monasteries  and  benefices  without  the  cure  of  souls 
are  suppressed  in  Piedmontese  dominions,  present  possessors  retaining 
their  establishments  for  life. 
S252,     Eng.  Lit.     Bancroft,  Hare,  Irving,  and  Wyndham  appear  on  the 

London  stage. 
S25S,    Norwegian  Lit.    Ibsen's  drama,  firand. 
S25i.    Russian  Lit.    Dostoiefsky's  Crime  and  Punishment. 
9256.     Science.    HaeckeFs  General  Morphology. 

Kovalevsky's  study  of  the  development  of  Ascidians  and  of 
Amphioxus  shews  the  necessity  of  extending  Schwann's  cellular  theory 
to  animal  embryology. 

Owen's  Anatomy  of  Vertebrates  collects  a  mass  of  valuable  informa- 
tion, but  suggests  a  valueless  classification. 

Delaunay  explains  outstanding  lunar  acceleration  by  lengthening  of 
the  day  through  tidal  friction. 

dchiaparelli  identifies  the  orbit  of  the  Perseid  shower  of  meteors 
with  that  of  a  comet. 

The  Atlantic  Cable  is  laid  under  the  direction  of  William  Thomson. 

9256.  Alt.    Ambroise  Thomas'  Mignon. 

Street,  a  pupil  of  Gilbert  Scott,  is  chosen  to  build  the  new  Law 
Courts  in  London. 

Boasetti's  Beata  Beatrix. 

9257.  Archaeology.    Bough's  Besearches  on  Early  Egyptian  History. 
Captain    Wilson    first    systematically    surveys    the    environs    of 

Jerusalem,  and  excavations  begin  under  the  direction  of  the  Egypt 
Exploration  Fund. 

9258.  Philosophy.  Villari's  Positive  Philosophy  and  the  Historic 
Method  introduces  positivism  into  Italy,  which  is  adopted  by  Ardigo, 
Mant^azza  and  Ferri. 

9259.  History.    Bryce's  Holy  Boman  Empire. 

9260.  Economics.  The  Cobden  Club  is  founded  by  T.  B.  Potter,  who 
became  its  first  Secretary. 

9261.  Geography.  Bohlfs  journeys  from  Morocco  across  the  Niger, 
to  the  Gulf  of  Quinea,  and  later  explores  the  Libyan  desert. 

Yule's  Cathay  and  the  Way  thither. 


414  POLITICS  [ISM 

in  the  cases  arising  out  of  it  to  the  Federal  Courts  alone.  The  latter  is 
incorporated  in  the  fourteenth  Amendment,  '  all  persons  are  citizens  of 
the  United  States,  and  of  the  states  where  they  reside/  thus  cancelling 
the  Dred  Scott  decision. 

Fenians  invade  Canada  from  the  United  States. 
2043.    Asia.    Yakub  Beg  rebels  against  China  in  Eashgar. 


2044.  En^ond.  Disraeli  introduces  a  Reform  Bill,  in  conse-  rig«. 
quence  of  which  Lords  Cranborne  and  Carnarvon  resign.  The  ^ 
bill  is  made  still  more  democratic  by  Gladstone  in  Committee.  In 
boroughs,  the  franchise  is  granted  to  householders  and  to  lodgers  who 
pay  £10  rent  and  have  resided  for  one  year;  in  the  counties,  to  in- 
habitants of  houses  at  £12  rental.  Lord  Cairns  obtainA  minoritj 
representation  for  three-cornered  constituencies. 

2045.  Irelstnd.  A  Fenian  rising  is  attempted,  but  easily  suppreuei 
In  Manchester  some  Fenian  prisoners  are  rescued  from  a  pnson  van, 
and  in  the  struggle  a  policeman  is  shot  Three  of  the  reecuoB  are 
hanged.    A  wall  of  Clerkenwell  prison  is  blown  up  (Dec.). 

2046.  France.    Napoleon  grants  the  right  of  interpellation. 
Napoleon  desires  to  buy  Luxemburg  from  Holland,  which  is  williig 

to  sell.  Pnissia,  however,  objects.  The  fortress  is  demolished,  and  the 
Grand  Duchy  is  made  hereditary  in  the  Nassau  Family,  its  neatiaiitj 
being  guaranteed  by  Europe. 

Napoleon  visits  the  Emperor  of  Austria  at  Salzburg,  and  BiaDirck 
makes  Known  his  treaties  with  the  South  German  States. 

2047.  Germany.  The  North  German  Federation  is  established  The 
executive  power  is  given  to  the  Prussian  King,  the  hereditary  iH'esideDt 
and  general,  aided  by  a  Federal  Council,  presided  over  by  a  Cnancellor 
chosen  by  Prussia  ;  the  legislative  is  vested  in  a  Reichstag  chosen  bj 
manhood  suffrage.  Military  service  is  organised  throughout  the  Feden- 
tion  on  the  Prussian  model,  and  made  compulsory  at  17.  Bismarck  is 
made  Chancellor. 

2048.  Austria.  The  forms  of  Parliamentair  Government  are  adopted. 
The  Upper  House  is  composed  of  the  royal  house,  bishops,  herediurr 
and  life  peers  ;  the  Lower  House  is  chosen  by  four  classes,  landovnen:, 
niral  communes,  cities,  chambers  of  commerce. 

2049.  Hungary.  On  the  advice  of  Beust,  and  with  the  aid  of  Deik, 
responsible  government  is  granted  to  Hungary.  An  '  Ausgleich'  amlnge!^ 
the  (juota  of  the  national  debt,  the  tariflf,  etc.  for  10  years,  flie 
Emperor  is  crowned  King  of  Hungary.  The  common  affairs  of  Aostm 
and  Hungary  are  settled  by  the  Delegations,  chosen  by  the  two  Houses, 
re-elected  annually  and  meeting  alternately  in  Pesth  and  Vienna. 
Foreign  and  military  afl'airs  and  finance  are  controlled  by  joint  mini- 
sters. 

2050.  Italy.  Rattazzi  secretly  encourages  Garibaldi  to  attack  Rome 
Napoleon  therefore  sends  a  new  garrison,  which,  with  the  Papal  tnor, 
routs  Garibaldi  at  Mentana  (Nov.). 


1867]  CULTURE  415 

S262.     Anthropology.    Remains  discovered  in  America  are  thought  by 

some  to  prove  the  existence  of  man  in  Tertiary  times. 
S26S.     Social.    The  Gothenburg  system  (State  control  of  the  sale  of 
spirits)  is  introduced  in  Sweden. 

A  Wholesale  Society  is  founded  at  Manchester  for  wholesale  buying 
and  distribution  to  cooperative  stores. 

Luzzatti  establishes  People's  Banks  in  Milan,  whence  they  spread 
throughout  Italy. 
S264.    Deaths.     Weisse,  Whewell 


S£6o.     Eng.   Oh.    The  first  pan- Anglican  Synod  meets,  under    Mogy 
the  presidency  of  Archbishop  Tait.     A  letter  is  sent  to  the    '■ 
Greek  Church,  and  Bishop  Colenso's  case  is  discussed. 

Mackonochie,  Incumbent  of  St  Albans',  Holborn,  is  prosecuted  for 
ritualism. 

Bishop  Forbes  of  Brechin  explains  the  39  Articles  in  a  Catholic 

3266.  Italian  Oh.  The  Pope  celebrates  the  18th  centenary  of  the 
death  of  SS.  Peter  and  Paul  in  presence  of  500  Bishops,  and 
announces  his  intention  to  hold  an  Oecumenical  Council.  An  agitation 
for  the  proclamation  of  infallibility  is  organised  by  the  Jesuits. 

S267.     Onurch  Hist.    Emanuel  Deutsch's  Essay  on  the  Talmud. 

326S,  American  Oh.  Laurence  Oliphant  joins  the  communistic 
society  established  by  Thomas  Lake  Harris  at  Brockton. 

3269.  French  Lit.    Sarcey  becomes  dramatic  critic  of  the  Temps. 

3270.  American  Lit.     Whittier's  Maud  Miiller. 

3271.  Australian  Lit.    Gordon's  Sea  Spray  and  Smoke  Drift. 

3272.  Science.    Siemens  invents  a  process  for  producing  steel. 
Maudsley's  Physiology  and  Pathology  of  Mmd. 

3273.  Art.    Sterndale  Bennett's  Woman  of  Samaria. 

The  Paris   Exhibition    introduces   Japanese    art    to    notice,   and 
members  of  the  Impressionist  School  are  influenced  by  it. 

Strauss'  '  Blue  Danube'  waltz. 
3274'    Education.     Mill's  Rectorial  Address  at  St  Andrews  insists  on 
the  importance  of  an  education  at  once  literary  and  scientiiic. 

*  Essays  on  a  Liberal  Education'  and   Pattison's  Suggestions  on 
Academic  Organization  urge  the  reform  of  English  education. 

Professor  James  Stuart  organises  a  movement  for  University  Ex- 
tension. 

3275.  Philosophy.  Drobisch's  Moral  Statistics  and  the  Freedom  of 
the  Human  Will  continues  the  work  of  Quetelet. 

3276.  History.     Freeman's  History  of  the  Norman  Conquest. 
Schwegler's  History  of  Rome. 

Sickei  edits  the  Acta  Karolinorum. 
3'277.     Politics.    Bagehot's  English  Constitution. 

3278.  Economics.  Marx'  Capital  declares  value  to  arise  frona  labour, 
which  receives  but  a  small  share  of  the  product,  the  surplus  being  seized 
by  the  owners  of  capital. 

3279.  Social.     Baron    v.    Schorlemer-Alst    founds    the    Westphalian 


416  POLITICS  [18lf 

2051.  America.  Napoleon  recalls  his  troops  from  Mexico,  Haximiliiii 
is  taken  and  shot,  and  Juarez  becomes  President. 

The  Dominion  of  Canada  is  joined  by  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Bnm»- 
wick.  A  (jovemor-General  is  appointed  by  the  Crown,  and  a  fedenl 
Parliament  meets  at  Ottawa.  The  North- Western  Territory,  Bfanitobt, 
Prince  Edward  Island,  and  British  Columbia  quickly  join. 

The  Reconstruction  Act  is  passed  over  the  President's  veta  Tlie 
States  which  had  passed  ordinances  of  secession  are  formed  into  mihtaij 
districts.  A  Convention  is  to  frame  a  State  Constitution,  and  to  elect 
a  legislature,  which  will  ratify  the  Fourteenth  Amendment. 

Alaska  is  bought  by  the  United  States  from  Russia. 


2052.  England.    Derby  resigns,  owing  to  ill-health,  and  is  sue-  r^u^ 
ceeded  by  Disraeli.     Gladstone  carries  a  resolution  for  the  dises-  '> 
tablishment  of  the  English  Church  in  Ireland,  obtains  a  Liberal  majority 
at  the  General  Election,  and  becomes  Prime  Minister. 

Compulsory  church-rates  are  abolished. 
Election  petitions  are  transferred  to  the  judges. 
Cardwell,  the  War  Minister,  introduces  short  service. 

2053.  France.    Rochefort  attacks  the  Government  in  La  Lanteme. 
Gambetta  defends  a  paper  prosecuted  .for  collecting  money  for  i 

victim  of  1851,  and  is  acclaimed  the  coming  leader.     Ollivier  and  fimik 
de  Girardin  attempt  to  make  a  Liberal  Imperialism. 

2054.  Spain.  Narvaez  dies,  Prim  and  Serrano  revolt,  and  Isabella  fleu 
to  France.     The  Cortes  draw  up  a  popular  Constitution. 

2055.  Austria.  Bohemia  and  Moravia  demand  the  same  rights  i^ 
Hungary. 

2056.  Russia.    Poland  is  incorporated  with  Russia  administratively. 

2057.  Turkey.  The  'Young  Turkey'  party  creates  a  new  literature, 
but  does  not  advocate  the  adoption  of  European  ideas. 

2058.  America.  Congress  passes  the  Tenure  of  Office  Act  ov«r 
Johnson's  veto,  making  the  consent  of  the  Senate  necessary  to  the 
dismissal  of  officials.  Despite  this,  the  President  removes  Stantoo. 
Lincoln's  War  Secretary.     Stanton  appeals  to  the  House,  which  im- 

f>eaches  the  President  for  disregarding  the  law  ;  but  the  impeachment  m 
ost  in  the  Senate.     Grant  is  elected  President. 

To  defend  the  negroes  against  the  Eu-Klux  and  other  secret 
societies,  Congress  passes  the  Force  Laws,  and  entrusts  the  ezecatiou  of 
justice  to  the  Federal  Courts. 

2059.  Africa.  An  expedition  under  Napier  rescues  English  prisonen' 
of  King  Theodore  of  Abysinnia. 

Basutoland  becomes  British,  and  is  annexed  to  Cape  Colony,  1871. 

2060.  Asia.  The  Emir  of  Bokhara  cedes  to  Russia  the  Eiianate  of 
Samarcand,  and  Bokhara  itself  becomes  a  dependent  State. 


1868]  CULTURE  417 

Farmers'  Union,  consisting  only  of  professing  Christians  and  of  land- 
owners, for  mutual  assistance  and  to  encourage  agriculture.  The 
Union  obtains  considerable  power  and  agitates  for  high  protective 
duties. 

A  Factory  Inspection  Act  is  passed. 
S280.     Deaths.     Bockh,    Bopp,    Cousin,    Faraday,    Ingres,    Poncelet, 
Rothe. 


5281,  Eng.  Oh.  Altar  lights  are  condemned  by  the  Privy  riooQ 
C\)uncil.  L^^*^ 

Compulsory  Chtirch  rates  are  abolished  by  Gladstone. 

5282.  Austrian  Ch.  Civil  marriage  is  restored  and  the  schools  freed 
from  clerical  control.  The  Concordat  itself  is  abolished  1870,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  Vatican  decrees. 

3283.  African  Ch.  Lavigerie  founds  the  P^res  Blancs  for  missionary 
and  educational  work. 

3284.  Eng.  Lit    Browning  s  Ring  and  the  Book. 
William  Morris'  Earthly  Paradise. 

Quaritch  issues  his  first  General  Catalogue  of  Books. 

3285.  Danish  Lit.     Brandes  begins  his  work  as  a  critic. 

3286.  Belgian  Lit.    De  Coster's  Ldgende  d'Uylenspiegel. 

3287.  Science.    HaeckeFs  History  of  Creation. 

Darwin's  Variation  of  Plants  and  Animals  under  Domestication. 

Angstrom  constructs  a  map  of  the  normal  solar  spectrum.  The 
prominences  seen  round  the  sun  at  an  eclipse  are  found  to  be  gaseous, 
and  Janssen  and  Lockyer  deduce  a  spectroscopic  method  of  observing 
them  in  dayli^^ht. 

3288.  Art-    Wagners  The  Ma^jtersingers. 
Boito's  Metistofele. 

3289.  Philosophy.  Kavaisson's  Philosophic  en  France  au  19^me 
Si^le  upholds  idealism. 

Huxley's  Physical  Basis  of  Life. 

3290.  History.  Quiuet  attacks  the  Terror  as  the  enemy  of  the  Revolu- 
tion and  the  Jacobins  as  absolutists. 

3291.  Geography.  Schweinfurth  explores  the  While  Nile  and  Bahr  el 
Ghazal,  and  discovers  the  sources  of  the  Ubanghi. 

Nachti^l  enters  the  Sahara  Desert  from  Tripoli,  explores  Lake 
Chad  and  Wadai  and  returns  through  E^ypt. 

3292.  Politics.  Alexander  Stephens'  War  between  the  States  (of  North 
America)  defends  the  action  of  the  South. 

3293.  Social.  Bodelschwingh  founds  Bethel,  near  Bielefeld,  for 
epileptics. 

Cardinal  Mermillod  founds  Catholic  Socialism  in  Switzerland,  his 
work  bein^  extended  by  Decurtins. 

Bakumn  spreads  his  ideas  in  Ital^  and  founds  a  number  of  branches 
of  the  International  Association,  which  is  also  introduced  into  Spain. 

3294.  Deaths.    Berryer,  Brougham,  Milman. 

o.  27 


418  POLITICS  [: 

2061.  Ireland.  The  Anglican  Church  is  disestablished,  and  is  r^i^ 
henceforth  governed  by  a  synod  of  clergy  and  laity ;  the  May-  ^ 
nooth  grant  and  the  Regium  Donum  to  the  PresWterians  are  a»B- 
muted ;  endowments  since  1660  are  reserved  to  the  Church  ;  the  deigy 
and  officials  are  secured  their  life  interest ;  the  remaining  funds  are  to 
be  applied  for  the  relief  of  unavoidable  suffering. 

2062.  France.  At  a  general  election,  Napoleon  loses  ^outid  in  the 
towns,  above  all  in  Paris  and  Lyons.  The  Chamber  receives  the  initii- 
tive  of  legislation  equally  with  the  Emperor.  The  Ministers,  thoo^ 
still  responsible  only  to  the  Emperor,  may  be  accused  by  the  Senate 
Rouher  resigns. 

2063.  Germany.  Prussia  secures  control  of  the  South  GenniD 
fortresses. 

2064.  Spain.  A  Constituent  Assembly  declares  Serrano  Regent  The 
King  of  Portugal,  Don  Carlos,  Alfonso,  the  youthful  son  of  Isabella, 
Montpensier,  and  the  Duke  of  Aosta  are  suggested  for  the  throne. 

2065.  America.  The  United  States  reject  the  settlement  of  the 
Alabama  claims  made  by  Clarendon  and  Reverdy  Johnson,  their  ambis- 
sador. 

The  Fifteenth  Amendment  is  passed,  forbidding  the  withholding 
of  the  franchise  from  race  and  colour  by  States  or  the  Federal  Gov ern- 
ment. 

Macdonald  becomes  Premier  of  Canada,  and  introduces  Protectioa 
as  part  of  his  '  National  Programme.' 

The  Hudson's  Bay  Company  sells  its  territories  to  the  British 
Grovernment,  which  incorporates  them  with  Canada.  The  Companj. 
however,  retain  its  trading  rights. 

2066.  AfWca.  The  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal  renders  Egypt  of  greai 
importance  to  England. 

2067.  Asia.  After  civil  war,  the  Mikado  undertakes  the  government  it 
Tokio,  the  Daimios  surrender  their  privileges,  and  Japan  throws  off  the 
feudal  system. 

Hunter  executes  a  statistical  survey  of  the  Indian  Empire. 


2068.  England.  Civil  Service  posts  are  thrown  open  to  competi-  r^g^ 
tion.  ^ 

The  Commander-in-chief  is  placed  under  the  control  of  the  Secretary 
for  War. 

2069.  Ireland.  Landlords  are  obliged  to  compensate  their  tenants  iyr 
improvements  and  on  ejection  except  for  non-payment  of  rent.  Tenant? 
desiring  to  buy  land  from  their  landlords,  if  willing  to  sell,  may  recei^ 
loans  of  two-thirds  the  amount  from  the  Government. 

The  Home  Government  Association  is  founded  to  work  for  an  Irii 
Parliament  to  regulate  all  internal  affairs. 

2070.  Belgium.  Neutrality  is  secured  by  a  treaty  between  England. 
France  and  Prussia. 


1870]  CULTURE  419 

329S.    French  Ch.    P^re  Hyacinthe  leaves  the  Carmelites  and    rigag 
breaks  with  Rome,  aud  establishes  an  Old  Catholic  congregation   ^ 
at  Greneva. 

S296.  German  Ch.  Biedermann's  Christian  Dogmatic,  influenced  by 
Hegel,  excludes  supematuralism. 

3297.     Spanish  Ch.    The  Protestant  Churches  hold  their  first  Synod. 

S^S.  Chnrch  Hist.  The  Vatican  Council  meets,  (Bee.).  Manning 
advocates  a  definition  of  Infallibility  ;  but  Newman,  Dupanloup,  Maret 
and  Ketteler  declare  the  Council  inopportune.  'The  Pope  and  the 
Council,'  by  Janus  (written  by  the  Munich  professors)  vigorously  attacks 
the  project. 

S299.    Eng.  Lit.    R.  S.  Hawker's  (>)mish  Ballads. 

SSOO,  Norwegian  Lit.  Ibsen's  Toung  Men's  League,  the  first  modem 
Norwegian  comedy. 

5301,  Science.  Mendeleeff,  Lothar  Meyer  and  Newlands  develope  the 
law  that  the  properties  of  the  elements  are  a  periodic  function  of  their 
atomic  weights,  which  leads  to  the  discovery  of  scandium,  gallium,  etc. 

5302,  Art.    Carolus  Duran's  Dame  au  6ant,  his  first  masterpiece. 
Alma  Tadema's  The  Pyrrhic  Dance,  with  the  works  of  Leighton 

and  Poynter,  forms  the  English  Classic  School. 

Defregger  begins  his  series  of  pictures  of  Hofer's  rising  of  1809. 
Boehm  s  statue  of  the  Queen,  nis  first  important  work. 

5303,  Philosophy.  Hartman  n's  Philosophy  of  the  U  nconscious  developes 
the  ideas  of  Schopenhauer. 

The  Metaphysical  Society  is  founded  in  London  by  James  Knowles, 
and  joined  by  Tennyson,   Argj'll,  W.  G.  Ward,  Manning,   Huxley, 
Sidgwick,  Martineau,  and  others. 
SS04.    Philology.     Benfey's  History  of  Oriental  Philology. 

3305.  Law.     Hinschius'  Ecclesiastical  Law  in  Germany. 

The  Revue  de  Droit  international  is  founded,  edited  by  Rolin 
Jacquemyns. 

3306.  Politics.    Matthew  Arnold's  Culture  and  Anarchy. 

3307.  EfConomics.  Thornton's  work  on  Labour  explodes  the  wage- 
fund  theory.     A  final  defence  is  attempted  by  Caimes,  1874. 

3308.  History.    Kuenen's  Religion  of  Israel 

J.  E  B.  Mayor  declares  the  De  Situ   Britanniae,  attributed  to 
.    Richard  of  Cirencester,  to  be  a  forgery  of  the  1 8th  century. 

3309.  Social.  Mill's  Subjection  of  Women  pleads  for  emancipation  on 
social  and  political  as  well  as  on  moral  grounds. 

Women  s  suffrage  is  introduced  in  Wyoming. 

3310.  Deaths.    Derby,  Lamartine,  Purkinje,  Sainte-Beuve. 


3311.    Eng.  Ch.    Newman's  Grammar  of  Assent  maintains  the  mo^q 
existence  of  an  'illative  sense.'  '- 

The  Revisers  of  the  New  Testament  are  chosen  by  Convocation  and 
begin  their  woi^  The  selection  of  Vance  Smith,  an  Unitarian,  and  his 
admission  to  Communion  is  strongly  condemned. 

27—2 


420  POLITICS  [inO 


2071.  France.  Ollivier  forms  a  Liberal  Ministry,  and  a  new  Con:ittitih 
tion  is  submitted  to  a  plebiscite.  Seven  million  approve  and  one  and  i 
half  million  disapprove.  A  fierce  anti-dynastic  outbreak  occurs  when 
Pierre  Bonaparte,  son  of  Lucien,  shoots  a  man  who  brings  him  a 
challenge. 

Leopold  of  HohenzoUem-Sigmaringen,  the  candidate  of  Geoenl 
Prim,  accepts  the  Spanish  throne,  with  the  approval  of  King  Williim. 
Napoleon  complains,  and  Leopold  withdraws  (July  12).  Benedetti 
demands  of  the  King  at  Ems  an  assurance  that  he  will  never  aDor 
Leopold  to  accept,  but  is  refused  (July  13).  Bismarck  garbles  tbe 
Emperors  telegram,  describing  his  intercourse  with  Benedetti.  and 
Napoleon  declares  war  (July  17),  believing  that  Bavaria  will  ioin  hia. 
and  perhaps  hopinf^  for  Austrian  aid.  Bismarck  publighes  ^apoleoo'^ 
propositions  for  seizing  Belgium.  The  armies  meet  at  Saarbruck  ( Awg-  2l 
The  Crown  Prince  defeats  Macmahon's  army  at  Weissemburg  and  Wordi 
and  Frossard  is  repulsed  at  Spicheren.  On  the  evacuation  of  Abace. 
the  main  army  concentrates  round  Metz.  Bazaine  is  routed  at  Gravelotte 
(Aug.  18),  and  shuts  himself  up  in  Metz.  Frederick  Charles  is  left  to 
watch  Metz,  and  the  Crown  Prince  marches  on  Paris.  MacmalK* 
marches  from  Chalons  to  relieve  Metz.  The  French  are  routed  it 
Sedan  (Sept.  1),  and  the  Emperor  and  his  army  capitulate  (Sept.  ii 
The  Empire  falls,  and  the  Empress  flees  to  England,  and  a  govennDeot 
of  national  defence  is  formed  by  Gambetta,  Jules  Favre,  Ara^o,  Trocha. 
Cr^mieux,  Jules  Simon,  and  Rochefort.  The  Senate  is  abashed,  aai 
the  Corps  L^gislatif  is  dissolved.  Thiers  is  sent  to  seek  the  mediatkn 
of  the  sovereigns  of  Europe.  Paris  is  invested  (Sept.  20).  Strawbur 
capitulates  (Sept.  28),  and  Bazaine  capitulates  in  Metz  with  150.<K<» 
(Sept.  23).  Gambetta  escapes  from  Paris  in  a  balloon  to  Tours,  anJ 
or^^anises  the  army  of  the  Ijoire,  which  advances  to  relieve  Paris,  but  i< 
broken  up  by  Frederick  Charles.  The  provisional  government  move?  u* 
Bordeaux  (Dec). 

2072.  Germany.  The  South  German  States  enter  the  North  (ienuac 
Confederation  (Nov.),  and  the  Reichstag  offers  the  title  of  Emperor  to 
the  King  of  Prussia.  William  replies  that  the  offer  must  eowe  from  the 
princes  (Dec). 

2073.  Italy.  On  the  outbreak  of  war,  the  French  troops  are  recalled 
from  Civita  Vecchia,  and  Italian  troops  occupy  Rome  aft^r  a  sli*irt 
bombardment  (Sept  20).  The  Law  of  Guarantees  establishes  tbe 
inviolability  of  the  Poi)e  and  his  servants,  conce<les  postal  and  tele- 
graphic intercourse,  and  free  diplomatic  activity,  and  offers  a  civil  li^ 
The  latter  is  declined,  and  the  rest  ignored. 

2074.  Russia.  Gortschakoff,  at  Bismarck's  secret  instigation,  repudiate* 
the  clauses  of  the  Treaty  of  1856,  forbidding  a  Russian  fleet  ana  antenal 
in  the  Black  Sea. 

207;").  Spain.  Isabella  abdicates  in  favour  of  her  son  Alfonso,  and  the 
Duke  of  Aosta,  sou  of  Victor  Emanuel,  is  chosen  King. 

2076.  America.  The  Red  River  revolt  of  Indian  hdf-breeds  in  Mini- 
toba  is  suppressed  by  Wolseley. 

2077.  Africa.    Diamonds  are  found  on  the  western  border  of  the  Oruige 


1870]  CULTUKE  421 

Bishop  Wordsworth  discovers  an  Act  of  Henry  VIII.,  allowing 
Suffragans,  who  are  speedily  appointed. 

Voysey  is  prosecuted  for  publishing  the  Sling  and  the  Stone,  and 
is  ejected  from  the  Anglican  Church.  He  founds  a  Theist  con- 
gr^^tion. 

Frazer  becomes  Bishop  of  Manchester. 
Keble  College,  Oxford,  is  founded. 
SS12.    Rnsaian  Ch.    Lord  Radstock  visits  St  Petersburg  on  an  evan- 
gelical Mission. 
331S.     Church  Hist    Despite  the  opposition  of  Dupanloup,  Darboy, 
Maret,   Hefele,   Ketteler,   Strossmayer,   Kenrick   and   other  German, 
French  and  American  bishops,  and  of  DoUinger  and  Montalembert,  the 
Vatican  Council  declares  rapal  ejc  cathedra  definitions  of  faith  and 
monds  infallible,  by  533  to  2  (July  18).     The  decrees  are  accepted  by 
the  Bishops  who  tiad  disapproved  them ;  but  Catholic  professors  and 
scholars  record  a  dissent  at  j^uremberg  (Aug.). 
SSI4.    German  Ch.    Ritschls  Theory  of  Justification  and  Atonement 
discards  natural  theology  and  metaphysics  and  attempts  to  build  on 
the  work  and  words  of  Christ  as  beheved  by  the  early  Christian  com- 
munity.    The  moral  element  is  put  in  the  foremost  pkice,  and  the 
problems  of  inspiration,  sin  and  the  pre-existence  of  the  Son  are  not 
discussed. 
3S16.    Eng.  Lit.    Kossetti's  Poems. 
Disraeli's  Lothair. 

5516.  German  Lit     Anzengruber  s  Pastor  of  Kirchfeld. 

5517.  American  Lit.    Lowell's  My  Study  Windows. 

3318.  Norwegian  Lit.    Jonas  Lie  begins  his  Sea  Stories. 

3319.  Science.    Galton's  Hereditary  Genius. 
Smokeless  powder  is  invented. 

3320.  Art.    Baudry  paints  the  Paris  Opera  House. 
Fortuny's  La  Vicaria. 

Wagner's  Essay  on  Beethoven  estimates  the  significance  of 
Beethoven  and  discusses  the  metaphysic  of  music  from  the  standpoint 
of  Schopenhauer. 

3321.  Eaucation.    Syed  Ahmed  Khan  founds  a  Mohammedan  Collie 
at  Aligarh. 

Jowett  becomes  Master  of  Balliol  (College,  Oxford. 

Forster's  Bill  creates  Board  Schools,  where  there  are  no  Church 
schools,  for  elementary  education.  The  Birmingham  League,  led  by 
Dixon  and  Chamberlain,  oppose  the  religious  settlement.  In  Com- 
mittee, Cowper-Temple's  amendment  is  accepted,  forbidding  denomina- 
tional teaching  in  rate-aided  schools.  In  Scotland,  the  religious 
teaching  is  settled  by  local  ballot. 

3322.  Philosophy.    Crookes'   Spiritualism    and   Science   records    his 
experiments  with  mediums. 

John  Grote  s  examination  of  the  Utilitarian  Philosophy. 

3323.  History.     Mommsen's  Staatsrecht,  a  study  of  the  government 
and  officers  of  the  Roman  state. 

3324.  Geography.    Nordenskiold  explores  the  interior  of  Greenland. 


422  POLITICS  [1870 

Free  State.  The  land  is  taken  by  England,  nominally  on  behalf  of  a 
Griqua  chief,  and  Kimberley  is  founds.  Some  years  later,  President 
Brand  obtains  a  solatium  of  £90,000. 


2078.  En^stnd.    The  Lords  postpone  a  clause  in  an  army  regu-   r^gm 
lation  bill  for  the  abolition  of  the  purchase  of  commissions  in  the   ^ 
army,  and  Gladstone  advises  the  Queen  to  cancel  the  Royal  warrant 
legalising  purchase 

The  Local  Government  Board  is  created. 

2079.  Prance.  The  army  of  the  North,  under  Faidherbe,  is  defeated 
at  Saint-Quentin,  the  second  army  of  the  Loire,  under  Chanzy,  is  de- 
stroyed at  Le  Mans,  and  the  army  of  the  East,  under  Bourbaki,  u 
driven  into  Switzerland.  An  armistice  is  arranged  for  three  weeb, 
except  at  Belfort  and  in  the  Jura.  Paris  capitulates  (Jan.  28).  Ad 
Assembly  meets  at  Bordeaux  (Feb.  12)  and  elects  Thiers  as  head  of  tbe 
executive.  Thiers  and  Jules  Favre  arrange  preliminaries  (Feb.  26 1. 
which  are  confirmed  by  the  Treaty  of  Frankfort  (May).  France  cedes 
Alsace,  except  Belfort  (which  surrenders  Feb.  18),  and  most  of  Lorraine, 
including  Metz.  The  indemnity  is  fixed  at  200  millions,  to  be  paid  in 
three  years,  the  German  army  to  be  withdrawn  as  instalments  are  paid. 

Though  the  Republicans  are  in  a  minority  in  the  Constitutional 
Assembly,  a  Republic  is  proclaimed,  the  Comte  de  Chambord  refusing  to 
renounce  the  white  flag. 

The  Commune  breaks  out  in  Paris  (March  18),  led  by  Felix  Pyat 
and  Louise  Michel,  and  is  put  down  by  the  national  troops  under 
Macmahon  (May),  after  the  death  of  Archbishop  Darboy  and  oihet 
hostages  and  the  destruction  of  the  Tuileries  and  the  Hdt^l  de  Ville. 

Jules  Guesde  founds  the  Socialist  movement,  which  is  developed  by 
Brousse,  Allemane,  and  Blanqui. 

2080.  Germany.  The  King  of  Prussia  is  acknowledged  German 
Emperor.  A  Federal  Constitution  is  adopted.  The  Reiehtag  is  electa 
for  three  years,  and  chosen  by  universal  suffrage.  The  Bundesrath  c»>d- 
sists  of  delegates  from  the  Governments  (Pnissia  sending  17),  each  state 
voting  solid.  Changes  in  the  Constitution,  the  army  and  taxation  ftn 
be  vetoed  by  14  members.  A  Court  of  Appeal  decides  questioa<  of 
imperial  law,  and  an  imperial  court  judges  of  political  offences.  Popular 
government  is  introduced  everywhere  except  m  Mecklenbui^. 

2081.  Italy.     The  seat  of  Government  is  transferred  to  Rome. 

2082.  Austria.  The  Emperor  appoints  a  Federalist  Ministry  under 
Hohenwart,  who  negotiates  the  concession  to  Bohemia  of  full  »eli- 
government,  except  in  foreign  affairs,  war,  and  trade.  German  oppi«- 
tion  becomes  so  tierce  that  the  Emperor  withdraws  his  promises,  and 
Hohenwart  resigns. 

Beust,  who  is  considered  anti-Prussian,  is  dismissed. 

2083.  Russia.  At  a  Conference  held  in  London,  at  the  suggestion  of 
Bismarck,  the  action  of  Russia  in  reference  to  the  Black  Sea  clauses  i> 
confinned. 


1871]  CULTURE  423 

5525,  Social.    Infanticide  is  forbidden  in  India. 
Women  become  eligible  as  members  of  School  Boards. 

5526.  Deaths.    Clarendon,  Dickens,  Dumas,   Farragut,   Herzen,   Lee, 
M^rim^,  Montalembert,  Provost- Paradol,  Villemain. 


3S27.  Eng.  Ch.  MialFs  motion  for  disestablishment  obtains  96  riQi7i 
votes.  t^®^^ 

SS2S.     French  Oh.     Macall  begins  mission  work  in  Paris. 

S329.  German  Oh.  The  Archbishop  of  Munich  orders  Dollinger  to 
accept  the  Decrees.  He  refuses  'as  a  (-hristian,  a  theologian,  a 
historian,  and  a  citizen,'  and  is  excommunicated.  The  first  Congress  of 
Old  Catholics  is  held  at  Munich.  500  delegates  attend,  and  Schulte 
presides,  supported  by  Dollinger,  Reinkens,  Friedrich,  Huber,  Maassen. 
The  Catholic  members  of  the  Prussian  Landtag  petition  the  Emperor 
to  restore  the  temporal  power  of  the  Pope.  The  Bundesrath  and  the 
Reichstag  pass  the  Kanzel-paragraph,  restraining  priests  from  abusing 
their  pastoral  functions  for  political  purposes.  To  oppose  this  legisla- 
tion, Windhorst  founds  the  Centre  Party. 

Political  and  civil  equality  is  granted  to  the  Jews. 

33S0,  Italistn  Oh.  The  Law  of  Guarantees  declares  the  Pope's  person 
inviolable,  accords  the  honours  of  a  sovereign  prince,  allows  the  pjosses- 
sion  of  the  Vatican  and  other  palaces,  and  grants  an  annuity,  which  he 
rejects. 

5551.  French  Lit.    Zola's  Rougoh-Macciuart  series. 

5552.  German  Lit.    Rosegger's  Stories  from  the  Steiermark. 
S3S3.     Science.    Darwin's  Descent  of  Man. 

The  Mont  Cenis  tunnel  is  opened. 
3334'     Art.    The  first  Impressionist  exhibition  in  France  is  held,  con- 
taining works  of  Manet,  Monet,  Pissaro,  Degas,  Renoir. 

3335,  Philology.    B.  Delbruck's  Researches  in  Syntax. 

3336.  Geography.    Livingstone  discovers  the  Upper  Congo. 

33S7.  Education.  Miss  Clough  opens  a  house  at  Cambridge  for  girls, 
which  later  becomes  Newnham  College. 

The  religious  test  is  abolished  in  p]nglish  Universities. 

3338.  Economics.  Jevons'  Theory  of  Political  Economy  applies 
mathematical  methods,  and  introduces  the  conception  of  'Final  Utility.' 

3339.  PoUtics.    Ruskin's  Fors  Clavigera. 

3340.  History.  Maine's  Early  Institutions  investigates  early  Irish 
society. 

334^.    Social.    Trade  Unions  are  legalised. 

Moa£EUig,  a*  pupil  of  Ketteler,  in  standing  for  the  Reichstag,  issues 
an  address  which  becomes  the  programme  of  the  party  of  Catholic 
Socialists. 

Adolph  Wagner's  The  Social  Question  founds  Protestant  Socialism 
in  Germany,  and  urges  the  State  to  mitigate  the  pressure  on  the 
workers. 


424  POLITICS  [1871 


2084.  America.    By  the   Treaty  of  Washington,  England  and  the 
United  States  agree  to  submit  the  Alabama  claim  to  arbitration. 

The  corrupt  governors  of  New  York,  known  as  the  Tweed  Ring,  m 
exposed  and  mil ;  but  Tammany  rapidly  regains  its  influence. 

The  last  of  the  seceding  States  re-enter  the  union,  and  are  restoied 
to  their  full  rights. 

Silver  is  demonetised. 

2085.  Africa.    Holland  cedes  her  settlements  on  the  Grold  Coast  to 
England. 


2086.  England.    The  Ballot  is  introduced.  r^ 
A  Court  of  Arbitration,  sitting  at  Geneva,  awards  the  United  ^ 

States  three  millions  damages  for  the  Alabama ;  Cockbum,  the  Bridnk 
representative,  dissents,  England  having  renounced  her  claim  to  coid- 
pensation  for  the  Fenian  attack  on  Canada.  The  money,  however,  m 
paid. 

A  Commercial  Treaty  with  France  modifies  that  of  1860,  of  which 
Thiers,  a  strict  Protectionist,  disapproves. 

A  motion  to  extend  county  franchise  is  lost,  but  is  frequently  it 
introduced  by  Sir  George  Trevelyan. 

Sir  Charles  Dilke  aeclares  himself  a  republican,  and  Fawcett  claiiB 
the  right  to  discuss  the  form  of  government. 

2087.  Prance.  The  Orleans  princes  accept  compensation  for  the  o*- 
fiscation  of  their  estates.  This  step  is  widely  regarded  as  a  renuncinti*)!! 
of  their  claims. 

2088.  Germany.  Bismarck  remodels  the  local  government  of  Pniste^ix 
destroying  the  absolute  control  of  local  affairs  by  the  nobility. 

The  Emperors  of  Russia  and  Austria  visit  Berlin,  and  a  DreikaL-^r- 
blindniss  is  tacitly  established  with  a  view  to  maintain  the  statu*  tfintM 
act  in  harmony  on  the  Eastern  Question,  and  to  oppose  revolutiontfj 
aims. 

2089.  America.  The  German  Emperor  is  called  upon  to  arbitme 
between  England  and  the  United  States  in  reference  to  the  ownershi}- 
of  St  Juan  Island,  and  assigns  it  to  the  latter. 

Owing  to  the  corruption  of  (irant's  administration,  Carl  Schun  anJ 
other  '  Liberal  Republicans '  nominate  Greeley  for  the  Presidency .  but 
Grant  is  again  returned. 

2090.  Africa.  Responsible  Government  is  obtained  for  Caj>e  G>1«hit. 
chiefly  owing  to  the  efforts  of  Sir  John  Molteno,  who  becomes  the  fii^- 
Premier. 


18T2]  CULTURE  425 

Bruce  fiiils  to  cany  a  Liquor  BiU,  by  which  licenses  would  lapse 
after  10  years,  and  the  iucrease  of  public-houses  is  forbidden. 
S342,    DeflUhB.    B&bbage,  Grillparzer,  Grote,  Herschel,  Murchison. 


3343.    Eng.  Ch.    Stanley  and  Tait  recommend  the  omission  of  noyn 
the  Athanasian  Creed,  but  are  defeated  by  Pusey,  Liddon,  and    ^ 
Wilberforce. 

Matthew  Arnold's  Literature  and  Dogma. 
3344^    French  Ch.     P^re  Hyacinthe  attempts  to  found  a  national 
Church. 

The  General  Assembly  of  the  Protestants,  the  first  since  1659, 
meets.     The  Liberals,  led  by  Coquerel,  protest  against  the  adoption 
of  any  creed. 
3345,    Oerxnan  Ch.    DoUinger  lectures  on  Reunion  at  Munich,  and 
the  Old  Catholics  meet  at  Uologne. 

The  IVussian  Government  reduces  clerical  influence  in  schools.  The 
Bishops  meet  at  Fulda  and  protest,  and  the  Pope  excommunicates  the 
authors  of  the  law.  Bismarck  declares  that  he  *  will  never  go  to  Canossa,' 
i&d  the  Jesuits  are  banished.  Civil  marriage  is  declared  necessary ;  and 
the  clergy  are  forced  to  swear  allegiance  before  appointment. 

Strauss'  The  Old  and  the  New  Faith  answers  the  question.  Are  we 
still  Christians  ?  in  the  negative. 
33i6.    Church  Hist.    George  Smith  discovers  in  Assyrian  tablets  the 

Kources  of  certain  of  the  narratives  in  Genesis. 
33i7.    Eng.  Lit.    Calverley's  Fly  Leaves. 

3348.  French  Lit    Daudet's  Tartarin  de  Tarascon. 
Saidou's  Raba^gas,  a  satire  on  Gambetta. 

3349.  Science.    The  Challenger  sets  out  to  study  ocean  depths. 
Zittel's  Handbook  of  Palaeontolog}'. 

Darwin's  Expression  of  the  Emotions. 
Edison  perfects  duplex  telegraphy. 

3350.  Art.    Fred  Walker's  Hari)our  of  Refuge. 
Briton  Riviere's  Daniel. 

3351.  Sstoiy.    Brunner's  Origin  of  Compurgation. 

3352.  Economics.  The  *  Katheder-Sozialisten/  who  merge  economics 
in  sociology  and  desire  an  extension  of  State  action,  meet  at  Eisenach. 
The  new  departure  is  fiercely  attacked  by  Treitschke,  and  defended  by 
SchmoUer. 

3353.  Politics.    Spencer's  Study  of  Sociolog}'. 

3354.  Law.    Lorimer  s  Institutes  of  Law  attacks  the  Positive  school 
Arthur  Orton  claims  the  Tichbome  estates. 

3355.  Social.    Bakunin  is  expelled  from  the  International  Association. 
Joseph  Arch  founds  the  Agricultural  Union,  and  agitates  for  the 

extension  of  the  franchise. 
3i56.    Deaths.    Feuerbach,  Gautier,  Horace  Greeley,  Gnindtrig,  Juarez, 
Maurice,  Mazani,  Seward,  Trendelenburg. 


426  POLITICS  [187S 

2091.  En^ond.  Gladstone  resigns  on  the  defeat  of  his  Irish  r^M. 
University  Bill ;  but  Disraeli  refuses  office.  •■ 

The  National  Liberal  Federation  is  founded,  and  Schnadbont 
becomes  Secretary. 

Selbome,  Cairns  and  Coleridge  obtain  the  reform  of  the  Courti 
The  Supreme  Court  is  divided  into  the  High  Court  (including  QueenV 
Bench,  Chancery,  Probate,  Divorce  and  Admiralty),  and  the  Court  of 
Appeal. 

2092.  France.  Thiers  is  overturned,  and  Macmahon  is  nomiBitod 
President  for  seven  years. 

The  last  instalment  of  the  indemnity  is  paid,  and  France  is  evacoated 
by  the  German  troops. 

Chambord  comes  to.  Paris,  is  urged  to  make  a  coup,  hesitates,  and 
flies.  A  deputation  is  sent  to  oflfer  him  the  crown  ;  but  he  fiiMllT 
refuses  to  renounce  the  use  of  the  white  flag.  The  Comte  de  Paris 
acknowledges  the  claim  of  the  childless  Comte  de  Chambord,  whom  be 
visits  at  Frohsdorf.  He  regards  himself  as  next  heir,  as  the  representa- 
tive of  hereditary,  not  parliamentary,  monarchy. 

Bazaine  is  tned  by  a  court  under  the  Due  d'Aumale.  and  condemned 
to  life-long  imprisonment. 

Conscription  is  introduced  for  all  who  attain  the  age  of  20,  with  let 
exceptions. 

Napoleon  dies  at  Chislehurst,  leaving  an  only  son  17  years  of  ace. 

2093.  Spain.  A  Socialist  insurrection  breaks  out  in  Spain,  and  the 
Secret  Society  of  La  Mano  Negra  is  organised. 

King  Amadeus  resigns,  a  RepubUc  is  proclaimed,  and  Castelar 
becomes  Dictator.  The  Carlists  revolt  in  the  North,  and  the  FedenJi<ts 
and  Communists  in  the  South. 

2094.  Austria.  Croatia  obtains  internal  self-government,  its  representa- 
tives at  Buda-Pesth  only  taking  part  in  business  which  affects  the 
Hungarian  monarchy  as  a  whole. 

2095.  Denmark.    The  Ix)wer  House  claims  to  control  ministers. 

2096.  Africa.  By  the  Treaty  of  Zanzibar,  the  export  of  slaves  is  for- 
bidden, and  the  markets  for  imported  slaves  are  closed. 

The  Khedive  is  allowed  by  the  Sultan  to  make  treaties  and  maintain 
an  army. 

2097.  Asia.  Kaufmanu  conquers  Khiva,  the  Khan  declaring  himself 
a  vassal,  and  ceding  part  of  his  territory. 

The  Kotow  by  foreign  ambassadors  at  Pekin  lapses 
A  revolt  breaks  out  in  a  province  of  Sumatra 


2098.  En^and.     Gladstone  dissolves  Parliament,  and  proposes   r,g«j 
to  abolish  the  income  tax  ;  but  Disraeli  returns  to  power  with    '- 
the  first  clear  Conservative  maiority  since  1841. 

Northcote  establishes  a  Sinking  Fund,  which  is  not  suspended  till 
1885. 

2099.  Ireland.     Isaac  Butt's  motion  for  Home  Rule  secures  61  votes. 

2100.  Germsuiy.     Count  Amim,  late  ambassador  in  Paris,  is  arrested 


1874]  CULTURE  427 

5557,  Eng.  Ch.  Moody  and  Sankey  inaugurate  the  Great  rionri 
Mission.  *- 

5558.  Qennan  Ch.  Prussia  passes  the  May  Laws  relating  to  the 
education  of  the  cler^,  jurisdiction  in  Church  cases,  excommunication, 
the  appointment  and  dismissal  of  ministers. 

With  the  approval  of  the  Prussian  Government,  Reinkens  is  conse- 
crated Bishop  of  the  Old  Catholics  by  the  Jansenist  Bishop  of  Deventer. 

5559,  Swifls  Ch.  Herzog  is  consecrated  Bishop  of  the  Old  Catholic 
Church.  Mermillod  is  appointed  Apostolic  Vicar,  but  is  not  recognised 
by  the  Confederation. 

5560.  Eng.  Lit.     Pater  s  Essays  on  the  Renaissance. 
SS6J.     German  Lit.    Paul  Heyse's  Children  of  the  World. 

SS62.  £(cience.  Cliarcot  begins  his  pathological  observations  and  ex- 
periments at  the  Sali>etriere  Hospital,  Paris. 

Clerk  Maxwell's  Electricity  and  Magnetism  asserts  tliat  light  and 
electro-magnetic  phenomena  have  their  seat  in  the  same  nie<liuui,  and 
are  identical  in  nature. 

Plateau  eliminates  the  action  of  ^vity  on  liquid  masses. 
Rosen busch's  Physiography  of  Minerals. 
Scholes  invents  the  Remington  type-writing  machine. 
3S6S,     Art.    Repin  introduces  realism  into  Russian  painting. 

Brahms'  Requiem. 
3364^    Archaeology.    Schliemann  commences  excavations  at  Troy. 
3366,     Philosophy.    Lewes'  Problems  of  Life  and  Mind. 
Mill's  Autobiography. 
Sigwart's  Logic. 

3366.  ]folitiC8.  Sir  James  Stephen's  Liberty,  Er^uality,  Fratennty, 
attacks  Mill's  individualism. 

Bagehot's  Physics  and  Politics  discuss  the  phenomena  (A  fAx\y 
society  in  the  light  of  scientific  concept ionif. 

LUienfeld's  Sociolf»gy  of  the  Future  attempts  the  anat/mjy  of  s^jciety 
from  a  biological  standpoint. 

3367.  Economics.  Bagehot's  Lombard  .Stre^  expUir^  the  Unking 
system. 

3368.  Anthropology.    Speoc^  editi*  a  I>e»cript]ve  iifft:'uA(^. 

3369.  Geography.    Payer  and  We>T>r*!icht  diJic^iver  Fraia  Jr/M>f  laud. 

3370.  Agriculture.    A  peri^id  of  def^r^Mnou  \/f:innM  in  Efi^rland. 

3371.  Deaths.  Landseer,  Liebig.  laritnL^futt,  LytUfU,  3iihriz^>ni.  J.  .S. 
Mill,  Napoleon,  Sedgwick,  Wilb^#/rce. 


3372.    Eng.  Ch.    An  aiMmjiDoa*  Mnthffr  aKta/:k>  O/ri^tun  //rth^/-    '1074 
dozy  in  Sopematiual  HeligioiiL     liiAtlf^A  \0au%m  on*  ^^tv/r^.  in    - 
his  use  of  toe  Fatliere,  and  ibf:  MnikwH  r»rpli^. 

Taifs  and  IMsaeli'ff  PnUie  H*0rAay  JUnrihai/^i  A^  '' V/  yA  4f/wu 
ritualism')  is  in  Tsm  of^fuM  by  .Skii.^/*jn'  sktA  iVtaiA^Hjk  ly^4 
Westbnry  is  chosen  rvAjEt, 

Gladstone's  pamphkfiii  obi  VatitesiUMU  d^W>«;  tith  %t/:H^^^MjtM^  '4  tijt 


428  poLTTias  [1874 

and  prosecuted,  ostensibly  for  embezzling  official  docunients.  in  lealitr 
because  he  attacks  the  French  Republic. 

The  Conservatives  plot  with  the  Empress  Augusta  to  repke 
Bismarck  by  Count  Arnim. 

The  Lassalleans  and  Marxians  unite  at  the  Congress  of  Gotha. 

2101.  Denmark.  Iceland  obtains  from  Denmark  self-government  and  • 
legislature,  after  a  long  contest,  largely  by  the  influence  of  SigordnoD. 

2102.  SpaJji.  The  Cortes  are  dissolved  by  the  army,  Castelar  resigns, 
Serrano  assumes  the  Presidency,  but  is  overthrown  by  Martinez  CiiDpo6, 
by  whom  Alfonso,  son  of  Isabella,  is  proclaimed  King  (Dec.). 

2103.  Switzerland.  The  Constitution  is  revised  and  becomes  moR 
centralised.  The  Federal  Council  (the  Executive)  is  elected  by  the 
Federal  Assembly.  The  President,  who  is  no  more  than  the  Chairmu, 
is  elected  for  one  year.  The  Federal  Government  controls  the  insy. 
ecclesiastical  matters,  education,  commercial  laws,  social  reform.  A 
Referendum  is  allowed,  if  demanded  by  30,000  voters  or  by  eight 
cantons.  The  Federal  TVibunal,  the  only  Federal  Court,  receives  gnftter 
power. 

2104.  Russia.  Conscription  is  made  compulsory  on  reaching  the  a^ 
of  21. 

2105.  Australasia.  The  Fiji  Islands  are  surrendered  by  the  chiefs  to 
England. 

2106.  Africa.  The  war  with  Ashanti,  in  defence  of  the  GroM  Coa>4 
Settlements,  ends  with  the  capture  of  Coomassie. 

Darfur  is  conquered  by  Egypt. 

2107.  Asia.  Annam  accepts  French  pi*otection,  and  submits  its  forei^ 
policy  to  France,  thus  breaking  off  its  shadowy  vassalage  to  China. 


2108.  England.  Gladstone  retires,  and  Hartington  leads  the  Mg^ 
Liberal  party.  ^ 

Disraeli  buys  four  millions  worth  of  sliares  in  the  Suez  Canal  fn>m 
the  Khedive. 

Strangers  may  only  be  excluded  from  the  debates  by  a  vote  •4 
a  majority  of  the  House. 

2109.  Prance.  A  new  Constitution  is  constructed,  chiefly  by  the 
influence  of  Gambetta,  consisting  of  a  President  chosen  for  7  years  M- 
both  Houses,  a  Chamber  of  Deputies  chosen  for  4  years  by  tini- 
versal  siiffmge  by  Scrutin  d'Arrondissement,  and  a  Senate  to  he  electe«i 
for  9  years  by  an  electoral  body  in  each  department,  one-thinl  Wiuj: 
renewed  every  three  years,  and  75  chosen  by  the  Senate  for  life. 

Owing  to  measures  for  the  reorganisation  of  the  army,  a  war  ««n* 
arises  in  Germany,  aud  an  article  apj)ear8  in  the  Berlin  *  Fast,'  entitW 
War  in  Sight.    England  and  Russia  intervene,  and  the  crisis  terminatt^. 

2110.  Hungary.  The  Deak  party  breaks  up,  and  the  Left  at'cept?*  the 
compact  of  1867.  Tisza,  its  lea<ler,  becomes  Premier,  with  the  aitl  ••t 
Deak's  followers,  and  remains  in  |)ower  till  1890. 

2111.  Greece.  The  i>eople  compel  the  King  to  dismiss  his  Minl^tir. 
which  has  acted  unconstitutionally. 


1876]  CULTURE  429 

decrees  of  1870  inconsistent  with  civil  allegiance.     Newman's  Letter  to 
the  Duke  of  Norfolk  rebuts  the  charge. 
3S7S,     Scotch  Ch.    Ijay  patronage  is  given  to  male  communicants. 
SSTi.     German  Ch.   The  Old  Catholics  permit  the  use  of  the  vernacular, 
reco^ize  the  marriage  of  priests,  consent  to  drop  the  Filio(iue,  and 
abolish  compulsory  confession. 

Civil  marriage  is  ma<le  compulsory  in  Pnissia,  and  ecclesiastics  who 
have  disobeyed  the  May  Laws  may  be  banished.     At  the  General  Elec- 
tion 100  members  are  returned  to  the  Centre. 
SS75.     Anstrian  Ch.    The  May  Laws  are  substituted  for  the  Concordat 

of  1855. 
SS?(S.    Italian  Ch.    Curci  urges  the  recognition  of  the  new  kingdom. 
S377,     Science.    Observations  of  the  Transit  of  Venus  fail  to  establish 
the  distance  of  the  Earth  from  the  Sun. 

Allport's  Contributions  to  the  Petrography  of  England. 
3,^8,     Art.    Strauss*  Fliedermaus. 

SS79.     Philosophy.    T.   H.   Green's   Introduction  to    Hume  criticises 
Empiricism. 

Mill's  Three  Essays  on  Religion  admit  an  intelligent  mind  with 
limited  power. 

Sidgwick's  Methods  of  Ethics,  a  Utilitarian  treatise. 
Wundt's  Physiological  Psychology  presents  psychology  as  an  experi- 
mental science. 

3380.  History.     Green's  Short  History  of  England. 
Stubbs'  Constitutional  History  of  England. 
Reeve  edits  Greville's  Memoirs. 

3381.  Politics.     Auberon  Herbert  begins  to  teach  Voluntaryism. 

3382.  Education.    Bonghi  becomes  Italian  Minister  of  Education. 
3-383.     Philology.    Corssen  declares  Etruscan  an  Italic  dialect. 

3384.  Anthropology.    Pitt-Rivers  exhibits  his  collections  illustrative 
of  savage  life. 

3385.  Deaths.     Guizot,  Michelet,  Strauss,  Sumner,  Tischendorf 


3386.  Eng.  Ch.    Dale's  Treatise  on  the  Atonement.  [1875 

3387.  German  Ch.     The  Pope  declares  recent  anti-Catholic   '- 
legislation  invalid.    The  Government  refuses  pa}Tnent  to  clergy  who  will 
not  promise  to  obey  the  laws,  and  8  of  the  12  Prussian  bishoprics  and 
1,400  curacies  become  vacant. 

3388.  Church  Hist.    The  Worship  of  the  Sacred  Heart  is  instituted. 
Laveieye's  L'Avenir  des  Peuples  Catholiques  attacks  the  political 

and  intellectual  influence  of  Catholicism. 
3SS9.     Eng.  Lit.    The  9th  edition  of  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  is 
edited  by  Baynes  and  Robertson  Smith. 

5590.  French  Lit.    R^jane  makes  her  ddbut. 

5591.  German  Lit.    Julius  Wolff's  Ratcatcher  of  Hamelin. 
S392,     Science.    Darwin's  Insectivorous  Plants. 

Oalton  introduces  the  conception  of  the  stirp. 
8393.    Art    Bizet's  Carmen. 

The  Hermes  of  Praxiteles  is  found  at  Olympia. 


430  POLITICS  [1876 


2112.  Turkey.  A  revolt  breaks  out  in  Bosnia  and  HenegoniuL 
England  refuses  to  join  in  a  memorandum  to  the  Porte ;  but  the 
Austrian  minister,  Andrassy,  draws  up  a  note,  enumerating  the  con- 
cessions that  the  Sultan  ought  to  make  (Dec.). 

2113.  Australasia.  Provincial  Governments  in  New  Zealand  are 
abolished,  and  the  Government  centralised. 

2114.  Africa.  Disraeli's  Circular  on  fugitive  slaves  orders  English  ships 
in  the  neighbourhood  to  refuse  an  asylum  to  slaves  and  to  surreDder 
them  at  a  port,  but  is  withdrawn  in  consequence  of  the  indignation 
it  excites. 

Lord  Carnarvon  sends  Froude  to  South  Africa  to  recommend  federa- 
tion. 

President  Macmalion  pronounces  on  the  English  and  Portugaaie 
claims  in  Delagoa  Bay  iu  favour  of  the  latter. 

De  Brazza  makes  his  first  expedition  in  the  Congo  country,  and  per- 
suades many  tribes  to  accept  French  direction. 

Roustan  becomes  Frencli  Consul-General  at  Tunis. 

2115.  Asia.  The  Gaikwar  of  Baroda  is  deposed  for  attempting  tA 
poison  the  British  Reddent,  and  a  nominated  child  of  the  imiU 
succeeds. 

Russia  annexes  the  Khanate  of  Eliokand. 


2116.  England.  The  Appellate  Jurisdiction  Act  restores  the  mm. 
jurisdiction  of  the  House  of  Lords  and  the  Judicial  Committee   ^ 

of  the  Privy  Council.  The  Court  of  Appeal  becomes  intermediate.  The 
House  of  Lords  as  a  Court  of  Appeal  consists  of  the  Law  lionl%  the 
Chancellor,  four  Lords  of  Appeal  in  Ordinary,  ex-Judges,  and  life- 
Peers. 

2117.  Italy.  An  equilibrium  iu  the  Budget  is  obtained.  MinghettiV 
Ministry,  however,  is  defeated,  and  the  Right  loses  power.  I^preti* 
succeeds  with  an  immense  majority,  and  the  group  system  developer 
The  constant  ministerial  changes  gravely  diminish  the  prestige  d 
Parliamentary  institutions. 

2118.  Spain.  The  Carlist  war  is  ended,  and  a  new  Constitution  L< 
introduced. 

2119.  Turkey.  The  Andrassy  note  is  accepted  by  the  Sultan  and  the 
Powers ;  but  the  insurgents  demand  guarantees,  and  the  Berlin  Mem«> 
raudum  threatens  coercion  unless  the  concessions  are  made  within  two 
months.     Beaconsfield  refuses  to  approve. 

Servia  and  Montenegro  declare  war  on  the  Sultan.  At  the  same 
moment,  a  revolt  in  Bulgaria  is  suppressed  with  inhuman  cruelties. 
Intense  indignation  is  excited  in  England  by  the  details  in  the  report  of 
Baring  and  the  pamphlet  of  Gladstone.  An  army  of  Russian  volunteers, 
under  Tchernaieff,  joins  the  Servians,  who  are  defeated  ;  but  the 
Montenegrins  win  several  victories.     Abdul-Hamid   becomes  Sultan, 


1876]  CULTURE  431 

S394>     Philosophy.    Theosophical  propaganda  is  begun  by  Col.  Olcott, 

Mme  Blavatsky,  and  Sinnett. 
339o.     History.     Taine's  Origines  de  la  France  Ck)utemporaine  hotly 
attacks  the  Jacobin  tradition. 

Fustel  de  Coulanges'  Institutions  politiques  de  I'ancienne  France. 
The  Dictionary  of  German  Biography  is  commenced. 
SS96,     Geography.    Stanley  circumnavigates  Victoria  Nyanza  and  Tan- 
ganyika, and  traces  the  Congo  to  the  Atlantic. 

Nares  reaches  83"  20'  26",  a  limit  surpassed  by  a  few  miles  by  the 
Greely  expedition  of  1882-4. 

Nordenskiold  makes  the  North-East  passage. 
3397.     Agricoltare.    The  A^cultural  Holdings  Act  arranges  for  com- 
pensation for  unexhausted  improvements. 
339S.     Social.     PlimsoU  carries  the  Mercliants'  Shipping  Bill. 
The  Friendly  Societies  are  brought  under  the  law. 
The  Universal  Postal  Union  is  instituted. 
3399.     Deaths.      Hans    Andersen,    Corot,    Ewald,    Fiulay,    Kaulbach, 
Kingsley,  Lyell,  Millet,  Pertz,  Quinet,  Thirlwall. 


3400.  Eng.  Ch.    The  Order  of  Corporate  Union  is  instituted.        nffia 

3401.  American  Ch.    Savage,  a  Unitarian  Minister  in  Boston,    ^ 
attempts  to  blend  evolution  with  a  theistic  element. 

Mrs  Eddy  founds  the  Christian  Scientists. 

Adler  founds  a  Society  for  Ethical  Culture  in  New  York. 

3402.  Church  Hist.  Thiele's  History  of  Religion  to  the  Spread  of  the 
Universal  Religions  presents  the  first  connected  and  comparative  account 
of  early  religioiis  ideas. 

3403.  German  Lit.    Dahu's  novel,  A  Struggle  round  Rome. 

3404-    Banish  Lit.    Jacobsen's  Fru  Marie  Grubbe  introduces  realism. 
34O0.    Portuguese  Lit.    Jofto  de  Deus'  Flores  de  Campo. 
3j^>6.     £(cience.    Bell  invents  a  telephone.     Its  defects  as  a  transmitter 
are  remedied  by  Edison  and  Hughes,  1877-8. 

Lembroso's  The  Criminal  founds  comparative  criminology. 
3407'    Art.    Leighton's  Daphnephoria. 

Bou^ereau's  La  Vierge  Consolatrice. 

Puvis  de  Chavannes,  Bonnat  and  Laurens  fresco  the  Pantheon. 

Wagner's  Ring  of  the  Nibelungs  is  performed  at  Bayreuth. 

£douiurd  and  Jean  de  Reszke  make  their  d^but. 

Richter  begins  to  conduct  orchestral  concerts  in  England. 

3408,  Philosophy.  Avenarius'  Philosophy  as  the  Thought  of  the  World. 
Mainlander  and  Hellenbach  advocate  celibacy  and  suicide. 

3409.  Philology.  Strack  edits  the  Prophetarum  posteriorum  Codex 
Babyionicus  Petropolitanus. 

34JO.  Education.  A  Commission  appointed  to  revise  the  Statutes  of 
the  colleges  of  Oxford  University  reduces  clerical  fellowships,  and  allows 
no  lay  Heads  except  in  Christ  Church  and  Pembroke.  Its  work  is 
bitterly  attacked  by  Burgon. 


432  POLITICS  [1831 


and  a  Turkish  army  enters  Servia,  but  is  brought  to  a  halt  hy  the 
Russian  ultimatum. 

A  truce  of  six  months  is  arranged,  and  ambassadors  of  the  Powoi 
meet  at  Constantinople. 

2120.  America.  After  a  vigorous  struggle  for  the  Presidency,  Hijo 
defeats  Tilden.  a  Democrat  Hayes  removes  the  soldiers  who  upkold 
federal  authority  in  the  South  and  leaves  the  whites  to  r^ain  j)ower. 

The  publication  of  the  Mulligan  Letters,  written  by  Blaine,  18^, 
when  Speaker,  destroys  a  great  part  of  his  prestige  and  power. 

Diaz  defeats  Tejada,  the  President,  and  becomes  supreme  in  yLenox 

2121.  AMca.  The  Khedive  Ismail  being  100  millions  in  debt,  Gi^ben 
is  sent  to  Egypt,  and  the  Dual  Control  of  France  and  England  is  est*- 
blished. 

2122.  Asia.    England  takes  Socotra. 


2123.  England.  Obstruction  is  practised  by  the  Irish  members,  rig» 
Biggar  and  Parnell,  during  the  debate  on  South  Africa.  ^ 

2124.  France.  Macmalion  dismisses  Jules  Simon  (May  16),  uA 
appoints  De  Broglie  President  of  the  Council.  363  members  proteH 
the  Cliamber  is  dissolved,  a  large  republican  majority  is  returned,  aod 
De  Broglie  resigns. 

2125.  Russia.  Skobeleff  declares  that  an  invasion  of  India  with  50,00i> 
men  would  be  free  from  all  risk. 

2126.  Turkey.  The  conference  at  Constantinople  fails,  the  SulUa 
refusing  to  allow  the  powers  a  voice  in  the  election  of  provinoiil 
governors.  Montenegro  remains  in  arms.  Russian  troops  cros8  tbt? 
Danube  and  clear  and  hold  the  Shipka  Pass  (July  17).  Charles  of 
Roumania  signs  a  convention  with  Russia,  promising  active  co-operatit*. 
The  Sultan  deposes  him,  and  Roumania  proclaims  her  independence.  izmI 
joins  the  Russians  before  Plevna.  Osman  Pasha  repulses  an  attack  oo 
Plevna  (Sept.),  which,  however,  capitulates  (Dec.).  In  Asia  Minor. 
Kars  is  stormed  (Nov.). 

2127.  Africa.  Bartle  Frere  is  made  High  Commissioner  of  South  Afrii*, 
and  instructed  to  work  of  federation.  Lord  Carnarvon's  Permissive  Kll 
is,  however,  rejected  by  all  the  governments  of  South  Africa. 

The  South  African  Republic  is  annexed  by  Sir  Theophilus  Sh^p- 
stone,  during  a  recess  of  the  Volksraad,  on  the  ground  tliat  it  is  bankmpt 
and  in  danger  from  Basutos  and  Zulus.  Three-fourths  of  the  burghw* 
send  a  deputation  to  England  to  protest. 

2128.  Asia.    A  great  famine  occurs  in  India. 

The  Queen  is  proclaimed  Empress  of  India  at  DelhL 
Yakub  Beg's  rebellion  is  suppressed. 

A  rebellion  breaks  out  in  Satsuma,  but  is  suppressed,  after  hearr 
fighting,  by  the  Japanese  government. 


1877]  CULTURE  438 

$411.    Economics.    Cliffe  Leslie  attacks  the  ideas  of  Ricardo. 

S4I2.    Geography.    Becius'  66)gTaphie  Universelle. 

S41S.  Anthropology.  Spencer  s  Principles  of  Sociology  explain  the 
'^ghost-theory"  of  religion,  asserting  that  a  second  or  inyisible  self, 
inferred  from  shadows,  deep,  and  dreams,  has  led  to  ancestor-worship. 

^414-    SociaL    Brockway  founds  Elmira  Reformatory. 

silS.  Deaths.  AntoneUi,  Deak,  Lassen,  Harriet  Martineau,  Paludan- 
Mtdler,  George  Sand. 


S416.    Eng.  Ch.    The  Methodist  Conference  admits  the  laity.         [1877 
FaiTar*s  Eternal  Hope  is  answered  by  Pusey's  What  is  of  I- 
Faith  concerning  Everlasting  Punishment  ? 
3417.     FVench  (di.    A  Protestant  Institute  is  established  in  Paris. 
$4^8.    Eng.  Lit.    James  Enowles  edits  the    Nineteenth   Century,  a 
monthly  magaadne. 

Mallock's  New  Republic. 
34^9.    Italian  Lit.    Carducci's  Odi  Barbare  imitate  classical  metres  and 

introduce  exotic  forms. 
34^-    American  Lit.    Henry  James'  The  American. 
34£1.    Rnaaian  Lit.    Tolstoi's  Anna  Earenina. 
34^.    Norwegian  Lit.    Ibsen's  Pillars  of  Societ>\ 
34^'    £(cience.    Pictet  and  Caillet  liquefy  the  'permanent  gases'  by 
pressure  and  low  temperature. 

Hall  discovers  the  satellites  of  Mars. 
Schiaparelli  discovers  *  canals '  in  Mars. 

Miss  Ormerod  publishes  her  first  annual  report  on  injurious  fEurm 
insects. 

Van't  Hoff  suggests  a  tri-dimensional  theory  of  atomic  space-relations. 

Lord  Rayleighi  s  Treatise  on  Sound 

34^4'    Art.    Grant  Allen's  Physiological  Aesthetics  denies  the  existence 

of  anything  intrinsic  in  objects  which  calls  forth  aesthetic  pleasure. 

The  beautiral  is  that  which  affords  the  maximum  of  stimulation  and  the 

minimum  of  &tigue  or  waste. 

Saint-Saens' Samson  and  Dalila. 
Prout's  Instrumentation. 
34^-    Eklncation.    Elementary  Education  is  made  compulsory  in  Italy 

between  the  ages  of  six  and  nine. 
34^'    History.    Picker's  Contributions  to  the  Study  of  Documents. 
3427.    Geography.    Richthofen's  Cliina. 

Stanly  traces  the  Con^  to  its  moutk 
34^'     BocibL    Todt's  Socialism  and  Cliristian  Society  aids  the  founda- 
tion of  a  Protestant  Socialist  movement  in  Germany,  of  which  Stocker, 
a  Court  Chaplain,  becomes  the  leader. 

Archbishop  Pecci  issues  liberal  Pastorals  on  the  Social  Question. 
34^.    Deaths.    Courbet,  Coumot,  Ketteler,  Lanfrey,  Leverrier,  Palacky, 
Ritechl,  Thiers,  TholncL 


o.  28 


434  POLITICS  [1878 

2129.  Qermany.   Attempts  are  made  to  assassinate  the  Emperor,   ri^ 

and  severe  laws  against  ttie  Socialists  are  passed.  ^ 

2130.  Italy.  The  Irredentist  agitation  (to  obtain  Trieste  and  other 
districts  where  Italian  is  spoken)  grows. 

2131.  Turkey.  Believing  that  the  Russians  are  marching  to  ConstaDti- 
nople,  Disraeli  sends  the  English  fleet  through  the  Dardanelles  (Feb.). 
Carnarvon  and  Derby  resign,  and  Salisbury  becomes  Foreign  Secretiij. 
Credits  of  six  millions  are  obtained,  the  Reserves  are  GoUed  out,  um 
Indian  troops  summoned  to  Malta. 

Russia  and  Turkey  sign  the  Treaty  of  San  Stefemo  (March).  Boo- 
mania,  Servia,  and  Montenegro* are  to  be  independent  and  to  leoeifo 
territory  ;  an  autonomous  but  tributary  Bul^ria  reaches  from  the  Black 
Sea  to  the  Aegean ;  Batum,  Erzerum  and  Kars  pass  to  Russia,  which 
receives  the  strip  of  Bessarabia  lost  1856,  and  part  of  Armenia. 
England  demands  an  European  Congress.  Russia  agrees  to  the  dii- 
cussion  only  of  the  Articles  concerning  the  general  interests  of  Europe. 
The  deadlock  is  removed  by  SchouvalofF,  who  prepares  a  list  of  ques- 
tions to  be  discussed.  Beaconsfield  and  Salisbury  represent  F"g^*^  at 
the  Berlin  Congress,  Waddington  France,  Schouvalon  and  Gortcbakoff 
Russia,  Andrassy  Austria.  By  the  Treaty  of  Berlin,  Bulgaria  north  of 
the  Balkans  is  to  become  an  autonomous  state,  paying  tribute  to  the 
Sultan  ;  the  south  is  to  become  Eastern  Roumelia,  to  nave  administn- 
tive  autonomy,  and  to  be  ruled  by  a  Christian  prince,  nominated  bj  the 
Sultan  and  approved  by  the  Powers.  Russia  regains  the  strip  of  oe»- 
arabia,  and  obtains  Ears  and  Batum.  The  Prot^torate  over  Bomia  and 
Herzegovina  is  given  to  Austria ;  the  Danube  is  neutralised,  and  the 
fortresses  on  its  banks  are  to  be  razed.  Russia  resigns  EneraiB. 
Roumania  is  recognised  as  a  sovereign  state,  and  Montenegro  aod 
Servia  are  declared  independent. 

The  Sultan  undertakes  to  grant  reforms,  under  the  superintendeoi'e 
of  the  Powers,  and  complete  political  equality. 

By  the  Convention  of  C3T)rus,  made  by  England  and  Turkey  shortlr 
before  the  Congress,  England  guarantees  the  remaining  Turkish  possesf^ioib 
in  Asia  Minor,  the  Sultan  handing  over  Cyprus  and  promising  reforms 

2132.  Greece.  The  Powers  recommend  the  Sultan  to  grant  Thessaly 
and  part  of  Epinis  to  Greece. 

2133.  Austria.     Austria  reduces  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina. 

2134.  Russia.     General  Trenoflf  is  murdered  by  Vera  Sassoulitch. 

2135.  America.  The  purchase  of  not  less  than  two  millions  silver 
bullion  monthly  for  coinage  into  silver  dollars  at  16  to  1  is  adopted. 

2136.  Australasia.  The  United  States,  Germany  and  England  maki* 
commercial  treaties  with  the  King  of  Samoa. 

2137.  Aftica.  The  report  on  the  Zulu  boundary  question  submitted  t«> 
arbitration,  1877,  is  issued.  The  ultimate  award  is  left  to  Bartle  Prerf, 
who  adds  a  number  of  demands. 

English  sovereignty  is  proclaimed  over  Walfisch  Bay. 

2138.  Asia.  The  Ameer  receives  a  party  of  Russian  officers,  but  refits 
to  receive  an  English  mission.  An  ultimatum  is  dLsreganled,  ani 
Roberts  is  ordered  to  invade  Afghanistan. 


TB]  CULTURE  435 

W.    Eng.  Ch.    The  Hibbert  Lectures  on  Comparative  Religion   Mgyg 

ure  opened  by  Max  Miiller.     Subsequent  courses  are  delivered   *• 

)y  Renan,  Rhys  Davids,  Renouf,  D'Alviella,  Kuenen,  Rhys,  Hatch, 

?fleiderer. 

U.     Scotch  Ch.    Leo  XIIL  restores  the  Catholic  hierarchy,  a  measure 

-ecommended  by  Wiseman  and  promised  by  Pius  IX. 

Rainy  advocates  Disestablishment  in  his  Church  and  State. 

Robertson  Smith  is  tried  for  heresy.  After  his  condemnation,  he 
lelivers  popular  lectures  on  the  Old  Testament  in  the  Jewish  Church, 
knd  on  the  Prophets. 

i2.  Spanish  Ch.  The  Spanish  Prt^testants  petition  the  Anglican 
vhurch  for  a  Bishop. 

iS.  American  Cn.  Colonel  Ingersoll  begins  to  speak  and  write 
gainst  Christian  dogma. 

^.  Church  Hist.  Leo  XIIL  succeeds  Pius,  and  appoints  liberal 
Ministers ;  but  Rampolla,  an  ultramontane,  is  soon  forced  on  him  by 
;he  Jesuits. 

io,    Eng.  Lit.    Ellen  Terry  joins  Irving's  company. 
f6.    French  Lit.    SuUy-Prudhomme's  La  Justice. 
f7.     German  Lit.    Fontanels  Before  the  Storm,  a  story  of  the  War  of 
^iiberation. 
^.     £(cience.     Marsh  discovers  gigantic  fossil  forms  in  America. 

Lockyer  explains  his  theory  of  the  compound  nature  of  the  chemical 
dements. 

The  Eddystone  Lighthouse,  built  1759,  is  taken  down  and  replaced 
)y  a  new  structure. 

Electric  lighting  is  introduced. 

Lapworth*s  Life  Zones  in  the  lower  palaeozoic  rocks  of  Scotland. 

Vau't  HoflF  applies  the  Avogadrian  rule  to  solutions. 

David  Hughes  discovers  the  microphone,  which  is  used  as  a  trans- 
oitter  to  the  telephone. 
to.     Art.    Millais'  Yeoman  of  the  Guard. 

lO,  Philosophy.  Wundt  institutes  a  Laboratory  at  Leipzig  for 
isychophysical  research. 

Hartmann's  Phenomenology  of  the  Ethical  Consciousness  traces  the 
teps  in  the  development  of  the  moral  idea. 
fi.     History.    Lecky's  History  of  England  in  the  1 8th  century. 

Wellhausen's  History  of  Israel  blends  the  currents  starting  from 
Tatke,  Ewald  and  Reuss. 

Oncken  edits  an  Universal  History,  to  which  Stade,  Dahn,  Hertzberg, 
i'hilippson,  Droysen,  Bruckner,  Stem  and  others  contribute. 
i2.     Social.    The  Pope  issues  an  encyclical  against  Socialism,  changing 
u»  attitude  in  part  owing  to  attempts  on  the  Emperor  William  and 
Ling  Humbert. 

iS.  Deaths.  Claude  Bernard,  Bryant,  Dupanloup,  Fazy,  Gutzkow, 
Jilbert  Scott,  Secchi,  E.  H.  Weber. 


28—2 


436  POLITICS  [Un 


2139.    England.    Gladstone  attacks  Beaconsfield  in  his  Kid- 


[1871 


lothian  Campaign. 

2140.  Ireland.    Davitt  forms  the  Land  League. 

2141.  France.    The  Prince  Imperial  is  killed  in  South  Africa. 
Gr^vy  succeeds  Macmahon,  who  resigns. 

2142.  Germany.  Russia's  resentment  being  aroused  by  the  part  pli][ed 
by  Germany  in  the  Treaty  of  1878,  Bismarck  concludes  a  defenaiv 
alliance  with  Austria. 

Bismarck  imposes  protectiye  duties. 
The  Supreme  Court  is  fixed  at  Leipzig. 

Alsace-Lorraine  is  declared  a  Beichsland,  or  Territory,  a  Stattfaatts 
is  appointed,  and  the  assembly  is  allowed  to  originate  legislation. 

2143.  Austria.    Taafe  forms  a  composite  Cabinet 

2144.  America.    The  resumption  of  payment  in  gold  is  made. 
Chile  quarrels  with  Peru  and  Bolivia  over  nitrate  deposits,  crippki 

the  Peruvian  navy,  and  captures  Peru's  chief  ports. 
Lesseps  begins  to  plan  the  Panama  Canal. 

2145.  Africa.    Ismail  is  deposed  by  the  Sultan,  and  Tewfik  succeeds. 
Cetewayo  neglects  Bartle  Frere's  ultimatum,  and  Lord  Chehnsibid 

enters  Zululand.  A  division  is  almost  annihilated  at  Isandlhwana,  bot 
the  Zulus  are  checked  by  the  defence  of  Rorke's  Drifts  and  orushed  it 
Ulundi. 

The  French  extend  their  power  in  Senegambia,  on  the  Upper  Niger, 
and  on  the  Guinea  coast. 

Stanley  is  sent  out  by  Belgium  to  found  the  Congo  Free  State. 

2146.  Australasia.  England  acquires  the  right  of  most  &voured  natiai 
in  Tonga. 

2147.  Asia.  The  Ameer  of  Afghanistan  dies,  and  the  Treaty  of  Ganb- 
mak  is  signed  with  Yakub  Khan,  the  new  Ameer.  The  English  envoy 
Cavagnari,  however,  is  murdered,  Afghanistan  is  again  invaded,  iDi 
Cabul  captured. 

Warburton  is  appointed  Political  Officer  in  the  Khyber.  By  winning 
the  confidence  of  the  Afridis,  he  reduces  the  Pass  to  perfect  order. 


2148.  England.  The  Liberals  win  the  General  Election,  r^^ 
Beaconsfield  resigns,  Hartington  fails  to  form  a  Ministry,  and  ^ 
Gladstone  becomes  Premier.  Bradlaugh  claims  to  make  an  affinnstioiL 
and,  failing  that,  to  take  the  oath.  Randolph  Churchill,  Gorst,  ml 
Drumraond  Wolff  form  the  so-called  'Fourth  Party,'  acting  iwfc- 
pendently  of  Stafford  Northcote. 

2149.  Ireland.  Forster's  Compensation  for  Disturbance  clause  in  • 
relief  Bill  is  rejected  by  the  Lords.  The  Land  League  organises  u 
agitation  against  eviction  and  rent. 

Parnell  becomes  Sessional  Chairman  of  the  Home  Rule  party. 

2150.  Prance.    Rochefort  and  the  exiles  are  allowed  to  return. 


1880]  CULTURE  437 

S44i'    French  Ch.    Jules  Ferry's  education  bill  forbids  members   1^079 
of  unauthorised  communities  to  teach.    The  clause  is  resisted  in   ^ 
the  Senate  by  Jules  Simon  and  postponed. 
Ribet's  lia  Mystique  Divine. 

3445.     Gfrerman  Ch.    Domer  s  System  of  Christian  Doctrine,  a  Lutheran 
exposition. 

Treitschke  calls  attention  to  the  growth  of  Jewish  influence,  and  an 
anti-semitic  crusade  is  initiated  by  Stocker ;  but  the  movement  is  dis- 
couraged by  the  Court. 

S446.    American  Ch.    Phillips  Brooks  delivers  the  Bohlen  Lectures  on 
the  Influence  of  Jesus. 

3447.     Chnrch  Hist.    Max  MuUer  edits  a  translation  of  the  Sacred 
Books  of  the  East,  beginning  with  the  Upanishads. 

The  Pope  recommends  Catholic  schools  to  study  Aquinas. 

344s.    Eng.  Lit.    Edwin  Arnold's  Light  of  Asia. 

3449.  French  Lit.    Zola's  L'Assommoir. 

3450.  Swedish  Lit.    Strindberg's  Red  Room  introduces  naturalisuL 

3451.  Norwegian  Lit.    Ibsen's  Doll's  House. 

3452.  £(cience.    Fouqu^  and  Levy's  Microscopical  Study  of  the  Igneous 
Rocks  of  France. 

Crookes  infers  an  ultra-gaseous  state  of  matter  irom  studying  the 
passage  of  the  electric  discharge  through  highly  rarefied  gases. 
Hansen  studies  fermentation. 

3453.  Art.    Bastien-Lepage's  Joan  of  Arc. 
Grove's  Dictionary  of  Music. 

3454.  Philology.     Whitney's  Sanskrit  Grammar. 

3400.    Philosophy.    Spencer's  Data  of  Ethics  traces  the  evolution  of 
conduct,  and  sets  up  the  test  of  social  eflBciency. 

Balfour's  Defence  of  Philosophic  Doubt  asserts  the  uncertainty  of 
knowledge. 

Huxley  depicts  Hume  as  the  embodiment  of  the  scientific  spirit. 
34^6.    History.    Janssen's  History  of  the  German  People  during  the 
Reformation,  a  powerful  Ultramontane  presentation. 
Treitschke's  History  of  Germany  in  the  19th  century. 
34o7,    Economics.    Giffen's  Essays  in  Finance. 

34^8.     SociaL    Canon  Blackley  proposes  a  scheme  of  Old  Age  Pensions. 
34o9.    Deaths.    Clifford,  Espartero,  Garrison.  Lord  Lawrence,  Delane, 
Roon. 


34^'  Eng.  Ch.  The  Burials  Bill  allows  Christian  Dissenters  to  n  oqq 
hold  services  in  the  churchyard  of  the  parish.  *- 

Cheyne  edits  the  Book  of  Isaiah. 

346I.  Pirench  Ch.  Gr^vy  overrides  the  Senate's  opposition  to  Ferry's 
bilL  The  Jesuits  are  dissolved,  military  chaplains  are  abolished,  and 
candidates  for  the  ministry  are  compeUed  to  serve  in  the  army  for 
a  year. 

34(>3.  Belgian  Ch.  In  consequence  of  the  School  Law  of  1879,  diplo- 
matic relations  with  the  Papacy  are  broken  off. 

34^-    German  Ch.    Finding  the  National  Liberals  growing  restive, 


438  POUTics  [Un 


2151.  Germany.  Most  and  Hasselmann,  Anarchists,  are  expelled  bm 
the  Social  Democratic  party. 

2152.  Russia.  France  alienates  Russia  by  refusing  the  extxadition  d 
Hartmann,  who  had  been  concerned  in  the  Moscow  attempt  on  the 
Tsar's  Hfe. 

Loris  MelikoiF  is  given  dictatorial  power  to  deal  with  Nihilists,  but 
makes  concessions. 

2153.  Montenegro.  Dulcigno  is  transferred  to  Montenegro  by  prcawre 
from  the  Powers,  at  the  instance  of  Gladstone. 

2154.  Asia.  Abdurrahman  becomes  Ameer  of  Afghanistan.  An  En^ 
force  is  defeated  at  Maiwand  by  Ayub  Khan,  son  of  Shere  Ali  (&l\ 
and  Roberts  marches  rapidly  to  Candahar. 

2155.  Africa.  A  petition  for  the  reversal  of  the  annexation  of  the 
Transvaal  is  refused  bv  Gladstone's  Government,  on  the  ground  thit 
many  English  have  settled  there.  The  burghers  therefore  aedaie  iDd^ 
penoence  under  Kruger,  Pretorius  and  Joubert  (Dec.),  and  the  Brittth 
garrisons  are  surrounded. 

2156.  Australasia.    A  conference  at  Melbourne  discusses  federation. 
France  annexes  the  Tahiti  Isles. 


2157.  Ireland.  A  Land  Bill  enables  a  tenant  to  sell  his  interest,  ria« 
the  purchaser  acquiring  all  the  seller's  rights,  and  to  apply  to   ^ 

a  land  court  to  nx  a  rent  for  15  years.  The  landlord  may  object  to 
a  new  tenant,  and  has  rights  of  pre-emption  and  of  resumptjoo. 
The  Duke  of  Argyll  disapproves  of  the  Bill,  and  leaves  the  minis&r. 
Parnell  is  arrested  (Oct.).  The  No  Rent  Manifesto  is  published,  sod 
the  Land  League  is  suppressed  as  an  illegal  and  criminal  associatioD. 

2158.  Prance.  Ferry  resigns  on  an  attack  on  his  Tunis  policy,  in-i 
Gambetta  forms  a  ministry  from  which  all  distinguished  men,  except 
Paul  Bert,  hold  aloof 

2159.  Italy.  An  Electoral  Reform  Bill  enfranchises  men  of  21,  of 
property  or  education,  and  adopts  Scrutin  de  Liste.  Minority  repie- 
sentation  is  granted  to  districts  returning  five  members. 

2160.  Russia.  The  Tsar  is  murdered,  having  that  day  signed  an  ITa* 
calling  a  consultative  Assembly  of  Notables. 

Alexander  III.  begins  to  tamper  with  the  privil^es  of  Finland  and 
the  Baltic  Provinces. 

2161.  Greece.  The  Powers  compel  Turkey  to  cede  to  Greece  the 
greater  part  of  Theasaly  and  the  command  of  the  Gulf  of  Arta 

2162.  Bulgaria.  Alexander  suspends  the  constitution  and  make^  i 
Russian  general  his  premier. 

2163.  America.     President  Garfield  is  murdered. 

2164.  Aftica.  Negotiations  are  opened  with  the  Boers;  but  CoUev  i* 
defeated  at  Laing's  Nek  (Jan.),  and  Maiuba  Hill  (Feb.),  where  he  i> 
killed.     Sir  Evelyn  Wood  declares  that  he  has  the  Transvaal  at  hit 


1881]  CULTURE  439 

Bismarck  conciliates  the  Centre  by  making  the  application  of  the  May 

Laws  discretionaiy. 
3464.    Eng.  Lit.    Shorthouse's  John  Inglesant. 

Thompson's  City  of  Dreadful  Night. 
S466,    French  Lit.  Zola's  Le  Roman  Experimental  explains '  naturalism.' 
3466.    American  Lit.     Mark  Twain's  A  Tramp  Abroad 
3407.    Literature.    Burton's  translation  of  Camoens. 
34S8.     Science.    Francis  Balfour's  Comparative  Embryology. 

3469.  Art.    Verdi's  Aida. 
Cologne  Cathedral  is  finished. 

Pearson  designs  Truro  Cathedral,  which  is  opened,  1887. 
Hans  Thoma's  portrait  of  himself  (Dresden). 

3470.  Archaeology.    The  Gigantomachia  is  discovered  at  Pergamus. 

3471.  Philosophy.    John  Caird's  Philosophy  of  Religion. 

3472.  Education.     High  Schools  are  instituted  for  girls  in  England. 

3473.  History.     Hodgtan*s  Italy  and  her  Invaders. 

3474-    Economics.    Bagehot  points  out  that  Ricardo's  economics  rest 
on  assumptions  only  true  within  very  narrow  limits. 

3475.  Law.     Holland's  Jurisprudence. 

3476.  Social.    Bertillon  measures  criminals  for  purposes  of  detection. 
An  Employers'  Liability  Bill  compensates  for  accidents  due  to  the 

negligence  of  employer  or  foreman. 

The  Ground  Game  Act  secures  farmers'  crops  against  hares  and  rabbits. 
Fawcett  introduces  Parcels'  Post,  and  improves  Savings-banks. 

3477.  Deaths.    George  Eliot,  Flaubert,  Stratford  de  RedclifiFe,  RicasoU. 

3478.  Eng.  Ch.    The  Revised  Version  of  the  New  Testament   r^gg^ 
appears.  ^ 

Westcott  and  Hort  edit  the  Greek  Testament. 

3479.  French  Ch.    Ferry  expels  the  unauthorised  Congregations. 

3480.  Italian  Ch.    Campello  becomes  a  Protestant. 

Anti-papal  manifestations  occur  on  the  occasion  of  the  removal  of 
the  remains  of  Pius  IX. 

3451.  Russian  Ch.    PobyedonostsefF  becomes  the  Procurator  of  the 
Holy  Synod  and  furiously  persecutes  the  Jews. 

3452.  French  Lit.    Perfect  freedom  is  granted  to  the  press. 
Pailleron's  Le  Monde  oti  Ton  s'ennuie. 

Sarah  Bernhardt  leaves  the  Commie  Fran9aise. 

3453.  German  Lit.    Wildenbruch's  Carolingians  revives  the  historical 
drama. 

3484>    Norwegian  Lit.    Ibsen's  Ghosts. 

3485.    Roumanian  Lit.     Carmen  Sylva's  (ITie  Queen  of  Roumania) 
Roumanian  Poems. 

3456.  Science.    Pasteur  attenuates  anthrax  virus  by  vaccine. 
Langley  invents  the  Volometer. 

George  Darwin  investigates  tidal  friction. 

3457.  Art.     Liebermann's  Orphanage  in  Amsterdam. 
Munckaczy's  Christ  before  Pilate. 

Perrot  and  Chipiez*  L'Art  dans  TAntiquit^. 


440  POLITICS  [1881 

mercy;  but  the  negotiations  are  resumed,  and  the  Convention  of 
Pretoria  restores  self-government  to  the  Transvaal,  except  in  re^^aid  to 
relations  with  foreign  countries  and  native  races,  and  eataUishea  a 
British  Resident. 

Under  pretence  of  chastising  a  border  tribe,  the  French  enter  Tonis, 
and  compel  the  Bey  to  invest  FVance  with  a  virtual  protectorate. 

Mahomet  Achmet  of  Dongola  proclaims  himself  tlie  Maiidi,  and 
raises  the  Sudan  against  the  Khedive. 
2165.     Asia.    Skobeleff  takes  the  Turkoman  stronghold  of  Geok  Tepe, 
and  orders  a  wholesale  massacre. 


2166.  England.    Randolph  Churchill  explains  his  ideas  of  Tory  Mggj 
democracy,   and  wins  a  steadily  increasing    influence  in   the  ^ 
provinces.     The  Primrose  League  is  founded. 

A  Channel  Tunnel  is  discussed,  but  disapproved  by  the  militizy 
authorities. 

2167.  Ireland.  The  '  Kilmainham  Treaty '  is  arranged  by  which  PameD 
is  released  on  promising  to  put  down  outrage.  Forster  resigng,  and 
Lord  F.  Cavendish  becomes  Chief  Secretary,  but  on  his  arrival  tf 
murdered  with  Burke,  the  Permanent  Secretary,  in  Phoenix  Park.  Tfce 
Prevention  of  Crimes  Bill  is  therefore  passed. 

2168.  France.    Gambetta's  ministry  falls,  after  10  weeks'  power. 

2169.  Italy.  In  consequence  of  the  French  policy  in  Tunis,  Italy  enten 
the  Triple  Alliance. 

2 1 70.  Austria.  An  insurrection  in  Dalmatia,  Bosnia,  and  Herzegorina, 
aided  by  Panslavist  agitators,  is  suppressed. 

Anti-Semite  riots  begin. 

2171.  Russia.  Gortschakoff  and  Ignatieff,  leaders  of  the  anti-German 
party,  are  dismissed,  and  Giers  becomes  Foreign  Secretary. 

2172.  Greece.  Tricoupis  attempts  to  create  a  fleet,  army,  roads,  rail- 
ways and  harbours,  but  reduces  the  country  to  bankruptcy. 

2173.  America.     Chinese  immigration  is  suspended  for  10  years. 
The  Panama  Canal  is  begun. 

2174.  Africa.  Arabi  leads  a  movement  against  foreign  influences  in 
Egypt.     The  English  fleet  arrives,  and,  on  the  murder  of  some  Eniv- 

Seans,  bombards  Alexandria.    The  English  army  is  landed,  and  Wolaeky 
efeats  Arabi  at  Tel-el-Kebir.     Arabi  is  banished  for  life  to  Ceylon,  and 
12,000  men  are  left  to  restore  order. 

Italy  takes  possession  of  Assab  Bay,  in  the  Red  Sea,  extends  her 
coast  possessions  North  and  South,  and  founds  the  colony  of  &itret. 
The  German  Colonial  Society  is  founded. 

De  Brazza  founds  Brazzaville  and  Franceville  near  the  Congo,  and 
obtains  a  protectorate  of  the  surrounding  territoiy  for  France. 

2175.  Asia.     The  cotton  duties  in  India  are  abolished. 


1882]  CULTURE  441 

3488.    Archaeology.    Flinders  Petrie  begins  to  excavate  in  Egypt. 
S489.    Economics.    Henry  George's  Progress  and  Poverty  urges  the 
substitution  of  a  single  tax  on  rent  for  existing  taxes. 

3490.  mstory.     Ranke's  History  of  the  World. 

The  Vatican  archives  are  thrown  open  to  students. 

3491.  Social.    The  German  Emperor  sends  a  message  to  the  Reichstag, 
indicating  a  programme  of  social  reform. 

Alfred  Russell  Wallace  founds  a  Land  Nationalisation  Society,  and 
urges  the  purchase  of  existing  rights  and  the  revival  of  the  yeomanry 
cl^.  Hyndman,  Morris  and  Bax  found  the  Social  Democratic  Federa- 
tion. 

ITie  Married  Women's  Property  Act  gives  the  wife  complete  control 
of  her  property. 

3492.  Deaths.    Beaconsfield,  Bluntschli,  Carlyle,  Dostoievsky,  Littr^, 
Lotze,  Marietta,  Schleiden,  Dean  Stanley. 


3493.  American  Ch.  Dr  Clark,  a  Congregationalist,  founds  the  1^1332 
Society  of  Christian  Endeavour.  '- 

Ward  Beecher  declares  himself  an  Unitarian. 

3494.  Church  Hist.     Blunt's  Future  of  Islam. 
Lyall's  Asiatic  Studies. 

3496.    Eng.  Lit.    Walter  Besant*s  All  Sorts  and  Conditions  of  Men. 
Froude's  Life  of  Carlyle. 

3496.  French  Lit.     Mallarm^'s  L'Apr^s  Midi  d'un  Faune. 

3497.  American  Lit.    Howells'  A  Modern  Instance. 

3498.  £(cience.    Koch's  paper  on  the  Aetiology  of  Tuberculosis. 

3499.  Art.     Gounod's  The  Redemption. 

Wagner's  Ring  of  the  Nibelungs  is  performed  in  London. 
Oscar  Wilde's  Lectures  on  the  Decorative  Arts  explain  the  aims  of 
the  Aesthetic  movement. 

3500.  Philosophy.  Leslie  Stephen's  Science  of  Ethics  sets  up  a 
standard  of  social  efficiency. 

Frey,  a  Positivist,  and  Piske  introduce  Spencer's  philosophy  into  the 
United  States,  and  attempt  to  combine  the  Unknowable  and  Humanity. 

3501.  Economics.  Jevons'  State  in  relation  to  Trade  repudiates  laissez 
faire. 

3502.  Law.    Martens'  Consular  Law  in  the  East. 

3503.  History.  S^nart's  Ldgende  de  Buddha  denies  the  existence  of 
a  historical  personality. 

3504-  Education.  Elementary  education  in  France  is  made  com- 
pulsory. 

3505.  Social.  Pastor  Bodelschwingh  establishes  a  Labour  Colony  near 
Bielefeld. 

Rudolph  Meyer  and  Vogelsang  found  Catholic  Socialism  in  Austria. 

3506.  Deaths.]  Auerbach,  Louis  Blanc,  Darwin,  Emerson,  Gambetta, 
Garibaldi,  T.  H.  Green,  Jevons,  Le  Play,  Longfellow,  Pusey,  Rossetti, 
Schwann,  Skobeleff,  W.  G.  Ward.  Wohler. 


442  POLITICS  [IttS 

2176.  Prance.    Ferrjr  returns  to  power.  r^ggt 
Chambord  dies  without  leaving  or  naming  an  heir.  ^ 

2177.  Bulgaria.  Alexander  restores  the  Constitution,  and  the  RnsBiin 
ministers  resign.     A  Russian  plot  to  kidnap  the  Prince  is  discovered. 

2178.  Turkey.  Bismarck  notifies  his  desire  that  nothing  further  should 
be  done  by  the  Powers  for  the  assistance  of  the  Christian  subjects  of  the 
Sultan. 

Prussian  othcers  are  employed  to  drill  the  Turkish  troop|S. 

2179.  America.  A  Civil  oervice  Act  introduces  competitive  ezamint- 
tion. 

2180.  Australasia.  A  Federal  Council  is  created  to  l^:iskte  od 
fisheries,  intercolonial  legal  process,  the  influx  of  criminals,  etc  The 
Council  possesses  no  executive  power,  and  New  South  Wales  and  Net 
Zealand  nold  aloof 

The  reauest  of  Queensland,  which  needs  cheap  labour,  to  be  allowed 
to  annex  ISew  Guinea  is  refused  by  Endand. 

2181.  AMca.     A  French  war  with  Maaagascar  begins. 
France  occupies  Obok. 

The  Khedive  abolishes  the  joint  control,  and  appoints  an  En^ish 
financial  adviser.  A  Legislative  Council  and  General  Assembly  are 
created,  but  possess  little  power. 

The  Dervishes  destroy  Hicks*  Egyptian  army  in  EordoCuL 

2182.  Asia.  A  French  Protectorate  is  declared  over  Annam  ud 
Tonkin,  with  commercial  privileges  and  the  administration  of  the 
customs. 

The  Ilbert  Bill,  to  extend  the  jurisdiction  of  the  rural  Crimimi 
Courts  over  Europeans,  excites  the  violent  protests  of  Anglo-IndisiB* 
and  a  compromise  is  made. 


2183.  England.  A  Franchise  Bill  is  introduced  with  uniform  r^gg* 
household  and  lodger  franchise  for  boroughs  and  counties.  ^ 
Cairns  carries  an  amendment  demanding  the  disclosure  of  the  Goveru- 
ment's  redistribution  scheme.  The  Bill  is  reintroduced  in  an  autumn 
session,  and  a  compromise  effected,  a  Redistribution  Bill  being  jointly 
drafted  by  the  leaders  of  both  parties. 

An  Imperial  Federation  League  is  formed. 

2184.  Prance.     No  more  life  senators  are  to  be  created. 

2185.  Germany.  The  Liberal  Union  joins  the  Fortschrittspartei  tnd 
becomes  the  Freisinnige,  le<l  by  Richt^r. 

2186.  Norway.  After  12  years'  struggle,  the  Left  com))el8  the  Kin?t.) 
accept  a  ministry  resting  on  a  majority.  Democratic  reforms  are  intT\>- 
duced ;  but  the  Sverdrup  ministry  proves  clerical,  and  is  deserteii  by 
the  radicals  under  Bjonison. 

2187.  America.  Cleveland  defeats  Blaine  (whose  nomination  splits  the 
Republican  vote),  and  lowers  the  tariff. 


1884]  CULTURE  443 

So(n.    Russian  Ch.    The  Raskolniks  are  allowed  to  hold  office.      v\osg. 
S50S.     Church  Hist.    The  '  Didache '  is  pubUsheA  L^*^ 

5509.  Eng.  Lit.    Stevenson's  Treasure  Island. 
Richard  Jefferies*  Story  of  My  Heart. 
Olive  Schreiner's  Story  of  an  African  Farm. 
The  Irish  Literary  Society  is  founded  in  London. 

5510.  French  Lit.    Bourget's  Essais  de  Psychologie  Contemporaine. 
Amiel's  Journal  is  published  posthumously. 

Gyp's  (Comtesse  de  Martel)  Autour  du  Mariaga 

5511.  Norwegian  Lit.    Garborg's  Peasant  Students. 
Bjomson's  Beyond  Human  Endurance. 

5512.  Science.     Maxim  invents  an  automatic  machine-gun. 
Sachs'  Physiology  of  Plants. 

Weierstrass'  Elliptic  Functions. 
S61S.     Art.     Orchardson's  Voltaire  at  the  Due  de  Sully's. 

Morelli's  Criticisms  on  Italian  Painters. 
SdlJ^    Philosophy.     Green's  Prolegomena  to  Ethics  restates  and  de- 

velopes  the  central  positions  of  kant's  teaching. 
Solo.    Philology.    Brugsch's  Inscriptiones  Aeg}'ptiacae. 

Skeat's  English  Dictionary-. 
S516,     History.     Reusch's  History  of  the  Index  of  Forbidden  Books. 

Seeley's  Expansion  of  England. 

Seebohm's  English  Village  Community  attacks  the  Mark  theory. 
3517.    Politics.    Lester  Wanl's  Dynamic  Sociology. 

5518.  Economics.     Karl  Menger  attacks  the  extreme  historical  school. 
Sidgwick's  Political  Economy  modifies  the  Ricardian  system. 

5519.  I^w.    Stephen's  History  of  Criminal  Law  in  England. 

5520.  Agriculture.  An  Agricultural  Holdings  Bill  secures  compensa- 
tion to  tenants  at  the  end  of  their  tenancies,  without  power  to  the 
parties  to  contract  out  of  the  Act. 

5521.  SociaL    The  *  Fabyaus '  leave  the  Social  Democratic  Federation. 
S622,    Deaths.     Conscience,   Gortschakoff,  J.   K   Green,  Salar  Jung, 

Manet,  Marx,  Sabine,  Siemens,  Turgeneflf,  Veuillot,  Wagner. 


S52S.  French  Ch.  The  Pope  exhorts  the  Bishops  not  to  show  rj^oo^ 
hostility  to  the  Republic.  ^ 

S52i,  African  Ch.  Hannington  becomes  Bishop  of  Eastern  Equatorial 
Africa,  but  is  murdered  1885. 

3525.  Science.  Ray  Lankester  founds  the  Marine  Biological  Associa- 
tion. 

Owen's  British  Fossil  Reptiles. 

G.  W.  Hill  determines  the  inequalities  of  the  moon's  motion,  due  to 
the  non-spherical  nature  of  the  earth. 

Flower  becomes  Director  of  the  Natural  History  Museum. 

3526,  Art    Dvorak's  Stabat  Mater. 
Mackenzie's  Rose  of  Sharon. 


444  POLITICS  [UM 

2188.  Africa.  The  Convention  of  London  is  signed  with  the  TransnaL 
The  Resident  is  withdrawn  ;  the  assertion  of  Suzerainty  is  dropped; 
Great  Britain  retains  the  right  to  veto  treaties  concluded  by  the  Soatk 
African  Republic  with  foreign  powers. 

Basutoland  is  placed  under  the  English  Crown. 

Native  courts  are  established  in  Egypt  with  natiye  and  forein 
judges.  Baring  returns  as  Consul-Oenem.  Gbrdon  is  sent  to  iriu- 
draw  the  European  residents  from  the  Sudan,  and  reaches  Khartoan, 
where  he  is  cut  off  by  the  Dervishes  (March).  A  relief  expediticm  midff 
Wolseley  is  sent  out  (Aug.). 

Bismarck  calls  a  Conference  at  Berlin  for  the  discussion  of  Afrkas 
affairs.  Germany  establishes  a  Protectorate  over  Tolland,  the  Came- 
roons,  and  South- West  Africa,  north  of  the  Orange  River. 

England  entablishes  a  Protectorate  over  Somaliland  by  accord  with 
Italy. 

2189.  Asia.    France  annexes  Tonkin,  and  seizes  two  towns  in  Annam. 
France  occupies  Grand  Bassam  and  Porto  Novo. 

Russia  annexes  Merv. 


2190.  England.    The  Redistribution  Bill  merges  boroughs  under  rrgM 
15,000  in  county  districts,  allows  one  memter  to  towns  under  '- 
50,000,  and  two  to  towns  under  165,000.     Except  for  tliese  and  tk 
City  of  London,  one  member  districts  are  universal     160  seata  aie 
extinguished. 

Gladstone's  Government  falls  on  an  amendment  to  the  Bndgei 
(June).  Salisbury  becomes  Premier.  335  Liberals  are  returned,  24S 
Conservatives,  86  Irish  Home  Rulers  (Nov.).  Gladstone  is  now  believed 
to  accept  the  principle  of  Home  Rule. 

Chamberlain's  *  unauthorised  programme  *  demands  'ransom  *  fromtbe 
rich,  e.g.  free  education,  improved  dwellings  at  fair  rents,  a  land  hill 
allotments,  free  libraries,  abolition  of  indirect  taxes,  the  restoratioo  d 
commons,  disestablishment,  graduated  taxation  and  burdens  on  UimI- 
owners. 

2191.  France.     The  Scrutin  de  Liste  is  introduced. 
Ferry  falls  in  consequence  of  a  repulse  at  Hanoi. 

2192.  Bulgaria.  Eastern  Roumelia  throws  off  the  Turkish  yoke,  joiu 
Bulgaria,  and  is  accepted  by  Prince  Alexander.  Servia  invades  Bulgani 
and  is  repulsed. 

2193.  Africa.  Stewart,  with  an  advance  guard,  defeats  a  Dervish  force 
at  Abu  Klea  (Jan.  14).  Khartoum  is  taken  and  Gordon  killed  (Jan.  i^i 
IVo  days  later  Wilson  sights  Khartoum,  but  retires.  The  Sudan  n 
evacuated,  and  the  Mahdi  becomes  supreme,  but  dies  a  few  moDths 
later,  and  is  succeeded  by  the  Kalifa. 

The  Berlin  Congress  recognises  the  Congo  Free  State,  and  declarer 
the  Congo  open. 

A  British  Protectorate  is  proclaimed  over  North  Bechuanaland,  aod 
South  Bechuanaland  becomes  a  Crown  Colony. 


1886]  CULTURE  445 

S5S7.     Philology.    Christ's  edition  of  the  Iliad  tries  to  reconcile  Wolf 

and  Nitzsch  by  asserting  that  Homer  composed  independent  lays,  but 

with  a  general  idea. 

Murray  edits  an  English  Dictionary. 
9628,    Politics.    Spencer's  The  Man  versus  the  State  champions  extreme 

individualism. 
S529,    History.    Duchesne  edits  the  Liber  Pontificalis. 

Justin  Winsor  edits  a  History  of  America. 
S5S0,    Anthropology.    Andrew  Liang's  Custom  and  Myth  attacks  the 

philological  treatment  of  mytlis,  and  seeks  their  explanation  in  folklore. 
3&S1,     SociaL    A  Royal  Commission  on  the  Housing  of  the  Working 

Classes  is  appointed,  under  Sir  Charles  Dilke. 

Bismarck  declares  in  favour  of  the  right  to  labour  for  the  able-bodied, 

support  for  the  infirm,  and  i)ension8  for  old  age. 
3632.    Deaths.    Dorner,  J.  B.  Dumas,  Fawcett,  Bartle  Frere,  Hawthorne, 

Iiasker,    Lepsius,    Martensen,    Mignet,    Pattison,    Wendell    Phillips, 

Todleben. 

3533.    Eng.   Ch.     Drummond's  Natural  Law  in  the  Spiritual    moor 

World  assumes  that  the  spiritual  and  natural  belong  to  the  same    ^ 

world-order. 
3634'     Oerman  Ch.    Beyschlag's  Life  of  Jesus  denies  the  personal  pre- 

existence  of  the  Logos. 
3636,    Russian  Ch.    Tolstoi's  My  Religion  declares  non-resistance  the 

central  point  of  Cluist's  teaching,  and  urges  a  literal  fulfilment  of  His 

precepts. 

3636,  American  Ch.  The  Mormons  split  into  a  polygamic  and  mono- 
gamic  section. 

3637.  Ehig.  Lit.    Pater's  Marius  the  Epicurean. 

Leslie  Stephen  edits  a  Dictionary  of  National  Biography,  with  the 
assistance  of  Sidney  Lee,  who  succeeds  him  as  editor. 

3638,  French  Lit.    Void's  Le  Koman  Russe  attacks  French  realism. 
Verlaine's  Jadis  et  Nagu^re. 

Bourget's  Cruelle  £nigme. 

3639.  Oerman  Lit.  '  Jung  Deutschland,'  a  collection  of  lyrics,  mainly 
by  new  poets,  appears. 

36j^,    Art.    Sullivan  composes  music  for  Gilbert's  The  Mikado. 

Onslow  Ford's  statue  of  Folly  is  bought  by  the  Chantrey  Bequest 

3641,  Science.  Pasteur  cures  a  boy  of  hydrophobia.  The  eflScacy  of 
the  treatment  is  contested ;  but  persons  bitten  by  mad  dogs  are  sent 
from  all  parts  to  Paris. 

De  Baiy's  Lectures  on  Bacteria. 

Neumayr  recognises  climatic  zones  in  the  Jurassic  rocks  of  Europe, 
and  constructs  a  map  showing  the  divisions  of  land  and  sea  during  the 
Jurassic  age. 

3642,  Philosophy.    Royce's  Religious  Aspects  of  Philosophy. 
364S.    Philology.    Fleischer's  Arabic  Philology. 

Carl  Abel's  Philological  Essays. 
3644-    History.    Denine's  Mediaeval  Universities. 


446  POLITICS  [18B6 

England  proclaims  a  Protectorate  over  the  Niger  Coast  and  RiTer, 
and  charters  the  Royal  Niger  Company. 

Germany  gains  territory  in  the  interior  of  the  Zanzibar  Protectonte. 
Italy  occupies  Massowah. 

2194.  America.  Cable's  The  Silent  South  calls  attention  to  the  treat- 
ment of  negroes. 

RieFs  Red  River  rebellion  is  crushed. 

2195.  Asia.  Disputes  arise  as  to  whether  Penjdeh  is  within  the  A%hin 
Boundary.  Russia  suddenlv  ejects  the  Afghans  from  Penjdeh  (Mtfd). 
Gladstone  asks  for  11  millions,  but  a  compromise  is  made  allowiog 
Russia  the  road  and  the  Afghans  the  command  of  tb«  pass. 

English  troops  invade  Upper  Burmah  and  annex  it 
France  makes  peace  with  China,  which  withdraws  its  claims  ind 
recognises  the  Protectorate  over  Annam  and  the  possession  of  Tonkm. 

2196.  Australasia.  A  British  Protectorate  is  declared  over  the  soatli 
of  New  Guinea  in  consequence  of  the  annexation  of  the  north  bj 
Germany. 


2197.  England.  The  Government  is  beaten  on  an  Amendment  ry^ 
to  the  Address  on  Allotments  and  resigns,  and  is  replaced  by  ^ 

a  Ministry  under  Gladstone,  who  intr(>duces  a  Home  Rule  mil  tod 
a  Land  Purchase  Bill  (April).  The  Home  Rule  Bill  is  defeated  on 
second  reading  by  341  to  311,  93  Liberals,  including  Bright,  Chamber- 
lain, Courtney,  Goschen,  Hartington  and  James,  voting  in  the  majority 
(June  7).  Gladstone  appeals  to  the  country  and  is  defeated.  Harring- 
ton refuses  to  form  a  Ministry,  and  Salisbury  becomes  Premici. 
Randolph  Churchill,  the  leader  of  the  House,  shortly  resigns,  differing 
on  questions  of  public  expenditure  (Dec). 

2198.  Prance.     Boulanger  becomes  Minister  of  War. 
Freycinet  expels  the  members  of  the  ruling  families. 

2199.  Germany.     King  Ludwig  of  Bavaria  commits  suicide. 

2200.  Russia.  Russia  repudiates  the  clause  of  the  Berlin  Treaty  making 
Batoum  a  free  port,  and  fortifies  it. 

2201.  Bulgaria.  Austria  threatens  to  join  Servia,  and  Alexander  there- 
fore makes  peace.  He  is  kidnapped  by  Russian  agents,  but  restored  br 
Stambuloft*;  but  he  is  so  unnerved  by  a  letter  from  the  Tsar  dis- 
approving his  return  that  he  abdicates. 

2202.  America.    The  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  is  finished. 

2203.  Australasia.  England  and  Germany  agree  on  limits  for  acquisi- 
tion in  the  Western  Pacific.  The  German  possession  of  Kaiser  Wilhehn'> 
Land,  on  the  N.E.  of  New  Guinea,  is  recognised  and  a  line  is  dniini 
from  the  S.E.  of  New  Guinea,  through  the  Solomon  Islands,  then  N.E 
to  the  Marshall  group.  S.  and  E.  of  this  Germany  may  acquire  nothing:. 
Samoa  and  Tonga  are  excluded. 

2204.  Africa.  An  Anglo-German  Agreement  defines  the  Sultanate  of 
Zanzibar  and  the  spheres  of  influence  of  the  two  powers  on  the  coast 

Gold  is  discovered  on  the  Witwatersrand. 


1886]  CULTURE  447 

Soj^5.  Economics.  Cohn's  Foundation  of  Political  Economy,  influenced 
by,  but  often  diverdng  from,  the  Eatheder-Sozialisten. 

3546.  Politics.  Idaine's  Popular  Government  unfavourably  contrasts 
the  English  with  the  American  Constitution,  on  the  ground  that  the 
former  offers  no  sufficient  obstacle  to  precipitate  legislation. 

Kropotkin's  Paroles  d'un  R^volt^  explain  Philosophical  Anarchism, 
which  is  also  supported  by  £lis^  Reclus  and  Jean  Grave. 

3547.  Education.  Rein  becomes  Professor  of  Pedagogy  at  Jena,  and 
applies  Herbart's  ideas.  He  draws  up  an  eight  years'  course,  beginning 
with  Grimm's  Fairy  Tales  and  the  Old  Testament. 

3548.  Anthropology.    Ratzel's  History  of  Mankind. 

3549.  Gteography.    Ney  Elias  explores  the  Pamirs,  Chitral  and  Gilghit. 
S5S0.     Social.    The  Pope  excommunicates  the  Knights  of  Labour,  but  is 

persuaded  by  Gibbons  to  withdraw  his  censure. 

3551.  Deaths.  Grant,  Victor  Hugo,  Lord  Houghton,  Milne-Edwards, 
Lord  Shaftesbury,  Scholten. 

3552.  American  Ch.  The  Bishops  of  the  Episcopal  Church  mqqq 
issue  a  Declaration  concerning  Unity.  ^ 

3553.  Asiatic  Ch.  Archbishop  Benson  founds  a  mission  to  aid  the 
Assyrian  Christians. 

3554^    French  Lit.    D'Aumale  be(|ueaths  Chantilly  to  the  Institute. 
Lemattre's  Les  Contemporains  introduce  impressionist  criticism. 
3556,    Eng.  Lit.    Rider  Haggard's  King  Solomon's  Mines. 

3556.  Oerman  Lit.    Sudermaun's  Frau  Sorge. 

3557.  Asiatic  Lit.    Chatterji's  novel,  Chrishna. 

3558.  Literature.  Naville  edits  the  Book  of  the  Dead,  from  the  oldest 
text 

S559.    Science.    Moissau  isolates  fluorine. 

KraiTt-Ebing's  Psychopathia  Sexualis. 

Milne  studies  earth(]uakes. 

The  Severn  Tunnel  is  opened. 
^ydO.    Art.     Max  E^ncer's  Judgment  of  Paris. 
S561.    Philosophy.     ^  ietzsche's  Beyond  Good  and  Evil. 

James  Ward's  article  on  Psychology. 
^62.    Philology.     Brugmann*s  Comparative  Grammar  of  ludo-German 
Languages. 

filunt's  Ideas  about  India  advocates  the  restoration  of  native  states 
under  English  control,  and  the  reduction  of  expenditure. 

3563.  HiiSory.    Lea's  History  of  the  Inquisition  in  the  Middle  Ages. 
Hamack's  History  of  Dogma. 

Weizsacker's  Apostolic  Age. 

The  English  Historical  Review  is  founded,  edited  by  Creighton,  and 
subsequent^  by  Gardiner. 

3564.  *olitics.    Dicey's  Law  of  the  Constitution. 
Carnegie's  Triumphant  Democracy. 

3565.  Anuiropology.  Two  skeletons  of  low  type  are  found  in  a  cave 
near  Namur,  with  the  bones  of  extinct  animals. 

3566.  SociaL    The  Avelings  undertake  a  Socialist  crusade  in  America. 


448  POLITICS  [1886 


The  British  East  Africa  Company  is  formed,  and  Lugard  oocopies 
Uganda,  1890. 

France  obtains  a  virtual  protectorate  over  Madagascar,  and  a  footing 
at  Diego  Suarez  Bay,  and  declares  a  protectorate  oyer  the  Comoro 
Islands. 
2205.     Asia.    A  French  Protectorate  is  declared  over  Annam. 

The  Siberian  railway  to  Vladivostock  is  begun. 


2206.  England.  Goschen  becomes  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  r^gg. 
and  W.  H.  Smith  leader  of  the  House.  A  Round  Table  Conference  '- 

on  Home  Rule  is  held  by  Chamberlain,  Trevelyan,  Harcourt,  Morlef, 
and  Herschell,  and  Trevelyan  rejoins  the  Liberals. 

The  Jubilee  of  the  Queen's  accession  is  celebrated. 

A  Colonial  Conference  is  held,  and  the  idea  of  federation  advances. 

A  revival  of  Fair  Trade  agitation  takes  place,  and  Howard  Vincent 
obtains  the  condemnation  of  tree  imports  at  the  convention  of  Consem- 
tive  Associations  at  Oxford. 

The  Independent  Labour  Party  is  formed. 

2207.  Ireland.  Balfour  becomes  Chief  Secretary,  and  the  Crimes  Bill  is 
carried  by  the  closure.  At  the  trial  of  O'Brien  at  Michektown,  the 
police  kill  one  man  and  fatally  wound  two. 

A  Land  Bill  facilitates  purchase,  and  the  Land   Court  may  stij 
evictions  and  order  payments  by  instalments.    Judicial  rents  fixed 
before  1886  are  readjusted  with  reference  to  the  price  of  produce. 
The  Plan  of  Campaign  is  announced  on  Lord  Cls^ricarde's  estate. 

2208.  France.  Corruption  is  traced  to  Wilson,  son-in-law  of  PresideDt 
Grdvy,  who  is  in  consequence  forced  to  resign,  and  is  succeeded  by 
Camot. 

2209.  Germany.    The  Kiel  canal  is  begun. 

Cancer  is  suspected  in  the  Crown  Prince,  and  an  operation  is  pro- 
posed.    Morell  Mackenzie  is  called  in  and  opposes  it 

The  Septennate  is  renewed  and  the  Army  increased  by  40,000. 

2210.  Italy.     Crispi  succeeds  Depretis  as  Pnme  Minister. 

2211.  Bulgaria.  Ferdinand  of  Coburg  is  induced  to  accept  the  crowB, 
but  is  not  recognised  by  Germany  or  Russia.  Stambuloff  becomes 
Prime  Minister. 

2212.  Russia.  The  Tsar  accuses  Germany  of  secretly  encouraging  the 
Prince  of  Bulgaria  while  publicly  disclaiming  him  ;  but  Bismarck  prove* 
the  letters  on  which  the  Tsar  relies  to  be  forgeries. 

2213.  Africa.  Drummond  Wolff's  mission  to  Constantinople  to  amnge 
for  England's  withdrawal  from  Egypt  fails  on  account  of  French  pro- 
tests against  the  article  pennitting  conditional  re-entr}\ 

French  Senegambia  is  extended  to  the  Upper  Nicer. 

2214.  Asia.    The  Quetta  district  becomes  British  Bduchistan. 


1887]  cuLTXiitE  449 

The  Social  Deaioctmte  at  this  time  sepumte  from  the  Anaithisto^  aving 
to  the  ▼iolence  of  Most's  P^P^^  Freiheit. 

5567.  I>e«tliB.  Beast,  Forster,  KnsBewski,  Lisn^  Madrig,  Minghetd, 
Banke,  Waiti. 

5568.  Sng.  Ch.    Spoiigeoii  enters  on  the  '  Down  Gnde  Crusade '   riogv 
against  the  new  ideas  of  the  Baptist  Union,  from  which  he   '- 
retires.     He  isaies,  in  conjunction  with  3Ct  ministers,  a  cinrolar  on 
Terbal  inspiration,  1891. 

Cotter  Moiison's  Service  of  Man  asserts  that  m<»alitT  was  worst 
while  the  sway  of  Christianity  was  greatest,  and  looks  to  the  Sf^nt 
of  social  serrice  to  reform  the  world. 

S5€9.  German  Ch.  The  Eukorkampf  is  terminated,  and  the  F<^ 
orges  the  Centre  to  vote  for  the  Sep^nnate. 

S5?0.  Italian  Gh.  Tosti  Abhot  of  Monte  Cassino,  negotiates  with 
Cri^i  for  a  wtodm*  rivtmdi,  with  the  Fapal  approvaL  The  opposition 
from  the  Curia,  however,  is  &o  great  that  the  rope  orders  Tosti  to  dis- 
continue his  miscaon. 

S571.    Eng-Ut.    Birkbeck  HiUs  edition  of  Boswell's  Life  of  Johnson. 
Barriers  Auld  Licht  Idylk 

3572,  French  Lit.  The  Theatre  Libre  in  Faiis  is  opened  for  the  per- 
fonnance  of  the  natunJisric  plays  of  Henri  Becque  and  his  disciples. 

357S.  Norwegian  Lit.  Vogt  and  Kiag  reintroduce  Terse,  which  had 
been  repudiated,  187-L 

S574,    Rnwian  Lit.    Tolstofs  Dominion  of  Darkness. 

3575,  Science.  The  first  congress  of  criminal  anthropologists  is  held 
at  Bome,  imder  the  presidency  of  Lombroso. 

Buidon  Sanderson's  Physiology  of  Xerve 

Hubiecht  draws  up  a  report  on  the  Xemertea  collected  on  the  voyage 
<rf*tfae  Challenger. 

3576,  Art.  Paderewski,  a  pupil  of  Leschetisiky,  gires  pianoforte  recitals 
in  Vienna. 

Cowen's  BntL 

3577,  Edncaftion.  Fraolein  Lange  begins  to  work  for  the  opening  of 
the  teaching  profession  to  women. 

3578,  Philosophy.    BauweohoflTs  Philosophy  of  Beligion. 

3579,  Law.    3tlaitland  edits  ' Bnctons  Note^booL' 

3580,  ffiatorj.    Sord's  Europe  et  la  B^volation  fran^aise. 
Kingsford's  History  of  Canada. 

Benan's  Histoire  dn  Peuple  dlsraeL 

Knapp's  Emancipation  of  the  Pmsrian  Peasantry  founds  a  school  of 
social  history. 

3581,  Oeognqfthy.  Stanley  goes  trj  find  Emin  Pasha.  Starring  up  the 
Congo,  he  cfoases  the  Bamtu  Borderiand  and  discoTeni  the  Albert 
Edward  Xjaoza. 

3582,  Nmniamatin     Head's  Historia  Nummorum. 

3583,  Bodali    Facilities  for  obtaining  allotments  are  granted. 

3584,  Deaftlia.  Ward  Beecher,  Fechner,  Bichard  Jefferies,  Katko^ 
Eirchhofl^  Jenny  Lind,  StafiTord  Xorthcote. 

G.  29 


450  POLITICS  [1888 

2215.  En^and.    Goschen  reduces  the  interest  on  part  of  the  r^^^ 
National  Debt  to  2j,  to  fall  in  1903  to  2^.  ^ 

Parnell  brings  an  action  against  the  Tunes  for  pabliahinj^  letten 
approving  of  the  Phoenix  Park  murders.  A  special  Gomnnsaoii  is 
appointed  (Sept.). 

County  Councils  are  created,  elected  for  three  yean  by  househdd 
suffra^.  Lord  Rosebery  becomes  Chairman  of  the  London  Coimtj 
Council. 

2216.  Germany.    William  L  dies  (March  9),  and  his  son  Frederick  IE 
dies  ^June  15).     William  II.  becomes  Emperor. 

Tne  attitude  of  the  Russian  press  becomes  so  alarming  that  Bismaick 
publishes  the  text  of  the  Austro-Grerman  defensive  alliance. 

2217.  Africa.  The  Dervishes  are  defeated  near  Suakin.  • 
The  British  Central  Africa  Company  b^^s  operations. 
Lobengula,  king  of  the  Matabele,  promises  not  to  treat  with  fbreigD 

nations  without  English  approval. 

Rhodes  amalgamates  the  Kimberley  Diamond  Companies. 

2218.  Australasia.    An  Imperial  Defence  Act  provides  for  a  foroe  of 
seven  men-of-war  for  10  years,  at  the  cost  of  the  colonies. 

Queensland  promises  to  share  in  the  expenses  of  British  New 
Guinea. 

The  New  Hebrides  question  is  settled,  France  and  Endand  witk- 
drawing  their  territorial  claims  and  creating  a  joint  Naval  Commiaaoi 
to  protect  life  and  property. 

2219.  America.    A  Treaty  is  made  in  relation  to  the  fisheries  of  die 
N.W.  coast,  but  is  vetoed  by  the  Senate. 


2220.  England.    Pigott  confesses  to  forging  the  Parnell  letters,     r^g^ 
21^  millions  are  voted  for  70  additional  ships.  ^ 

2221.  France.  Boulanger  is  denounced  as  a  plotter  by  the  Minister  of 
the  Interior,  Coustans,  and  flies,  and  is  sentenced  by  the  Senate  to 
perpetual  imprisonment.  In  the  general  election,  the  Comte  de  Pint 
urges  Monarchists  to  vote  for  the  Boulangists,  who  obtain,  however,  tat 
few  seats.     The  scrutin  d'arrondissement  is  hurriedly  restored. 

The  Panama  Canal  Company  becomes  bankrupt. 

2222.  Germany.  Geflcken  is  prosecuted  for  treason  for  pubUshing  tk 
Crown  Prince's  Diary  during  the  Franco-German  war. 

2223.  Austria.    The  Emperor's  only  son  commits  suicide. 

2224.  Servia.  King  Milan  abdicates  in  favour  of  his  son,  Alexander, 
but  retains  a  share  of  power. 

2225.  America.    A  Republic  is  declared  in  Braal. 

2226.  Africa.  A  Charter  is  given  to  the  British  South  Africa  GompuT. 
formed  by  Rhodes  and  Beit. 

British  Central  Africa  is  declared  under  British  protection,  and  tin 
flag  is  hoisted  on  Lakes  Tanganyika  and  Nyasa. 

France  and  England  agree  on  boundaries  on  the  Guinea  Coast  aai 
Senegambia 


1889]  CULTURE  451 

S586.    Eng.  Ch.    Lux  Mundi,  a  collection  of  essays  edited  by   rioog 
Crore,  defines  the  position  of  the  new  Oxford  movement.  ^ 

Martineau's  Study  of  Religion,  a  theistic  treatise. 
S6S6.    Chnrch  Hist.    The  Pope  issues  an  Encyclical  on  Human  Liberty. 
Sa87.    Eng.  Lit.    Mrs  Humpluy  Ward's  Robert  Esmere. 
Kipling's  Plain  Tales  from  the  Hills. 
Wuliam  Morris's  Dream  of  John  Ball 
S5S8.    French  Lit.    Anatole  France's  La  Vie  Littdraire  begms. 
S589.    Australian  Lit.    Bolf  Boldrewood's  (T.  A.  Browne)  Robbery 

under  Arms. 
3590,    Science.    The  Lick  Observatory  begins  work. 

The  Pasteur  Institute  is  established  in  Paris,  under  Duclaux  and  Roux. 
Hertz  verifies  the  hypothesis  of  Faraday  and  Clerk  Maxwell  by 
detecting  the  presence  of  electro-magnetic  waves  arising  from  Leyden 
jar  or  coil  sfMurks. 

Teall's  British  Petrography. 

5591.  Archaeology.    Trie  University  of  Pennsylvania  equip  an  expedi- 
tion for  the  excavation  of  Nippur. 

5592.  History.    Zahn's  History  of  the  Canon  of  the  New  Testament. 
H.  C.  Lea's  Histoiy  of  the  Inquisition. 

5593.  Oeography.    Nansen  crosses  Greenland. 

3594'    Agriculture.    A  Board  of  Agriculture  is  instituted. 

3595.  Social.    Bellamy's  Looking  Backward,  a  Socialist  Utopia. 

3596.  Deaths.    Matthew  Arnold,  Ouyau,  Maine. 


3597,  Eng.  Ch.  Mansfield  Congregational  College,  Oxford,  is  rioog 
founded.  ■- 

3598,  Italian  Ch.  A  statue  is  erected  to  Bruno  in  Rome,  on  the  spot 
on  which  he  was  burned. 

3599,  Russian  Ch.    Tolstoi's  What  to  do. 

3600,  American  Ch.  A  Catholic  University  in  Washington  is  in- 
augurated 

3601,  Church  Hist.  Stead's  Papacy,  a  Prophecy,  declares  the  Papacv 
will  head  the  Socialist  movement  and  will  become  Anglo-Saxon,  and  wiU 
then  once  more  dominate  the  world. 

3602,  Oerman  Lit.    Liliencron's  first  Poems. 

3603,  Norwegian  Lit.  Bjoruson  recommences  prose  fiction  with  In 
God's  Way. 

3604,  Science.  Weismann's  Essays  on  Heredity  attempt  to  prove  that 
acquired  aptitudes  and  characteristics  are  not  directly  transmitted. 

Schiaparelli  discovers  the  synchronous  rotation  and  revolution  of 
Mercury.^^ 

Eiffel  builds  the  Eiffel  Tower,  Paris,  984  feet  high. 

3605,  Art    Stuck's  Warder  of  Paradise. 

3606,  Philosophy.    Nietzsche  becomes  insane. 

3607,  Philology.  Henry  Nettleship's  Contributions  to  Latin  Lexico- 
gradliy. 

liagarde's  Formation  of  Nouns  in  Aramaic,  Arabic,  and  Hebrew. 

29-2 


452  POLITICS  [1881 

Salisbury  remonstrates  against  the  establishment  by  Porto^  of  i 
new  province  on  both  banks  of  the  Zambesi,  barring  advanoe  mto  the 
intenor. 

A  French  expedition  forces  Dahomey  to  respect  the  protectorate  OTer 
Porto-Novo  and  to  cease  from  incursions. 

King  John  of  Abyssinia  is  defeated  and  slain  by  the  Dervishes,  and 
Menelek  succeeds. 

By  the  treaty  of  Uchali,  as  interpreted  by  Italy,  Abyssinia  becomei 
an  Italian  protectorate. 

Italy  establishes  her  influence  over  the  whole  Somali  coast  from  Ckpe 
Guardafui. 

The  Brussels  Conference  takes  further  steps  to  suppress  the  tkn 
trade,  and  regulates  the  sale  of  guns  and  liquor  to  the  native. 

2227.  Asia.    Japan  obtains  constitutional  government. 

2228.  Australasia.  England,  Germany,  and  the  United  States  create  i 
Supreme  Court  and  a  municipal  council  in  Samoa  under  a  presichit 
representing  the  Powers. 


2229.  En^and.    In  consequence   of    the  case    of   O'Shea   v.   ^0^ 
Pamell,  Gladstone  advises  tne  latter  to  resign  his  position.    The  ^ 
Irish  Nationalists,  with  the  exception  of  Kedmond  and  a  few  othen^ 
renounce  his  leadership  and  elect  Justin  McCjarthy  Chairman  ot  the 
party. 

2230.  Germany.    Bismarck  is  succeeded  bv  Caprivi  as  Chancellor. 
Heligoland  is  handed  over  to  Germany  by  England. 
The  Anti-Socialist  law  of  1878  is  repealed. 

2231.  Austria.  The  Young  Czechs  defeat  a  proposal  for  separate 
administration  of  the  German  and  Czech  portions  of  Bohemia.  TV 
Old  Czechs,  who  have  accepted  the  plan  under  protest,  are  routed  at  \k 
general  election. 

22S''2,     Spain.     Sagasta  introduces  universal  suffrage. 

2^33.     Holland.     The  King  of  the  Netherlands  dies,  leaving  a  daughter. 

Wilhelmina,  and  Luxemburg  becomes  an  independent  neutral  state  under 

the  Duke  of  Nassau. 

2234.  America.  Sherman's  Silver  Bill  is  carried,  authorising  the 
purchase  of  42  million  ounces  of  silver  bullion  monthly,  and  the  is^ 
of  Treasury  notes  in  payment. 

McKinley's  Tariff*  off'ers  reciprocity  where  it  Cglvouts  home  manu- 
factures. 

France  and  England  delimit  the  fisheries  of  Newfoundland. 

2235.  Australasia.  At  the  suggestion  of  Sir  Henry  Parkes  a  Got- 
ference  is  held  at  Melbourne  to  discuss  Federation. 

Full  self-government  is  conceded  to  Western  Australia. 

2236.  Africa.  Germany  surrenders  the  region  north  of  the  Bntiah  Eirt 
Africa  Company,   and    acknowledges    the    British    Protectorate  ovir 


1890]  CULTURE  453 

W.  D.  Whitney  edits  the  Century  Dictionary. 
S608.    Education.    An  Internationsd  Catholic  tlniyersity  is  founded  in 
Pribourg. 

The  Welsh  Intermediate  Education  Act  carries  out  Sir  Hugh  Owen's 
schemes  for  secondary  education. 
8609.    History.    Mas  Latrie's  Tr^r  de  Chronologie. 

Bresslau's  Handbook  to  the  Study  of  Original  Documents. 
S610.    Politics.    Bryce's  American  Commonwealth,  a  study  of  political 
institutions  and  ideas. 

8611.  Socisd.  The  London  Dockers'  strike  is  led  by  Bums,  Mann,  and 
Champion.  Manning,  Sidney  Buxton  and  the  Lord  Mayor  form  a  Com- 
mittee of  Conciliation,  and  the  men  obtain  an  advance  from  bd.  to  ^d. 
an  hour,  and  a  minimum  employment  of  four  hours. 

The  London  County  Council  suggests,  but  fails  to  carry,  the  principle 
of  Betterment. 

Crispi  transfers  ecclesiastical  endowments  in  Italy  to  a  poor  fund, 
administered  by  local  boards. 

8612.  Deaths.  AnzenCTuber,  Augier,  Bright,  Browning,  Jefferson 
Davis,  Lightfoot,  Ritschl,  Scherer. 


8618.    French  Ch.    P^re  Didon's  Vie  de  Jdsus.  r^ggQ 

8614^  Eng.  Ch.  On  the  instigation  of  the  Church  Association,  •- 
the  Bishop  of  Lincoln  is  prosecuted  for  ritualistic  practices  in  the  Arch- 
bishop's Court.  The  Judgment  decides  against  the  Bishop  in  reference 
to  mixing  water  with  wine,  the  hiding  of  the  Manual  Act,  and  the 
siting  the  Cross  in  the  Absolution  and  the  Benediction,  and  is  received 
with  general  satisfaction. 

Drummond's  Natural  Law  in  the  Spiritual  World. 

8615.  Russian  Ch.  The  crisis  of  the  persecution  of  the  Jews  occurs, 
and  protests  are  sent  from  England.  Baron  Hirsch  attempts  to  organise 
Jewish  colonies  in  Argentina. 

8616.  Chnrch  Hist.  Lenormant,  Bartolo,  and  other  Catholic  scholars 
who  have  accepted  some  of  the  results  of  modem  criticism  are  silenced. 

8617.  Eng.  Lii.    Stead  edits  the  Review  of  Reviews. 

8618.  French  Lit.    Villiers  de  I'lsle- Adam's  Axel,  a  Symbolist  drama, 

8619.  American  Lit.    John  Hay's  Poems, 

8620.  Russian  Lit.    Tolstoi's  Kreutzer  Sonata. 

8621.  Science.    Sophus  Lie  invents  a  method  of  analysis  by  groups. 
Poincar^'s  Electricity  et  Optique. 

The  Forth  Bridge  is  opened,  its  central  spans  being  115  feet  longer 
than  that  of  Brooklyn. 

8622.  Art.  Puvis  de  Chavannes  leads  a  secession  of  artists  from  the 
Salon  in  the  Champs  Elys^es,  and  exhibits  in  the  Champ  de  Mars. 

8628.  Philology,  rick's  Comparative  Grammar  of  the  Indo-Germanic 
Luiguages,  aided  by  Whitley  Stokes  and  Bezzenberger. 

Hatzfeldt  and  Darmesteter  s  Dictionnaire  de  la  Langue  Fran^aise. 

8624.  Philosophy.    Eddy's  Serious  Thoughts. 

8625.  Economics.    I^^u^hall's  Principles  of  Economics 


454  POLITICS  [U90 

Zanzibar.  England  recognizes  German  rights  over  the  coast  to  Monm- 
bique,  and  German  influence  in  the  Hinterland  up  to  Lake  Tuiganjib 
and  the  Congo  State.  England  may  extend  her  southem  proTinea 
,  towards  the  Zambesi  A  further  agreement  revises  the  boandaries  in 
the  Niger  regions  and  divides  the  German  Protectorate  of  Togo  and 
the  Gold  Coast  Colony. 

A  Convention  with  Portugal  gives  England  the  control  of  the  Lover 
Zambesi  and  the  right  to  colonise  the  central  territory  up  to  the  Congo 
State. 

An  Anglo-French  Convention  recognises  British  control  over  Sokdo 
and  the  Lower  Niger,  and  recognises  the  French  sphere  of  inflncDce 
between  Lake  Chad,  the  Niger,  and  Algeria.  France  recognises  i 
British  Protectorate  over  Zanzibar  and  Pemba,  and  England  recognises  s 
French  Protectorate  over  Madagascar. 

The  French  destroy  the  Empire  of  Ahmadou,  and  take  Timbuctoa 

Bechuanaland  is  placed  under  the  Grovemor  of  British  Bechn- 
analand. 

The  Chartered  Company  enters  Mashonaland. 

Rhodes  becomes  Pnme  Minister  of  Cape  Colony. 

In  consequence  of  the  enormous  influx  to  the  mines  the  period  of 
naturalisation  in  the  South  African  Republic  is  raised  from  5  to  14 
years. 

Uganda  is  occupied  by  Captain  Lugard  on  behalf  of  the  East  African 
Company. 


5237.     England.     The  Newcastle  Programme  is  drawn  up,  ad-   r^ggi 
vocating  Home  Rule,  Local  Veto,  the  Disestablishment  of  the   '■ 
Church  in  Wales,  Parish  Councils,  Reform  of  the  House  of  Lonk 
Registratiou  Reform. 
'2238.     Prance.     Boulanger  commits  suicide. 
M^liue  introduces  rigid  protection. 
Cardinal  Lavigerie  announces  his  adhesion  to  the  Republic. 

2239.  Germany.  The  Emperor  concludes  reciprocity  treaties  witk 
Austria,  Italy,  Russia  and  other  countries. 

2240.  Norway.     Norway  demands  an  independent  foreign  policy. 
224L     Russia.    A  French  loan  is  floated  and  a  French  fleet  is  enthu- 
siastically welcomed  at  Croustadt. 

2242.  Switzerland.  On  the  demand  of  50,000  citizens,  any  pn)j«ct 
must  be  submitted  to  the  people. 

2243.  America.    Baron  Hirsch  settles  Russian  Jews  in  Argentina. 

2244.  Australasia.  Ballance  (succeeded  by  Seddon)  forms  a  ndical- 
socialist  ministry  in  New  Zealand.  A  progressive  tax  is  laid  on  liod 
and  income,  life  senators  are  abolished,  female  suffrage  is  introduced, 
and  labour  is  protected. 

A  Convention  in  Sydney  draws  up  a  Federal  Constitution  ;  but  thf 
scheme  receives  little  support  from  the  politicians. 


18n]  CfULTCTRt  455 

S626.    Politics.    Taide's  Lois  de  rimitation  declares  imitation  the  chief 
hctoT  in  sociological  development 
IMIke's  PkoUems  of  Greater  Britain. 
Jai97.    Hlslorj.    Maban's  Influence  of  Sea  Power,  1660-1783,  followed 
hy  works  on  the  French  war  and  the  life  of  Nelson,  found  the  philosophy 
of  naval  history. 

SybeFs  Fonnding  of  the  Grennan  Empire. 
S6£8,    Edncation.      Free    Elementary    Education    is    established    in 

England. 
S6£9.    Anthropology.    Frazer's  Golden  Bough,  a  study  of  Greek  mytho- 
logy. 
S6S0,     SociaL    An  International  Congress  on  Iiabour  is  held  at  Berlin. 
Booth's  In  Darkest  England  and  the  Way  Out  outlines  a  scheme  of 
social  reform,  including  Farm  Colonies  and  Emigration.     A  farm  is 
taken  at  Hadleigh,  Essex. 

Pastor  Naumann's  Social  Programme  of  the  Protestant  Church,  an 
address  to  an  Evangelical  Congress  at  Berlin,  revives  Protestant 
Socialism. 

The  Housing  of  the  Working-Classes  Act  is  passed,  by  which  resi- 
dents may  initiate  inquiry,   and  destroy  bad  property,  and  public 
authorities  may  compufsorily  buy  land  and  erect  houses. 
The  first  May-Day  Celebration  of  Labour  is  held. 
Baring's  Bank    fails,  owing    to  the   failure   of  South  American 
securities. 

Braille  invents  a  method  of  writing  for  the  blind. 
3631.    Deaths.    Andrassy,  Burton,  Church,  Delitzsch,  Dollinger,  Hase, 
Gottfried  Keller,  Liddon,  Newman,  Schliemann. 


S632.    Eng.  Lit.    John  Oliver  Hobbes'  (Mrs  Craigie)  Some  Emo-    riogi 

tions  and  a  Moral  I- 

S6SS.    Eng.  Ch.    Driver  s  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament 
Church's  History  of  the  Oxford  Movement. 

3634.  Italian  Ch.    Kudini  attempts  to  persuade  the  Pope  to  recognise 
the  Law  of  Guarantees ;  but  the  Pope  demands  ftiU  independence. 

3635.  French  Lit.    Sardou's  Thermidor. 

Talleyrand's  Memoirs  are  published  by  the  Due  De  Broglie,  but 
are  declaxed  spurious  by  Aulard  and  others. 

3636.  Literature.    Eleonora  Duse  makes  her  d^but  at  Vienna  and 
Berlin. 

3637.  Science.    Harvard  University  founds  an  Observatory  at  Arequipa 
in  Peru. 

3633.    Philosophy.    Oliver  Lodge  calls  the  attention  of  the  British 
Association  to  the  need  for  scientific  investigation  of  occultism. 

3639.  Edncation.    An  attempt  to  render  Greek  optional  at  Cambridge 
is  defeated. 

3640.  History.    Bilbassofi^s  Catharine  II.  of  Russia. 
Erumbacher's  History  of  Byzantine  Literature. 
Firth  edits  the  Clarke  Papers. 


456  POLITICS  [im 

2245.  AMca.  The  British  South  Africa  Company  receives  the  temtonr 
under  British  influence  north  of  the  Zambesi,  except  Nyasaland,  which 
is  declared  an  English  Protectorate  under  an  Imperial  Commissioner. 

England  obtains  pre-emption  of  the  Portuguese  sph^^e  of  influenoe. 
An  Anglo-Portuguese  Convention  agrees  on  boundaries  north  and  sooth 
of  the  ^mbesi,  which  is  opened  to  all. 

England  permits  Italy  to  occupy  Eassala. 

The  first  of  a  series  of  French  expeditions  is  undertaken  agaiiut 
Samory,  who  is  captured  1898. 

The  British  Ea^t  Africa  Company  announces  its  intention  of  evacu- 
ating Uganda. 


2246.  England.  Hartington  becomes  the  Duke  of  Devonshire,  qam 
and  Chamberlain  leads  the  Liberal  Unionists  in  the  Commons.       ^ 

A  Liberal  majority  of  40  is  returned,  and  Gladstone  becomes  Prime 
Minister  for  the  fourth  time. 

2247.  France.    The  Panama  scandals  are  revealed. 

The  Pope  orders  French  Catholics  to  accept  the  Republic. 

2248.  Oermany.  A  Bill  providing  for  the  religious  education  of 
children  in  Prussia  by  the  clergy  is  hotly  attacked  and  withdrawn. 

The  Duke  of  Cumberland,  late  King  of  Hanover,  maJces  his  sab- 
mission,  and  the  Ouelf  fund  is  restored  to  him. 

2249.  Portugal.  The  payment  of  interest  on  two-thirds  of  the  debt  is 
suspended. 

2250.  Norway.  A  conflict  breaks  out  over  the  appointment  of  Consuk, 
which  the  Chamber  declares  a  purely  Norwegian  matter.  The  King 
declares  that  all  changes  must  be  jointly  made  oy  the  two  countries. 

2251.  Russia.  On  the  death  of  Giers,  Lobanof  succeeds  and  pursues 
a  strongly  Slavophil  policy  in  the  Balkans,  Servia,  Montenegnj, 
and  Bulgaria. 

Witte  becomes  Minister  of  Finance. 

A  party  is  formed  in  Russian  Poland  to  demand  the  revivil  of 
Poland  as  a  democratic  and  Socialist  republic. 

2252.  Asia.  The  Indian  Councils  Bill  permits  election  to  the  Viceregil 
and  Provincial  Councils. 

2253.  America.  Cleveland  becomes  President  of  the  United  States  fi*r 
the  second  time. 

2254.  AfWca.  Abbas,  a  youth  of  18,  succeeds  his  father  Tewfik  ip 
Khedive,  but  shews  himself  far  less  friendly  to  English  influences,  and 
the  nationalist  party  raises  its  head. 


J  CULTURE  457 

Round's  Introduction  of  Knight  Service  into  England  shews  that  the 
military  obligation  of  the  tenant-in-chief  was  settled  by  the  King,  irre- 
spective  of  the  size  of  his  holding. 
S64J.    Politics.      Goldwin  Smith's  Canadian  Question  advocates  the 

union  of  Canada  with  the  United  States. 
S64£.    Art.    Richmond  decorates  the  interior  of  St  Paul's  Cathedral 
Sullivan's  Ivanhoe  is  produced  at  the  new  English  Opera  House. 

5645,  Economics.     Bohm-Bawerk*s  Positive  Theory  of  CapitaJ. 
3644,     Greography.    Peary  crosses  Greenland  to  the  North. 
364o,    Anthropology.    Westermarck's  History  of  Marriage. 

5646.  Social.    The  Pope's  Encyclical  on  Labour  condemns  Socialism 
and  strikes,  and  advocates  the  revival  of  gilds. 

A  comprehensive  Public  Health  Act  is  passed. 
S64T.    Deaths.     George  Bancroft,  Bradlaugh,  Gr^vy,   Granville,   King- 
lake,    Kuenen,   Lagarde,    Lowell,    Sir    John   Macdonald,    Meissonier, 
Moltke,  Pamell,  Reuss,  Windhorst. 


5648.  Exig.  Ch.  A  conference  is  held  at  Grindelwald,  to  discuss  ri  ogn 
the  reunion  of  the  Established  Church  and  Nonconformist  bodies.    ^ 

5649,  Church  Hist.  Mrs  Lewis  discovers  the  Old  Syriac  version  of 
the  Gospels  in  St  Catherine's  monastery,  on  Mount  Sinai. 

5600.  Eng.  Lit.     Kipling's  Barrack-Room  Ballads. 
Lord  de  Tabley's  Poems. 

Zangwill's  Children  of  the  Ghetto. 

Hardy's  Tess. 

Austin  Dobson's  18th  Century  Vignettes. 

5601.  French  Lit.    Zola's  La  D^b^le. 

36S£.     German  Lit.    Sudermann's  The  Home  (Magda). 
SeSS.    Belgian  Lit.    Maeterlinck's  Pell^as  et  Mdisande. 
3654^     Science.    Romanes'  Darwin  and  after  Darwin. 

Haffkine  begins  to  study  Asiatic  cholera. 

Horsley  and  other  scientists  defend  vivisection. 

3655.  Art     Parry's  Job. 

3656.  Philology.    Darmesteter  edits  the  Zend-Avesta. 

3657.  Philosophy.  Simmel's  Science  of  Ethics  maintains  that  the 
moral  system  resulting  from  the  struggle  of  forces  expresses  only  the 
tendency  of  the  majority. 

3658.  Politics.  Faguet's  Politiques  et  Moralistes  francais  du  19^me 
Si^le. 

3659.  Education.    A  Herbart  Club  is  founded  in  America. 

3660.  SociaL    The  Pioneer  Club  for  Ladies  is  founded  in  London. 
A  Commission  on  English  Labour  is  appointed. 

Malabari  obtains  the  raising  of  the  age  of  marriage  for  girls  in  India 
to  12. 

3661.  Deaths.  Adams,  Freeman,  Ihering,  Lavigerie,  Lipsius,  Manning, 
Owen,  Renan,  Spurgeon,  Taine,  Tennyson,  Whitman,  Whittier. 


458  POLITICS  [Un 


2255.  England.  The  second  Home  Rule  Bill  retaiiis  the  Iri^  r^SQS 
members  at  Westminster  and  makes  no  reference  to  the  land.   '- 

In  Committee,  'in  and  out'  is  changed  to  'always  in.'  The  thiid 
reading  passes  by  34  votes,  but  the  Bill  is  rejected  by  the  Lords  by  419 
to  41. 

2256.  France.    A  Russian  squadron  is  welcomed  at  Toulon. 

2257.  Germany.  A  Military  Bill  increases  the  army  and  shortens  tb 
period  of  service  to  two  years. 

The  Socialists  obtain  two  million  votes  at  the  electiona. 

2258.  Italy.  Giolitti  falls  in  consequence  of  Bank  scandals,  and  Crispi 
forms  his  second  Ministry. 

2259.  Spain.  Castelar  retires  from  public  life,  but  adviaea  his  foUowen 
to  join  the  Liberal  party. 

2260.  Belgium.  Plural  voting  is  allowed  for  wealth  and  education,  tod 
to  fathers  of  families,  but  no  one  is  entitled  to  more  than  three  votei 
The  exercise  of  the  vote  is  rendered  obligatory. 

2261.  Greece.    The  payment  of  the  debt  is  suspended. 

2262.  America.    Cleveland  revokes  the  compulsory  purchase  of  silver. 
The  Behring  Sea  Arbitration  is  held  at  Paris.     The  United  States 

are  ordered  to  pay  compensation,  and  new  regulations  are  introdnoed. 

The  World  8  Fair  is  held  at  Chicago. 

A  Republic  is  proclaimed  in  Hawaii,  and  is  recognised  by  the  United 
States. 

2263.  Australia.    A  great  financial  depression  occurs. 

2264.  Asia.  Lanessan,  Governor  of  Indo-China,  attacks  Siam,  whick 
vainly  appeals  to  England  for  aid.  Siam  is  forced  to  accept  an  ulti- 
matum, ceding  50,000  square  miles  and  commercial  privileges,  and 
paying  a  heavy  fine.  At  the  same  time  the  frontier  dispute  with 
England  is  settled. 

The  Indian  Mints  are  closed  to  the  free  coinage  of  silver,  u  t 
preliminary  to  the  establishment  of  a  gold  standard.  The  value  of  tlie 
rupee  is  fixed  at  1^.  4d. 

2265.  Africa.    Dahomey  becomes  a  French  Protectorate. 

The  British  East  Africa  Company  evacuates  U^uda.  Gerald 
Portal  is  sent  to  report,  and  strongly  reprobates  evacuation  and  recom- 
mends the  construction  of  a  railway. 

Kruger  is  for  the  third  time  elected  President  of  the  South  Afncan 
Republic ;  but  General  Joubert,  the  candidate  of  the  Progressirtt, 
obtains  almost  as  many  votes. 

Natal  obtains  complete  self-government. 

A  conflict  breaks  out  between  the  Matabele  and  the  Chartend 
Company,  which  takes  Bulawayo  after  some  fighting.  Lobengula  flitf 
and  Biilawayo  becomes  the  capital  of  Rhodesia.  Lobengula  dies  and 
the  military  system  of  the  Matabele  is  broken  up. 

The  Khedive  dismisses  his  ministers  and  appoints  anti-English 
advisers,  but  is  forced  to  dismiss  his  new  premier. 


1893]  CULTUBE  i59 


S662.    Oerman  Ch.    Gizycki  and  Forster  found  an  Ethical  Move-   n  goo 

S6SS.  American  Ch.  Briggs,  a  Presbyterian,  is  suspended  for  hetero- 
doxy. 

5664.  RoBaian  Ch.    The  Stundists  are  persecuted  and  banished. 
S660.    Church  Hist.    Michaud  edits  the  Revue  Internationale  de  Th^ 

logie,  chiefly  for  the  purpose  of  discussing  and  promoting  reunion. 
3666.    Eng.  Lit    Elbs  aiid  Teats  edit  Blake's  mystical  works. 

Le  Gallienne's  Religion  of  a  Literary  Man. 

Pinero's  Second  Mrs  Tanqueray. 

Davidson's  Fleet  Street  Eclogues. 
S667.    French  Lit    H^r^ia's  lies  Troph^s. 

Sardou's  Mme  Sans-G^ne. 

5665.  Science.    Zirkel's  Handbook  of  Petrography. 

5669.  Art    Tschaikowsky  s  *  Pathetic '  Symphony. 
Furtwangler's  Masterpieces  of  Greek  Sculpture. 

F.  G.  Gould  begins  to  draw  for  the  Westminster  Grazette. 

5670,  Philosophy.  Huxley's  Romanes  Lecture  decliu^  the  ethical 
process  contrary  to  the  cosmic  process. 

Bradley's  Appearance  and  Reality. 
Foaill6e's  Psychologic  des  Id^-Forces. 

3671.  History.  Lavisse  and  Rambaud  edit  a  Greneral  History. 
Hamack's  History  of  Christian  Literature  before  Eusebius. 
Vinc^radoff  proves  Folkland  was  not  ager  publicus. 

3672.  Politics.    Giddings'  Sociology  lays  stress  on  kinship. 
Pearson's  National  Life  and  Character  declares  the  white  races 

limited  in  powers  of  adaptability,  and  therefore  of  colonisation,  and  that 
the  pressure  from  the  yellow  and  black  races  may  possibly  prove  irre- 
sistible. 

3673.  Geography.  Nansen  starts  in  the  Fram  for  the  arctic  r^ons. 
Leaving  the  vessel,  he  reaches  86**  14'  X.  latitude,  in  longitude 
95'  R,  200  miles  nearer  the  Pole  than  any  previous  explorer.  On  his 
return  he  further  explores  Franz  Josef  Land. 

3674.  Agriculture.    Lord  Winchelsea  forms  an  Agricultural  Union. 

3675.  SodaL    Stead's  If  Christ  came  to  Chicago. 
Women's  Franchise  is  adopted  in  New  Zealand. 

Wages  Boards  are  instituted  in  Victoria,  with  power  to  fix  a  mini- 
mam  rate  of  wages  in  certain  trades. 

A  Royal  Commission  reports  that  the  London  Water  Companies 
cannot  long  provide  the  required  supply.  The  County  Council  sub- 
seqaently  resolve  to  purchase  the  undertakings  at  their  then  value 
and  seek  an  additional  supply  in  Wales,  but  are  prevented  by  Parlia- 
ment. 

3676.  Deaths.  Blaine,  Ford  Madox  Brown,  Ferry,  Grounod,  Jowett, 
Macmahon,  Tschaikowsky,  Tyndall. 


460  POLITICS  [1894 

2266.  England.    Parish  Councils  are  created.  r^gg^ 
The    Lords    insert  'contracting    out'    in    the    EmployerB'  ^ 

Liability  Bill.     Gladstone  withdraws  the  Bill  and  in  his  last  speech  in 
Parliament  deplores  the  action  of  the  Upper  Chamber. 
Harcourt  imposes  sliding-scale  death-duties. 

2267.  Scotland.  A  Standing  Committee  is  appointed  for  the  conaiden- 
tion  of  purely  Scotch  measures. 

2268.  Ireland.    The  Lords  reject  an  Evicted  Tenants'  Bill. 

Lord  Rosebery  declares  Home  Rule  impossible  till  tjie  '  predomiDant 
partner'  is  converted. 

Plunkett  founds  the  A^cultural  Organisation  Society. 

2269.  France.  Camot  is  murdered,  and  Casimir-P^rier  becomes 
President. 

Dre3rfu8  is  arrested  as  a  spy. 

2270.  Germany.  A  commercial  treaty  is  made  with  Russia  whkh 
proves  very  unpopular  with  the  farmers  and  leads  to  the  &11  of  Capriii, 
who  is  succeeded  as  Chancellor  by  Hohenlohe. 

2271.  Italy.  In  consequence  partly  of  economic  misery  and  partly  of 
socialist  agitation,  riots  occur  in  Sicily. 

Crispi  and  other  ministers  are  discovered  to  have  received  monej 
from  the  Banca  Romana. 

2272.  Spain.  Certain  of  Castelar's  followers  are  admitted  into  the 
Council  of  Regency. 

2273.  Belgium.  The  Socialists  gain  a  number  of  seats,  the  Libenk 
are  routed,  and  the  Ultramontanes  become  supreme. 

2274.  Bulgaria.  Prince  Boris  is  baptized  in  the  Greek  Chorch,  and 
Stambuloff  is  dismissed,  Ferdinana  hoping  thereby  to  conciliAte 
Russia. 

2275.  America.    Cleveland  repeals  the  McKinley  Tariff. 

2276.  Africa.  Rhodes'  Glen  Grey  Act  breaks  up  the  system  of  natire 
communal  ownership  and  compels  natives  who  do  not  hold  land  to  work 
during  part  of  the  year. 

A  British  Protectorate  is  announced  over  Uganda,  and  a  railway  b 
begun  1896. 

A  boundary  is  agreed  on  between  the  French  and  Belgian  Conga 
Swaziland  is  placed  under  the  protection  of  the  Transvaal. 
Italy  takes  Kassala  from  the  Dervishes. 

2277.  Asia.  A  revolt  in  Korea  causes  the  King  to  ask  China  for  ail 
Japan  also  sends  troops,  and  proposes  a  joint  administration.  Chin* 
replies  that  Japan  must  evacuate  before  negotiation.  Japan  refuscN 
and  informs  China  that  she  will  regard  the  further  despatch  of  tioi>p* 
as  a  casus  belli,  and  orders  Korea  to  dismiss  the  Chinese  troops.  Koret 
proposes  simultaneous  evacuation.  Japan  demands  delay,  seixes  ^ 
king,  and  attacks  the  Chinese  (July  25).  War  is  declared  (Aug.)  iD>l 
Port  Arthur  is  captured  by  the  Japanese. 

Massacres  occur  at  Sasun  in  Armenia.     The  Powers  interpose,  M'i 
are  invited  to  assist  in  an  enquiry. 


1884]  CULTURE  461 

$677,  Eng.  Ch.  Lord  Halifax  and  the  AbW  Portal,  a  French  r^gg^ 
priest,  discuss  reunion.  Portal  visits  the  Pope,  who  approves  ^ 
the  project,  and  Rampolla  writes  a  semi-official  letter  of  encouragement. 
Duchesne  at  the  same  moment  declares  his  conviction  of  the  validity  of 
Anglican  orders.  Halifax  introduces  Portal  to  Archbishop  Benson,  who, 
however,  declines  to  commit  himself. 

lUingworth's  Bampton  Lectures  on  Personality. 

5678.  Spanish  Ch.  Plunket,  Archbishop  of  Dublin,  consecrates  CSabrera 
Bishop  of  the  Spanish  Protestants. 

5679.  Austrian  Ch.  The  Hungarian  Ministry  establishes  compulsory 
civil  marriage  and  freedom  of  worship. 

5680.  American  Ch.  Hecker's  Life  is  published,  with  a  preface  by 
Archbishop  Ireland,  and  is  translated  into  French,  with  a  letter  of 
approval  ^m  Cardinal  Gibbous;  but  an  attack  on  Heckers  memory 
and  the  American  Cardinals  receives  the  Vatican  imprimatur. 

5681.  Church  Hist.  The  Grospel  according  to  St  Peter  is  discovered 
in  an  Egyprian  tomb. 

The  Armenian  Patriarch  visits  Rome  to  discuss  reunion.     A  pro- 
gramme is  agreed  on,  and  an  Encyclical  to  the  Churches  of  the  East  is 
issued;  but  the  Armenian  massacres  stop  further  n^otiations.     The 
Pope's  proposals  are  rejected  by  the  Greek  Patriarch,  Anthimus. 
S6S2,    Education.    A  Circular  is  issued  by  the  London  School  Board, 

proposing  direct  dogmatic  teaching. 
SeSS,     Ex:^  Lit.     Kipling's  Jungle-Book. 
Mrs  Steel's  The  Potter's  Thumb. 
George  Moore's  Esther  Waters. 
Du  Maurier's  Trilby. 

John  Watson's  (Ian  Maclaren)  Beside  the  bonny  Briar  Bush. 
SeSJ^    French  Lit.     Zola  begins  his  *  Trois  Villes,'  Lourdes,  Bome, 

Paris. 
8685.    Russian  Lit    Anton  TchekhofiTs  In  the  Twilight,  a  collection  of 

stories. 
3686.     Science.    Dewar  liquefies  oxygen. 

Maxim  invents  a  flying-machine  of  8,000  lbs.,  with  two  engines  of 
300  horse-power. 

Roux  discovers  that  the  serum  of  the  blood  of  a  horse  mitigates 
diphtheria. 

8687.  Art.    Humperdinck's  Hansel  and  GreteL 

Aubrey  Beardsley  becomes  Art  Editor  of  the  Yellow-Book. 
Schack  bequeaths  his  pictures  to  the  German  Emperor,  who  allows 
them  to  remain  in  MunicL 

8688.  Philosophy.  Meinong  and  Ehrenfels  discuss  the  subjective  ele- 
ments in  value. 

^^89.  Politics.  Eidd's  Social  Evolution  attempts  to  apply  biology  to 
sociology,  and  declares  reason  the  selfish  element,  and  religion — which  is 
by  its  nature  non-rational — the  unselfish  and  progressive  element  in 
human  societies. 

8690.  History.  Flint's  History  of  the  Philosophy  of  History  in  France. 
Sidney  and  Beatrice  Webb  s  History  of  Trade  UnionisoL 


462  POLITICS  [UN 

2278.  Ireland.    In  view  of  the  expirjr  of  the  judicial  term  of  r^gg. 
15  years,  Morley  introduces  a  Land  Bill  to  amend  that  of  1881,   ^ 
exempting  all  tenants'  improvements  from  rent,  removing  obstacles  to 
certam  tenants  coming  into  the  fiur-rent  court,  and  lubolidiing  the 
right  of  pre-emption. 

2279.  England.  Rosebery's  Government  falls  on  a  vote  in  refer- 
ence to  the  supply  of  cordite,  and  the  Conservatives  obtain  a  majoritj 
of  150. 

2280.  France.    Bourgeois  forms  a  homogeneous  Radical  Ministry. 

2281.  Germany.    The  Baltic  Canal  is  opened. 

2282.  Austria.  Liiger,  an  Anti-Semite,  becomes  Burgomaster  of 
Vienna. 

2283.  Bulgaria.    Stambuloff  is  murdered. 

2284.  Greece.    Tricoupis  falls,  and  retires  from  public  lifa 

2285.  America.  Cleveland  claims  that  English  interference  with  the 
boundary  between  British  Guiana  and  Venezuela  is  forbidden  by  the 
Monroe  doctrine,  and  recommends  resistance  by  the  United  States  'bj 
every  means  in  its  power'  to  any  attempt  to  appropriate  land  which  ib 
American  Commission  declares  to  belong  to  Venezuela  (Dec.  17). 

2286.  AfricsL  Disputes  arise  between  the  Transvaal  and  Great  Britim 
in  reference  to  commandeering  and  to  the  closing  of  the  DrifitB  over  the 
Orange  River.  An  ultimatum  in  regard  to  the  latter  causes  the 
Transvaal  to  give  way.  The  Transvaal  National  Union  issues  a  mui* 
festo  setting  ^rth  the  grievances  of  the  Outlanders. 

Khama  visits  London  to  protest  against  the  absorption  of  Bechoaitt- 
land  in  Cape  Colony.  A  narrow  strip  is  given  to  the  Chartoed  Com- 
pany for  the  railway  to  Matabeleland. 

Dr  Jameson,  the  Administrator  of  the  Chartered  Company's  terri- 
tories, invades  the  IVansvaal  from  Bechuanaland  (Dec.  29). 

England  recaptures  the  Eastern  Sudan. 

Sir  Edward  Grey  announces  that  French  occupation  of  the  Upper 
Nile  would  be  regarded  as  an  unfriendly  act. 

An  ultimatum  to  the  King  of  Ashanti  from  the  Governor  of  the 
Gold  Coast  demands  the  fulfilment  of  treaty  obligations. 

2287.  Australia.     New  South  Wales  rejects  a  Federal  Constitution. 

2288.  Asia.  The  Rosebery  Cabinet  decide  to  evacuate  ChitraL  Loid 
Elrin,  the  Viceroy,  protests,  and  the  Salisbury  Government  retains  it 
Robertson,  the  British  political  agent  at  Gil^t,  is  invested  in  GhitnL 
Two  relieving  forces  are  sent,  one  of  which  suffers  severely  in  the  Mil*- 
kand  Pass. 

The  Japanese  capture  Wei-hai-wei  and  other  strongholds.  Chinft 
makes  peace,  pays  an  indemnity,  cedes  Formosa  and  the  Liao-TW 
peninsula,  and  opens  new  treaty  ports  (April).  Russia,  France  vw 
Germany  protest  against  the  cession  of  mainland,  and  Japan  surreiMleo 
tiie  peninsula  and  rort  Arthur  in  return  for  an  increase  of  the  indem- 
nity.    Korea  proclaims  itself  independent. 

Russia  ana  England  delimit  the  Pamirs. 

A  massacre  of  Armenians  in  Constantinople  begins  (Sept). 


1805]  CULTURE  463 

Pollock  and  Maitland's  History  of  English  Law. 
SG91,     Social.    Compulsory  Arbitration  is  adopted  in  New  Zealand. 
The  Trade  Union  Congress  adopts  Socialist  resolutions. 
Lord  Salisbury  introduces,  but  fails  to  carry,  a  bill  for  the  exclusion 
of  destitute  aliens. 
S692.    Deaths.    Brugsch,  Carriere,  Helmholtz,  Hertz,  0.  W.  Holmes, 
KoBsath,  De  Lesseps,  Comte  de  Paris,  Stevenson. 


S69S,    Eng.  Ch.    Lord  Halifax  visits  the  Pope,  who  issues  an    nogR 
Apostolic  Letter,  Ad  Anglos,  in  which,  however,  he  shews  no    '■ 
recognition  of  the  English  Church. 

The  Revue  Anglo-Romaine  is  founded  to  work  for  reunion. 
A  Cadiolic  Cathedral  at  Westminster  is  commenced. 
Md^.    American  Ch.    The  Protestant  majority  in  Manitoba  refuses  to 
continue  to  support  separate  Catholic  Schools.     In  the  following  year, 
an  attempt  is  made  to  arrange  for  religious  instruction  on  the  basis  of 
facilities  for  Catholic  aiid  Protestant  teaching  according  to  numbers.    In 
1897  the  Pope  advises  the  acceptance  of  a  compromise. 
Sm.    Eng.  Lit.    W.  B.  Yeats'  Poems. 
9^.    Literature.    Brandes'  Study  of  Shakspere. 
^^.    Science.     Ramsay  and  Rayleigh  discover  argon  in  the  atmo- 
sphere. 
^8,    Art.    Kraus'  History  of  Christian  Art. 

^S89.  Philosophy.  Balfour's  Foundations  of  Belief  criticises  naturalism, 
asserting  that  the  dicta  of  physical  science  rest  on  assumptions,  and 
vindicates  the  claim  of  authority  to  be  the  guide  of  life. 

Nordau  detects  tokens  of  degeneration  in  the  popular  interest  in 
Wagner,  Zola,  Tolstoi,  Ibsen,  and  other  dominant  intellectual  forces  of 
the  time. 
^€0.    History.    I<eeley's  Growth  of  British  Policy  from  Elizabeth  to 

William  III. 
^01,    Education.    The  French  Universities  become  once  more  partially 

independent  of  the  Minister  of  Education. 
^^'02,    Politics.    Durkheim  explains  historical  progress  by  economics, 

particularly  by  tiie  division  of  labour. 
^03,    Anthropology.    A  skull,  a  femur,  and  two  teeth  are  discovered 
in  tertiary  strata,  Java.     Their  possessor  is  named  by  Dubois,  the 
discoverer.  Pithecanthropus  Erectus. 
^Oi,    Deaths.    Bonghi,  Cayley,  Randolph  Churchill,  Dumas,  Freytag, 
De  Giers,  Huxley,  Rarl  Ludwig,  Pasteur,  Sybel. 


I 


464  POLFTica  [18B6 

2289.  England.  Rosebery  resi^us  the  leadership  of  the  Liberal  r^g*^ 
Party  in  consequence  of  his  views  on  the  Armenian  question   ^ 

(Oct.). 

G.  W.  E.  Russell  founds  the  Liberal  Forward  movement 

Chamberlain  proposes  a  Colonial  Zollverein. 

The  Ranting  Bill  relieves  the  occupier  of  agricultural  land  for  five 
years  of  half  the  rate  payable  on  buildings  and  other  hereditamenta 

2290.  Ireland.  A  Land  Bill,  partly  based  on  Morley's  Bill  of  1835, 
facilitates  purchase  and  further  extends  the  rights  of  tenants  in  r^gazd 
to  improvements. 

A  Committee  on  Irish  Finance  reports  that  Ireland  is  overcharged. 

2291.  Prance.    The  Tsar  visits  Paris. 

The  Chamber  approves  but  the  Departments  condemn  the  plan  of 
a  Progressive  Income-tax.  Bourgeois  resigns  and  M^line  forms  i 
ministry. 

2292.  Germany.  Bismarck  reveals  that  a  treaty,  unknown  to  Austiii, 
existed  with  Russia  1887-90. 

2293.  AustriaN    The  artisan  classes  are  enfranchised. 

2294.  Turkey.  Christians  are  massacred  at  Canea ;  but  a  proposal  bj 
the  Powers  to  blockade  Crete  is  rejected  by  EnglancL 

The  National  Bank  in  Constantinople  is  attacked  by  Armenians,  and 
a  new  massacre  takes  place. 

2295.  America.  Bryan  is  nominated  by  the  Democratic  Conventios 
and  the  Populists  on  a  policy  of  free  coinage  of  silver  at  16  to  L 
McKinley,  the  Republican  candidate,  obtains  271  votes,  Brjran  176. 

Laurier,  a  Liberal,  becomes  Premier  of  Canada. 
Nicaragua,  Salvador  and  Honduras  form  the  Republic  of  Ceatnl 
America,  for  foreign  relations. 

2296.  Australasia.    Tasmania  adopts  the  Hare  system  of  election. 

2297.  AfricaN  Jameson  is  stopped  by  a  Boer  force  near  Domkop  aod 
surrenders.  The  leaders  of  the  Reform  movement  are  imprisoned. 
The  Emperor  William  congratulates  President  Kruger,  and  Rhodes 
resigns  the  Cape  Premiership.  A  Committee  of  the  Cape  Assembly 
report  that  Rhodes  engineered  the  Raid.  The  Transvaal  sends  large 
orders  to  Europe  for  guns  and  ammunition,  and  hastens  the  constroctiofi 
of  forts  at  Pretoria  and  Johannesburg. 

A  rising  takes  place  in  Matabeleland. 

Sir  Richard  Martin  is  sent  to  report  on  the  administration  of  tk 
Chartered  Company,  against  which  he  draws  a  severe  indictment 

Kitchener  fights  his  way  from  Wady  Haifa  to  Dongola.  Forces  iK 
brought  from  India  at  India's  expense. 

Coomassie  is  entered  without  fighting,  and  Prempeh  is  captured. 

An  Italian  army  is  almost  annihilated  at  Adowa,  and  tne  Protec- 
torate over  Abyssinia  is  withdrawn. 

Madagascar  is  annexed  to  France,  and  the  commercial  treaties  of 
other  nations  are  annulled.     General  Galiieni  becomes  governor. 

England  and  France  arrange  their  frontiers  in  Siam. 

A  revolt  breaks  out  in  the  Philippines. 


1896]  CULTURE  465 

3705,    Eng.  Ch.    Acting  ou  the  report  of  a  Commission,  of  riggo 
which  Gasquet  is  understood  to  be  the  moving  spirit,  the  Pope    '■ 
condemns  AngUcan  orders.     Gladstone  publishes  a  letter  on  the  de- 
cision.   The  Kevue  Anglo-Komaine  is  suppressed,  and  the  attempted 
rapprochement  comes  to  an  end. 

rurcell's  Life  of  Manning  is  hotly  attacked  by  many  Catholics  as 
a  misrepresentation. 
S706,    Eng.  Lit.    Mrs  Steel's  On  the  Face  of  the  Waters,  a  tale  of  the 
Indian  Mutiny. 

Stephen  Phillips*  Christ  in  Hades. 
Watson's  Purple  East,  and  Year  of  Shame. 
Wheatley  prints  an  almost  complete  edition  of  Pepys*  Diary. 
^07.    Frencn  Lit.    Barr^s'  Les  D^racin^. 
S708,    Italian  Lit.    Scartazzini's  Enciclopedia  Dantesca. 

3709,  Science.    Lowell  discusses  the  '  Canals '  of  Mars. 

Langley  constructs  a  flying  machine  which  rises  90  feet  and  flies 
half  a  mile. 

Boltzmann's  Kinetic  Theory  of  Gases. 

Rontgen,  Professor  at  Wurzburg,  accidentally  discovers  the  X-rays, 
to  which  many  substances,  opaque  to  ordinary  rays,  are  transparent. 

3710,  Art.    Leighton  s  Clytie. 

The  Kelmscott  Cliaucer,  with  designs  by  William  Morris  and  Burne- 
Jones,  is  issued. 

3711,  Philosophy.    Sabatier's  Philosophy  of  Religion. 
MacTaggart's  Studies  in  the  Hegelian  Dialectic  defends  the  Logic 

against  the  criticisms  of  Trendelenburg,  Setli,  and  other  writers. 
Stout's  Analytic  Psychology. 

3712,  History.    Lea's  History  of  Auricular  Confession  and  Indulgences. 
Renouvier's  Philosophie  Analytique  de  THistoire  surveys  the  de- 
velopment of  morals,  religion,  philosophy  and  science. 

371$,    Politics.    Lecky's  Democracy  and  Liberty  criticises  democratic 

ideas  and  practice  in  a  hostile  spirit. 

Grodkin  s  Problems  and  Unforeseen  Tendencies  of  Modem  Democracy. 
^H,     Law.    The  German  Civil  Code,  the  result  of  30  years'  labour,  is 

adopted,  marking  the  decisive  victory  of  German  over  Roman  Law. 

3715,  Geography.  Jackson  explores  Franz  .losef  Land,  and  discovers  it 
is  merely  a  group  of  islands. 

Sven  Heiin  crosses  the  Takla  Makau  desert. 

Sir  Martin  Conway  crosses  Spitzbergen  from  east  to  west. 

3716,  Education.  The  Universities  of  Prussia  admit  women  to  the 
lectures. 

A  Bill  is  introduced,  largely  based  on  the  Cliurch  of  England 
Memorial,  1895,  creating  new  Educational  Authorities,  increasing  tlu* 
grant  to  all  Voluntary  Schools,  limiting  the  School  Board  rate,  and  pro- 
viding facilities  for  denominational  teachin^^.  Owing  in  part,  however, 
to  criticisms  by  Unionist  members,  the  Bill  is  withdrawn. 

3717,  Deaths.  Challemel-Lacour,  Curtius,  Du  Bois  Rt^ymond,  Fn're- 
Orban,  Leighton,  Lobanof,  Millais,  William  Morris,  Parkes,  Treitschko, 
Tricoupis. 

o.  30 


466  POLITICS  [IMT 


2298.    England.    The  Diamond  Jubilee  is  celebrated.  Mg^ 

England  denounces  the  treaties  with  Belgium  and  Grenuau^  ^ 
whichprevent  preference  being  given  by  Canada  to  Great  Britam. 
221)9.     Srance.    A  Franco-Russian  Alliance  is  proclaimed  (Aug.). 

Scheurer-Kestner  demands  the  revision  of  the  oondemnatioo  of 
Dreyfus  and  declares  Esterhazy  the  author  of  the  bordereau. 

2300.  Spain.    Canovas  is  murdered  and  Sagasta  becomes  Premier. 
Weyler  is  recalled  from  Cuba,  and  autonomy  is  promised. 

2301.  Austxia.  Badeni's  decree  that  future  canoidates  for  the  ciril 
service  in  Bohemia  and  Moravia  must  know  Czech  is  fiercely  oppoeed  bv 
the  Germans. 

2302.  Hungary.  The  Kossuthists  oppose  the  renewal  of  the 
Ausgleich 

2303.  Greece.  The  Cretan  insurgents  proclaim  union  with  Greece, 
and  Prince  George  and  Colonel  Vassus  are  sent  to  Crete.  The  Power 
occupy  Canea  and  promise  autonomy,  if  the  Greek  force  retire,  and,  on 
refusal,  shell  the  insurgents.  Strong  feeling  is  aroused  in  England  tnd 
Gladstone  publishes  a  pamphlet.  Armies  now  gather  on  the  frontier  of 
Thessaly  and  Epirus.  The  Powers  declare  that  the  aggressor  shall  DOt 
benefit.  After  a  raid  by  the  Hetairists  Turkey  declares  war  {Apnl  Ti 
100  Members  of  the  English  Parliament  send  a  telegram  of  sympathr 
to  Greece. 

Edhem  Pasha  invades  Thessaly,  and  Greece  speedily  bees  the 
Powers  to  intervene  (May  8).  The  Turkish  frontier  is  pushed  nirtiwr 
south,  and  Turkish  troops  remain  in  Thessaly  tiU  an  indemnity  b 
paid. 

2304.  America.    Gold  is  discovered  at  Klondyke. 

The  Venezuela  Arbitration  Treaty  is  signed,  but  the  General  Ari>i- 
tration  Treaty  is  rejected  by  the  Senate. 
Hawaii  is  annexed  by  the  United  States. 

2305.  Africa.    The  Boer  Republics  make  a  defensive  treat}'. 

A  Committee  of  Inquiry  into  the  Jameson  raid  is  held  at  West- 
minster. Rhodes  admits  that  he  prepared  an  insurrection  and  ai. 
incursion,  and  confesses  he  had  not  informed  the  Chartered  Company  ur 
the  High  Commissioner,  but  denies  that  he  knew  of  the  actualBiai*! 
Colonel  Frank  Rhodes  declares  that  the  plot  in  Johannesburg  co^t 
£250,000.  Schreiner,  late  Attorney-General  of  Cape  Colony,  te8tifie^ 
to  the  disastrous  effect  of  the  Raid  on  race  feeling.  The  Committee 
strongly  condemns  Rhodes ;  but  Chamberlain  reftises  to  dismiss  him 
from  the  Privy  Council,  and  declares  that  he  has  done  nothing  incon- 
sistent with  the  character  of  a  man  of  honour. 

The  Transvaal  Alien  Immigration  Bill  is  repealed  on  ChamberUinV 
protest  that  it  violates  the  Convention  of  1884. 

The  English  Administrator  in  Zanzibar  is  instructed  not  to  reeogniff 
slavery  or  restore  slaves  t<i  their  masters. 

The  Soudanese  troops  in  Uganda  mutiny. 

Owing  to  the  massacre  of  a  British  expedition  sent  to  protest  agiion 
human  sacrifices,  Benin  is  occupied. 

The  Egyptian  army  takes  Berber,  and  Italy  hands  over  Kassala. 


1897]  CULTURE  467 


S718.     French  Ch.    P^re  Olivier  declares  the  burning  of  the   riggv 
Paris  Charity  Bazaar  a  mark  of  God's  wrath  against  those  who    '- 
reject  the  teaching  of  the  Church. 

3719,  Russian  Ch.  The  Doukobortsi  are  persecuted  for  refusing  to 
undergo  military  service. 

3720.  Church  Hist  The  'Logia'  are  found  on  the  site  of  Oxy- 
rh}^ohus,  and  contain  a  Pantheist  reference. 

The  first  Zionist  Congress  is  held  at  Basle,  under  the  direction  of 
Herzl  and  Nordau.  to  promote  the  resettlement  at  the  Holy  Ijand.  The 
rich  Jews,  with  few  exceptions,  hold  aloof  from  the  movement. 

3721.  Eng.  Lit.    The  Browning  Letters  are  published. 
Forbes  Robertson  presents  Hamlet  at  the  Lyceum. 

3722,  German  Lit.    Sudermann's  Johannes. 
372S.     Italian  Lit.    DWiinunzio's  Triumph  of  Death. 

3724^  Science.  Richard  improves  Lippmann's  discovery  of  colour 
photography. 

Greikie's  Ancient  Volcanoes  of  Great  Britain. 
Suess'  Form  of  the  Earth. 
Ramsay  discovers  Helium. 
Moissan  and  Dewar  liquefy  fluorine. 
372o.     Art.    Bvam  Sliaw  exhibits  *  Love's  Baubles '  and  '  The  Comforter.' 
Lady  Walutce  presents  to  the  nation  the  pictures  inherited  by  her 
husband  from  the  Marquis  of  Hertford. 
The  Tate  Galleiy  is  founded  in  London. 
Stanford's  Requiem. 
372^.     Anthropology.    Max  Miiller's  Contributions  to  the  Science  of 
Mythology  are  attacked  by  Andrew  Lang  on  the  ground  of  the  undue 
importance  attached  to  the  evidence  of  language. 

3727.  Philology.    Bacchylides'  poems  are  found. 

3728.  History.  Maitland's  Domesday  Book  and  Beyond  rejects  the 
theory  of  a  servile  origin  of  the  village,  and  declares  the  manor  merely 
the  unit  of  assessment. 

Roberts'  41  Tears  in  India. 

Crozier's  History  of  Intellectual  Development. 

3729.  Economics.  Sidney  and  Beatrice  Webb's  Industrial  Democracy 
explains  the  theor}*  and  structure  of  Trade  Unions,  and  recommends  the 
State  organization  of  labour. 

373(K  Politics.  John  Morley's  Romanes  Lecture  on  Macchiavelli  pro- 
tests against  the  divorce  of  ethics  from  politics. 

Bl(>ch'8  Future  of  War  maintains  tnat  war  between  the  nations  of 
Europe  is  impossible  except  at  the  price  of  national  suicide. 
3731,    Education.    The  proposal  to  grant  degrees  to  women  at  Cam- 
bridge is  rejected  by  a  large  majority. 

Lord  Salisbury's  Government  abolishes  the  17^.  Gcf.  limit,  and  grants 
an  average  of  hs.  extra  to  the  children  of  Voluntary'  Schools. 

Sadler  reports  on  the  state  of  elementary  education  in  foreign 
countries. 
^32.    Geography.    Andr^  attempts  to  reach  the  North  Pole  in  a 
balloon,  but  is  not  heard  of  again. 

30—2 


468  POLITICS  [1887 

2306.  Asia.  The  plague  breaks  out  at  Pooaa,  aud  two  English  PUgne 
Commissioners  are  murdered. 

India  sufifers  from  a  terrible  famine,  for  the  relief  of  which  £500,000 
is  collected  in  England. 

In  revenge  for  the  murder  of  German  missionaries,  Germany  obtains 
Kiao-Chau  from  China  on  a  lease  of  99  years. 

The  Afridis  attack  the  English  posts  in  the  Ehvber.  Tirah  b 
occupied,  and  on  the  approach  of  winter  Lockhart  inrorms  the  tnbdt 
that  ne  will  return  in  the  spring. 

The  King  of  Korea  proclaims  himself  Emperor.  A  Russo-Japanese 
Convention  pledges  the  signatories  to  maintam  order,  while  leaving  the 
Emperor  free. 


2307.  Ireland.    County  and  District  Councils  are  created.  r^ggg 

2308.  Prance.  Zola  writes  his  letter '  J'accuse'  to  die  President,  ^ 
and  is  condemned  for  asserting  that  Est«rhazy  was  acquitted  'by  order.' 
On  the  discovery  of  Henry's  forgeries,  Brisson,  who  has  succeedeJ 
M^line,  sends  the  case  to  the  Court  of  Cassation,  but  falls  in  coo- 
sequence  and  is  succeeded  by  Dupuy.  Delcass^  remains  ForeigD 
Mmister. 

2309.  Italy.  Partially  in  consequence  of  the  rise  in  the  price  of  bresd. 
riots  break  out  in  Milan  and  other  towns. 

A  commercial  treaty  is  concluded  with  France. 
Crispi  is  censured  by  the  Chamber  for  his  conduct  in  reference  to  the 
Neapolitan  bank. 

2310.  Germany.    The  Emperor  visits  the  Holy  Land. 

2311.  Austria.    The  Empress  is  murdered  at  Geneva. 

2312.  Holland.    Queen  Wilhelmina  comes  of  age. 

2313.  Greece.    The  loan  is  negotiated  and  Thessaly  is  evacuated. 
Prince  George  of  Greece  is  appointed  Governor  of  Crete. 

2314.  Russia.  The  Tsar  invites  the  Powers  to  cooperate  w\t]i  him  iii 
the  reduction  of  armaments  (Aug.  24). 

2315.  America.  The  cry  for  intervention  in  (,'uba  is  strengtheneil  Kv 
the  destruction  of  the  Maine  in  Havana  harbour  (Feb.  15).  .^n 
ultimatum  orders  Spain  to  relinciuish  her  authority  in  Cuba  awi  t.> 
withdraw  her  forces  (April  19),  but  no  reply  is  received.  A  Spoui^" 
fleet  is  destroyed  at  Manila  by  Dewey  (May  I) ;  and  Sam^ison  <lt^tn»v 
the  chief  Spanish  fleet  as  it  tries  to  escape  from  Santiago  (July  ^> 
The  town  surrenders  (July  13),  and  Spain  asks  terms  (July  26).  i'nb 
is  to  become  a  Protectorate,  and  the  future  of  the  Philippines*  Ls  to  W 
settled  at  a  Conference.  Peace  is  sipied  at  Paris  (Dec.  10),  the  Unitt^l 
States  obtaining  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  and  )>aying  £4,(KK).0(H»  fortbr 
Philippines,  which,  however,  recjuire  to  be  conquered. 

2316.  AfriccL  Schreiner  forms  a  ministry  in  Cape  Colony  re>riii.' 
principally  on  Dutch  votes.  £30,000  a  year  is  offereil  towanU  thf 
expenses  of  the  Imperial  navy. 


1898]  CULTURE  469 


Mary  Kingsley's  Travels  in  W.  Africa. 

Zurbri^n,  a  Swiss  guide  employed  by  Fitzgerald,  ascends  Acon- 
cagua in  me  Andes. 
373S.     SociaL    Lord  Penrkyn  and  his  qnarrymen  disagree. 

A  strike  for  an  Eight  Hours'  day  begins  among  the  Engineers  in 
London  and  spreads  through  the  country. 

A  Bill  to  compensate  for  accidents  in  dangerous  trades  and  on 
buildings  over  30  leet  high  is  carried,  despite  the  protest  of  extreme 
Conservatives.  Either  party  may  contract  out  with  the  approval  of  the 
registrar-general  of  Friendly  Societies.  The  Act  is  extended  to  include 
agricultural  labourers,  1900. 

The  Commission  on  Agricultural  Depression  presents  its  final  report, 
recording  a  slight  improvement  in  the  situation. 

Charles  Booth  completes  his  study  of  the  London  Poor. 
S7S4-    I>eathB.      D'Aumale,   Brahms,    Canovas,    Daudet,    Drummond, 
Henry  George,  Hutton,  Sachs,  Vacherot,  Weierstrass. 


37So.    Eng.  Ch.    The  Benefices  Act  forbids  the  public  sale  of  nogo 
advowsons  and  increases  the  power  of  bishops.    In  the  discussion,    ^ 
the  question  of  ritualism   is  raised.     Samuel  Smith,   John   Kensit, 
Harcourt's  Letters  to  the  Times,  and  Walsh's  Secret  History  of  the 
Oxford  Movement  attack  the  ritualist  party. 
S736.    Asiatic  Ch.    The  German  Emperor  receives  the  plot  of  ground 
at  Jerusalem  known  as  La  Dormition  de  la  Vierge,  and  presents  it  to 
the  German  Catholics. 
S7S7.    Bng.  Lit.    Watts-Dunton's  Aylwin. 
Elizabeth  and  her  German  Garden. 
Sidney  Lee's  Life  of  Shakspere. 
The  Ashbumham  Library  is  sold. 
^38.    French  Lit.    Rostand's  Cyrano  de  Bergerac. 

Huysmans'  La  Cath^rale  marks  his  entry  into  the  Symbolist  move- 
ment. 
8739,    Belgian  Lit.     Maeterlinck's  Wisdom  and  Destiny. 
3740.     Science.    Crookes'  address  to  the  British  Association  discusses 
the  exhaustion  of  com,  and  calls  attention  to  psychic  phenomena. 
Hans  Gradow's  Classification  of  the  Vertebrata. 
Dewar  liquefies  and  solidifies  hydrogen. 
Bastian  lectures  on  Aphasia. 

Ramsay  and  Travers  discover  Neon  and  Metargon,  constituents  of  air. 
S74i'    Art.    Rodin's  statue  of  Balzac. 

S^neent's  portrait  of  Asher  Wertheimer. 
3742'  Philosophy.  Shadworth  Hodgson's  Metaphysic  of  Experience 
attacks  the  conception  of  Cause,  which  must  ever  remain  unexplained, 
and  substitutes  that  of  Real  Condition,  which  simply  expresses  the 
empirical  &ct  of  causal  relation  between  existents  without  assumptions 
as  to  the  nature  of  the  relation. 

3743.  Philology.    Frazer's  edition  of  Pausanias. 

3744.  Politics.     Pobyedonostsefi^'s  Reflections    criticise    liberalism  in 


470  POLITICS  [1898 

England  and  Germany  obtain  the  reversion  of  Portugal's  African 
possessions,  Delagoa  Bay  to  fall  to  England. 

An  Anglo-French  Agreement  on  the  Niger  is  concluded. 

Kruger  is  elected  President  of  the  Transvaal  for  the  fourth  time,  by 
an  enormous  majority. 

The  Sirdar  defeats  a  Dervish  force  at  the  Atbara  (March),  and  anni- 
hilates the  Dervish  army  outside  Omdurman  (Sept.  2). 

A  Dervish  steamer  brings  news  of  a  white  force  at  Fashoda  (Sept.  7). 
The  Sirdar  proceeds  thither  and  finds  Marchand,  who  has  been  sent  by 
the  Governor  of  the  Ubanghi  Provinces,  with  a  few  French  officers 
(Sept  21).  Marchand  refuses  to  leave.  England  holds  to  Grey's 
declaration  in  1895,  and  the  French  Government  yields  (Nov.  4). 
2317.  Asia.  Russia  occupies  Port  Arthur  and  Talienwan.  England 
protests,  but  herself  obtams  the  lease  of  Wei-hai-Wei.  The  Dowager 
Empress  of  China  seizes  power  and  executes  the  leaders  of  the  Reform 
party,  and  shortly  after  refuses  Italy's  demand  for  Sammun  Bay.  An 
anti-foreign  society,  known  as  the  Boxers,  is  instituted  to  resist 
European  aggression  and  to  prevent  the  spread  of  (^Jhristianity. 


2318.  England.  Campbell-Bannerman  becomes  Liberal  leader  riogg 
in  the  Commons.  '- 

Borough  Councils  are  created  for  London. 

Country  cler^^  receive  half  the  rates  on  tithe  rent-charge. 

2319.  Prance.    Faure  dies  and  is  succeeded  by  Loubet. 

The  Court  of  Cassation  unanimously  annuls  the  first  trial  of  Dreyfiis 
and  orders  re-trial  (June).  Dupuy  is  succeeded  by  Waldeck-Rousseau 
as  Premier.  The  second  trial  of  Dreyfus  begins  at  Rennes  (Aug.  7). 
Freystatter  reveals  the  ille^ity  of  the  former  trial,  and  Germany  a^u 
officially  denies  any  relations  with  Dreyfus,  who  is,  nevertheless, 
condemned  by  5  to  2,  with  extenuating  circumstances,  but  pardoned  by 
the  President. 

D^roul^de  and  a  number  of  Orleanist  plotters  are  tried  for  treason 
and  are  banished,  and  Gallifet  restores  discipline  in  the  army. 

2320.  Austria.    Clary  revokes  Badeni's  language  ordinances. 

2321.  Russia.  The  Conference  of  Peace  meets  at  the  Hague  (May- 
June),  extends  the  Geneva  Convention  to  naval  warfare,  condemns 
explosive  bullets  and  asphyxiating  gas,  and  authorises  a  permanent 
Court  of  Arbitration,  planned  by  Pauncefote,  Martens,  and  the  American 
delegates. 

The  privileges  of  Finland  are  curtailed. 

2322.  Spain.    Spain  sells  her  last  Pacific  possessions  to  Germany. 

2323.  AustralasiSL  The  Federal  Constitution  is  modified  by  a  Con- 
ference of  Premiers  to  conciliate  New  South  Wales,  and  is  approved  by 
a  referendum. 

England  withdraws  from  Samoa,  and  receives  the  Tonga  Islands  and 
Savage  Island. 


1899]  CULTURE  471 


politics  and  religion,  and  defend  the  principle  of  authority  as  applied 
m  the  institutions  of  Russia. 
S74o.  Education.  The  London  University  Bill  creates  a  teaching  Uni- 
versity. 
'S74^j.  JSistory.  Bodley's  France  declares  that  Cabinet  Govemmeut  is 
unsuited  to  the  French  genius  and  traditions,  and  that  the  equilibrium 
of  the  countiy  is  owing  to  the  centralised  administration  established  by 
Napoleon. 

Bismarck's  Reflections  and  Memoirs,  and  Busch's  Memoirs  of  Bis- 
marck are  published.     The  latter  are  widely  denounced  as  unfair 
representations. 
^747.    Geography.    Sven  Hedin  describes  his  travels  across  Central 

Asia»  1894-7. 
3748.    Social.    A  pension  of  7^.  a  week  is  granted  in  New  Zealand  to 
all  leaching  the  age  of  65  who  have  leas  than  10^.  a  week  and  have  not 
been  convicted  of  crime. 

Penn^  postage  is  extended  to  South  Africa  and  India. 

Vaccination  ceases  to  be  imposed  on  the  'conscientious  objector'; 
but  less  decrease  occurs  than  was  anticipated. 

The  Engineers'  strike  ends  in  failure  (Jan.). 

A  strike  against  the  sliding-scale  and  for  higher  wa^es  takes  place 
among  the  coal-miners  in  South  Wales.     A  rise  of  5  p.c.  is  secured. 

A  Committee  on  Old  Age  Pensions,  presided  over  by  Lord  Rothschild, 
«leclare8  that  it  can  neither  accept  any  of  the  100  scnemes  suggested  to 
it  nor  frame  one  itself. 
')740.    Deaths.    Bismarck,  Puvis  de  Chavannes,  Gladstone,  Sir  George 
Grey. 


'S760.  Sng.  Ch,  The  Protestant  agitation  continues,  and  the  nogg 
Archbishop  pronounce  an  'opinion'  against  incense  and  pro-  '- 
ceasional  lights,  leaving  it  to  each  bishop,  however,  to  determine  whether 
or  no  to  enforce  it.  Lord  Halifax  declares  the  judgment  '  one  of  the 
greatest  misfortunes  that  have  fallen  on  the  Church  since  the  Oxford 
movement' ;  but  Dean  Hole  and  others  resign  their  membership  of  the 
English  Church  Union. 

'j?ol.  Iiiih  Oh.  Balfour  issues  a  manifesto  in  favour  of  a  Catholic 
Universitv,  but  obtains  no  support  from  the  other  members  of  Lord 
Saliabniys  Government. 

'J7o2.  American  Ch.  The  Pope  addresses  a  letter  to  Cardinal  Gibbons, 
condemning  the  '  Americanism '  of  Hecker. 

Shddon's  didactic  tale.  In  His  Steps,  obtains  an  unprecedented 
circalation. 

'J7o3.    Xng.  Lit.    Stevenson's  Letters  are  published. 
Gosse's  Life  of  Donne. 

37o4^    American  Lit.    F.  P.  Dunne's  Mr  Dooley  in  Peace  and  War. 

'S7oo.    Roflaian  Lit.     Gorski's  novel,  Thomas  Gordeyev. 

'1766.    Norwegian  Lit.    A  national  Norwegian  theatre  is  opened. 

'}7o7.    Science.    Sclater's  Geography  of  Mammals. 


470  POLITICS  [1898 

England  and  Germany  obtain  the  reversion  of  Portugal's  African 
possessions,  Delagoa  Bay  to  fall  to  England. 

An  Anglo-French  Agreement  on  the  Niger  is  concluded. 

Kruger  is  elected  President  of  the  Transvaal  for  the  fourth  time,  by 
an  enormous  majority. 

The  Sirdar  defeats  a  Dervish  force  at  the  Atbara  (March),  and  anni- 
hilates the  Dervish  army  outside  Omdurman  (Sept.  2). 

A  Dervish  steamer  brings  news  of  a  white  force  at  Fashoda  (Sept  7). 
The  Sirdar  proceeds  thither  and  finds  Marchand,  who  has  been  sent  by 
the  Grovemor  of  the  Ubanghi  Provinces,  with  a  few  French  officers 
(Sept  21).  Marchand  refuses  to  leave.  England  holds  to  Grey's 
declaration  in  1895,  and  the  French  (jovemment  yields  (Nov.  4). 
2317.  Asia.  Russia  occupies  Port  Arthur  and  Talienwan.  England 
protests,  but  herself  obtains  the  lease  of  Wei-hai-Wei.  The  Dowager 
Empress  of  (%ina  seizes  power  and  executes  the  leaders  of  the  Reform 
party,  and  shortly  after  refuses  Italy's  demand  for  Sammun  Bay.  An 
anti-foreign  society,  known  as  the  Boxers,  is  instituted  to  resist 
European  aggression  and  to  prevent  the  spread  of  Christianit}-. 


2318.  England.  Oimpbell-Bannerman  becomes  Liberal  leader  riogg 
in  the  Commons.  ^ 

Borough  Councils  are  created  for  London. 

Country  clergy  receive  half  the  rates  on  tithe  rent-charge. 

2319.  Prance.    Faure  dies  and  is  succeeded  by  Loubet. 

The  Court  of  Cassation  unanimously  annuls  the  first  trial  of  Dreyfus 
and  orders  re-trial  (June).  Dupuy  is  succeeded  by  Waldeck-Rousseau 
as  Premier.  The  second  trial  of  Dreyfus  b^^s  at  Rennes  (Aug.  7). 
Freystatter  reveals  the  ille^lity  of  the  former  trial,  and  Germany  asain 
officially  denies  any  relations  with  Dreyfus,  who  is,  nevertheless, 
condemned  by  5  to  2,  with  extenuating  circumstances,  but  pardoned  by 
the  President 

D^roulMe  and  a  number  of  Orleanist  plotters  are  trie<l  for  treason 
and  are  banished,  and  Grallifet  restores  discipline  in  the  army. 

2320.  Austria,    dary  revokes  Badeni*s  language  ordinances. 

2321.  Rosaia.  The  Conference  of  Peace  meets  at  the  Hague  (May- 
June),  extends  the  Geneva  Convention  to  naval  warfare,  condemns 
explosive  buUets  and  asphyxiating  gas,  and  authorises  a  permanent 
(Jourt  of  Arbitration,  planned  by  Pauncefote,  Martens,  and  the  American 
deWates. 

The  privileges  of  Finland  are  curtailed. 

2322.  Spain.    Spain  sells  her  last  Pacific  possessions  to  (jerman3\ 

2323.  Anstralaaia.  The  Federal  Constitution  is  modified  by  a  Con- 
ference of  Premiers  to  conciliate  New  South  Wales,  and  is  approved  by 
a  referendum. 

England  withdraws  from  Samoa,  and  receives  the  Tonga  Islands  and 
Savage  Island. 


1899]  CULTURE  471 

politics  and  religion,  and  defend  the  principle  of  authority  as  applied 
in  the  institutions  of  Russia. 
3745.  Education.  The  London  University  BUI  creates  a  teaching  Uni- 
versity. 
S74t>.  History.  Bodlev's  France  declares  that  Cabinet  Government  is 
nnsuited  to  the  French  genius  and  traditions,  and  that  the  equilibrium 
of  the  country  is  owing  to  the  centralised  administration  established  by 
Napoleon. 

Bismarck's  Reflections  and  Memoirs,  and  Busch*s  Memoirs  of  Bis- 
marck are  published.     The  latter  are  widely  denounced  as  unfair 
representations. 
3747.    Geography.    Sven  Hedin  describes  his  travels  across  Central 

Asia,  1894-7. 
S74S.    Social.    A  pension  of  7^.  a  week  is  granted  in  New  2jealand  to 
all  reaching  the  age  of  65  who  have  less  than  lOs.  a  week  and  have  not 
been  convicted  of  crime. 

Penn^  postage  is  extended  to  South  Africa  and  India. 
Vaccmation  ceases  to  be  imposed  on  the  'conscientious  objector'; 
but  less  decrease  occurs  than  was  anticipated. 
The  Engineers'  strike  ends  in  failure  (Jan.). 

A  strike  against  the  sliding-scale  and  for  higher  wa^es  takes  place 
among  the  coal-miners  in  South  Wales.     A  rise  of  5  p.c.  is  secured. 

A  Committee  on  Old  Age  Pensions,  presided  over  by  Lord  Rothschild, 
declares  that  it  can  neither  accept  any  of  the  100  schemes  suggested  to 
it  nor  frame  one  itself. 
3749.    Deaths.    Bismarck,  Puvis  de  Cliavanues,  Gladstone,  Sir  George 
Grey. 


*^oO.  ling.  Ch,  The  Protestant  agitation  continues,  and  the  nggg 
Archbishop  pronounce  an  'opinion'  against  incense  and  pro-  ^ 
cessional  lights,  leaving  it  to  each  bishop,  however,  to  determine  whether 
or  no  to  enforce  it  Lord  Halifax  declares  the  judgment  'one  of  the 
greatest  misfortunes  that  have  fallen  on  the  Church  since  the  Oxford 
movement' ;  but  Dean  Hole  and  others  resign  their  membership  of  the 
English  Church  Union. 

5701.  Iriah  Ch.  Balfour  issues  a  manifesto  in  favour  of  a  Catholic 
University,  but  obtains  no  support  from  the  other  members  of  Lord 
Salisbury  s  Government. 

5702.  American  Ch.  The  Pope  addresses  a  letter  to  Cardinal  Gibbons, 
condemning  the  '  Americanism '  of  Hecker. 

Sheldon's  didactic  tale.  In  His  Steps,  obtains  an  unprecedented 
circulation. 
3753.    Eng.  Lit.    Stevenson's  Letters  are  published. 

Gosse's  Life  of  Donne. 
37o4,    American  Lit.     F.  P.  Dunne's  Mr  Dooley  in  Peace  and  War. 
'37oo,     Rnsaian  Lit.     (jorski's  novel,  Thomas  Gordeyev. 
37o6,    Norwegian  Lit.    A  national  Norwegian  theatre  is  opened. 
'3757.     Science.    Sclater's  Geography  of  Mammals. 


470  POLITICS  [18M 


England  and  Germany  obtain  the  reversion  of  Portugal's  African 
possessions,  Delagoa  Bay  to  fall  to  England. 

An  Anglo-French  Agreement  on  the  Niger  is  concluded. 

Kruger  is  elected  President  of  the  Transvaal  for  the  fourth  time,  by 
an  enormous  majority. 

The  Sirdar  defeats  a  Dervish  force  at  the  Atbara  (March),  and  anui* 
hilates  the  Dervish  army  outside  Omdurman  (Sept.  2). 

A  Dervish  steamer  brings  news  of  a  white  force  at  Fashoda  (Sept.  7). 
The  Sirdar  proceeds  thither  and  finds  Marchand,  who  has  been  sent  by 
the  Grovemor  of  the  Ubanghi  Provinces,  with  a  few  French  officers 
(Sept  21).  Marchand  refuses  to  leave.  England  holds  to  Grey*s 
declaration  in  1895,  and  the  French  Government  3rields  (Nov.  4). 
2317.  Asia.  Russia  occupies  Port  Arthur  and  Talienwan.  England 
protests,  but  herself  obtains  the  lease  of  Wei-hai-Wei.  The  Dowager 
Empress  of  (]!hina  seizes  power  and  executes  the  leaders  of  the  Reform 
party,  and  shortly  after  refuses  Italy's  demand  for  Sammun  Bay.  An 
anti-foreign  society,  known  as  the  Boxers,  is  instituted  to  resist 
European  aggression  and  to  prevent  the  spread  of  diristianity. 


2318.  England.    CampbeU-Bannerman  becomes  Liberal  leader    riggg 
in  the  Commons.  ^ 

Borough  Councils  are  created  for  London. 

Country  clercy  receive  half  the  rates  on  tithe  rent-charge. 

2319.  Prance.    Faure  dies  and  is  succeeded  by  Loubet. 

The  Court  of  Cassation  unanimously  annuls  the  first  trial  of  Dre}^us 
and  orders  re-trial  (June).  Dupuy  is  succeeded  by  Waldeck-Rousseau 
as  Premier.  The  second  trial  of  Dreyfus  b^^s  at  Rennes  (Aug.  7). 
Fre}rstatter  reveals  the  illegality  of  the  former  trial,  and  German}'  a^n 
officially  denies  any  relations  with  Dreyfus,  who  is,  nevertheless, 
condemned  by  5  to  2,  with  extenuating  circumstances,  but  pardoned  by 
the  President 

D^roulMe  and  a  number  of  Orleanist  plotters  are  trieil  for  treason 
and  are  banished,  and  Gallifet  restores  discipline  in  the  army. 

2320.  Austria.    Clary  revokes  Badeni's  language  ordinances. 

2321.  Rnssia.  The  Conference  of  Peace  meets  at  the  Hague  (May- 
June),  extends  the  Geneva  (Convention  to  naval  warfare,  condemns 
explosive  buUets  and  asphyxiating  gas,  and  authorises  a  permanent 
GovLTt  of  Arbitration,  planned  by  Pauncefote,  Martens,  and  the  American 
delates. 

The  privileges  of  Finland  are  curtailed. 

2322.  Spain.    Spain  sells  her  last  Pacific  possessions  to  Grermany. 

2323.  Anstrala&ia.  The  Federal  Constitution  is  modified  by  'a  Con- 
ference of  Premiers  to  conciliate  New  South  Wales,  and  is  approved  by 
a  referendum. 

England  withdraws  from  Samoa,  and  receives  the  Tonga  Islands  and 
Savage  Island. 


1889]  CULTURE  471 

politics  and  religion,  and  defend  the  principle  of  authority  as  applied 
m  the  institutions  of  Russia. 
S7^.  Education.  The  London  University  Bill  creates  a  teaching  Uni- 
versity. 
d7^.  History.  Bodlev's  Prance  declares  that  Cabinet  Government  is 
UDSoited  to  the  Frencn  genius  and  traditions,  and  that  the  equilibrium 
of  the  country  is  owing  to  the  centralised  administration  established  by 
Napoleon. 

Bismarck's  Reflections  and  Memoirs,  and  Busch's  Memoirs  of  Bis- 
marck are  published.     The  latter  are  widely  denounced  as  unfair 
representations. 
'S747.    Geography.    Sven  Hedin  describes  his  travels  across  Central 

Asia,  1894-7. 
ST4S,    Social.    A  pension  of  7^.  a  week  is  granted  in  New  Zealand  to 
all  reaching  the  age  of  65  who  have  less  than  lOs.  a  week  and  have  not 
been  convicted  of  crime. 

Penn^  postage  is  extended  to  South  Africa  and  India. 
Vaccination  ceases  to  be  imposed  on  the  'conscientious  objector'; 
but  less  decrease  occurs  than  was  anticipated. 
The  Engineers'  strike  ends  in  failure  (Jan.). 

A  strike  against  the  sliding-scale  and  for  higher  wages  takes  place 
among  the  coal-miners  in  South  Wales.     A  rise  of  5  p.c.  is  secureo. 

A  Committee  on  Old  Age  Pensions,  presided  over  by  Lord  Rothschild, 
declares  that  it  can  neither  accept  any  of  the  100  schemes  suggested  to 
it  nor  frame  one  itself. 
S7W.    Deaths.    Bismarck,  Puvis  de  Chavaunes,  Gladstone,  Sir  George 
Grey. 


-SToO,  Xng.  Ch.  The  Protestant  agitation  continues,  and  the  nogg 
Archbishop  pronounce  an  *  opinion'  against  incense  and  pro-  '- 
ceesional  lights,  leaving  it  to  each  bishop,  however,  to  determine  whether 
or  no  to  enforce  it.  Lord  Halifax  declares  the  judgment  'one  of  the 
greatest  misfortunes  that  have  fallen  on  the  Church  since  the  Oxford 
movement' ;  but  Dean  Hole  and  others  resign  their  membership  of  the 
English  Church  Union. 

STol.  Iriah  Ch.  Balfour  issues  a  manifesto  in  favour  of  a  Catholic 
University,  but  obtains  no  support  from  the  other  members  of  Lord 
Salisbury's  Government. 

'i?o2.  American  Ch.  The  Pope  addresses  a  letter  to  Cardinal  Gibbons, 
condemning  the  '  Americanism '  of  Hecker. 

Sheldon's  didactic  tale,  In  His  Steps,  obtains  an  unprecedented 
circulation. 

'jToS.    Eng.  Lit.    Stevenson's  Letters  are  published. 
Gosse's  Life  of  Donne. 

'37o4^    American  Lit.    F.  P.  Dunne's  Mr  Dooley  in  Peace  and  War. 

'^oo,    Russian  Lit.     Gorski's  novel,  Thomas  Gordeyev. 

'1756.    Norwegian  Lit.    A  national  Norwegian  theatre  is  openetl. 

S767.     Science.    Sclat^r's  Geography  of  Mammals. 


470  POLITICS  [1898 

England  and  Germany  obtain  the  reversion  of  Portugal's  Africao 
possessions,  Delagoa  Bay  to  fall  to  England. 

An  Anglo-French  Agreement  on  the  Niger  is  concluded. 

Kruger  is  elected  President  of  the  Transvaal  for  Uie  fourth  time,  by 
an  enormous  majority. 

The  Sirdar  defeats  a  Dervish  force  at  the  Atbara  (March),  and  anui- 
hilates  the  Dervish  army  outside  Omdurman  (Sept.  2). 

A  Dervish  steamer  brings  news  (»f  a  white  force  at  Fashoda  (Sept  7). 
The  Sirdar  proceeds  thither  and  finds  Marchand,  who  has  been  sent  bj 
the  Governor  of  the  Ubanghi  Provinces,  with  a  few  French  ofl&oen 
(Sept  21).  Marchand  refuses  to  leave.  England  holds  to  iitey'* 
declaration  in  1895,  and  the  French  Government  yields  (Nov.  4). 
2317.  Aaia.  Russia  occupies  Port  Arthur  and  Talienwan.  Engknil 
protests,  but  herself  obtains  the  lease  of  Wei-hai-Wei.  The  Dowager 
Empress  of  China  seizes  power  and  executes  the  leaders  of  the  Refona 
party,  and  shortly  after  refuses  Italy's  demand  for  Sammun  Bay.  An 
anti-foreign  society,  known  as  the  Boxers,  is  instituted  to  re^ 
European  aggression  and  to  prevent  the  spread  of  (Christianity. 


2318.  England.  Campbell-Bannerman  becomes  Liberal  leader  r^g^ 
in  the  Commons.  ^ 

Borough  Councils  are  created  for  London. 

Country  clergy  receive  half  the  rates  on  tithe  rent-charge. 

2319.  Prance.    Faure  dies  and  is  succeeded  by  Loubet. 

The  Court  of  Cassation  unanimously  annuls  the  first  trial  of  Drej'ftis 
and  orders  re-trial  (June).  Dupuy  is  succeeded  by  Waldeck-Rous>eau 
as  Premier.  The  second  trial  of  Dreyfus  begins  at  Rennes  (Aug.  7. 
Freystatter  reveals  the  illegality  of  the  former  trial,  and  Germany  a#rain 
officially  denies  any  relations  with  Dreyfus,  who  is,  nevertheless, 
condemned  by  5  to  2,  with  extenuating  circumstances,  but  |>ardoned  l«y 
the  President. 

DdroulMe  and  a  number  of  Orleanist  plotters  are  tried  for  trea^m 
and  are  banished,  and  Gallifet  restores  discipline  in  the  army. 

2320.  Austria.     Clary  revokes  Badeni's  language  ordinances, 

2321.  Russia.  The  Conference  of  Peac^  meets  at  the  Hague  (May- 
June),  extends  the  (ieneva  Convention  to  naval  warfare,  condemns 
explosive  bullets  and  asphyxiating  gas,  and  authorises  a  penuanent 
Court  of  Arbitration,  planned  by  Pauncefote,  Martens,  and  the  American 
delegates. 

The  privileges  of  Finland  are  curtailed. 

2322.  Spain.    Spain  sells  her  last  Pacific  possessions  to  Gennanv. 

2323.  Australasia.  The  Federal  Constitution  is  modified  by  "a  0>n- 
ference  of  Premiers  to  conciliate  New  South  Wales,  and  is  approver!  ^y 
a  referendum. 

England  withdraws  from  Samoa,  and  receives  the  Tonga  Islands  an»i 
Savage  Island. 


1889]  CULTURE  471 


politics  and  religion,  and  defend  the  principle  of  authority  as  applied 
in  the  institutions  of  Russia. 
^J^,  Education.  The  London  University  Bill  creates  a  teaching  Uni- 
versity. 
t?7^6*.  History.  Bodlev's  France  declares  that  Cabinet  Government  is 
unsnited  to  the  French  genius  and  traditions,  and  that  the  equilibrium 
of  the  country  is  owing  to  the  centralised  administration  established  by 
Napoleon. 

Bismarck's  Reflections  and  Memoirs,  and  Busch's  Memoirs  of  Bis- 
marck are  published.     The  latter  are  widely  denounced  as  unfair 
representations. 
S7Jf^7,     Geography.    Sven  Hedin  describes  liis  travels  across  Central 

Asia,  1894-7. 
S7i8,     Social.    A  pension  of  7^.  a  week  is  granted  in  New  Zealand  to 
all  reaching  the  age  of  65  who  have  less  than  10«.  a  week  and  have  not 
been  convicted  of  crime. 

Penn^  postage  is  extended  to  South  Africa  and  India. 

Vaccination  ceases  to  be  imposed  on  the  *  conscientious  objector'; 
but  less  decrease  occurs  than  was  anticipated. 

The  Engineers*  strike  ends  in  failure  (Jan.). 

A  strike  against  the  sliding-scale  and  for  higher  wa^es  takes  place 
among  the  coal-miners  in  South  Wales.     A  rise  of  5  p.c.  is  secured. 

A  Committee  on  Old  Age  Pensions,  presided  over  by  Lord  Rothschild, 
declares  that  it  can  neither  accept  any  of  the  100  schemes  suggested  to 
it  nor  frame  one  itself. 
S7Ji9,    Deaths.    Bismarck,  Puvis  de  Chavannes,  (iladstone,  Sir  George 
Grey. 


S7oO.  ling.  Ch,  The  Protestant  agitation  continues,  and  the  nogg 
Archbishop  pronounce  an  'opinion'  against  incense  and  pro-  ^ 
cessional  lights,  leaving  it  to  each  bishop,  however,  to  determine  whether 
or  no  to  enforce  it.  Lord  Halifax  declares  the  judgment  'one  of  the 
greatest  misfortunes  that  have  fallen  on  the  Church  since  the  Oxford 
movement' ;  but  Dean  Hole  and  others  resign  their  membership  of  the 
English  Church  Union. 

3751.  Iriah  Ch.  Balfour  issues  a  manifesto  in  favour  of  a  Catholic 
University,  but  obtains  no  support  from  the  other  members  of  Lord 
Salisbury  s  Government. 

S7o2.  American  Ch.  The  Pope  addresses  a  letter  to  Cardinal  Gibbons, 
condemning  the  '  Americanism '  of  Hecker. 

Sheldon's  didactic  tale,  In  His  Steps,  obtains  an  unprecedented 
circulation. 

S76S.    Eng.  Lit.    Stevenson's  Letters  are  published. 
Gosse's  Life  of  Donne. 

3764,    American  Lit.    F.  P.  Dunne's  Mr  Dooley  in  Peace  and  War. 

3755,  RoBsian  Lit.     Gorski's  novel,  Thomas  Gordeyev. 

3756,  Norwegian  Lit.    A  national  Norwegian  theatre  is  opened. 

3757,  Science.    Sclater's  Geography  of  Mammals. 


472  POLITICS  [U99 

2324.  Asia.    Gold  is  made  legal  tender  in  India. 

2325.  America.    An  attempt  to  settle  the  Alaska  bonndarj  fiuls. 
The  Arbitrators  on  the  boundary  of  British  Guiana  and  VenezueU 

award  England  the  Schomburgh  line,  with  two  small  exceptions. 

2326.  Africa.    The  Crown  buys  the  dominions  of  the  Niger  Company. 
England  and  France  agree  as  to  the  division  of  North  Africa. 
The  Khalifa  is  killed  by  Wingate  on  the  White  Nile  (Nov.). 
Rhodes  arranges  with  Germany  for  a  telegraph  and  railways  in 

South  East  Africa. 

A  petition,  professing  to  be  signed  by  21,000  Johannesburg  Ont- 
landers,  is  forwarded  to  the  English  Government  (March),  and  a  fniitles^ 
conference  is  held  at  Bloemfontein,  Kruger  refiising  to  grant  a  5  yean' 
franchise.  Milner's  despatch  of  May  4  on  the  grievances  is  dov 
published.  A  7  years'  franchise  is  enacted  by  the  Transvaal,  and 
England  suggests  a  joint  Commission  on  the  new  law.  Before  replying, 
the  Transvasd  offers  more  than  Milner  has  asked,  on  condition  mat  the 
present  occasion  should  not  be  re^rded  as  a  precedent  for  fdtore 
interference.  This  condition  is  remsed,  and  the  offer  is  withdrawn. 
The  invitation  to  a  joint  Commission  is  now  accepted ;  but  the  Ed|^ 
Government  declares  it  is  too  late.  England  proposes  a  5  years'  fran- 
chise,— one  quarter  of  the  Raad  to  represent  uie  gold-fields, — equality 
of  languages  in  the  Baad,  and  a  vote  for  the  President.  These 
proposals,  conveyed  in  a  despatch  which  reasserts  the  suzerainty  claim, 
are  rejected,  llie  English  Cabinet  reply  that  they  will  formulate  nev 
proposals  (Sept.  22).  On  Oct.  7,  however,  the  order  for  the  mobilisa- 
tion of  an  Army  Corps  is  given,  the  Reserves  are  called  out,  and 
Parliament  is  summoned.  Kruger  hereupon  demands  the  withdrawal  ii 
troops  on  the  frontier,  and  the  recall  of  the  reinforcements  and  of  the 
troops  now  at  sea  (Oct.  9).  The  demands  are  refused,  and  the  Boep 
enter  Natal,  and  besiege  Mafeking  and  Kimberley.  The  Boers  are 
defeated  at  Glencoe  (Oct.  17),  and  Elandslaagte  (Oct.  21) ;  but  9<>» 
men  are  cut  off  at  Nicholson's  Nek  (Oct.  30),  and  Ladysmith  t 
surrounded  (Nov.  1).  Methuen  sets  out  to  relieve  Kimberley,  and 
wins  at  Belmont,  (jraspan,  and  Modder  River  (Nov.),  but  is  defeated  at 
Magersfontein  (Dec.  12).  Gatacre  is  repulsed  in  a  night  attack  in  the 
north  of  Cape  Colony  (Dec.  10),  and  Buller's  Ladysmith  relief  column 
fails  to  cross  the  Ihigela  at  Colenso  (Dec.  15).  In  consequence  of  the 
week  of  disaster,  Lord  Roberts  is  appointed  Commander-in-Chief,  awl 
Lord  Kitchener  is  summoned  from  Egynt  as  Chief  of  the  Staff,  the 
difficulties  involved  in  the  campaign  in  Natal  rendering  it  impossible 
for  BuUer  adequately  to  supervise  the  operations  in  other  parts. 

Canada  and  the  Australasian  colomes  send  volunteers  to  the  war. 
and  a  quickened  sense  of  the  unity  of  the  Empire  begins  to  prevail. 


1899]  CULTURE  473 

Marconi  experiments  in  wireless  tel^raphy. 
The  malarial  mosqnito  is  discovered. 

J.  J.  Thompson  developes  the  theor}-  that  matter  can  exist  of  less 
mass  than  the  atom  of  hydrogen. 

The  Geological  Survey  in  the  N.  W.  Highlands  establishes  the  base 
of  the  stratifiraphical  series. 
S758,    Art.    Thomeycroft's  statue  of  CromweU  is  placed  outside  West- 
minster HalL 
3759.    FhiloBophy.    Ward's  GiflFord  Lectures  criticise  naturalism  and 

the  system  of  Herbert  Spencer. 
37W,    History.    Maitland  proves  that  the  supremacy  of  Canon  Law  in 
England  before  the  Reformation  was  virtuaUy  uncontested. 

3761,  Politics.  Bosanouet's  Philosophical  Theory  of  the  State  e.vplains 
its  organic  nature,  and  claims  permanent  value  for  the  teaching  of 
Rousseau  and  H^el. 

Benoist's  Crise  de  TEtat  Modeme  advocates  representation  not  of 
numbers  but  of  interests  and  professions. 

3762,  Economics.  Bernstein  criticises  Marxian  Socialism  from  an 
evolutionaiy  standpoint,  which  is  adopted  by  several  of  the  leaders  of 
the  Social  Democratic  Party  in  Germany. 

3763,  Edncation.  Robsou's  Bill  raises  the  age  of  Half>Timers  from  11 
to  12,  carrying  out  a  promise  made  by  the  English  representative  at  the 
B^lin  Labour  Conference,  1890. 

A  Board  of  Education  is  created,  consisting  of  a  President  and  of 
the  Lord  President  of  Council,  the  Secretaries  of  State,  etc.,  possibly 
aided  by  a  Consultative  Committee,  uniting  the  Education  with  the 
Science  and  Art  Department. 

3764,  Social.    An  International  Women's  Congress  is  held  in  London. 
Bills  for  enforcing  automatic  couplings  and  for  checking  the  practice 

of  Secret  Commissions  are  withdrawn. 

A  Bill  is  passed  to  facilitate  the  purchase  of  houses  by  workmen. 

A  Federation  of  Trade  Unions  for  fighting  purposes  is  organised ; 
but  the  Engineers  and  several  other  Unions  stana  aloof. 

A  Committee  of  the  Commons,  presided  over  by  Chaplin,  recom- 
mends a  scheme  for  a  pension  of  bs,  to  Is.  a  week  at  65  years  of  age,  if 
the  candidate  is  of  good  character,  does  not  possess  more  than  1(X*<. 
a  wedk,  and  has  made  an  attempt  to  save. 

The  Licensing  Commission  issues  a  Majority  and  Minority  Report. 
The  latter,  drawn  up  bv  Lord  Peel,  the  Cliairman,  recommends  that 
a  seven  years'  notice  shall  be  substituted  for  money  compensation,  which 
diall  only  be  granted  if  the  license  be  extinguished  before  the  expiry  of 
the  notice. 

3765,  Deaths.    Rosa  Bonheur,  Buchner,  Bunsen,  Castelar,  Cherbuliez, 
Herschell,  Nubar  Pasha,  Pailleron,  Weiszacker. 


APPENDIX  A. 


BIBLIOGKAPHY. 


WodB  of  BtfnvBoo. 

Austria. 

Bibliognphles. 

Spain. 

Encyclopaedias. 

Politics. 

QiBflral  FolWoftl  History. 

Culture. 

UniTenaL 

Portogal. 

General  European. 

'          Italy. 

Periods  of  European  History. 

Politics. 

(Imtral  Cnltaro. 

Culture. 

General  Snrreys  and  Histories  of 

1 

Special  Subjects. 

Politics. 

Periods  in  the  History  of  Culture. 

Culture. 

ITiflinn 

Pontics. 

Politics. 

Cboroh  History. 

Culture. 

'               Literature. 

Denmark,  Norway  and  Swodon. 

Seienoe,  Art,  Philosophy. 

Russia. 

Social  History. 

Politics. 

•eociaad. 

Culture. 

Politics. 

Culture. 

Politics. 

iNUad. 

Culture. 

Polilie«. 

The  BaUoui  Btatas  and  Qreece. 

Culture. 

Ikttlih  Oolonias.                                         ' 

The  United  BUtes. 

General. 

Politics. 

Australasia. 

Culture. 

Africa. 

Sonth  America. 

Canada. 

Asia. 

^nam. 

Politics. 

Polities. 

Culture. 

Culture. 


Afirlea. 


Politics. 
Culture. 


476  APPENDIX   A 


Works  of  Reference. 

Bibliographies.  Stein'8  Bihliographie  Q4n/4rale.  Sonnenschein's  Bett  Btvii 
Laiiglois'  Bihliographie  HvAorique.  Adams*  Historical  Literature.  HuM^ 
Literature  of  Theology.     Muhlbrecht's  Litteratur  d.  StaalwristetucAafien. 

Encyclopaedias,  etc.  Encyclopaedia  Britannioa.  Brockhaus'  ConvermOioki- 
Lcvicon.  Herbst's  Encyclopddie  d.  Neueren  Ge$chichte.  Larncd'H  HUtorii 
for  ready  reference.  Haydn's  Dictionary  of  Dates.  Erach  u.  GruW» 
Kunste  u.  Wissenschaften.  Conrad's  Staatswissenschaften.  Palgrave*:}  Uic- 
tionary  of  Political  Economy.  Poggendorfs  Exacte  Wissenschaften.  Wetxr 
und  Welte's  Katholisches  Kirchenlexikon.  Herzog's  Protestantim^  TheUocit 
u.  Kirche  (abridged  and  translated  by  SchafiT).  Francks  Dictionnairt  dm 
Sciences  PhUosophiques.  Vapereau's  Dictionnaire  des  Contemporains.  B^chb 
Geographic  Umverselle.  Mulhall's  Dictionary  of  Statistics.  Keltie'8  JI<Ma- 
man^s  Year-book. 

General  Political  History. 

Universal.  Lavisse  et  Rambaud,  iTw^.  (?^n^Yi/«,  4^12.  Weiss' HV/^efcA.,  6-21 
Kaemmel's  WeltgescLy  2 — 10.  Dreyss'  Chronologic  Universelley  2.  Stokrv*' 
Chronologie  Umverselle^  3.  George's  Genealogical  Tables.  Grote's  Staik»- 
tafeln. 

General  European.  Mor^e  Stephens'  Modern  European  History.  Lodges 
Modern  Europe.  Periods  of  European  History.  Philip^Mon's  Neuere  GtseL  1 
Flathe's  Neueste  Gesch.^  3.  Hassall's  European  History.  Lorenz'  Oei^- 
logisches  Handhuch.  Bourgeois'  Politique  Exterieure^  2.  Freeman's  History^t' 
Geography.     Perthes'  Geschichtsatlas. 

Periods.  Ruge's  Zeitalter  d.  Entdeckungen.  Hausser's  Period  of  the  Re/or  Motion 
Dreysen's  Gegenreformation.    Philippson's  WestEuropa  im  Zeitalter  r.  PkHip. 

2,  Elizabeth  v.  Heinrich,  4.     Winter's  Dreissigjiihriger  Krieg.     Philippe** 
Ludwig^  14.     Noorden's  Spanischer  Erbfolgekrieg^  3.    Ameth's  Prinz  JFrfj?*'. 

3.  Oncken's  Friedrich  d.  Grosse^  2.  Ranke's  Ursprung  d.  Revolutiowi!^* 
Kriege.  Fyffe's  Modern  Europe.  Rose's  Rerolutionary  and  Xapaleonic  E'^ 
Oncken's  Revolution^  Kaiserreich  u.  BefreiungskriegCy  2.  Seignobos'  Enn-yf. 
1814—96,  2.  Dobidoiir's  La  Diplomatie,  1814—78,  2.  Stern's  Europa  tn: 
1815,  2.  Flathe's  Restauration  u.  Revolution^  1815 — 51.  Maurice's  The  r*i* 
1848.  Bulle's  Zweites  Kaiserreich  u.  Konigreich  Italiens.  Hamley^s  Cr%mf>%* 
War.  Duff's  European  Politics  (published  1866).  Oncken's  WUkdtk  I  i 
Schulthess'  Europ :  Geschichtskalendar,  since  1869  (yearly).     MarquAitiMs  * 


BIBUOGRAPHT  477 

Handim^Jt^  <L  of^njUrJ^  RkJiU  d.  Gtffevintart.  Lowell  s  duatitvtMm*  cf 
Cofitia^niai  Evfxtpe^  ±  Hamlers  f^perafiotu  of  War.  Leroj-Beauliea'B 
Cof<m£sati/m  rkez  I'tut  ftf^jiA'f*  mttdemeiL  Beer's  WfUkatMl  im  !&■*■  Jakr- 
humdert,  3u 

General  Culture. 

A-     General. 

Bneral  Buitejl.  Laurent' ^  £twde$  sw  TkUioirf  dt  Ihwrncanli,  6 — 17.  Be- 
Doaviers  PkUotopkie  Attolytiq^/e  de  rffuUnre^  4.  HenDenam>BhyiiV  Knl^wr- 
ff€tick^  4.     CouTDot^s  M€ur<cJt€  de*  Idea^  2. 

Imxell  HueUay.  Kurtr  Ckurek  Eititonf,  ±—Z.  SchaffV  Higtwy  of  the  CroedM. 
Weniers  ApoLogetutcht  LUeratur^  5.  Donier's  Perton  of  Chn*U  4 — 5. 
Scbveiaer^s  ProtofUrtiti^cke  Cendral-lktgffi^n^  2.  Bitechl'^  Pigtigm'HA,  X,  and 
RecAtferti^nffdekre^  tc^  1 .  WaUaoe'^  J  fUt-  TriniUirUm  ButCfrapky^  3.  Rulers 
Th€  InqftUitUm.  Civtmeau-Jolv's  LtM  Jtf^it/as  6L  Beotch's  Ifid^jr  d.  vtirbo- 
Penem  Biicker^  i.  Iferer^s  Die  Propa^ftd*!^  i  KattesbaAch'^  ConftMtsUtniiiniHde, 
Pichlers  KiMiche  TrmnKng  z^rireh^n  d  Orient  w.  d.  Ocddettt,  i.  Graeti* 
Jew^  4 — 5.  Srimlte'8  (/ueU^en  d.  Kan<nt*ttrhefi  B^^ckU,  3,  DcillingwV  Tke 
CAvrck  awd  ike  Ck^rrJie^  GcdOTcJbeu's  ChnrrJi  and  S>t4ile^  2.  Leckr's  Ror 
tiftnalitm^  2.     Wliite'«  Warfare  (f  Sri/t^ftce  and  Tke*A<ig}i^  2. 

iteratuie.  Sajntsburr  s  Periods  of  EnrKtpeiah  Litrrat^re.  Hallaiii'ti  Literature 
of  Ettrope.     Prcilfler  3Vwcr«»  Dratho^  6. 

LTt.  Carri^re's  Kvntt  v.  ddturrfitidckdvtig^  5.  BoBauquet'i^  Aettketic,  Thiaea 
Phihtrntpkie  rff  fJ/t,  2.  Kugler's  ScKoUm  of  Paittting^  4,  FergusHcio's 
Modem  ArekUiKtwre.     LuLke'v  SrtUpftire^  voL  2.     BockBtroV  Mntif-. 

\anl  Sdence,  Fi»cher'i!»  Sewre  Pkilo9opkie^  &  Hoifidiug(»  Modern  PkHom^y, 
2.  LaDge's  MateriahntL,  Z.  Pfleiderer'B  PkUotopfty  of  IieUffi<m  mnoe  SpitUfza, 
2.  Jodl's  ^itAil:,  2.  Sidgwidr's  HutLory  of  EtJdcM.  Jaitet'^  PkU<iwpldt 
Politiqwcj  2.  PoUock'fei  JSdenve  of  PoliUct.  Gierke'^  AUknfitu.  Fraiidrb 
PMirittet,  3.     Ingram's  Political  Eoottotng.     Kautz'  SaJtU/milokifnMMi^,  2. 

rmtnzml  Sdence,  Buckley  s  5/torf  Higtorjf  of  Sdewjt.  Bxjry'ti  AMtroHomy 
Cajori's  PkymcA.  Mach's  M^Jiawic*.  Sac^hw'  BoUi^tg.  Meyerfe  Cheuwsfry, 
Hirsch's  Mwiizitc  CaruB*  Zoologie.  BaJJ'b  MatUeiHotics  [  abridged  ah '  Priiiier ';. 
Cantor'a  r<ifi2efKM^feN  iiher  Math,  to  1768),  2—3.  Zittel'«  OeUogie,  Geikiets 
Fommdert  of  Goology.  KobeU'e  MtMtralogit.  Petiuliel'B  Erdhaind*:.  Lhi  Bois 
BejniKiiid'B  Roden,  2.     TjDdaJl'^  Fragm^enU  of  Jif:i/ence,  3. 

AW.    Walker^B  Lotr  of  NatUms. 

Edncatioa.     Sdimidf  b  Padagogik^  3 — 4.     Quick'>!»  EdiuyjUiurtvud  Refonivern. 

frilflilnfy.    ICuBer's  OSojnjc/*?  PhMUj^,     PattiBc»u'«  Esmyt^  v<^L  2L     Beufey's 


478  APPENDIX  A 


B.     Periods, 

Beard's  Lectures  on  the  Reformation,  Mailer's  The  Reformation.  StfUckF* 
Philosophic  d.  Mittelalters^  vol.  3.  Hefele's  CoivcUiengesck,^  8—9  (HeiTgenpotber . 
Maurenbrecher's  Kaiholische  Reformation.  Dnimmond's  EramnuSy  2.  Seebohm^ 
Protestant  Revolution.  Pastor's  Reuniontbestrebungen,  Prost's  Agnppa,  i 
^otW a  Vesalius.  Frov^e's  CopernicuSj  2.  (G.)  Gothein!a  Loyola.  Wsa&nCoviUfr- 
Refoi'm^ition.  Philippson's  Contre-r^volution  reliffieuse.  Dejob's  LinJInekrt  dn 
Cancils  de  Trente.  Nisard's  Gladiateurs  de  la  R^pMique  d.  Lettres^  2.  PattisuQ* 
Casaubon,  Dollinger's  Bellarmin,  and  Moralstreitigkeiten  in  d.  KatL  KirrU 
Sayoiis'  Litt&aiure  frangaise  d  P^tranger,  4.  Muther's  Modem  Painting,  t 
Nippold's  jVeueste  Kirc/iengesch.,  4.  Blennerhassett's  J/***  de  Stael,  ^  Janet'* 
Philosophie  de  la  R^volutio7i  fran^aise.  Cheyue's  Foundert  of  0.  T.  Critidm. 
Naah's  History  of  N.  T.  Criticism,  Brandes'  Hauptstrvmungen  d.  Litteralw  rf. 
19****  Jahrhu7idert,  5.  Barnard's  Pestalozzi,  Gierke's  Agronomy  in  I9tk  Centnry. 
Pfleiderer's  Theology  in  19M  Century.  Tulloch's  Modem  Theories  of  PhUim^^ 
and  Religion.  Bunsen's  Life^  2.  Lubbock's  fiO  years  of  Science.  Figuier's  Anw' 
Scientijiqm,  since  1857  (annually).  Friedrich's  Vaticanisches  Concily  3.  LavoUeeV 
Classes  Ouvrikres  en  Europe^  3.  Barth's  Philosophie  d.  Oesc/iichte,  voL  1.  XittiV 
Catholic  Socialism.  D'Alviella's  Contemporary  Religiotis  Thought,  Greel/s  Aniv 
Discoveries. 

En^and. 

Politics. 

General.  Gardiner  and  MuUinger's  Introduction  to  English  History.  DictioHur^ 
of  Xaiioiud  Biography.  Law  and  Pulling's  Dictionary  of  English  Hiftifi 
Acland  and  Ransome's  English  Political  History.  Gardiner's  Student  * 
History.  Green's  Shoi-t  History,  and  English  People,  2 — 4.  Tvcdce  Engl^ 
Statesmen.  Brosch's  England,  5 — 10.  Gneist's  Constitutional  Htsttny. 
Taswell-Langmead's  Constitutional  History.  Hallara's  Cimstitutional  History. 
Dicey 's  Privy  Counril.  Stephen's  Criminal  Law,  3.  Clowes*  Royal  Xary,  6. 
Dowell's  Taxation,  4.     Sharpe's  London,  3. 

Periods.  Busch's  English  under  the  Tudors.  Stubbs'  Lectures  on  Henry  VIL 
and  Henry  VIIL  Brewer's  Henry  VIII.,  2.  Friedmann's  Anne  Boleyn.i 
Pollard's  Protector  Somerset.  Ranke's  England  principally  in  th^  ITw 
Century,  6.  Seeley's  Growth  of  British  Policy  (1558—1702),  2.  Win»yr> 
America,  vol.  3.  Wiesener's  Jennesse  d^ Elizabeth.  Fox-Bounic's  SidM. 
Hume's  Burleigh,  and  Elizabet/is  Suitors.  Prothero's  Const,  documff^t* 
of  Elizabeth  and  James  I.  (Intrtxluction).  Spedding's  Bacon,  7.  Uume^ 
Raleigh.  Gardiner's  England,  1603—54,  16.  Figgis'  Dieine  Right  of  Kia^*^ 
Masson's  Milton,  6.  Hannay's  Blake,  Lister's  Clarendon^  3.  WarlHirt-xiV 
Ru^tert,  3.  Markham's  Fairfax.  Firth's  Cromwell.  Quitots  Portniiu 
Politiques,  and  Richard  Cromwell,  2.     Airy's  The  Restoration.     Mahan's  Sta 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  4-79 


Po\c*'r,  1660—1789.  Klopp's  Fall  d,  Hansen  Stuart,  14.  ChriHtie's  Skaftei- 
hury^  2.  Foxcmfl's  Halifax,  2.  Macaulay'H  History  of  England.  Leck/s 
Englaiul  in  18M  Century,  7.  BiirtonV  An/i&,  3.  Wol}*eley'«  Marlborough,  2, 
Stebbing's  Peterborough.  Saloniou'«  Letzte*  MiniMerium  d.  Kihiigin  Anna. 
Ward's  England  and  Hanover.    Traill'a  Central  Oocernment.    Coxe's  Walpole, 

3,  aiid  Pelhanij  2.  May's  Constitutional  History,  1760 — 1860,  3.  Trevelyan's 
F*tjc.  Fitzmaurice'H  Shdburne,  3.  Raes  Sheridan,  2.  Riuwell's  Life  and 
Memorial*  of  Fox,  7.  Stanhope'w  IHtt,  4.  Mahan'H  Sea  Power  and  the 
Revolution,  2,  and  Life  of  Xelstm.  MaxwelPs  Wellington,  2.  Wilberforce's 
Wilberforce,  5.  Wal^xile's  Perceval,  2.  Wallas*  Place.  Reid's  Sidney  Smith. 
Stapleton's  Canning,  4.  Smith's  Otbbett,  2.  Twins'  Eldon,  3.  Walpole's 
England,  1815 — 61,  6,  and  L<jrd  John  Russell,  2.  Lord  John  Russell's 
RffitAlections.  Harris'  Rftdiral  Party.  Kebbel's  Tory  Party.  Le  Marchaiit's 
Althorp.  Martin's  Lyndhurst.  Greville's  Jf/urmds,  8.  Bright's  England, 
1837 — 87.  Irving's  Annals  of  the  Reign,  2.  Parker's  Peel,  3.  Disraeli's 
lientincL  Ashley's  Palmerston,  2.  Trevelyan's  Macaulay.  Mrs  Grote's 
a  rote,  (^luien^s  Prime  Ministers,  ed.  Reid,  9.  Martin's  The  Prince  Consort. 
Mi>r  ley's  Cobden.  Laugh  ton's  Reeve,  2.  Martin's  Sherbrot)ke,  2.  Nash's 
Westbury,  2.  Selbome's  Memoirs,  4.  Reid's  Forster.  Lang's  IddesUigh. 
Maxwell's  W.  H.  Smith,  2.  Bonner's  Bradlaugh,  vol.  2.  Bagehot's  English 
ConstitiUion,  Dicey's  Law  and  Custom  of  the  Constitution.  Anson's  Crown 
and  Parliament,  2. 

Church  History. 

feneral.     Perry's  Church  of  England,  2 — 3.     Hook's  Archbishops  of  Canterbury^ 
6 — 12.    Hunt's  Religious  Thought  in  England,  3.    Gillow's  English  Catholics, 

4.  Diocesan  Histories. 


Seebohm's  Oxford  Refonners.  Demaus'  Tyndale,  and  Latimer.  West- 
cott's  English  Bible.  Hutton's  More,  Bridget's  Fisher.  Maitland's  Essays 
on  the  Reformation.  Dixon's  Church  of  England,  4.  Gasquet's  Henry  VII L 
ami  the  English  Monasteries.  Hardwick's  Tlte  Articles.  Schickler's  £glises 
du  refuge  en  Angleterre,  3.  Bonet- Maury's  Origins  of  English  Cnitarianiem. 
Bellesheim's  Allen.  Simpson's  Campion.  Dexter's  Congregationalism. 
Waddington's  Congregational  HisO/ry,  2 — 5.  Leaders  of  Religion  (Andrewes, 
Donne,  Laud,  Fox,  Howe).  Walton's  Lives.  Coleridge's  Xotes  on  English 
Divines,  2.  Weingarten's  RevohUionskirchen  Englands.  Barclay's  Religious 
Societies  of  the  Commonwealth.  Stoughton's  Religion  in  England,  1640 — 1850, 
8.  Tulloch's  Ratiotial  Theology  in  the  17 th  Century,  2.  Elrington's  Ussher. 
Brown's  Bunyan,  Overton's  Life  in  the  English  Church,  1660 — 1714. 
Stoughton's  Penn.  Plumptre's  Ken,  2.  Lathbury's  Son-jurors.  Carrau's 
Philosophic  religieuse  depuis  Locke.  Abbey  and  Overton's  English  Church  in 
18M  Century,  2  (abridged,  1).  Stephen's  English  Thought  in  t/ie  IQth  CeiUury, 
voL  1.  Skeat's  Free  Churclies,  Rees'  Nonconformity  in  Wales.  Van 
Mildert's    WaUrland.      Overton's    Law.      Watson's    Warburton.      Keble's 


480  APPENDIX   A 


BMop  WiUotL  Overton's  Wesl^.  Tyerman's  Wedey,  3,  and  Whitfield,  2. 
Amherst's  Catholic  Emancipation^  2.  Overton's  English  Church,  1800 — 33. 
Churton's  Joshua  Watsony  2.  Moule's  Simeon,  Stanley's  Arnold,  Ward's 
Wiseman,  2.  Lock's  Kehle,  Church's  Oxford  Movement.  laddon's  Puse^j  4. 
Newman's  Apologia,  Ward's  IF.  O,  Ward,  2.  Pattison's  Memoirs,  Mrs 
Oliphant's /mn^.  Burgon^s  Thoelve  Oood  Men,  Stephens' iTooir.  Ullathome's 
Restoration  of  the  Catholic  Hierarchy,  A  rehdeacon  DenxMnCs  Life.  Kingsley's 
Kitigsley.  Maurice's  Maurice,  2.  Ashwell's  Wilberforee,  3.  Hoddei's 
Shaftedmry.  Brooke's  Robertson.  Purcell's  Manning,  2.  Prothero's  Stanley, 
2.  Miall's  Miall.  Dale's  Dale.  DaWdson's  Tait,  2.  Rawnsley's  Harvey 
Goodwin,  Kitchin's  Harold  Browne.  Benson's  Benton,  2.  Barry's  English 
Church  in  other  Lands. 

Literature. 

CteneiftL  Sharp's  IHctionary  of  English  Authors.  English  Men  of  Letters,  ed. 
J.  Morley,  39.  Stopford  Brooke's  English  Literature.  Saintsbury's  English 
Literature.  Taine's  English  Literature,  2.  Ward's  Dramatic  Literature,  3. 
Matthew  Arnold's  Essays,  3.  Leslie  Stephen's  Hours  in  a  Library,  3,  and 
Studies  of  a  Biographer,  2. 

Periods.  Morley's  English  Writers,  6 — 11.  Courthope's  English  Poetry,  voL  2. 
Saintsbiu-y's  Elizabethan  Literature.  Lee's  Life  of  Shakspere,  Brandes^ 
ShaJcspere.  Jiisserand's  English  Novel  in  the  time  of  Shakspere.  Swinburne's 
Ben  JonsoH,  and  Chapman.  Gosse's  Donne,  2;  Poets  of  James  I;  and  Mth 
CetUury  Sttidies.  MasHon's  Milton,  6.  Gamett's  Age  of  Dryden.  Beljame's 
Le  Public  et  les  hommes  de  lettres.  Grosse's  l&th  Century  Literature,  Raleigh's 
English  Novel.  Fox-Boiime's  English  Newspapers,  2.  Dennis'  Age  of  Pope. 
Craik's  Swift,  2.  Aitken's  Steele,  2.  Thackeray's  English  Humourists. 
Dobson's  ISth  Century  Vignettes,  4.  Texte's  Origins  of  Literary  Cosmo- 
politanism. Seccombe's  Age  of  Johnson.  Angellier's  Bums,  2.  Legouis' 
Youth  of  Wordsworth,  Herford's  Age  of  Wordsworth.  Saintsbury's  19rA 
Century  Literature.  Dowden's  Shelley.  Smiles'  Murray,  2.  Clayden's 
Rogers,  3.  Bagehot's  Literary  Essays,  2.  Pater's  Appreciations.  Froude's 
Carlyle's  Life  i/i  London,  2.  Mrs  Ga;»kell's  Charlotte  Bronte,  Forsters 
Dickens,  3.  Merivale's  Thackeray.  Tennyson's  Tennyson,  Mrs  Orr's 
Brouming.  Cross'  O.  Eliot.  Reid's  Lord  Houghton,  2.  Saintsbun's 
Matthew  Arnold.  Archer's  English  Dramatists  of  To-day.  McCarthy* 
Reminiscences,  2. 

Art,  Science,  Philosophy,  etc 

CteneraL    Traill's  Social  England,  2—6. 

Periods.    Mullingers  University  of  Cambridge  (to  1625),  2.   Walpole's  Painting  in 
England.    Woltmann's  Holbein.     Xichol's  Bacon,     R^musat's  Philosophic 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  481 


depuis  Bacon  jusqu'd  Locke,  2.  D'Arcy  Power's  Harvey,  £d wards*  Founders 
of  the  Brituh  Museum.  Loftic's  Inigo  Jones  and  Wren.  Robertson's  Hobbes. 
Fitzmaurice's  Petty.  Weld's  Royal  Society,  2.  Brewster's  Ketcton,  2 
(abridged,  1).  Ball's  Mathematics  at  Cambridge.  Fox-Boume's  Locke,  2. 
Fraser's  Locke.  Lyon's  Id^lisme  en  Angleterre  au  I8^me  siecle.  L.  Stephen's 
English  Thought  in  18M  Century,  vol.  2.  Fraser's  Berkeley.  Smiles'  Engineers, 
5.  Dobson's  Hogarth.  Leslie  and  Taylor's  Reytwlds,  2.  Seth's  Scottish 
Philosophy.  Kegan  Paul's  Godwin,  2.  Rutt's  Priestley,  2.  Hasbach's  Adam 
Smith.  Bagchot's  Economic  Studies.  Sonar's  Mai  thus.  Kent's  English 
Radiccds.  Stephen  s  Utilitarians,  3.  Gilchrist's  Blake,  2.  Bain's  James  Mill, 
Century  Science  Series,  ed.  Roscoe  (Herschel,  Rcnnell,  Dalton,  Davy,  Faraday, 
Lyell,  Darwin,  Clerk  Maxwell).  Bence  Jones'  Royal  Institution.  Markham's 
British  (Jeography  in  the  last  100  Tears.  Watson's  Kant  and  his  English 
Critics.  J.  S.  Mill's  Autobiography.  Bonner's  Bradlaugh,  vol.  1.  Darwin's 
Darwin.  Huxley's  Huxley,  2.  Collingwood's  Ruskin,  2.  Hobson's  Ruskin, 
Mackail's  Morris,  2.  Parkin's  Thring,  2.  Abbott  &  Campbell's  Jotpett,  2. 
Clough's  Miss  Clough.  Prothero's  Bradshaw.  Balfour's  Educational  Systems 
of  Great  Britain.     Ward's  Reign  of  Queen  Victoria,  2. 

Social  History. 

-eneral.  Cxmningham  and  MacArthur's  Economic  History.  Cunningham's 
English  Industry  and  Commerce,  2.  Rogers'  Agriculture  and  Prices,  3 — 6, 
and  Six  Centuries  of  Work  and  Wages.  Nicholls  and  Mackay's  The  Poor 
Law,  a     Hall's  The  Customs,  2. 

eriods.  Mrs  Green's  Town  Life  in  the  15M  Century,  2.  Denton's  15^  Century. 
Ashley's  Economic  History.  Williamson's  Ft/reign  Commerce  under  the 
Tudors.  Schanz's  Englische  Handelspolitik,  2.  Hall's  Society  in  the  Eliza- 
bethan Age.  Fox-Boume's  English  Merchants,  2.  Prothero's  Pioneers  of 
English  Farming.  Hewins'  Trade  and  Finance  in  the  Mth  Century.  Rogers' 
First  Xine  Years  of  the  Bank  of  England.  Ashton's  Social  Life  under  Queen 
Anne,  2.  Sydney's  England  in  the  ISth  Century,  2.  Toynbee's  Industrial 
Revolution.  Schulze-Gavaemitz'  Social  Peace.  Held's  Zwei  Biicher  d.  Socialen 
Gesch.  Englands.  Lloyd  Jones'  Owen.  Holyoake's  Co-oi)eration,  2.  Webb's 
Trade  Unionism.  Holison's  Evolution  of  Modem  Capitalism.  Levi's  British 
Commerce.  Mulhall's  Prices,  1^50 — 85.  Giflfen's  Essays  in  Fi fiance,  2. 
WebVs  Industrial  Democracy,  2.  Shaw's  Municip<dities.  Hobson's  Problems 
of  Poverty. 

Scotland. 

Politics, 

meraL     Hume  Brown's  Scotland.     Lang's  Scotland.     Burton's  Scotland,  3 — 8, 

and  *  1688—1746,'  2. 
oiods.     Herkless'  Beaton.     Skel ton's  Maitland,  2.     Philippson's  Marie  Stuart, 

2.     Hoeack's  Mary  Stuart,   2.      Napier's    Montrose,  2.      Macka/s    Stair. 

G.  31 


482  APPENDIX   A 


Morris'  Claverhotuej  3.  Story's  Carstairs,  Klopp's  FcUl  des  HatueM  St^^irU 
14.  Mackinnon's  JTie  Union,  Omond's  Lord  Advocate*^  2.  Liang^.s  Ut 
Young  Pretender, 

Culture, 

QeneraL  Bellesheim's  Catholic  Church  in  Scotland,  4.  Luckock's  Chunk  oj 
Scotland,  Walker's  Three  Centuries  of  Scotch  Literature^  2.  Buckle's  On/i 
zaiion,  voL  3.     Grant's  University  of  Edinburgh,  2. 

Periods.  Famous  Scots  Series  (Cameron,  Fletcher  of  Saltoun,  Ramsay,  tbi 
Ersldnes,  Thomson,  Fergusson,  Reid,  Bums,  Hogg,  Campbell,  Mungo  Park 
Hugh  Miller,  Guthrie,  Simpson,  Aytoun,  Ferrier,  Stevenson).  Madaf! 
Major.  Lorimer's  Patrick  Hamilton.  Rogers'  Wishart.  McCrie's  Kmi 
and  MelviUey  2.  Hume  Brown's  Knox,  2,  and  Buchanan,  Masson's  Dntm 
mond.  Aiton's  Henderson.  Graham's  Social  Life  in  ISth  CentHty,  i 
Burton's  Hume,  2.  Rae's  Adam  Smith.  Hanna's  Chalmers,  4.  Loddkut': 
Scott.  Cockbum's  Jeffrey,  2.  Lang's  Lockhart,  2.  Froude's  Carlyl^s  Earii 
Life,  2.  Veitch's  Hamilton.  Mrs  Oliphant's  Blackwood,  3,  and  TuUaA 
Story's  Lee,  2,  and  Robert  Story.  McLeod's  Norman  McLeocL  Ciinii 
Dr  John  Broum.    Smith's  Henry  Drummond,    Stoddart's  Blackie, 


Ireland. 

Politics. 

General.  Morris'  Ireland,  1494 — 1868.  Ball's  Legislatim  System*  of  MhyuI 
Periods.  Bagwell's  Ireland  under  the  Tudors,  3.  Gilbert's  Vicemys.  (iardiDcr 
England,  160.3—1654,  6.  Taylor's  Owen  Roe  O'Neill.  Prendergast  s  (>/« 
wellian  Settletnent,  and  Ireland,  1660—1688.  Todhiuiter  s  Sarsfield.  Leikf 
Ireland  in  the  18M  Century,  5.  Wolfe  Tone's  Autobiography,  ed.  O'Brien.  I 
Morris'  Ireland,  1798—1898.  McCarthy's  Ireland  since  the  UnioH.  Fiu 
imtrick's  Doyle,  2.  Dunlop's  QConneU.  O'Brien's  I>rummond.  Duffj 
Dam's-,  Young  Ireland.,  Four  Years  of  Irish  History,  League  of  Xifrtk  iw 
South.  Sullivan's  New  Ireland.  O'Brien's  Fifty  Yearil  Concessions  to  M'tnti 
1831 — 81,  2;  /m/i  Wrongs  and  English  Remedies',  Irish  Land  i/uettioKt 
Hud  Parnell,  2.  (Gladstone's  Aspects  of  the  Irish  (Question.  Diivys  Cm 
ft  gainst  Home  Rule. 

Culture. 

Bcllcsheim's  Katholinche  Kirche  in  Mind,  2—3.  Ball's  Reformed  Chnrrk  m 
Ireland.  Reid's  Presbyterian  Church  in  Ireland,  2.  Stubbs'  Trinity  (V/-^. 
Dublin. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  483 


British  Colonies. 

meraL  Lucas'  Historical  Oeograpky  of  the  British  Colonies^  4.  Woodward's 
Ejcpansion  of  the  British  Empire,  Lord's  England's  Lost  Possessions.  Dilke^s 
Problems  of  Greater  Britain,  Parkin's  Imperial  Federation,  Todd's  Parlia- 
mentcay  Oovemment  in  the  Colonies. 

nstralasia.  Rusden's  Australia^  3,  and  New  ZecUand,  3.  Jenks'  Australasian 
Colonies.  Gamett's  Oibbon  WaJcefidd.  Reeves'  Long  White  Cloud.  Bees' 
Sir  O.  Qrey.  Parkes'  Fifty  Years  Making  of  A  ustralian  History^  2.  Turner 
and  Sutherland's  Australian  Literature. 

mth  Africa.  Theal's  South  Africa,  5,  and  Story  of  South  Africa.  Bees'  Sir  G, 
Orey.  Martineau's  Bartle  Frere^  voL  2.  Molteno's  JfoUeno^  2.  Cox'  Colenso^ 
2.  Bryce's  Impressions  of  South  Africa.  Fitzpatrick's  Transvaal  from 
Within.  Hobson's  The  War,  its  Causes  and  EfFerts.  Thomson's  Rhodesia. 
Rhodes'  Speechei. 

Bntral  Africa.    Johnston's  British  Centred  Africa. 

asl  and  West  Africa.     Lucas*  Colonies,  3 — L 

Miajja.  Kingsford's  History  of  Canada,  10.  Bourinot's  Canada.  Parkman's 
French  and  English,  10.  Pope's  Macdimald,  2.  G.  Smith's  Canada  and  the 
C<inadian  Question.  Suite's  Canadiens  Francois,  8.  Can/jda,  an  Encydo' 
paedia,  ed.  Hopkins,  5. 

T'est  Indies.     Lucas'  Colonies,  vol  2.     Rodway's  Story  of  the  West  In/lies. 


Politics. 

'SneraL  Monod's  Bibliographie  de  ChisUfire  de  Franr/'.  I^Urui'r'H  IHrt.  hisUf 
riqtte  de  la  France.  Lan^ois  et  Stein's  Arrhiees  tU  Vhist^rire  de  Fravjie, 
Henri  Martin's  France,  7 — 1ft.  Kitchin'^  FrawA,  vob*.  2  -3.  Kl/nMari'M 
Diplamatie  fran^aise,  7.     Rankes  FnxKziidsnlte  (Jesfhiiltte,  d. 

^eriods.  Cherrier's  Charles  VIII,  2.  Maulde-la^JUyi^^fj''*  hmis  XIl,  Z.  l'/tri»* 
Franfois  /,  2.  Fomeron's  Dues  de  (jhIh^,  2.  I/AiiniAl/;^H  Prin/ies  lif  CirtuU,  1. 
Marcks'  Ccligny.  Atkinson'M  LU*'fpU*d.  Baird'n  Hti/jiurfi/,u,  4,  Ai(n*imt^*n 
Protestantisme  (to  1 5(92),  4.  Pfkn^m'n  Henri  IV,i,  W  j  I  \trn'n  Henry  of  SaDtirre, 
Anquex*  AstemhlUes  Protestantet^  and  Henri  IV  et  MUrft/ijj/w.  W#fil)'>i 
Thkriu  sur  U  pamwoir  rrAfol.  V^fiXUi%  iMfn/^crati^.  fjun  Ujt  I'tMu/itfrurs  tie 
la  Ligus.  Philippson's  Heimri^M  IV  u,  PlcUip  III,  Z,  7A-\\^n  h,HU  XIII, 
6.  Lodge's  Richelieu.  l/Avtnei'H  RirJt^i^Fu,  \.  WMft^M^it'  Hi/-MA^u,  %. 
Fagniez*  Phre  Joseph,  2.  Perkirc<  Hirhelierit.  //«//  Moz^iriH,  t.  ^>/ti*if/« 
Mme  dPHaiutefort',  Mme  de  fltevmuM'.  JruiMMse  fU  Mffz/irlo  ;  HI  me  'le  hn^/j^te^ 
viUe,  2.  Ch&'ud's  Mii^mUde  l/fwU  XI V,  4-  A#yJ  Mm^Mer*'  fie  Mfiuirit^.  Z,  A  trfn 
English  RestoraHan  and  LeeesM  XI V  (i^lUMift^^  hntis  XI V,  %,  HjmtMn 
Lotds  XIV.    Saigenf s  CMert,    Hfetmiifsin  hm-f/fiM,  i,     l^^t^Ufi^  ly/vis  XI V 


484  APPENDIX  A 


et  VEspagne^  4.  Michaud's  Louis  XI V  et  Innocent  XI,  4.  Morel's  Lohim  XIV, 
1700 — 15,  3.  Wiesener's  La  R^ence,  3.  Perkins*  The  Regency,  RooquAioA 
Esprit  r^volutionnaire  avant  la  r^olution,  Aubertin's  Esprit  pMi(pt(  q% 
m^hne  si^cle.  Perkins'  Louis  XV,  2.  D'Haiissonville's  R/union  de  LorroM 
d  la  France,  4.  De  Broglie's  Fr4d4ric  II  et  Louis  XV,  1742—4;  JITov 
Th&4se,  1744 — 6 ;  Saxe  et  I^Argenson;  La  Paix  d Aix-la-Chapdie  \  Le  Stertt 
du  lioi,  17^2 — 74;  V Alliance  Autrichienne,  Flammermont's  J^atf/ieu«  «^ /«r 
Parlements.  T a.ine's  Ancien  RSgime,  TocqueviWe^s  Ancien  R^me.  Foocina 
Minitthre  de  Turgot.  Ch^rest's  Chute  de  VAncien  Regime,  3.  ChampioDi 
Les  Vahiers  de  1789.  Lichtenberger's  Socialisme  dans  la  Revolution  fraitfaiM. 
Doniol's  Revolution  et  la  Feodalite,  Debidour's  LJtgliee  et  Vitat,  178d— 18?X 
Jervis'  Gallican  Church  and  the  Revolution,  ^  Ricard's  Cardinal  Mavf. 
Aulard's  Revolution  framboise,  Sorel's  Revolution  frangcUse,  4.  Sybel's  /Wi 
Revolution,  4.  Taiue's  La  Revolution,  3.  Stem's  Mirabeau,  2  (Frend 
Tr.).  Willert's  Mirabeau.  Netou's  Sieyh.  Bird's  Legendes  revolutionmim. 
Daudet's  L Emigration,  3.  Bleunerhassett's  Mme  de  Stad,  3.  Pienfo 
Assemhiees  politiques,  1789—1876,  2.  Sciout's  Le  Directoire,  4.  rVHauaBOO- 
ville's  VEglise  Romaine  et  le  Premier  Empire,  6.  Taine's  Regime  Jfodenn, 
vol.  1.  Masson's  Napoleon  et  sa  Famille,  4.  Welschinger's  Engkien;  U 
Censure ;  Divorce  de  Napoleon ;  Ney.  Vandal's  Napoleon  et  Alexandre  IILX 
Houssaye's  1814,  and  1815,  3.  Yieil-Castel's  La  Restauration,  20.  ThuTMo- 
Dangin's  Parti  Lib&cU  sous  la  Restauration.  Barante's  Royer-Coliard,  i 
Thureau-Dangin's  Monurchie  de  Juillet,  8.  Hillebrand's  FranJtreick,  1 830—48^ 
2.  D'Haiissonville's  Politique  Exterieure,  1830— 4§^  2.  Guizot's  Memoira.  §. 
Lacombe's  Berry er,  3.  Blanc's  Dix  Ans,  5.  Pierre's  Revolution  de  1848,1 
Le  Gorce's  Deuxieme  Empire,  3.  Daniel's  Annee  Politique  (since  \<fi- 
Ollivier's  U Empire  Liberal,  3.  Senior's  Conversations  in  France,  6.  Mazatk;* 
Thiers.  Dgu'is' Bistoire  Conte7nporain€,3.  D&udet^s  Due  d' A  umale.  i>oM* 
Ilistoire  diplomatique  de  la  Guerre,  1870 — 1,  2.  Hip{)eau's  Hist.  iiiyl>' 
matique  de  la  troisihne  republique.  Zevort's  Troisi^me  Repubfique,  3.  Sinufl « 
Gouternement  de  Thiers,  2.  Reinach's  Ministere  de  Gambetta.  Coubertins 
Third  liepvhlic.  Bodley's  France,  2.  Lowell's  Governments  and  Fartift, 
vol.  1.     Rainbaud's  La  France  Coloniale. 

Culture. 

Qeneral.  Rivmbaud's  Civilisation  frant^aise,  3.  Grands  EcritHiins  Fnincni*.  ^ 
Jusserand.  Julleville's  Litterature  Fran^aise,  3 — 8,  and  TheAtre  en  /nj*'* 
Faguet's  Litterature  Fran^aise,  and  Etudes  litteraires,  4,  Sainte-Heiive« 
Lundisy  28.  Bruncti^re's  Etudes  Critiques,  6,  and  Ilistoire  de  la  (Wftyw- 
Eggcr'.s  Hellhiisme  en  France,  2.  Rossel's  Relations  litteraires  arte  tA^^ 
magne.  ,  FaroxioV a  Jloralistes  fran^ais.  Oxiett^e^s  L'Eglise  de  Frannr^i^^\t 
Jervis'  Church  in  France  till  1789,  2.  Fc^lice's  French  Protestants.  Flint* 
Philosophy  of  History,  vol.  1.  L^vy-Bruhl's  Philosophy  in  Francf.  Leva*- 
seur's  Classes  Ouvrihes,  4.  Compayrt^'s  Doctrines  cC Education  en  France,  i 
Kingsley's  French  Art. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  485 


"eriods.  Sainte-Beuve's  Poesie  fran^im  an  l^hne  si^de.  Darmesteter  et 
Hatzfeldt's  I6hne  sikcle.  Mrs  Pattison's  Renamance  in  France,  2.  Gebhardt's 
Rabelais.  Rohinsori'a  Margaret  of  S^avarre.  DeaJArdinn^  Moral istes  fran^ais 
au  I6hne  sihle.  Christie's  I)olet.  Lenient's  Satire  en  France  au  \Qkme 
si^e,  2.  Boiipciez'  La  Cour  de  Henri  IL  Waddington's  Ramiu.  Jourdain's 
VUnivernt^  de  Paris.  Doiiarche's  L University  de  Paris  et  les  J^suites. 
Owen's  Sceptics  of  the  French  Renaissance.  Lowndes'  Montaigne.  Baudrillart's 
Bodin.  Haag's  La  France  ProtextantCj  10.  Hanion's  Francis  de  Sales,  2. 
Damiron's  Philosophic  en  France  au  17 ^me  si^cle,  2.  Puyol's  Richer,  2. 
Perraud's  LOratoire.  Houssaye's  lUrulle,  3.  Sainte-Beuve's  Port  Royal,  7. 
Beard's  Port  Royal,  2.  Cousin's  Jacqueline  Pascal ;  La  SociHe  au  \lhne  si^cle^ 
2  ;  Mme  de  SaM.  Perrens'  Lihertins  an  \lhne  sihie.  MaurVs  Academic  des 
Belles- Lett  res.  Bertrand's  Acadeinie  des  Sciences,  1660 — 1793.  Ri'belliau's 
Bossuet.  Crousle'a  BossuH  et  F4nelon,  2.  De  Broglie's  Mahillon,  2,  and 
Montfancon,  2.  S(k.*he's  Derniers  Jans^nistes,  1710 — 1870,  3.  Damiron's 
PhUosophie  en  France  au  18^/we  si^cle,  3.  Coqiierel's  Eglises  du  desert,  2. 
Lady  Dilke's  French  Painters,  Architects  and  Sculptors  of  18M  (^entury,  3. 
Dennoiresterres'  Voltaire,  8.  Morley's  Voltaire ;  Ronsseau,  2 ;  Diderot,  2 ; 
Miscellanies,  vol.  2.  Lichtenljerger's  Sot;ujlisme  en  France  au  l^ne  siecle. 
Lavergne's  Economistes  fraiu^ais  au  ISetne  siecle.  Higgs'  The  Physiocrats, 
Berthelot's  Lavoisier.  Lomcnie's  Beaumarchais,  2.  JuH«erand's  Shakspere  in 
France.      D'Haiuwonviiie's   Salon  of  Mine   Necker,   2.      Goncourt's   Soci^4 

r  t 

pendant  la  Revolution,  2.  Debidonr's  LEglise  et  VEtat,  1789 — 1870.  Jervis' 
Gcdlican  Church  and  the  Revolutifjn.  D'Haiissonville's  VEglise  romaine  et  Is 
Premier  Empire,  5.  Girandeau's  Presse  Pt^riodiiiue,  1789 — 1887.  Picavet's 
IdSologues.  Sainte-Beuve's  Chateaubriand,  2.  Taine's  Regime  Modeme, 
voL  2.  Faguet's  Politiques  et  Moralistes,  3.  Ravaisson's  Philosophic  en 
France  au  \^me  sihle.  Maury's  Rdveil  religieux,  1810 — 50,  2.  Foisset's 
Lacordaire,  2.  Mrs  Oliphant's  Mnntalembert,  2.  Booth's  St  Simon.  Weill's 
Ecole  Saint'Simonienne.  Littrc^'s  Comte.  Rapports  sur  les  progrh  des 
Sciences  en  France,  1867  (Zoologie,  Minenilogie,  Physiologic,  Geometrie, 
G^logie,  Histoire,  etc.).  Lenient's  ComMie  en  France  an  l^htie  siede,  2. 
Bruneti^re's  Po/sie  lyrique  au  A^me  siecle,  2.  Claretie's  Peintres  et  Scidpteurs 
coniemporains,  2.  Lagrange's  Dupanloup  (Eng.  Trans.),  2.  Mrs  Bishop's 
Mrs  Craven,  Ricsard's  Lavigerie.  Frankland's  Pasteur.  Darmestcter's  Renan, 
Bourget's  Psychologic  Contemporaine,  2.  Symons'  Symbolist  Movement. 
Lemaltre's  Les  Contemporains,  8. 

Germany. 

Politics. 

feneraL  Dahlmann-Waitz'  Deutsche  Quellenkunde.  Allgemeine  Deutsche  Bio- 
graphie.  Kaemniel's  Deutsche  Oeschichte.  Droysen's  Pre^issische  Politik, 
4 — 14.  Bryce's  Holy  Roman  Empire,  Tiittle's  Prussia  till  1740.  Janssen's 
Deutsches  Volh,  2—5  (to  1618). 


486  APPENDIX  A 


Periods.  Ulmann's  Maximilian^  2.  Rankers  DeuUche  Getch,  im  Zeitalter  <L 
Reformation,  6.  (E.  T.  of  vols.  1—3.)  Baumgarten's  Karl  T,  3.  Ritter's 
Oegenrefarmation,  2.  Gardiner's  Thirty  Years  War.  Winter's  Drduigjakrioer 
Krieg,  ErdmannsdSrffer's  Deutsche  Gesch,  1648 — 1740,  2.  Lavisse'rt  Yottk 
of  Frederick  the  Great,  and  Fr4d4ric  aoant  ravAiement.  Tuttle's  Frederick  II, 
2.  Koser's  Friedrich  II.  Schafer's  Siehenjiihriger  Krieg,  3.  Schmolkr* 
Wirthschaftliche  Politik  Friedrichs,  and  Preusiische  Finampolitik.  Ranke'i 
Oesterreich  und  Preussen  1748 — 63,  and  Deutsche  Mdchte  u.  d.  Fiirstenbimd, 
1780—90.  Heigel's  Deutsche  Geschichte  seit  1786.  Treitzschke's  Deuttdt 
Gesch.  im  I9ten  Jahrhundert,  6  (to  1848).  Seelejr's  Stein,  3.  Springers 
Dahlmann,  2.  Ernest  of  Coburg-Gotha's  Memoirs,  4.  Headlam's  Bismarrk. 
Busch's  Bismarck,  3.  Bismarck's  Memoirs,  2.  SybePs  Begriihdung  d. 
deutschen  Reichs,  7.  Marcks'  Wilhclm  I.  Frie^jung's  Kampf  um  d.  Vorkfrr- 
schaft  in  Deutschland,  1859—66, 2.  Moltke's  War  o/ 1870— 1, 2.  Pouchingw  s 
Friedrich  III.  Lowe's  William  II  Russell's  German  Sociedism.  LowdTs 
Governments  and  Parties,  2. 

Culture. 

Qeneral.  The  Munich  Histories  of  the  Sciences  (Protestant  Theology  (Eng.  Tnma.> 
Catholic  Theology,  Philosophy,  Politics,  Historiography,  Jiiri8{>rudence. 
Political  Economy,  Classical  Philology,  Oriental  Philology,  Germanic  Phikv 
logy.  Zoology,  Geology,  Mineralogy,  Physics,  Astronomy,  Geognphj;. 
Scherer's  Deutsche  Sprache,  and  Deutsche  Litteratur.  Goedeke's  Deutsche 
Dichtung,  2 — 7.  Paulsen's  Gelehrter  Unterricht,  2.  Deutsche  Kunst,  el 
Janitschek,  5. 

Periods.  Janssen's  D.  Voll,  vols.  1  and  6 — 8  (to  1618).  Gf»igcr'M  HHmonim^ 
in  Italien  u.  Deutschland,  Aiid  Reuchlin.  Kampschulte's  Erfurter  H*im>tt- 
istenkreis,  2.  Strauss'  Hutien  (Eng.  Trans.).  Kostlin's  Luther,  2  (al»ridged 
trans.).  'BqtjoX^ a  D.  Reformation.  YLeathi^H  Anabaptists.  Thausing's />«^t. i 
Herford's  Literary  Relations  with  England  in  16M  Century.  DpojHens 
Gegenreforniation.  Henke's  Calixtvs,  2.  Hoss»bach's  Spener,  2,  Geijier* 
Berlin,  1688—1840,  2.  Merz'  Leibnitz  (English).  PichWs  Leibnitz  .i^ 
Theologe,  2.  Levy-Bruhl's  VAllemagne  depuis  Leibnitz,  Bicdemuiui'^ 
Deutschland  hn  \Stea  Jahrhundert,  4.  Hettners  Deutsche  Littenttur,  I 
Andler's  Origines  du  Socialisme  en  AUemagne.  Justi's  WinrkelmaHH^  v«>L  1. 
(G.)  Sime's  Lessing,  2.  Schmidt's  Jessing,  2.  Meyer's  Rwnisrh-deHtr^ 
Frage^  3.  Nevinson's  Herder.  Haym's  Herder,  2,  and  Romantische  S^Mf. 
Mrs  Jennings'  Rahel.  Minor's  SchiUer,  2.  Grimm's  Goethe,  2.  Diltbeys 
Scldeiermacher.  Kant,  Fichte,  Hegel,  in  Blackwood's  Philoeophical  CUw^ 
Noack's  Schelling,  2.  Sepp's  Gorres.  Jansson's  Stolberg,  2.  PrOlss'  Jnit-rt 
Deutschland.  \Volft''«  Deutsche  Litteratur  d.  Gegenwart.  Bruhns'  Alesuiui^ 
V.  Ilumbifldt,  2.  (Eng.  Tran.s.)  Hayni's  Wilhelm  v.  HumboUit.  Lichtenberigcri 
German  Theology.  Witte's  Tholuck,  2.  Bachmann's  Hengstenlter^,  1 
Hausrath's  Strauss,  2.     Acton's  German  Schools  of  History  (Eng.  Hist  Rer 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  487 


vol.  1).  Ritachl's  Rit9chl,  2.  Nippold's  Rothe,  2.  Friedrich's  DolUnger,  3. 
GoyAu*8  LAUemagiie  religieiue.  Schulte's  Altkatholicmniu.  Dawson's 
Germany^  2.     Deutsche  Cniverntiiten,  ed.  Lexis,  2. 

Austria. 

General.  Wurzbach's  Biog.  Lexicon  Oest.  Leger'M  Austro-Uungary,  K rones' 
Oent.  OescL  5,  and  Ontndriss.  Vamb6ry*«  Hungary.  Maurice's  Bohemia, 
Palacky's  Bohmen^  5 — 10. 

Periods.  E.  Denis'  Fin  de  VlwUpendance  de  BohSme^  2.  Qindel}''s  Rudolph  11^ 
2 ;  Bdhmische  BrudeVy  2 ;  and  (Jegenreforimttion  in  Bohmen.  Hurter's 
Ferdinand  11,  II.  Walewski's  Leopold  /,  2.  Gaedeke's  Oesterreich  u.  d, 
Spanische  Erhfolgefrage,  2.  Anieth's  Maria  Theresa,  7.  Bright's  Maria 
Theresa,  and  Joseph  IL  Springer's  OesL  im  \9ten  Jahrhundert,  2.  Beer's 
Orientalische  Politik  OesL  Metteniich's  Mtfmoires,  8.  Mazade's  Metternich. 
Demelitsch's  Metternich* s  Ausioiirtige  Politik,  2.  Amold-Foreter's  Deak. 
Beust's  Memoirs,  2.  Lowell's  Governments  and  Parties,  vol.  2.  Matlekovits' 
Konigreich  Ungams,  2.  Boiirlier's  La  BohSme  Contemporaine.  Pypin's 
Slavische  Literatur,  2.  Liitzow's  Bohemian  Literature.  Reich's  Hungarian 
Literature.     Leger's  Etudes  Slaves,  6. 

Spain. 

Politics. 

€toneral.  Lafuente's  Hint,  de  Espaua,  10 — 29.  Armstrong  and  Hume's  Spain, 
1479 — 1788.     Dim)'8  Armada  Espa/iola,  5. 

Periods.  Poole's  Moors  in  Spain.  De  Nervo's  Isabelle  la  Catholique.  Baum- 
garten's  Karl  V,  3.  Winsor's  America,  vol.  2.  Hiune's  Philip  IL  Stirling- 
Maxwell's  Cloister  Life  of  Charles  V,  and  £k>n  John,  vol.  I.  Fomeron*s 
Philippe  II,  4.  Philippson's  Heinrich  IV  und  Philip  III,  3.  Canovas' 
Reinado  de  Felipe  IV.  Legrelle's  Loxiis  XIV  et  VEspagne,  4.  Pamell's 
Spanish  War  of  Succession.  Coxe's  Bourbons  in  Spain,  5  (1700 — 88). 
Baudrillart's  Philippe  V,  3.  Armstrong's  Elizabeth  Famese.  Danvila  y 
Collado's  Reinado  de  Carlos  III.  Himic's  Modern  Spain.  Baumgarten's 
Gesch.  Spaniens  seit  1789,  3.     Napier's  Peninsular  War.     Hannay's  Castelar. 

Culture. 

QeneraL  Lafuente's  Hist.  Ecclesiastica  de  Espana,  5 — 6.  Lea's  Chapters  from 
the  Religious  History  of  Spain.  Ticknor's  Spanish  Literature,  3.  Fitzmaurice- 
Kelly's  Spanish  Literature.  Menendez  y  Pelayo's  Heterodoxos,  2 — 3,  and 
Ideas  Est/ticas  en  Espaua,  2 — 5.  Stirling-Maxwell's  xirtists  of  Spain,  4. 
Colmeiro's  Economia  Politica  en  Espana. 

Periods.  Mariejol's  LEspagne  sous  Ferdinand  et  Isabelle.  Heidenheimer's 
Petms  Martyr.     Hefele's  Ximenes  (£ng.  Trans.).     Wilkeus'  Reformation  in 


488  APPENDIX   A 


Spain,  Grahame's  St  Theresa^  2.  Fitzmaurice-Kelly's  Cervantes.  Morel- 
Fatio's  VEspagm  aux  16 — Xl^jnes  si^des,  2.  Werner's  Suarez,  2.  Justfs 
Vela^qv£Z  (Eng.  Trans.).    Valera*s  Juicioa  LiterarioSj  and  Estudios  Cnticu*.  i 

Portugal. 

Morse  Stephen's  PorttLgaZ,  Schafer's  Portugal,  2 — 5  (to  1820).  \STiitewiiys 
Portuguese  Power  in  India.  Smith's  Pombal,  2.  Michel's  Portugais  en  /Vik/*, 
Fran^ais  en,  Portugal.     Loiseau's  Litt^rature  Portugaise. 

Italy. 

Politics. 

General.  Muratori's  Annali  cT  Italia  (to  1749).  Cantu's  Italiani^  9-1 4. 
Reumont's  Toscana,  2,  and  Stadt  Rom,  vol.  3.  Ranke's  Popes,  3.  BnjHch* 
Kirc/ienstaat,  2.  Brown's  Venice.  Bent's  Oenoa.  Carutti's  Storia  diptofwttm 
di  Savoia,  1494—1793,  4. 

Periods.  Reumont's  Lorenzo  de  Medici,  2  (Eng.  Trans.).  Creighton's  Foyvnf, 
4 — 6.  Pastor's  Popes,  from  vol.  4.  Pasolini's  Catherine  Sforza.  Burd** 
Pnnce  of  Macchiavelli.  Tommasini's  Machiavelli,  Villari's  Marchiar^^ii, 
and  Savonarola  (Eng.  Trans.).  Brosch's  Julius  II.  Nitti's  Ptditiat  M 
Leone  X.  Hofler's  Adrian  VI.  De  Leva's  Carlo  V  in  Italia.  5.  SvlvAin's 
Borrom^e,  3.  Hubner's  Si-xtxu  the  Fifths  2.  Remnont's  Carafas  of  JlatU'i- 
loni.  Zwiedineck-Sudenhorst's  Venedig's  Politik  mihrend.  d.  DreistifijiihriQ^ 
Kriege^,  2.  Tivaroni's  Risorgimento,  1735 — 1870,  9.  Theiner's  Clement  AIV, 
2.  Colletta's  HiMory  of  Naples,  2.  Helfert's  Carolina  v.  Xe^tpel.  Raiike* 
Consalvi  (in  Biographisc/ie  Studiea).  Reumont's  Cesare  Ballto.  Ho]x*i\ 
King's  Itaif/,  1814 — 71,  2.  Faldella's  Oiovane  Italia,  2.  M,-izade'.s  (Wr.  /t. 
Mazzini's  Works,  vols.  1  and  5.  O'Clery's  Making  of  Italy,  lS5^v— T'l 
Stilhnan's  Crispi     Lowell's  Governments  and  Parties,  vol.  2. 

Culture. 

General.  Oarnett's  Italian  Literature.  Ranke's  Popes,  3.  Reumont's  TatfJ'^  fi' 
Storia  Toscana,  and  Bntriige  z.  Italienisrhen  Ge^^h.,  6.  Cantu's  Errt^»^ 
d  Italia,  3.  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle's  Painting  in  Italy,  5.  Ferrari's  Srnt*"r\ 
politiri  d  Italia. 

Periods.  Symonds'  Renaissance,  7.  Burckhardt's  The  Renaissance.  Grep<>r»viu>" 
City  of  Rome,  vol.  8.  Pater's  Renaissance.  Villari's  Savonantl'U  -md 
Marrhiavelli  (Eng.  Trans).  Owen's  Italian  Sceptics.  Rcxioivinachi's  Hfn^ 
de  Ferrara.  Benrath's  Orhino  (Eng.  Trans.).  Reumont's  Vittoria  Col'^hM. 
Muntz'  Leonardo,  2,  and  Rttphtiel  (Eng.  Trans.).  S\nnonds'  Michetang*'l\  t 
Crowe  and  Cavalca-selle's  Titian,  2.  Solerti's  Tasso,  3.  I>cjoh's  Mnrf. 
Waters'  Cardan.    Florentine's  Telesio,  2.    Bemi's  Bruno.    Campbell's  ^tjA 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  489 


Vernon  Lee's  Italy  in  the  Eighteenth  Century,  Flint's  Vico,  Jiisti's 
Winckdmann^  voL  2.  Vernon  Lee's  Countess  of  Albany.  Fern's  Philosophie 
en  Italiey  2.  Espinas'  Philosophie  experimetitale  en  Italie,  De  Sanctis' 
Leopardi,  Reumont's  Oino  Cappmii.  Massari's  Oioberti,  2.  Lockhart's 
Rosmini,  2.     Hillebrajid's  Italia^  4. 

Switzerland. 

Politics. 

Dandliker's  History  of  Sicitzerland.     Adams  and  Cimningham's  Swiss  Con- 
federation.    Boget's  Genhe  (1476 — 1602),  9,   and  Oenhve  au  temps  de  Calvin. 
Lowell's  Qovemments  and  Parties^  vol.  2.     Deploige's  The  Referendum. 

Culture. 

Qenend.  Secrttan's  Oalerie  Suisse,  3.  Rossel's  Histoire  Litt^raire  de  la  Suisse 
romandey  2.     Gelpke's  Kirchengesch.  d.  SchiceiZy  2. 

Periods.  Stahelin's  Zicinglij  2,  and  Calvin,  3.  Pestalozzi's  Bullinger.  Buisson's 
CasteUitm^  2.  Baiun's  Beza,  2.  Morikofer's  Evangel ische  Fliichtlinge,  and 
Schweizerische  Litteratur  d.  IQten  Jahrhunderts.  Maurj'^'s  R^veil  religieux, 
1810 — 50,  2.     Rambert's  Vinet.     Dawson's  Social  Switzerland. 

Holland  and  Belgium. 

Politics. 

OtneraL  Pirenne's  Bibliographie  de  Vhistoire  de  Belgique.  Biographie  Rationale 
de  Bel^que.  Wenzelburger's  Niederlande,  2  (to  1648).  Blok's  Dutch  People. 
Juste's  Belgique,  3,  and  itats-O^ne'raux  des  Pays-Bas,  1465 — 1790,  2. 
Gachard's  J^tndes  sur  les  Pays-Bas,  3. 

Pttiods.  Henne's  Charles  Quint  en  Belgique,  10.  Rackfahl's  2ifargaret  con 
Parma.  Putnam's  William  the  Silent,  2.  Harrison's  Will  tain  the  Silent. 
Juste's  St  Aldegonde.  Maxwell's  Don  John,  vol.  2.  Lettcnhove's  Huguenots 
et  les  Oueux,  6.  Motley's  Dutch  Republit\  3 ;  United  Netherlands,  4 ;  Bame- 
veldt,  2.  Lef(^vre-Pontalis'  John  de  Witt,  2.  Geddes'  De  Witt,  vol.  1. 
Gachard's  Belgique  au  18^mff  sikcle.  Lal)orie's  Dominion  fran^tise  en  Belgique, 
2.  Gerlache's  Royaume  d.  Pays-Bas,  1814 — 30,  3.  Baku's  Belgique, 
1815—84.  Juste's  lAopold  I  et  II,  and  Fondateurs  de  la  Monarchic  Beige, 
22.     Discaille's  Rogier,  4.     Destrdes  et  Vandcvelde's  Socialisme  en  Belgique. 

Culture. 

GtneraL  Hellwald's  NiederlHndische  Liiteratur.  Pringsheim's  Wirthschaftliche 
Entm'ckelung  d.  Nied.  Miiller's  Classische  Philologie  in  d.  Nied.  Hejjpe's 
Piettsmus  in  d.  Nied.     Nippold's  Kathdische  Kirche  in  d.  Nied. 


490  APPENDIX  A 


Periods.  Altmeyer's  Pr^curseurs  de  la  EUforme^  2.  Cano's  F.  Jumtu,  Beimvs^ 
Scaliger.  Neale's  Jantenut  Church  of  Ifolland,  Hatin's  Gazette*  de  Holhudt 
Cinquante  Am  de  Libert^,  1830—80,  4.    Hameliiis'  Le  MouvemetU  Flawtwi. 

Denmark,  Norway,  Sweden. 

Qeneral.  Otto's  Scandinavian  History,  Denmark;  and  Iceland.  Bovoeoit 
Norway.  Dahlmanu  irnd  Schafer's  Ddnemark,  3 — 4.  Gefiroy's  J^aU  Sxindi- 
naves.  Geiger  und  Carlson's  Schweden^  6  (to  1706).  Maiirer^s  Ida*d. 
Schybergson's  Finland. 

Periods.  Watson's  Otutavus  Vasa.  Theiner's  Schweden^s  Stdlung  t.  Hfilifk 
Stuhl.  Fletcher's  Oustavtis  Adolphus.  Droysen's  Gustav  Adolf  2.  B&iDi 
Christina.  Bain's  Charles  XII.  Wittich's  Struensee.  Bain's  Onstarvs  III,  i 
Schmidt's  Charles  XIV.  Butler's  Reformation  in  Sweden.  Schweit»ri 
Skandinavische  Litteratur^  3.  Gosse's  Northern  Stttdies.  Brandes'  tiolher^; 
Kierkegaard;  Menschen  u,  Werke,  and  Modeme  Geister.  Weitermavcr'i 
DeuTnark. 

Russia. 

Politics. 

General.  Morfill's  Russia.  Rambaud's  Russia^  2.  Briickner  u.  Hermann's 
RuMischer  Stoat,  2—7  (to  1797).  Kostomarofs  Russ.  Gesch.  in  BiograpkieK t 
Kleinschmidt's  G.  d.  Russischen  Hohen  Adels,  and  Rnsdand,  1598—188^ 
Rich  tor's  Ostseeprovimen,  5.  Schybergson's  Finland.  Kraitsse's  Rvuia  *« 
Asia,  1558—1899.     Howorth's  Mongols,  2—3. 

Periods.  Schiemami's  Russland,  Poland  u.  Livland  bis  itis  Mte  Jahrhttn^l^ 
Bruckner's  Peter  d.  Grosse,  and  Furopiiisierung  Russlands.  Walisxewski'* 
PeU^  the  Great.  Bain's  Daughter  of  Peter  the  Great,  and  Pupils  of  Pfttr  tk 
Great.  Pingaud's  Les  Fran^ais  en  Russie.  Blum's  Sievers,  Briickner* 
Caterina  II  Biibassoflfs  Caterina  II,  2.  Waliszewski's  Catherint  II.  i 
Czartory ski's  Memoirs,  2.  Vandal's  Napol^n  et  Alexandre  III,  3.  BerohArii^ 
Russland,  1815 — 30,  3.  Pypin's  Russische  Gesellschaft  unter  Alexandtr  I 
Kiiiglake's  Crimean  War,  9.  Schmeidler's  Alexander  II  Leroy-Beaulifu"'» 
Milutin.  Liwof's  Katkof  Kropotkin'h  Membirs,  2.  Eokardt's  J^»J>r« 
R\isna.  NovikoflTs  Skobeleff  and  the  Slavonic  Cause.  Lowe's  AlexuHder  III 
Stepniak's  Russian  Peasantry,  2.  Thompson's  Russian  PiUitics.  LtT.'V- 
Beauiieu's  Empire  of  the  Tsars,  3. 

Cidture. 

Qeneral.  Walinewski's  Russian  Lit.  Boissard's  Viglise  de  Russie^  2.  IMlti^s 
Evangelische  Kirche  in  Russland,  2.  Stanley's  Eastern  Church,  Leipw* 
Etudes  Slaves,  6. 


BIBLIOGRAPflV  491 


Ferioda.  Pierling'*8  La  Russie  et  le  Saint  St^e.  Bruckner's .  PotsosckJtow. 
LeaccEur's  LEgLue  Catholique  en  Pologne  et  en  Rusgie.  Ford'd  Mme  de 
Kmdener,  De  Vogue's  Roman  Rutse.  Brandes'  ImpretsioM  of  Ruuia, 
Errera's  Jews  in  Russia.  Leroy-Beaulieu's  Empire  of  the  Tsars,  vol.  3. 
Ferris'  ToUiai, 

Poland. 

Politirs, 

Genend.     Morfill's  Poland.    Schiemann's  Russia  nd,  Polen  u.  Li  eland  bis  ins 

lite  JaArhundert,  2. 
Pttciods.     Caro's  Polen^  voL  5.     Waliszewski's   Sfarysienka   (Trans. ).     Smitt's 

Surorof  ic  Polens  Untergang^  2.     Czartoryski's  Memoirs,  2. 

Culture. 

Xitdchmann's  Polnist-he  Litteratur.  Fischer's  Reformation  in  Poland,  2. 
Dalton's  JoAn  a  Lasco.  Eichhoni's  ffosius,  2.  Lescccur's  LEglise  Catholique  en 
Pologne^  1772 — 1875,  2.  Theiner's  LEgli*e  Catholique  en  Pologne  et  en  Russie, 
Von  der  Briiggen's  Polen' s  A  ufliming.     Brandes'  Polen. 

The  Balkan  States. 

Miller's  The  Balkans.  Laveleve's  Balkan  Peninsula.  Dice\''s  Bulqaria. 
Beaman's  Stambnloff.  Memoirs  of  Charles  of  Roumania.  Samuebon's  Roumania. 
Gubematis'  La  Serbie.     Borard's  La  MaMoine,  and  LHellenisme  Contemporain. 

Greece. 

Finlay's  Greece,  5 — 7.  Mendelssohn's  GnWhenland  seit  1453,  2.  Laliorde's 
Atkenes,  2,  Sergeaunt's  Ore*^e  in  the  19M  Century.  Gidel's  Litt.  Grecque 
Modeme,  2. 

The  Ottoman  Empire. 

Poole's  Turkey.  Zinkeisen's  Osmanisches  Reich,  2 — 7  (to  1812).  Finlay's 
Byzantine  Empire,  5—7.  Poeeu's  Turkei,  1826 — 56,  2.  Poole's  Stratford  Canning, 
2.  Klnglake's  Crimea,  9.  Argj-ll's  Eastern  Question,  2.  Bryce's  Transcaucasia. 
Berard's  La  Politique  du  Sultan.     Davev's  Sultan  and  his  Subjects,  2. 

North  America. 

Politics. 

OeneraL  Channing  and  Hart's  Guide  to  A merican  History.  Appleton's  American 
Biography.  Chauning's  Students  History  of  U.  S.  Winsor's  History  of 
America,  7.  Atnerican  Commonwealths,  ed.  Scudder.  Bancroft's  Pacific 
States  (Works,  vols.  15—35). 


492  BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Periods.  Winsor's  Columbits.  Palfre/s  New  England  to  1760,  4.  Fiske's 
Virginia^  2.  Bence's  Economic  Hutory  of  Virginia  in  17 th  Century^  I 
Maclay's  American  Navy,  2.  Parton's  Franklin,  3.  American  StaUsmn 
(Franklin,  Samuel  Adams,  Henry,  Washington,  John  Adams,  HamiHrn, 
Morris,  Jay,  Marshall,  Jefierson,  Madison,  Gallatin,  Monroe,  Quincy  Adams, 
Randolph,  Jackson,  Van  Biiren,  Clay,  Webster,  Calhoun,  Benton,  Ca«, 
Lincoln,  Seward,  C.  F.  Adams,  Stevens,  Chase,  Sumner).  Winsor's  Handbook 
of  the  A  merican  Revolution.  Bancroft's  The  ConstUuiion,  2.  Story's  CW 
mentaries,  ed.  Cooley,  2.  Hoist's  Constitutional  History,  1750 — 1854,  5. 
Taussig's  The  Tariff,  1789—1888.  Fiske's  Critical  Period  of  Ameruv* 
History.  Conway's  Tom  Paine,  2.  Randall's  Jefferson,  3.  Flanders'  Ckiff 
Justices,  2.  Stanwood's  The  Presidency.  Rives'  Madison,  3.  J.  Q.  Adam^ 
Diary,  12.  Reddaway's  Monroe  Doctrine.  Benton's  Thirty  Fears  Viev  o/ 
Congress,  1820—50,  3.  Parton's  Jackson,  3.  Curtis'  Webster,  2.  Rbodtt' 
United  Stales  of  America  from  1850, 4.  Nicolay  and  Hay's  Lincoln,  10.  Morses 
Lincoln,  2.  Greely's  Amencan  Conflict,  2.  Stephens'  War  between  the  Stata, 
2.  Jefferson  Davis'  Confederate  Government,  2.  Pierce's  Sumner,  4.  Sewanf* 
Memoirs.  Blaine's  Twenty  Years  in  Congress,  2.  Sherman's  RecoilectionA,  i 
Bigelow's  Tilden,  2.  Whittle's  Cleveland.  Maguire's  Irish  in  Ameri'^ 
Bryce's  American  Commonioealth,  2. 

Culture, 

QeneraL  American  Men  of  Letters  Series.  Tyler's  American  Literature,  4. 
Wendell's  American  Literature.     American  Church  History  Series. 

Periods.  Baird's  Huguenot  Emigration,  3.  Dexter's  Congregationalism,  and 
As  to  Roger  Williams.  Channing's  Channing,  3.  Swift's  Brook  f>irm. 
Frothinghaiii's  Theodore  Parker,  and  Transc^mientcUism.  Adams'  IkiH'i,  t 
Cabot's  Emerson,  2.  Holni&s'  Motley.  Ablwtt's  Ward  Beecher.  Xordlioff-* 
Commnnistic  Societies.  Weeden's  Economic  and  Social  History  of  S^ 
England.     Allen's  Phillips  Brooks,  2. 

Central  and  South  America. 

Bancroft's  Central  A  meriea,  2,  and  Mexico,  6  (abridged,  1).  Deberle's  AiHiri'i^ 
du  Sud.  Watson's  Spanish  and  Portuguese  America,  2.  Leva>»eurs  Lt  Br^- 
Markham's  Pern.  Gothein's  Jesuitenstaat  in  Paraguay.  Coudreau's  La  Franrf 
Equinoxiale.     Child's  Spanish- American  Republics. 

Asia. 

Persia,  China,  Japan,  etc. 

Howorth's  Mongols,  2 — 3.  Curzon's  Persia,  2.  Markham's  Persia.  Curr-o  • 
Russia  in  Central  Asia.  Skrine  and  Ross'  Heart  of  Asia.  The  AmeorV  Jw.*- 
biography,  2.     Smyth's  Siam,  2.     Egerton's  Raffles.    St  John's  Rajah  Brvuit 


APPENDIX  A  493 


Murraj's    Japan.     Douglas'    China.     Poole's  Parl-es^    2.     Michie's  Alcock,    2. 

Colquhoun's  China  in    Transformation.    Ciirzon's  Problems  of  the  Far  East. 

Konnan's   The  Far  East.     Krausae's  Russia  in   Asia^  1558 — 1899.  Krahmer's 
RnMlahd  in  Asien^  4.     Ranibaud's  La  France  Coioniale. 

India. 

Hunter's  The  Indian  Empire,  and  Imperial  dazetteer,  14.  Rulers  of  India 
SerieSj  ed.  Hunter.  Whitewa\''s  Portuguese  Power  in  India.  Hunter's  British 
India^  2  (to  1708).  Lyall's  Rise  of  British  Dominion.  Frazer's  British  India, 
Malleson's  French  in  India,  2.  Hunter's  Indian  Mussulmans.  Trotter's  India 
under  VictoricL,  2.  Kaye  and  Malleson's  The  Mutiny,  6.  Hunter's  Mayo,  2. 
R  Smith's  Lawrence,  2.  Rol)erts'  Forty-one  Years  in  India.  Cotton's  India 
(English  Citizen  Series),  llbert's  (Jovernment  of  India.  Lee  Warner's  Protected 
Princes.  Dutt's  Indian  Famines.  Blunt's  Ideas  afx)ut  India.  Morison's  Im- 
perial Rule  in  India.  Sauiuelson's  India  Past  and  Present  (with  bibliography 
by  Himter).     Nash's  The  Gre^it  Famine.     Warburton  s  18  Years  in  the  Khyher. 

Culture. 

Fergusi>n's  Indian  Architecture.  Frazer's  Literary  History  of  India.  Aston's 
Japanese  Literature.  Earth's  Religions  of  India.  Gobineau's  Religions  de  PAsie 
Centrale.  Edkin's  Chinese  Buddhism.  Famin's  Protectorat  des  Eglises  Chr^tiennes. 
Mestral's  Tableau  de  Viglise  Chr^tienne.  Venn's  Xavier.  Lyall's  Asiatic  Studies, 
2.  Max  Miiller's  Chips,  vol.  3,  and  My  hidian  Friends.  lyAlviella's  Co^itemporary 
Religious  Thought.    Blunt's  Future  of  Islam. 

Africa  (and  see  Africa,  under  English  Cdanies). 

OeneraL     Johnston's  Colonisation  of  Africa.     Keltie's  Partition  of  Africa. 
Egyilt.     Traill's  England,  Egypt  and  the  Sudan.     Milner's  England  in  Egypt. 

Butler's  Gordon.     Wingate's  Mahdism  and  the  Egyptian  Sudan. 
Horth  Africa.     Ranibaud's  La  France   Coioniale.     Poole's  Barbary   Corsairs. 

Meakin's  Moorish  Empire. 
South  Africa.     Theal's  Portuguese  in  Africa,  and  South  Africa,  5. 


APPENDIX  B. 


TABLES. 


Kings  and  Queens  of  England. 


1485 

Henry  VII. 

1689 

William  and  Mary 

1509 

Henry  VIII. 

(1694 

William  III.) 

1547 

Edward  VI. 

1702 

Anne. 

1553 

Mary. 

1714 

George  I. 

1558 

Elizabeth. 

1727 

George  II. 

1603 

James  I. 

1760 

George  III. 

1625 

( 'harles  I. 

1820 

George  IV. 

1649 

Interr^uum. 

1830 

William  IV. 

1660 

Charles  II. 

1837 

Victoria. 

1685 

James  II. 

I90I 

iAuT^JL  vn 

t^ta 

(Jl^ouj^V 

Prime  Ministen 

!  since  Walpole. 

1721 

Walpole. 

1828 

Wellington. 

1742 

Wilmington. 

1830 

Grey. 

1743 

Henry  Pelham. 

1834 

Melbourne. 

1754 

Newcastle. 

PeeL 

1756 

Devonshire. 

1835 

Melbourne. 

1757 

Newcastle. 

1841 

Peel. 

1762 

Bute. 

1846 

Russell. 

1763 

Grenville. 

1852 

Derby. 

1765 

Rockingham. 

Aberdeen. 

1766 

Chatham. 

1855 

Palmerston. 

1767 

Grafton. 

1858 

Derbv. 

1770 

North. 

1859 

Palmerston. 

1782 

Rockingham. 

1865 

RusselL 

Shclbume 

1866 

Derby. 

1783 

Portland. 

1868 

Disraeli. 

Pitt 

Gladstone. 

1801 

Addington. 

1874 

Disraeli. 

1804 

Pitt. 

1880 

Gladstone. 

1806 

Grenville. 

1885 

Sahsbury. 

1807 

Portland. 

1886 

Gladstone. 

1809 

Perceval. 

Salisbury. 

1812 

Liverpool. 

1892 

Gladstone. 

1827 

Canning. 

1894 

Rosebery. 

Goderich. 

1895 

Salisbury. 

TABLES. 


495 


Archbishops  of  Caaterbnry. 


I486 

Morton. 

1501 

Deane. 

1503 

Warham. 

1533 

Cranmer. 

1556 

Pole. 

1559 

Parker. 

1576 

GrindaL 

1583 

Whitgift 

1604 

Bancroft. 

1611 

Abbot. 

1633 

Laud. 

1660 

Juzon. 

1663 

Sheldon. 

1677 

Sandcroft 

1691 

Tilloteon. 

1695 

Tenison. 

1715 

Wake. 

1737 

Potter. 

1747 

Herring. 

1757 

Hutton. 

1758 

Seeker. 

1768 

Comwallis. 

1783 

Moore. 

1805 

Manners  Sutton 

1828 

Howley. 

1848 

Sumner. 

1862 

Longley. 

1868 

Tait 

1882 

Benson. 

1896 

Temple. 

Kings  of  France. 


7%e   Valois  Line, 

1483  Charles  VIIL 

1498  Louis  XII. 

1515  Francis  I. 

1547  Henry  II. 

1559  Francis  II. 

1500  Charles  IX. 

1574  Henry  IIL 

(Accession  of  The  Bourbon  Line,) 
1589    H«iry  IV. 
1610    Louis  XIII. 
1643    Louis  XIV. 
1715     Louis  XV. 
1774    Louis  XVI. 

The  Republic,  1792-1799. 
1792    The  Convention. 
1795    The  Directory. 

The  Consulate,  1799-1804. 


The  First  Empire, 
1804    Napoleon  I. 

The  Restoration,  1814-1848. 
1814     Louis  XVIII. 
1824    Charles  X. 
1830    Louis  Philippa 

The  Republic  of  1848. 

The  Second  Empire. 
1852    Napoleon  III.. 

The  Republic  of  1870. 
Presidents. 
1871     Thiers. 
1873    Macmahon. 
1879    Grdvy. 
1887     Camot. 

1894  Casimir-P^rier. 

1895  Faure. 
1899    Loubet 


Kings  of  Spain. 


1479  Ferdinand  and  Isabella. 

1504  Ferdinand,  King  of  Spain. 

1516  Charles  I. 

1566  Philip  11. 

1598  Philip  HI- 

1621  Philip  IV. 

166:>  Charles  II. 

1700  PhiUpV. 

1746  Ferdinand  VI. 

1759  Charles  III. 


17ftfl  Charles  IV. 

1806  Ferdinand  VII. 

Joaejth  BonaiWTte 

1813  Ferdinand  VII. 

1833  Isabella  II. 

1870  Amadeo  I. 

1873  Bepublic 

18T4  Alfonao  XII. 

1885  Maria. 

1886  Alfonso  XIII. 


RtngB  of  Portugal. 


1481  John  II. 

1495  EmnianueL 

1521  John  III. 

1557  Sebastian. 

1578  Henrj-. 

1580  Antony. 

United  to  Spain,  1680-1640. 

1640  John  IV. 

1656  Alfonso  VI. 

1683  Peter  II. 

1706  John  V. 


>  jointly. 


1750    Joeeph  Em 
1777    Haria  I., 

Peter  III./ 
1786    Maria,  alone. 
1816    John. 
18S6    Maria  II. 
Dom  Miguel,  iwiiriwr,  lRi8-33 
1853    Peter  V. 
1861     LiiiM  I, 
1889     Uon  Carlos. 


The  House  of  Savoy. 


1482    Philibert  II. 
L-KH     CharloM  III. 
1563    Eimijiuo!  Philibert. 
1580     Chnries  ETimuiiel. 
1G30     Victor  Aiiiitdeu.t  I. 

1637  FranciH. 

1638  Charles  Emanuel  II. 

1675    Victor  Aniadens  II.    (Re- 
ceives  title   of   King  of   SiL-ily,  1713; 
changed  to  Victor  Amadeua  1., 
of  Sardinia,  1720.) 


,  King 


1730  Charles  Ein.inuel  I. 

1773  Victor  Aiuodeus  II. 

1796  Charles  Emanuel  II. 

1802  Victor  Emanuel  I. 

1821  CliarloB  Felix. 

1831  Charles  Albert 

1849  Victor  Emanuel  II. 

1878  Himiliert. 

1900  Victor  Emanuel  III. 


TABLES. 


497 


The  Popes. 


492     AlexAnder  VI.  (Borgia). 
503     Pius  III.  (Piccolomini). 

JuliiLs  II.  (Rovere). 
513     Leo  X.  (Medici). 

522  Adrian  VL  (Boyere). 

523  Clement  VII.  (Medici). 
534     Paul  III.  (Farnesc). 
550    Juliuftj  III.  (Monte). 
555     Marcelhw  II.  (Cervini). 

Paul  IV.  (Carafta). 
559     Piu«  IV.  f Medici). 
565     Viiiii  V.  (Ghislieri). 
572     Oregon-  XIII.  (Buoncompagni). 
585     Sixtus  V.  CPeretti). 

590  Urlmn  VII.  (Castagna). 
Gregc»ry  XIV.  (Sfondrati). 

591  Innocent  IX.  (Facchinetti). 

592  Clement  VIII.  (Aldobrandini). 
605     Leo  XI.  (Medici). 

Paid  V.  (Borghese). 
621     Gregory  XV.  (Ludovisi). 
623     Urban  VIII.  (Barberini). 


1644  Innocent  X.  (Pamlili). 

1655  Alexander  VII.  (Chigi). 

1667  Clement  IX.  (Rospigliosi). 

1670  Clement  X.  (Altieri). 

1676  Innocent  XI.  (Odeacalchi). 

1689  Alexander  VIII.  (Ottoboni). 

1691  Innocent  XII.  (Pignatelli). 

1700  Clement  XI.  (AlUni). 

1721  Innocent  XIII.  (Conti). 

1724  Benedict  XIII.  (Orsini). 

1730  Clement  XII.  (Cornini). 

1740  Benedict  XIV.  (Lambertini). 

1758  Clement  XIII.  (Rezzonico). 

1769  Clement  XIV.  (Ganganelli). 

1775  Piiw  VI.  (Brascbi). 

1800  Pius  VII.  (Chiaramonti). 

1823  Leo  XII.  (Delia  Genga). 

1829  Pius  VIII.  (Castiglioni). 

18;n  Gregory  XVI.  (Caixsllari). 

1846  Pius  IX.  (Mastai-Ferretti). 
(End  of  the  Temi)oral  Power,  1870). 

1878  Leo  XIIL  (Pecci). 


Grand  Dukes  of  Tuscany. 


1537     Cosmo  de  Medici.  (Receives      (Accession  of  the   Hai>sburg- Lorraine 


le  Granducal  title,  1569.) 

line.) 

1574     Francis. 

1737     Francis. 

1587     Ferdinand  I. 

1765     Leopold  I. 

1609     Cosmo  IL 

1790    Ferdinand  III. 

1621     Ferdinand  II. 

1825     Leoi)old  II. 

1670    Cosmo  IIL 

1859-60  Ferdinand  IV. 

1724     Giovanni  Gastone. 

(Annexed  to  the  Kingdom  of  Italy.) 

The  Bourbon  Rulers  of  Naples  and  Sicily. 


1735  Don  Carlos  (later  Charles 
II.  of  S{)ain). 

1759  Ferdinand  IV.  (Receives 
le  royal  title  as  Ferdinand  I.,  1815.) 


o. 


1825     Francis  I. 

1830     Ferdinand  IL 
1859-60  Francis  II. 
(Annexed  to  the  Kingdom  of  Italy.) 

32 


498 


APPENDIX   B. 


The  Hapsburg  Emperors. 


1440  Frederick  III. 

1493  Maximilian  I. 

1520  Charles  V. 

1556  Ferdinand  I. 

1564  Maximilian  11. 

1576  Rudolf  II. 

1612  Matthias. 

1619  Ferdinand  II. 

1637  Ferdinand  III. 

1658  Leopold  I. 

1705  Joseph  I. 


1711     Charles  V  I. 
(Maria  Theresa,  174O-«0.)' 
i  742    Charles  VII.  of  BavarU. 
1745     Francis  I. 
1765    Joseph  II. 
1790     Leoi)oldII. 
1792     Francis   II.      (Fnukv 
sumes  the  title  of  Emperor  of  Auifi 
1806     Francis  I. 
1835     Ferdinand  I. 
1848     Francis  Joseph. 


Kings  of  Prussia. 


1 640  Frederick  William,  the  Great 
Elector. 

1688  Frederick  I.  (receives  the 
royal  title,  1701). 

1713     Frederick  William  I. 

1740    Frederick  II.  the  Greiit. 


1786 
1797 
1840 
1861 

1888 


Frederick  WilHam  II. 
Frederick  WiUiaiu  III. 
Frederick  William  IV. 
William  I.  (Emi)en)r,l 
Frederick  III. 
William  II. 


Kings  of  Bavaria. 


1799    Maximilian  I.  (receives  the 
royal  title,  1805). 

1825     Ludwig  I. 
1848     Maximilian  II. 


1864     Ludwig  II. 
1886     Otho. 

(The  Regent  LeojKild  . 


Kings  of  Saxony. 


1763     Frederick  Augustus  1.  (re- 
ceives the  royal  title,  1806). 
1827     Anthony. 


1836     Frederick  Augitstus  11 
18,j4     John. 
1873     Allicrt. 


Kings  of  Wiirtemberg. 


1806     Frederick  I. 
1816     William  I. 


1864     diaries  I. 
1891     William  II. 


Electors  and  Kings  of  Hanover. 


1679  Ernest  Augustus  (receives 
the  Electoral  title,  1692). 

1698     George  1. 

1727     (Jeorgell. 

1760  George  III.  (receives  the 
royal  title,  1814). 


1820    (;eorge  IV. 
1830     William  IV. 
1837     EmoHt. 
iajl-66  George  V. 

(Annexeii  to  iViissial 


TABLES. 


499 


m 

Stadtholders  and 

Kings  of  HoUancL 

1587 

Miiurice. 

1806     Louis  Bonai^arte. 

1625 

Frederick  Henry. 

,           1810    Annexed  to  France. 

1647 

William  II. 

1814     William    I.    (receives    the 

1650 

William  III. 

royal  title). 

1702 

William  IV. 

1840     William  11. 

1751 

William  V. 

1849     William  III. 

1795 

Batavian  Republic. 

1890    Wilhelmina. 

Kings  of  Belgium. 


1831     Leoix>ld  I. 


I 


1865     Leopold  II. 


1481     John. 

1699 

Frederick  IV. 

1513     Christian  II. 

1730 

Christian  VI. 

(Sweden  becomes  independent;. 

1746 

Frederick  V. 

1523     Frederick  I. 

1766 

Christian  VII. 

1533     Christian  IIL 

1784 

Frederick  VI.  (Regent). 

1559    Frederick  II. 

(Norway 

is  Joined  to  Sweden,  1814.) 

1.588     Christian  IV. 

ia39 

Christian  VIII. 

1648     Frederick  III. 

1848 

Frederick  VII. 

1670     Christian  V. 

1863 

Christian  IX. 

1483 

John  II. 

1697 

Charles  XII. 

1503 

Protectors. 

ri718 
1.1720 

Ulrica  Eleiinora. 

1520 

Christian  II. 

Frederick  L 

1523 

Gustavus  I.,  Vasa. 

1751 

AdoI])hu8  Frederick 

1560 

Eric  XIV. 

1771 

Gustavus  III. 

1569 

John  III. 

1792 

Gustavus  IV. 

1592 

Sigismund  III. 

1809 

Charles  XIII. 

1604 

Charles  IX. 

1818 

Charles  XIV. 

1611 

Gustavus  Adolphua 

1844 

Oscar  I. 

1632 

Christina. 

ia59 

Cniarles  XV. 

1654 

Charles  X 

1872 

Oscar  IL 

1600 

Charles  XL 

32—2 


500 


APPENDIX  B. 


Kings  of  PolancL 


1492  John  Albert. 

1501  Alexander. 

1506  Sigismund  I. 

1548  Sigismund  II. 
(End  of  Jagellou  Dynasty.) 

1573  Henry  of  Valois. 

1575  Stephen  Bathori. 

1587  Sigismund  III. 

1632  Wladislaus  VII. 


1648    John  Casimir  V. 
1669    Michael. 
1674    John  Sobieski. 
1697     Frederick  Augustus  1. 

Elector  of  Saxony. 

(1704-9  Stanislaus  Leazczjiutkj 

1734     Frederick  Augastus  11. 

1764-95     Stanislas  Poniatov^ 

(Final  partition  of  Poland). 


Tsars  of  Russia. 


1462 

Ivan  III. 

1727 

Peter  II. 

1505 

Basil 

1730 

Anna. 

1533 

Ivan  the  Terrible. 

1740 

Ivan  VI.  (dei>.) 

1584 

Feodor. 

1741 

Elizabeth. 

1598 

Boris  Godounoflf. 

1762 

Peter  III. 

1605 

Interregruim. 

Catharine  II. 

(Accession  of  House  of  Romanov.) 

1796 

Paul. 

1613 

Michael  Romanov. 

l&Ol 

Alexander  1. 

1645 

Alexis. 

1825 

Nichohis  1. 

1676 

Feodor  Alexievitch. 

1855 

Alexander  II. 

1682 

Peter  the  Great. 

1881 

Alexander  III. 

1725 

Catharine  I. 

1894 

Nicholas  II. 

Princes  and  Kings  of  the  Balkan  States. 


Roumanut  (Wallachia  and  Moldavia 
united,  1^561 ;  independent,  1878). 

1861     Alexander  Couza. 

1866  Charles  of  Hohenzollem- 
Sigraaringen  (receives  the  royal  title, 
1881). 

Servia  (Inde|)endent,  1878). 

1868  Milan  (receives  the  royal 
title,  1881). 

1889     Alexander. 


Bulgaria  (Indeptuideut,  187S). 
1879     Alexander  of  KitUMiU 
1887     Fertlinand  of  Cobur^. 

Montenegro  (IndeiKindent.  187S . 
186U     Nicholas, 

Greece  (Inde|)endent,  1829). 
1832     Otho  of  liiivaria. 
1 863    George  of  Denmark. 


TABLES. 


501 


Sultans  of  Turkey. 


1481 

Bajazct  11. 

1512 

Selim  I. 

1520 

Solvnian  I. 

1566 

Selim  II. 

1574 

Amiirath  HI. 

15U5 

Mohammed  III. 

1603 

Achmet  I. 

1617 

Mustaphn  I. 

1618 

Othman  II. 

1623 

Amurath  IV. 

1640 

Ibrahim. 

1649 

Mohammed  IV. 

1687 

Solvman  II. 

1691 

Achmet  II. 

1695 

MiiMtapha  II. 

17a3 

Achmet  III. 

1730 

Mahmoud  I. 

1754 

Othman  III. 

1757 

Mustjipha  III. 

1774 

Abdul  Hamid  I. 

1789 

Sehm  III. 

1807 

MiiHtapha  IV. 

1808 

Mahmoud  II. 

1839 

Abdul  Mejid. 

1861 

AIkIuI  Aziz 

1876 

Amunith  V. 

AbdiU  Hamid  II 

Pashas  and  Khedives  of  Egypt. 


1805     Mehemet  Ali. 
1848     AbbaH. 
ia')4     Said. 


1863     Ismail  (receives    Khedivial 
title,  1866). 

1879    Tewfik. 
1892     AUwiM. 


High  Commissioners  of  South  Africa. 


1854  Grey. 

1861  Wodehoiwe. 

1870  Barkly. 

1877  Bartle  Frere. 


1881  RobiuHoii. 

1889  Loch. 

1895  Robinson. 

1897  Milner. 


Oovemors-General  of  Canada. 


1867  Monck. 

1872  Dufferin. 

1878  Lome. 

1884  Lansdowne. 


1888    Stanley. 
1893    Aberdeen. 
1898    Mint<\ 


502 


APPENDIX  B. 


Presidents  of  the  United  States. 


1789  Waahington. 

1797  John  Adams. 

1801  Jefferson. 

1809  Madison. 

1817  Monroe. 

1825  J.  Q.  Adams. 

1829  Jackson. 

1837  Van  Buren. 

1841  Hanson. 

(Tyler,  1841.) 

1845  Polk. 

1849  Taylor. 

(Fillmore,  1850.) 


1853 

Pierce. 

1857 

Buchanan. 

1861 

Lincoln. 

(Johnson,  1865) 

1869 

Grant. 

1877 

Hayen. 

1881 

Garfield. 

(Arthur,  1881). 

1885 

Cleveland. 

1889 

Harrison. 

1893 

Cleveland. 

1897 

Mackinley. 

I400 

19^ 

raff 

India. 


Mogkul  Emperors  (to  Aurungzebe). 


1526    Baber. 
1530     Hamaiun. 
1556     Akbar. 


1605    Jehangir. 
1627    Jehan. 
1658-1707  Aurungzebe. 


Oovernors-Ueneral  and   Vicerot/s. 


Ooveniors-deiieral. 

1774 

Warren  Hawtingn. 

1785 

Cornwalli}*. 

1793 

Shore. 

1798 

Wellcsley. 

1805 

CornwalliM. 

1807 

Miiito. 

1813 

Hiusting4. 

1823 

Amherst. 

1828 

Bentinck. 

1836 

Auckland. 

1842 

Elleul)<)rough. 

1844 

Hardingo. 

1848 

Dalhousie. 

1856 

Canning. 

Viceroff$. 

1858 

Canning. 

1862 

Elgin. 

1864 

Liiwrence. 

1869 

Mayo. 

1872 

Northbrook. 

!            1876 

LytUn\. 

1880 

Ri]K>n. 

1884 

Dufferin. 

1888 

Lansdowne. 

1893 

Elgin. 

1898 

Curzon. 

INDEX. 


SoU.  The  nambers  iiuthe  Index  denote  the  paragraph,  not  the  page, — the  apright 
ilgnres  referring  to  'Politics/  the  slanting  figures  to  *  Culture/  In  the  ease  of  a  King  or 
IGni^ter  who  is  repeatedly  mentioned,  the  years  over  which  his  activity  extends  are  given 
Ibr  the  sake  of  brevity,  the  figures  beiug  connected  by  a  hyphen,  and  printed  in  blacker 

^ype- 

Nearly  half  the  names  mentioned  in  the  text  will  be  found  in  the  Index.    Where  a  man 

is  known  in  history  by  more  than  one  title,  the  most  familiar  is  given,  as  Bolingbroke 
instead  of  St  John,  and  Buckingham  instead  of  Villiers.  Pseudonyms  are  retained  in  the 
cmae  of  such  writers  as  Geortre  Eliot  (Marian  Evans)  and  Georges  Sand  (Mme  Dudevant). 

The  political  history  of  the  chief  countries  of  JEurope  is  not  indexed,  since  it  can  be 
icftdily  traced  by  taming  over  the  pages  of  the  text :  but  under  Germany,  Italy,  Austria, 
Tnrker,  are  given  the  chief  Provinces  or  States  of  which  they  have  been  composed.  The 
less  important  countries  and  subjects  are  indexed  in  full ;  the  more  important  only  till 
the  time  at  which  the  entries  become  so  frequent  that  no  farther  clue  is  needed.  Thus, 
Ireland  is  indexed  till  the  Union,  British  India  till  the  French  War,  Prussia  till  Frederick 
the  Great,  Russia  till  Peter  the  Great,  E^^^'pt  till  the  Dual  Control,  Economics  till  Adam 
Smith,  Politics  till  Hobbes,  History  till  Ranke,  English,  French  and  German  Literature 
till  SpensAF,  Corneille,  Lessiug  respectively.  In  certain  cases,  selected  departments  of  a 
sobject  or  of  national  history  are  given,  as  in  Philosophy,  English,  French  and  German 
Charch  History,  the  United  States,  etc. 

The  Countries  and  States  in  Asia,  Africa,  America,  Australasia  are  indexed  under  their 
respective  Continents ;  the  Sciences  under  Science ;  the  Arts  under  Art. 


Abbot.     725,  7S2,  836 
Abdrikad^r.     1725.  1792 
Abdul-Hawtid.    See  Turkey. 


AbtnUen^ljOTdi.    1837,1847, 

192-2,  1949,  3169 
JfrrailMiai  a  Santa  Clara.  119S 
AckenwaU.     1819 
Aeoncio.    374 
AetoH,  Lord.    3127 
Acton,  Sir  J.     1309 
Actor*,      577,    1128,    1135, 

1644,    1729,    2106,   (19th 

Ceniury)       2487,      2812, 

2954,   3019,    3095,    3158, 

S236,    3252,   3390,    3435, 

3482,  3636,  3721 
Adawut,  C.  F.  2007 
Adamt,  J.  C.  2922,  3661 
Adamu,   John.  1296,  1307, 

1346,  1362,  2157,    1393, 

1448,  2643 
Adam*,   J.  Qaincy.   1603, 

1670,  1685,  1782 
Adawu,  S.  1237,  1243,  1255, 

1283.  1296,  1386,  2352 


Aden.     1807 

Addiugton  (Lord  Sidmouth). 
1484,  1510,  1580,  1626 

Addifon.     1515, 1524,  1580 

Adrian  VI.,  Pope.     91 

AMca: 

Britiih     Centnd     Africa. 

2226 
Kagt  Africa.  44.382.418, 
925,  1078,  1175,  (19th 
Centurv)  2008,  2096, 
2114,  2174,  2181,  218s, 
211*3,  2204,  2226,  2236, 
2245,  2265,  2276,  23a5, 
2316 
South  Africa,  to  the  An- 
nexation of  the  Trans- 
vaal. 29,  711,  868, 
1341,  1439,  (19th  Cen- 
tury) 1508,  1784,  1834, 
1878,  l.'!92,  1901,  1930, 
1938,  1947,  1975,  1984, 
2033,  2059,  2077,  2090, 
2114,  2127 
WcKt  A  frica,  to  the  Berlin 
Conference.  240,  330, 
370,  401,  526,  533,  630, 


794,  823, 840, 92(»,  1233, 
1317,  1324,  1379,  (19th 
Centurv)  1624,  1654, 
1676,  1705,  1808,  1842, 
1911,  1947,  2001,  2085, 
2106,  2114,  2145,  2174, 
2188 

Abyuinia.  913,  1826, 
2059,  2226,  2297 

Algeria .  2,  55,  b'6,  190, 
•263.280,719, 1411,(19th 
Centurv)  1624,  1725, 
1792,  1878,  1966 

Egypt,  to  the  Dual  Con- 
trol. 82,  796,  1461, 
1471,  (19th  Century) 
1483,  1491,  1578,  1654, 
1695,  1734,  1746,  1754, 
1799,  1805,  1813,  1822, 
1947,  2066,  2096,  2106, 
2108,  2121 

Morocco.  89,  229,  343, 
347,  407,  1272,  1834, 
1850,  1984,  1992 

Tangier.     756,  850 

Tripoli.  55,  234.  1011, 
1772,  1834,  1984 


504 


INDEX. 


Tunis.    65,  162,  190,  313, 

962,  2114,  2164 
Church  Hist.    2522, 2855, 
2971,  3283,  3524 
Agassiz.    2802,  2832 
Agrippa.    15,  201 
Aix-la-Chapelle,   treaty  of. 

1153 
Akbar.    249,  267,  390,  472 
Akevside.     1750 
Alabama,  the.     2002,  2065, 

2084,  2086 
Albany,  Regent.    68,  73,  80, 

95,  102,  114 
Alberoni,     1009,  1032,  1821 
Albert,  Prince.     1809,  1941, 

1993,  1999 
Albuquerque.     34 «  56, 109 
Aldus.     10,  36,  109 
Aleander.    143 
Alen^on.    317, 332,  (becomes 
Duke  of  Anjou),  350,  361, 
862,  364,  374,  877 
Alexander  VI.,  Pope.     See 

1492—1603 
Alexander    I.,    Tsar.      See 

Bussia,  1801—25 
Alexander  II.,   Tsar.      See 

Russia,  1856 — 81 
Alexander  III.,  Tsar.     See 

Russia,  1881—94 
Alexis,    son    of    Peter    the 

Great.     1047 
Aljieri.     2041,  2352 
AH  of  Jannina.    1385, 1644, 

1658,  1662 
Allen,  Cardinal.     442 
Allen,  Grant.     3424 
Alnm  Tadenia.     3302 
AlnieUia-Gorrett.     2830 
Althorp.     1716,  1757 
Althusius.     681 
Alva.     248,   252,    286,  298, 
30H,   306,   314,    319,  324, 
327,  552 
Amhoyna^  massacre  of.    558 
America : —  i 

The  Sorlh  American  Colo- 
nies: 
The     Northern     Colonies. 
543,  552,  589,  594,  r)20, 
629,  634,  653,  66(),  710, 
750,  754,  761,  766,  771, 
811,  816,  830,849,872, 
877,  896,  (18th  Century) 
1184,  1220,  1237,  1243, 
1249.  1255,  1261,  1277, 
1283,  1289,  1296,  1301, 
1307 
The     Southern     Colonies.    , 
381,  388,  475,  481,  520, 


637,  604,  761,  784,  816, 
(18th  Century)  1028. 
1071,  1077,  1084,  1169, 
1173,  1180,  1184,  1190, 
1231.  1243,  1268,  1296, 
1301,  1307 
The  United  States: 

Finance.  1393,1402,1409, 
1623,  1674,  1704,  1747, 
1755,  1789,  1814,  1964, 
2007,  2017,  2135,  2144, 
2187,  2234,  2262,  2275, 
2295 

The  Slavery  Question. 
1314,  1361,  1378,  1402, 
1422,  1548,  1587,  1653, 
1733,  1782,  1789,  1865, 
1866,  1910,  3040,  1946. 
1866—65 

States  RiqhU.  1467, 1474, 
1506,  1704,  1724,  1747, 
1989,  1999 
American  Church: 

Baptists.    924,  990 

Congregational!  sts.  901, 
915,' 1007,  1077,  1145, 
1348 

Catholics.  740,1034,2177, 
2203,  2416,  2561,  2670, 
3036,  3130,  3600,  3680, 
3752 

Episcopalians.  1537,1680, 
1700,  2133,  2321,  2446, 
3055,  3446,  3552 

Mormons.  2617,  2891, 
2950,  3536 

Prettlnfterians.  1306,1479, 
2164,  2431,  2795,  3663 

Quaker^f.     1092.  2633 

Unitarians.  1694,  1840, 
2547,  2854,  3401,  3493 

Minor  Sect<.  929,  1723, 
1724,  1736,  19ti7,  2026, 
2113,  2215,  225:i,  (19th 
Century)  2310,  23H9, 
2701,  2905,  2969,  3268, 
3401,  3433,  3493 
A  merica  n  Lite  rat  u  re  to 
WttsliinKton  Irving. 
765,  fi47,  878,  1042, 
1077,  1145,  1454, 
1467,  1593,  1618,  2288, 
2421 
Canada  and  Newfoundland. 
23,  37,  187,  ly5,  375, 
.57i,  (17th  Century)  468, 
484,  735,  516,  548,  58'.), 
599, 659,  787,  801. 1232, 
1264,  839,  JKX),  (18th 
Century)  IHK),  999,  1136, 
1141,  1156,  1205,  1210, 


1216,  1231, 1296,  i: 
1349,  1393,  1409,  (1 
Century)    1587,   1 
1603,  1789,  1797. « 
2061,  2065,  9076,  2 
2202,  2234,  3641,  J 
2295,  2298 
America  (Central).   97 
932,    1467,   (19th  < 
tury)  ia53,  1664.  1 
1797,  1806,  1866, 1 
1937,     1861—7,    i 
2144,  2173,  2295 
America   (South).    29 
27,  48,  65,  78,  «*, 
145,  ^00, 245. 490.  ( 
Century)  490,  527. 
579.  629,  947,  671, 
(18th     Centorr) 
1082,  1164,  1467.  ( 
Cent.)   IMl— 86,  1 
1724.  1814,  1823.  t 
2029.2144.  mo.i 
2285.  2304.  2325 
Ames.     879 
Amiel.     3510 
Amort.     1749, 1816 
Ampere.     2550 
Amyot.     3f!f6 
Amyraut.     883,  910. 11 
A  tut  baptism .     1 48, 154, 
225,    233,    241,   and 
Enp.  Ch. 
A  na rchism ,  theory  of. 

3293.  3546,  3566 
Andtrsen,  Hans.     :!f704 
Andrassy.     2112 
Andrif.  Major.     1327 
Andrea  del  Sarto.     7.5 
Andreae,  of  Tubiugei:. 

499.  5i^,  526 
Andr^e.     3732 
Andrewex.       632.    69\ 

752.  {i,jfi,  1021 
Andrew*.     3196 
Andros.     849.  h72,  ^«T7 
Angrlus,  SilesiuM.     lb 
Annus,  Earl  of.    68,^.*. 

198 
Anjou,  Duke  of.     310. 
320,    325,     328,    b»^ 
Henr>-  III.     See  Fr 
1674—89 
Anne  Bofryn.     150,  l»i 
Anne  of  Cleves.     184 
Anne,    QuefU.       8*»y, 
14H3,   and    !»ee   Eni 
1702—14 
Anson.     1112,  1722 
Anthropology.     2477. 
2710,    28it7,    296i', 


INDEX. 


505 


3184,  3232,  3246, 
3368,  ^384,  3413, 
3S48,    3566,    3629, 

3703,  3726 

itum.  3445,  2282, 
jee  Jews,  and  Drey- 

lu    18H3, 1906,  3415 
?a.     572,  747 
2174 

politician.  1882  . 
icientiRt.  2450,2597 
.    1252,  1960,  1274, 

lot,     1524 
ssepb.     3355 

104 
5th  Earl.     251 
8th  Earl.     648,  700, 

9th  Earl.     853 
2nd    Duke.      1006, 

8th  Duke.     2157 

76,  222 
tht.     1984 
m.     776,  781,  785 
.  the.     397 
mi>m.   594, 685,  724, 
r89,  1322 
U    Angelique.      719, 

f,  Antoine.   935,  961, 
1011,    1085,     1100, 
1267,  1279, 1393 
S.     2379,  2472,  1884 
F.     691 
Count.     2100 
poet.     2379 
Benedict.     1327  j 

Edwin.     3448 
Gottfried.     1432 

Matthew.       2972, 
3306,  3343,  3596 
T.  2679,2716,2819, 


etics.  1525,  1577, 
t3,  184:i,  1855,  1886, 
\4,  2002,  2194,  2257, 
th  Century)  2381,  j 
'6,  2897,  3424,  3499 
ifology.  614,  620, 
\7,  1688,  1789,  1933, 
th  Century)  2465, 
\7,  2866,  2924,  2979, 
•6,  3010,  3060,  3081, 
V,  3257,  3364,  3470, 
'8,  3591  ' 

tecture.    31,61,107,   . 
',  211,  281,  304,  340,    I 


413,  419,  488,  (17th 
Century)  708,  806,  863, 
1168,  1245,  1297,  1334, 
(18th  Century)  1475, 
1483,  1516,  1843,  1898, 
1922,  (19th  Centtiry) 
2691,  2846,  2923,  3177, 
3194,  3256,  3469 
Mtuic : 

English.  268,  1245,  2474, 
2897,  3273,  3526,  3540, 
3576,  3642,  3655,  3725 

French.  1203,  1669,  2324, 
2394,  2691,  2941,  3147, 
3256,  3393,  3424,  3499 

Geniuin.  856, 1509,  1601, 
1638,  1740,  1914,  214fJ, 
2156,  2207,  2279,  (19th 
Century)  2347,  2500, 
2551,  2598,  2652,  2752, 
2784,  2941,  3(H)9,  3241, 
3273,  3288,  3363,  3378, 
3407,  3687 

Italian.  426,  662,  1278, 
2279,  2509,  2676,  2707, 
2767,  3025,  3288,  3469 

Other  CoiintrieM.  2676, 
2784,  2978,  3526,  3669 

Per/orinertf.  1601,  2369, 
2590,  2662,  2726,  2814, 
2846,  2909,  3105,  3137, 
3177,  3225,  3407,  3576 

Theorists.  2194,  2923, 
3025,  3162,  3320,  3424 

Instrument  Maker*.    1422, 
2085,  3059 
Painting  : 

Dutch  and  Flemish.  202, 
352,  717,  750,  799,  887, 
893,  981,  1044,  1059, 
2833,  3194 

English.  488,  962,  1278, 
1759,  1827,  1903,  1963, 
1991,  2156,  2279,  (19th 
Century)  2347,  2394, 
2490,  2537,  2551,  2833, 
2897,  2978,  3105,  3119, 
3137,  3212,  3241,  3256, 
3302,  3350,  3407,  3439, 
3513,  3710,  3725,  3741 

French.  207,  856,  952, 
1001,  1147,  1562,  1718, 
1903,  2126,  (19th  Cen- 
tury) 2394,  2551,  2598, 
2707,  2752,  3095,  3147, 
3117,  3212,  3302,  3334, 
3407,  3453,  3622 

German.  21,  51,  61,  96, 
174,  1991,  2257,  (19th 
Century)  2436,  2624, 
2637,  2814,  2957,  3105, 


3119,  3302,  3469,  3487, 
3560,  3605 

Italian.  31,  47,  51,  66, 
72,  75,  77,  90,  100, 107, 
131,  139, 159,  220,  392, 
407,  561,  675,  1914 

SpanUh.  825,1236,2270, 
3320 

Drawing.  2076,  2726, 
2803,  3025,  3045,  3147, 
3225,  3669,  3687 

Engraving.  1811,  2126, 
2219,  2369 

China.  304,  1509,  1811, 
1827,  1978 

Sculpture.    17,  21,  43,  51, 
107,  228,  298,  304,  392, 
433,    600,    776,    1875, 
2099,  2243,  2279,  (19th 
Century)     2451,    2525, 
2691,  2707,  2738,  3137, 
3302,  3540,  3741,  3758 
'Artemus  IVard.'     3239 
Ascham.     459 
Asia: 

Afghanistan.  125,  1072, 
nil,  1115.  1119,  1152, 
1157,  1200,  (19th  Cen- 
tury) 1788,  179(),  1798, 
1807,  lrtl6,  1825,  1833, 
2138,  2147,  2154,  2195 

Arabia.     82,  124,  1974 

Armenia.  2131,  2277, 
2288,  2294 

Ceylon.     84,  736,  1450 

China.  254,417,443,521, 
672,722,844,878,1206, 
1423,  (19th  Century) 
1625,  1790,  1807,  1816, 
1825,  1833,  1912,  1958, 
1965,  1991,  2009,  2018, 
2043,  2097,  2128,  2277, 
2288,  230H,  2317 

French  in  China.  1974, 
2009,  2018,  2107,  2182, 
2189,  2195,  2205.  2264 

Dutch  in  Asia.  431,  459, 
500,  532.  558.  622,  647, 
755,844,  (18th  Century) 
1206,  1579,  1625,  1677, 
2097 

Georgia.     154,  1354,  1488 
India  : 

East  India  Company  till 
the  French  war  of  1746. 
412,  450,  505,  517,  553, 
558,  641,  755,  851,  867. 
885,  886,  977 

French  in  India.  See  Asia. 
1746— «2 

Mahrattas.   755,976,1115, 


506 


INDEX. 


1200,  1222,  1299,  1326, 
1498,  1509,  1518,  1639 

MoffhuU.  126,  188,  267, 
472,  476,  731,  755,  976, 
1115,  1222,  1248,  1966 

The  Sikhs,  181, 476, 1534, 
1672 

Burma.    1677,  1931,  2195 

Japan.  225,  299,  369, 
417,  443,  500,  1940, 
1974,  2018,  2067,  2128, 
2227,  2277,  2288 

Karea.  417,  443,  2277, 
2288,  2306 

Persia.  24,  71,  154,  393, 
1072,  1096,  1101,  1440, 
(19ih  Century)  1188, 
1595,  1604,  1701,  1790, 
3004,  3037,  1958,  1965 

Portuffuexe  in  Asia.  29, 
34,  43,56,84,  106,211, 
225, 254,  (17th  Century) 
459,  517,  553,  647,  703, 
736,  755,  1115 

RusKta  in  Siberia.  360, 
722,  878,  976, 985, 1948, 
1974,  2205 

Russia  in  Transcaspia. 
1024,  1804,  1965,  2032, 
2060,  2097,  2115,  2165, 
2189,  2195,  2288 

Siam.     857,  2264,  2297 

Sinpapore^etc.  1371,1646, 
1677 

Syria.  79,  1471,  1734, 
1813,  1991 

Tibi't.     338,  844 

Asiatic  Church.    181,  277, 
338,  390,  487,  546,  617, 
6'>0,  (17th Century)  760, 
821,    998,    1061,    1067, 
1464,  1600,  1119,  1714, 
(19th    Century)     2332, 
2377,  2390,  2470,  2486, 
2671,  26fi6,  2796,  2961, 
3004,  3037,  1991,  3167, 
3174,  3663,  3736 
Assemnnni,  L574 
Astnic,  lti23 
Atterbunj,  1431,  1446,  986, 

1045 
Auber.     2691 
Aufjereau.      1453 
Autjier.     3091 
Auffsbury,     Confession     of. 

200 
Augsburq,  League  of.     860, 

864,  876 
Auruuozehe.     731,  755,  976 
Austen,  J.    2447,  2607,  2631 
Austerlitz,  battle  of.     1520 


Austin,  J.     2728 
AiiftralaBia : 

N.  S.  WaUs.  1387,  1671, 
1832,  1920,  2287 

New  Zealand.  1791,1815, 
1824,  1856,  1929,  1990, 
2113,  2244,  3675,  3691, 
3748 

Queensland.  1983,  2180, 
2218 

S.  Australia.  1764, 1783, 
1832,  1913 

Ta'^mania.  973,  1517, 
1686,  1913,  2296 

Victoria.  1771, 1913,  .1/675 

W.  Australia.  866,  1715, 
2031,  2235 

General.    703, 1972,  1735, 
1920,  1954,  2156,  2180, 
2218,  2235,  2244,  2263, 
2323 
Austria: 

Austrian  Ch.  1198,  1487, 
2094,  3087,  3282,  3375, 
2112,  2132 

Bohemia.  122,  220,  282, 
483,  487,  498,  524,  529, 
535,  510,  619,  1121, 
1332,  1353,  (19th  Cen- 
tury) 1651,  1780,  1887, 

1996,  2055,  2082,  2231, 
2301,  2320 

Bohemian  Ch.  34,  130, 
160,  233,  417,  444,  492, 
672.  487,  540,  1026, 
1219,  1699,  1929 

Uunqarti.  70,  77,  122, 
152,  178,  186,  206,  237, 
282,  316, 342,  447,  (17th 
Century)  451,  467,  508, 
550,  601,  675,  681,  730, 
744,  765,  774,  792,  810, 
828,  835,  855,  861,  866, 
884,  8<M),  928,  (18th 
Century)  951,  975,  993, 
1019,  1027,  1050.  1120, 
1246,  1284,  1.132,  1359, 
1398.  (19th  Centun) 
1681,  1743,  1769,  1821, 
1840,  1876.  1886,  1898, 

1997.  2027,  2049,  2094, 
2110,  2302 

Hunqarian  Ch.    218,  370, 

699,  3679 
Hungarian     Lit.        2781, 
2919,  2938 
Avenarius.     3408 
Aveiibrugijer.     1902 
Avogadro.     2460 
Aytoun.     2972 


Baader.     2o91 
Bab,  the.     3004 
Baber.     125 
Babingtan.     389 
Baboeuf.     1443 
Bach.     1601,  1638,  im 
Bacon.     693,  640,  453, 

506,   798,   800,  544, 

860,  854 
Baer.     2651 
Bageliot.     3277,  3366,  ^ 

3474 
Baillie,  J.     22S5 
Bain.     3096 
Bakunin.     3233,  3293, 
Balboa.     97 
Balje.     2897 
Balfour,  A.  J.     3455,\ 

3699,  3751 
Balfour,  F.     3468 
Ballanclte.     2626 
Balntes.     2875 
Baltimore,  Lord.    604 
Balzac,  H.     2748,  30l\ 
Balzac,  Jean.     839 
Bampton  Leetureft.    2l 
Bancroft,  Bishop.    593 

683 
Bancroft,  George.     27i. 
Bancroft,  Squire.    325 
Bangorian  CootrovenT. 
Banks  (National).   566 

488,  901,  1409,  U7H 
liarbarossa.     83,    154. 

179 
Barclay,  Quaker.     I:f4 
Barf  re.     1420.  1426 
liameveldt.     379,  421, 
Baroniu*.     .^tiH,  710 
Barres.     3707 
Barrie.     3671 
Barrot,  Odilon.     1870 
Bar  rote,  BrowniKt.   64: 
Buiroir,  Isaac.     1267 
Barry.     2846 
Bartolommeo,  Fra.     .5 J 
Basedow.     2032 
Bast  int.     2926 
Bathonj.     316, 32s 
Baudelaire.     3117 
I    Baumgarten,  writer  oi 
i        thetic8.     lm3 
Baur.     2933,  2949,  31> 
Baxter.     I0(f4,   lOU, 

1096,  1130,  1373.  14 
Bayard.     115 
Bayle.     13(t9,    132.i, 
,        1466,  14^4 
I    Bazaine.     2071.  2i»92 


INDEX. 


507 


V,  A.    36S7 
irchbishop.  68,114 
Dardinal.   181,  198, 

naU^  Eugene.  1522, 
1601 

futUyHortense.  1530 
nai«,        Josephine. 

ehah,     1866,  1291, 

1310.  2123,  2307 

t.     713 

.     1936 

,  aathor.     2122 

97,  216,  232 

4thDokeof.   1229, 

Ward.     2950,  3584 
H.     2347,  2656 
r».     1152,  1192 
{26 

see  Netherlands 
.     970 

2282 
C.     2381,  2450 

3595 
%e.    509,  610,  698, 
^8 
>u,     319 

1120,  1130,  1197 
1407 

omposer.     2707 
rioTanni.  5i,  66,  ii  7 
56,  98,  311 
.     2071 

X/r.,  Pope.  1713, 
1728,    1824,    1839, 

ne»  of  St  Manr. 
d  see  Mabillon  and 
neon 

1735,  1821 
Sterndale.    3273 
^JTchbisbop.    3553, 
677 

2048,  2087,  2147, 
2184,  2210,  2336, 
'612,  2730 

Earl  of  Portland. 
5 

Lord  G.     1851 

1364,  1370,  1415, 
1507,    1519,    1529, 
586,  1741 
.    2497,  1620, 3126 

1503, 1510, 1637, 
1656,   1675,   1682, 
830 
2941 

€,  1470,  1553, 
S89,  1637 


B^rfMr(i,  Claude.  3058,3443 
Bernard  of  Weimar.     592, 

609,  613,  633,  638 
Bemerg,  Lord.     158,  196 
Bernhardt,  Sarah.     3482 
Bernini,     776,  1282 
Bemi»,     1187,  1197.  1202 
Bernouilli,    Daniel.      1702, 

1770 
Bernouilli,  James.     1311 
BeniouiUi,  John.  1311,1563 
Berry,  Doc  de.     1648 
Berr'yer.     2606 
Berthier.     1462 
Bertrand,  J.     3224 
BerulU.     739,  874 
Berwick,  Duke  of.    910,  967, 

972.  1009,  1032 
Berzelins.     2437 
Bezant,  Walter.    3495 
Be»Mel.     2538,  2609,  2813 
Bethlen   Gabor.     508,    536, 

550,  874 
Betterton.     1135 
Bermtorff.     1358 
Beu9t.      1907,    2035,    2038, 

2049,  2082,  3567 
Bewick.     2126, 2280 
Beveridge.   1130,  1346, 1500 
Beza.     344,  396,   418,  429, 

542,  544,  697 
Bianchi.  1757 
Bilile: 

Texts.     99, 112,  301,  544, 
906,  1003,  1047,   1105, 
1489,  2037,  2045,  2709, 
2997,  3152,  3478 
Tramlation*.      143.    168, 
224,  230,  262,  387,  442, 
444,  542,  610,  738, 3478 
O.  T.  Criticism.  779, 1210, 
1259,  1322,  1463,  1822, 
1823,  2025,  2104,  2111, 
2308,  2376,  2759,  305:i, 
3187,  3250,  3:iOH,  3441, 
3460,  3580,  3633 
S,  T.  CriticiMin.     19,  55, 
88,  89,   147,   779,   819, 
959,   1463,  1735,  1808, 
1894,  2000,  2025,  2319, 
2388,  2429,  2560,  2759, 
2933,  3235,  :i534,  3563, 
3592,  3613,  3fil6,  3649 
MtMcellaneouH.    254, 1171, 
1692,  1715 
Bichat.     2325,  234() 
Bielinski.     2749 
Bilderdyrk.     2144 
Binoham.     1497 
Biot.     2845 
Biron  of  CoarUml,     1 106 


Biron,  Marshal.    457 
Bismarck.  1884,     1916, 

1862—90,  2292,  3749 
Bizet.     3393 
Bjomson.    3135,3511,21m, 

3603 
Black.     1833,  1897,  2307 
Blackbiirne.       1765,    1948, 

1999 
Blackstone.  1947,2048,2091 
Blackwood.     2357,  2523 
Blaine.     2120.  2187,  .%76* 
Blair.     2054,  2115 
Blake,  Admiral.     705,  712, 

716,  719,  724,  727 
Blake,  William.   2156, 21 79, 

2656 
Blanc,  Louis.     2868,  1837, 

1882 
Blanco,  White.     2757 
Blavatsky,  3394 
Blenheim,  battle  of.     955 
Blessing  ton.  Lady.     2680 
Block.     3730 
Blondel.     864,  910 
Blucher.     1589,  1599,  1606, 

2557 
Botlelsrhwingh.     3293,  35^ 
Bodin.     420,  434,  448,  335, 

512,  633,  639 
Bodley,  J.     3746 
Bodley,  Sir  TboinaH.     640 
Bodmer.     1660 
Bfickh.     2452,   2527,   2611, 

3280 
BiH-klin.     3105 
Boehm.     3302 
B'fihme.     745,  835 
Bohmer,  historian.     2712 
Bifhmer,  legiHt.     1544 
Boerhave.    1496,  1662,  1706 
Biyrne.     1767 
BohmJiawerk.     3643 
Bohn's  JiibrarioM,  2952 
Boiardo.     16 
BoiUau.     1178,  1235,  1341, 

1520 
Boisgiiilhheit.     lit  6 
Botinghrokr.    953,  977.  99H, 

UHHi,   1539,    104H,     105H, 

1085,    1093,    1703,    1814, 

1831 
Bolivar.     J682,  1645,  1674, 

imn,  1724 
Holland.     977 
lUmapnrte,  JifrottM*.     I5H7 
,.  JoM«|ih,      1462, 

1527,  1545,  15HH 
litmnpnrle,  I^iijIm,  15341, 1559 
lionghi.     3382, 3704 
liminer.     307,  356,  374 


508 


INDEX. 


Bonnet.    1760, 1913, 1980 
Booth,  C.    3733 
Booth,  General.    3235,  3630 
Bopp.    2512,  2739,  3280 
Boruia,  Caesar.     14,  26,  32, 

33,  67 
Borgia,  Francis.     423 
Borodino,  battle  of.     1583 
Borromeo,     500,  520,  566 
Borrow.     2483,  3019 
Bonaiiquet.     3761 
Boscan.    172 
Boscawen.     1190,  1209 
Bosco,  Don.    2853 
Boscovitch.     1876 
Bossuet.     1183,  1200,  1218, 

1259,   1271,   1291,    1314, 

1340,   1381,    1388,    1402, 

1410,  1436,  1471 
Boston,  theologian.     1581 
Boswell.     1920,  2017,  2204, 

2265 
Bothwell.     296 
Botticelli.     80 
Boucher.     590 
Boucher  de  Perthes.     2960 
Bougaimnlle.     1957 
Bouguereau.     3407 
Bouillon.     457,  515 
Boulanger.       2198,      2221, 

2288 
Boulton.     1979,  2136 
Bourbon,  Cardinal  de.    385, 

398,  403,  405 
Bourbon,  Constable  of.    109, 

115,  117,  120,  127 
Bourbon,    Duke    of.       1015, 

1611,  1049,  1059 
Bourgeois.     2280,  2291 
Bourget.     3510,  3538 
Bourignon.     1144 
Bowie*.     2179 
Bogle,  Robert.     1000,  1043, 

1125,    1138,   1169,    1364, 

1373 
Braddork.     1184,  1190 
Bradlaugh.  3155,  214H,  3647 
Bradley,  F.  H.     3670 
Brad  lei/,    J.      1639,    1778, 

1917 
Brahms.     3363,  3734 
Bramante.     31,61,  103 
Bramhall.     971,  WHO 
Brand.     2033 
Brandex.     3285,  3696 
Brandt.     7 
Bremrr.     2876 
Brenz.     195,  3H2,  508 
BrewMter,  D.     2473,  2510 
BrewAter,    Pilgrim    Father. 

711 


Bridgewater  treatises.    2616 
Brienne,  Lom^nie  de.   1374, 

1381 
Briggs.     762,  795 
Bright.     1793,  1959,   2010, 

2197,  3612 
BnndUy.    1906 
Brisson.     2308 
Brissot.    1846 
British  Museum.     1825 
Brooke,  Henry.     1951 
Brooks,  Phillips.     3446 
Bronte,  C.     2952,  3099 
Brougham.  2333, 2398, 1633, 

2628,  2654,  1716,  3294 
Brown,      John,     American 

rebel.     1982 
Brown,  John,  Doctor.    2086 
Brown,  Madox.     2978,  3241 
Brown,  K.  botanist.     2690 
Brown,   T.,   metaphysician. 

2361,  2567 
Brown,    Sir  Thomas.     966, 

1008,  1112,  1162,  1299 
Browne,  Robert.     542 
Browning,  E.  B.   2935, 3005, 

3186 
Browning.   R.     2761,  2935, 

3284,  3612 
Brugmann.     3562 
Brugsch.     3060 
Brunei.     3058 
Bruno.     286,  556,  659 
Brunswick,  Dake  of,  1413 
Bryan.     2295 
Bryant.     2498 
Bryce.     3259,  3610 
liuccaneerx.  The.     595,  787 
Bucer.     166,  195,  200,  240, 

263,  272,  200.  316,  332 
Bach,  von.     2501,  2609 
Buchamin.     145,    252,  255, 

475,  523,  549,  552 
Buchner.     3096 
Buckingham,     G.     Villiers, 

Duke  of.     514,  554,  560, 
I        570,  576,  581 
Buckinqham,  2nd  Duke  of. 

776,  1211,  789 
,    Buckle.     3123,  3203 
Budaem.    102,197,198,271 
Bujon.     1796,  2174 
I    Bugenhaqen.     143,  250 
,    Bull.     1314,  1505 
\    BulUr,  ChtLvXes.     1764,1797 

liuller.  Sir  R.     2326 
'    BulUnqer.      204,    244,   344, 

429,  430,  497 
Bunsen,  chemint.     3146 
Bunsen,    diplomatist,   2852, 

3102,  3169 


Bunyan.    1174, 12SS,  im, 

1290,  1345 
Burden,     1549,  1557,  IM, 

1678 
Burden- Sanderson.    3S7i 
Burgon,  Dean.    SHO 
Burgoyne,     1310 
Burgundy,  duke  oC    995 
Burke.     1855,  1888,  im 

1993,   1296,   1301.  Mi 

1342,    1348,    1380.  ISH 

1404,    2208,   2268,  tiTi, 

2283 
Burlamaqui,     1780 
Bume-Jow*.    3119, 3710 
Bum^rt,  Bishop.   1271.  ISU, 

1365,    1392,   1445,  i^ 

1614 
Bumey,  F.     2063,  210$ 
Bumouf.     2785 
Burns,' J.    3611 
Bums,  B.     2143,  2274 
Burr,  Aaron.     1482,  15«» 
Burt'm,  Sir  R.     3038,  W: 
Burton,  Robert.    80S 
Busby.     955 
Busch.     3746 
Busenftaum.     1002 
Bussy-Babutin.    1167 
Bute.     1218,  1221, 1229 
Butler,  Bishop.    1623,I6lii 

1821 
ButUr,  S.     1152 
Butt.     2099 
Buxton,  Fowell.     274:! 
hyng,  George.     97^  1035 
Byng,  John.     IP.K-t 
Bynkersho<k.      16i>9,    1^ 

1747 
Bifrom.     1807 
Byron.      2417,   2461K  i^'' 

'254fi,  1675 


Cabanis.     1761.  2170 
Cahet.     2868,  29^4 
CalMt,  John.     23 
Cabot,  Sebastian.     346 
Caqliostro.     2137 
Ca'ird,  J.     3471 
Cairnes.     3307 
CairuM,  Lord.     2<>44.  3W1 
Cajetan.     126.  205 
Calas.     1909 
Caldcron.     9it4,  12tO 
Calendar,     the     Grefjomi 

548,  1166 
Calhoun.     1704,  1747,  W 
Calixtus.     997,  I0!i6, 1'l^ 
Calonne.     1350,  1368,  l^T 


INDEX. 


509 


819,  997, 1086, 1320 
'y.     3347 

216,  224,  239,  244, 
264,  265,  344,  381, 
t21,  494 
I,  Lord.     12-29 
I,  historimn.    577 
n,  theologian.     787 
niatu.     1266 
*.     472, 633 
xtUa.    8110,  813,  826, 
9S4 

a,  Colin.     1965 
//.    M'Leod.      2SS9, 

3100 

//.  T.     2298,2417 
'U'Etinnerman.    2318 
ryio.     130,  134 
M.     355,  361 
nane*.     1274 
g,    (i.      2276,    1535, 
.    1549,    1635,    16tJ0, 

1674.  1694 
g,   Stratford.     1583, 
.  1822.  3477 
.     2156,  2595 
if.     23U0 
frt.     1945 

ftriit*.      U>oS,    1665, 
,  1732 

I.     2230,  2270 
iw.     168 
f.     561 

I.     See  Paul  IV. 
offio.     561,  724 
ari,    1469,1651,1968 
I.     297,  354,  506 
ci.     3237, 3419 
fit.     2052 
econ«>mi8t.     3149 
m.     26^7 
,  R.     1640 
*,    the.     See    Spain. 
—76 

r.     2659,  2734,  2806, 
,    2925,    3019,   3141, 

'iU«.     405 

n  Sy'ra.     3485 

Ton,  Lord.  2044,2131 

ri>,  A.     3564 

,  Director.  ^;?oo,1433, 

i,    2346,    1511,   2422, 

) 

',    President.      2208, 

n^.  Queen,   iooi.  1102 
Uer,  Mary.     3125 
^rl  of  Somerset.  501, 

ua.     171,  296,  384 


Carrel.     2688 

CarBteru,     2257 

Carte,  Elizabeth.     1800 

Carteret,    1039.  1051,  1124, 

1128,  1132,  1142,  1927 
Cartitrighf,   T.      453,   459, 

467,  478,  485,  598,  682 
Cartvrright,    Major.      2034, 

1306.  2088 
Ca»aubon,      625,   664,    764, 

801 
Catim  ir-  Pirier,        Premier. 

1717 
Casimir-Perier,     President. 

2269 
Castelnr.     1943,  2093,  2102, 

2259.  3765 
Caitellio.     282, 344 
Cattiglione.     190 
Castlereagh.       1549,     1580, 

1583,  1599,  1660 
Catherine  of  Arra«;on.     28. 

53,  126, 130,  134,  139. 150 
Catherine  of  Bragaiiza.  755, 

756 
Catherine  1.  of  Russia.    1057 
Catherine  11,     See  Russia. 

1762—96,  and  1950,  2159 
Catinat,    876.  HH3,  889.  898 
Caraignac.     1882.  1915 
Carendiih,     1953,2269 
Caventlith,  Lord  F.     2167 
Cavour.     1873,  1926.  1950, 

ll>68.  1978,  1986,  1994 
CayWy.     2922 
Cecil,  Lord  Burleigh.     See 

England.     1B66— M,  and 

395,  560 
Cecil,  Robert.     4<>0,  501 
Cellini,     207,  298,  466 
Celte*.     24,  58 
Cervantes.     53b,    695,    768, 

778 
Chadicick.     2821 
'ChalUntier,'  the.     3349 
Chnlmer*.   24fil,  2745,  2687, 

2965 
Chamberlain,].   3321,2190, 
2197,    2206,    2246,    2289, 
2305 
Chambers.     1630 
Chambord.  1648,2079,2092, 

2176 
Chamisso.     2488 
Champlain.     46^,  484,  516. 

921 
Champollion,     2579 
Channino.    2547, 2844, 2885 
Chantal.  Mme.     719,  727 
Chant  rey.     2525 
Chapelain.    624,  918,  1094 


Charcot.    3362 

Charles  I.   See  England  and 

EnglishChnrch.  162»— 49 
Charles  11.     692.  696,  700, 

and  see  England  and  Eng- 

Msh  Church.     1660— S6 
Charles  V.,  Emperor.     1516 

—68 
Charles  VI.,  Emperor.     See 

Austria.     ITU^iO 
CharUs    VUL,  of   France. 

See  1498—8 
Charles  IX.,  of  France.    See 

France.     1660—74 
C*/jr/^x  .Y.,  of  France.    1389. 

1 406. 1 5 1 1 .  and  see  France. 


Cluirle*  II.,  of  Spain.     See 

Spaiu.     1666—1700 
Charles  III.,  of  Spain.     See 

Spain.     1769—88 
Charles  IV.,  of  Spain.     See 

Spain.     1788—1808 
Cluirles  X.,  of  Sweden.    See 

Sweden.     166«— 60 
Charles XII.,  of  Sweden.  See 

1697—1718 
Charles,  .\rch(lukc,  opponent 

of  Napoleon.     1470,  1551 
CharUs  of  Lorraine,  General 

of  Maria  Theresa.     1133, 

1134,  1139,  1198 
Charles  Albert.     See  Italj. 


Charles  A  ugttstus, of  WeimMi. 

2009 
Charles  Frederick,  of  Baden. 

1280,  2118 
Charlotte,  Princess.     1626 
Charron.     667 
Chartists.    1785. 1800, 1827, 

1880 
Chateaubriand.    2277,2323, 

2331,    2367,    2418,    2492, 

2985,  2992 
Chatterton.     1941,  1988 
Cheke.     219 

Chenier,  .\ndr^.    2240,  2250 
Chesterfield.       1085,     1166, 

1641,  2023,  2028 
Cher  re  use.  Mme  de.     663 
Cheyne.    3460 
Chillingitorth.  891,928,987 
Chitral.     22^ 
Choiseul.    1202,  1208,  1209, 

1210,  1217,  1274.  2139 
Chopin.     2676, 3000 
Church,  Dean.     3633 
Churchill,  Randolph.    2148, 

2166,  2197,  3704 
Christian  Science.    3401 


510 


INDEX. 


Chrifitina,  of  Sweden.     603, 
670,  1028,  716,  717, 1364 
Cinq-Mars.     656 
ClairmU.     1746,  1817 
Clapfiam  Sect.     2387 
Clarendon,  Hyde,  Lord.  891 1 
648,  1010,  1660—7,  1240, 
1469 
Clarfiidon,    Villiers,    Lord. 

1922,  2065 
Clarke,     1463,   1621,   1661, 

1666,  1641 
Clarkson.    2160,  2160,  2173 
ClaverJiouse.     825,  874 
Claude,   theologian.     1168, 

1248, 1269 
Clausius.     3088,  3118,  3224 
Clay.      1603,    1685,    1747, 

1910,  3061 
Clement    VII.,    Pope.      See 

1623—34 
Clement  VIII.,  Pope.     426, 

441,  689,  660,  669,  448 
Clement  XIII.,  Pope.    1919, 
1928,   1930,    1939,    1940, 
1976 
Clement  XIV.,  Pope.     1976, 

2016 
Cleveland.  2187,2253,2262, 

227o,  2285 
Clifford.    781,  785,  795,  799 
Clinton,  Fynes.     2613 
Clive.     1168,    1174,    1200, 

1206,  1248.  1259,  1295 
Clootz.     2231,  1426 
Clunfjh,  Miss.     3337 
Cobhett.     2217,  2333,  2607, 

2773 
Cobdrn.     2770,  1793,   1959, 
197r»,    1985,   2010,   3248, 
3260 
Cobet.     3079 
Cocct'JuH.     1024,  120) 
Codriiiifton.     1694 
Cohnrn.     1319,  894,  907 
Coke,    Edward.      663,    452, 
492,   518,   549,  581.  H66, 
914 
Colbrrt.      748,     764,    1179, 

llS(f,  1228,  130.'> 
CoU'hrooke.     2371,  2692 
Coleuxo.     31H7 
Coleridge,  Lord.     2091 
Coleridge.    2264, 2286,  241 7, 

2447,  2607,  2616,  2667 
Colet.     19,  49,  79,  H7 
Coliqny.    245.  2*>0,  265,  274, 
276,  278,  301,   305,   310, 
318 
CW/iVr,  Jeremy.   1346,1421, 
1666 


Colliws,     Anthony.       1629, 

1661,  1610 
Collim,  poet.     1767 
Colonna,  yitioriA.    188,217, 

311 
Columbu*.     3,  8,  29,  64 
Conunius.     888,  997,  1026, 

1104,  1219 
Commune,  the.     2079 
Comte,  A.    2640,  2692,  3121 
Comte,  C.     2694 
Cook.     1972,  2013,  2061 
Cooper,  Fennimore.     2676 
Coote.     1216,  1222,  1340 
Cowcorrfttf,  Napoleon's.  2320, 

2331 
Co/ir/^,  Henri.    511,515,519 
CoNd^,  Louis.   265,274,297, 

301,  305 
Condi,  the  Great.    663, 669, 
675,  687,  697,  701,  707, 
713,   728,  733,   738,  803. 
807,  1329 
Condillac.     1771,1877 
Condorcet.     2230 
Congregation,    the.       2320, 

1656,  2683 
Congreve.     1396,  1421, 1641 
Conring.     984,  1081,   1226, 

1289 
Conxalvi.    2320,  2468,  1607, 

2616 
Constant,      B.,      politician. 
2476,   2492,  2497,    1606, 
1620 
Contarini.     138,  236,  272 
Copernicus.     287,  288 
Coqitelin.     3168 
Coquerel.     3344 
Corday.     1420 
Corneille.     926,  1313 
Corneliuii  a  Lapide.     779 
Cornheert.     694 
CormralliH.         1327,     1336, 

1403,  1423,  1459 
Corot.     2707 
Correggio.     100,  139 
Corsica.     1070,   1099,  1118, 

1262,  1269,  1426 
Cortes.     88,  311 
Cortes,  Donoso.     2732 
Cosin.     861,  1142 
Cotes.     1632 
Cotton,  miniBter,  663,  901, 

990 
CouUuujes,  F.  de,  3229,  3396 
Courbet.     3096 
Courier.     1620 
Cournot.     2818 
Court,  Antoine.    1646, 1644, 
1900 


Courtney.    2197 
Cousin.     2602,  32S0 
Covenant  (of  1557).    iSl 
(ofl6i7).    97S 
Covenanters,    818 
CoverdaU.    135,  290,  Ui 
CowUy.     1015, 109S 
Cowper,     2070,  2134,  tUfi 
Crabbe.     2115, 2391 
Cranach,    51 
Craumrr.      134,    139,  15^ 

238,  264,  262,  289,  m 

333,  343,  348,  365 
Crashaw.     903 
Cribillon  p^re.    1517 
HU.     1758 
Creuzer.     2440 
Crispi.     1986,   2210,  Xll 

2258,  2271,  2309 
Cromer,  Buing,  Lord.  iW 
Cromwell,    Oliver.     IMI- 

1666 
Cromwell,    Richard.     732 

737 
Cromwell,    Thomaa.      156 

230,  237,  254,  184 
Crookes.     3322,  3452,  3740 
Cruikshank.     2803 
Cudworth.     988,  1262,  IH, 
Cuja*.     613,  602 
Cullen.     2125 
CuUodeu,  battle  of,  1143 
CulvencelL     1060 
Cumberland,  Duke  of.    1199 

1143,  1198 
Cumberland.     1227 
Curci.     3003, 3376 
Curran.     1425 
Cuvier.     2406,  2462,   iSi4 

2661,  2690,  2730 
Cyprus.     312,  326,  2131 
Czartoryski.     1488.  1721 


D\ichiry.     7(i7.  1066 
D'Aguesseau.      1426,  16Ht, 

1814 
DailU.     869,  910,  1114 
Dahlmann.     1786,  1^84 
Dahn.     3182,  3403 
Dalberg.     1529, 2531 
Dale.     3386 
D'Alembert.       1745,     Ibl^ 

1883,  2119 
Dalton.     2405,  2916 
Dampier.     1304 
Dana,  mineralogirt.     280i 
Dana,  novelist.     2650 
Danby,   Osborne,   Earl  <i 


INDEX. 


oil 


)6,  817,   821,   824. 
3,  879.  «01,  905 
'ere.     KfiHj 
oet.     603 
zio.    3Ti3 

1413,  1421) 
on.     1140.  1197 
Ur,  J.     3636 
285.  2<»2.  29f> 

Charlefl.        SSfi2, 
3140,    3196,    3'Jfi7, 
1349,  3392,  3606 
ErasmuB.     2244 
Geoive.     34m 
\f.     611.  HH2 

33Pi,  3734 
f.    '2^2,3664,3734 
'f.  Father.     909 
2126,  2369,  2630 
Anrier*.     2707 
affereoii.     1999 
.      1H28 
2140 

2301,    2302,    2334, 
i437.  26S1 
0.    2N62,  2937, 1926 
1821,    1876,    1886, 
3416 

Id.     2272 

iV.Diic.    2124,5655 
f*.     17(f9  ' 

iAU.     2473,  2638        \ 

1020 
ni*.     773.  779,  b09, 

1426,    1447,    1449, 
1480,  1676,  1666 
r.     3302 
fe.     1336,  1345 
ot.     1416 

1817.  2010.  3469 
.     230H 

2312 
2044 
ft  re,  JoBeph.     2272, 
2646,  2678,  2682 
tre,  Xavier.     2240 
•a.     968,  1100 
u.  False.    455,  466, 

re.  1666,  1646 
et.  2778,  3126 
,  Archdeacon.  3062 
k.  86,  92,  112,  113, 
157,  159,  206,  311. 
;i7th  centun)  567, 
577.  5H7,  665.  676. 
725.  72<».  735,  742, 
^20,  (18th  century) 
64.  997.  1016.  1038, 
1258,   1276,    1286, 


1292, 1358.  (19th  centun) 

1531,    1538.    1592,    1602. 

1610.    1731,    1H45.    1H64, 

1KH5.    1896,    liK)8,    1IH8. 

1927.    1953,    2013.   2020, 

2026.  2<>95.  2101 
Dani*h  Ch.  24:i,  260,  2794, 

2986,  3071,  3206 
Danhh   Lit.       877,   1349, 

Ut90,   2386,    2649,   2764, 

2920,  3286.  3404 
Detini*.     1421 
Dtpreti*.     2117 
De  Qnincy.     2662 
/V  Ranr^.    1168, 1300, 1444 
*  Derby,"  the.     2(/9ff 
Derby,    14th    Earl,    Prime 

Minister.       2711,     1749, 

1757.    1817.    1922,    1967, 

2034,  2052,  :i310 
Derby,  15th  Earl.     2131 
De  hetz.     688.  707,  1272 
Dfroutede.     2319 
Defcartf*,  862,  872, 931,  932, 

961,  992,  1028, 1043, 1049 
Detrmoulin*,  C.     1426 
De*pener$.     177,  268,  292 
De*tutt    de    Tracy.      1761, 

2326 
De  Thou.     687,  784 
De  TocqueriUe.    2770,  3108, 

3164 
De  Vigny.     2686,  2636 
De  Voguf.     :i638 
Deroriif  hi  re,  Hth  Duke.    2108, 

2148,  2197 
Deicar.     3686,  3724,  3740 
De  ll'ette.     2376 
De    Witt.      753,   772,    776, 

77H,  797 
Dicey,  A.     3'j64 
Dicketu.     2777,  3006,  3326 
Diderot.     1771,  1797,  1810, 

1866,   1886,    1893,    1911, 

2131 
Dilke.     2086. 3626 
Ditraeli.     2634,  2906,  1851, 

1K59,    1922,    1976,    2044, 

2052, 3316, 3372. 1873— M. 

3492 
DobeU.     3072 
Dobson,  A.    3660 
Doctrinaire*,  the.     1620 
Doddridye.     1636 
Dodwell.     1346,  1437,  1734 
Dolet.     163,  191,  246,  301 
imUnger.    31 71 ,  3206,  3298, 

3313,  3329,  3346,  3631 
Dollond.     1664,  1868 
Domat.     1361,  1434 
Domenichino.    561 


Donizetti.     2767 
Donne.     731 
*  Ditoley,  Mr:     3764 
Dona.     127.  133,  162 
Dorner.     2824, 3446 
Dnrt,  Synod  of.     789 
TkMtoier*ky.     3264,  3492 
Douylan,  Gawain.     39,  94 
Doyle,  BiRbop.     2.544.  1678 
Drake.     339,  388,  579,  394, 

397.  402,  414,  639 
Drayton.     603,  753 
Dreyfu*.     2269,  2299,  2308, 

2319 
Driver.     3633 
Droyxen.     3098 
Drummond  of  Hawthornden. 

78i>.  794 
Drummond,  H.     5555.  3614 
Drumnumd,  T.     1794 
Dryden.     1162,  1184,  1211, 

1284,    1293,    13:i2,    1412, 

1444 
DuUti*.     1018,  1.561,    1025, 

1682,  1040,  1049 
Du  lioit  Heymond.     2977 
Ducanye.     1263,  1346 
Duche$ne.     3629,  3677 
Dudley,  Earl  of  Warwick, 

later  Earl  of  Northumber- 
land.    226.  228,  231,  238 
Ihidley,     Robert,    Earl     of 

Leice^*ter.     285.  331,  .560, 

376,  387,  390.  396 
Diirer.     21,  61,  193 
Duffy,  (vavan.     1828 
Dugdale.     1087 
Dunum.  chemist.     2761 
Dunui*,  pere.     2672,  2iM)7 
DumaM,  tils.     3041 
Du  .yaurier.     3226,  3683 
Dumouriez.     1413 
Dwuia*.     1300,  1519 
Dunning.     1326 
Dupanloup.       2987,     3166, 

3222,  3298,  344:i 
Duperron.  -^26, 668.  739,791 
Du  Perron,  Anquetil.     2004 
Dupin.     1321,  1661 
Dupleix.     1147.  1157.  1165, 

1168.  1185,  1927 
DupleMtit'Momay.  523, 641, 

6!>8 
Dupuy,  C.     2308,  2319 
Duran,  Carolas.     3302 
D'VrJi.     732 
Durham,  Lord.     1797 
Duruy.     3245 
Dury.     876,  1075,  718 
Thue.    3636 
Dvorak.    3526 


512 


INDEX. 


Eastern  Church.     385,  479. 
673,   837,  870,   937,  978, 
156.5,  2105,  2733 
East  India   Company.     See 

Asia  I 

Economics  to  Adam  Smith. 
101,   114,  448,  494,   580,   '. 
(17th  Century)  755,  770,   i 
807,    1149,    1195,     1362, 
1371,    1406,    1416,    (18th 
Century)  1448, 1490, 1615, 
1682,   'l813,    1848,    1857, 
1878,    1956,    1965,    1996, 
2050 
Eck.     101,  120,  130,  137 
Eckcrmami.     2798  ' 

Edgexcorth.     2311 
Edinbtiryh  Review.     2333 
Edison.     3349 
Edncation : 

Theory.  30,192,206,210, 
28'^,  459, 540, 572.  (17th 
C^jntury)  751, 888, 1104, 
1344,  1384,  1392,  (18th 
Century)  1676,  1935, 
2032,  2101,  (lllth  Cen- 
tury) 2384,  2601,  3179, 
3245,  3274,  3547 
Unirersititfs  and  Schools 
in  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland.  11,  19,  24, 
57,79.91,115,167,219, 
237,  270,  305,  341,  400, 
441,  459,  463,  551,  563, 
605,  637,  955,  1104, 
2237,  2282,  2293,  (19th 
Century)  2408,  2453, 
2628,  2679,  2711,  2789, 
2836,  2927,  3014,  3027, 
3063,  3078,  3140,  3179, 
3274,  3321,  3337,  3410, 
3597,  3628,  3731,  3745, 
3763 

Universities  and  Schools 
abroad.  30,  42,  63,  71, 
98,  123,  178,  197,  252,  j 
327,  422,  495,  504,  596, 
647, 655,  (17th  Century) 
709,751,897,926,1011, 
1327,  1378,  1392,  1398, 
(18th  Century)  1442, 
1477,  1482,  1697,  1746, 
1762,  1924,  1994,  2032, 
2248,  2261,  2305,  (19th 
Century)  2337,  2408, 
2441,  2448,  2513,  2539, 
2593,  2711,  2741,  2805, 
2871,  3125,  3151,  3215, 


3245,  3321,  3425,  3504, 

3608,  3701,  3716 

Edward  17.     See   EnKUnd 

aud  English  Ch.  1647— BS 

Edwards,  Jonathan.     1637, 

1834,  1879 
Egidy.     3624 
Egmont.    257,  266,  288,  298, 

303 
Eichhnrn,  jurist.     2410 
Eichhom,  theologian.    2111 
Eldon.     1484 
Eliot,  George.     3116,  3143, 

3175,  3208,  3477 
Eliot,     John,     missionary. 

1007 
Eliot,  Sir  John.     570,  581, 

585   898 
Elizabeth: Q\ieen.    241,246, 

and  1B6S— 1603 
Elizabeth,  daughter  of  James 

I.     506,  992 
Ellenborouqh,  Lord.     1879 
Elyot.     206 
Elzevirs,  the.     529,  906 
Emerwn.    2782,  2840,  2844, 

2953,  3506 
Enfantin.     2667 
Engels.     2964 
Enghien.     1511 
Kngllati  Ghuzxili: 

Baptists.  223,  491,  738, 
744,  758,  899,  975,  988, 
1013,  1174,  1252,  1258, 
1290,  1513,  1967, 1986, 
2201,  3052,  3568 
Catholics  from  Accession 
of  Elizabeth.  272,442, 
308.  314,  467,  507,  355, 
361,  542,  3S3,  389,  587, 
(17th  Century)  469, 698, 
809,  817,  560,  909,  928, 
781,799, 1229,  S2l,S52, 
858,  862,  869,  (18th 
Century)  1435,  1712, 
1851,  1892,  2061,  2237, 
2251,  (19th  Century) 
2308,  2330,  2428,  2506, 
2605,  2757,  2917,  2986, 
3001,  3127,  3219,  3235, 
3249,  3265,  3372,  3693, 
3705 
Independents.  542,  563, 
616,  711,  718,  773,  915, 
941,  996,  1004,  1073, 
1108,  1346,  2731,  3597 
Nonjurors.      1346,    1555, 

1566,  1755 
Presbyterians.     349,  429, 
437,  453,  314,  467,  478, 
485,     560,    582,     587, 


598,     683,    875,     6i6, 
IMO— 8,     1130,     llii, 
1572,  1636,  2774 
Quakers.  1013,1247,134^ 
1387,  1685,  2160,  2731 
Vnitanaiu    316,374,744, 
966,   996,    1006,    126S, 
1346,  1355,  1394, 1401, 
1409,    (18th     Ceniaiy) 
1521,  1529,  1566,  1572, 
1598,  1610,  1628,  1636, 
1642,  1706,  1748,  1782, 
1831,  1974,  1986,  1999, 
2103,  2224,  {I9ih  Cen- 
tury) 2458,  2616,  2757, 
3311,  3585 
\Vesleyan<.     See   Wesley, 
ana   2275,  2444,  2480, 
3416 
The  High  Church  ReriraL 
See  1833^46 ;  and  3001, 
3052,  3086,  3112,  3155, 
3187,  3235,  3265,  32ia, 
3372,  3400,  3614,  3677, 
3693,  3705,  3735,  3750 
English  Lit.  to  Spenser.    4, 
40,  60,  74,  151,  158,  206, 
324,   372,  412,  471,  501, 
516,  521 
BngllBh  Koonomift  Hiskiiy: 
Agriculture.       124,    160^ 
229,  246,  483,  490,  861, 
1216,  1353,  (18th  Cen- 
tury)  1511,  1632,  1648, 
1763,  2014,  2022,  22M, 
(19th     Century)    232%, 
2504,  2668,  2714,  2901, 
2984,  3355,  3370,  3397, 
3476,  3520,  3583,  359i, 
3674,  2289,  3733 
Combination   and    Trades 
Unions.     52,  310,  411, 
1407,  2317,  2478,  2614, 
2629,  2742,  3341,  3398, 
3611,  3691,  3733,  3748, 
3764 
Communication.         I2S1, 
1733,  1906,  2339,  246i, 
2675 
Coiiperation.     2059,  260^^ 
2714,  2915,  2984,  3263 
Factory  Acts  and  Hours  tf 
Labour,  etc.  2339,2426, 
2742,  2884,  2964,  3016, 
3279,  3476 
Immigration  and  Emigre 
tion.     401, 1315,  2516 
Industrial  Inventions.  597, 
1704,  1790,  1899,  1984, 
1997,  2079,  2199,  2222, 
2351,  2456 


INDEX. 


513 


Poor  Laws.  175,246,476, 
669,  1602,  2264,  2755, 
3630 

Public  Health.    756,1172, 

1461,  26S0,  2821,  2984, 

3233,  3247,  3341,  3531, 

3630,  3646 

Enaenada.    1159,  i^:?^^  183 

Episcopius.     729,  789,  987 

EpUtolaf    ObHCuroram    Vi- 

rorum.     106 
Erasmtu.    27,  35,  38,  55,  79, 

84,  85,  106,  112, 130, 142, 

161,  191,  197,  235,  247 
Erattiu.     420,  454 
Erckmann-Chatrian,     3144 
Enkine,  John.     2021,  1B88, 

1412 
/;nflrifi«,  ofLinlathen.  2559 
Escobar.     1009, 1205 
Etcovedo.     '645,  378 
Etpartero.  1776,  1802, 1820, 

1838,  1<J43,  ^^9 
Etpronceda.     2863 
Euex,  Arthur  Capel.     841 
Ei»€jc,  General.     654,  673 
E»$fx,  Lady.     752,  514 
K«$€jr,     liobert     Devereux. 

432,  444,  452 
Etterhazy.     2299,  2308 
Eugene,  Prince.     843,  918, 

936,  955,   966,   979,   983, 

1019,  1023,  1691 
Euginie,  EmpreHS.     1933 
EuUr.     1687,    1770,    1787, 

1802,  2007,  2119 
Ewald.     2899,  3399 
Eyre,  Oovemor.     2030 


I^abriciu*,  of  Acquapendente. 

680 
Faeeiolati.     1552 
Faguet.     3658 
Fahrenheit.     1585 
Fairfax,  Ferdinando.     661, 

667 
Fairfax,  ThotQAB.  673,679, 

686,  696,  740 
Falkland.     891,    957,    648, 

661 
Falkland  Islands.     1747 
Falloux.    2967 
Faraday.    2577,2597,2706, 

2737,  2751,  2922,  3280 
Farel.    136.  209,  224,  244 
Famete,  Alexander,  Duke  of 

Parma.     345,    354,    362, 

874,  387,  897,  405,  415 

O. 


Famese,     Elizabeth.      See 

Spain.    1714—46 
Farragut.     2007 
Farrar.    3416 
Faure.    2319 
Favre,   Jules.     1968,   2071, 

2079 
Fawcett.     3247,  3476,  3532 
Fawkes,  Guy.    469 
Fazy.     1969 
Febronius.    1919 
Fechner.    3163 
Fell,  Margaret.     1013 
Finelon.     1279,  1340, 1344, 

1381,   1388,   1410,    1428, 

1429,    1508,   1512,  1531, 

1546,  1554 
Ferdinand  I.,  Emperor.   See 

Germany  and    Hungary. 

1621—64 
Ferdinand     II.,    Emperor. 

See  Germany.     1619—37 
Ferdinand    III.,    Emperor. 

See  Germany.     1637 — 67 
Ferdinand,  of  Aragon.     See 

1492-1616 
Ferdinand    VI.,    of    Spain. 

1159,  1164,  1183 
Ferdinand  VII.,   of   Spain. 

See  Spain.     1808 — 88 
Ferdinand  IV.,  of  Naples. 

1264,   1309,    1469,    1485, 

1502,    1527,    1607,   1651, 

1657 
Ferdinand,    of    Brunswick. 

1201,  1208,  1213 
Ferguson,  Adam,  publicist. 

1955 
Fermat.     932,  1079, 1173 
Ferrar.     836 
Ferrari.    2963 
Ferrier,  S.     2534 
Ferry.      3444,    3479,    2168, 

2176,  2191,  3676 
Feuerbach,  A.     2327 
Feuerbach,  L.     2t»67 
Fichte.     2214,   2241,  2245, 

2246,    2272,    2290,    2314, 

2407,  2495 
Field,  theologian.     698 
Fielding.    1737, 1793, 1809, 

1837 
Fiji.    2105 
Filangieri.     2087 
Filicaja.    1302,1491 
Filnwr.     1280 
Finland.     1131.  1544,  1553,   i 

2160,  2321  I 

Fischer,  Kuno.     3077 
FUher.     45,  135,  141,  126, 

186,  134,  150,  155,  158        I 


Fitzgerald,  Lord  Ed.     1459 
Fitzgerald,  E.     3143 
FitzwiUiam.     1425,  1432 
Flacim.    313,  358,  382,  389 
Flamsteed.    1244,  1580 
Flaubert.    3117,  3477 
Flaxman.    1978 
Fletcher,  John.     713 
Fletcher,  of  Madeley.    1831, 

1967,  1999 
Fletcher,  of  Saltoun.    970 
Fleury,     statesman.        See 

France.     1726—48 
Flodden,  Battle  of.     66 
Flood.     1207,  1290,  1320 
Flonda  Blanea.     1304 
Fludd.     782 
Fontenelle.  1136,1301,1331, 

1335,  1341,  1430,  1871 
Forbes,  zoolog^Bt.  2845,2865 
Ford.    903 
Formula  of  Concord.    508, 

526 
Forster,  W.  E.    3321,  2149, 

2167,  3567 
Foscolo.    2287 
Fouchi.    1472 
Fouqui.     2449 
Fouquet.     748 
Founer,  socialist.     2407 
Fox,  Bishop.    115,  238 
Fox,  George.     1013,  1373, 

1387 
Fox,  Charles.   See  England. 

1788-1807 
Fox,  Henry,  Lord  Holland. 

1142,  1181,  1186,  1193 
Foxe.     410, 586 
France,  Anatole.     3588 
Francia.     1603 
Francis  I.,  of  France.    110, 

165,  197,  216,  224,  232, 

256,  294  and  1616—47 
Francis    Joseph,    Emperor. 

See  1848— 99 
Francis,  Sir  PhUip.     1267, 

1305 
Francis  de  Sales.    609,  671, 

712,  719,  727,  774,  816 
Francke.     1398,  1633 
Franklin,  Benjamin.    1618, 

1817,    1184,  1243,  1249, 

1296,  1301,  1307,  1310, 

1346,  1378,  2200 
Franklin,  Sir  J.     2962 
Fraunhofer.    2489 
Frazer,  Bishop.     3311 
Frederick  the  Great.     1075, 

1717,    1721,   1735,  1744, 

1759,  1798,   1804,    1924, 

and  see  1740 — 86 

33 


514 


INDEX. 


Frederieky     later     German 
Emperor.       2012,    2071, 
2209,  2216 
Frederick^  Elector  Palatine. 

506,  535,  540,  550,  556 
Frederick  (the  Wise),  Elector 
of  Saxony.    120,  126,  87 
Frederick   William  L     See 

Germany.     1718—40 
Frederick  William  11,     See 

Germany.    1786 — 97 
FredeHck  William  111.    See 

Germany.     1797—1840 
Frederick  WiUiam  IV,     See 

Germany.     1840 — 61 
Freeman,    3276,  3661 
French  Church: 

GallicanUm.      110,    623, 

739,917,935,958,1291, 

1300,  1321,  1381,  1949, 

2519,  2606,  2632 

Jansenism,    440,  719,  917, 

923,935,951,976,1032, 

1064,  1074,  1085,  1090, 

1100,  1132,  1165,  1191, 

1218,  1267,  1402,   (18th 

Century)  1450,    1473, 

1501,  1530*,  1560,  1582, 

1649,  1815, 1839,  2596 

Protestantism.      88,   136, 

142,147,  165,177,194, 

208,  216,  224,  232,  239, 

256,  294,  301,  357,  381, 

396,  641,  (17th  Century) 

658,  787,  797,  859,  883, 

910,  1114,  1175,  1183, 

1230,  1248,  1259,  1283, 

1315,  1340,  1420,  (18th 

Century)     948,     1493, 

1546,  1611,  1644,  1756, 

1909,  1938,  2153,  2188, 

2967,  3344,  3417,     For 

the  civil  wars  see  France. 

1560—97  and  1614—29 

French  Lit.  to  Corneille.    83, 

163,  210,  258,  292,  319, 

339,   432,  502,  511,  516, 

522,  528,  618,  694,    714, 

732,   812,  824,  839,   886, 

892,  918,  925 

Frere,  Bartle.     2127,   2137, 

2145,  3532 
Freycinet.    2198 
Freytag,  G.     3042,  3093 
FHes,     2396 
Frobisher.     505,  397 
Froebel,     2513,  2805 
Fronteuac,    801,  1427 
Froude,  J.  A.     2966,  3495 
Froude,  R.  H.     2809 
Fry,  Elizabeth.     2478 


FulUr,}^,    2844 

Fuller,  T.    1097,1141,1146 


OahrielU  d'Estr^.     445 
Gainsborough,     1903,  1991, 

2174  ,    , 

Galiani.     1996  J  I  i:  I 
Galileo.    555,  595,  612,  716, 
722,  775,  798, 895, 939,  974 
Gall,     2437 

Gallatin.     1467,  1482,  1603 
Gallon,     3319,  3392 
Galvani,    2182,  2295 
Gambetta,  2053,  2071,  2109, 

2158,  2168,  3506 
Gardiner,  Bishop.    130, 158, 

307,  238,  356 
Gardiner,  S.  R.     3213 
Garfield,     2163 
Garibaldi,  1883, 1986,  2004, 

2050,  3506 
Garnet,  Father.     587,  698 
Garrick,     1729,  2080 
Garrison,  Lloyd.     1733 
Gaskell,  Mrs.     2972 
Gassendi,     961,  982,  1035, 

1098,  1110 
Gaston  de  Foix.     62 
Gataker,     1056,  1083 
GausK,      2325,   2422,   2651, 

2675,  2725,  2737,  3099 
Gautier,     3057 
Gay.     1630 

Gay-Lussac,    2405,  2473 
Geffcken,     2222 
Geikie.     3724 

Genu.  2231,2278,1495,2730 
Geoff rin,  Mme.     1794 
Qeograpliy: 

Africa,    29,   1983,   2172, 
2262,  2602,  2697,  2870, 
2983,  3015,  3050,  3083, 
3109,  3153,  3168,  3231, 
3261,  3336,  3396,  3427, 
3581,  3732 
America,     3,  23,  29,  32, 
37,    65,    97,    116,    133, 
364,  505,  550,  703,  843, 
947,  1232,  1264,  2198 
Asia.     464,    1328,    1916, 
1972,  2929,  3202,  3261, 
3427,  3549,  3715 
Australia.    866,973,1972, 

2294,  2697,  2820 
Polar  Regions,  346,  571, 
638,735,777,1621,2013, 
2051,  (19th  Century) 
2541,  2556,  2870,  2962, 
3050,  3324,  3369,  3396, 


3593,  3644,  3673,  3715, 
3732 

Maps,   377,  451,  457,  64B, 
1433,  1498, 1570,  2130 

Navigation.      652,    1637, 
1966,  2067 

Miscellaneous,    133,  ISOi, 
1722,  1957,  2442,  2630, 
3412 
George  I.    904,  and  see  Eng- 

laud.     1714 — 27 
George  IF,      See  England. 

1727—60 
George  III.     See  England. 

1760—1890 
George  IV,    1380,  1388,  and 

see  England.     1810—30 
George,  Henry.     3489,  3734 
Giricault,     2551 
Qermany : 

The  Empire,  13,  25,  49, 
61,  64,  87,  97,  222. 235, 
244.  687,  758,  1501, 
1520,  1528 

AUace.  633,  638,  688, 
833,  915,  2079,  2U2 

Bavaria.  36,  176,  35$, 
482,  535,  556,  601, 613, 
680,  687,  786,  800, 8W, 
923,  927,  (18th  Centnij) 
942,  948,  955, 965, 1008, 
1083,  1740—8,  1315, 
1323,  1365,  1473,  |19th 
Century)  1501,  1520, 
1523,  1529,  1551, 1589, 
1608,  1636,  1680, 1907, 
2199 

Brunswick.  121,136,li3» 
176,  182,  194,  220, 550, 
1719 

Ecclesiastical  EleetoraUt. 
104,  110,200,373,675, 
965,  1008,  1406,  1443, 
1454, 1501 

Hanover,  895,  904,  958, 
1016,  1033,  1120,  1128, 
1189,  1756-68,  1365, 
(19th  Century)  1501, 
1523,  1529,  1608, 1621, 
1719,  1751,  1786, 1884, 
1895,  1952,  2035,  2248 

Hanse  League.  92,  113, 
160,  344,  435,  683,  782 

Lorraine.  633,  738,  786, 
800,  807,  813,  819, 826, 
842,  915,  1086,  1094, 
1104,  1257,  2079,  2142 

PalatinaU,  36,  293, 482, 
502,  535,  540,  541,  550, 
656,  613,  687,  803,  854, 
876,  898,  1083,  1184 


INDEX. 


Ola 


Prusiia  to  acoesiiion  of 
Frederick  the  Great.119, 
136.  171.  182,  194,  230, 
279,  440,  (17th  Century) 
462.  485,  41)7,  512,  528, 
556,  587,  597,  619,  643, 
687,  714, 16l»— 60,  773, 
797.  801),  SO-*,  800,  820, 
827. 831, 860, 882,  (18th 
Centnry)  937,  073.  loas, 
ia56,  106H,  1113,  1118 

Saxony^  Einestine  line. 
121,  136,  143,  215,  220 

Saxony,  Albertine  line. 
176,  182,  194,  215,  230, 
232,  235,  239,  (17th 
Century)  497,  567,  587, 
597.  601,  609,  619.  625, 
800, 831.  864,  016,  (18th 
Century)  9*W,  1083, 
1088. 1740—8, 1756—68, 
1365,  (19th  Century) 
1529,  1551.  1589,  1608, 
1719.  1884,  1895.  1007, 
2035 

WurUmhern.  87.157.167, 
1501,  1520,  1529,  1652, 
1680,  1907 
tamuui  Ghnrch : 

Dogma  since  the  Formula 
of  Concord  (1580).  676, 
608,  728,  819,  1086, 
1486,  1672,  2546,  2672, 
S65S,  2824,  3188,  3296, 
3446 

Pietism  and  Practical 
Theohffy,  111,  161, 196, 
e9I,  860,  1023,  1101, 
1133,  1241,  1276,  1660, 
1672,  1862,  2297,  2309, 
2416,  2889 

JUuHion  movemcntt  since 
tfie  Formula  of  Concord. 
684,  767,  884,  1066, 
1241,  1366,  1437,  1683, 
2620 

Febronianixm.  1919, 1976, 
2141,  2176,  2496,  2633, 
2904,  3206 

The  Old  Catholics,    3206, 
3313,  3329,  3346,  3368, 
3374 
ierman  Lit.  to  Leftsing.    7, 

28,   106,  121,    148,    269, 

320,  329,  602,  684,  (17th 

Century)   781,  831,  1023, 

1116,    1124,    1137,    1342, 

(Ihth  Century)  1613, 1660, 

1769,   1786,^1796,    1863, 

1862, 1884,  1961 
lervinus.     1786,  1884 


Gcsenius.     2464,  2684,  2739 
Geulincs.     931,  1369 
Giannonc.     1608,  1791 
Gibbon.     2049, 2260 
Gibbon*,    Cardinal.      3680, 

3762 
Gibbons,  Grinling.     1246 
Gibraltar.     956,   961,   998, 

1064,  1067,  1322,  1331 
Gic*ebrecht.     3098 
Giffen.    3467 
GijTord.     2^39 
Gilbert,    Humphry.       340, 

375,  682 
Gilbert,  W.     661 
Gillraif.     2076 
Gioberti.     2834,  2890,  2934 
I   Giorgione.     61,  66 
Girtin.     2279 
Gladstone.  1852,1922,1032, 

1076,    1085,   3281,    3372, 

3706,  3749,  and  1866-94 
Gbinril.     1139,  1181 
Glencoe,  Mas^iacre  of.     8l!2 
I    Glisson.     1043,  1079,  1227 
\    Gluck.     1914     J  {  f  i 
Gneisenan.     1581 
GneiMt.     3124 
Godtdphin.     852,  873,   001, 

031,  030,  070 
Godounoff.     380,  422,    442, 

466,  470 
Godny.     Um,   1416,    1446, 

1464,  1481,  1545 
Gotbrin.     2231,  2239 
G'orrcs.    2488,    1642,  2680, 

2776,  2792 
Goethe.     2018,   2029,  2040, 

2146,   2164,   2168,    2191, 

2193,   2206,   2266,    2268, 

2278,   2404,   2419,    2437, 

2449,  2722,  2730 
Goqol.     2780,  2880 
'    Goldoni.     1786,1867  ' 

Goldsmith.   1882,1931,1961, 

2017,  2036 
Gongora.     741 
Gonsalvo.     18,  33,  37 
Gordon,    General.        2018, 

2188,  2103 
Gordon,  Lord  G.     1326 
Gorst.     2148  i 

Gortschakof.      2074,    2131,   ' 

3622 
Go*chen.     2121,  2107,  2206,   I 

2215  I 

Gosse.     3763  ' 

Gottsched,   1613,1660,1717, 

1968  ' 

Goujon.     304,  392,  477 
Gould,  F.  C.    3669 


Gounod.    3147,  3499,  3676 

Goya.     2270 

Gracian.    1070 

Grafton,   Duke    of.      1250, 

1273,  1278 
Grant,  see  America  1862 — 6 

and  1868—76 
GranrclU      262,  266,  283 
Granville.     1022, 3647 
Grattnn.     1313,  1320,  1328, 

1343,    1477,    1557.    1580, 

2.571 
Gray,  Bishop.     2971,  3187 
Gray,  Thomas.    1809, 1866, 

2006 
Greely,  Horace.    1823,  2089 
Green,  J.  R.     3380,  3622 
Green,  T.  H.     3379,  3606, 

3614 
Gr^goire.     2166,  1641 
Greqory   XIII,  Pope.     318, 

644,  648 
Gregory  XVI,  Pope.     1729, 

2719,  1779 
Grenville,    George.       1186, 

1220,    1236,   1243.    1244, 

1267,   1273 
Grenville,  Lord.    1418, 1424, 

1526,  1535 
Gresham.     436 
Greuze.     1903,  2374 
Greville.    3380 
Grery.     2141,   3461,   2208, 

3647 
Grey,  Sir  E.     2286 
Grey,   Sir  G.     1856,  1084, 

3749 
Grey,  Jane.     238,  241 
Gretf,    Lord.      1412.    1424, 

1716,  1736,  1757 
Grillparzer.    2636 
Grimm,  Baron.     1626 
Grimm,  J.    2461, 2662, 2666, 

2763,  2982,  3218 
Grindal.     498,  607,  663 
Grote,  G.    2693,  1748,  2946, 

3342 
Grotius.    723,  536, 842,  862, 

968,  1006 
Grundtviq.     2794,  3206 
Gu^rin,  E.  de.     3176 
Guerin,  M.  de.     2842 
Guesde,  Jules.     2070 
Guieciardini.     263,  271 
Guise,    Charles,    Cardinal. 

367,  406,  301 
Guise,  Francois,  2nd  Duke. 

248,  252,  255,  278 
Guise,    Henri,    3rd    Duke. 

335,  357.  371,  305,  308 
Guizot.     1717,  1811,  2666, 

33—2 


516 


INDEX. 


2741,   1837,    1862.    1882. 

3385 
Gustaims    Adolphus.      499. 

525.  563.   583.  592,  597, 

601 
Otutavu*,  Yasa.  86. 92. 113. 

and  see  Sweden  1628 — 60 
Oustavns    III    of    Sweden. 

2124t    and    see    Sweden 

1771—92 
Guthrie.     2839,  2887 
Gutzkow.     2894 
Guyon,   Mme.     1321,  1340, 

1381,  1388 


HaeckeL    3255,  3287 
Haggard,  B.     3555 
Hahnemann.    2437 
Hakluyt.     550 
Ha/«.  Matthew.    1046,1162, 

1190 
Hales,  John.     789,  891,  922 
Halifax,  Marquis  of.    824. 

829,   845,   852,  862,  873. 

879    1350 
Halifax,  Lord.    3677,  3693, 

3750 
HaU,    Bishop.      706,    789, 

949,  957,  1035 
HaU,  Bobert.     2201 
Hallam,    H.      2540,    2653, 

3154 
Haller,  A.   1660, 1707,1745, 

1868,  2007,  2060 
HalUn/.     1311,  1335,   1383, 

1474,  1568 
Hals,  Franz.     1182 
Hamilton,  Alexander.    1378, 

13'.)3,    1402,    1409,    1482, 

2364 
Hamilton,  Anthony.     1367, 

1531 
Hamilton,    First    Duke    of. 

631,  648 
Hamilton,     mathematician. 

2751,  3044 
Hamilton,  philosopher. 

2677,  3111 
Hammond.     988,  996,  1013, 

1084,  1105, 1129 
Hampden.     626,  654,  661 
Hampden,    Bishop.       2716, 

2774    2947 
Handel.     1509,  1740,  1891 
Hanninqton.     3524 
Harcourt,    Sir    VV.       3216, 

2206,  2266,  3735 
Hardenherg.       1536,     1560, 

1573,  1599,  2595 


Hardy,  T.     3650 
Hare,  A.  W.  and  J.  C.    2646 
Hare,  political  writer.    3148 
Harley.    953, 1465,  and  see 

England  1707—15 
Harnack.     3563,  3671 
Harrington.     1096,  1257 
Harris,  T.  Lake.    3268 
Hart,  Sir  B.     2009 
Hartley.     1797,  1871 
Hartmann.     3303,  3440 
Harvey.    795,862,882,1053, 

1107 
Hastings,    Warren.       1288, 

1294,   1299,   1305,    1340, 

2101,  1366,  1380 
Hauff.    2636 
Havelock.     1965 
Hawaii.     2262,  2304 
Hawke.     1184,1209 
Hawkins.     408 
Hawthorne.  2921,3006,3234 
Haydn.    2207,  2279 
Heame.     1557 
Heber.     2644 
Hubert.     2226,  1426 
Hecker.     3130,  3680 
HefeU.    3098 
Hegel.      2326,    2396,  2463, 

2580,  2708,  2727 
Heine.      2587,  2636,   2704, 

1767,  3111 
Heligoland.     1592,  2230 
Helmholtz.  2956,3076,3104, 

3136,  3211.  3692 
Helvetius.     1877,  2006 
Henderson.     631,  949,  1012 
Hmgxtenberg.     2645 
Henrietta,  sister  of  Charles 

II.     785 
Henry,  Matthew.     1463 
Hennj,  Patrick.    123 1 ,  1243, 

1296,  1386 
Henry  VII.     See  England. 

1492—1609 
Henry  VIII.     See  England   ' 

and      English      Church. 

1609—47 
Henry     II.      See     France. 

1647—69 
Henrif    III.      See    France. 

1674—89 
Henry    IV.       See    France. 

1672—1610 
HerlHirt.     2384,  2475,  2612, 

2663 
Herbert,  Auberon.     3381 
Herbert  of  Cherbury.     833, 

996,  1029,  1037 
Herbert,  George.     875,  903, 

908 


Herder.     2011,  2040, 
2100,  2104,    2127, 
2352 
Heridia.    3667 
Herculano.     2945 
Herrick.     1025,  1240 
Hersehel,    J.      2462, 

3342 
Hersehel,    W.     2098, 
2145,   2182,   2S13, 
2595,  2606 
Herschell, hold.    2206. 
Hertzberg.     1382,  1S9( 
Henley.     1755, 1838 
Herzen.     2955,  1963 
Heyse.    3361 
Hickes.    1285,  1346, 

1559 
High  Commission.    5t 
HiU,OcULYiA.    3233 
H«//,  Bowlaud.    2850 
History  to  Banke.    58, 
184,  253,  382,  434, 
549,  557,  564,  5SH, 
(17th  Centarv)  687, 
736,   764,  787,   796, 
857,  864,  945,  972, 
1037,   1045,  1087, 
1204,   1225,   1271, 
1352, 1360,  il8th  Coi 
1459,   1469,    1504, 
1557,   1587.    1595, 
1620,    1627,   1647, 
1670,    1677,   1711, 
1804,   1820,    1H36. 
1971,    1982,    2049, 
;?iO;.(  19th  Centorr) 
2515,  2540,  2581,  26, 
HoadUy.     1559.  1665 
Hohbes.       662,    961, 

1055,   1079,  10f%0,  h 
Hobbes,  J.  O.  (Mrs  On 

3632 
Hoche.      1426,    1442. 

1454 
Hodgkin.     3473 
Hofer.     1551,  1561 
Hogarth.     1759.  1937 
Hohenlohe.     2210 
HollHich.     1992 
Holbein,     96,  174,  ?M 
Holberg.     1576.  Ifs3: 
Holland,  see  Netherlaoi 
Holland,  jurist,     347S 
Holmes,  O.  W.     3133,  J 
Holyoake.     2931 
Hooft.     972,  l(t20 
Hooke.     1000.  1169 
Hooker,  .loseph.     305l* 
Hooker,  liichard.    560. 
626,  666 


INDEX. 


517 


2333 
U78 
.     489 

,  Catherine.     184 
,  J.    2069 
of  Effingham.    397, 

1426,  1451 

3497 
U.     2929 
31,1239,1267,1361, 

.     3224 

novelist.   3078,3116 
■ictor.     2647,  2688, 
2893,   3144,    1915, 
3561 
r.   See  Italy.   1878— 

rt,  Alexander.   2301, 

2922 

\t,  W.     2208,  2441, 

1642,   2579,    2655, 
2773 
K    1710,1731,1782, 

1836,    1860,  2053, 

.  2614,  1706,  1727 
olmau.  2978,  3105 
John.     2116,  2244, 

Sir  W.     2067 

don,    Lady.      1967, 

n.     2603,  2614 

m.    1619,1773,1845 

ron.  Governor.  1243, 

1289 

ton,    Lucy,    writer. 

24,  106,  130,  137, 
10 

J.     2258 
R.  H.     3132,  3734 

3146,  3155,  3211, 
U55,  3670,  3704 
9.  1109,1117,1231, 
1400 

IS.     3738 
ie,  P^re.     3344 


1675,  1683,  1694, 
1734,  1805 
3007,    3253,    3300, 
i451,  3484 
w,  the.     2230 

Father.    3187 

3048,  3661 
th.    3677 


Impey,  Elijah.     1294 
ImpreaionUU,     3212,  3334 
Index  of  Forbidden  Books. 

383, 1872 
Ingoldsby  Legends.    2797 
Ingres.    2598 
Innocent    X.,    Pope.       998, 

1026,  1064 
Innocent  XI.,  Pope.     1269, 

1291 
Inquisition,  The.     242,  276, 
308,  383,  642,  895,  2401, 
2402,  2482,  2483,  1649 
Interim,  The.     313 
IreUtnd  till  the  Union.   1, 9, 
156,   165,  192,  273,   322, 
352,  425.  427,  444,  (17th 
Century)  452,    461,  478, 
608,  616,  649,  655,  662, 
674,  683,   693,  695,   716, 
747,   757,  768,  875,  880, 
887,  893.  922,  (18th  Cen- 
tur\)    1031,    1052,    1063, 
1127,    1207,    1223,    1254, 
1290,    1313,    1320,    1328, 
1343,    1363.    1405,    1419, 
1425^    1432,    1442,    1459, 
1477 
Irish  Church.   231,  766, 845, 
869,     1121,    1573,    2024, 
2252,  2341,    2544,   3101, 
3114,  20r,l 
Ireton.     682,  695 
7rriM<7,  E.   2583,  2682,  3154 
Irving,  Henry.     3252 
Irving,  W.     2421,  2564 
Isabella,  of  the  Netherlands. 

429.  610 
Isabella,  Queen.    See  Spain. 

1492—1604 
Italy.     (For   the  house  of 
Savov.  see  Savoy.) 
Genoa.'  50.  62,  127,  133, 
295,     480,    847.    1070, 
1099,  1140,  1144,  1151, 
11>8,  1454,  1479.  1522, 
ir»01,  1607 
Milan.     7,  10,  14.  22,  26, 
62,  65,  74,  75,  96,  116, 
117,  120,  136,  161,  193, 
203, 531,  (18th  Century) 
936,  1008.  1086,  1090, 
1129,  1130,  1140,  1144,    . 
1445,  1454,  1469,  (19th 
Century)    1607.     193^4,    ; 
1961,  1978  I 

Saples  and   Sicily.     See   , 
Italy.    1492—1606,  133, 
149,  203,  248,  531,  684, 
(18th     Century)    1002, 
1008,  1025,  1032,  1036, 


1086,  1091,  1094,  1126, 
1172,  1264,  1309,  1469, 
(19th  Century)  1485, 
1502,  1527.  1545.  1571, 
1601,  1607,  1651,  1667, 
1883,  1894,  1986,  1994 

Papal  States.  10,  14,  18, 
26.  32,  33,  40,  47,  64, 
67,  69,  74,  96, 127,  209, 
218,  261.  386,  441,  573, 
651,  716,  762,  1264, 
1454,  1462,  1469,  (19th 
Century)  1543,  1650, 
1601,  1C»07,  1729.  1740, 
1861.  1883,  1894,  1906. 
1978,  1986 

Parma.  209,  1080,  1094, 
1165.  1172,  1729,  1873, 
1978,  1986 

Tuscany.  3,  10,  14,  54, 
62,  127,  136,  140,  172, 
651, 716.  (18th  Century) 
1025,  1086,  1094,  1103, 
1247,  1420,  1436,  1469, 
(19th  Century)  1486, 
1607.  1861,  1883,  1978, 
1986 

Venice.  14,  22,  40,  62. 
54,  57,  HI,  100,  140, 
179,  312.  315. 326, (17th 
Century)  474,  531,  562, 
651,  783.  848,  909,  928, 
(18th  Century)  1017, 
1027,  1464,  1469.  (19th 
Century)  1485,  1607, 
1883.  1894,  1978.  2036 

Italian  Ch.  8,  26,  93, 
119, 138,  162,  179,  188, 
217,  235,  266,  276,  307, 
327,  366,  383,  439,  500, 
659,  542,  1242,  1268, 
1727,  1756,  2142,  (19th 
Century)  2402,  2414, 
2482,  2686,  2760,  2776, 
2853,  2890,  2934,  2970, 
2989,  3003,  3088,  3172, 
3251,  3266,  3298,  3313, 
2073,  3330,  3376,  3480, 
3570,  3598,  3634 

Italian  Lit.  9,  16,  50, 
56,  69,  76,  98,  104, 162, 
190,  350,  425,  480,  647, 
569, 578,  (17th  Century) 
749,  813,  823,  1302, 
1318,  1375,  (18th  Cen- 
tury) 1495,  1540, 1606, 
1921,  2041,  2047,  2227, 
2287,  (19th  Century) 
2608,  2619.  2648,  2723, 
2829,  2862,  3237,  3419^ 
3723 


518 


INDEX. 


Itarhide,     1653,  1664 
Ivan    the    Terrible.       See 
Bussia.    1638 — 84 


Jacobin  mathematician.  2675 

Jacobi,  thinker.    2137 

Jticksotit  President.  1616, 
1638,  1686,  1714,  1747, 
1766,  1770,  1782,  1789 

Jackson,  'Stonewall.'    2007 

James  J.  See  Scotland. 
1682—1608,  and  England, 
1603—26 

James  IL.,  Duke  of  York. 
See  England.  1666—92, 
936 

James,  Henry.    3420 

Jameson,  Dr.     2286,  2297 

Janin,  Jules.    2736 

Janissaries,  the.     296,  1689 

Jansenism.  See  French 
Church 

Jay.     1393,  1428 

Jefferies,  Richard.  3509, 
3584 

Jefferson.  1296,  1307,  1314, 
1393.  1409,  1448,  1467, 
1482,  1640,  2643 

Jeffrey.     2333 

Jeffreys,  Judge.     862,  858 

Jena,  battle  of.     1529 

Jenner.    2271 

Jerrold.     2858 

JesuiU.  227,  267,  314,  317, 
327, 337, 367, 406, 422, 423, 
455,  572,  H91.  629,  (17th 
Century)  677,  701,  474, 
490,  739,  740,  747,  540, 
817,  821,  902,  913,  917, 
936,  976, 1090, 1269,  (18th 
Century) 1498, 1629, 1104, 
1863,  1881,  1909,  1928, 
1930,  1960,  1264,  1976, 
2016,  2027,  (19th  Century) 
2485,  2596,  1673,  2632, 
2711,  2776,  1874,  3046, 
3102,  3461 

Jevons.     3247,  3338,  3501 

Jewel.     403 

Jews.  1,  14,  62,  73,  242, 
278,  820, 1084, 1091, 1176, 
(18th  Century)  1439,1726, 
1798,  1975,  2114,  2165, 
2190,  (19th  Century)  2375, 
2841,  3069,  3131,  1967, 
3329,  3481,  2243,  3720, 
and  Hee  Anti-Semitism 

Joachim.     2909 

John  of  the  Cross.    405,  788 


John,  Don,  son  of  Charles  Y. 

302,  316,  341,  345,  378 
John  of  Leyden.    225 
Johnson,    Andrew.       2042, 

2061,  2068 
Johnson,   Dr.     1701,  1774, 

1793,   1841,    1882,   1920, 

1931,  2017,  2073,  2131 
Jokai.    2938 
Jones,  Inigo.     806,  1062 
Jones  of  Nayland.     1765 
Jones,  Sir  W.     2148,  2183 
Jonson,  Ben.    635,  693,  794, 

933 
Jordan,  Camille.     1620 
Jos4  de  Isla.     1874 
Joseph  II.,  Emperor.     See 

Austria.     1766—90 
Joseph,  Father.     940,  692 
Joubert,  Gener&L  2165,2266 
Jouffroy.     2694 
Joule.    2956,  3118 
Jovellanos.     2242 
Jowett.     3086,  3155,  3321, 

3676 
Juarez.     1999,  2029,  2061, 

3356 
Julius  II.,  Pope.    See  Italy. 

1608—18 
*  Junius.'     1267,  1273 
Juneu.     1234,  1248 
Jussieu.     2182 


Kant.      1844,    1992,    2043, 
2100,    2117,    2128,    2137, 
2170,    2195.    2230,   2259, 
2272,  2281,  2289,  2364 
\    Karamsin.     157o,  2515 
Katkov.     2015, 3584 
KauWach.     2624,  2957 
Kaunitz.         See       Austria. 

1749—94 
Kean,  Edmund.     2487 
KeatH.     2534,    2548,    2562, 

2582 
Keble.     2644,  2731,  2809 
Keller,  Gottfried.     3075 
Kemble,  historian.     2998 
Kei»hle,  J.  P.     2106 
Ken.     1346,  1520 
Kepler.     686,  722,  769,  795, 

862,  882 
Kirouaille,  Louise  de.     785 
Ket.     226 

Kettelcr.     3102,  3298,  3429 
Kidd,  B.     3689 
Kierkegaard.     3071 
King,  Bishop.     1455 
Kinglake.     2906,  3213 


Kingsley,   C.      2991,  J 

3072,  3399 
Kingsley,  H.     3190 
KingslAf,  Mary.    3732 
Kipling.    3587,  3650,  ^ 
Kirchhoff,     3146 
Kirkaldy  of  Grange. 

321 
Kitchener.    2297,2816, 
Klaproth.     2599 
Kleist.     1795,  1853 
Kleutgen.     3061 
Klinger,  Max.     3560 
Klondyke.     2304 
Klopstock.     1785 
Kneller.     1278 
Knox.     145,  349,  256, 

388,  429,  477,  564 
Koch.     3498 
KoniggraU,  battle  of. 
Komer,     2472 
Kosciusko.     1416.  1427 
Kossuth.     1821,  1876, 

1898,  3692 
Kotiebue.     2181,  1642 
Krafft-Ebing.    3559 
Krasewski.     2831,  289 
Krause.    2361 
Kropatkin.     3546 
Krudener,    Mme  de. 

1614 
Krnger.     2155.  2265, 

2316,  2326 
Kitenen.     3308. 3647 


Lahadic.     1199,  1244t 
Labiche.     315ii 
La  lio^ti^.     5(K3 
Lalhiurdtnmai*.    Xifil^^. 

1830 
La  Bruyhre.     13:i:i 
I^icfpe'df.     1796,  2:^s<f 
Lachmann.  2636,  27(f9 
Lacordaire.        26^. 

275^,  2&10.  3186 
Laennec.     2550 
Ija/ayftte,  Mnie  de.     J 
Lafayette,    (veneral. 

13H9.    13'.I5,     140t». 

1708,  1717,  2756 
La  Fontaine.     1167,  I 
Lagarde.     36()7 
Lagrange.     2169,  tiaO 
Laharpe.     2299 
Lainez.     227,  367,  4i^> 
Liilly.     1206.  1211.  U 
Lamarck.     ^325 
Lanutrtine.  2563,ii77\ 

1882,  3310 


^mi..C.    S391.  MOS,  iSaS,  I 

4tmennait.       2519.     1606, 
£683.  £71?,  X74S,30(I5 
■awiettrit.     1761 
ftndor.    i28i.  2460,  2607, 

aadMrr.    2537 

Me.    3214 

■an^,  Andrew.    3530,  3726 

mtft.    3228 

mmgufl.     6S3. 5*1 

tl^t.     tits.  2JSS.  2271, 

2301,  2462,  36S6  ; 

.ardner     162S 
^rtvtilar,.Lfpfa>vt.  1483,   | 

i26} 
^      flaehtfout(i«id.       694, 

1167.  itfUt 
M   Salle,  explorer.     1264, 

8S» 
M  Cata:     78.  436 
^tro.     322, 394 
MtalU.     3200. 3234 
MMrn.     29S8 
Mlimrr.    135.168.263,348. 

356 
Mml.     38.i.  M-2,  809.  836. 

SW,   ««*.   880.  891,   900, 

915.  926.  996 
Jturent.  3013 
AiiHfT.  3295 
\mTateT.  1961, 1975,  2057 
Mtelene.  3388 
Jtcii}erir.  3283,  iSSS,  3661 
Mrife.  3671 
Mvoiiitr.   2066,2098,2182, 

2250 

Cannu    I^K-.     544.   1544, 

2584,  2883,  3305 
Code:     213.  1046.   1187. 

1640,  1772.  2249,2273, 

2363.  15H,  2695.  2740, 

3714 
K»«U'h   Lav.    663,  865, 

1288,  1947.  2021.  1184. 

2336.  3124 
iKternalio'ial    /.ntc.      723. 

84S.  920,    1046,   1385, 

1664, 1689,  1698,  1858. 

1890,  3147,  2185,  (19tb 

Ceiitai7|    2336.    2554, 

2788,  2913.  1936.  3216. 

3:230,  3305,  3502 
Soman  I.ar.  63. 108,  513, 

J170, 1683,  2514.  3048, 

3167.  3183 
Theory    of    Lav.      1187, 

1351,  1425,  1588.  1720, 

1780,  1936,  1995,  2087. 


2410.  2641,  3519.  3579 
Lar,  tinancier.  1021.  1035 
Lar,  W,     160?,  1636,  1642, 

1907 
Lave:     2901 
Larrrace,     Heniy.        J867, 

1966 
Laicrenee,  Lord.  1903, 1965. 

3459 
Layaril.     2924 
Lea.    H.    C.      3563,    3592, 

3712 
League,   the.     See   Fnuict 

IBT6— BT 
Ueky.    3441.  3713 
Lf  Vltre.    1308,  1322.  1324, 

1691 
I^oiite  4e  I.i'le.     3057 
I.'ilru.ll;lli«.     1870.  1$83 
Le'.  -litnfriil,     2007,   2017, 

■2itt3.  2029,  3326 
Lee,  Sidnev.  373? 
Leeeh.  2858 
LeeuireHliofk.  1254 
Leferre.  88,  147 
Le  OatlieaBf.  3666 
Legendrt.  2244,  2289,  2623, 

'2743 
LeireMer,     Earl    of.       See 

Dudle; 
LeiUniU.     1187,  796,  1241. 

1244,    1295.    1311,    1335, 

1361.    1365,   1368,   1385, 

1437,   1441,   1510,    1542, 

1551,  1558 
Leigh  lluul.     2403 
Leighliiii./Lrchbifbap.    1207 
Uighton.  Lord.   3407, 3710, 

3717 
Uipti-I,  buttle  of,     1S89 
Leiy.     1278 
I^maitre.  J.     3554 
Leo  X.,  Po|ie.    StK  lUlian 

CIl  1B13-31 
Le»  XII.  2606 
LeoXIII.,l'ope.  3428,3434. 

3442,    3447     3490,    3523. 

3550,  3oM,  36*6 
Lr>i«nd<     MOf,  ■M4.'i,  2808 
Leopnldl.  of  Belt^am,   1626, 

1722.  IT1»,  etc. 
Leofald  uf  Deneaa.     1139 
Leopold.   EmperoT.      1247, 

and  Kee  ITM— 2 
Lepniitii,  battle  of.    315 
Lt  flag.     3233 
Uptiat.     2804, 2996 


i   Lnagt.     1494.  15*9,  1781 
,    LttUe.     2450,  2501 
'    I.e,pi7uu,e.     1932 

Leuep:     1947.  '^144,  3692 

lilting.     1954.  1961,  2035, 
2074,  2082,  2102 
'   I^rellert.     100*.  666,  699, 
:       719 

Urer.     2827 
'■   Leverrier.    2832,  2940,  34M 
I   L«rrt.     3365 

■Leitii  Carntll.'     3236 
I   LewU,     Comewall.       1M9, 


UWm 


LidduH.     3343,  3631 
Lie.  JoDKB.     3318 
Litbig.     2609,  2845,  3371 
Light  fool.    Bishop.      3i3S, 

3372.  3612 
Linuori.     1657, 1783,  1799, 

2161 
Lilbarne.     1004 
Linaere.     19,  129 
Lincei.  Academia  deL     680 
Lincoln.         Bee     Arnehoa. 


Lind,  Jenny.     2814 

Liunaeui.    1681, 1730,  2069 

Liiinardo  da  Vilci.  31,  44, 
<?,  51,  13* 

Lionue.     74**,  790 

Lint.     l«»i,  2869 

Liner.     3240 

l.iat.     2590,  3009.  3567 
]   Littrt.     32It 

Li<er,i.>i-1,  J.ord.     i':(.-i,  and 
I        ^-  Ki.k^lnTiJ,  IBia-ST 
I    IJ,i„.„t,'„e.       2855.    X870, 
I       3Ii:l.  :):i:j'i.  3371 
•   Lloreule.     2521 
'   Llogii;.     1379 

Lt^iiiof.     2251 

iMbileiieaikfi.    2675 

LtArck.     2678 

l^lcr.  12U,  1308,  1346, 
13.50,  1361,  1384.  1394, 
1401,  910.  1471 

Lorkhart.     2797 

iMckger.     3287.  3438 

Lodge,  O.      3638 

LombrovK    3406,  3575 

Longfrtlmt.  2828.  2864, 
3l'^'i.  3t05 

Loiigueritle,  Mme  de.  691, 
697,  1267 

Lope.     611,  645,  651,  741, 


921 
Lotie.    3106,  3*92 


520 


INDEX. 


Loubet,     2319 

IjOui8    XIL      See   France. 

149S— 1616 
LouU  XIII.      See  France. 

1610—48 
LouU   XIV.      See  France. 

1661—1716 
Louii    XV.       See    France. 

1728—74 
Louis  XVI.      See    France. 

1774—92 
Louis  XVIII.     See  France. 

1814—24 
Louis  of  Baden.     843,  866, 

890,  959 
LouU  of  Nassau.     294,  303, 

310,  327 
LouU  Philippe.   See  France. 

1880—48 
LouisUy  Queen  of  Prussia. 

2443 
Lourdes.     3128 
Louvois.      748,   790.  1283, 

876,  889 
Lowe,  R.     3179 
Lowell.     2976,  3317,  3647 
Loyola.     227,  267,  314,  367 
Lubbock.    3246 
Lucar.     673,  861,  870,  937, 

978, 1224 
Luddites.     2456 
Ludlow.     696, 737 
Ludwig,  Earl.     3240,  3704 
Lueger.     2282 
Lugard.     2236 
Luther.     See   German   Ch. 

1606—46 
Luxeinburq.        1611,     2046, 

2233 
Lxurembnrg,  Marpbal.     822, 

876,  882,  894,  898,  1408 
Luynes.     523,  539,  545 
Lyell.     2690,  3217,  3399 
Lyly.     621,  683 
Lyndhurst.     1736,  3218 
Lyndsay.     236,  338 


MabiUon.    1086,  1191, 1287, 

1300,  1324,  1469,  1491 
Mably.     1923 
Macaulay,   T.      1756,  2618, 

2878,  2980,  3164 
Macaulay,  Zachary.     2398 
Macchiavelli.     96,  184,  186 
Macdonald,  Sir  J.     2065 
Mackenzie,  Henry.     2001 
Maekintoah.       2208,     2304, 

2603,  2692 
* Maclaren,  Ian.'    3683 


Macleod,  Norman.    3155 
Macmahan.        2071,     2092, 

2124,  2141 
Macphenon.    1895 
Madagascar.       660,     1858, 

2181,  2204,  2297 
Madison.    2135,  1378,  1482, 

1566 
Madvig.    2835 
Maeterlinck.     3653, 3739 
Maffei.     1540, 1663, 1850 
Magellan.     133 
Magliabecchi.     1545, 1776 
Mahan.     3627 
Maine  de  Biran.     2348 
Maine,  R.  3183,3340,3546, 

3596 
Maintenon,  Mme  de.     846, 

1327,  1340, 1381, 1580 
Maitland     of     Lethington. 

264,  269.  321 
Maitland,¥ .V^\   3579,3690, 

3728,  3760 
Majuba,  battle  of.     2164 
Maldonatus.     633 
MaUbranclte.      1238,  1279, 

1554 
Malesherbes.      1297,    1302, 

1308 
Malherbe.     694, 867 
Mallarmi.     3496 
Mallet-du-Pan.     2231 
Mallock.     3418 
Malone.     2268 
MaUmet.     2184 
Malpighi.    1138, 1202, 1213, 

1393 
Malplaquet.  battle  of.     983 
Malta.    233,  2811,  1461, 1476 
Malt  hits.     2291,  2349,  2503 
Man,  Isle  of.     1244 
Manchester   (Lord    Kimbol- 

ton).     ()67,  673 
Mandeville.     1607 
Manet.     3212 
Manin.     1883 
Manning.    3<H)1,  3219,3235, 

3249,  3298.  3611,  3661 
Mansard.     1297 
Mansel.     3127 
Mans/eld.      5*29,    560,    565, 

572 
Mani'Jield.    1858,  1273,  2012 
Mamoni.     2619,  3371 
Marat.     1420 
Marconi.     3767 
Marengo,  battle  of.     1479 
Margaret,  Lady.     46,  67 
Margaret.dfiughieT  of  Henry 

Vil.    See  bcotland.    1608 


Margaret  oi  Navane.    IX, 

166,  177,  194,  197,  iU, 

224,  292,  321 
Margaret    of  Yalois.    Vk, 

448 
Margaret  of  Parma.    20; 

283,  294,  298 
Manana.     613,  653,  7U 
Marie  Louise,  wife  of  Napo- 
leon.    1558,  1607 
Marignano,  battle  of.    74 
Marini.     823, 844 
Marivaux.     1652,  191? 
'MarkTwaim,'    3466 
Marlborough,        Cboidnl, 

Duke  of.     869,  8H0,  ^ 

902,  1701—11, 160S 
Marlowe.     583,  621 
MarmonUl.     1810 
Mamiz.     443, 450 
Marot.     177 
Marprelate  tracts.    5^7 
MarshaU,  A.     3625 
Marshall,   J.      1482.  \m 

1623 
Marten,  Harry.     963 
Martens,     Rtuaiao     jmMl 

3502,^921 
Martensen,     2986^  9071 
Martineau,  Harriet.    2529 
Martineau,  J.    3585 
Martyr,  Peter.    217. 307 
Marx.     2964,  3278.  3Sii 
Mary,  Queen  of  Scota.   IfU 

198,   228,    257.    and  m 

England     and    Scotland, 

1561—8? 
Mary,  Tudor.     231.  and  m 

England    and    En^  Ck. 

1653—8 
Mary,  wife  of  William  IIL 

802,  817,  H73,  901 
Mary  of  Guise.     174.  i4t, 

259.  264 
Mary  of  Modena.     799 
Masaniello.     684 
Masonry.     1-564 
Ma4*ena.    1470.  1479.  \M, 

1570 
MassilUm.     1.56it,  1741 
Massinger.     903 
Mather,  Cotton.    1348,  lUt 
Matthew,  Father.     29ai 
Matthias,    Emperor.      9i 

345,  483 
Maupeou.     1279.  1291 
Maupertuis.        1681,     irrti 

1801 
Maurepas.     1297.  1301 19» 
Maurice,  ¥.  D.    29fi4,  3U6i. 

3078 


INDEX. 


521 


Maurice  of  Nassau.      397, 

406,  487,  449,  536,  844 
Mayriee  of  Saxony.      194, 

215,   220,  230,  232,  235, 

239 
Mauritius.    1044,1095,1567 
Maxim,     3512, 3686 
Maximilian  /,  Emperor,  see 

(Germany.     149S — 1519 
Maximilian,     Emperor     of 

Mexico.    1961,2017.2023, 

2a51 
Maxwell,  Clerk.    3118, 3362 
Mayor,  J.  E.  B.    3308 
Mazarin.    See  France.   164S 


Mazeppa.     981 

Mazzini,     1729,  1759,  1843. 

1883,  1894,  1934,  1961 
McCarthy,  J.     2229 
McKinley,     2234 
Medc,  J.     934 
Medici,  Catherine  de.     See 

France.     1560— M 
Medici,  Marie  de.    448,  and 

see  France,  1610—20,  591 
Mehrmet    Ali.     1578,    1654, 

1734,    1746,    1754,    1799, 

18a5,  1811,  1813,  1822 
Meit*onier.     2752 
Melnnchthon.     See  German 

Chnrcb.     1690—60 
Melltoume,     Lord.        1697,    j 

1716,    and   see  England, 


Milint.     2238,  2291 
Melville,     514,  568,  816 
Mendeleejr.     3301 
MendeLfMohn,  F.     2941 
MendeUtohn,^.    1975,2114 
Menipp6e,  Satire.     618 
Menno.     241 
Menzel.     2814 
Meredith,     George.       3143, 

3190 
MirimU.     2672,  2688,  2859 
Mer*eune.     872 
Meslier,  Abb^.     1909 
Metmer.     2068 
Metaphysical  Sttciety.    3303 
Metattasio.     1606,  2110 
Methuen  Treaty.     1461 
Mettemich,        1551,     1589, 

1599,    1607,   1636,    1652, 

1694,   1703,   1769,    1861, 

1886,  3154 
Meyerbeer.     2784 
MialL      2852,   2903,   3101, 

3227 
Michelangelo.     21,   51,   72, 

220,  228,  304,  421 


I         4\ 


Miekiewicz.     2673, 2750 
Middleton,     1636, 1782 
Mumet.     2786 
Milman.    2657,  3082 
Milne  Edwards.     2757 
Milner,  A.     2326 
Milner,  Bishop.    2330,  2428 
Mill  James.     2406,   2540, 

2612,  2677,  2790 
3fiW,J.  S.    2898,2914,2981, 

3148,   3165,   3197,    3242, 

3274,  3309,  3371,  3379 
Millais.     2978,  3439,  3717 
Miller,  HuRh.     2845,  2887 
MilUt.     2707,  3147,  3399 
Milton.    911,  930,  938,  957, 

986, 991, 1036, 1054, 1081, 

1127,    1184,    1220,    1229, 

1240 
Milutin,     1998,  2022 
Minghetti.     2117 
Mirabeau,  Pere.     1857 
Miraheau,  Fils.    2175,  1389, 

1395,  1406.  2211 
Miranda.     1533,  1566 
Mitchell.     1881 
Mohler.     2718 
Moffat.     2522 
Mohl,  Julias.    2816 
MoiMsan      3559,  3724 
Molesworth,     1764,  1914 
Mol%f!re.     1115,  1159,  1212, 

1233 
MolifioM,     1242,  1317, 1417 
Moltke.     1960,  3647 
Molteno,     2090 
Molyneux,     922 
Mommsen,     3047, 3323 
Motiboddo,     2020 
Monge,     2098,  2370 
Monk.     712,  740,  772 
Monmouth,  Duke  of.     825, 

829.  836,  841,  852 
Moiwd,  Adolphe.    2967 
Monroe  Doctrine.     1670 
Montagu,  Bishop.    829,  836 
Monta'f/u,  C.    891,  901,  910, 

926,  935 
Montagu,  Lady.     1596 
Montaigtte.     452,  528,  615 
Montalembert.     2683,   2717, 

3166,  3207,  3326 
Montcalm.    1195,  1199,  1210 
Montchretien.     339,  770 
MonUfiore.     2841 
Montenquieu.      1592,    1677, 

1788,  1850 
Montfaui^m.      1499,     1567, 

1578,  1725 
Montrose.     668,  673.  696 
Moody.     3357 


Moore,  George.     3683 
Moore,  Sir  J.     1545,  1552 
Moore,  T.     2391,  2523 
More,  Hannah.    2216,  2417 
More,   Henry.      988,   1113, 

1119 
More,  Thomas.    27,  84, 114, 

85,    141,   168,   126,    186, 
134,  146,  155,  158 
Moreau,     1444,  1480,  1511 
MoreUi.     3513 
Morgagni.     1902 
Morghen.     2219 
Morison,  Cotter.     3568 
Morley,  John.     3236,  2206, 

2278,  3730 
' Morning  Post.'     2008 
Momy.     1915 
Morri9,W.  3119,3177,3284, 

3491,  3587,  3710,  3717 
Mortara.     3131 
Morton.     251,  309,  468 
Moter,  F.  C.     1889 
Moser,  J.     2029,  2083 
Moier,  J.  J.     1664,  1698 
Mosheim.     1847 
Motley.     3108 
Mozart.     2146,  2156,  2211 
Mozleif.     2917 
MiiUe'r,  J.     2089 
Mailer,  J.  V.     2725 
Mailer,  Max.     2997,   3152, 

3430,  3447,  3726 
Mailer,  Ottfried.     2527 
Manzer.     148,  154,  119 
Mulcaster,     540 
Munchausen'*  Travels.   2135 
Munro,  philologist.     3227 
MuuKter,     Anabaptists     of. 

225   233 
Murat.     1529,    1545.    1601, 

1607 
Muratori.    160ti,  1 715, 1 753, 

1806 
Murchison.    2706,2882,3076 
Murqer.     2973 
Murillo.     1236,  1299 
Murray,  Regent.    269,  285, 

296.  300,  309 
Murray,  John.    2342 
Mutiny,  Indian.    1965. 1974 
Mysticism.     148,  187,   265, 

295,  384,  469,   745,   929, 

1033,    1101,   1144,    1199, 

1275,    1291,   1292,    1321, 

1636,  1834,  2036,  3444 


Sadir.      1072,  1096.  1101, 
1111,  1115.  1119.  1152 


522 


INDEX. 


Nansen.    3593, 3673 
Nantes,     Edict     of.      641, 

1315 
Napier,  Sir  C.     1763,  1833 
Napier,  mathematician.  762, 

795 
Napier  of  Magdala.    2059 
Napier,  Sir  W.    2665 
Napoleon.     See  1790—1816, 

2582 
Napoleon,IjOui».  1775,1795, 

1811,  184&— 70,  2092 
Napoleon,  Prince.     1978 
Naseby,  battle  of.     073 
Naud6.     964,  970 
Naville.     3558 
Naylor,  James.    1063 
Neander.     2626 
Necker.     2044,   1308,   1321, 
1329,    1337,    1381,    1389, 
1395 
NeUon,H.  1451,1461,1469, 

1521 
NeUon,  Robert.    1346, 1458 
Neriy  Philip.    366,  631 
The  Netherlands : 

2'ill  the  separation  of  1581. 

4,  15,  45,  214,  185,  222, 

244,  1059—81 

'The    Spanish    Provinces, 

later  Belgium.  374,415, 

429,  434.  547,  610,  777. 

778,  822,  842,  846,  1688 

—  1714,    1046,   174a— 8, 

1338,  1357,  1365,  1376, 

1390,  1397,  1413,  1426, 

14r)5,     (19th    Century) 

l.>99,  1611,   11)79,  1830 

—9,  1872.  2070,  3462, 

2260,  2273 

The      Vniteil      Provinces, 

later  Holland,  from  the 

Peace  of  Vtrecht.    1018, 

1056,  1064,  1150,  1153, 

1194,  1330,  1305,  1370, 

1375,  1382,  1420,  1426, 

1435,  1451,  1465,  (19th 

Centurv)  1486,  1530, 

1537,  1559,  1591,  1599, 

1611,  1830—9,   1889, 

2233,  2312 

Dutch  Ch.    156,  241,  323, 

398,  440,  443,  450,  594, 

043,  6X5,  700,  729,  746, 

789,    852,    1024,    1057, 

1066,  1199,  1210,  1253, 

1322,  1939,  3054 

Dutch  Lit.     20,  529,  742, 

74d,     fi(}4,     640,     1078, 

1576,  1653,  2144 

Neircaxtlc,  T.  Pelham,  Duke 


of.      1061,    1124,     1128, 

1132,  1181,  1184,  1193 
New   Guinea.     2180,   2196, 

2203 
Newman,  F.     2986 
Newman,  J.  H.     See  Eng. 

Ch.    IBSZ-W,  3018,3078, 

3219,  3298,  3311,  3631 
Newton,  Isaac.     1154, 1179, 

1311,    13S5,    1377,    910, 

1468,  1633 
Nty.     1589,  1606 
Nicholas,  Henry.     241,  322 
Nicholas    I.      See    Russia. 

1825— M 
Nicholas   II.      See   Russia. 

1894^9 
Nicolai.    1884,  1943,  2100, 

2286 
Nicole.     1011,  1148,   1158, 

1221,  1267 
Nicon.     1058 
Niebnhr,  Carsten.     1916 
Niebuhr,  Barthhold.     2454, 

2492,   2514,   2533,    2572, 

2715 
Nietzsche.     3561,  3606 
Nilsson.     3225 
Nimwegen,  treaty  of.     822 
Ninon  de  PEnclos.     1102 
Nitzseh,  theologian.    2669 
Nitzsch,  philologiRt.     2693 
Noailles.     1381,  1402,  1501, 

1530 
Nordau,  Max.     3699,  3720 
Nordenskiold.     3324, 3396 
Norfolk,    3rd    Duke.      163, 

184,  191,  212,  217 
Norfolk,   4th    Duke.      304, 

314,  317 
Norris.     1361,  1369 
North,  Christopher.     2523 
North,  Dudley.     1371 
North,  Lord.    See  England. 

1770—83 
North,    translator    of    Plu- 
tarch.    521 
Northcote,    Stafford.      2098. 

2148 
Nottingham,  Earl  of.     873, 

939,'  953,  991 
Norway.     311,    1592,    1602. 

2186,  2240,  2250 
Nonceffian  Lit.    1376,  2448, 

2674,   2724,    3007,    3135, 

3253,    3300,    3318,   3422, 

3451,   3484,    3511,    3573, 

3603,  3756 
Numisnuitics.       585,     1161, 

2221,  2372,  358'-i 


Gates,  Titus.     821 
Gberlin.     1959 
G'Bnen,  Smith.    1881 
Gchino,     217,276,316, 
G'CannelL  1667,1698,1 

1758.   1765,    1810,   1 

1836,  1844,  2965 
G^Connor,     Fergus.     1 

1835,  1880 
Gecolampadius.     130, 

166,  195,  226 
Gersted.     2550 
Gylethorpe.     1084 

OhlenschWger.    2368 
Ghm.     2638 
Gken.     2423, 2589 
Gliphant,  Laurence.    J 
Glivarez.     651, 644 
GUivier.     2071 
Gmdummn,  battle  oL 
Gpitz.     831 
Oratory,    The.      366, 

3033 
OrchardtOH.     3513 
Grleans,   Oaston   of. 

591,  600 

Orleans,  ^galite.     138! 
Orleans,  Vi^ieui.  SeeFr 

1714—23 
Ormerod,  Miss.     3423 
Ormond,  1st  Duke.    665 
Ormond,    2nd   Duke. 

1012 
Ossian.     1895 
Otis.     1220 
Otwny.      1293 
Oudenardc,  battle  of. 
Outram.     1*.>65 
Overall.     632,  73fi 
Orerbeck.     2436 
Overbury.     761,  514 
Owen,  J.     1108,  1305 
Owen,  Richard.    3^55, 

3661 
Owen,  Robert.     2511, 

2742,  3142 
Oxenstiem.     499,  603 

625,  10ii:i 


Paderewski.     3576 
Payanini.     2369 
Pa'gi.     1352 
Paine,   Tom.      2(f4ff, 

1412,  2237 
PahMcky.     1780,  27ii6 
Palestrina.     426, 627 


INDEX. 


523 


PaUy.  2137,2187,2237,2390 
Palgrare,  Oifford     3202 
Palisfy.    304,  531,  602 
Palladio.    281,468 
Palmertton,       1580,     1697, 
1716,    1718,   1757.   1813, 
186*2,    1903,   1909,    1914,    ' 
1922,   and   see  England. 


Paludan-MmUr.     2861 
Paoli.     1188,    1262,    1269, 

1426 
ParaceUu*.    183,  274 
Paraeus.     684,  767,  549 
Parf,     297 
Pari*,  Abbe.     1649 
Paris,    Comte    de.      2092, 

2221,  3692 
Parker,  M.     380,  429,  442, 

471,  497 
Parker,    Theodore.       2844, 

2864 
Parke*,  Sir  Harry.     1991 
Parke*,  Sir  Henry.     2235 
ParnelL     2123,  2149,  2157, 

2167,    2215,    2220,   2229, 

3647 
Parry,  H.     3666 
Par*on*.     355,  3(51 
Pa*cal.      980,    1074,    1079, 

1090,    1109,    1160,    1154, 

1208 
Pa*quier.     422,  772 
Pa**afilia,     3070,  3172 
Pattenr,     3118,  3178,  3196, 

3240,    34^6,    3641,   3690, 

3704 
Pater.     3360, 3637 
Patin,  Guy.     960 
Patmorf.  '3072 
Pattewn.     3173 
Patti.     3177 

Patti*tm,  Maik.    3156,  3274 
Paul  III,,  Pope.    See  169^— 

49 
Paul  /T'.,  Pope.     138,  162, 

236,  276,  24H,  368,   371, 

376,  2(il 
Paul  v..  Pope.     474,  706 
PauluA.     2429 
Paria,  battle  of.     117 
Peacoi'k.     2607,  2702 
Pearttm,  C.     ,'^72 
Pearttm,  J.   1113, 1130, 1329 
Peel,  Lord.     3764 
Peel,  li.     1580,  1640,  1697, 

1706,    1736,   1757,    1765, 

1800,    and   Ree   England. 

IMl— «,  3017 
Pelham,  Henry.     1051,  and 

see  England.    17M— M 


Pellico,    2723 

Penn,  W.    1217,  839,  1386, 

1571 
Penry.    587,  616 
Pepe.     1651,  1657 
Pepy*.    1123,  1462,  2618 
Perceval.     1549,  1580 
Percy,  Bishop.     1941 
Perez,    345,  378,  399 
PerraulU    1341, 1367 
Perrone.    2760,  3070 
Perthes.     2149,  2433 
Pertz.     2642 
Pentgino,    51 
Pestalozzi.     2101 
Petariu*.     867,  989,  1062 
Peterborough,  Lord.     961 
Peterloo  massacre.     1640 
Peter*,  Hugh.     1004,  1073 
Petrie,  Flinders.     3488 
Petrucci.     1292,  1317 
Petty,     1000,    1082,    1149, 

1298 
Philip,  Captain.     1387 
Philip,  of  Hesse.     See  Ger- 
many and    German   Ch. 

1686-62 
Philip  11.,  of  Spain.     See 

1664—98 
P;ii7i>    111,       See    Spain. 

1698—1621 
Philip    IV,       See    Spain. 

1621—66 
Philip  V.    See  Spain.    1700 

Philippine*,  the.    284,  2297, 
2315 

Phillip*,  Stephen.    3706 

Phillip*,  Wendell.     1789 

Philology: 

Classical.  10,  19,  24,  36, 
86,  98,  102,  115,  191, 
198,  212,  219,  246,  269, 
393,  474,  496,  619,  664, 
(17th  Century)  664, 668, 
873,  1171,  1239,  1263, 
1370,  (18th  Centurv) 
1499,  1619,  1535,  1562, 
1646,  1870,  1964,  1981, 
2171,  2233,  2260,  (19th 
Century)  2338,  2440, 
2527,  2611,  2709,  2835, 
2982,  3011,  3047,  3079, 
3139,  3227,  3527,  3607, 
3727,  3743 
Euntpean.  749,1359,1387, 
1460,  1981,  2452,  2552, 
2664,  2678,  2693,  2785, 
2982,  3062,  3180,  3214, 
3383,  3515,  3527 
Oriental     Philology     till 


I 


Bopp,  62,  261,  754, 
827,  880,  906,  946, 
1003,  1047,  1105,  nil, 
(18th  Century)  1481, 
1586,  2004,  2020,  2148, 
2183,  2306,  (19th  Cen- 
tury) 2371,  2409,  2440, 
2464,  2491,  2512 
Mitcellaneou*.  1140,1812, 
2011,  2159,  2315,  2382, 
2655,  3335 
Pbilosophy : 

Ethic*,  447,  509,  646, 
667,  879,  912,  1002, 
1009,  1018,  1035,  1055, 
1126,  1227,  1262,  1365, 
1414,  (18th  Century) 
1518, 1607,  1619,  1623, 
1783,  1816,  1834,  1845, 
1869,  1877,  1887, 1945, 
2137,  2281,  2290,  (19th 
Century)  2314,  2692, 
3046,  3197,  3322,  3379, 
3440,  3455,  3500,  3514, 
3661,  3626,  3667 
Logic.  286,562,800,2463, 

2848,  2898,  3365 
Psychology.     1043,  1055, 
1361,  1797,  2612,  2677, 
2943,  3096,  3163,  3365, 
3379,  3440,  3661,  3711 
Phytiocrat*,  the.     1878 
Picltegru.     1426,  1433,  1511 
Pitiel.     2218 
Pitnuin.     2801 
Pitf,  Earl  of  Chatham.  1107, 
1142, 1186, 1193.1767-61, 
1249,    1250,    1260,   1267, 
1301,  2069 
Pitt,  William.     See  1T82— 

1806 
Piu*   v..   Pope.     439,  440, 

301,  446,  456,  308,  315 
Piu*  n„  Pope.    2094, 2149, 

2176,  2178,  1454,  1462 
Pittf  r/Z.,  Pope.  2320,2366, 
1543,    1550,   2413,   2445, 
2468,  1601,  2672 
Pizarro.     129, 274 
Pia**ey,  battle  of.     1200 
Plowden.     465 
Plunket,  Archbishop.     3678 
Plunkett,  H.     2268 
Plymouth  Brethren.    2558 
Pobyedono*t*eff.    3481,3744 
Pococke.     880,  1105, 1373 
Poincar€.     3621 
Poland.     22,  41,  119,   128. 
271,  279,  307,  320,   328, 
392,  (17th  Century)  470, 
489,  509,  702, 1666— IMO, 


524 


INDEX. 


805,  815,  843,  916,  928, 
1700—14, 1081, 1088, 1092, 
1171,  1239,  1253,  1265, 
1270,  1281.  1284,  1399, 
1415,  1421,  1427,  1437, 
(19th  Century)  1537, 1583, 
1613.  1634,  1721,  1730, 
1742.  1865,  1888,  2016, 
2022,  2056 

Polish  Ch.  170,  344,  361, 
424,  445,  455,  519,  630, 
678,  692,  936,  997,  1122, 
1611,  1667,  2027,  3221 

PolUh  Lit.  362,  517,  701, 
2042,  2673,  2750,  2831, 
2895 

Politics  to  Hobbes.  95, 114, 
260,  376,  462,  482,  489, 
503,  512,  523,  558,  581, 
590,  626,  653,  (17th  Cen- 
tury)  681,  492,  494,  734, 
783,  826,  575,  896,  954, 
963,  971,  983,  995,  1004, 
1019,  1036, 1054 

Pole,  Cardinal.  158,  235, 
189,  241,  365,  368,  374 

PoUgiiac.  1389, 1708,  1713, 
1717 

Politiques,  the.  323,  332, 
335 

Pombal.  1163,  1863,  1204, 
1881,  1930,  2022,  1311, 
2110 

Pompadour,  Mme  de.  1138, 
1162,  1238 

Pomponazzi.     9,  113 

Pope.  1502,  1515,  1524, 
1548,  1658,  1754 

Pordage.     1206 

Porson.     2171,  2233,  2338 

Porta,  Battista.     391 

Portland, 'SrdDukeot  1348, 
1424,  1585,  1549 

Port  Royal.  931, 1011, 1148, 
and  Hee  Jansenism  (under 
French  Ch.) 

Portugal.  6,  98,  347,  348, 
359,  36^.  402,  (>45,  658, 
724,  745,  759,  769,  779, 
(18th  Century)  952,  1163, 
1849,  1204,  1311,  1816, 
1367, 1447,  (lyth  Century) 
1487,  1514,  1539,  1546, 
1552,  1568,  15a5,  1650, 
1669,  1687,  1698.  1700. 
1711,  1744,  1758,  1761, 
1777,  1868,  1875.  2249 

Portuqufse  Ch.  14,  242, 
1863,  18S1,  1930,  2746 

Portuguese  Lit.  41,  173, 
472,  2830,  3405 


Portuguese  Nun.  letters  of. 

1201 
Postel.    261 

Potemkin.    1377,  1384.  1392 
Potter,  Paul.    1059 
Pougatcheff,     1293 
Poussin,     952,  1173 
Poynet.     376 
Prescott.     2806 
Pretender,   Old.     978,   998, 

1012,    1613,    1018,    1020, 

1025,  1045 
Pretender,     Young.      1133, 

1137,  1143,  2162 
Price,     1869, 1974,  2184 
Priestley,   1999,  2030,  2054, 

2103,  1404,  2364 
Prim.     2039,  2054 
Prior.   1332,1502,1507,991 
Prohabilism.       509,     1002, 

1009,  1365,  1783,  3086 
Propaganda,  The.     810 
Proudhon.     2849 
Prynne.    ^11,626,983,1084, 

1106, 1205 
Puffendorf.   1188,1226,1393 
Pugin.    2846 
Pulteney.    1039,  1056, 1058, 

1085 
Pultowa,  battle  of.     984 
'Punch.'    2858,  3025,  3225 
Purcell.    1245,  1390, 1400 
Pusey.    2657,    2757,    2886, 

2917,  3001,    3235,    3343, 

3416,  3506 
Pushkin.     2565,  2622,  2705, 

2808 
Puvis  de  Chavannes.     3407, 

3622 
Pym.     549,   648,   654,   661, 

987 


Quaritch.     3284 
Quarles.     903 
Quarterly  Review.     2403 
Quatrefages.     3232 
Quensiedt.     2896 
Quesnai.     1878 
Quesnel.     1218,  1402,  1580 
Quetelet.     2768 
Quevedo.     855 
Quinet.     3290 


Rabelais.     210,  347 
Rachel.     2812 
Racine.     1185,  1193,   1367, 
1434 


Radeliffe,VLT%.    2239 
RadeUky.     1883.  1894 
Raffles,     1579,  1646.  ^i 
Rahel,     2344 
Raiffeisen,    2999 
Rakoczy,   Qeorge   I.     C 

681 
Rakoczy,  George  XL    73 
Rakoczy,  Francis.  951.) 

993   1027 
Raleigh.   352.381.888.4 

432,  460,  764,  522.  ht 
Rambouillet,  circle  of.  i 
Ramilies,  battle  of.  964 
Rammohun,  Roy.  2685 
Rampolla.  3434 
Ramsay,  Allan  (father).  1 
Ranuay,  Allan  (son).  J 
Ramsay,    chemist.      Jl 

3724,  3740 
Ramus.     286,  477 
Ranjit  Singh,     1534 
Ranke,     2613,   2806,  H 

3150,  3490,  3567 
RapfuuL      51,   61,    72, 

98,  140 
Raskolniks.     1058 
Ratzel,    3548 
Rauch,     2691 
Ravi g  nan.     2791 
Ray.    1250,1296,1325.1 
Rayleigh.     3697 
Raynal.     2005 
Reade,  Charles.     3103 
Reaumur.     1585.  1696. 1 
Rectus.     3412,  3646 
Redi.     1194,  131S 
Redmond.     2229 
Reeve,  Henrj .     1817.  U 
Regnard.     1404 
Regnier.      714,  757 
Reichstadt,  Due  de.     173 
Reid.     1934 
Reimaru^i.     Ib32,  :rtn?J 
Rein.     3547 
Reinkenit.     3205,  335-S 
R^jane.     3:i90 
Rembrandt.     b87,  11% 
Renan.     3097,   3204.  35 

3661 
Renaudot.     (iH6,  96v 
Ren^e  of  Ferrara.    17U,  i 

318 
Reni,  Guido.     561,  974 
Rennell.     2067,  2076 
Reiwuvier.     3077.  STl^i 
Reszke,  E.  and  J.  de.    3i 
Reuchlin.     io,    2\  A?. 

106,  130,  153 
Reuse  h.     3516 
Reuss.     2759 


INDEX. 


525 


Reynold*.     18^7, 1970,  2223 
Rhodes,  Cecil.    2217,  2226, 

2236,  2276,  2297,  2305, 

2326 
Rhodes,  Island  of.     105 
Ricardo.     2436,  2529 
Ricei,  Bishop.     2142 
Ricci,  S.  J.     5*5 
Richardson.  1716,1784,1907 
Richelieu,    Cardinal.     511, 

519,  539,  and  see  16M— 

42 
Richter,  E.     2185 
Richter,  H.     3407 
Richter,  J.  P.     2368 
RidUy.     333,  341,  343,  348, 

366 
Riemafin.     3076 
Ritschl.     3115,  3314,  3612 
Ritter.     2530 
Rizzio.     292 
Roberts,  Lord.     2138,  2154, 

3728,  2326 
Robertson,  Forbes.     3721 
Robertson,  F.W.  2947,3068 
Robertson,  W.     1982 
Robespierre.       1420,     1426, 

2238 
Robinet.     1904 
Robinson,  Crabb.    2403 
Robson.    3763 
Rochefort.  20.53,  2071,  2150 
Rochester,    Hvde,    Earl    of. 

845,  852,  8*58,  !)31 
RockiHfjham,    Ix)rd.      1229, 

1244*.    1249,    1250,    1267, 

1342 
Rodbertns.     3066 
Rodin.     3741 
Rodney.     1.H31,  1345 
Roe,  Sir  T.     505 
Roebuck.     1949 
Rogers.     2686 
Rogier.     1872 
Rohan,     Cardinal.       1364, 

213T 
Rohan,   Dae  de.     545,  566, 

r>m,  618,  628 
Rtyllin.     1647 
Romagnosi.     1996,  2670 
Romanes.     3664 
Romilly.     2411, 2603 
Ronsard.     319,  673 
Ri'mtgen.     3709 
Rooke.    956 
Roon.     200r> 
Roscher.     2900 
Rose,  H.  J.     2631 
RoseUry.  Lord.    2215,2268, 

2279,  2289 
Roseggrr.     3332 


Rosierucians.  759,782,1215 

Rosmini.    2686,  2692,  2934 

Rouba4:h,  battle  of.     1198 

Rossetti,  D.  G.  2978,  3119, 
3266,  3315,  3506 

Rossi.    3226 

Rouini.     2676 

Rostand,     3738 

Rothe.    2792,  2918,  3280 

Rothschild,  N.  M.     1557 

Roufier.     1915 

Rousseau.  1805,  1835, 1873, 
1896,  1916,  1935,  2069, 
2096 

Royal  Society.     1000,  1125 

Royer-CoUard.  2438,  1620, 
1717 

Rubens.     717,  760,  799,  956 

Rubinstein.    3106 

Riickert.     2488,  2779 

Rudini.     3634 

Ruge.    2816 

Ruhnken.     1870 

Rumford,  B.  Thompson, 
Count.  2066,  2199,  2289, 
2301 

Rupert.  661,  667,  673,  772, 
787,  799 

Ruskin.  2897,  2978,  2995, 
3026,  3236,  3339 

Russell,  G.  W.  E.     2289 

i^itMW/,  Lord  J.  1647,1655, 
1697,  1716,  1727,  1765, 
2836,  1851,  and  see  Eng- 
land.    1M6— 66 

Russell,  Lord  W.    841 

Russia,  to  Peter  the  Great. 
42,  123,  221,  346,  271, 
328,  380,  411,  422,  442, 
(17th  Century)  455,  466, 
470,  489,  50i),  525,  678, 
709,  725,  735,  742,  749, 
838 

Russian  Ch.  337,  543, 1058, 
1462,  1691,  1864,  1910, 
1240, 1960,  (19th  Century) 
2469,  2484,  2825,  3129, 
3312,  3481,  3607,  3636, 
3699,  3616,  3664,  3719 

Russian  Lit.  1708,  1777, 
1842,  1864,  2192,  (19th 
Century)  2420, 2436, 2665, 
2688,  2622,  2706,  2749, 
2780,  2799,  2880,  2939, 
2966,  3043,  3146,  3160, 
3210,  3264,  3421,  3674, 
3620,  3685,  3766 

Rutherford.    996,  1120,  746 

Ruyter.    712,  772,  797,  813 

Ryswick,  peace  of.    915 


Sabatier,  A.     3711 
SacheverelL    992,  986 
Sachs,  Hans.    518 
Sachs,  J.    3512 
Sackville,  poet.     412 
SadoUto.     98, 138,  235,  264 
Sagasta.     2232,  2300 
Saint-Hilaire,     G.       2258, 

2690 
Saint-Saens.    3424 
Saint    Simon,    Comte    de. 

2640 
Saint  Simon,  Due  de.    1389, 

1850 
SainteBeuve.    2672,    2842, 

2992,  3310 
Salar  Jung.     1940,  1965 
Salisbury,  Lord.    2044,  and 

see  1878 — 99 
Salmasius.    801,  873,  1054 
Samoa.     2136.  2228,  2323 
Saneroft.     869,  1346 
Sand,  Georges.     2721,  3415 
Sandenon.    912,  996,  1013, 

1018, 1084 
Sansovino.     182 
Sarcey.    3269 
Sardou.    3348,  3635,  3667 
Sargent.    3741 
Sarpi.    474.  736,  795,  796, 

828 
Sarsjield.     880,  887 
Sarigny.     2493, 3186 
Sarile,  Sir  G.     2061 
SaviU,  Sir  H.     744 
Savonarola.     10,  8,  26 
Savoy,    Dukes  of.     38,   52, 

141,  166,  168.  175,   199, 

204,  253,  260,  404,  (17th 

Century)   448,   454,  458, 

495,  504,  557,  562,  596, 

617,  640,  719,  883,  898, 

911,  966, 1002, 1547, 1036. 

(Henceforward,  see  Italy) 
Saroy  Conference.    1130 
Saxe,  Marshal.    1133,  1139, 

1145.  1150,  1153 
Say.    2360 
Scaliger,  Joseph.    557,  619, 

626,  664,  702,  707,  724 
Scaliger,  Julius.     191,  269, 

379,  399 
Scarlatti.    1278 
Scarron.     1062,  1102 
Schamhorst.     1536.  1581 
ScheUing.    2281,  2326,  2335 
Schiaparelli.    3423,  3604 
Schiller.    2097,  2135,  2241, 

2257,  2300,  2374 


526 


INDEX. 


S€hUael,A.  2278. 2286,  S419 
SckUg^U    F.      2286.    2300, 

2S09,  2409,  2681 
Sehleiden.    2613,  2882 
SehleierwMcker.   2297,2300, 

2309,  2388,  2572,  27S6 
ScMUmamn.  3364, 3631 
Sckmuilkald,ljemgaeoL  143. 

148 
SekmoOrr.     3352 
Schombtrg,     880 
Sekopenkemrr.     2553, 3169 
Sckrein^r,  Olive.     3509 
Sckreiner,  W.     2305,  2316 
Sekmbrrt.    2500,  2598 
Sckmlzf'DfUi2*eh.     2999 
Sekmmamm,     2752, 3111 
SchmmaHM,  Madame.    2646 
Sckmrz,  Carl.     20e9 
Sekwutm,     2751,  2S02,  2832 
Sckvarienbum.     1599 
SckwemkMd.    167,265,402 


Anatomy,  Biology,  etc.  to 
Lamarck.  280,  391, 
680,  795,  *i4,  862, 1017, 
1043,  1053,  1138,  1160, 
1194,  1254,  aSxh  Cen- 
turvi  1631,  1745,  1868, 
1885,  1913,  1962,  20u3, 
2116,  2244,  2258,  2289, 
2325 

AitroHomy  to  HeircheL 
287,  493,  716,  722,  733, 
795,  662,  895,  939,  944, 
1117,  1166,  1244,  1335, 
1363,  (18th  Centurvi 
1474,  156b,  1639,  1778, 
1817,  1644,  186S,  2086, 
2098 

Botamw^  555,  846.  1213, 
1261,  1296,  1335,  1391, 
(18th  Cenlarv^  1681, 
1730,  2075,  2179,  216:i, 
2193,  222ii,  2260,  (19th 
Centm^)  2334,  2370, 
2473,  2538,  2638,  2661, 
2690,  2766,  2832,  2682, 
3024,  3056,  3196,  3392, 
3512 

Chemistry  to  La\oisier. 
183,  632,  1169,  m3, 
1654,  1662,  1633,  1902, 
1953,  2010,  2030,  2066 

Gtolooy  to  LvelL  303, 
531,  1366,  1397,  1719, 
1770,  1767,  2010,  2030, 
2043,  2125,  2258,  (19th 
Centurr)  2405,  24i2, 
2473,  2501,  2609,  2623, 
2638,  2675,  2690 


Jiathematic*  to  Legendre.  i 
297,  373,  473,  604,  636,  i 
762,  795,  848,  919,  932, 
1079, 1095,  1109,  1154, 
1179,  1244,  1335,  (18th 
CentuiT)  1532,  1550, 
1556,  1645,  1739,  1787, 
2098,  2244 

Mfdicinr.  183,  297,  960, 
1043,  1109,  1250,  1277, 
1488,  1496,  1902,  2086, 
2125,  2216,  2271,  (19th 
Centurv)  2437,  2469, 
2550,  2638,  2956,  3240, 
3362,  3486,  3496,  3541, 
3590,  3654,  36t>6,  3757 
Pkysic$ : 

GenertiL  992,1702,2030, 
2289,  255(\  2602,  3044, 
3076,  3136,  3423,  3452, 
3709,  3757 

Electncityand  Magnetism 
to  Oersted.  661,  1639, 
1760,  1817,  1656,  2125, 
2182,  2313,  2395,  2550 

EnQine^ring.  1865,  1906, 
2206,  2623.  2675,  2613, 
2922,  2994,  3024,  3058, 
3U^4,  3333,  343i>,  3559, 
3604,  3621 

Heat.  796,  1266,  1423, 
1474,  1565,  1897,  1944, 
2019,  2066,  2136,  2302, 
(19th  Centarv^  2360, 
2395,  2450,  2462,  2489, 
:f501.  2550,  25s9,  2609, 
2706,  2725,  2862,  2956, 
3008,  3024.  3224 

Liaht.  391,  661, 666.  605, 
f>41,  932,  1169.  1202,  . 
1250,  1261,  1466,  1503, 
1602,  (19th  C^ntorr) 
2325.  2334,  2405,  243'7, 
2450,  2469,  2501,  2510, 
2632,  2645,  2994,  3008, 
3044,  3104,  3709,  3724 

Mechanics.  555, 570,  595, 
612,  769,  662,  939,  960, 
11^43.  1109,  1136,  1154, 
1231,  1:^50,  aSth  Cen- 
turn  1563,  1667,  1745, 
1770,  1778,  2019,  2169, 
(19th  Centarv)  2346, 
2360,  2577.  2675,  2751, 
3512 

Somnd.    1335,1441,2145, 
3211,  3423,  3438 
Zoology.      330,   353,  652, 
1202,  1250,  1325,  1363, 
1696,  1751,  1760,  1796,   i 
1897,  2043,  2280,  2289,   \ 


(19th  Centuy)  iSiO, 
2^0,  2524,  2638,  tSSl, 
2690,  275U  2!802.  ibSS, 
2645,  3146.  3211^  3iii, 
3525,  3575 
Scioppim*.  696,  707,  793, 
902 


Scotland  since  the  UniaiL 
978,  1013.   1O30L  1097. 
1137,  1143,  1170.  im, 
1300.  135d,  2367 
Scotch     Ck.     since     ^ 
Union.        149:i,    1514, 
1522,  15f!d,  1643,  1666. 
1766.  1901,  2071,  2121, 
2162,  2212,  2225,  A»4. 
(19th     Centum    jJ34. 
2461,  2->59,  2700,  2745, 
2639,  ?>>;,  :?**x  3U3, 
3220,  3373,  3431 
Scotch  Lit.  till  the  Union. 
39,    46,    94,    236,    316, 
510,  549,  564,  76^,  10S9 
Scott,  Gilbert.     3194 
Scoit,  Thomas.     2296 
Scott,  Walter.     2365,  240S. 
2487,    2507,    2534,    2546, 
2616,  2780 
Scribe.     2679.  2992 
Scudery.     «!>:? 
Sedan,  battle  of.     2071 
SedgM-ick.     2706 
SeeUy.     3235,  3U6,  3700 
Sclbome,  Lord.     d091 
Seldcn.     7i%5,  549,  581,  92t\, 

953,  954,  996,  1063 
.Sc/aryit.     :?>^ 
.Scmlcr.     16^^  20(^} 
Scnancomr.     2356 
Senior,  Nassau.     2755 
Serfdom.       22,    422.    1332, 
2116,    1389,    2199,    153«, 
1972,  1998 
Serretus.     205,  344,  795 
S^ricnf,    Mme    de.      1200, 

1408 
Seward.     1973 
Seymomr,  Jane.     163 
Sforza,  Lodovioo.   7.  14.  22. 
'26 

SharteAnry,  1st  Eari.     7M. 
8*17,  824.  829,  1264,  832. 
836 
Shaftesbnrw,ZTdEmiL  1U4. 

1516,  1S36 
Shafte^mry,lihEaiL  2SS4 
Sh^kcspere.  577.  603,  624, 
674,  720,  776.  Editicos. 
etc  ec?;;?.  1502, 1977,  2972^ 
3238,  3696,  3737 


INDEX. 


527 


Sharp,  GranyiUe.    $160 
ShelburHe.hord.  1255,1342, 

1348 
Sheldon,  Archbiahop.    1084, 

1190,  1161 
Sheldon,  G.     3?5ii 
Shelley,     i(471,  2634,  2648, 

2673,  2696 
Shelley,  Maiy.     2623 
Shepttone,     2127 
Sheridan.    2038,  2066,  1380 
Sherman,     General.     2023, 

2029 
Sherman,  John.     2234 
Shorthotue.     3464 
Shrettsbury,      Earl.        873, 

1006 
Sickel.    3276 
Siekingen.     104,  110 
SiddonM,  Mrs.     2106 
Sidgwick.     3379,  3618 
Sidney,   Philip.     350,   627, 

390,  603 
Sieye$,  Abb^.     2184,   1426, 

1472 
Sigtrart.     3366 
Simeon,     2103 
Simmel.     3667 
Simon,  Jules.     2071,  2124, 

3444 
Simon,  Pere.     1269 
Simpton,    2966 
Sitmondi.     2397 
Sijrtu4  v..  Pope.     386,  680 
Skeat,     3616 
Skeliim.     161 

Skobelff.     2125,  2165,  3606 
Slavery,     18,    48,    78,   408, 

1443,    1466,     998,    1906, 

2012,   2022,    2062,   2160, 

2160,    2173,   2222,   2398, 

2494,     2742      (and      see 

America,  under  Slavery) 
Sloane,     1336,  1826 
Smith,  Adam.     1878,  1887, 

2060,  2200 
Smith,  Goldwin.     3641 
Smith,  Joe.     2617 
Smith,  John,  Captain.    481, 

716,  766 
Smith,  John  (Divine).    988, 

1062 
Smith,     Robertson.      3389, 

3431 
Smith,  Svdney.     2333,  2403 
Smith,  Sir  T.     219,  668 
Smith,  W.,  Keolojrist.     2601 
Smollett.     1784,  2001,  2006 
Sobietki,     805,  843 
Borlaliwn : 

Theory,    114,  1061,  1407, 


1846,  1905,  1923,  2044, 
2231,    (19th    Century) 
2407,  2611,  2849,  2868, 
2964,  3012,  3066,  3080, 
3181,  3200,  3278,  3489, 
3491,  3696,  3762 
Christian  Socialism.  2748, 
2984,  2991,  3233,  3293, 
3341,  3428,  3606,  3630 
Parties : 
America.     3666 
Belgium.     2273 
England.      3491,    3621, 

2206,  3691 
France.     2079 
Germany.     2100,    2129, 

2151,  2230,  2257 
*  International,'  the.  3233, 
3293,  3366 
Socipus,  ¥.     619,  678,  689, 

692 
Socinus,  L.     409 
Socotra,  island  of.    2122 
Sol/erino,  battle  of.     1978 
Soliman.    93,  100,  152,  159 
Svmers.    901,  931,  935,  977, 

1668 
Somerset,    Protector.     202, 

217,  218,  226.  228,  231 
Sorel,  Albert.    3680 
Sophia  Dorothea  of  Hanover. 

904 
Sophia,    Electress.      1366, 

935,  1006 
Soult.     1545,    1552,    1570, 

1588,  1599 
South.     1126, 1268, 1366 
Southcote,  J.     2480 
Southey.     2204,  2322,  2403, 

2471,  2902 
South    Sea    BuhbU.     1034, 

1039 
Spallanzani.    1913, 1962 
Spanish  Ch.    1,  13,  99,  144, 
166,  284,  296,  369,  384, 
406,  423,  470,  788,  1209, 
1824, 1960,  (19th  Century) 
2401,    2483,   2621,   2876, 
3036,  3297,  3432,  3678 
Spanish   Lit.      2,    70,   122, 
172,  189,  196,  279,  286, 
361,  630,  632,  664,   611, 
661,  (17th  Century)  741, 
768,  866,  871,  904,  1070, 
1641,    1874,    2242,   2620, 
2863,  2976,  2993 
Spectator,  the.     1616 
Spee.    889,  1002, 1033 
Spelman.     849,  946 
Spence,    2044,2231 
Spencer,  Hebraist.    1S14 


Spencer,     Herbert.       3026, 

3044,   3096,   3179,    3197, 

3363,   3368,    3413,  3465, 

3628 
Spener.    1241,  1478 
Speranski.  1488,1544,1565, 

1646,  2696 
Spenser.    621,  627,  699, 603, 

666 
Spielhagen,    3169 
Spinobt.    464,  479,  568 
Spinoza.     1091,  1210,  1255, 

1266,  1267 
Spiritualism.     2069,    3322, 

3638,  3740 
Spohr.     2698 

Spurgeon.  3062,  3668,  3661 
St  Aldegonde.  294,  643,  649 
StCyran.  917,923,936,987 

St  Evremond.     1102,  1115 

St  Helena.    704 

St  Just.     1420,  1426 

St  Martin.     1834,  2036 

St    Pierre,    Bemardin    de. 

2123,  2167 
Stael,  Mmc  de.    2312,  2392, 

2432,  2631,  2636 
Stahl,  F.    2439,  2694 
Stahl,  (t.     1488,  16.54 
Stair.     1288,  892 
Stambulojr.       2201,      2211, 

2274,  2283 
Stanford.     3726 
Stanhope,    Ist  Earl.      978, 

988,  1006,  1029,  1039 
Stanley,  Dean.     2906,  3155, 

3343  3492 
Stanley,  H.  M.     3396,  3427, 

2145,  3681 
Stas.     2866 

Stead.    3601,3617,3675 
Steel,  Mrs.     3683,  3706 
Steele.     1602,  1616,  1641 
Stein.  1536, 1547, 1589, 2642 
Stendhal.     2647,  2703,  2885 
Stephanus,  Henrv.  432,  474, 

622,  649 
Stephanus,     Robert.       198, 

212,  301 
Stephen,  Sir  J.     3366,  3619 
Stephen,  Leslie.    3600,  3537 
Stephenson,  G.     2623,  2675 
Stephenson,  R.     2813 
Sterling.    2811, 3019 
Sterne.     1896,  1969,  1973 
Stevens,  Alfred.    3137 
Stevenson,  R.  L.   3609,  3692 
Stevinus.    570,  802 
Stewart,  Dugald.     2220 
Stillinfitteet,      1113,     1142, 

1190,  1290,  1346,  1361 


528 


INDEX. 


Stirlingy  Captain.     1715 
Stimer.    2910 
Stockmar.     1785 
Stdcker.     3428 
Stokes,  Sir  G.     3044 
Stolberg.    2309,  2376 
Stow.     644 
Stowe,  Mrs.    3040 
Stradivariu*.     1422 
Strauss,  D.  F.     2759,  2826, 

3345,  3385 
Strauss^    musician    (elder). 

2652 
Strauss,  musician  (younger). 

3273,  3378 
Strossmayer.     3313 
Struemee.     1276,  1286 
Strype.     1504 
Stuart,  Arabella.    460,  496 
Stubhs.     3380 
Suarez.    509,  698,  783,  784 
Suderntann.       3556,     3652, 

3722 
Suez  Canal.     2066 
Suffren.     1340,  1341 
Sullivan,  A.     3540,  3642 
Sully.     445,  463,  494,  965 
Sunderland,  Charles,   Earl. 

1029,  1039 
Sunderland,    Bobert,    Earl. 

824,  862,  869,  897,  901 
Surreii,  poet.     212,  217,  372 
Suvoioff.     1384,  1392,  1401, 

1427,  1469,  1470 
Sven  Hediti.     3715 
Swammerdam.     1202 
Sweden.     86,  127,  92,   113, 

116,   128,  205,   311,   346, 

416,  (17th  Century)  4(>5, 

499,   525,   563,  603,  670, 

676,  689.  716,  717.  1655— 

1660,  798,  803,  808,  820, 
834,  899,  1700—21,  1109, 
1167,  1285.  1384.  1391, 
1400, 1414,  (lyth  Century) 
1553,  1564,  1571,  15H2, 
1602,   1637,   1988,  2028 

Swedish    Lit.     1028,    1270, 

1661,  2124,  2434,  2621, 
2736,  2876,  3450 

Swedenborq.     1743,  2015 

Swift.  1463,  1465,  1502, 
986,  1507,  1515,  1529, 
1052,  1624,  1764 

Swinburne.     3223 

Switzerland.  23,  74.  76,  99, 
137,  141,  144,  168,  237, 
391,  404,  458,  6iK),  718, 
721,  780,  1.96,  1312,  1463, 
(19th  Century)  1504, 1593, 
1612,    1720,    1741,    1762, 


1778,   1819,    1889.    1874, 
1890,   1962,    1969,   2103, 
2242 
Swiss   Ch.     149,   157,   180, 
195,  204,  209,  228,  239, 
244,  257,  264,  273,  335, 
344,  360,  418,   430,  520, 
1243,  (19th  Centary)  2430, 
2793,  2826,  3293,  3359 
Sybel.     3065,  3150,  3627 
Sydenham.     1250,  1354 
Sydney,     Algernon.        772, 

1285,  841,  1424 
Syllabus,  the  (of  1864).  3222 
Symbolists,  the.    3091,  3496, 

3618 
Szechenyi.  1681, 1748, 1821, 
1876,  1898 


Taaffe.     2148 
Tahiti  IsUs.     1882,  2156 
Taine.     3121,  3395,  3661 
Tait.     2852,  3343,  3372 
Talleyrand.       1472,     2320, 

1599,  1606,  J?^;^^ 
Tammany.     1393,  2084 
Tanucei.     1091,  1309,  2110 
TarUtglia.    251,  297 
Tasso.     480,  631 
Taylor,  Henry.    2747 
Taylor,  Jeremy.     957,  996, 

1013,    1021,    1041,    1063, 

1126,  1189 
Tegner.     2621 
Telesio.     427 

Temple,  Archbishop.     3155 
TempU,  Sir  William.     776, 

778.  824,  1374,  1434 
Teniers.     981 
Tennyson.   2720,  2878,  3005, 

3132,  3661 
Ternj,  Ellen.     3435 
Tern'teegen.     1650 
Tetzel.     120 
Teutonic  Knights.     119 
Thackeray.        2858,     2972, 

3039,  3090,  3218 
Theosophy.     3394 
There.'ia,  St.     405,  552 
Thiers.     2600,    1673,   2688, 

1717,    1775,    1811,    2925, 

2967,    1882,    1905,    1915, 

2011,  2079,  2086,  2092 
Thirlwall.     2616,  2772 
Thomasius.        1342,      1372, 

1411,  1476,  1486 
Thomson,  J.     1624 
Thomson,  J.  J.     3757 


Thomson,   William.     fSSI 

2977,    3024,   3044,  SIM 

3255 
Thoreau.    28U 
Thomdike.  1030,1105,111 
Thorwaldsen.     2279, 24S1 
Thring,     3063 
Thugut.     1421 
Thurlow.     2162, 2212 
Tichbome  case.    8354 
Ticknor.     2993 
Tieck.    2278,  2344 
Tiepolo.    1914 
Tilden.     2120 
TilUttumt.     1360, 1427 
TiUoUon.     1156,  1346 
Tilly.     540.  650,  667,  57!, 

587,  592,  597.  601 
Tilsit,  treaty  of.    1557 
*  Times: the.  2166,2487,^11 
Tindal.     1642 
Tintoretto.     392,  627 
Tirabosrhi.     2107 
Tischendorf.     2997, 31S2 
Titian.   66,  72,  77,131,13^, 

506 
Titiens.     3137 
Tobacco.    378,  579 
Todleben.     1945 
Tdkdli.     810,  838,  835. 8». 

866,  884.  890 
Toland.     1401,  1424,  1461 

1566 
Tolstoi.     3160,   3421,  3535. 

3574,  3599,  3620 
Tone,    Wolfe.      1405,   IMl 

1459 
Tooke,  Home.     1424. 14W 
Toplady.     1999 
Torieg,  origin  of.     829 
Torquemtida.     i,  33 
Torricelli.     980,  1020 
Tortftenson.     657,  665,  67J 
Tourne/ort.     1391 
Tonssaint.    U2[i,  I4S9. 14f? 
Towns hend,  C.     1255 
Townshend,  Viscount.  WK 

1039.  1073,  1648 
Trafalgar,  battle  of,    1521 
TreitMchke.  3352,3445,34^ 
Trendelenburg.     2^4^^ 
Trent,  Council  of.   291,  S», 

302,   3(f9,    328.   3^  !«. 

411,  415,  431,  446,  4iS 
Trevelyan,  Sir  G.  aih<6.fllll 
Tricoupis.     2172,  2284 
Tromp.     639.  705,  712 
Tschaikowska.     3669. 3^7^ 
Tucker,     1945 
Turenne.     See    France  td 

Germany.     1638—79 


INDEX. 


529 


TwgenUf.    3043.  3522 
Twrgot.     1804,  1810,  1217, 

1956y    1297,    1302,    1306, 

2102 


Botnia  and  Henegovina, 
11128,  2112,  2131,  2133, 
2170 

Bulgaria.  2119,  2131, 
2162,  2177.  2192,  2201, 
2211,  2212,  2274,  2283 

CreU,  783,  2040.  2294. 
2303.  2313 

Cypnu.    312.  326.  2131 

Danubian  PrineipalitUs 
(Roamania).  216,  329. 
423,  447.  451.  1019, 
1271.  1554,  1583,  1663, 
1689,  1713,  1899.  1935, 
1945,  1956.  1971.  2041. 
2126,  2131 

Greece.  179,  848.  856. 
928.  1017.  1027.  1298. 
1385.  1466.  2345,  lf>44, 
1821—82.  1841.  1936. 
1944.  2006,  2014.  2040. 
2111,  213?,  2161,  2172, 
2261.  2284,  2303,  2313 

Ionian  I«bind«.  1454. 
1537.  1615.  2014 

Montenegro.  78.913,1594, 
1919.  1928.  1970,  2119, 
2126,  2131.  2153 

Servia.      100,  871,  884, 
1023.  1027,  1532,  1584,  . 
1630.  1723.  1830,  1956,  ; 
1981.  2119,  2131.  2192,  I 
2224  ! 

Turtier.     2394,  2561,  2833 
Tycho  Urahe.  287,  493,  670, 

862  ; 

Tyndale.     168,  186,  262 
Tyrconneh     875 
TyroiM,  O'Xeill.  Earl  of. 

425,  444,  461 


Vdall,  Nicholag.     324 
Uhland.     2472 
University  ExteDsion.    3274 
Urban    VIII.,   Pope.      557, 

821,  573,  853,  909,  651 
Ursitu,  Prinoesse  des.     933, 

1009 
Utsher.     766,  945,  957,  966, 

1045,  1098,  1105 
Vtraquitts.     417 
Utrecht,  Treaty  of.    998         I 

G. 


Vaehtrot.    3138 
Vaidtt,  Joan.    189,  217 
VaUra.     2975 
Vanbrmgk,     1475 
VanBuren.  1704.1782.1814 
Vaneourer.     2198 
Van  Dyck.    893,  965 
Vane.     929,  661,  705,   716, 

723,  740 
Van  EMpen.     1438, 1604 
Van  Helmont.     832 
Vanini.     771,  792 
Van't  Hof.     3423,  3438 
Vatco  da  Gama.     29,  34 
Vatke.    2759,  2667 
Vauban.      1202,    800,    894. 

1490,  1491 
Vaughin.     903,  1008 
Vaurenargues.     1768,  1781 
Velatqwz.     825,  1129 
Venn  of  Clapham.     2387 
Venn.  H.     1918 
Verdi.     3025,  3469 
Vergenne*.     1297.  1310 
Verlaine.     3538 
Veronese.     407. 592 
VeMiiliui.     2f>0,  421 
Venpucci.     32,  27,  65 
Veuiilot.     2874,  2967,  3222 
Vianey.     2532 
Vico.       1510,    1588,    1595, 

1620,  1646,  1754 
Victor    Emanuel    II.      See 

Italy.     184k9— 78 
Victoria.     78,  171,  842 
Victoria,  Queen.    See  1837 — 

99 
Vteta.     604,  682 
Villari.    3141 
Villarg.    948,  983,  992,  995, 

Km 

Viime.     1620,  1656 
VHUmain.     2000 
Villeroi.     907,  964 
Villier^,  C.  P.     1793,  1922 
Vincent  de  Paul.     787,  830, 

1129 
Vinet.     2793,  2965 
VioUet-UDuc.     2923 
Virchow.     2845,  1995 
Vischer.     2957 
Vives.     175.  206,  271 
Voetius.     789,  931,  1024 
Voiture.     839 
Volney.     2202 
Volta.     2182,  2656 
Voltaire.     1605,  1624,  1659, 

1673,    1702,   1744,    1801, 


1810,    1820,   1836,  1873, 

1909,   1928,   1938,   2064, 

2069 
Vondel.     748,  840,  1078 
Vou.    2097 
Vossius,  Gerard.    619,  834, 

1040 
Vouius,  Isaae.    619 
Voytey.     3311 


Waghom.     1695 
IVagner,  A.     3341 
Wagner,    R.       3009,    3025, 

3241,  3288,  3320,  3522 
Waifram,  battle  of.  1551 
Wahabit,  the.     1714,  2161, 

1672 
Waitz.     2912,  3567 
IVake.     1445,  1555,  1561 
IVakefield,    Gibbon.     1715, 

1791 
Waldeck'Rousseau.     2319 
n'aldense4.    150,   208,  294, 

719.  1315 
Wale*,  niiited  with  England. 

164.  197 
ITtf/Jk^r.  Frel.     3350 
Wall.     1183 

Wallace,  A.  R.     3136,  3491 
Wallenittein.    See  Germany. 

1688—84 
WalUr,  General.     661.  667, 

673 
Waller,  poet.     999,  1093 
Wallit.     1000,   1021.   1079, 

1095,  1109,  1125,  1355 
Walpole,HoTtice.  1865,1898, 

1931.  2283 
IFalpole,  Sir  R.     977,  1006, 

1018,   and   see    England. 

1781—42 
Walsingham.    560,  389,  602 
Walton,  B.     1105 
Walton,  1.     950,  106S,  1305 
Warbeck.     I,  4,  12.  15,  17, 

20,  21 
Warburton.  1685,1699,1908 
Ward,  J.     3561,  3759 
Ward,  Mrs  H.     3587 
Ward,  W.  G.     2809,  2903, 

2917,  3127 
Warton,  J.     2028 
Washington.      1184,     1190, 

and  see  America, 1774 — 96. 

2307 
Woterland.       1572,     1589, 

1665 
Waterloo,  battle  of.     1606 
Watson,  Bishop.    2266 

34 


530 

Watson,  JoehuA.   2453,2618 

WatBon,  W.    3706 

Watt,     1944,  1979,  8136 

WatUau,    1562, 1597 

WattM,  G.  F.    2897,  2978 

WatU,  Dr.    1485 

Wattt-Dunton,    3737 

Webb,  S.    3690,  3729 

Weber,  musician.    2551 

Web»ter,DeLnieL  1704,1724, 
1831,  3051 

Webster,  dramatist.     822 

Webster,  Noah.     2336,  2664 

Wedderburn.     1278 

Wedgwood,    1978 

Weierstrats,    3512 

WeigeL    469 

Weuhaupt.    2046 

Weitmann,    3604 

Weindcker.    3563 

Wellhausen.    3441 

Wellington,  1509,  and  see 
1808—16, 1661, 1694, 1697, 
1706,  1716. 1736,  3051 

Wentworth,  581,  585,  608, 
616,  637,  642,  648 

Werner,     2043 

WesUy,  ChMles,  1748,1782, 
1892 

Wesley,  J.  1636,1680,1699, 
1706,  1712,  1723,  1748, 
1782,  1792,  1807,  1838, 
1851,  1892,  1908,  1986, 
1999,  2120,  2152,  2211 

Westbury.     3372 

Westcott.     3478 

West  Indies.  3,  8,  60,  471, 
491,  659.  569.  580,  595, 
605,  614,  621,  646,  719. 
761,  762,  775,  788,  793, 
919,  (18th  Century)  945. 
1122,  1221,  1224,  1228, 
1230,  1232,  1319,  1336. 
1345,  1410,  1429,  1434, 
1449, 1457,  (19th  Century) 
1489,  1497,  1507,  1525, 
1666,  1617,  1659,  1849. 
1921.  2000,  2030,  2300, 
2315 

Westminster  ARsembly.  975, 
988,  996,  1014, 1021, 1022 

Westphalia,  Peace  of.     687 

Weyler,     2300 

WhaUly.     2616 

Wheatoii.     2788 

Whichcote.     988 

Whigs,  origin  of.     829 


INDEX. 

Whistler,    3212 
Whiston,    1513 
White,  GUbert.    2179 
WhiUlocke.     716 
Whitfield,   1700,1706,1723, 

1742, 1792, 1807, 1998 
Whitgift,     453,    467,    553, 

560,  567,  574,  628,  683, 

689 
Whitman,     3092,  3661 
Whittier,    3192,  3270,  3661 
Wieland,    1952,  2009,  2083 
Wiertz.    2833 
Wilberforee,  S.    2917,  3001, 

3032,  3155,  3170,  3343 
Wilberforee,  W,   2173,2275, 

2296,  2398,  2742,  2743 
Wildman,    841 
FFt/Ztf  Emilia  of  Prussia.  1075 
Wilkes,     1229.  1236.  1260, 

1267,  1273.  1278.  1296, 

1H06,  1342,  2283 
William    the    Silent.      See 

Netherlands.    1660—84 
William    of    Orange.      See 

1672—1702 
William  IV.,   of   England 

See  England.    1830—7 
William   1,,   German    Em 

peror.       See      Germany 

1861-~88 
William  II,,  German   Em 

peror.       See      Germany 

1888—99 
Williams,  Bishop.    544,  626 
Williams,  Dr.     1555 
Williams,  Isaac.     2873 
Williams,  Roger.     924,  929, 

666,  990, 1305 
Wilion,  Bishop.   1409, 1850, 

2140 
Wimpheling.     30,  58,  82 
Winckelmann.     1843,  1933 
Windham.     1424 
Windthorst.     3329,  3647 
Winstanley.     1061 
Winthrop.     594,  878,  929 
Wiseman.     2757,  2823,  3248 
Wishart.     213 
Witchcraft.     420,  688,  889, 

907,    1162,    1181,    1228, 

1348,    1372,    1379,    1527, 

1690 
Wither.     753 
IVitte.     2251 
Wdhler.     2661 
Wolf,     2260 


Wolfe.     1210 

Wolff.     1526,    1594,   im, 

1686,  1720,  1726,  1S37 
WoUeley.     2076,  2174,  2188 
Wolsey,        See      EnglAoi 

1616—30 
WoUtoneeraft,  Mary.    2m 
Wood,  Anitkonj,    1204,1X6 
Wordsworth,       Bishop     of 

Lincoln.    3311 
Wordsworth,  W.  2204, 2iSi 

2285,   2311,    2391,  2487, 

3017 
Worms,  Diet  of.    143 
Wren.      1125,    1181,  12U. 

1609 
WulUnweber.     153, 160 
Wundt,    3379,  3440 
Wyatt,  poet.     372 
Wyatt,  rebel.    241 
Wyeherley,     1152 


Xavier,    227,  277,  342 
Ximenes,      13,   29.   71,  55, 
78,  99,  125 


Yakub  Beg.     9043 

YaU.     1442 

Yeats,  W.  B.    3666,  369S 

Yorek.     1583.  1589 

York,  Duke  of,  son  of  Georfte 

UI.     1420,  1426,  1468 
Young,  Arthur.     2234 
Young,  Brigham.     2960 
Young,  Edward.     1734 
Young,  Thomas.    2325,  2491 


Zahn.     3592 

Zangwill.     3650 

Zasius.     108 

Zeuss.     2807,  3062 

Zinzendorf.     1599,  1900 

Zittel.     3349 

Zola.      3331,     3449,    3463. 

3651,  3684,  2308 
Zollverein,  the.    1636,  1680. 

1709,  1751 
Zurita.  532 
Zwingli,    99.  149,  157,  166. 

180,  195,  200,  144 


camuridgb:   printed  by  j.  and  c.  f.  clat,  at  thb  unitbbbity   pbbrs. 


BY  THE  SAME  ArTHOR 


y,Tigiigh  DemocnUic  Ideas  in  the  17th  Centniy. 


as  to  the  tljor:«BcLxMM.  c<f  nxidsT;  L2a^»  noL  reaieifcr: ;_  *      A  z**'-*-  y*  hik. 


Rtritje. 


bat  ve  meet  them  ixi  i«ev  TfLhXa'.CA  v    i^e^a.  l^  T«c>ei.t^   kni  er^cLg^'        ~ 


**  AdmiimblT  lolid.  j'jdkx^juik  veZ  tiklAz>jed  hiA  ir<ec:?«-.*      7'^<  St'f^iirr. 

''A  TiloftUe  addit^oci  v.»  £sjcil>£i  i.i«?»:r>c;al  wr.iiLir.'  J^nt^rr^jh  HUU/rical 
Beview.) 

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lonbtn:    C.  J.  CLAY  and  SONS. 

CAMBBIDGE   USIVEKSITT  PKESS   WABEHOUSh. 

AVE    MABIA  LANE. 


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