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THE CO-OPERATIVE
WHOLESALE SOCIETIES LIMITED.
ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND.
Annual for i894.
PUBLISHED BY
THE CO-OPERATIVE WHOLESALE SOCIETY LIMITED,
1, BALLOON STREET, M.\NCHESTER ;
AND
THE SCOTTISH CO-OPERATIVE WHOLESALE SOCIETY LIMITED,
119, PAISLEY ROAD, GLASGOW.
MANCHESTER :
PRINTED AND BOUND BY
THE CO-OPERATIVE PRINTING SOCIETY,
AT THEIR WORKS,
NEW MOUNT STREET, ANGEL STREET.
PREFACE.
TN introducing this, the twelfth, volume of the " Annual"
to our readers, we would say that our endeavour has been
to select subjects of interest and utility to our members.
Co-operators, we think, should take an active part in the
advocacy and propagation of measures having for their aim the
welfare and advancement of the people.
We can conceive of no means better calculated to equip them
for this work than to put before them in the Articles, Statistics,
&c., as herein presented, accurate and reliable information.
We trust these objects will commend themselves and secure
a careful and thorough perusal of the contents.
THE COMMITTEE.
Decembeb 20, 1893.
VII.
LIST
OF
MAPS, DIAGEAMS, CITY
PLANS, PEEMISES, &c.
-K £^
CO-OPERATIVE WHOLESALE SOCIETY.
Map of the World.
Limerick Branch.
Diagram — Thirty Years' Progress of
Kilmallock ,,
Co-operation.
Tralee
,, Twenty-nine Years' Pro-
Waterford ,,
gress of the Co-operative
Armagh ,,
Wholesale Society.
Copenhagen , .
Balloon Street, Manchester — Registered
Hamburg
Offices and Boot and Shoe Warehouse.
Aarhus Branch Office.
Garden Street, Manchester — Grocery
,, ,, Butter Cellar.
Warehouse.
Crumpsall Biscuit Works.
Dantzic Street, Manchester — Drapery
Leicester Boot and Shoe Works Knigh-
Warehouse.
ton Fields.
City Plan of Manchester.
Leicester Boot and Shoe Works, Duns
Newcastle Branch Grocery, &c.. Ware-
Lane.
house.
City Plan of Leicester.
Newcastle Drapery, Furnishing, and
Heckmondwike Boot and Shoe Works.
Provision Warehouse.
Durham Soap Works.
City Plan of Newcastle.
Batley Woollen Cloth Works.
London Branch General Office, &c.
Dunston Corn Mill.
„ Tea Department Premises.
Longton Crockery Depot.
,, Cocoa and Chocolate Works.
Furniture Factory, Broughton, near
Map of London.
Manchester.
Leeds Depot.
Goole Offices.
City Plan of Leeds.
Goole Warehouse.
Bristol Depot.
Garston and Rouen Offices.
City Plan of Bristol.
S.S. "Liberty."
Liverpool Office and Warehouse.
S.S. "Equity."
Liverpool Branch do.. Green Fruit
S.S. " Federation."
Warehouse.
S.S. "Pioneer."
New York Produce Exchange.
S.S. "Unity."
Cork Branch,
S.S. " Progress."
SCOTTISH CO-OPERATIVE
WHOLESALE SOCIETY.
Following Page 120 :
Dundas Street Premises, Glasgow.
Directors : Scottish Co-operative Whole-
ClarenceStreet Interior of Hall,Glasgow.
sale Society Limited.
Links Place Premises, Leith.
Twenty-five Years' Wholesale Distri-
Enniskillen Premises.
bution in Scotland.
Chancelot Roller Flour Mills, Edinbro'.
Paisley Road Premises, Glasgow.
New Central Offices, Morrison Street,
Productive Works, Shieldhall, Govan,
Glasgow.
near Glasgow.
Trades Lane Premises, Dundee.
Clarence Street Premises, Glasgow.
Kilmarnock Premises, Grange Place.
I
VIII.
LIST OF CONTENTS.
^
PAGES.
Co-operative Wholesale Society Limited 1 to 106
General Advertisements 106 ,, 117
Scottish Co-operative Wholesale Society Limited 118 ,, 170
American Immigration Laws. — By Edward Porritt 171 ,, 197
A Century of Industrial and Social Legislation. — By George
Howell, M.P., F.S.S 198 „ 230
The History and Effects of the Privileged Classes in Civilised
Communities.— By Henry Dunckley, M.A., LL.D 231 „ 261
The History of the Poor Law.— By Graham Wallas 262 „ 285
Education in Citizenship. — By Henry Dyer, C.E., M.A.,
D.SC 286 „ 313
Some Aspects of Industrial Mortality. — By Vaughan Nash.. 814 „ 348
Furniture Woods, with suggestions for the introduction of
new kinds. — By John R. Jackson, A.L.S. ^Illustrated
by John Allen. See plates following page 852] 349 ,. 379
The University and the People ; and the University of the
Future.— By Professor S. S. Laurie 380 „ 396
Soil — and what it will grow. — By James Long 397 ,, 438
Technical Education at Home and Abroad. — By J. Hirst
HoUowell. (See plates following page 448) 439 „ 498
Miscellaneous 499 ,, 671
IX.
ALPHABETICAL INDEX.
English
Acts of Parliament Passed during the Session of 1893
Acts of Parliament restraining exportation of Tools, &c.
used in Cotton, Linen, Woollen, and Silk Manu-
facture
Accidents, Railway. Proportion of Passengers Killed
from Causes beyond their own Control
Addresses, Telegraphic, List of 44
Administrations in Present Century
Advantages of Membership of Wholesale Societies 8
American Immigration Laws. — Edward Porritt
Annual Value of Property and Income Assessed, 1875-1892
Army Colonels — Return of Officers holding the rank of
Honorary Colonel in the Army who are in receipt of
the Pay attached to that Rank
Average Minimum Rate per Cent of Discount Charged
by Bank of England
Average Price of Consolidated Stock
Average Retail Price of Articles of Domestic Con-
sumption
Bank Holidays
Bank Department, Wholesale Society 13
,, Union Bank of Scotland, List of Branches
Barometer Instructions
Batley Woollen Mill 35, 50, 87, 101
Births, Marriages, and Deaths, Registers of
Biscuits and Sweets Works (Wholesale Society) . . 27, 50, 76, 96
Boot and Shoe Department 50, 57, 91, 103
Boot and Shoe Factory
Brush Factory
Cabinet, The
Cabinet Workshop
Calais and Goole Line of Steamers 39
Calendar for ascertaining any Day of the Week for any
given time within the Present Century
Calendar for 1894
Cash Arrangements 12
Census, Indian The
Century, Administrations in the Present
Century of Industrial and Social Legislation, A. — George
Howell, MP., F.S.S
Chronology of the Wholesale Society 42
Citizenship, Education in. — Henry Dyer, C.E., M.A.,
D.SC
Civil List Pensions
Civil Service Supply Stores, Sales of
Coming Events in connection with the Wholesale Society
in 1894 41
Scottish. General.
.. 515
.. 609
600
592
128
129
140
150
154
152
125
171
612
538
547
546
634
608
613
608
559
636
659
596
592
198
286
639
514
X.
ALPHABETICAL INDEX.
English
Committees, &c., List of 3
Committees, Past Members of 45
Com^mittee, Members of, who have Died during Office . . 47
Confectionery Works
Congresses, Co-operative
Consolidated Stock, Average Price of
Contributions which have appeared in "The Co-operative
Wholesale Societies' Annual " from 1885 to 1894 . .
Co-operative Congresses
Progress, 1862 to 1891 (United Kingdom) . .
„ Societies and the Scottish Wholesale
,, Societies, each with Trade over £200,000
per year
„ Societies, each with Trade over £100,000
per year
,, Productive Societies for which the Whole-
sale Society are Agents 36
,, News, The
,, Insurance Company
, , Productive Society (Lancashire & Yorkshire)
,, Union: Its Principles and Constitution ... .
Co-OPEBATivE Wholesale Societies :
Offices and Departments 1
List of Committees, Auditors, and Scrutineers. ... 3
„ Officers and Departments 4
Number of Employes in Departments 6
Trade Terms, Conditions of Membership, &c 7
Advantages of Membership 8
Business Notices 9
Bank Department 13
Grocery Department . 14
Tea, Coffee, and Cocoa Department 17
Biscuits.Sweets, &c., Works, Crumpsall 27, 50, 76, 96
Drapery Department 22, 50, 54, 90, 103
Woollen Cloth Department 24, 50,56,91, 103
Tailoring Factory
Shirt Factory
Boot and Shoe Department 57,91, 103
„ ,, Factory
Furniture Department
Furnishing „ 25,50,59,92,103
Cabinet Workshop
Printing Workshop
Preserve Works
Brush Factory
Crockery Department, Longton 26, 50, 89, 100
Mantle Factory
Newcastle Branch 50, 61-67, 92-94, 104
London „ 50, 68-72, 94-96, 105
Shoe Works, Leicester 29, 50, 78-81, 97
„ Heckmondwike 33,50,73-75,98
Slop Factory
Scottish. Oeneral,
123
157
, 161-170
121
123
124
160
127
128
125
138
144
146
140
150
142
152
155
156
154
149
148
XI.
CO-OPEKATIVE \YHOLESAIiE SOCIETIES: — EnRlish.
Soap Works, Durham 34, 50, 82-85, 99 .
Tobacco Factory
WooUeu Mills, Batley 35,50,87,101 .
Leeds Ready Mades 50, 88, 101 .
Productive Societies for which the Wholesale
Society are Agents 36 .
Chronologj' 42 .
Progress of the Wholesale Societies 48 .
Shipping Department - Garston and Rouen .... 38, 50 .
,, ,, Goole and Calais 39, 50 .
,, ,, Goole and Hamburg. . . .40, 50 .
Dunston Corn Mill 86 .
Coming Events in connection with the Wholesale
Society in 1894 41 .
Telegraphic Addresses 44 .
Telephone Numbers 44 .
Committees, Past Members of 45 .
Committee, Members of, who have Died during
Office 47 .
Corn Mill, Dunston 86 .
Crockery Department 26,50,89,100 .
Cnmipsall Biscuit Works 27, -50, 76, 96 .
Dealings with Land
Death Duties, The
Departments and Offices of the Wholesale Society .... 1 .
,, Officers of ,, „ 4 .
„ No. of Employes in each ,, 6 .
„ of the Wholesale - Progress of 48 .
„ Shipping 38,50 .
Discount, Average Minimum Rate per Cent of
Drapery Department 22,50,54,90, 103 .
Dunston Corn Mill 86 .
Durham Soap Works 34,50,82-85,99 .
Dunckley, Henry, M.A., LL.D.— The History and Effects
of the Privileged Classes in Civilised Communities. .
Duties, Import, in the United Kingdom
„ Stamp, Taxes, Excise
Dyer, Henry, C.E., M.A., D.Sc. — Education in Citizen-
ship
Eclipses
Education in Citizenship.— Henry Dyer, C.E., M.A.,
D.SC
Employes, Number of 6 .
English Mile compared with other European Measures. .
English Money, Table Showing Sums Payable in — on
Money Orders Issued in Foreign Countries, &c
Expectation of Life
r OREIGN Currencies, Table Showing Sums Payable in —
on Money Orders in the United Kingdom
Foreign Moneys and their English Equivalents
Furnishing Department of Wholesale Society.25, 50, 59, 92, 103
Scottish. Oeneral.
158
130-158
121
124
160
130-158
138
160
548
550
547
231
543
601
286
608
286
657
611
556
610
594
XII.
ALPHABETICAL INDEX.
English
Furniture Department of Wholesale Society
Furniture Woods, with suggestions for introduction of
New Kinds.— John R. Jackson, A.L.S
GaRSTON and Rouen Line of Steamers 38, 50
General Election, 1892, Expenses of
Gladstone Ministry, The
Goole and Calais Line of Steamers 39, 50
„ and Hamburg „ ,, 40, 50
„ Tide Table
Grocery Departments, Wholesale Society . . 14, 50, 52, 90, 102
Hamburg and Goole Line of Steamers 40, 50
Heckmondwike Shoe Works 33, 50, 73-75, 98
History and Effects of the Privileged Classes in Civilised
Communities, The. — Henry Dunckley, M.A., LL.D.
History of the Poor Law, The. — Graham Wallas
Holidays, Bank
HoUowell, J. Hirst.— Technical Education at Home and
Abroad
House Duty
House of Commons — List of Members
House of Commons — Return of Members who are in
receipt of Public Money frorn the National Exchequer
House of Lords — Salary, Pay, Pension, or Allowance . .
Howell, George, M.P., F.S.S.— A Century of Industrial
and Social Legislation
I:MMIGRATI0N Laws, American.— Edward Porritt
Import Duties in the United Kingdom
Income Tax Rates from its First Imposition
„ and Expenditure of the United Kingdom, year
ending March 31st, 1893
Indian Census, The
Industrial and Social Legislation, A Century of. — George
Howell, M.P., F.S.S
Industrial Mortality, Some Aspects of. Vaughan Nash.
Inland Book Post
,, Parcel Post, posting of parcels
,, Pattern and Sample Post
,, Registered Newspapers, Postage on
,, Parcels Compensation for Loss and Damage of
Instructions, Barometer
Insurance Company, Co-operative
Intestates' Personal Estates, Rules for Distribution of .
Intestates' Estates Act, 1890, The
Introductory v
Jackson, John R. — Furniture Woods, with suggestions
for the introduction of new kinds
Lancashire and Yorkshire Productive Society
Land, Dealings with
Laurie, Professor S. S. — The University and the People ;
and the University of the Future
Scottish. General.
142
349
132-137
119
590
559
626
231
262
608
489
603
561
530
518
198
171
543
546
542
596
198
314
604
606
607
605
607
613
110
558
552
349
114
548
880
XIII.
ALPHABETICAL INDEX.
English. Scottish. General.
Law Costs on the Sale, Purchase, or Mortgage of Real
Property, Houses, or Land, Scale of . . . . 548
Law Relating to Societies, Summary of the . . . . 107
Law Sittings . . . . 608
Laws, American Immigration. — Edward Porritt .. .. 171
Leeds Ready IMades 50. 88, 101 . .
Leicester Co-operative Shoe Works 29-32, 50, 78-81, 97 . .
Life, Expectation of . . . . 556
Limitation of Weight, Parcels . . . . 606
Size „ .. .. 606
List of Administrations in the Present Century . . . . 592
List of Members of the House of Commons . . . . 561
Liverpool Tide Table . . . . 628
London Branch 50,68, 72,94-96, 105 . .
Long, James. Soil and what it will grow . . . . 397
Longton Crockery Department 26, 50, 89, 100 . .
Lords, House of — Salary, Pay, Pension, or Allowance . . . . . . 518
Mantle Factory 149 . .
Members of Committee who have Died during time of
Office 47 . .
Membership of Wholesale Society, Advantages of 8 . . 128 . .
Meteorological Table . . . . 616
Mile, The English, compared with other European
Measures . . . . 657
Ministry, The Gladstone , . . . . 559
Money Orders for the United Kingdom . . . . 605
Moneys, Foreign, and their English Equivalents . . . . 594
Monthly IMeteorological Tables . . . . 617
IN ASH,Vaughan. — Some Aspects of Industrial Mortality .. .. 314
Newcastle Branch 50,61-67,92-94, 105 . .
Newspaper Society . . . . 109
Notices, Wholesale Society's Business 9 . . 125 . .
Officers of the Co-operative Wholesale 4.. 124..
I ARLIAMENT, Acts of — restraining exportation of
Tools, &c., used in Cotton, Linen, Woollen, and Silk
Manufacture • . . . 609
Parliaments of the United Kingdom . . . . 692
Past Members of Committees 45-46 . . . .
Patent for Inventions (Letters) . . . . 602
Pensions, Civil List . . . . 639
Poor Law, The History of the.— Graham Wallas . . . . 262
Porritt, Edward. American Immigration Laws . . . . 171
Postage on Inland Registered Newspapers . . . . 605
Postcards .. 605
Postal Regulations . . . . 604
„ Orders . . 606
Postage, Rates of . . . . 604
Post-office Savings Banks . . . . 607
Preface v. . . 119 . .
Preserve Works . . 156 . .
XIV,
ALPHABETIOAL INDEX.
EnRllsh
Presidents of the United States of America
Price of Three per cent Consolidated Stock
Prime Ministers since 1834
Principal Articles of the Calendar for the Year 1894 ....
,, Events in connection with the Wholesale
Society 42
Principles and Constitution of the Co-operative Union. .
Printing Workshop
Productive Society, Lancashire and Yorkshire
,, Societies for which the Wholesale Society are
Agents 36
Progress of the Wholesale Societies 48
Yearly 90-101
Progress of Co-operation (United Kingdom)
Property Account 50
,, and Income — Total Annual Assessed Value. ...
Public Acts of Parliament Passed during the Session of
1893
Public Income and Expenditure of the United Kingdom
for the Year ending March 31st, 1893
Queen and Royal Family, The
RAILWAY Accidents, Proportion of Passengers Killed,
Scottish. Oeneral
593
546
560
658
155
130, 158
130
&c.
Ready Reckoner and Wages Table
Ready Mades, Leeds 50, 88, 101
Registration
Registers of Births, Marriages, and Deaths
Remarks on the Weather
Rouen and Garston Line of Steamers 38, 50
Rough Seas, Use of Oil on
Royal Family, The Queen and
Rules by which the Personal Estates of Persons Dying
Intestate are Distributed
Rules of Division according to the Law of Scotland of
the Movable Estate of a Person who has Died
Intestate
OALES of Civil Service Supply Stores
Savings Banks, Notices, &c
Scottish Wholesale Society
Shirt Factory
Shoe Works, Leicester (Co-operative) 29,-50, 78-81, 97
Heckmondwike 33, 50, 73-75, 98
Slop Factory
Soap Works, Durham 34,50,82-85, 99
Societies — Co-operative, and the Wholesale
Societies — Co-operative, each with Trade over £200,000
per year
Societies Co-operative, each with Trade over £100,000
per year
Societies — Co-operative Productive, for which the
" Wholesale " are Agents 36
106
114
499
612
515
542
558
600
638
607
608
620
632
558
554
555
118.170 '.
146 .
514
607
148 '.
161-170 ,'
509
609
XV.
ALPHABETICAL INDEX.
English.
Soil — and what it will grow. - James Long
Stamp, &c., Duties
Statistics of Co-operative Wholesale Society 48-105 .
Steamship Lines (Co-operative) — Garston and Rouen. ..38,50 .
,, ,, ,, Goole and Calais ....39,50 .
,, ,, ,, Goole and Hamburg .. 40, 50 .
Summary of Law Relating to Societies
Sweets Works, Crumpsall 27, 50, 76, 96 .
1 ABLE Showing Sums Payable in Foreign Currencies
on Money Orders Issued in United Kingdom
Table Showing Sums Payable in English Money on Money
Orders Issued in Foreign Countries, &c
Table Showing the Number of Days between any Two Dates
Table Showing Number of Days from any Day of one
Month to same Day of any other Month
Tailoring Factory
Tea and Coffee Department of Wholesale Society 17, 50 .
Technical Education at Home and Abroad. — J. Hirst
Hollowell
Telegraphic Addresses 44 .
Telephone Numbers 44 .
Telegrams
Terms and Abbreviations Commonly Used in Business . .
Terms and Conditions of Membership of Wholesale Society 7 .
"The Co-operative Wholesale Societies' Annual," Contri-
butions to, from 1885 to 1894
The Intestates' Estates Act, 1890
Tide Table, Liverpool
,, Goole
Time all over the World
Tobacco Factory
Transfers
Union Bank of Scotland, List of Branches
,, Co-operative, its Principles and an Account of . .
United Kingdom.the Public Income and Expenditure, 1893
„ Co-operative Progress in the years 1862-91
,, Import Duties in the
,, Money Orders for the
,, Parliaments of the
States, Presidents of
University and the People; and the University of the
Future, The. — Professor S. S. Laurie
Use of Oil on Rough Seas
Wages Table and Ready Reckoner
Wallas, Graham. — The History of the Poor Law
Weather, Remarks on the
Weather Forecasts
Weights and Measures
Wholesale Society 1-105
Woollen Cloth Department 24,50,56,91,103
Mill, Batley 35,50,87,101
Scottish, Oeueral
397
6oa
,132-170
107
144
127
158
129
.118-170
610
611
630
633
439
605
635
641
552
628
626
612
602
106
542
499
543
605
592
593
380
632
638
262
620
623
637
THE
C0-0p£ratiii£ BElj0kaak ^ndetg
LIMITED.
miilnliiliiliiliililliiliiliiliiliil^^-a
PLATES. ADVERTISEMENTS, STATISTICS, &c.,
PAGES 1 TO 117.
OF
Qo^oporati-vQ 2^oioti93 in tli9 XZ^^'^^^ J^ngcZom.
SAIiBB.
Yeabs. £
1862 2,333,523
1863 2,673,778
1864 2,836.606
1865 8,373,847
1866 4,462,676
1867 6,001,153
1868 7,122,360
1869 7,353,363
1870 8,201,685
1871 9,463,771
1872 13,012,120
1873 15,639,714
1874 16,374,063
1875 18,499,901
1876 19,921,054
Total Sales in. the Thibty
1862 TO 1891.
Total Peofits in the Thebty
1862 TO 1891.
Ykabs.
1877
1878
1879
1880
1881
1882
1883
1884
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
Yeabs, ]
Yeabs, )
SAIiBB.
£
21,390,447
21,402,219
20,382,772
23,248,314
24,945,063
27,541,212
29,336,028
30,424,101
31,305,910
32,730,745
34,483,771
87,793,903
40,674,673
43,731,669
49,024,171
£605,684,603.
52,403,650.
■MMMM«W— — — i— 1— lllllllllllllllll I ^>-«
STATISTICAL POSITION OF CO-OPEEATIVE SOCIETIES
IN THE UNITED KINGDOM,
Dbcembbb SlST, 1891.
Compiled from the Beturns mfde by Societies to the Registrar and
Co-operative Union.
Number of Members 1,207,511 £
Share Capital
Loan Capital
Sales for 1891
Net Profits for 1891
Devoted to Education, 1891
13,847,705
3,393,394
49,024,171
4,718,532
30,087
Thirty Tears' f rogress of Go-operative Societies in the United Kingdom.
MiLLiors
50
40
^
30
I I I I I I I I IB
s
*
I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 BB
llillllllllllfl
20
i
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I BB
I I I I I I I I I I I I I 1 1 I ID
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIBIIIj
iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimM
I I I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ! I !!!!!! ■□
JTtOenttf'-nine ^9aTs' Progress
OB"
^h9 Qo'^operativQ "UQholesaU Z'^oiQt'g "^ixaited.
Sai.es.
Yeabs. £
1864 (wJL) 51,857
1865 120,754
1866 175,489
1867 (wS-) 331,744
1868 412,240
1869 507,217
1870 (w^ta) 677,734
1871 758,764
1872 1,153,132
1873 1,636,950
1874 1,964,829
1875 2,247,395
1876 (wScs) 2,697,366
1877 2,827,052
1878 2,705,625
Total SaiiES in the Twenty-nine
1864 to 1892.
Total Profits in the Twenty-nine
1864 TO 1892.
HmuindiiHiiuwiiaitiuiuiMiRiiiiiiiiiRi
Sales.
Yeabs.
£
1879
(we'L) 2,645,331
1880
3,339,681
1881
3,574,095
1882
4,038,238
1883
4,546,889
1884
(wis..) 4,675,371
1885
4,793,151
1886
5,223,179
1887
5,713,235
1888
6,200,074
1889
(w^^) 7,028,944
1890
7,429,073
1891
8,766,430
1892
9,300.904
Years,
£95,542,743
Yeaes,
1,263,189
inmnm^^— O
STATISTICAL POSITION OF THE CO-OPERATIVE
WHOLESALE SOCIETY LIMITED,
Deoehbeb 26th, 1892.
Number of Societies holding Shares 1,002
Number of Members belonging to Shareholders 824,149 £
Share Capital 523,512
Loans and Deposits 925,471
Reserve Fund — Trade and Bank 56,301
Insurance Fund 218,534
Sales for Year 1892 9,300,904
NetProfitsfor Year 1892 98,532
Twenty-nine Tsars' f rogress of tlie So-operative Wholesale Society Idi.
MILUONS.
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
■
3
2
^iiMll!
I
YEAHSW slehlalsl/olilzlsklsleblslsMiUlskls
slTJelslaolilal
I
fi.l
PLAN OF MANCHESTER.
Showing the most Direct Route to the Co-operative Wholesale Society's Central
Offices and Warehouse, from the Railway Stations and Principal Places.
k'
09
Ul
«
O
HI S
O cS
S -S
< «>
z »
ii
PLAN OF NEWCASTLE.
Showing the most Direct Route to the Co-operative Wholesale Society's Newcastle
Branch Premises, from the Railway Stations and Principal Places.
I
£ §■
ml m] m] m m m]
m] m m] m m
m] m] m] deI lot)
mm] m] MiMu\ u.\ ks4
mj mi M] ii.1 ii:l jte] lEj
tt| tej; te.) m] .^] M iE]
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o .
MAP OF LONDON.
ShoWino the London Branch, Leman Street, E., and the Principal Railway Stations.
[ii.]
PLAN OF LEEDS.
Showing the most Direct Route to the Co-operative Wholesale Society's Sale and
Sample Room, from the Railway Stations and Principal Places.
PLAN OF BRISTOL.
Showinq the most Direct Route to the Co-operative Wholesale Society's Bristol
Depot, from the Railway Stations and Principal Places.
NEW YORK PRODUCE EXCHANGE. BROADWAY, NEW YORK,
In which the Society's Offices are Situate.
eaJagJ^j.a^-MJat^S
AJW^^^gv
COPENHAQEN BRANCH.
Havneoade, 41.
HAMBURG BRANCH.
Catharinen Street, No. 87.
AARHUS BRANCH.
Denmark.
[iii.]
^5
111 a
III «
« *»
£2 8
CO i
0 "J*
1 5
< ^
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o w
o "'
PLAN OF LEICESTER.
Showino the most Direct Route to the Co-operative Wholesale Sooietvs Boot and
Shoe Works, from the Railway Stations and Principal Places.
51
O K
CO ^
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o „
o «
CD 09
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riv.]
QOOLE OFFICES, 8TANH0PB STREET.
-
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1 ■ ■ ■ ,,
^4 ' >:^:-:-:
QARSTON OFFICES,
West Side, New Dock, Qarston, near Liverpool.
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ROUEN OFFICES,
2, Rue Jeanne d'arc. Rouen, France
5 SS.
[v.]
THE CO-OPERATIVE
WHOLESALE SOCIETY LIMITED.
3— <^llllllllllllllllllllllllllllUIIII!llll|ll|U|ll|ll|ll||l|ll||||||||||l^^>-0
Enrolled August 11th, 1863, uiider the Provisions of the Industrial and Provident
Societies Act, 25 and 26 Vict., cap. 87, sec. 15, 1862.
Business commenced March 14, 1864. Shares, £^ each,
Tbaksferable.
CENTRAL OFFICES, BANK, GROCERY AND PROVISION, AND BOOT AND
SHOE warehouses:
BALLOON STREET, MANCHESTER.
DRAPERY, WOOLLEN CLOTH, AND READY-MADES WAREHOUSES '.
DANTZIC STREET, MANCHESTER.
FURNISHING WAREHOUSE:
HOLGATE STREET, MANCHESTER.
BRANCHES :
WATERLOO STREET, NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE,
AND LEMAN STREET, LONDON, E.
PURCHASING AND FORWARDING DEPOTS:
ENGLAND :
LIVERPOOL, BRISTOL, LONGTON, GOOLE, AND GARSTON.
IRELAND :
CORK, LIMERICK, KILMALLOCK, WATERFORD,
TRALEE, AND ARMAGH.
AMERICA :
NEW YORK.
FRANCE :
CALAIS AND ROUEN.
DENMARK :
COPENHAGEN, AARHUS.
GERMANY :
HAMBURG.
SALEROOMS :
LEEDS, HUDDERSFIELD, NOTTINGHAM, BLACKBURN,
BIRMINGHAM, NORTHAMPTON, AND CARDIFF.
2
PRODUCTIVE WORKS:
BISCUITS, SWEETS, AND JAM WOEKS, AND DRY SOAP WORKS :
CRmiPSALL, NEAR MANCHESTER.
BOOT AND SHOE WORKS :
LEICESTER AND HECKMONDWIKE.
SOAP WORKS :
DURHAM.
WOOLLEN CLOTH WORKS :
LIVINGSTONE MILL, BATLEY.
READY-MADE8 WORKS :
HARPER PLACE, LEEDS.
COCOA AND CH?)COLATE WORKS :
116, LEMAN STREET, LONDON.
CORN MILL :
DUNSTON-ON-TYNE.
FURNITURE FACTORY :
BROUGHTON, NEAR MANCHESTER.
SHIPOWNERS AND SHIPPERS:
BETWEEN
GARSTON AND ROUEN;
GOOLE AND CALAIS;
GOOLE AND HAMBURG.
STEAMSHIPS OWNED BT THE SOCIETY:
PIONEER," " UNITY," " PROGRESS,"
<• FEDERATION," " EQUITY,"
AND
" LIBERTY."
BANKERS :
THE MANCHESTER AND COUNTY BANK LIMITED.
THE LONDON AND COUNTY BANK.
THE NATIONAL PROVINCIAL BANK OF ENGLAND.
THE MANCHESTER AND LIVERPOOL DISTRICT BANK.
THE LANCASHIRE AND YORKSHIRE BANK.
THE UNION BANK OF MANCHESTER.
^enevat ^otnmiitee.
PRESIDENT: VICE-PRESIDENT:
Mr. J. T. W. MITCHELL, Mr. JOHN SHILLITO,
15, John Street, Rochdale. 17, Cavendish Terrace, Halifax.
SECRETARY :
Mr. THOMAS SWANN, Beech Villa, James Street, Masborough.
Mr. WILLIAM BATES Green Lane, Patricroft.
Mr. THOMAS BLAND Rashcliffe, Huddersfield.
Mr. E. GRINDROD 8, Apsley Street, Keighley.
Mr. E. HIBBERT 7, Wicken Tree Lane, Pailsworth.
Mr. THOMAS HIND 3, Grey Friars, Leicester.
Mr. THOMAS KILLON 45, Heywood Street, Bury.
Mr. JOHN LORD 19, Tremellen Street, Accrington.
Mr. JAMES LOWNDS 92, Catherine Street, Ashton-under-Lyne.
Mr. T. E. MOORHOUSE Reporter Office, Delph.
Mr. ALFRED NORTH Tklount Pleasant, Batley.
Mr. H. C. PINGSTONE Market Street, Manchester.
Mr. A. SCOTTON 48, Co-operative Street, Derby.
Mr. JOHN STANSPIELD Jeremy Lane, Heckmondwike.
* -X- *
NEWCASTLE BEANCH COMMITTEE.
Chairman: Mr. T. TWEDDELL Cleveland Terrace, West Hartlepool.
Secretary: Mr. ROBERT GIBSON, 120, Sidney Grove, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Mr. GEORGE BINNE Y 2, Co-op. New Houses, Alligate, Durham.
Mr. ROBERT IRVING Woodrouffe Terrace, Carlisle.
Mr. THOMAS RULE 20, Ravensworth Terrace, Bensham, Gateshead.
Mr. THOMAS SHOTTON Cemetery Road, Blackhill, Durham.
Mr. WILLIAM STOKER Seaton Delaval, Northumberland.
•X- -X- ^
LONDON BEANCH COMMITTEE.
Chairman : Mr. GEO. HAWKINS, 53, Kingston Road, Oxford.
Vice-Chairman: Mr. GEO. SUTHERLAND, 78, Maxey Road, Plumstead.
Secretary : Mr. HENRY PUINIPHREY, Paddock Terrace, Lewes.
Mr. JOSEPH CLAY Stratton Road, Gloucester.
Mr. H. ELSEY 9, Lynwood Terrace, Lawrence Road, Southsea.
Mr. J. P. GOODEY New Town Lodge, Colchester.
Mr. GEORGE HINES Croft Street, Ipswich.
Mr. T. E. WEBB . . 1, Honeywell Road, Wandsworth Common, London, S. W.
■)(• -X- ^
SCEUTINEEES.
Mr. p. HARDERN, Oldham. Mr. J. J. BAIRSTOW, Dewsbury.
•X- ■)«• -K-
AUDITOES.
Mr. THOS. J. BAYLIS, Rotherham. Mr. JAMES E. LORD, Rochdale.
Mr. ISAAC HAIGH, Barnsley. Mr. THOMAS WOOD, Manchester.
g)flficcr^ of t^e §ocietj?.
ACCOUNTANT. I CASHIER.
Mr. THOMAS BJRODRICK, Eccles. | Mr. A. GREENWOOD, Rochdale.
BUYERS, SALESMEN, &c.
MANCHESTER — GROCERY AND PROVISIONS :
Mr. ISAAC TWEEDALE. Mr. GEORGE GARLICK.
Mr. THOMAS PEARSON. Mr. WILLIAM WROOT.
MANCHESTER — DRAPERY :
Mr. JAMES FLETCHER. Mr. JOHN SHARROCKS.
Mr. WILLIAM T. ALLITT. -» Mr. JOHN T. OGDEN.
MANCHESTER — WOOLLENS, BOOTS, AND FURNITURE :
Woollen Cloth Mr. W. GIBSON.
Boot and Shoe Mr. HENRY JACKSON.
Furniture Mr. T. R. ALLEN.
MANCHESTER — TRAVELLERS :
Grocery and Pro visions Mr. R. TURNER.
Productive Societies and Drapery Mr. J. MEADOWCROFT.
„ Mr. THOS. A. RANKIN.
„ Mr. A. ACKROYD.
SHIPPING DEPARTMENT :
General Manager Mr. OHAS. R. CAMERON.
SHIPPING AND FORWARDING DEPOTS :
Rouen (France) Mr. JAMES MARQUIS.
Goole Mr. W. J. SCHOFIELD.
Calais Mr. WILLIAM HURT.
LONDON :
Tea, Coffee, and Cocoa Mr. CHARLES FIELDING.
LIVERPOOL :
Grocery and Provisions
Mr. ARTHUR W. LOBB.
SALEROOMS :
Leeds
Nottingham
Huddersfield
Birmingham
Northampton
Cardiff
Mr. JOSEPH HOLDEN.
Mr. G. T. TOWNSEND.
Mr. GEO. BARLASS.
Mr. J. KERSHAW.
Mr. A. BAKER.
Mr. J. F. JAMES.
LONGTON :
Crockery Depot
Mr. T. RTTODES.
NEWCASTLE :
Grocery and Provisions :Mr. ROBT. WILKINSON.
„ Mr. T. WEATHERSON.
Drapery Mr. JOHN MACKENZIE.
Boot and Shoe Mr. 0. JACKSON.
Furniture and Hardware Mr. J. W. TAYLOR.
Chief Clerk Mr. H. R. BAILEY.
BUYERS, SALESMEN, &c.
LOJsDON :
Grocery and Provisions Mr. BENJAMIN JONES.
Mr. WM. OPENSHAW.
Drapery Mr. P. G. WADDINGTON.
Boots and Shoes Mr. ALFRED PARTRIDGE.
Furnishing Mr. F. E. ODDY.
Chief Clerk Mr. WILLIAM STRAWN.
BRISTOL DEPOT :
Mr. C. CUNNINGHAM.
IRISH BRANCHES— BUTTER AND EGGS.
cork:
Mr. WILLIAM H. STOTT.
KILMALLOCK *.
Mr. THOS. G. O'SULLIVAN.
LIMERICK :
Mr. WILLIAM L. STOKES.
WATERFORD :
Mr. THOMAS J. SHANN.
ARMAGH :
Mr. J. HOLLAND.
TRALEE :
Mr. JAMES DAWSON.
NEW YORK (AMERICA) :
Mr. JOHN GLEDHILL. | Mr. JAS. M. PERCIVAL.
COPENHAGEN (dENMARk) : HAMBURG (gERMANY) :
Mr. JOHN ANDREW. | Mr. WM. DIL WORTH.
aarhus (Denmark) :
Mr. H. J. W. MADSEN.
LOWER CRUMPSALL BISCUIT, &C., WORKS :
Mr. THOMAS HAYES.
LEICESTER BOOT AND SHOE WORKS :
Mr. JOHN BUTCHER.
HECKMONDWIKE BOOT AND SHOE WORKS :
Mr. J. W. HEMMINGS.
DURHAM SOAP WORKS : BATLEY WOOLLEN CLOTH WORKS
Mr. J. E. GREEN. Mr. S. BOOTHROYD.
LEEDS READY-MADES WORKS :
ger Mr. WILLIAM UTTLEY.
Traveller ]Mr. J. STEAD.
DUNSTON CORN MILL :
Mr. LEWIS DYSON.
BROUGHTON (MANCHESTER) CABINET FACTORY :
Mr. J. HODGKINSON.
©mpfo^cj^.
NUMBEE OF EMPLOYES, OCTOBEE, 1893.
MANCHESTER:
Greneral Drapery, Boot and Shoe,
and Furnishing Offices 236
Cashier's Office 17
Grocer}' Department 142
Drapery „ 91
Shirt Manufacturing 48
Woollen Cloth Department 9
Tailoring Department, Cable St.
Boot and Shoe „
Furnishing ,,
Shipping „
Building „
Dining-room ,,
Other
82
31
38
4
83
10
34
> Total Manchester 825
Newcastle Branch 311
,, Building Department 79
London Branch 192
„ Building Department 64
,, xea ,, ••■■..•••■•■••■•••■••■..■•■•••••••«••• ooo
„ Stables 15
,, Brush Productive 13
Leeds Saleroom i 3
Nottingham Saleroom 1
Birmingham ,, 1
Northampton „ 1
Bristol Depot 40
Cardiff 1
Liverpool Branch — Grocery and Shipping 22
Longton — Crockery Department 18
Irish Branches 40
Rouen Branch 4
Goole „ 12
Calais „ 8
Garston ,, 2
New York Branch 6
Copenhagen ,, 8
Hamburg ,, 3
Aarhus „ 4
Crumpsall Biscuit Works 303
Leicester Shoe ,, Knighton Fields 1609
„ ,, ,, Duns Lane 286
Enderby 120
Heckmondwike Shoe Works 243
,, Currying Department 43
Durham Soap Works 17
Batley Woollen ]\Iill 100
Leeds — Ready Mades 209
Dunston Corn Mill 124
Broughton Cabinet Factory 44
Steamships — "Pioneer," 14; "Unity," 15; "Progress," 13; "Federa-) qq
tion,"18; "Equity," 19; "Liberty," 19 ) ^°
Total 5202
^exm^ of ^^emdex^S>ip.
TEADE DEPAETMENT.
FOE the information of Societies and Companies not already
purchasers from or members of this Society, we give below —
(1) our requirements on opening new accounts ; (2) particulars of
trade terms ; (3) terms and conditions of membership ; and (4) a
few of the advantages accruing from membership.
Any further information will gladly be given on application.
(1) NEW ACCOUNTS.
Societies desiring to open accounts are requested to furnish us
with a copy each of their registered rules and latest balance sheet.
If a balance sheet has not been prepared, then the following
information should be sent, viz., the number of members ; amount of
paid-up share capital ; whether credit is allowed, and if so, to what
extent ; the amount of business done, or expected to be done per
week.
(2) TRADE TERMS.
With the first order sufficient cash must be I'emitted to cover the
estimated value of the goods ordered ; afterwards payment must be
made within seven days from date of invoice ; all accounts are
rendered strictly net.
Business is conducted on these terms, with registered Co-operative
Societies and Companies only.
Societies in process of formation and whose rules are not yet
registered can be supplied with goods on payment of cash with
each order.
(3) TERMS AND CONDITIONS OF MEMBERSHIP.
The following extracts from our Eules contain the principal
features in connection with membership : —
(a) ADMISSION OF MEMBERS.— (Extract from Rule 5.)
The members of this society shall consist of such co-operative
societies or companies (registered under the Industrial and Provi<leut
Societies Act, 187G, or under the Companies Acts, with limited liabilit}-,
or under any law of the country where they are situate, whereby they
acquire the right of trading as bodies corporate, with limited liability)
as have been admitted by the general committee, and ai)proved by a
majority of delegntes voting at a general meeting of the society. An
application for shares shall be made by a resolution of some general
or committee meeting of the society or company making the applicatiou,
contained in writing and attested by the signatures of the secretary and
three of its members. Every society or company making an application
for shares sliall state the number of its members, and take up not less
than three £5 shares for every twenty members, or fractional part
thereof, and a^ree to increase the number annually as its members
increase, making the return of such iocrease at the time and in
accordance with its return to the Registrar.
(6) CAPITAL— HOW PAID UP.— (Extract from Rule 9.)
The capital of this society shall be raised in shares of five ponnds
each, which shall be transferable only. Every society, on its admission,
shall pay the sum of not less than one shilling on each share taken up.
Each five pounds so paid shall constitute one fully paid-up share ; but
no dividend or interest shall be withdrawn by members until their shares
are paid up. Any member may pay up shares in advance. After having
received the consent of a special meetini;, the whole or any part of the
share capital may be called up by the general committee on giving notice
to that effect.
(c) FORM OF APPLICATION FOR SHARES.
Application for Shares.
Folio
The
Co-operative Society Limited.
TO THE DIRECTORS OF THE CO-OPER iTIVE WHOLESALE
SOCIETY Limited, 1, BALLOON STREET, MANCHESTER.
Gentleitien,
Whereas, by a Besolution of tlie
Co-operative Society Limited, passed by the*
at a Meeting held on the day of it was
resolved that the Society, which coTisists of Members,
agree to take up Sliares (being not less tlian Three
Sliares for every Twenty of our Members, or fractional part
thereof) in the (Jo-oprratibe Sllioltsale Societg jfimitrb, and
anniudly to increase our Shares at the time a7id in accordance
with our return to tlve Registrar, and to accept such Shares on
the terms arid conditions specified in your Rules.
JSP
Attested by
[ Three Members.
Secretary.
* Members, Committee of Management, or Directors.
(4) ADVANTAGES ACCBUING FROM MEMBERSHIP.
ia) The liability of each society member is limited to the amount of its shares.
b) ^Members of this Society receive double the rate of dividend on purchases
to non-members.
(c) Share capital receives interest after the rate of £5 per cent per annum.
d) Each society composing the " Wholesale " may nominate one representative
for every 500 of its members to represent it at the General or Branch Quarterly
Meetings, or other Special Meetings which may be convened from time to time,
and thus have a direct influence and voice in tlae control and management of its
affairs. The nomination and election of its officers for General and Branch
Committees, Auditors, and Scrutineers are effected by means of nomination and
voting papers, which are sent to all shareholding societies to be filled up.
(e) A merely nominal payment secures membership, a deposit of Is. per share
upon application being only required ; the dividend on purchases and interest on
share capital being credited to share account until paid up.
Those societies not already federated with the "Wholesale" should at once
join and thus secure the advantages to themselves and the co-operative move-
ment generally which its extensive and varied operations are intended to confer.
^n^ine^e Notices.
ALL LETTERS TO BE ADDRESSED TO THE SOCIETY, AND NOT TO INDIVIDUALS.
WE would especially impress upon Societies' Managers and Secretaries the
necessity of complying with the following regulations, in order to
facilitate the despatch of Goods, to ensure promptitude in the answering and
classification of letters, and to prevent disappointment.
LETTEES.
All letters must be addressed to the Society, and not to individuals.
Addressed Envelopes are supplied at cost price.
Communications for the following Departments, and relating to the subjects
named, should always be made on separate forms or sheets of paper, viz. : —
(1) Bank and Cashier's Department.
(2) Accountant's Department.
(3) Grocery and Provision Department — Orders only.
(4) „ ,, ,-, Application for Samples only.
(5) Drapery Department — Orders and Applications for Samples.
(6) Boot and Shoe Department — Orders and Applications for Samples.
(7) Woollen Cloth „ „ „ „
(8) Furnishing Department — Orders and Applications for Samples.
(9) Advices of Returns.
(10) Claims, delays, complaints, &c., for all Departments.
Although each of the above classifications requires a separate form, they
should all be enclosed under one cover, and addressed to the Society.
At the Central Office, in Manchester alone, the number of Letters, Orders, &c.,
received daily is enormous. To effectually deal with these communications some
division into departments is absolutely necessary.
These classifications have therefore been adopted, and Societies are asked to
assist by seeing that their communications are despatched in accordance there-
with, as when subjects included in more than one of these divisions are dealt
with on one form, much labour is involved in re-writing the portions required to
be separated.
OEDEKS FOE GOODS.
The name of the Society and the Station to tohlch the Goods are to be
forwarded ahoultl be written at the head of each order,
Obdebs should contain the Price or Brand of each Article wanted.
Delays would often be prevented by noticing in which column in the Price
Lists (Manchester, Newcastle, London, &c.) the Goods are quoted, and posting
the Orders direct to the Central, or branches named, as the case requires.
10
As regards "Direct Quotations," notwithstanding that there are many
instances where minimum quantities are fixed, orders are frequently received for
less than the stipulated quantities. This necessitates correspondence, and in
cases of urgency entails inconvenience to Societies, which would be obviated by
carefully noticing the Price List when ordering.
It is desirable that the Forms we have specially prepared should be used in
sending Orders,
1. Grocery, Drapery, Woollens, and Furnishing Department.
2. Tailoring (Bespoke), with instructions for measurement.
3. Boot and Shoe Department.
4. ,, ,, ,, (Bespoke), with instructions for measurement.
Books containing 50 Forms, with Duplicates, will be sent free on application.
Orders for each Department should be made out on separate forms.
CONSIGNMENT OF GOODS.
Whenever delays occur in the delivery of Goods, Societies will please com-
municate with the carrier at their end, in addition to informing us.
To prevent any misunderstanding as to who is responsible for the safe delivery
of Goods, we would state that when Goods are Carriage Paid we undertake their
safe delivery ; but when the Carriage is Not Paid, the Carrier is responsible to
the Consignees, who, before taking delivery of any Goods, should carefully
examine the same, and at once claim for any loss or damage sustained in transit.
EMPTIES.
Empty packages should be returned carefully packed, and fully and correctly
consigned.
Each package should have a label or direction card attaclied, stating tlie contents,
the name of the Society forwarding them, and the name and address of their
destination.
Empties should be returned direct to the manufacturer from whom the Goods
were sent. When returned to Manchester or the Branches, additional expense
and trouble are incurred in re-consigning them to their proper destination.
A few manufacturers pay carriage on returned empties ; where this is done
Societies vsrill consign carriage forward, in all other cases carriage should be paid.
A list of firms who pay carriage may be obtained on application at the Central
Offices.
In all cases an advice giving full particulars of the empties returned (viz., the
kind, the quantity, the numbers, the price charged, and reference to invoice
where charged) should be immediately posted to us, as unless this is done our
rule is not to allow credit for them.
We have a book, which we send free on application, containing 50 forms, with
duplicates, specially prepared for this purpose, which Societies are recommended
to use.
The importance of carrying out these instructions will be seen when Societies
are informed that the Railway Companies seldom make deliveries of empties
tmtil they have a complete load, and under such circumstances it is almost
imipossible to ascertain from what Societies they have been received, unless full
particulars are given.
11
In many cases Societies do not fully carry out these instructions, consequently
we are continually receiving empty packages which we are not able to credit
because we do not know from whom they have been returned. This is a loss
which we are desirous Societies should not incur ; we therefore point it out to
them so that the necessary precautions may be taken to avoid it.
GOODS CONSIGNED AS EMPTIES.
We cannot hold ourselves responsible for any Goods that may be returned con-
signed as empties, as any claim made on the Railway Companies for missing
Goods under such circumstances would not be entertained.
STATEMENTS OF TEADE ACCOUNTS.
Weekly Statements
Are sent out to all Societies doing business with us, sho^ving Total of Goods
Invoiced, Cash Received, and Allowances made during "the week, and Balance, if
any, at the week end.
These statements afford a great check on Societies' books, and Secretaries are
requested to compare each one as received with their books, and to report to us
particulars in case of any discrepancy.
Quarterly Statements
Are issued immediately after our Books are made up for the Quarter.
They are in form similar to the Weekly Statements, and must be returned,
duly certified if correct, to our Auditors, who require them as an independent
check as to the correctness of our accounts.
We rely upon Societies giving prompt attention to these statements, as the
early issue of our Balaiice Sheets depends to an extent on their inunediate return.
In case of any discrepancy, details should be at once given or applied for, but
if correct, the Statement should be forthwith signed and returned to the Auditors,
in the envelope sent out for that purpose.
SHARE AND LOAN PASS BOOKS.
These should be sent to the Head Office (1, Balloon Street, Manchester) every
Quarter, viz., in the Second Week of March, June, September, and December, for
the purpose of having the previous quarter's Interest and Dividend entered
therein. Societies requiring information respecting the amount of their Share
or Loan Capital are requested to send their Pass Books for the amount to be
filled in, instead of sending for Statements.
When Shares are paid up the Share Book need not again be sent until a further
allotment is made.
SOCIETIES' BALANCE SHEETS.
We especially desire those Societies who have not already done so to send us a
copy of their last Balance Sheet, stating on it the number of their Members ;
also, a copy of their rules.
12
xabe department.
CASH AEEANGEMENTS.
WE beg to call the attention of Societies to the arrangements
specified below, which will give facihty and security when
making remittances to this Society : —
1. All cash must be addressed to the Society only, and not to individuals,
nor to the committee or auditors.
2. CHEQUES and DRAFTS to be made payable to the CO-OPERATIVE
WHOLESALE SOCIETY LIMITED. Post-office orders must be made payable
to Abraham Greenwood. Drafts drawn in favour of this Society must be made
payable on demand ; other drafts when remitted to us must have reached maturity.
All drafts, if possible, should be made payable either at London or Manchester.
3. Societies are respectfully requested, when drawing cheques in our favour, to
do so in full, viz., Co-operative Wholesale Society Limited, without any abbrevia-
tion or variation whatever.
4. In forwarding half notes societies should state whether they are first or
second halves ; the latter half notes should be forwarded immediately on receipt
of our acknowledgment of the first. Societies not receiving acknowledgment for
first or second half notes in due course of post, will oblige by calling attention
to the omission.
5. Care should be taken to advise immediately when a remittance is
made to us, stating the amount and the name and place of the bank or
branches through which the remittance is made.
6. Remittances made through a bank in all cases should be done in the name
of the society sending cash to us, and not in the name of a person.
7. Arrangements for the remittance of cash will, in the first instance, be made
by this Society, and afterwards arrange with societies availing themselves of
these facilities for paying cash to us.
8. Societies would greatly oblige, and thereby facilitate the business of this
Society, if they will, when advising cash remittances, or any matter relating to
payment of cash, do so on a separate sheet of paper.
9. Loans, Withdrawal op. — Societies, when requiring to withdraw their
loans, are respectfully requested to apply at the Head Of9ce, Manchester, for
an official form, which is provided for and supplied to societies for the purpose of
enabling them to withdraw loans and to state definitely the amount of loan they
wish to withdraw. Societies will please note this special request. The Wholesale
Society will give due notice when they are prepared to accept new loans.
13
^anft department.
CUEEENT ACCOUNTS
OPENED ON THE PLAN USUALLY ADOPTED BY OTHER BANKEBS.
/^USTOMEES keeping accounts with the Bank by arrangement
may have moneys paid to their credit at the
HEAD OFFICES,
BALLOON STREET, MANCHESTEE,
AND AT
THE BEANCHES,
WATERLOO STREET, NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE,
AND
HOOPER SQUARE, LEMAN STREET, WHITECHAPEL, LONDON, E.
CORRESPONDENTS :
THE PIONEERS' SOCIETY, TOAD LANE, ROCHDALE;
THE INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY, SCHOOL STREET, OVER DARWEN;
THE CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETY, HIGH STREET, LEICESTER.
Correspondents of the following Banks:
MANCHESTER AND COUNTY BANK,
LONDON AND COUNTY BANK,
NATIONAL PROVINCIAL BANK OF ENGLAND,
UNION BANK OP MANCHESTER,
LANCASHIRE AND YORKSHIRE BANK,
MANCHESTER AND LIVERPOOL DISTRICT BANK,
and
UNION BANK OP SCOTLAND LIMITED.
The Banking Turnover is £30,000,000 per annum.
14
^xocevt^ anb ^xovi^ion ^epavttnent^.
A COMPLETE PRICE LIST of the goods dealt in is issued weekly, the
prices being fixed for the day of issue only. These Weekly Lists, which
are sent to Co-operative Societies with whom we do business, contain reports and
opinions as to the state of the markets, as regards some of the principal articles.
The reports are intended for, and calculated to be of service to, Committees
and Managers of Societies, in pointing out the tendency of the markets, and
when to buy to advantage.
The following is a brief r4suni4 of the chief commodities, and how the " Whole-
sale " is circumstanced in relation thereto : —
BUTTEE AND EGGS— lEISH.
The arrangements in force for conducting this portion of the business are
remarkably well adapted for supplying the same on the most favourable terms.
There are six buyers, attending markets at Cork, Limerick, Kilmallock,
Waterford, Tralee, and Armagh. These buyers are gentlemen of the first
experience in the trade, and are under the immediate and direct control of the
■ Society — not being merely employed as agents or buyers on commission.
The buyers, although taking up their residences at the places named, attend
all the best and noted markets within a radius of twenty or thirty miles, and
thus it will be seen that the area covered by their operations embraces a great
proportion of the south of Ireland, and some of the most fertile districts of that
country.
This Society is by far the most extensive purchaser and shipper of Irish Butter.
BUTTEE AND EGGS— DANISH.
The same remarks may be made in this respect as in the case of Irish Butter
and Eggs. We have our own buyers stationed at Copenhagen and other centres,
and they purchase direct from farmers who are considered the best producers in
both Denmark and Sweden, and contract with them for a weekly supply of all
they make.
Before shipment, all goods are carefully examined by our representative.
Societies should encourage this Branch by giving us weekly orders for shipment
direct, and thus save the cost of warehousing and of carriage from Manchester.
BUTTEE— KIEL, AND GEEMAN EGGS.
Our arrangements for the purchase of these are similar to those at Copenhagen.
Our own buyer is located at Hamburg, and buys firsthand from the farmers
and producers.
15
Our ready-money system of doing business commands the best terms, and
enables us to do a very extensive and satisfactory trade in these articles,
BUTTEE AND EGGS— FEENCH.
Supplies of these are obtained fresh weekly, and are carefully selected for the
Society, by competent and experienced men, from the best dairies and districts
in Prance.
AMEEICAN BUTTEE, CHEESE, BACON, HAMS, LAED,
FLOUE, APPLES, &c., &c.— NEW YOEK BEANCH.
Two buyers are located at New York, whose duty it is to purchase and export
the articles sold by the Society which are grown and manufactured in the
United States and Canada.
The business done by the Society, and the Capital always at its command,
enables its representatives to enter the markets in an independent manner, and
places them in a pre-eminent position to exact terms of the first order. These
conditions, and the consequent absence of the intermediate dealers, qualify the
Society to transfer the goods from where they are produced to the consumer with
the least possible addition to the cost.
CHESHIEE CHEESE.
The Society's buyers visit the best dairies and farms in Cheshire where this is
made, and purchase it from the farmers on the spot.
YEAST.
This is imported by the Society direct from the best distillers at Schiedam,
Hamburg, and France. It is received in the port of Hull twice in each week —
i.e., Mondays and Thursdays — and distributed from there to the Society's
customers.
SUGAE.
The large purchases which the Society is able to make, place it in the best
position for securing the utmost advantages from the refiners.
In addition to this, the Society's own buyers are in the centre of operations in
Liverpool, London, Greenock, and New York, and are able to obtain information
at first hand.
There is a telephone connecting its Liverpool offices with the Central estab-
lishment at Manchester, and the buyer in Liverpool is thus in constant telephonic
communication with the Central buyer at Manchester, who, being in receipt of
the latest and most reliable reports, is enabled to decide which is the most
favourable time for making purchases.
Demeraras and other Raws are sampled on arrival, and the most suitable lots
selected.
16
FLOUE, GEAIN, &c.
The finest brands of Flours are bought direct from the millers in Hungary;
our own Registered Brands of Flours are distributed direct from the mill.
The Society's buyers in New York make very extensive purchases of Flour,
direct from the millers, in both the United States and Canada.
Grain is bought in large quantities, " to arrive," and Meal of all kinds from
the mills direct.
DEIED FEUIT.
Our Dried Fruit buyer goes annually to Greece and Turkey at the season when
the fruits are being gathered, and visits the vineyards where the fruits are
drying, in order to select the Samples of Currants, Sultanas, and Figs most
suitable for Co-operative Societies. These are bought direct from the producer,
thereby saving the middlemen's profits, and we get a better selection than could
otherwise be obtained.
PEPPEE AND SPICES.
We are large dealers in these articles, and the qualities we supply may be
relied upon. We have an extensive and up-to-date grinding plant laid down,
and these commodities are ground under our own immediate supervision.
Their purity is thus guaranteed.
POTATOES, ONIONS, APPLES, &c.
There is a special buyer for these goods, who travels over the districts known
to produce the best sorts, and they are bought direct from the farmers when it
can be done with advantage. Our buyer also regularly attends the Liverpool
Green Fruit Auctions.
Purchases to a very large extent are also made in France, Belgiimi, and
Germany, and the goods are imported to Goole and Garston by the Society's own
steamers, which ply regularly between Calais and Goole and Hamburg and Goole
on the East, and Rouen and Gar§ton on the West Coast.
BISCUITS, SWEETS, PEESEEVES, MAEMALADE, AND
DEY SOAPS.
These goods are manufactured by the Society at their Works, Crumpsall, near
Manchester. When impartially judged, the quality compares most favourably
indeed with the goods made by other houses of older standing, and devoted
to the special manufacture for a long period.
CANNED GOODS.
In regard to this trade we are in a position second to none ; our arrangements
being such that we have first offers from all the principal packers in America.
Salmon, Lobster, Beef, &c., we have specially packed for us under our own
brands.
17
^ca, ©offee, anb (gocoa department,
LEMAN STEEET, LONDON, E.
We have a buyer on the London Market whose exclusive duty it is to select and
purchase Teas, Cofiees, and Cocoas direct from the Importers.
The excellence of this arrangement, whether viewed from an economical point,
or from that of enabling us to efficiently supply Societies with all the numerous
varieties and qualities they may desire, is too apparent to need illustration.
Our unlimited command of money and unequalled organisation places us in a
position for doing this trade superior to that of any other house.
ASSAM AND OTHEE INDIAN TEAS.
These are made a special study. Year by year they are increasing in favour
with the public; and their greater pungency and strength, as compared with
China Teas, are likely to make them still further popular.
CEYLON TEAS.
The enterprise of the planters in the Island of Ceylon, which started some few
years ago, has proved entirely satisfactory, and the various estates are now yielding
a much larger quantity with beneficial results to both growers and consumers.
These Teas are rapidly increasing in favour, and the consumption of 1893
shows a very large excess over 1892.
CHINA TEAS.
The decrease in the consumption of China Teas still continues, being about ten
millions of lbs. less this season than last. A large proportion consisted of low
grade sorts used for blending with other growths to reduce the cost. Nevertheless
the finer kinds still find favour with many on account of their delicate flavour
and absence of the astringency possessed by those from India and Ceylon.
EED LEAF CONGOUS.
These are again very good ; Sec Moos and Paklings, especially, being strong
useful Teas.
BLACK LEAF CONGOUS.
NiNGCHOws are better than they have been for some seasons past. Oonfas are
a good average crop, but most other descriptions are below the standard of last
year.
18
SCENTED TEAS.
Tb£8B »re very well made and fairly free from dust, but generally lack the fine
•eent of the past Maaon.
GREEN TEAS.
Thbsk an still being less used than formerly. Very few fine liquoring Teas
are obtainable.
BLENDED TEAS.
Thb art of blending is now carried to a high pitch of perfection, and to work it
successfully requires not only a knowledge of the true affinities of the various
growths of India, China, and Ceylon, acquired by a long apprenticeship to tea
tasting, but ample capital, large premises, suitable machinery, and a competent
staff of well-instructed employes. These have been provided for this section of
our Tea and Coffee business.
Extreme care is taken to suit all tastes and districts, and everything that can
be thought of to make our arrangements, if possible, still more perfect, will be
done.
BULK—MIXED.
These are packed in cads, half chests, and chests. The saving of capital and
labour, the greater efficieiicy and satisfaction resulting from scientific blending,
and the niunerous grades supplied by us, is causing a largely-increased demand,
and is making them very popular.
We are now supplying
Indian, Ceylon, and China Blends.
Ceylons and Indians, with a preponderance of Ceylons.
Pure Indians.
Pure Ceylons*
Indians and Ceylons, with a preponderance of Indians.
CHINA PACKET TEAS.
Ix addition to the excellence of the blending, we are making extra efforts to
torn our pcMskets out of a design and appearance that shall command attention
and attract the consumer.
Everyone will admit the superiority in appearance of a handsome packet to
the ordinary parcel turned out by the shopman when the Tea is weighed over
the counter.
By careful attention to the economy of labour, we are able to supply packets,
in large and beautiful variety, at a cost less even than would be incurred if made
up in the ordinary way in the Store. In order to meet the requirements of those
19
who prefer the delicate flavoured China Teas, or who cannot drink the strong
pungent Indian and Ceylon Teas, we have introduced a pure China Tea in
packets.
INDIAN PACKET TEAS.
As we have mentioned before, Indian Teas are rapidly increasing in public favour,
and, instead of being mixed with China Teas, are now being extensively used by
themselves, so to meet these requirements we have introduced two Indian Packets,
one a pure Souchong and the other a pure Pekoe blend.
CEYLON PACKET TEAS.
As these Teas are rapidly and deservedly growing in public favour, on account
of their strong, rich, and delicious flavour, we have introduced two Ceylon Packet
Teas. We warn our readers that a great many mixtures are offered as Pure
Ceylon Teas in leaden packets, and represented as being imported direct from
Ceylon in this form. Teas offered in such packets should be avoided, as the finest
Ceylon Teas are seldom so imported.
PACKET TEAS NEWLY INTEODtJCED.
We have now introduced a Ceylon Blend Packet Tea at 2s. per lb. retail, which
is meeting with a good demand. Also three lower priced Teas, viz: — Economic,
at Is. 8d. retail ; Household, at Is. 6d. retail ; and Useful, at Is. 4d. retail, in
order that where firms are advertising these grades the Societies may be in a
position to serve the same article, and thus avoid the members being led away
from dealing at their own Stores.
COFFEES.
Plantation shipments total about the same as last year, and the quality is up
to the average, whilst prices compared to previous season have been on a more
moderate scale.
East India arrivals have been rather less than usual, but, quality not being
desirable, this kind has been rather neglected.
Costa Rica. — The finer sorts are rather short in supply. Prices have been
rather irregular during the earlier part of the season, but later a substantial
advance has taken place.
Rio and Santos. — These crops are about one million bags short of requirements
to meet consumption, but, previous surplus stocks being heavy, prices have been
kept within moderate limits.
20
RAW COFFEES.
OvR arraugemeuto for tho supply of all kinds in use iu the home market are as
•fBoient as thoy can be possibly made.
Sample*, botli in the raw and roasted state, are sent with all quotations.
ROASTED COFFEES.
We have now roasting machinery both in London and Manchester, fitted with
all the latest improvements.
TheM enable us to supply the freshly-roasted article in tlie most expeditious
manner ; and great care is taken to finish off the berry to suit the particular
requirements of customers.
PACKED COFFEE.
Great quantities of rubbish have Iroen, and are being, sold under different fancy
names. The extraordinary proportions the demand for these articles has assumed
have led the Government to impose a special tax on all mixtures, so as to
compensate for the loss of revenue on Coffee caused by their consumption.
This will now put tho honest trader on a fair footing, and with the great
ad\-antage to the consumer that he can make sure of getting a really good and
pure article at a reasonable price.
We therefore now sell Coffees of different grades and qualities, both pure and
mixed with Chicory, at prices which will be sure to command a good sale.
Our excellent machinerj-, our economical arrangements, the large scale of our
operations, and the well-known beneficial results of division of labour, will enable
us to supply Societies cheaper and better than it is possible for them to do for
themselves.
COCOA AND CHOCOLATE.
Ik order to give Societies the opportunity of getting their supplies at the lowest
possible cost, we have commenced the production of the various kinds of Cocoa
and Chocolate most in demand.
The greatest care is exercised in the manufacture, ingredients of the best
quality only being used. The works are fitted ^vith efficient and modern
machiner}'. The Society is thus in a position to manufacture all classes of Cocoas
and Chocolates showing better quality and value than any others in the market.
Special attention is drawn to the following : —
PURE CONCENTRATED EXTRACT IN TINS.
This Cocoa is similar in character to the best of the well-known Dutch Cocoas.
It possesses great strength, combined with exquisite flavour, and at the same
time is most economical in use. We claim for this Cocoa that it is at least as
good as any other maker's, at the same time being considerably lower in price.
21
PUEE CONCENTEATED ESSENCE IN PACKETS.
A PBEPABATiON of the fiiiest selected Cocoa nuts from which the greater part of
the fat has been extracted ; contains no sugar and no starch. With this powder
can be made a cup of Cocoa thin in body, like Tea and Coffee, but with far more
nutritive qualities than either of these.
PEEPAEED BEEAKFAST COCOA,
Made of the finest grown nuts and mixed with such other ingredients of the best
quality as are necessary to produce a high-class powder, soluble and easy of
digestion.
HOMCEOPATHIC COCOA.
We make three qualities, each of which will be found not inferior to the Cocoas
usually sold by this name.
PEAEL COCOA.
Gbeat care is taken to produce this popular Cocoa in the best form, and the
constantly increasing sales show our efforts to have been successful.
EOCK CHOCOLATE.
A PREPARATION of fiuest Nibs and best Loaf Sugar ; specially recommended.
The following also are made, each in various qualities :—
Rock Cocoa, Flake, Cocoa Nibs, &c.
CHOCOLATE CONFECTIONEEY.
We are now turning out large quantities of this article in various forms of
^d.. Id., and 2d. Cakes, Drops, also Creams and Cream Cakes, and many other
varieties of Chocolate Confectionery.
Societies who have not yet tried these are strongly recommended to do so, for,
whilst being very wholesome and nutritious both for children and adults, the sale
will be found to be a profitable source of revenue, which Societies may as well
secure for themselves as leave to the neighbouring confectioner. In our price
list are quoted over twenty different sorts of Eating Chocolates to select from.
We have just completed an important and extensive addition to our factory
which will enable us largely to augment our output, and at the same time
increase the efficiency of our manufacturing operations. We trust, therefore,
Societies will continue energetically pushing the sale of our products so as to
keep our factory in its enlarged state fully occupied.
We have a stock of show cards, handbills, &c , for advertising purposes, with
which we shall be happy to supply Societies on application.
^xapexx? department.
Central Saleroom and Warehouse:
DANTZIC STREET, MANCHESTER.
Newcastle Branch Saleroom and Warehouse:
WATERLOO STREET, N EWC ASTLE-ON-T YNE.
London Branch Saleroom and Warehouse:
LEMAN STREET, LONDON, E.
rriHE especial attention of Societies is called to the above Department, as we
"*~ feel sure, if they will only give us a fair comparison, they will find we can
do as well for them as any other house in the trade. The Stock consists of —
HOSIERY
OF EVEBY KIND AND HAKE.
Wools, Worsted and Yams (by the best spinners), Linen and Paper Fronts
and Collars, Cuffs; Kid, Wool, Lisle, and Silk Gloves; Wool, Union, and Oxford
Shirts; Duck Jackets; Men's and Boys' Hats and Caps.
HABERDASHERY AND SMALLWARES
OP EVERT DE8CBIPTION AND MAKE.
Silk and Velvet Buttons, Trimmings, Ribbon Velvets, &c.
MILLINERY DEPARTMENT.
We beg to call especial attention to this Department, and would ask your
hearty support. The Stock is well assorted, and consists of Felt and Straw
Hats, Plain and Fancy Straw Bonnets, in all the newest shapes; Ribbons in
23
Silk, Satin, and Velvet, all shades; Feathers in Ostrich, Fancy Wings, Birds,
Ospreys, &c.; French and English Flowers, rich new shades, mounted and
unmounted; Silk and Cotton Laces, Spot Nets, Embroidered Crapes, and
Leises; Ornaments, newest designs in Jet, Steel, &c.; Silks, Velvets, and Plushes;
Steel, Jet, and Gold Millinery Trimmings, newest styles ; Trimmed Millinery,
Black and Coloured ; Children's Millinery, in Hoods, Hats, and Bonnets.
MANTLES.
We keep a well-assorted Stock, from the best English, French, and German
manufacturers.
FANCY GOODS.
Ladies' and Gents' Scarfs, Ribbons, Laces, Stays, Corsets ; Umbrellas in Silk,
Alpaca, Gloria, Dagmar, and Satin.
DEESS DEPAETMENT.
Black and Coloured Merinos, French Twills, Sateens, Scotch and German
Plaids, Black and Coloured Silks and Velvets.
Scotch and Yorkshire Shawls, Wool Handkerchiefs, Felt and other Skirts, &c.
Lace, Leno, and Harness Curtains and Blinds, Wool, Damask, &c.
MANCHESTEE DEPAETMENT.
This Department comprises every kind of Scotch, Irish, and Barnsley Linens ;
Bleached Calicoes, Sheets, and Sheetings ; Oxford, Harvard, and other Cotton
Shirtings ; Silesias, and every class of Dyed and Printed Linings ; Prints,
Cretonnes, Damasks, Window Hollands, Table Covers, Toilet Quilts, Toilet
Covers, Table Baizes, Leathers, &c., &c.
The Stocks are bought from the best manufacturers only, and the finish in all
cases is carefully attended to. All Goods are sold under their correct quality
and numbers, and the widths and lengths guaranteed. These facts should
always be considered when comparing the "Wholesale's" prices with those
of other firms.
GEEY DEPAETMENT.
Wigans, Mexicans, and Twills in various widths and qualities ; Yorkshire,
Lancashire, and Saxony Flannels ; Bath, Bury, and Twill Blankets ; Bleached
and Grey Sheets; Alhambras of every kind and in all sizes; Union and Wool
Shirtings, Linseys, Kerseys, Lambskins, Down Quilts, &c.
24
I
DANTZIC STREET, MANCHESTER.
WOOLLENS.
N THIS DEPARTMENT there is always a fine
SELECTION OF THE NEWEST STYLES IN
WOOLLEN ,AND WORSTED COATINGS, TROUSERINGS,
AND SUITINGS
OF THE BEST QUALITY AND VALUE, MANY OF WHICH ARE MADE
AT OUR OWN MILLS.
READY- MADES
IN MEN'S, YOUTHS', AND BOYS' GARMENTS,
OF EVERY DESCRIPTION AND PRICE.
TRIMMINGS.
BLACK AND COLOURED SILESIAS, STRIPED SILESIAS AND
SATEENS,
IN ALL COLOURS AND DESIGNS.
BUCKRAMS, CANVASES, JEANS, POCKETINGS,
BLACK AND COLOURED ITALIANS AND SERGES
AT ALL PRICES.
For choice quality and value this department cannot be
beaten by any house in the trade, and merits the support
of every society.
25
HOLGATE STEEET, MANCHESTEE.
ILLUSTEATED CATALOGUE AND PEICE LIST
SENT FREE OF CHARGE TO ANY SOCIETY ON APPLICATION.
»^>S^-<?*^^
THE STOCK IN THIS DEPAETMENT
CONSISTS OF
FURNITURE,
CARPETS, FLOORCLOTHS, &c.,
HARDWARE,
CLOCKS, WATCHES, AND JEWELLERY,
BRUSHES, AND FANCY GOODS.
WE CAN ALSO SUPPLY
GAS ENGINES, GROCERS' MACHINERY, AND EVERY KIND
OF SHOP FITTINGS REQUIRED.
MOST OP
OUR FURNITURE IS NOW MANUFACTURED AT OUR
CABINET WORKS,
AND WE ARE PREPARED TO
ESTIMATE FOR SHOP, OFFICE, AND LIBRARY FIXTURES, &c.
i_i o isr (3- T O iT .
OUR Dep6t Id the Potteries is stocked with a choice selection of goods of the
best manufacture suitable for the requirements of societies. At the same
time we beg to call your attention to the following advantages we possess over
manufacturers : —
FiBST :
We can supply crates of mixed goods of all kinds —
Earthenware, China, Jet, Rocking:ham, Glass, Yellow and
Brown Ware; also Fancy Vases, &c.
Secondly :
With the exception of Tea, Toilet, and Dinner Patterns not stocked, we can
supply all general articles and goods from our list promptly, which manufacturers
cannot continuously do, as they are certain to run out of stock of some kind
very often.
Thirdly :
We can supply very small quantities of each article — which, with the above-
mentioned promptitude, will enable you to keep a very small stock, and place it
within the power of the smallest store to keep crockery to advantage.
Fourthly :
By combining our resources of capital with the services of a buyer on the spot
we are able to purchase goods from the best vmkers, and supply them on as good
terms as can be got by dealing direct with the manufacturers, and in greater
variety.
Fifthly :
In dealing direct there is generally a heavy charge for crates, which will be
avoided, as we find crates and credit on return as per page 6 in list.
We have added Sanitary Goods, such as Closets, Lavatory Basins, £c., dtc, and
can strongly recommend these for price and quality.
We trust that these considerations will induce every society to add crockery to
their other business ; and as we keep a number of crates on hand ready packed,
consisting of China, Earthenware, Rockingham, and Jet Teapots, &c., suitable
for beginning in this branch of trade, we shall be pleased to forward one
immediately to any society which will intimate their willingness to give it a
trial. For assortment of crates, &c., see our Price List, free to any society on
application, also our Illustrated Book of designs.
N.B. — All orders to be sent direct to Longton.
27
MANUFACTUREES
OF
Biscuits, Sweets, Jam and Marmalade,
Dry Soap Powder, &c.
Warehouses :
BALLOON STREET, MANCHESTER ;
WATERLOO STREET, NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE ;
LEMAN STREET, LONDON, E. ;
AND
CHRISTMAS STREET, BRISTOL;
WHERE ALL ORDERS MUST BE SENT.
jyyO supply scyme of the requirements of the Retail Stores, this Society established
^ these Woi'ks in 1872. By the rules of the Society the custom of the
private trader is refused, aiid none hut registered Co-operative Societies are
supplied. The Retail Stores, members of the Wlwlesale Society, are the proprietors
of these Works, and, as such, the exclusion of private trade is a regulation made
by them. We liave, therefoi-e, a just claim upon the SUrres that they should support
their own Works, whilst we acknowledge that they liave a claim upon us to supply
a pure and serviceable article, as good and as cheap, of its kind and quality, as
can be had elsewhere.
THE BISCUITS ARE MADE OF THE PUREST
MATERIALS,
Nearly all the flour used being of co-operative manufacture. The machinery
employed is of the latest style and most perfect character. We have recently
made considerable additions in this department — our productive capacity being
now thrice as great as it was before. The Biscuits produced are such that we
confidently invite comparison, and urgently solicit all Co-operative Societies to
give them a trial.
IN THE MAKING OF SWEETS
We boil the best of sugar (all cane) ; employ the best skill ; use only vegetable
colouring matter, all of which is perfectly hannless; and we can confidently
challenge analysis. Our Sweets need only be tried to be approved.
28
LOZENGES.
Our machinery is of the newest and most approved construction for the making
of Loxenges in all the varieties mostly in request. The difference in value
between one Lozenge and another depends almost entirely on the quantity,
strength, purity, ana delicacy of the flavouring used. In tliese particulars we
aim to excel, and we invite comparison. We trust our friends will give this
department a trial, and have no doubt the article produced will bear comparison
with the productions of the best makers.
JAMS, JELLIES, AND MARMALADE
Are made of the best fruit procurable, and Cane Sugar is used exclusively.
CITRATE OF MAGNESIA, AND SHERBET, OR
LEMON KALI,
Are sometimes pressed by makers upon the attention of the Stores as "a special
cheap quality." They can, however, be made "cheap" only by keeping out the
Acids, which are expensive, and putting in more sugar. This sort of cheapness
makes the article more agreeable to some tastes, but certainly much less useful
and less costly. We aim at making the C.W.S. Citrate and Sherbet the best
value.
"WHEATSHEAF" BAKING POWDER,
In loz. and 2oz. Packets,
Has been tested in practical • use with that of the best makers, and with
favourable results.
Several cases have recently occurred in which retail grocers have been heavily
fined, in addition to the disagreeable public exposure, in consequence of selling
Baking Powder containing a large proportion of Alum instead of Tartaric Acid.
Our friends will find by reference to the C.W.S. Price List, that Alum costs 9s.
per cwt., and Tartaric Acid costs 140s. per cwt. Thus, to make money, the
manufacturer produces an article which, used in the making of bread or other
eatables, yields a food which is injurious to health.
C.W.S. "WHEATSHEAF" BAKING POWDER
DOES XOT CONTAIN ANY ALUM.
C.W.S. "WHEATSHEAF" BLACK LEAD,
In loz. Oblong Blocks, and loz. and 2oz. Round Blocks.
We Block the very best of Lead, and our produce cannot be excelled in the
brilliancy and polish it imparts. Our Loose Black Lead, in loz. and 2oz. packets,
we can confidently recommend.
DRY SOAP.
In the manufacture of Dry Soap it is usual to introduce cheap ingredients
which have no cleansing properties, and only serve to increase the bulk and the
weight, thus catching the unwary by giving them for their money a large packet
of small value. We can assure our friends that we use no ingredients which
have not valuable detergent or cleansing properties, and our Dry Soap will bear
comparison with that of the best makers. This article has been subjected
to the test of analysis by the Manchester City Analyst, and his figures show that
for detergent value or clieansing power the C.W.S. Dry Soap Powder stands in
front when compared with the analysis of three other samples from makers of
highest repute and longest standing.
29
^^cat ^^eaf ^ov^^,
WIGSTON ROAD, LEICESTER.
Warehouses :
BALLOON STREET, MANCHESTER;
WATERLOO STREET, NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE ;
LEMAN STREET, LONDON, E. ; AND CHRISTMAS STREET, BRISTOL.
Salerooms :
LEEDS, HUDDERSFIELD, NOTTINGHAM, BLACKBURN, BIRMINGHAM,
NORTHAMPTON, AND CARDIFF.
♦
T
HE CO-OPERATIVE WHOLESALE SOCIETY LIMITED
MANUFACTURE ALMOST EVERY KIND OF
BOO©S ^nD SF?0€S
AT THE ABOVE WORKS, IN
HAND SEWN, GOODYEAR WELTS,
MACHINE SEWN, FAIR STITCHED, SEW ROUNDS,
RIVETTED, STANDARD SCREWED,
WOOD PEGGED, &c., &c.
The highest Trade Union Wages paid.
The very best materials used.
Work carried on under best Sanitary Conditions.
Trade rapidly Developing, as the Goods give every satisfaction.
The wants of every class of the community supplied.
The Fitting of the Goods are unequalled for Comfort, and the
Quality unrivalled for Durability.
HONEST GOODS,
HONEST WAGES,
HONEST PRICES.
30
WE CAN HIGHLY RECOMMEND THESE
NAMED GOODS : -
<^^RP^
31
LADIES' AND GENT'S CLOTH GAITERS
MADE IN
EVEKY SHAPE AND SHADE OF CLOTH.
Samples on Application to Manchester, Newcastle, and London.
ALL OUE PKODUCTIONS BEAR THE SOCIETY'S
TRADE MARK.
32
IN OUR ILLUSTRATED LIST
We give the uuinlK.>rs of those usually kept iu stock at Manchester, as well as
al the brauoh warehouses in Newcastle and LoDdou. Societies requiring any
kind of goods not mentioned in onr List, we shall be glad to make for them
upon receiving iustructious.
Although there is a growing demand for Low-priced Goods, which we endeavour
to meet, wo have iu no case departed from the principle which has been adhered to
since the commencement of these Works — of always using material of known
excellence, and discarding the use of all substitutes for hottest leather.
The Gontinued and Growing 2emand for our productions
WAHKANTS U8 IN STATING THAT
lor quality and price they are equal, if not superior, to anything supplied by the
general trade. In addition to the wholesale trade, we are now making about three
hundred pairs of Bespoke and Measured Work weekly, and every effort is made
to supply these orders promptly ; but many delays, misfits, and mistakes would
be avoided if ^^ocietios wonld only follow our instructions for measuremeut. A
draft of the foot should in all cases be taken, and scut with the correct
measurement. Societies should use our Order Books sjiecially arranged for this
department, which are only lOd. each, and can be obtained at either the Central
or Branch Warehouses. Cat Soles for Repairing purposes supplied iu any
quantity or quality. Price X.ist and Samples sent on application.
Orders for Regular Stock should be sent to
1, BALLOON STREET, MANCHESTER;
WATERLOO STREET, NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE ;
LEMAN STREET, LONDON, E. ;
And, to prevent delay, orders for
BESPOKE OR MEASURED WORK
MCST BE 8EKT TO
WHEAT SHEAF WORKS, LEICESTER, direct.
Co-operators and Trade Unionists wishing to promote work tinder
the best coTiditions, should ask for
&5HEAIPSHBAP Bf^ANDOPBooiPS^ Shoes
AND TAKE NO OTHEK.
33
^ecftmon6«>tftc ^oof & §&oe ^ox^^.
Warehouses :
BALLOON STREET, MANCHESTER ;
WATERLOO STREET, NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE ;
LEMAN STREET, LONDON, E. ; CHRISTMAS STREET, BRISTOL.
Salerooms :
LEEDS, HUDDERSPIELD, NOTTINGHAM, BLACKBURN, BIRMINGHAM,
NORTHAMPTON, AND CARDIFF.
^-^5t^— ^:*<^-» — -
Orders must be addressed either to Central Office, or to the Branch
Establishments at Newcastle or London.
THESE Works having been considerably enlarged, we are now in a position to
double our production, and we appeal to societies to give us their support.
The Goods we make are Hen's and Youths' Strong Nailed, suitable for
miners, quarrymen, farm labourers, masons, joiners, railway servants, &c. We
also make in Men's and Boys' a quantity of Medium Strength with Smooth
Bottoms, with nails driven up, suitable for a working boot in lighter
occupations.
We also make Women's Strong Laced Mill Boots. In the manufacture of
our goods we pay special attention to the selection of naaterial used for the
inner sole, which is the foundation of a strong boot, and on which depends
entirely the wear, and when re-soled and heeled gives the repairer a good
foundation to work upon. This very important feature applies to the whole of
the goods we make, from the lowest priced ones upwards.
We desire it to be fully understood that none of our manufactm'es contain
paper or composition leather board, but solid leather ; and therefore, if in some
instances our prices are found to be somewhat higher than goods of similar
appearance, you may rely upon it the difference of the price is in the quality.
CUEEYING DEPAETMENT.
The above Department is now in full working order, and we are able to supply
societies with any of the following Goods : —
Levant Hides. I Memel Hides. I Satin Kips.
„ Kips. | ,, Hide Butts. „ Kip Shouldebs.
„ Kip Shoulders. „ Kips. ! Waxed Hide Butts.
„ Horse Shoulders. Satin Hides. \ „ Kip Butts.
„ ,, Bellies. ,, Hide Shoulders. ' „ E. J. Calf.
3i
GILESGATE.
Salerooms and Warehouses :
BALLOON STUEET, MANCHESTER ;
WATERLOO STREET, NEWCASTLE-ON-TYKB ;
LEMAN STREET, LONDON, E. )
CHRISTMAS STREET, BRISTOL ;
LEEDS, HUDDERSFIELD, NOTTINGHAM, BLACKBURN, BIRMINGHAM,
NORTHAMPTON, AND CARDIFF.
THESE Works were established October, 1874, to enable the Society to supply
its members with a pure article. We can, without fear of contradiction,
say that the Soap supplied from these Works is equal to any supplied by the best
manufacturers, combining all the qualities of a substantial cleaning agency, and
being manufactured from the very best raw material.
We supply the following qualities :
Wheatsheap Pale
Golden Pale
FiBST „
Second „
XX
&OLDEN Windsor
Pale „
White Windsor
Cold Water
Best Extra Pale
X
Fine „
Best Mottled
Second ,,
Honey Soap, lib., Jib., and Jib. Tablets.
Almond „ „ „ „ ,,
Soft Soap.
Specialities : —
Carbolic Soap.
Congress Soap (in Tablets).
Wheatsheaf Tablets.
Paraffin Soap.
" C. W. S. Cleanser."
Lily Soap.
All Carriage Paid.
For prices, see Society's Weekly Price List. Samples will be sent on application,.
We are convinced that a much larger trade might be done if societies would
only give this Soap a fair trial. The Co-operative Societies in the Newcastle
district, who obtain their supplies chiefly from this source, find the Soap gives
entire satisfaction to their members. We therefore ask societies to support their
own production, instead of obtaining their supply from other makers, who have
travellers ever on the road waiting upon store managers seeking to influence them
to buy their Soap, and not that of their own manufacture.
CO-OPERATORS, SUPPORT CO-OPERATIVE PRODUCTION.
35
BATLEY, YOEKSHIEE.
WOOLLEN MANUFACTURERS.
Salerooms and Warehouses:
1, BALLOON STREET, MANCHESTER;
WATERLOO STREET, NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE ;
AND LEMAN STREET, LONDON, E.
Orders should be sent either direct to the Central Office,
1, Balloon Street, Manchester, or to the Branches, Waterloo
Street, Newcastle, and Leman Street, London.
WOOLLENS AND WORSTEDS.
THE Productions of our Batley Mill are uot to be surpassed in either
Quality, Style, or Price.
We are now manufacturing some of the choicest patterns in
FANCY WORSTED TROUSERINGS AND TWEEDS.
Our INDIGO BLUE SERGES AND WOADED BLACK WORSTED
COATINGS are so well known throughout the Stores as to need no further
description.
We have lately added to oup Weaving Plant some of the newest and
most e£Bcient Fast Looms and Beaming Machinery, so that we are now
in a position to meet satisfactorily the increasing demands of our
customers.
Pattern Cabds will be sent on Application.
CO-OPERATORS! Ask at your STORES for BATLEY CLOTHS.
See tluxt you get them, and don't be persiuided to take any other.
36
FOR WHICH THE
CO-OPERATIVE WHOLESALE SOCIETY ARE AGENTS.
The Agricultural and Horticultural Association Limited.
Reliable Farm and Gardcu Seeds; special Mauures for Fruit, Vegetable, and
Oardeu Crops.
The Airedale Manufacturing Society Limited.
Manufacturers of Black Alpaca Lustres, Black Brilliautiues, Black aud
Coloured French Twills, Mohair Glac6s. Black aud Coloured Persian, Russel and
Cable Cords, Wool Serges, Black Orleans, Black and Coloured Italians, Black
and Coloured Figures, Mottles, Mixtures. Stripes, &c., &c.
The Coventry Co-operative Watch Manufacturing Society Limited.
The Watches supplied by this Society %ve cau well recommend as being of
oniform good qualitj', and it engages to keep them in good going order for twelve
months from date of purchase. We trust that individuals, through their societies,
will give us their orders, so that we may do a larger trade in this department.
Watches, from £2. 10s. to £25 each.
The Dudley Nail Manufacturing Society Limited.
The Dudley Productive Co-operative Society Limited.
Manufacturers of all kinds of Galvanised Goods, Buckets, Nails, &c.
The Eccles Industrial Manufacturing Society Limited.
Manufacturers of Toilet, Alhambra, aud Damask Quilts, by hand and power ;
also Twill Sheetings, all of the best quality, and in tastily-arranged patterns.
Having repeatedly compared the Quilts produced by the Eccles Manufactiiring
Society with the Quilts made by other firms, we are thoroughly satisfied that
those made b}* them are equal, and, when cost is considered, superior, to those
sold by other makers. All Toilet and Honeycomb Quilts sold by the Co-operative
Wholesale Society are made by the Eccles Manufacturing Society, and all
members, when purchasing, should ask for the Eccles Quilts, and insist upon
having them.
37
The Hebden Bridge Fustian Manufacturing Society Limited.
Manufacturers of Cords, ^loles, Velveteeus, Imperials, Diagonals, Sateens,
Twills, &c., in every variety and colour ; Fustian Clothing, ready-made and to
order. Samples and prices on application.
The Heckmondwike Manufacturing Society Limited.
Manufacturers of Carpets, Horse Cloths, Blankets, &c.
The Lancashire and Yorkshire Co-operative Productive Society Limited.
Manufacturers of Flannels, plain and coloured, of guaranteed purity and
excellence of manufacture, combined with reasonable prices. Societies ordering
sufficiently large may, if desired, have the goods finished to suit their special
markets.
The Leek Silk Twist Manufacturing Company Limited.
The Leicester Elastic Web Manufacturing Society Limited.
The Leicester 2nd Hosiery Manufacturing Society Limited.
We are now their sole agents, and keep a stock of all classes of goods made
by them.
The Midland Nail Makers' Association Limited.
The Paisley Manufacturing Society Limited.
Manufacturers of Saxony Wool Shawls and Plaids, in plain and fancy checks.
Saxony Wool Handkerchiefs and Scarfs, Dress Tartans, and Twilled and Plain
Wool Shirtings. A large variety of patterns to select from.
The Rochdale Pioneers' Society Limited.
Manufacturers of Tobacco, Snuffs, &c.
The Sheepshed Hosiery Manufacturing Society Limited.
The ShefiBeld Co-operative Cutlery Manufacturing Society Limited.
38
BETW'EEN
GARSTON (Ln'ERPOOL) & ROUEN.
OFFICES :
CENTRAL : BALLOON STREET, MANCHESTER.
LIVERPOOL : 7, VICTORIA STREET.
GARSTON : NEW DOCK. ROUEN : 2, RUE JEANNE D'ARC.
OR OTHER STEAMER DESPATCHED FORTNIGHTLY.
EXTRA STEAMERS TO SUIT THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE TRADE.
Goods carried at through rates, with quick despatch, between Liverpool, Han-
chaster, Birmingham, and North of England Towns, and Paris, Lyons, Beauvais, Lille,
and North and East of France.
For Rates of Freight and other information, apply to the Society's offices, as above.
On the outward voyages from Garston, in addition to sundry goods, the ship-
ments consist largely of caustic soda, bleaching powder, and other chemicals from
Widnes and St. Helens districts — machinery from Manchester and Bolton and
neighbouring towns — American and East Indian cotton which has arrived at
Liverpool and been ordered for shipment to Rouen, the principal seat of cotton
industry in France. There are also considerable shipments of copper. On
arrival of the goods at Garston thej' are taken directly alongside our steamers, in
the railway wagons, and then by means of powerful hydraulic cranes they are
transferred from the wagons to ttie hold of the steamers. By this means shippers
may rely on the shipments being effected with prompt despatch, and we avoid
the risk of damage which sometimes occurs when cartage is employed.
At Rouen the steamei-s are berthed in close proximity to the railway line, so
that goods can be landed from the steamers direct on to the railwaj- wagons Or
when consignees order goods to be forwarded from Rouen by water, the river
barges are loaded alongside the steamer, and these are towed by powerful steam
tugs up the Seine to Paris. Pronding no exceptional delay occurs, the transit
up the river occupies little over two days.
On the return journey from Rouen the steamer's cargo principally consists of
loaf sugar coming from Pai-is, also sugar in bags, chemicals, dye stuffs, flour,
field seeds, metals, and besides thei'e are sundry goods in cases, such as glass-
ware, toys, haberdashery, and articles de Paris.
In fine weather the sea vo5-age between Grarston and Rouen occupies about
three days. No effort is spared to ensure the steamer being despatched punctually
from each port on the appointed dates, and as by this means a regular service is
maintained, we are favoui-ed with a large traffic from general shippers.
39
g)Oole anb palate ^ine of §f earners.
CENTEAL OFFICES : 1, BALLOON STREET, MANCHESTEE.
GOOLE OFFICES : STANHOPE STREET.
CALAIS OFFICES : RUE DE MADRID.
Weekly Service between Goole & Calais.
. -s— i-
THE new powerful and fast steamships " PIONEER," " PROGRESS," or
other steamer, will (weather and other casualties permitting) sail regularly
between Goole and Calais, leaving Goole ever}* Wednesday and Calais every
Saturday. This line is in direct communication at Goole with the L. & Y. and
N. E. Railway Companies, whose wagons can be loaded direct from the steamers,
thereby ensuring despatch with the least risk of damage to the goods carried by
the line.
The Aire and Calder Navigation Company run their canal boats alongside
the Company's steamers, so that all who prefer their goods carried by canal can
have them loaded direct into the Aire and Calder Company's boats and vice versd.
At Calais the steamers are berthed near the Custom House and opposite the
goods warehouse of the North of France Railway Company, where the goods can
be stored waiting the arrival of the steamers.
The North of France Railway Company have a line of rails laid to the place
where the steamers are berthed, so that goods entrusted to this line can be safely
and quickly despatched to their destination. The Goole and Calais route is the
best and cheapest between the great manufacturing centres of the North of
England and those of the North of Fance ; and shippers in those districts will
find it to their advantage to give this line a trial.
GOODS AKE CAEKIED AT THROUGH RATES
FROM ANY PART OF THE UNITED KINGDOM TO THE PRINCIPAL CITIES
OF FRANCE AND THE CONTINENT.
For Bates of Freight and otlier information a2)ply as above.
40
^oorc & ^maalHivg Smc of steamers.
♦ -
CENTRAL offices: 1, BALLOON STREET, MANCHESTER.
OOOLE OFFICES : STANHOPE STREET.
HAMBURG BROKER: D. FUHRMANN (NISSLE AND GUNTHER SUCCESSOR),
DOVENHOF, HAMBURG.
Regular Service between GOOLE & HAMBURG.
THE POWERFUL AND FAST STEAMSHIPS
"LIBERTY," "EQUITY," and "FEDERATION,"
OR OTHER STEAMERS,
WILL (WEATHER AND OTHER CASUALTIES PERMITTING) SAIL REGULARLY
BETWEEN GOOLE AND HAMBURG,
LEAVING EACH PORT TWICE A WEEK.
Extra Steamers to suit tJie requirements of the Trade.
This line is in direct communication at Goole with the L. and Y.
and N. E. Railway Companies, whose wagons can be loaded direct
from the steamer, without the risk or expense of cartage. This is of
great importance to shippers, as it ensures a quick delivery of their
goods in a clean and undamaged condition.
The Aire and Calder Navigation Company run their canal boats
alongside the Company's steamers, so that all who prefer their goods
carried by canal can have them loaded direct into the Aire and
Calder Company's boats, and vice versd.
At Hamburg the steamers are berthed alongside the warehouses
of the Railway Company, where the goods can be stored waiting
the arrival of the steamers.
GOODS ARE CARRIED AT THROUGH RATES
FBOM ANY PART OF THE UNITED KINGDOM TO THE PRINCIPAL CITIES
OF GERMANY AND THE CONTINENT.
For Bates of Freight and other information apply as above.
41
MEETINGS
AND OTHEE COMING EVENTS
IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOCIETY IN
1894.
Jan. 27 — Saturday..
. Nomination Lists : Last day for receiving.
Feb. 27— Tuesday . . .
.Voting Lists : Last day for receiving.
Mar. 3 — Saturday . .
.Newcastle and London Branch and
Quarterly Meetings.
Divisional
Mar. 10 — Saturday . .
. General Quarterly Meeting — Manchester.
Mar. 24 — Saturday . .
. Quarter Day.
April 28— Saturday . . .
• Nomination Lists : Last day for receiving.
May 29— Tuesday . . .
.Voting Lists : Last day for receiving.
June 2 — Saturday . . .
.Newcastle and London Branch and
Quarterly Meetings.
Divisional
June 9 — Saturday . . .
. General Quarterly Meeting — Manchester.
June 23 — Saturday . .
. Quarter Day.
July 28 — Saturday . . .
.Nomination Lists : Last day for receiving.
Aug. 28— Tuesday . . .
.Voting Lists : Last day for receiving.
Sept. 1 — Saturday . . .
.Newcastle and London Branch and
Quarterly Meetings.
Divisional
Sept. 8— Saturday.. .
.General Quarterly Meeting— Manchester.
Sept. 22— Saturday. .
. Quarter Day.
Oct. 27 — Saturday . . .
. Nomination Lists : Last day for receiving.
Nov. 27 — Tuesday . . .
. Voting Lists : Last day for receiving.
Dec. 1 — Saturday . . .
.Newcastle and London Branch and
Quarterly Meetings.
Divisional
Dec. 8 — Saturday . . .
. General Quarterly Meeting — Manchester.
Dec. 22— Saturday.. .
. Quarter Day.
42
PRINCIPAL EVENTS IN CONNECTION WITH THE
CO-OPERATIVE WHOLESALE SOCIETY
SINCE ITS COMMENCEMENT.
Events.
C5o-operative Wholesale Society enrolled.
Co-operative Wholesale Society commenced business.
Tipperary Branch opened.
Kilmallock Branch opened.
Balloon Street Warehouse opened.
Limerick Branch opened.
Newcastle-on-Tyne Branch opened.
Manchester Boot and Shoe Department commenced.
Bank Department commenced.
Crumpsall Works purchased .
Armagh Branch opened.
Manchester Drapery Department established.
Waterford Branch opened.
Cheshire Branch opened.
Leicester Works purchased.
Insurance Fund established.
Leicester Works commenced.
Tralee Branch opened.
London Branch established.
Durham Soap Works commenced.
Liverpool Purchasing Department commenced.
Manchester Drapery Warehouse, Dantzic Street, opened.
Newcastle Branch Buildings, Waterloo Street, opened.
New York Branch established.
S.S. "Plover" purchased.
Manchester Furnishing Department commenced.
Leicester Works first Extensions opened.
Cork Branch established.
Land in Liverpool purchased.
S.S. "Pioneer," Launch of.
Rouen Branch opened.
S S. " Pioneer," Trial trip.
Goole Forwarding Department opened.
S.S. "Plover" sold.
Heckmondwike Boot and Shoe Works commenced.
London Drapery Department commenced in new premises.
Hooper Square.
1881 . . June 6 . . Copenhagen Branch opened.
Ykab.
Day.
1863 .
Aug. 11
1864 .
Mar 14
1866 .
April 24
1868 .
June 1
1860 .
Mar. 1
»• •
July 12
1871 .
Nov. 26
1872 .
Julv 1
11
Oct. 14
1878 .
Jan. 13
n
April 14
f» •
June 2
11 •
. July 14
11
. Aug. 4
11 •
. It 4
It
. It 16
>1
. Sept. 15
1874 .
. Feb. 2
11
. Mar. 9
11
. Oct. 5
1875 .
. April 2
It
. June 15
1876 .
. Feb 14
11
. „ 21
It
. May 24
It
. Julv 16
It
. Aug. 5
1877 .
. Jan. 15
„
. Oct. 25
1879 .
. Feb. 21
11
. Mar. 24
„
• ,1 29
11
. June 80
1880 .
. Jan. 80
11
. Aug. 14
11
. Sept. 27
43
PEINCIPAL
EVENTS IN CONNECTION WITH THE
j
CO-OPEEATIVE WHOLESALE SOCIETY
SINCE ITS COMMENCEMENT. — CONTINUED.
Year.
Day.
Events.
1880 .
. July 27 .
S.S. '• Cambrian " purchased.
1882 .
. Oct. 31 .
Leeds Saleroom opened.
,,
. Nov. 1 .
London Tea and Coffee Department commenced.
1883 .
. July 21 .
S.S. " Marianne Briggs " purchased.
1884 .
. April 7 .
Hamburg Branch commenced.
„
. May 31 .
Leicester Works second Extensions opened.
„
. June 25 .
Newcastle Branch — New Drapery Warehouse opened.
" •
. Sept. 13 .
Commemoration of the Society's Twenty-first Anniversary
at Newcastle-on-Tyne and London.
„ .
. „ 20 .
Commemoration of the Society's Twenty-first Anniversary
at Manchester.
„
. „ 29 .
Bristol Depot commenced.
,,
. Oct. 6 .
. S.S. " Progress," Launch of
1885 .
, Dec. 30 .
Fire — Tea Department, London.
1886 .
. April 22 .
Nottingham Saleroom opened.
»
. Aug. 25 .
Longtou Crockery Depot opened.
>>
. Oct. 12 .
S.S. " Federation," Launch of.
1887 .
. Mar. 14 .
Batley Mill commenced.
)>
. June 1 .
S.S " Progress " damaged by fire at Hamburg.
,,
. July 21 .
Manchester — New Furnishing Warehouse opened.
„
. Aug. 29 ..
Heckmondwike —Currying Department commenced.
„
. Nov. 2 ..
London Branch — New Warehouse opened.
,,
• „ 2 .
ISIanufacture of Cocoa and Chocolate commenced.
1888 .
. July 7 .
S.S. "Equity," Launch of.
..
. Sept. 8 .
S.S. ' Equity," Trial trip.
,,
M 27 .
S.S. " Cambrian " sold.
,,
. Oct. 14 .
Fire —Newcastle Branch *
1889 .
. Feb. 18 .
Enderby Extension opened.
.,
Nov. 11 ..
Lougton Depot New Premises opened.
1890 .
. Mar. 10 .
S.S. " Liberty," Trial trip.
»
. Oct. 22 .
Northampton Saleroom opened.
1891 .
. April 18 .
Dunston Corn Mill opened.
..
Oct. 22 .
Cardiff Saleroom opened.
,,
Nov. 4 . .
Leicester New Works opened.
.1
. M 16 .
Aarhus Branch opened.
1892 .
. May 5 . .
Birmingham Saleroom opened.
1893 ,
. „ 8 ..
Broughton Cabinet Factory opened.
44
LIST OF TELEGRAPHIC ADDRESSES.
Cestral. Manchester : " WHOLESALE, MANCHESTER."
Newcastle Branch : " WHOLESALE, NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE."
London Branch : " CO-OPERATIVE, LONDON."
Bristol DEPdT: "WHOLESALE, BRISTOL."
Liverpool Office and Warehocse : " WHOLESALE, LIVERPOOL."
Leeds Sale and Sample Rooms : " WHOLESALE, LEEDS."
Crumpsall Works : " BISCUIT, MANCHESTER."
Cardiff Saleroom: "WHOLESALE, CARDIFF."
Leicester Shoe Works: "WHOLESALE, LEICESTER."
Heckmondwike Shoe Works : " WHOLESALE, HECKMONDWIKE."
Batley Woollen Mill: "WHOLESALE, BATLEY."
Leeds Ready-mades Factory: "SOCIETY, LEEDS."
LosoTON Crockery Dep6t : " WHOLESALE, LONGTON (STAFF.)."
Soap Works, Durham : " WHOLESALE, DURHAM."
Corn Mill, Dcnstos-os-Tyne : "WHOLESALE, DUNSTON, GATESHEAD."
Northampton Saleroom: "WHOLESALE, NORTHAMPTON."
TELEPHONIC COMMUNICATION.
Our Premises in the following towns are directly connected with
the Local Telephone System : —
N08.
MANCHESTER— GENERAL OFFICES 802
t856
DRAPERY DEPARTMENT 908
FURNISHING DEPARTMENT 1765
CRUMPSALL— SUB TO MANCHESTER GENERAL OFFICES.
BROUGHTON— CABINET WORKS t814
NEWCASTLE 1260
'284
LONDON -GROCERY AND PROVISION 2385
DRAPERY 2384
TEA DEPARTMENT 2217
BRISTOL 40
LIVERPOOL 397
GARSTON 2706
GOOLE 2
LEICESTER 235
LONGTON 416
DUNSTON 1261
• Post-office System, t New. All others National Telephone Company.
45
CO-OPEEATIVE WHOLESALE SOCIETY LIMITED.
PAST MEMBERS OF GENERAL COMMITTEE.
*A. Greenwood . . .
fCouncillor Smithies
gJames Dyson
Edward Hooson . . .
John Hilton .....'
•James Crabtree . . .
Joseph Thomasson . . . .
Charles Howarth . . . .
J. Neild
Thomas Cheetham . . . .
§E. Longfield
t J. M. Percival
Isaiah Lee
§D. Baxter
J. Swindells
T. Sutcliffe
J James C. Fox
W. Marcroft
Thomas Pearson . . . .
R. Holgate
A. Mitchell
W. Moore
JTitusHall
B. Hague
Thomas Shorrocks . . . .
JR. Allen
Job Whiteley
J Thomas Hayes
Jonathan Pishwick . .
J. Thorpe
JW. Johnson
§H. WhUey
Rochdale. . .
Rochdale. . .
Manchester
Manchester
Middleton
Heckmondwike
Oldham . .
Heywood . .
Mossley . .
Rochdale . .
Manchester
Manchester
Oldham . . . .
Manchester . .
Hyde
Todmorden . .
Manchester . .
Oldham . . . .
Eccles
Over Darwen
Rochdale . . . .
Batley Carr . .
Bradford . • . .
Bamsley . . . .
Over Darwen
Oldham . . . .
Halifax
Failsworth . .
Bolton
Halifax
Bolton . . . . ,
Manchester
1863 August
1863 August
1863 August
1863 August
1866 May...
1863 August
1863 August
1865 Nov. .
1885 Dec. .
1886 June .
1863 August
1866 May...
1864 ^Nlarch
1864 March
1867 Nov. .
1864 March
1867 May..
1868 Feb...
1870 Feb...
1876 March
1867 Nov.
1868 May..
1868 Nov.
1868 Nov.
1868 Nov.
1869 May..
1869 Nov.
1869 Nov.
1870 August
1870 Nov.
1871 May.
1877 June
1871 May.
1874 Dec.
1871 ]\Iay.
1871 August
1871 August
1873 Feb..
1871 Nov.
1871 Nov.
1872 Feb..
1872 Feb..
1877 June
1872 August
1874 May..,
1870
1869
1867
1864
1869
1868
1864
1874
1886
1889
1864
1869
1866
1865
1868
1865
1867
1868
1872
1882
1868
1871
1869
1869
1871
1871
1871
1870
1870
1871
1874
1885
1873
1884
1871
1877
1872
1874
1873
1872
1873
1876
1885
1874
1876
August.
May.
May.
INIarch.
Dec.
Nov.
March.
May.
]\Iarcli.
Dec.
March.
Nov.
October.
Nov.
Nov.
Nov.
Nov.
May.
August.
June.
Nov.
May.
Nov.
Nov.
May.
May.
Nov.
Nov.
Nov.
August.
Dec.
Dec.
M&y.
Sept.
Nov.
April.
Feb.
Feb.
August.
Feb.
Feb.
June.
March.
Feb.
March.
Held Office as President.
,, ,, Secretary.
+ Held Office as Secretary and Treasurer.
ij ,, ,, Treasurer.
46
PAST MEMBERS OP GENERAL COMMITTEE.— Con^mu^d.
NAME.
J. Butcher . . .
H. Atkinson
J. F. Brearlej' .
Robert Cooper.
H. Jackiion . . .
J. Pickersgill .
\V Banictt . . .
W. Nuttall . . .
S. Lever
F. R. Stephenson
R. Whittle
Joseph Mc.Nab . .
James Hilton
Samuel Taylor ! Bolton
William P. Hemm I Nottingham
ADDRESS.
Banbury
Blaydon-on-Tyne
Oldham
Accrington
Halifax
Batley Carr
Macclesfield
Oldham
Bacup
Halifax
Crewe
Hyde
Oldham
1873 May..,
1878 August
1874 Feb...
1874 Feb...
1874 Dec.
1874 Dec.
1874 Dec.
1876 June
1876 Sept.
1886 March
1876 Sept
1877 Dec.
1883 Dec.
1884 Sept,
1885 Sept.
1888 Sept.
1873
1874
1874
1876
1876
1877
I 1882
1877
' 1885
I 1888
- 1877
I 1886
I 1886
! 1890
1891
I 1889
August.
Dec.
Dec.
June.
June.
March.
Sept.
Dec.
Sept.
May.
March.
March.
March.
January.
Dec.
August.
• PAST MEMBERS OF NEWCASTLE BRANCH COMMITTEE.
SAitE.
ADDBESS.
ELECTED.
BETIRED.
George Dover
Chester-le-Street . .
1874 Dec
1877 Sept.
Humphrev Atkinson . .
Blaydon-on Tyne ..
1874 Dec
: 1879 May.
fJames Patterson . . .
West Cramlington . .
1874 Dec
1877 Sept.
John Steel
Newcastle-on-Tyne. .
1874 Dec
1876 Sept.
William Green
Durham
1874 Dec
1891 Sept.
Thomas Pinkney
Newbottle
1874 Dec
1876 March.
t John Thirlaway
Gateshead
1876 Dec
1892 May.
William Robinson
Shotley Bridge
1877 Sept
1884 June.
William J. Howat
Newcastle-on-Tyne. .
1877 Dec
1883 Dec.
J. Atkinson
Wallsend
1883 Dec
1 1890 May.
George Frver
Cramlington
1883 Dec
1 1887 Dec.
Matthew Bates . .
Newcastle-on-Tyne...
1884 June . . . .
1893 June.
Richard Thompson . .
Sunderland
1874 Dec
1893 Sept.
(George Scott
Newbottle
1879 May
1 1893 Dec.
• PAST MEMBERS OF LONDON BRANCH COMMITTEE.
;;ah£.
ADDBESS.
i
; ELECTED.
1
RETIRED.
J. Durrant
Arundel
. . 1874 Dec
1875 Dec.
John Green
Woolwich
.. 1874 Dec
1876 Dec.
tThomas Fowe
Buckfastleigh . . .
.. 1874 Dec
1878 March.
fWilliam Strawn
Sheemess
. . 1875 Dec
1882 ^larch.
Frederick Lamb
Banbury
. . 1876 Dec
1888 Dec.
F. A. WiUiams
Reading
. . 1882 June
1886 Sept.
J.J. B. Beach
Colchester
. . 1886 Dec
1888 Dec.
Newcastle and London Branch Committees constituted December, 1874.
t Held OflSce as Secretary.
47
CO-OPERATIVE WHOLESALE SOCIETY
LIMITED.
MEMBERS OF GENERAL AND NEWCASTLE
AND LONDON BRANCH COMMITTEES WHO HAVE DIED
DURING TIME OF OFFICE.
NAME. ADDRESS.
DATE OF DEATH.
GENERAL.
Edward Hooson
Manchester
December 11th, 1869.
Robert Allen
Oldham
April 2nd, 1877.
Richard Whittle
1
Crewe
March 6th, 1886.
Samuel Lever
Bacup
May 18th, 1888.
William P. Hemm 1 Nottingham
August 21st, 1889.
James Hilton | Oldham
January 18th, 1890.
Samuel Taylor Bolton
1
December 15th, 1891.
NEWCASTLE.
J. Atkinson
Wallsend
Durham
May 25th, 1890.
September 9th, 1891.-
William Green
John Thirlaway
Gateshead
LONDON.
May 1st, 1892.
J. J. B. Beach
Colchester
December 21st, 1888.
48
PROGRESS FROM COMMENCEMENT, IN
i
't
I
Tear Ekdiso
Oet.
Jan.
Dee.
1864 (80 wc«k8)
18C6
1866
1868 (66 weeks)
1869
WTO
1871 (08 weeks)
1878
1878
1874
1875
1876
1877 (68 weeks)
1878
1879
1879 (50 weeks)
1880
1881
1882
1888
1884 (58 weeks)
1885
1886
1887
1889 (58 weeks).
1800
1891
1892
"^ o o o
6,885
6,iM9
18,800
17,896
33,264
24,717
24.979
38,206
80,688
88 663
84.351
88,648
41,783
45,099
51,099
68,612
64,475
67,704
72,899
92.572
100,022
112,839
18,887
34,005
81,080
59,849
74,787
79,245
89,880
114,588
184,276
168,985
198,608
248,516
276,522
374,649
805,161
881,625
861,528
867,978
404,006
.483-,151
459,734
507.772
558,104
604,800
684,196
679,836
781,316
761,269
824,149
Capital.
I £
3,455
7,182
10,968
11.276
14,8«8
16,.'>56
19,015
24,410
> 81,352
[ 48,126
60,980
I 78,249
j 94,590
i 103,091
I 117,657
I 130,615
I 146,061
j 156,052
I 171,940
186,692
j 207,080
I 284,112
! 270,679
800,953
I 318 588
) 342,218
I 434,017
I 473,956
623,512
SCO
£
Inclu-
ded in
Sliares.
; 14,865
16,(J59
2-2,822
1 22.823
25,768
112,589
^ 147,949
193,594
I 286,614 1
j 299,287 1
! 287,5361
I 291,989 {
i 321,670
I 361,805
; 386,824
I 416,832
455,879
I 494,840
' 524,781
567,527
590,091
648,134
722,321
824,974
9(10.752
925,471
•-831
682
1.115
1,280,
2,826
1,910 1
2,916 1
1,618 i
5,878'
8,910 1
13,681
14,554 I
16,245 :
36,240 j
88,422 I
16,037 I
20,757 I
20,447 j
25,126 I
81,094 j
87,755
89,095
51,189
58,358
48,549 j
68,165
56,301
8,866
8,885
5,884
10,848
13,556
15,137
15,710
17,905
18,644
19,729
21,949
24,824
40,084
57.015
78.287
84.201
119,541
684
788
1,146
1,095
1,661
2,489
2,945
6,214
9,988
11,104
11,408
13,666
13,928
9,197
155,231 {11,695
198.116 >15,409
218,534 17,827
£
3,456
7,183
11,000
36,818
82,062
40,658
44,164
62,088
146,857
900,044
363,282 I
879,607 i
417,985
418,525 I
442,114 j
494,330 j
565,854
580,046
632,205
691,181 [
761,858 j
841,175 {
944,879
1,017,042
1,116,085
1,251,635
1,474,466
1,636,897
1,741,645
£
61,867
130.754
176,489
381,744
412,240
607,217
677,734
768,764
1,158,132
1,686,950
1,964,829
2,247,395 1
2,697,366
2,827,052
2,705.625
2,645,381 !
3,889,681
8,574,095
4,088,238
4,546,889
4,675,871
4,793,151
5,223,185
5,718.279
6,200,074
7,028,944
7,429,078
8,766,480
9,800,904
95,642,748
Dr.
TRADE
RESERVE FUND ACCOUNT FROM
additions to— £
From Disposal of Profit Account, as above 106,142
Boons to Employes : Balances between Amounts Provided and actually Paid 811
Di>'idend on Bad Debts, previously written off '. 786
Unclaimed Shares and Cash 20
Profit on Sale of Stra wbi'rry Estate, Newcastle 1,953
„ „ Land. Liverpool 713
„ „ Land and Buildings, Rosedale 11
Interest on Manchester Ship Canal Shares 1,515
Dividend on Sales to Employes 247
£111.647
49
MAECH, 1864, TO DECEMBER, 1892.
Compariaon
Distributive j
.•. j Additions
with corre-
sponding period
Expenses.
4i
.S.'2 TO Tbadb.
P
^ S.^i
«
previous year.
Rate on Sales
£
S''2«i trs
o
Dates Departments and Branches
Increase.
K«te.
Amnt.
Per
£.
Per
£100.
^
i
1^ 1 1-
£
£
s. d.
£
d. £
£
847
1?
13 ^
267
li
906
^1
15 0
1 1,858
3i ....
54,735
45i
1,615
2j
18 4f
18 10|
16 2|
2,310
3 284
Tipperary.
112,688
51i!
8,185
2i
4,411
3 j 450
124,068
43
8,388
H
' 4.862
2| ! 416
Eilmallock.
94,977
23
4,644
2i
l'
18 8§
4,248
If 542
Limerick.
159,379 1 30i
5,583
16 5|
7,626
2| 1,620
86,559
m
6,853
H
^i
18 Oa
7,867
2i 1,086
Newcastle.
894,868
51|
12,811
22 2g
11,116
2j 1,248
Manchester Boot and Shoe, Crumpsall.
483,818
411
21,147
3
25 10
14,288
2 922
( Armagh, M'chester Drapery, Leicester,
1 Hartford, Waterford, Clonmel.
327,879
20
28,436
H
28 Hi
20.684
•2 i 4.461
London, Tralee, Durham.
282,566 1 141
31,555
33
28 OJ
26,750
23 ! 4,828
Liverpool.
401,095 ; 17i
42,436
8J
31 5§
36,979
23 4,925
( New York, Goole, Furnishing. S.8.
188,897
7f
43,169
^i
30 63
29,189
2 579
Cork.
121.427*
43,093
8J
31 lOJ
34,959
2J 1 5,970
22,774
I
41,309
8J
31 21
42,764
2| 8,060
J Launch of Steamship " Pioneer."
1 Rouen. Goole forwarding depot.
611,282
m
47,153
M
28 2|
42,090
23 10,651
Heckmondwike.
284,414
7
51,806
38
28 Si
46,650
2g j 7,672
/ Copenhagen. Purchase of S.S. " Cam-
464,143 1 12^
57.840
33
28 ii\
49,658
2J 3,416
....
Tea and Coffee Department, London.
508,651 12|
66,057
33
29 og ;
47,885
2| 8,176
Purchase of S.S. " Marianne Briggs."
41,042 1 i 1
70,343
34
30 1
54,491
2J 6,432
f Hamburg. Bristol Depot. Launch of
( S.S. "Progress."
203,946 4| 1
74,805
Si
31 0
77,630
31 i 4,434
18,259
430,028
8i
81,653
3|
31 3i
83,328
3i i 7,077
15,469
f Longton Dep6t. Launch of S.S.
I " Federation."
490,056
9g'
98.979
35
82 lO'i
65,141
2i 9,408
2,778
Batlev, Heckmondwike Currying.
486,839
8i
11)5,027
4
33 105
82,490
2J i 8,684
3 1
6,614
(London Cocoa Department. LaunchoJ
I S.S " Equity." Batley Ready Mades.
709,638 114
117.849
4
83 63 '
101,984 '
3J 2,249
16,658
532,750 71
126,879
4
34 li
126,979
3* i
20,982
f Launch of S.S. " Liberty." Leeds
I P>eady-Mades Department.
1,337,357 18
531,474 6 :
143,151
165,737
4i
32 n
35 7^ [
135,008 '
98.532
3* 1,145
2* ; 6,?;i4
14,702
1,000
Dunston, Aarhus, Leicester New Works
Bronghton Cabinet Works.
.... ' .. ll,491,lS6l
3S
31 ^ II 1.262.189
2i 106,142
91,462
* Decrease.
DEPARTMENT.
COMMENCEMENT OF THE SOC
3IETY.
Cr.
Deductions from—
£
Celebration Dinner : Opening Wnretaonse, Ball
con Street . . .
56
Land and Buildings Account Depreciation, Sp
Fixtures „ „
1,148
862
'
16
6,000
11 If nonnrt.iTiBnf
la,259
„ „ Trade Department
10,660
20,000
13,468
2l8t Anniversary Commemoration Expenses, il.
2,017
72,476
al Accoa
nt i;34,528
as per propu
Bed Disp
osal of Profit Accouot. 4,643
89,171
I
£111,647
50
STATEMENT OP LAND, BUILDINGS, STEAMSHIPS, ANDj
Land.
o S «
11^
XAKOaBtTSB :—
1, Balloon 8tr««t, and 86, S7,|
80, and 41. Garden Street
SI to 81, and 43 to 50. Back
B*lloon 8l.,AaO,Holnt0 St
Balloon Street and Uolgate
Stretrt
Dantaic St, Oarden St.,
Cable St.. and CroM St. . .'
8H to 96, Corporation Street^
Oarden Street !
14. 16. and 18, Balloon St.,andl
14, 16 and 18, Holgate St..
Nhwca«ti.k-oh-Ttj«« :—
Thornton Street, Waterloo
St., & Went Blandford St
London : —
Leinan Street & Great Pres-
cott 8treet
Bbibtol
Crcmpsall I
I
Leicxstbb
EXDKBBT j
Hkckxomdwixb I
Durham
Batlky I
DCS8TOH
Litkrpooi. I
CmXRtRE
BnUtlN'OHAX
LbXD8
Limerick (8S9 years' lease). .
WaU-rford
Kilinallock
Tipi>erary (99 years' leaae)..
Cork
rralee (99 years' lease) ....
Armagh
New York (America)
COPEKBAOEM
AARHirs
Hambcro
LoNOTOH
BocEK (France)
Calais
Goouc
Longsigbt
Gorton
Lower Brooghton
Bolton
Newhall
Taff
Qanton and Ronen, Goole
and Calais, and Goole'
and Hamborg Lines. .. .
Dnnston
Grocery Warehonses and Meet-
ing-room
Property on Rental
Centr»romct'«, Bank. Boot usd
Shop, and Furnishing Ware-
hooMes, and White Lion Hotel
Drapery, Woollens, and Ready
mndea Departments
Warehonses on Rental
New Engine-house, &c
Property on Rental
Total, Manchester.
Ofllces, Grocery, and Drapery
W'honse, Boot & Shoe A Fur-
nishing W'liouse. Dining-rm
Offlce8,Orocerv,Drapery,Boot&
Shoe,FurniMbin»{,&Tea,Coaee
t, Cocoa Warehouse, Property
on Rental, Stables, &c. . . .
Warehouse and Sate Rooms
Biscuits and Sweets, and Dry
and Soft Soap Works. .
Boot and Shoe Works . .
lueoi
465
U9H
686
750
416
80561
8770
Yearly
Chief.
Total
Pay-
ments
I. d.
4 10
16 17 6
8 18 6
5 0 0
Freehold
Freehold.
51 16 10
Freehold.
4072J
10585 I 46 0 0
SIOOO Freehold.
I 776 I „
Boot A Shoe & Curr>'ing Works 5947
Soap Works
Woollen Mill & Ready-mades. .
Com Mill
Office Fittings
Horse and Trap
Sale Room
Ready-mades
Buiter Purchasing Dep6t
House & Butter Store on RentaL
Butter Purchasing Dep6t
Butter and Eggs „
OlBce Fittings .
Crockery DepAt and House. .
Shipping DepAt, Shed, OfBce
Fittings, Ac.
„ Offices, Crane & Lines
10941
7086
480i
5961
"e98J
2785
Freehold
10 0 0
4 0 C
6 0 0
36 7 0
12872
1460
85999
17984
11250
6000
4700
90205
83262
22694
9567
84
1442
1095
8726
1708 ! Freehold.
118 15 i
Freehold.
9 11 0
Land 46847 Freehold
Dwelling-houses and Shops . . 9000 „
Cabinet Works 8717
Dwelling-houses and Shops . . 10819^
Dwelling-houses and Shops . . 7260
Dwelling-houses and Shops .... 1150
K.S. " Pioneer "
S.8. "Unity"
8.8. "Progress"
S.8. " Federation "
8.S. "Equity"
S.S " LiberiT "
S.8."Dinah''
ToUls.. 1664431 280 9 6180802 1568
44
1088
441
£
12872
1460
86099
17984
11250
6000
4700
90205
88218
21611
9126
84
1442
1095
8726
0-2
A iNomin'l
o Value
■3 I June,
1893.
£ I £
7812! 6060
86 1414
8658J 27341
6962j 11972
1516 9785
804 5196
118; 4582
24905 1 65300
6987 27231
4161
1698
10,
279
500
"559
470
9619
3925
4413
800
470
9619
3925
4413
47
2285
828
248
800 78
17450
7428
74
1168
595
8i67
423
7334
3602
4165
*227
179234 41075 138169
51
FIXTURES, QUARTER ENDING JUNE 24th, 1893.
Buildings akd Steamships.
t
Fixtures.
Totals.
Total
Pay-
ments.
Less
Written
Off.
Nomin'l
Origin'l
Value.
£
Nomin'l
■ Value,
June,
1893.
1*1
5^1
Less
Written
Off.
Nomin'l
Origin'l
Value.
i a
Nomn'l
Value,
June,
1893.
£(22
■^ a
a
S.55'
Nomin'l
Origin'l
Value.
Depre-
ciation.
Nomin'l
Value,
June,
1893.
£
£ £
£
£
£
£
£
£
£
. £
£
£
£
82475
32475
23766
8709
15515
210
1530."^
14096
1209
60862
210
60652
45674
14978
500
500
26
474
..
••
1950
1950
62
1888
42392
416
41976
9938
32038
|14017
239
13778
a%8
1 10415 ' 92408
1 655
91753
21959
69794
36454
4606
31848
18434
13414
■10185
18
10167
7357
1 2810 64573
4621
59949
31753
28196
12900
12900
3433
9467
i
24150
24150
4948
19202
10838
822
10016
442
9574
5128
5i28
232
4896 " 21966
822
21144
1478
19666
1550
1550
80
1470
1 ■■
! 6250
'272159
6250
198
6052
137109
5844
131265
56119
75146
44845
1
467
44378
25048
19380
6311
265848
106072
159776
56106
478
55628
24746
30882
19064
100
18964
11093
7871
108482
622
107810
41826
65981
86405
86405
33641
52764
29641
29641
15966
13675
138740
1083
137657
53768
88889
••
1 728
728
373
355
728
728
373
355
19792
..
19792
9418
10374
: 15034
324
14710
9071
5639
34826
824
84502
18489
16013
46574
208
46366
12530
33836
134223
1762
32461
7186
25275
90364
2411
87953
21414
66539
1058
9
1049
237
812
831
8;-51
272
559
1973
9
1964
519
1445
10135
835
9300
2635
6665
6017
6017
2324
3698
17594
835
16759
5288
11521
8925
3925
339U
535
3040
3040
3040
. . 1 8060
..
8060
6930
1130
1434
1434
375
1059
5429
5429
1935
3494 ' 6863
6863
2310
4553
68938
8560
55376
9527
45849
49379
136
49243
9768
39475 ,117041
8696
108345
19854
88491
,,
"
431
147
284
206
78 i[ 431
147
284
206
78
252
86
166
166
252
86
166
166
50
50
4
'46 i
50
50
4
"46
"
393
i86
207
97
110
398
186
207
97
110
1888
1883
468
1420 '
1888
1888
463
1420
352
852
352 i
232
8
1 :;
232
3
282
3
584
8
584
8
584
8
20
20
8
'12
20
20
8
"12
'840
■•
840
805
"35
23
50
28
50
28
50
868
50
863
50
828
50
85
i623
1028
621 i
'402
43
::
43
1
42 1
1086
1066
622
"444
125
125
28
97
444
6
••
444
6
381
6
63
569
6
569
6
409
6
160
68
63
53
'io i
63
68
53
"10
21
21
8
18 1
21
21
3
18
15
15
11
4 i
15
15
11
4
i882
'96
1786
333
i453
441
441
92
849
2793
■96
2697
472
2225
241
241
111
180 1
241
241
HI
130
'447
447
'37
410
1056
■39
1017
755
262
1508
'39
1464
792
672
127
"
127
114
18 !
127
9619
127
9619
114
2285
18
7384
12561
12561
6904
5657
..
16486
16486
7227
9259
7128
468
6660
446
6214
3950
3950
237
87i8
15491
468
15028
931
141 <92
7239
7239
4849
2390
7289
7239
4849
2390
494
494
291
203
794
794
864
430
3048
3048
1526
1522
8048
3048
1526
1522
11603
11603
9100
2503
, ,
11608
, ,
11603
9100
2508
8634
8634
4878
3756
^^
,^
8684
8634
4878
3756
8994
8994
6128 '
2866
, ,
,^
, ,
8994
8994
6128
2866
15343
15343
6222
9121
^^
15848
15343
6222
9121
17799
17799
5805 !
11994
, ,
17799
17799
5805
11994
22126
22126
5749
16377
22126
,.
22126
5749
16377
1000 ..
1000
131 '
869
••
1000
1000
181
869
♦461613 n6498
'445115
♦168810
*276305
217976
8247 214728
89092
125686 8S0890
21818
839077
298977
540100
+85499
+85499
(38013
+47486
+85499'
+85499
(88013
+47486
*
Buildi
ngs.
+
Steamsli
ips.
52
MANCHESTER GROCERY AND PROVISION TRADE.
From tJie tinu of commencing to keep a separate Account.
QUARTERLY ACCOUNTS,
Date.
Sales.
Stocks.
July. 1874
Oct. „
Janaarr, 1876
April
July
Octob«r ,
Jannarr, 1876 ,
April
July
Uotobcr „ (U weeks)
Jannanr, 1877
April ,
Jnlr
October „
'Tanoarr, 1878
April
July
October „
January, 1879
March „ (10 weeks)
Jane „ (14 weeks)
September, 1879
Dnwember,
March, 188U
June „
September ,
Deoember „
March, 1881
Jane „ ,
Sept. ,
Dec. ,
March, 1682
Jane „
Sept. „
Dec
March, 1888
Jaoe „
Sept. „
Dec. „
March, 1884
Jane ,. (14 weeks f.
Sept.
Dec
£
S58316
471686
S86S68
806720
869076
427798
882947 8782
856644 { 4091
898787 I 4608
648067 ; 4685
404706
497498 I 4865
59R864 6019
646147 I 5807
468027
669587
617265 6704
658921
668465 \ 7029
606478 7097
692614 6927
686852 7284
602858 i 7007
641780 I 7616
675845
686860 I 6927
£
64088
71841
71860
62808
51678
60728
66487
65040
60186
64696
68305
47424
64838
68592
5.3790
61765
57128
69798
55319
71847
79086
61879
71446
95015
102466
70091
84602
81648
84U98
87277
107940
92810
141191
125416
180279
97095
109414
94779
104882
■ 107524
53
MANCHESTER GROCERY AND PROVISION TRADE.— Con.
From the time of commencing to keep a separate Account.
QUATERLY ACCOUNTS.
Date.
March, 1885
June „
Sept. „
Deo.
Harcb, 1886
Jane „
Sept. ,
Dec. „
March, 1887
Jane „
f<ept. „
Dec. „
March, 1888
Jane „
Sept. „
Deo. „
March, 1889
Jane „
Sept.
Dec.
(14 weeks).
March, 1890 (12 weeks).
Jane „ (14 weeks).
Sept. .,
Dec. ,
March, 1891
•Jane „
Sept. „
Dec. „
March, 1892
Jane „
Sept. „
Dec. „
March, 1893
June „
Sales.
Expenses.
Profit.
£
514235
578862
644647
638201
568243 7181
600840 7291
671578 7469
730774 ! 7886
£
7124
6746
6586
7028
604978
K48521
761498
812627
673598
720959
802383
895285
769225
839900
960271
933799
724632
887966
890116
1014400
946982
986125
1057205
1172257
1034457
10^9284
1108358
1228901
1047841
1076495
7724
7976
8248
90!)1
8387
8794
8900
9300
10001
10308
10196
9399
10711
10310
llliSS
)0971
11089
11427
13183
12992
13727
13560
14361
14258
14208
Kate. Amonnt Rate.
s. d.
0 3i
0 2|
0 2i
0 28
£
7455
13340
10555
10407
0 3 I 8558 0
0 22 7454 I 0 22
0 28 10913 0
0 2| 14461 0 4|
0 8 I 10305
0 2S ' 8183
11926
0 2g 15152
0 2J 10347
0 -Aii 11111
0 2| 14345
- ■ 13995
0 21
0 2^
0 2|
0 2i
14235
19357
12090
0 2J 15770
0 8 I 12669 0 4|
0 22 I 15486 0 4i^
0 2| 16892 0 41
0 21 I 20937 0 4|
49200049
0 2f 19441
0 2| : 16001
0 2| ' 19517
0 2| 19928
0 8 I 15722
0 3i I 13622
0 ^ I 11385
0 2| 19186
0 3J ; 19539
0 3J ' 16895
0 ^
0 4
0 4|
0 4
4i>
£
78912
90848
97421
92790
95166
78561
104934
11362U
103609
96828
122928
129565
101993
109278
121208
139819
150890
143149
116194
112395
92544
91409
119560
123432
101661
99479
145406
192161
184174
154057
197236
226266
177536
179585
552156 I 0 2g 763642 { 0
54
MANCHESTER DRAPERY TRADE.
From tlu time of commencing to keep a separate Account.
QUARTERLY ACCOUNTS.
Date.
Sales.
! StockB.
Juiiuiry,lH74 10676
April wia
jilT 18991
October M186
JuMUrT.1875 81409
April 88878
Jdi^ 80518
October J 86071
Jumarjr, 1876 86699
April 41708
j£jy 88996
October „ (14 weeks) 88977
Jsnusry. 1877 88409
AprU 81620
Joly 85640
October 81889
I
Jsnouy, 1878 86969
April ,. 87000
Jnly , 81486
October , 88708
January, 1879 89667
March „ (10 weeks) 25869
June „ (14 weeks) 88171
Sept 80186
Dee 87648
V«rch,1880 87484
Jane 84196
Sept. , 80784
Dec ,. 87006
)[areb,1881 89449
Jnne , 80989
Sept ,. 81826
Dec 87701
Mareh.1889 84876
Jnne 896>9
Sq>t 88968
Dec 41699
March, 1888 88527
Jane , 88329
Sept. „ .. 88985
Dec 46906
March,1884 88641
June „ (14 weeks).. 89597
Sept „ 41661
Dec 45871
37060
40854
38026
KoTS. — To December, 188S, the figures include Woollens and Ready-Mades Department.
55
MANCHESTER DRAPERY TRADE.— Co?i.
From the time of commencing to keep a separate Account.
QUAETEELY ACCOUNTS.
Pales.
Expenses.
Profit.
£
March, 1885 44878
June „ 1 36821
Sept. „ 42652
Dec. „ 48882
March, 1886 : 47873
June , I 44898
Sept. „ 49080
Dec , 53288
March, 1887 , 50308
June „ .. 48306
Sept 50232
Dec. „ ; 61859
March, 1888 i 57800
June 1 55898
Sept ' 55495
Dec. „ 63084
March, 1889 i 59112
June „ ; 62194
Sept. „ (14 weeks).. 66746
Dec 68397
March, 1890 (12 weeks). . 70839
June „ (14 weeks).. 79680
Sept „ ' 78278
Dec. , I 87568
March, 1891 1 84398
June „ , 77664
Sept. , , 83583
Dec , 93568
March, 1892 92107
June „ \ 86610
Sept. „ I 85643
Dec 106135
March, 1893 97708
June „ 90894
Amount Rate. Amount Rate.
£
2249
2133
2233
2452
2352
2272
2492
2612
2519
2666
2716
2748
2858
2791
2953
2922
3127
3593
3626
3632
4189
3849
3942
3901
4013
4169
4233
4508
4717
4725
4917
4815
4882
2030S9
1 0
1 o|
OllJ
VI
1 0
OllJ
0 Hi
1 0
1 05
1 oj
1 Oi
1 o|
1 Oi
0 loi
0 11
1 03
OllS
0 io|
0 119
1 1
0 11
0 111
1 ol
3760521
Less Depreciation allowed, see Disposal of
Profit Account, October, 1877 £4757
„ Loss 6325
Leaves Net Profit
£
1608
1208
1469
1102
0 111 ! 1130
1 OJ 1477
1 0| 1009
0 111 1717
1379
691
714
840
1070
1166
344
2211
1418
380
1319
1422
1150
2245
190
8406
1331
2618
2326
2142
2118
3550
2432
2329
73916
11082
64884
Loss.
Amount] Rate.
0 4i
Stocks
6325
37137
40780
46513
44948
46093
50143
54130
55071
61237
61263
59101
57459
62591
62110
69413
71854
84102
87849
89190
90891
89311
84739
81873
83681
87861
82524
82022
87115
97505
90744
92728
91116
Note. — To December, 1883, the figures include Woollens and Ready-Mades Department.
56
MANCHESTER WOOIXENS AND READY-MADES DEPARTMENT.
From the time of commencing to keep a separate Account.
QUABTEBLY ACCOUNTS.
Date.
Stocks.
March 1884
Jane „ (1-1 weeks)..
September ,
December
Uai-cb 1885
June „
September „
December „
March 1886
Jane „
September „
December
-March 1887
Jane „
September ,
Df cember ,
Maich 1888
Jane „
September ,
December
March 1889
Jone „ .'
September „ (14 weeks).
December „
March 1890 (12 weeks)..
fnne „ (14 weeks). .
September „
December „
March 1891
Jane „
Sept.
Dec.
March 1892!'.!'.'.!*.'.!!!!
Jane „
September ,
December „
March 1898
Jane „
57
MANCHESTER BOOT AND SHOE TRADE.
From the time of commencing to keep a separate Account.
QUARTERLY ACCOUNTS.
Sales.
Expenses.
Amount! Rate. Amount Rate.
Amount Rate
Stocks.
January, 1874. .
Apidl „ . .
•July „ ..
October „ . .
January, 1875..
April „ . .
July „ ..
October ,, . .
January, 1876. .
April „ . .
July „ ..
October „ (14 wi
January, 1877
April „
July „
October ,,
January, 1878
April „
July „
October ,
January, 1879
March „ (10 weeks)
June „ (14 weeks)
September ,
December „
March, 1880
June „
September „
December
March 1881
June ,,
September „
December „
March, 1882
June „
September „
December „
March, 1883
June „
September „
December ,
March, 1884
June „ (14 weeks)
September „
December „
£
5506
7529
10794
8877
10057
12240
14275
152S4
12186
18777
15259
15898
12878
14018
14185
18132
13591
17913
15585
17443
14150
14842
15096
17613
14362
15875
21621
17862
17024
16888
22184
18328
18801
20091
25186
20457
20822
20277
81098
26084
22240
£
204
231
288
821
289
810
821
851
844
418
474
472
447
461
516
498
500
572
564
476
^\
403
10
579
8
583
9
570
9.
585
gj
609
8
600
9J
593
10
596
660
630
606
637
660
637
649
704
772
701
705
687
881
802
780
£
1
352
214
277
341
16
341
77
187
172
168
182
102
153
417
840
415
119
479
147
125
4
199
885
184
124
121
884
419
188
587
855
186
292
667
872
865
95
143
16
£
4715
4866
4812
4897
5197
4614
5359
7474
7711
8517
7894
7248
7994
7594
7985
8849
9646
9658
10242
10517
10998
10709
10964
10801
10688
10260
11484
10107
11254
11542
11377
10946
12895
12268
12564
15967
18817
13386
18955
14274
14676
16676
58
MANCHESTER BOOT AND SHOE TRADE.— Coniint*ed.
From Uu time of commencing to keep a separate Account.
QUARTERLY ACCOUNTS.
Date.
Skies.
EXPENBBB.
lAtnoauti Rate.
March, 1886.
Jane „ .
8epieinl>er „ .
Daoember
March, 1886.
Jnne „ .
September „ .
December „ .
March, 1887.
Jane „ .
September „ .
Deoember „ .
March, 1888.
Jane „ .
September „ .
December „ .
£ £
36485 980
81199 919
24894 840
24677 907
27108 890
88429 1088
27000 968
28900 881 7i
88880
March, 1892.
Jnne „ .
Septemlier „ .
December „ .
March, 1808.
Jane „ .
952
1148
978
992
28807 -1224
44148 ' 1281
82611 1181
8S622 1178
March, 1889 86117 18S8
Jnne „ 49279 1415
September „ (14 weeks) 87634 1380
December „ 89972 1858
March, 1890 (12 weeks) 40929 1891
June „ (14 weeks) 60371 1662
September „ 41042 1447
December 46188 1483
March, 1891 56667 1780
Jnne „ 59897 1842
September „ 50125 1757
Deoember , 51191 1815
56859 2288
78508 I 2528
4»268 2287
58467 : 2824
2502
2529
2144819 ' 78589
Less Loss.
LeAves Net Profit.
Profit.
Loss.
Amonntl Rate. lAmoont Rate.
£
80
68IS
604
276
892
606
876
704
1174
H08
697
128
1181
884
752
417
1392
929
1084
811
1802
1013
1381
668
1628
1232
1886
680
1286
541
587
868
1078
264
264
88967
Stocks.
£
17766
16068
16340
16074
17681
17772
17066
16678
21418
21044
19568
19737
24986
28256
24480
22680
25798
24067
29680
29082
41852
87891
86875
44708
44749
52822
52169
60513
59016
59
MANCHESTER FURNISHING TRADE.
From the time of commencing to keep a separate Account.
QUARTEELY ACCOUNTS.
Expenses.
Date.
Sales.
Rate.
Profit.
Rate.
Amount
Loss.
Stocks.
Rate.
October, 1876 (14 weeks) 3036
January, 1877 2908
April 3813
Julv , 8426
October ,, ; 4166
January, 1878.
April „ .
July „ .
October „ .
January, 1879
March „ (10 weeks)]
June „ (14 weeks)'
September „
December „ \
March, 1880.
June „ .
September „ .
December , .
March, 1881.
June „ .
Sept. „ .
December „ .
March, 1882.
June „ .
Sept. „ .
Dec. „ .
March, 1883.
June „ .
September „ .
December „ .
March, 1884
June „ (14 weeks;
September ,
December „
March, 1885.
June „ .
September „ .
December „ .
March 1886 .
•June „ .
September „ .
December „ .
4059
4397
4141
4320
4516
3624
5249
4291
5197
6530
5144
5922
6647
6209
6085
5736
6814
6783
6786
7293
8159
7812
7936
7954
11102
9850
11280
11002
12179
13126
12228
12539
1.S345
13929
15251
15277
17888
£
188
217
250
216
242
276
810
291
307
624
684
650
1 2|
1 6
1 83
1 8}
1 m
1 4»
1 4|
1 5
277 1 2|
218 1 2
325 1 8|
280 1 8|
285 1 1 1
327 I 10
347 1 4i
313 1 Oi
330 ' 0 ll|
333 : 1 01
318 ' 1 0|
320 I 1 ll
322 0 Hi
351 i 1 eg
344 i 1 01
419 1 l|
401 0 11|
439 1 13
455 I ll
472 1 2|
512 1 0 ll
540 ' 1 li
595 1 oi
566 1 Oi
552 ! 0 lOi
611
s. d.
0 'Oi
0 8
0 2tV
0 If
7
121
14
29
26
80
87
29
4
102
91
128
116
82
61
95
99
82
197
205
290
128 I 0 23
166 ' 0 8|
275 0 4|
207 0 8j
874 0 6S
182 0 2|
866 I 0 42
29
89
s. d.
0 4
0 If
14
Oi
£
2848
2571
2428
2274
2343
2245
2272
2279
2421
2837
8074
8163
8524
4013
4818
8969
4307
4146
4496
4039
8971
4122
8827
3721
8680
8845
4808
4887
4274
5100
5170
5072
6433
5973
6145
6771
5817
6778
6284
5664
6041
60
MANCHESTER FURNISHING TRADE.— Co7i.
From the time of commencing to keep a separate Account.
QUABTEBLY ACCOUNTS.
Date.
Xarcb. 1887
Jane ,
ii«pteinb«r „
Oeoember „
March, 1888
Jan« „
S«pt«mb«r „
December
March, 1889
Jane „
tiepteinber „ (14 weeks)
December „
March, 1890 (12 weeks)
June „ (14 weeks)
September „
December „
Mazeh, 1891
Jone „
September „
December „
March, 1863
June „
September „
Deieember „
March, 1898
Jane „
Sates.
£
17884
18087
16646
21065
20815
21172
20205
28792
21172 •
2S528
28818
28150
24872
83177
SS471
83409
87473
81688
40418
35083
38061
EXPENSKS.
Pbofit.
Amoont Rate. Amoaotl Rate.
35644
£
676
768
966
1107
1196
1189
1158
1212
1230
1233
1229
1230
1194
1480
1354
1411
1600
1482
1466
1645
1747
2036
1886
1910
1902
1968
1058490 53025
Less Loss...
1 0
Leaves Net Profit .
£
277
861
79
168
188
330
88
494
220
689
463
656
369
864
360
8&9
306
90
B. d.
0 H
0 2|
0 If
0 s|
0 OJ
0 6
0 3|
0 52
0 4|
0 48
0 8
0 5j
0 3i
0 2i
0 33
0 Si
0 n
o"'o§
o"o§
Loss.
Amount
90
18274
403
408
11871
0 Si
Rate.
Stocks.
£
7134
7885
8458
9497
9873
8861
.1944
8648
9177
8985
7990
9770
11021
11478
13544
12930
13513
14285
12812
13667
18557
12693
13455
16263
16252
61
NEWCASTLE BRANCH GROCERY AND PROVISION TRADE.
From the time of commencing to keep a separate Account.
QUARTEELY ACCOUNTS.
Date.
£
April, 1876 131789
July , 124398
October, 1876 (14 weeks) 152237
Expenses.
January, 1877
April „
July
October „
January, 1878
AprU
July „ '
October „
May, 1879
March „ (10 weeks)
June „ (14 weeks)
September „
December ,
132575
141614
140902
126692
120800
112256
111069
118972
85774
U3673
119668
145993
March, 1880 146614
Jane „ 145848
September „ 142258
December „ 153944
March, 1881
June „
Sept. „
Dec.
152124
169531
191300
190382
March, 1882 181358
June „ 190600
Sept. „ 204549
Dec. , 218500
March, 1888 196039
June „ 208842
Seot. „ 280513
Dec 236203
March, 1884 222807
June „ (14 weeks).. 240710
Sept. „ 235087
Dec 282199
March, 1885 216816
June „ 282467
Sept. „ 240409
Dec 246a')0
March, 1886 220254
June , 223551
Sept. „ 244049
Dec. , 26i!024
Amount! Rate.
£
1791
1938
2036
1962
2053
1990
2001
2169
2028
1898
1679
1697
1925
ai86
2418
2519
2675
2996
8145
2888
3046
28-27
2938
3127
8429
0 8i
Profit.
Amount Rate
£
1768
1161
766
836
1889
1218
919
613
983
647
908
635
2648
1470
8283
1023
734
1185
1694
1759
8600
1288
1029
2488
8520
1704
1467
8226
8011
2772
2954
2468
4468
2561
2918
4958
8462
8094
8066
4458
5281
6994
Loss.
Amount Rate.
0 5i
Stocks.
B. d. £
26712
82241
40908
84591
80086
2271H
167
0 Oi
28996
22789
25284
21081
29290
49145
40786
25906
44398
41400
48127
54764
54648
49740
49724
52044
65830
66285
65108
44265
55152
55878
41760
48207
65158
65568
79425
70556
68546
46224
55678
68142
71265
NEWCASTLE BRANCH GROCERY AND PROVISION TRADE.— Con.
From the time of com/mancing to keep a separate Account.
QU.\RTERLY ACCOUNTS.
Date.
Profit.
Loss.
Stocks.
« • •
Dec.
**
"
Mkrcb,
1888
Jmia
8q>t.
Deic
**
"
Sbrch,
1889
JniM '
Sept.
Dec
„ (14 weeks). .
March,
June
Sept.
1890 (12 weeks) . .
„ (Uweiks)..
Dee.
March,
1891
Jnne
Sept.
"
Deo.
"
3Iaroh,
1892
Jane
tiept.
nir
"
March,
Jnae
1888
Less Loss
Leaves Net Profit 2590b0
63
NEWCASTLE BRANCH DRAPERY TRADE.
From tJie time of commencing to keep a separate Account.
QUAKTEELY ACCOUNTS.
Date.
1876.
April,
July „
October „ (14 weeks).
January, 1877
April ,,
July
October „
January, 1878 ,
April „ .
July „ .
October „ .
January, 1879 . .*.
March „ (10 weeks).
June „ (14 weeks).
Sept. „
Dec. „
March, 1880 .
June „ ,
Sept. „ ,
Dec. „ .
March, 1881.
Jane „ .
bept. „ .
Dec. „ .
March, 1882.
June „ .
Sept. „ .
Dec. „ .
March, 1888.
June „ .
Sept. „ .
Dec. „ .
March, 1884
June „ (14 weeks).
Sept. „
Dec. „
March, 1885.
June „ .
Sept. „ .
Dec. „ .
March, 1886.
June „ .
Sept. „ .
Dec, „ .
Sales.
95S4
12052
11320
12394
13707
12719
10789
10589
10563
11834
11225
8592
11025
11111
1.S946
14399
13770
12599
15211
15827
16949
16499
19806
18605
20018
19620
26214
22157
24710
22708
29784
26436
29550
26800
85559
S8946
85822
88776
89157
EXPEKSER.
Amount. > Rate.
£
318
419
456
535
587
555
545
574
554
550
515
540
448
583
544
578
622
598
624
650
666
654
657
679
711
727
725
812
887
880
842
878
907
1011
1021
1044
1062
1114
1104
1818
84600
1274
89560
1804
84858
1261
43415
1508
s. d.
0 10?
0 lOi
0 9f,
0 114
0 io|
0 9?
0 lOi
1 0|
1 Of
1 of
0 10|
0 11
1 Ojt
1 ol
0 111
0 91
0 log
0 lOl
0 ll|
0 lOi
Amount.
£
117
120
444
115
386
331
114
168
218
2
294
103
224
218
227
207
548
751
566
341
601
785
445
508
943
720
659
1884
1259
925
1486
991
1125
862
1525
1651
1671
1801
1788
1616
2098
1748
2110
Rate.
0 5i
Stocks.
8087
10942
11525
11321
11142
12068
11635
11040
9673
10881
10463
11404
9531
10576
11590
15114
15778
16992
16171
15779
14972
15812
16075
16677
16858
16067
15754
17957
15699
18258
16594
18875
18062
18470
18906
20675
22002
22923
24084
23606
22461
28645
64
NEWCASTLE BRANCH DRAPERY TRADE. -Coji.
From tlie time of commencing to keep a separate Account.
QUARTERLY ACCOUNTS.
Dftte.
March, 1887.
Jane „ .
Rept „ .
Dec. „ .
March, 1888.
Jaoe „ .
Sept. „ .
Dec. „ .
March, 1839
Jane ,
Sept. „ (14 weeks).
Dec. „
March, 1890 (12 weeks)
Jane „ (14 weeks).
Sept. „
Dec. ,
March, 1891.
Jane „ .
Sept „ .
Dec. „ .
March, 1892.
Jane „ .
Sept. „ .
Dec „ .
March, 1898.
Jane „ .
Sales.
EXPXMSRS.
£
88566
85716
88762
40667
46641
45285
•52660
56448
50608
59924
61141
66828
Amoant.
£
1454
1514
1878
1522
S7258 ; 1464
41885 1527
86675 1416
46156 1566
1647
1642
1526
1700
51449 1641
64451 I 1769
£2614 1666
68846 I 1774
64660 ' 1861
61t!82 1 1848
50868 ' 1888
68566 I 1958
1956
1841
1866
2138
2220
2469
> 2245S6S ( 78877
Rate. Amount. Rate
Profit.
£
1414
1369
1807
1255
1778
14.S7
1620
1-588
1179
1787
2247
2887
2090
8518
1928
8052
8102
8255
2111
2418
1949
2019
8015
2748
2026
2963
90961
Stocks.
£
29452
26594
27540
25758
28826
27890
26756
30177
29344
82799
35387
81444
84019
33216
85468
34561
38584
35964
42429
31215
84938
38570
43565
65
NEWCASTLE BRANCH BOOT AND SHOE TRADE.
From the time of commeiwing to keep a separate Accmmt.
QUARTERLY ACCOUNTS.
Date.
April, 1876
July
October „ (14 wks)
Jannary, 1877.
April „ .
July „ .
October „ .
January , 1878.
April „ .
July „ .
October „ .
January, 1879
March „ (10 wks)
June „ (14 wks;
September „
December „
1880.
March,
June „
September „
December „
March, 1881
June ,,
Sept.
Dec. „
March. 1882
June „
Sept. „
Dec. „
March, 1888
June „
Sept.
Dec.
March, 1884
June „ (14 wks)
Sept. „
Dec
March, 1885
June „
Sept. „
Dec. „
Sales.
£
5058
6316
6211
6871
8254
6772
7252
7441
6910
5138
6919
7733
7918
9101
8053
8599
9215
Expenses.
Amount Rate.
Peofit.
149
159
179
162
170
175
207
20514
22600
21646
24357 858
Loss.
Amount Rate.
£
110
s. d.
0 5Ji,
Stocks
£
1154
1826
1180
1505
1584
1526
1885
2577
8105
3179
8708
2587
2448
4681
5200
5787
4816
5971
4682
5';i62
4872
4646
5110
5027
6748
6561
6018
5877
5817
6508
7740
7728
7877
8057
11819
Note.— To December, 1888, the figures include Furnishing Department.
66
NEWCASTLE BRANCH BOOT AND SHOE TRADE.— Con.
From th* Ume of commencing to keep a separate Account.
QUABTEBLY ACCOUNTS.
Date.
BaiM.
Amoant Rate. lAmoant' Rate.
£
March, 1886 1866
Jane , 9696S
S«pt „ I 3S459
Dee. „ I ^578
March, 1887 21660
Jon* „ I 22694
Sept. „ 28988
Dec. , 22797
Slarcb, 1888 ' 24279
June „ 26027
Seiit. „ 24066
•Dec „ 26911
March, 1889 18786
June „ 24669
Sept. „ (14 weeks) 24664
Dec „ ! 22480
March, 1890 (12 weeks) 28768
Jnne „ (14 weeks) S1492
Sept. „ 28227
Dec 29667
March, 1891
Jane „
Sept „ 81857
Dec „ 27669
March,1892 { 28781
Jane , i 29880
Sept. , I 88516
Dec. , 88857
March, 1898 | 8SS12
Jane „
EXPBHBEB.
Pkofit.
£
840
906
897
997
1020
999
90i)
1001
940
1009
989
1090
891
920
874
861
972
975
945
957
988
981
950
987
990
1006
1081
1278
1217
1281978 48781
Less Loss..
0 7J
0 7
0 78
0 8|
0 81
0 8
0 74
0 71
0 9^
0 f^
0 81
Leaves Net Profit.
486
574
Amonnt Rate.
0 ^ I 299 0 3
0 7l j 728 0 5J
0 8i 599 0 5
0 7^ 678 0 6i
691 I 0 41
887 I 0 ^
784 I 0 »
865 ! 0 7|
651 ; 0 5^
1046 0 7l
940 i 0 61
25416
116
25830
0 3J
0 4i
0 4§
Loss.
8. d.
116
Stocks
10687
11666
18442
18164
18»1
12909
18974
12619
18888
12181
14488
10166
16164
12948
12463
18117
14790
16068
11870
14834
161S9
1«706
12628
14624
16712
17056
15567
21070
26127
• NoTB.— To December, 1888, the flgiires include Famishing Department,
67
NEWCASTLE BRANCH FURNISHING TRADE
From the time of commencing to keep a separate Account.
QUARTERLY ACCOUNTS.
Expenses.
Profit.
Loss.
Date.
Sales.
Stocks
Amount
Rate.
Amount Rate.
Amount
Rate.
£
£
s. d.
£ s. d.
£
s. d.
£
March,
1889
*6345
600
1 log
840
1 OJ
4742
June
Sept.
12845
12578
669
676
i65
inn
0 2
7731
6757
„ (14 weeks)
Dec.
March,
17310
15620
791
741
OlOi
0 llf
172
349
0 5i
6686
7784
1890 (12 weeks)
June
„ (14 weeks) 26038
928
0 8*
848 0 71
, ,
9046
Sept.
, 21604
897
0 9l 1 366 0 4
9074
Dec.
March,
26147
22761
985 n 9 936 0 8*
10474
11415
1891
967
0 lOi 260 0 2g
Jane
„ 28616
1077
0 9 ! 1020 0 8i^
12518
Sept.
Dec.
2152o
mas
0 11*
0 lOj
278 0 8
620 0 5g
12867
12002
"
26338 1 1138
March,
1892 18068
1020
1 1*
51
0 og
12184
Jane
Sept.
16604
20914
996
1011
1 %
0 11*
0 io|
iso 0 24
386 0 4|
11854
10787
„
Dec.
„ 1 26379
1160
739 0 6|
11833
March,
1893 17382
1172
1 *i
225
0 3
12515
June
23182
1481
1 si
840 1 0 3J
12964
860257
17347
0 11*
6629
726
Lesg
725
Loaves Net Profit
5904 0 3g
* Carpets transferred to this Department in following quarter.
68
LONDON BRANCH GROCERY TRADE.
From tlu time of commencing to keep a separate Account.
QUABTERLY ACCOUNTS.
Date.
Jalr, 1674
Oct. „
JaniMry, 187S
AprU
Jolr
October „
JaniuurT, 1676
JLprU
Jnly
October ,,(14 weeks).
Jannary, 1877
April „
Jnly
October „
Jannary, 1878
April „
July
October „
January, 1879
March „ (10 weeks).
June „ (14 weeks).
September.,
December,,
March, 1880
June „
September,,
December „
SaiiXB.
£
17472
267S4
28179
25966
87126
87278
48089
66687
48880
46788
50612
62001
51019
48716
49807
1881.
March,
June „
September „
December „
1882.
March,
JoDe „
September „
December „
76145
71245
62706
67500
82056
77486
64724
660S4
79407
86603
1888.
March,
Jnne „
September „
December „
EXPEKBES.
Profit.
Am'nt. Rate. iAmonnt.
i
56789
89584
59150
64211
69715
60878 I
516
685
597
697
76284 1279
76218 I 1274
9-2723 1288
92528 . 1600
March, 1884
Jane „ (14 weeks).
September „
December „
0 4^
0 8S
824 ! 0 8i
816 0 4
888 I 0 4
8S1 0 8i
980
948
951
1187
1284 0 4i
1280 0 4|
1297 0 8|
1240 0 SJ
0 4
0 4
0 Si
0 4}
798S3 1440 0 4^
88403 1515 0 4
100541 1488 0 S3
107186 1845 0 41
1S74
2546
87
610
864
68d
Rate.
£
S81
66
168
157
101
558
778
009
895
1422
1366
641
218
925
5S6 0 2
605 0 8
618 0 2
651 j 0 2
714 I 0 8
482 I 0 22
StookH.
0 13
0 82
0 ^
0 8j
11039
7816
4829
4877
6194
7219
4190
5616
van
12668
8059
6141
6597
10511
9068
69S8
8489
7917
7838
9417
1S594
792 I 0 81 11167
1086 I 0 82 9112
1086 ! 0 8| 12886
698 ! 0 2 20789
0 Oi
0 2}
0 ^
0 l|
0 21
0 s|
0 S
17204
18227
12045
7894
6652
7615
11686
900
1006
1175 0 8i 10686
847 0 2i 7758
748 0 24 8254
1482 0 »| I 1353
1553 0 4 I 1328-2
1357 0 4 I 12758
969 0 2g 12422
1257 0 3 : 11849
1479 0 Si
69
LONDON BRANCH GROCERY TRADE.— Co7t.
From the time of commencing to keep a separate Account.
QUARTERLY ACCOUNTS.
Date.
Sales.
March,
June
Sept.
December
£
94496
107506
117471
126403
March, 1886 114451
June „ 118740
September „ 139957
December „ 154756
March, 1887 1S8667
June „ 15-2416
September , 174234
December 187565
March, 1888 162077
June „ 171465
September „ 191133
December „ ' 214604
March, 1889 178797
June 199566
September „ (14 week») I 284344
December „ 235671
March, 1890 (12i'weeks)
Jane „ (14 weeks)
September „
December „
March,
June
September
December
March,
June
September
December
Mdrch,
June
1891.
1892.
1893.
190477
218790
222986
201217
245815
256359
287105
.■^38519
281080
285441
30223-f
337740
281378
286482
.\m'nt Rate. Amooni
£
1832
1797
1822
2034
2094
2019
2032
2818
2387
2686
2.043
8720
3292
3323
3626
8787
8557
3727
3816
4076
3825
4242
4132
4821
49.56
5078
5084
5792
5827
5827
5825
6311
5990
6182
9627497 17.3548
Profit.
0 4g
3195
1934
1694
1971
2130
2706
2032
2576
1890
1841
3570
2291
4227
1775
2374
3244
2084
2901
4439
3153
8163
1517
3605
4927
1789
2251
4566
4625
2756
Rate.
£
0 fij
2121 I 0 4^
1845 ' 0 33
2653 0 5
0 6|
0 3|
0 2|
0 4|
0 31
0 31
0 3|
0 25
0 8|
0 l|
0 2|
0 31
0 3
0 5
0 1|
0 2|
0 4
0 21
0 3
0 4
0 3
0 2?
0 li
0 2*
0 4^
0 1*
0 l|
0 8J
0 34
0 21
Stocks.
£
18351
16601
20042
24256
19629
15810
20453
24789
27940
27026
47819
37010
32296
40973
41562
37114
39856
43068
44017
44947
37671
47143
57847
49228
46274
75578
64499
49482
60193
63075
51981
0 4J ' 128179 0 SJ
70
LONDON BRANCH DRAPERY TRADE.
From tJu time of commencing to keep a separate Account.
QUARTERLY ACCOUNTS.
Dftto.
Stocks
September,
December
March,
September
December
Ibrcb,
Jnoe
September
December
March,
Jane
September
December
Mmrch,
Jane
September
December
March,
Jane
September
December
March,
Jnne
September
December
March,
Jane
September
December
March,
Jnne
September
December
March,
Jane
September
December
March,
Jane
September
Deieember
March,
Jane
Seitember
December
March,
Jane
September
December
March,
Jane
Leaves Net Loss
0 U
KoTK.— To Sept., 1887. and March, 1889, Boot and Shoe and Famishing figores included respectively.
71
LONDON BEANCH BOOT AND SHOE TRADE.
From the time of commencing to Tieep a separate Account.
QUARTERLY ACCOUNTS.
December, 1887
March, 1888
June, „
September, „
December, „
March, 1889
June, „
September, „ (14 weeks)
December, ,,
March, 1890 (12 weeks)
June, „ (14 weeks)
September, ,
December, ,
March, 1891
June, „
September, „
December, „
March, 1892
June, „
September, „
December ,
March, 189S
Jane, ,
Sales.
Expenses.
Pbofit,
Loss.
stocks.
Amount
Rate.
Amount
Rate.
Amount
Rate.
£
7155
323
B. d.
0 102
£
8. d.
£
47
8. d.
0 li
£
3891
5600
7760
79S7
8806
374
b73
418
428
1 4
0 lis
1 Of
0 111
47
40
44
o"i|
0 l|
0 i|
42
0 If
4464
4225
4762
4884
7239
8482
8946
7986
444
428
453
466
I 2?
1 0
1 oj
1 2
i32
••
0"8i
107
80
50
0 Si
o"of
0 li
4784
4486
5451
6305
7670
9154
9478
9225
433
491
491
518
1 U
1 0
1 (^
1 li
67
63
43
0 2
o"ij
0 li
"s
o'"oi
5637
6225
6370
6051
8866
10440
10833
11110
556
590
584
587
1 3
1 U
I 65
1 61
o'li
0 li;
57
45
0 IJ
0 1
6509
7281
7231
7837
9183
12742
11362
13157
658
682
768
890
1 5i
1 0:
1 4
1 4
80
o"oi
182
iso
284
0 4|
0*"23
0 5S
8043
7198
11296
12194
10676
12507
883
857
1 71
1 4
248
193
0 5i
0 3|
14094
13849
216314
12675
1 2
592
1423
.,
Less Profit
1 ..
592
831
0 Oi
72
LONDON BRANCH FURNISHING TRADE.
From the time of commencing to keep a separate Account.
QUARTERLY ACCOUNTS.
Date.
Sales.
KXPBMSES.
Pbofit.
I<088.
Amount Kate. Amount Rate.iAmoant Rate.
Stocks.
Jnoe, 1889
September, „ (14 weeks).
December, „
March, 1890 (12 weeks)
Jane, „ (11 weeks)
September, „
December, ,
March, 1891
Jane, ,
September, „ ,
December, „
March, I89i
Jane, „
September, „
December „
March, 1898
Jone, „
&
7014
7145
7925
7170
8055
7444
9204
10064
9700
9187
12062
9441
10944
9719
10912
9509
9985
£
504
619
684
685
650
718
779
779
746
752
812
876
865
936
B. d
1 51
1 85
1 8^
1 gj
1 8A
1 6^
£
23
8. d.'
0 03i
65 0
155450 12854 1 73' 109
Less Profit
Leaves Net Loss .
190
166
131
406
78
85
170
103
116
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109
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6118
4656
4228
8967
4618
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76
1
CRUMPSALL BISCUIT WORKS TRADE.
From the
lime of commencing
to keep a separate Account.
QUARTERLY ACC0UNT8.
Dat«.
...
Sup-
plies.
£
2987
2814
8450
85eu
Pro.
dnction
EXPKN8K8.
Ratk on
Productiom.
Net Profit.
Stock-
Sundry.
Depre-
ciation. Interest
Total.
Per cent.
Per 4.
Amount
Rate
per £.
1
Jannary, 1874 . .
April „ . .
JnlT „ ..
October „ . .
£
2878
2790
8426
8638
£
604
606
602
686
£
60
68
80
87
£
87
92
124
182
£
761
666
706
804
£ 8. d.
26 1 10
23 18 1
20 11 6
22 13 11
B. d.
6 2i
4 9
4 1:
4 6|
£
15
61
192
108816
8. d.
0 1
0 6
1 1
0 1
£
167f
1964
1967
1887
Jannary, 1875 . .
April ,. ..
1 Jnly .. ••
October „ ..
Jannarv, 1676. .
April " „ ..
, July „ ..
'October „ . .
1 r2B7(r
Jannarv.1877 ..
AprU ■ „ ..
Jnly ., ..
\ October „ ..
8865
8576
8529
8380
8870
8500
8260
8801
697
698
610
676
88
79
80
81
147
91
99
90
882
768
789
847
24 13 9 1
21 18 el
24 4 0
25 13 2
4 11
4 4
4 10
5 1
do. 9
266
208
94
0 0»
1 H
0 61
2029
2137
1656
1488
Slf-n
8187
4659
4975
8381
8098
4918
5089
631
956
888
789
84
90
98
, 108
91
101
111
118
806
1147
1097
1005
24 3 4
37 1 8 !
22 6 1
19 18 9
4 10
7 6|
4 5
8 U
146
18
221
882
Oil
0 1
0 114
1 4
1538
2222
1972
2295
3045
8879
4442
5521
3015
4177
4508
6158
649
704
629
740
107
109
110
111
116
129
182
118
872
942
871
969
28 18 5 ;
22 11 0
19 6 10
18 16 0
6 9
4 6
8 10
3 9
64
44
17
116
0 5
0 2j
0 1
0 68
2867
8067
2919
2591
1 ?■;,'(
1 January, lb78 . .
1 Apri, .. ..
Jnly , ..
j October „ ,.
4176
4115
4217
51(9
4288
8782
4144
6229
599
665
620
8S1
114
114
114
114
121
127
120
118
834
906
854
1068
19 9 0
24 6 0
20 12 2 ;
20 2 9 1
3 10
4 10
4 1
4 01
888
818
191
614
1 0
i 6i
2961
SOOS
2608
2524
1
1 Jannary, 1879 . .
! march „ ..
t *Jnne „ ..
September., ..
December „ . .
March, 1880 . .
Jnne „ . .
September „ . .
December „ ..
4112
2958
4515
4716
4439
4184
2701
4512
4677
4564
692
650
812
781
709
139
106
148
139
139
116
91
194
114
118
947
747
1084
1084
WOO
22 12 8
27 13 8
24 0 2
22 2 2 1
21 2 10
4 ^
6 6|
4 9i
4 5
4 2!
400
181
168
808
853
1 lOj
1 4
0 8i
1 8
1 6
250f.
26S7
2614
2817
2:):JJ
4277
4560
5227
5099
4268
4546
5107
5148
799
676
750
760
139
148
145
145
107
109
109
104
1045
928
1004
1009
24 9 8 '
20 8 8 !
19 18 2
19 12 0
4 10]
4 1
8 Hi
8 11
10BRl2
288
389
818
0 Qi
1 8
1 6
1 2
25-40
2439
1946
1793
March, 1881..
, June „ ..
September „ ..
i December „ . .
4024
4868
6828
6412
4166
4727
6046
5845
708
767
^86
751
144
144
144
144
106
111
109
108
953
1022
1088
998
22 18 7
21 12 4
18 0 0 :
18 13 2
4 7
4 8j
8 7i
3 8j
166
45
471
206
0 94
0 2
1 6
0 9
2038
2464
2183
2105
March, 1882 . .
' Jnne „ ..
September ., ..
December „ . .
4788
6064
5860
6976
4726
4976
5921
6967
771
772
777
776
144
144
144
146
104
101
99
97
1019
1017
1020
1018
21 11 4
20 8 0 ;
17 4 6
17 1 10
J?
8 6i
8 6
266
164
682
487
1 1
0 7
2 1
1 5|
1899
2138
2089
1703
March, 1883..
•Tnne „ . .
September „ . .
December „ . .
4838
6407
5915
5787
6246
6100
6660
6787
756
828
860
784
147
147
147
148
108
106
101
99
1006
1060
1108
1031
19 3 7
21 8 6
19 17 1
17 16 3
» 10
4 2f
3 lit
3 62
496
169
630
786
llOf
0 7i
2 8
2 8}
2399
2299
2076
1896
March, 1884 . .
•Jnne „ ..
1 September „ . .
1 December „ ..
i
4740
5409
5828
5572
4920
5098
5965
884
997
1094
866
148
158
177
182
105
108
117
:oo
1137
1268
1388
1148
23 2 2
24 15 5
28 5 4
20 11 4
4 73
4 llj^
4 7f
4 l|
190
345
609
886
3 2,
3201
2425
2111
2129
* Fourteen Weeka.
\ Ten weeks.
77
1
CRUMPSALL BISCUIT WORKS TRADE.— Cwi.
Froin the
tiine 0
f commeyicing
to keep a separate Account.
QU.\ETEELY ACCOUNTS.
Date.
1
Net Pro-
Sup- duction
Expenses.
Kate on
Production.
Net
Profit.
Stocks.
Depre-
1
Rate
lies.
Sundry.
ciation.
Interest
Total.
Per cent. 1 Per £.
Amount
per£.
£ i £
£
£
£
£
i s. d. s. d.
£
s. d.
£
March, 1885..
4438 ; 4600
1114
190
110
1414
30 14 9 ! 6 13
94
0 4g
2707
June ,, . .
5514 1 5213
1168
192
107
1467
28 2 9
5 7i
283
1 1
3154
September „ . .
5762 ! 6250
1339
202
117
1658
26 10 6
5 38
304
0 llg
8604
December „ . .
5765 5767
1173
202
120
1495
25 18 5i
5 2i
810
2 98
8534
March, 1886 . .
5133 1 5092
1242
202
123
1567
30 15 5
6 n
48
0 2l
3747
June „ ..
8494 . 5698
1322
207
119
1648
28 18 5
115
0 5
8960
Sejjtember ,, . .
5920
606U
1695
207
124
2026
33 8 71
6 8i
6 7,
loss 258
rsf
4479
December ,, . .
6987
6035
1556
281
163
2000
33 2 9*
34
4207
March, 1887 . .
6311
66:37
1409
285
161
1855
27 18 111
5 7
215
0 8i
4285
June „ . .
6602
6035
1512
313
196
2021
33 9 9
6 8i
loss 191
0 6|
4396
I September „ . .
7466
8879
1664
340
188
2192
24 13 8S 4 Hi
30 16 2|i 6 Ig
123
0 31
5357
December „ . .
7935
7549
1786
340
200
2826
lots 150
0 4s
5518
March, 1888 . .
7053
7404
1540
340
215
2095
28 5 lOJ 5 75
do. 223
0 7*
5958
June „ . .
7427
7265
1709
340
212
2261
31 2 5l 6 23
180
u si
6468
September ,, . .
8921
9188
1740
342
217
2299
25 0 5i
5 0
loss 195
0 5:
6903
December „ . .
8678
8298
1627
342
218
2187
28 7 li
5 3i
16
0 Of
7633
March, 1889 . .
7689
8779
1602
342
229
2173
24 15 Oi
4 llg
94
0 21
8892
June „ . .
10285
8530
1713
342
226
2281
26 14 9|| 5 4|
469
0 105
7463
♦Sept. ., ..
12420
14900
2178
343
247
2768
18 11 6*1 3 8*
24 2 8|i 4 91
142
0 22
0 llf
10655
December „ . .
11687
10627
1990
348
227
2565
569
9411
f March, 1890 . .
10870
10988
2147
322
225
2694
24 10 4i 4 10|
48
1
9436
♦June „ ..
12179
10603
2433
376
234
3043
28 13 111 5 8|
721
1 2s
9538
September,, ..
14647
19258
2481
348
244
3073
15 19 1 3 2|
loss 836
0 5*
13097
December „ . .
U-i20
13348
2370
848
254
2972
22 5 4i| 4 Sg
loss 894
0 6§
March, 1891..
14526
14346
2476
348
261
8085
21 10 1 ! 4 8*
28 0 9 5 7i
769
1 Of
12575
June „ . .
15122
12262
2720
422
296
3438
672
0 log
12621
September „ . .
21160
24594
8421
503
380
4304
17 10 0 1 8 6
220
0 2*
19472
December „ ..
17753
19740
3257
505
875
4137
20 19 If 4 7i
1620
1 4
22853
March, 1892. .
15174
14749
3231
506
420
4157
28 3 8i 5 78
1512
1 11|
19633
! June „ . .
14880
11629
3065
510
391
8969
34 2 7i, fi 95
Loss 178
0 2|
19U42
September „ . .
20023
31647
8959
511
452
4922
15 11 Ogl 3 li
693
0 8J
31512
December ,, . .
20620
17555
3401
511
462
4874
24 18 3|
4 113
458
0 5J
28264
March, 1893..
19893
14001
3044
511
486
8991
28 10 14
5 83
800
0 9g
22855
■Tune „ . .
19517
17759
3337
514
885
4236
23 17 o|
4 9i
281
0 8g
2162S
580324
582811
105589
17477
13256
136272
28 7 7ii 4 8
23127
Less
Leaves
Loss ••
1962
..
Net Profit
21465
1 0 8S
* Fourteen Weeks.
+ Twelve Weeks.
78
LEICESTER BOOT AND SHOE WORKS TRADE.
From the time of commencing to keep a separate Accotmt.
QUARTERLY ACCOUNTS.
DaU.
JtMOMij, 1874.
April n ■
Jnly n •
October „ .
Janiumr, 1875 .
AprU ., .
July „ .
October „ .
Jannary, 1876.
AprU „ .
July „ .
'October „ .
Jannary, 1877 .
April „ .
Jnly „ .
October „ .
Jaanary, 1878.
AprU „ .
Joly .. •
October „ .
Jannary, 1879 .
fXarcb „ .
*Jnne „ .
September „ .
December „ .
' 1880.
March,
Jnoe ,.
September „
I December „
I 3Iarcb, 1881 .
Jane „ ,
September „
December „ .
I March, 1883 .
, June „ .
September „ .
December „ .
March, 1888 .
Jnne „ .
September „ .
December „ .
, March, 1884 .
< *Jnne „ .
^ September „ .
December „ .
Ket
Snp-
plies.
ExPBXREt.
Produc-
tion.
£
8423
4S06
7787
8066
9148
11022
18987
16418
18365
18602
15214
19818
14076
15870
19155
18551
17564
15671
22014
18226
17970
12947
21462
19879
20676
28571
18670
21789
16827
20728
28186
19610
27562
26787
25149
21493
25255
21777
28461
21478
82190
£
6190
10794
10120
9447
10881
14610
16349
Sundry.
11642
17921
16419
14122
14869
19658
18119
14962 <
17902 I
18840 I
17154 j
19043 I
15196 I
19585
19889
28576
24892 I
17610
21494
23471
21174
23807
22487
25002
26702
25326
22090
24216
20418
24777
25098
81418
25995
28827
Depre-
ciation.
£
1281
1513
2678
2671
8191
3461
4320
4863
4392 I
4190 I
5104 !
6309 I
5128 I
4968 I
6673 '
6042
5674
5591 ;
7433
5718
7170 j
0025 I
G896 I
7.S25
8770
8446
7004
6602
7815
6776
8773
7884
9801
8163
8808
9702
9715
8278
8499
7880
9211
8729
11386
9946
£
6
7
7
10
13
29
84
80
81
81
82
87
96
102
104
105
105
105
106
106
107
62
117
109
109
110
110
112
113
113
112
112
112
123
122
124
126
124
134
124
189
141
179
252
266
Interest.
42
77
101
122
107
127
166
168
161
166
224
376
247
267
259
284
187
254
216
848
310
804
379
271
261
267
811
276
268
358
312
278
228
227
254
828
871
819
* Fourteen weeks.
f Ten weeks.
79
LEICESTER BOOT AND SHOE WORKS T'RAD'E..—Contimied.
From the time of commeticing to keep a separate Account.
QUARTEBLY ACCOUNTS.
Bate on Peoductiojt
Date.
•Tanaary, 1874.
April „ .
July „ .
October „ .
January, 1875.
April „ .
July „ .
October „ .
Januai-y, 1876.
April „ .
July „ .
♦October „ .
January, 1877.
April ,, .
July
October „ .
January, 1878.
April „ .
July ,, .
October „ .
January, 1879.
+March „ .
♦June „ .
September „ .
December „ .
March, 1880.
June „ .
September „ .
December „ .
March, 1881 ^ 34 14 8
June „ 89 0 1
September „
December „
March, 1882 88 4 7
June „ 36 16 5
September „ 37 16 0
December , 89 17 6
March, 1883.
June „ .
September „ .
December „ .
March, 1884.
♦June „ .
September „ .
December „ .
88 15 2
40 12 2
8 11
15 11
-40 6 4i
- 18 0
86 7 2
37 13 6
40 13 2
41 8 6
Fourteen weeks.
+ Ten weeks.
80
LEICESTER BOOT AND SHOE WORKS TRA.DE.— Continued.
From tlu time of coniHiencing to keep a separate Account.
QUARTERLY ACCOUNTS.
Date
Net
Sop-
plies.
Prodnc-
tion.
March, 1886
Jnne „
S«ptamber „ ,
Daoember „
March, 1886
Jnne „
September „
Deoamber „
March, 1887
Jane „
September „
Deoember „
£
36769
80729
36076
25890
415S6
27976
86028
80476
89272
37824
28845
March, 1888 89925
Jane „ 46882
September „ 88018
December , i 81163
Marah,
Jane
September
December
1889
(14 weeks)
87726 I 44479
54156 ! 47577
44423 ; 41822
S59t2 I 42834
March, 1890 (12 weeks) 60644 61448
Jane „ (14 weeks) 66866 I 61114
September 46371 ! 50874
December „ 44218 ; 67327
68895
59885
55491
61487
61229
75562
71494
84098
182940
March, 1891 73068
Jone , 64294
September 67680
December , 41498
March, 1892 ' 68457
Jane i 71832
September, I 68769
Deoember , ' 62558
Jane, 1893 (3 Qnarters) 1S98&3
2378736
Sundry.
£
27876
30S86
24106
25438 I
32001
88021
26674
36007 I
84990 I
84884 I
96078 i
38873
86819 I
40906
80077
32858
2893055
£
£
£
£
.•906
968
848
; 10623
11109
369
883
11710
9880
370
825
9925
9503
270
309
10081
11057
18750
9718
10206
11855
12881
1UH25
10684
13082
15331
12194
12649
15618
17674
15740
18281
22/90
18847
21543
24294
23)184
21329
22467
27787
30782
54024
Depre-
ciation.
Interest. Total.
276 840
276 313
276 I 398
276 I 293
280 ;
280
280 ;
280 I
280 I
280
280 385
284 833
292
825
331
807
360
233
240
249
249
791
991
959
1U14
2289
18245
340
298
289
847
887
416
437
470
4H3
610
661
687
645
668
684
976
1058
1092
1288
2881
11678
14ii3fl
10292
10775
12475
18469
10694
11417
13678
15958
12809
16299
1835.3
17707
16508
19058
23643
195911
22444
22241
21626
24284
29786
80876
3!)034
59194
29269 I 930U47
81
LEICESTER BOOT AND SHOE WORKS TRADE.— Con^wwed.
Front the time of commencing to keep a separate Account.
QUARTERLY ACCOUNTS.
Date.
Rate on Peoduction.
Per cent.
Perje.
Net Pbofit,
A.moant Rate.
Net Loss.
Amoant
Rate.
Stocks.
March, 1885
Jane „
September
December „
March, 1886
Jane „
September
December „
March, 1887
June „
September „
December „
March, 1888
Jane „
September
December „
March, 1889
Jane „
September „ (14 weeks)...
December „
March, 1890 (12 weeks) .
June „ (14 weeks) .
September,
December
March, 1891
June „
September „
December „
March 1892
June ,
September „
Dttcember „
Jane, 1898 (2 Quarters)
£ s. d.
37 14 11
38 10 9
41 3 5J
89 12 7
37 14 3
88 11 8i
41 8 7g
35 13 0§
38 11 78
41 15 3|
40 4 9g
37 2 lia
39 18 9S
42 11 8|
40 7 7i
36 12 lOi
88 11 6
42 17 Hi
38 19 10|
87 0 lOi
38 13 8|
38 10 Ig
89 8 01
89 8 5;^
89 19 li
40 1 7i
42 0 Of
39 11 8g
39 8 4g
43 3 %i
89 5 7J
44 10 63
8 Ol
7 9i
38 17 3i
Less Loss
Leaves Net Profit
517
1241
2%
1024
688
2725
2121
525
1887
2681
964
1920
8408
1147
2800
4811
1480
806
2058
4700
1046
944
1201
1812
755
4119
2065
5624
69266
6015
63251
1 1|
0"9g
0 81
0 61
s. d.
22
0 Oi
1174
1131
92
0 6i
0 4J
o""oi
6015
£
18374
17401
16116
15752
20081
16020
16266
17786
19075
17666
19118
23460
21218
20845
22496
28976
25876
26394
aillO
35053
43442
61985
55257
57066
56163
55554
64317
97381
7771B
DURHAM SOAP WORKS SUPPLIES, EXPENSES, PROFIT, AND
STOCKS.
JFVom its Commencement.
QUARTERLY ACCOUNTS.
Date.
Net
Snp-
pUeB.
Expenses.
Pro-
dactioo.
Sundry. I j^^P^f" Interest.
October. 1874 .
Jannary, 1875 ,
April
Jnly
October „ .
Jmhuutt, 1876 .
April „ .
Joly
*Oetob«r „ ,
January, 1877 .
April „ .
Jnly „ .
October „ ,
January, 1878 ,
April „ .
Jnly ,. .
October „ ,
January, 1879 .
*)faroh „ .
fJnne „ ,
£leptember „ .
Deisember „ .
Harch, 1880 .
Jane „ .
September „ .
December „
March, 1881
Jane „
September „
December „
March, 1883
Jane „
September „
December „
March, 188S
Jane „
September „
December „
March, 1884
•June „
September „
Deicember „
March, 1885
Jane „
September „
December „
£
161
1938
2510
8620
1874
3260
2667
2560
2550
1782
2371
2801
2724
8202
8085
3070
2947
2582
2076
2213
8095
3216
8031
2656
3264
3230
2731
8480
8282
2703
8089
8237
4426
8999
8855
8854
4006
8602
4309
4691
4722
4129
£
813
2163
2540
2143
2484
2142
2772
2523
2146
2284
2621
2658
3251
3421
2660
2726
1912
2423
2055
3040
2937
8872
2757
3411
8340
2757
8129
3815
2795
2765
8479
3251
5099
4112
3799
3659
3625
4811
4652
4702
4329
98
117
128
139
128
118
115
125
185
184
144
196
210
310
191
194
188
159
2(»
169
184
199
176
193
214
227
173
199
243
212
212
179
192
197
188
267
258
213
224
214
198
243
255
266
358
87
94
74
75
56
77
72
72
72
72
78
72
73
73
73
73
78
78
78
78
78
73
80
80
87
80
80
80
80
80
80
90
106
121
108
114
125
125
91
70
96
92
91
85
81
79
78
87
97
99
72
98
100
80
88
92
85
99
82
66
66
87
45
76
Foarteen weeks.
+ Ten weeks.
', Twelve weeks.
83
DURHAM SOAP WORKS SUPPLIES, EXPENSES, PROFIT, AND
STOCKS.— Con.
From its Commencement.
QUARTERLY ACCOUNTS.
Rate on Production.
Date.
Per cent.
PeriE.
Net Pbofit.
Net Loss.
Amount. Rate. ! Amount. Rate,
Stocks,
October, 1874
January, 1875
April „
July „
October „
January, 1876
April „
July „
♦October „
January, 1877
April ,,
July „
October „
January, 1878
April „
July „
October ,,
January, 1879
* March „
tJune „
September „
December „
March, 1880
June „
September „
December „
March, 1881
June „
September „
December „
March, 1882
June ,,
September „
December „
March, 1883
June „
September ,,
December „
March, 1884
*June „
September „
December ,,
March, 1885
June „
Sf;ptember „
December „
£ a. d.
9 2 0
9 19 8
8 4 7
10 1 7
9 6 0
10 8 2
7 9 4
8 7
10 7
12 9
11 16
13 1
1
7
7
7
11 12 0
12 17 2
15 11 7
15 11 3
12 8 11
15 18 11
12 4 9
13 15 10
17 8 3
14 6 4
17 6 5
10 15 1
11 14 11
10 15 10
14 5 1
9 15 3
11 0 11
15 1 0
11 8 2
10 0 9
12 11 10
12 9 6
10 2 10
10 17 1
8 6 9|
10 12 6i
10 4
11 4
10 7
9 0 5i
8 16 3
9 2 10|
11 14 8i
2 lOJ
127
82
182
92
106
165
77
'46
7
i70
24
85
117
65
294
292
256
B. d.
1 3i
0 73
1 4
0 llj
o"i
0 9
0 9
0 71
o"*4§
0 OJ
1 15
0 i|
0 7S
0 8i
0 3i
0 08
0 2|
0 IJ
o"sj
0 4
0 U
1 3|
1 2|
1 2i
120
177
i47
88
142
283
109
136
238
113
68
B. d.
18 4|
1 05
0 "2
l"5i
1 "1
0 6^
0 lOi
2 2|
0 11
0 2J
5i
0 1
0 4S
0"7
0"7i
0 2}
0 31
£
804
1809
1007
1010
1751
1303
1462
2262
3029
3871
3401
4353
3721
4495
3947
3374
3180
2705
3657
3586
3769
2680
2786
2288
3571
3426
3466
5369
3707
5405
3807
5047
3838
3990
5185
4594
4323
2986
8489
3151
6282
4458
4361
■ Fourteen weeks.
t Ten weeks.
; Twelve weeks.
84
DURHAM SOAP WORKS SUPPLIES, EXPENSES, PROFIT, AND
STOCKS.— Co»i.
From its Commencement.
QUARTERLY ACCOUNTS.
Date.
Mareh. 1886
Jon* „
September „
Deoember „
March, 1887
Jane ,
September „
December „
Mareh, 1888
Jon* „
September „
December „
March, 1889
Jane „
♦Sept'mb'r „
December „
tMaroh, 1890
*Jane „
September „
December t,
March, 1801
Jane „
September „
December „
March, 1892
Jane „
September „
December „
March, 1898
June „
EXPEH8ES.
Net
Pro-
dnction.
Sup-
plies.
Snndry.
Depre-
ciation.
Interest.
Total.
£
£
£
£
£
£
8562
8727
268
80
71
404
4280
8979
286
80
61
427
4844
3768
829
80
61
470
8760
4809
765
80
69
894
8485
8894
841
80
70
491
. 8255
8066
812
80
69
451
896S
8764
840
80
67
477
4627
4674
628
80
68
661
4641
4518
688
80
70
688
4404
4198
448
80
74
602
6129
6245
460
80
64
604
6582
7175
470
80
61
611
5878
5657
551
82
80
718
6146
6089
410
82 76
568
7284
6410
476
82
75
688
5886
5880
884
82
68
684
6069
6914
482
75
68
576
7622
6764
469
88
64
611
7580
7754
446
82
60
687
7885
7886
464
82
63
609
7766
7106
416
44
74
684
8464
8505
495
48
67
606
9065
8403
449
48
70
562
8137
8289
509
48
68
610
8062
7685
461
48
78
672
7907
7918
441
48
78
662
9019
8142
458
48
62
668
8998
8988
497
48
50
590
9549
9171
486
48
62
681
9142
9289
615
48
66
614
329056
827700
22094
5280
6811
88185
+ T
eu weeks.
Twelve w
eeks.
• Fourteen weeks.
85
DURHAM SOAP WORKS SUPPLIES, EXPENSES, PROFIT, AND
STOCKS.— Con.
From its Commencement.
QUAETERLY ACCOUNTS.
Date.
Rate on Pboduction.
Net Profit.
Net Loss.
Stocks.
^
Per cent. Per £.
Amount. Rate. Amount.
Rate.
£ s. d. s. d. £
8. d. ; JB
B. d.
£
i March, 1886 ..
10 16 94 2 2 288
10 14 7| 2 If 209
1 6A
8373
June „
0 111
][
3198
September „
12 9 5S 2 ol
216 0 HI i .. ,
2707
December „
20 4 5| 4 l|
28 0 If 1
3999
March, 1887 ..
14 9 4 2 lOf
210 : 1 28 !
4685
June „
14 14 2i 2 Hi 92 0 6| !
8756
September „
12 14 li 2 6* ; 183 0 11 ,
2795
December „
14 2 10 ; 2 9i 89 0 2 I
8687
March, 1888 ..
15 4 103 3 OJ 79 0 4
8838
i June „
14 7 If 2 10*
93 0 0
8803
September „
9 IS 6i 1 Hi
8 10 3| 1 8l
223 0 8i
2901
December „
195 0 7 1
6448
\ March, lb89 ..
12 12 02 2 6i
9 6 61 1 lol
.... i 365
1 4i
4986
Jane „
208 0 8 !
5073
•Sept'mb'r „
9 17 6 1 Hi
9 3 2i 1 9|
124 1 0 4 1
4371
December „
267 I 0 lOi !
4938
:March, 1890 ..
9 14 63 ! 1 Hi
94 I 0 3«
259 0 8i
4749
*Jnne „
9 0 72 ! 1 9g
45C6
September „
7 11 4| 1 6i
190 0 6
2888
December „
7 14 8i 1 1 6i
190
0 6J 1 ..
5097
March, 1891-..
7 10 Si ! 16
7 2 S| 15
261
0 8! ..
4509
June „
259
0 74 i ..
4247
September „
6 13 9i 14
7 7 2| 1 5§
351 0 9J
, ,
8465
December „
377 0 11
6694
March, 1892 ..
7 11 98 ' 1 6J
274
0 8i
6280
Jane „
7 2 0* 15
349
0 10
. ,
4720
September „
6 17 Of 1 43
6 12 Oi 1 3|
810
1 ft:
8901
December „
883
1 114
• ■
3251
March, 1893 ..
6 6 83 1 Si
6 12 21 1 S|
485
1 Oi
2524
June „
466
1 Oi 1 ..
8001
10 2 ^ 2 Oi
10288
2356
,,
Less li08s ,
2356
Leaves Net Profit
7927
0 53
Fourteen weeks. t Ten weeks. t Twelve weeks.
86
. sr s y
• e o e
age
<hS
: I : :
SP
t~ la t«
^
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la oo o ^
c« 00 o% A
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"Kc- •» ^ to
ti 11
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TP lO d -•
t "-I » <;
fe ® 3! ®
<2 6 S
o a >=
87
OQ
S <
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-^ ^ g
3003 1-10 0 — t-t-ooc-tt!t-c-l:-o3ffit-;oc-
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(14 weeks)..
(12 weeks)..
(14 weeks). .
.
^ rvo^ r<i«^ ro®^ rcio>^ ro«*s to©
D. "bBOiObCD.ObCa.CJSCC.CJiSflBiU'SC
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88
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^ iH c« ^ era
I 00 ^ CO o ^
I 04 C4 U3 i-l US
M0U
■3I
I
C<5Ot~<Dt»t~t-mi-l-^OOa0Oa0Tj<(Mr-l-H
U iH b- 10 00 N OJ 00 CD to C5 Oi IN flO O O ■* U5 »0 O
^ "W to 00 «0 t» t> t- O »- »0 ■* CO -^ C« O 00 r-t to eo
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I
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»s
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Cd i-t « CO 05 00 C5 O O t~ »^ 00 -^ 00 1-1 -< OS U5 ■^ -v
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Sfe
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■Si'
41
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Ji-scoCS'-»coftaBi-accr
la.
Sj=
iSi-s:
90
MANCHESTER GROCERY AND PROVISION SALES, EXPENSES,
PROFIT, AND STOCKS.
From tlie time of commencing to keep a separate Account.
IN YEARS.
YEAR ENDING
Jannary, 1875 (8 quarters)
1876
„ 1877 (58 weeks) .
1878
1879
Deoamber, 1879 (50 weeks)
„ 1880
1881
1882
1888
„ 1884 (58 weeks)
„ 1885
„ 1886
„ IStfl
„ 1888
„ 1889 (58 weeks)
„ 1890
„ 1891 ,
„ 1892
Sales.
£
1110155
1476586
1707687
1761017
1688618
U9O007
1998384
2047210
2298850
2544409
2457288
2375945
2571485
2827624
8092225
8503195
8517114
4112569
4401000
EXPEKSBB.
Amount Rate. Amount Rate
£
11716
14701
17692
16866
17878
16761
18911
j 19888
28337
28522
27484
29777
82979
85914
89805
41548
46620
55140
8
Peofit.
£
11986
19042
27998
25745
26502
80977
32460
30644
27455
41757
41881
45516
497S8
61452
65984
74882
59915
Stocks.
£
71860
56487
68205
68790
65819
71446
70091
87277
141191
109414
107524
92790
118620
129565
189849
128482
192161
47075718 628605 0 2§ I 727208 i 0
MANCHESTER DRAPERY SALES, EXPENSES, PROFIT, AND STOCKS.
From tlie time of comviencing to keep a separate Account.
IN YEARS.
YEAR ENDING
Jan., 1874 (1 quarter)..
„ 1875
„ 1876
„ 1877 (63 weeks) . .
„ 1878
„ 1879
Dec., 1879 (60 weeks) . .
„ 1880
„ 1881
„ 1882
„ 1883
„ 1884 (58 weeks) . .
„ 18*5
„ 1886
„ 1887
„ 1888
„ 1889 (£8 weeks) . .
„ 1890
,, 1891
„ 1892
Sales.
Amount Rate. Amouutr Rate. Amount Rate.
£
10575
71290
129486
147068
124918
184746
189421
132914
143019
156997
165770
178283
195139
210705
232277
256449
811865
839213
370495
Expenses.
£
348
8872
7264
9391
8879
8518
7817
8511
8168
aS37
8976
8365
9067
9728
10798
11350
13168
15612
1630R
18867
8571919 193342 1 0^
Less Depreciation allowed, see Disposal of
Profit Account, October, 1877 ! £4757
„ Loss 5564
Leares Net Profit
Peofit.
Loss.
£
201
1244
7-.i0
685
1674
2314
1932
8504
4171
5283
5387
5383
8624
4791
4539
6991
7915
10136
70394
10321
60073
£
1420
4144
5564
s. d.
Stocks.
£
11568
72408
69267
48511
44439
44105
42208
40854
41866
88096
44948
54130
62110
87849
84739
82624
90744
Note.— To December, 1883, the flgortrs include Woollens and Ready-Mades Department.
91
MANCHESTER WOOLLENS AND READY-MADES DEPARTMENT.
From the time of commencing to publish a separate Account in Balance Sheet.
IK YEARS.
YEAR ENDING
December, 1884
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889 (53 weeks)..
1890
1891
1892
Sales.
Expenses.
Profit.
£
20868 ,
21210
22173
21820
28047
31946
40649
Amount Rate. Amount' Rate.
£
1221
1249
1417
1427
1547
1845
2095
2465
B. d.
1 21
1 %
1 3J
1 3g
1 4
1 4i
1 6J
1 6^
1 58
£
409
327
8. d.
0 4i
0 8|
0 8§
16215 1 4i
Less Profit
Leaves Net Loss .
1072
Loss.
Amounti Rate.
Stocks.
s. d.
2 I ....
I
25 I 0 0|
212
1284
2294
4193
8010
1072
0 Ig
OUJ
1 5i
2 Of
4407
5242
6275
6112
8450
12277
11463
19761
12958
0 7
MANCHESTER BOOT AND SHOE SALES, EXPENSES, PROFIT,
AND STOCKS.
From the time of cotnmencing to keep a separate Account.
IN YEARS.
YEAR ENDING
Sales.
January, 1874 (1 quarter)
„ 1875
„ 1876
„ 1877 (53 weeks).
„ 1878
„ 1879
December, 1879(50 weeks).
„ 1880
„ 1881
„ 1882
„ 1883
„ 1884 (63 weeks).
„ 1885
„ 1886
1887
„ 1888
„ 1889 (53 weeks)
1890
„ 1891
1892
£
5506
87257
53885
57307
58304
59327
55270
62139
71382
76101
106755
121432
126099
1H9I88
168002
188630
218180
238097
Expenses.
Profit.
Amount Kate. Amount Rate.
Stocks.
£
204
1129
1826
1811
1975
2192
2135
2887
s!492
2583
2882
3150
8596
3772
4070
4864
5491
5988
7194
9322
£
1
748
775
586
786
767
752
755
842
1246
1261
1586
1395
2767
8083
2940
8772
4957
4958
3044
£
4715
5197
7711
6082
7985
10242
10964
11484
11377
12564
16567
16074
16578
19727
22680
24067
32095
36875
52169
2018511 68568
8i
37021
4g
92
MANCHESTER FURNISHING SALES, EXPENSES, PROFIT,
AND STOCKS.
From the time of commencing to keep a separate Account.
IN YEARS.
YEAR EKDINO
Bales.
EXFEKSSS.
Profit.
Losa.
Stocks.
Amount
Hate.
Amonst
Rate.
Amount
Rate.
Jan., 1877 (27 weeks)
„ 1878
£
5944
15464
17374
18861
24243
24844
29021
84804
44311
51238
62340
72932
85484
96163
122661
137106
142986
£
405
984
1186
1108
1317
1293
1515
1878
2258
2415
2657
3497
4755
4952
5389
5993
7559
8. d.
1 48
1 3i
1 4
1 2
1 1
1 OA
1 0
1 (4
1 0
OllJ
OlOi
0 11
1 1
1 0
0 10
0 10
1 0;
£
66
140
60
404
171
219
428
678
898
1129
946
546
1486
2851
2048
319
B. d.
0 i
0 18
0 0}
0 4
£
62
B.
0
d.
2
£
2571
2286
„ 1879
2421
Deo., 1879 (60 weeks)
„ 1880
8624
4807
„ 1881
0 1
0 1
0 %
0 8
0 4
0 4|
0 8
8971
„ 1882
8680
„ 1888
4274
„ 1884 (58 weeks)
„ 1885
6438
6817
„ 1886
6041
1887
9497
„ 1888
„ 1889 (S3 weeks)
„ 1H90
0 Vk
0 a
0 4
0 8
0 0
8548
9770
12930
„ 1891
12567
1892
13455
985276
49155 i 0 111
Lo^s
11823
52
62
Leav
es Net Pi
roflt
11771
0 2^
NEWCASTLE BRANCH GROCERY AND PROVISION SALES,
EXPENSES, PROFIT, AND STOCKS.
From the time of commencing to keep a separate Account.
IN YEARS.
YEAR ENDING
Sales. __
EXPENSEB.
Pbofit.
Amoonti Rate. Amount Rate.
January, 1877 (53 weeks).
„ 1878
., 1879
December, 1879 (50 weeks).
1880
„ 1881
„ 1882
„ 1883
„ 1884 (53 weeks).
„ 1885
„ 1886
„ 1887
„ 1888
„ 1889 (53 weeks)
„ 1890
„ 1891
„ 1892
529244
541783
457597
465108
588664
708387
795007
871597
936542
949878
966148
1027528
1100451
1173876
1481849
1564121
£
7727
8213
7402
8921
10098
10785
11395
12075
12321
14220
14125
14947
15147
16944
15033533 I 197997 0 ' 3J 241524
0 8|
Stocks.
£
34591
22789
49145
54648
65330
55152
65158
53546
71265
65888
55671
42136
54737
60431
93
NEWCASTLE BRANCH DRAPERY SALES, EXPENSES, PROFIT,
AND STOCKS.
From the time of commencing to keep a separate Account.
IN YEAKS.
YEAR ENDING
Sales.
£
January, 1877 (53 weeks)
„ 1878 49559
1879 44161
December, 1879 (50 weeks) ! 44674
„ 1880 , 55979
„ 1881 69081
„ 1882 ' 84457
„ 1888 99354
„ 1884 (53 weeks) Il»i345
„ 1885 142701
„ 1886 152483
1887 144718
„ 1888 161974
„ 1889 (53 weeks) , 185443
„ 1890 ■ 232360
„ 1891 251466
1892 241003
Expenses.
Amount. Rate.
£
1728
2211
2159
2153
2494
2656
2975
3387
3983
4598
5342
5868
5973
6515
6850
7500
7796
2117599 I 74188
0 8f
Profit.
£
796
999
612
871
2206
2S39
8656
4499
4503
6906
7562
5845
6873
7600
10588
10886
9731
85972
Rate.
0 9g
Stocks.
£
11525
11685
10463
11590
16171
16076
15754
16594
18906
24084
28645
25537
80177
32799
83216
85964
36570
NEWCASTLE BRANCH BOOT AND SHOE SALES, EXPENSES,
PROFIT, AND STOCKS.
From the time of commencing to keep a separate Account.
IN YEARS.
YEAR ENDING
Sales.
£
January, 1877(53weeks) 25379
„ 1878 28425
„ 1879 28375
December, 1879(50 weeks) , 27708
„ 1880 34968
„ 1881 ) 42991
„ 1882 54487
„ 1883 65501
„ 1884(53weeks) 75054
„ 1885 89117
„ 1886 97148
„ 1887 91029
„ 1888 101272
„ 1889 (53 weeks) I 90528
„ 1890 113149
„ 1891 124707
„ 1892 125484
Expenses.
Amount Rate.
£
649
760
880
935
1276
1307
1627
1955
2408
2788
B978
8570
8753
8871
4064
1215322 41291 0 8J 24320 1 0 4J
Profit.
Amount Rate.
£
406
690
810
857
649
988
1836
1890
1917
2195
1619
1173
1547
1286
2299
8127
2631
Stocks.
£
1505
2242
8179
4681
5971
4645
6561
5817
8266
11819
13442
13974
14483
12468
11870
12628
15567
Note. — To December, 1888, the figures include Famishing Department.
94
NEWCASTLE BRANCH FURNISHING SALES, EXPENSES, PROFIT,
AND STOCKS.
Frotn tlie time of commencing to keep a separate Account.
IN YEAE8.
YEAR ENDING.
EXFENSXB.
Pbofit.
Loss.
Stocks.
Amount
Bate.
Amount
Rate.
Amount
Rate.
Dee. 18B9 (58 weeks)
„ 1890
£ £
49078 2786
89-t09 8651
992a I 4220
81965 1 4187
s. d.
1 1|
0 9
0 IM
1 o|
£
'km
2178
1224
1. d.
6' 68
0 sl
£
118
8. d.
0 0}
....
£
6686
10474
1801
12002
1892
11888
819698 14694
0 11
5901
112
113
....
Leaves Net Profit . .
5789
0 4J
LONDON BRANCH GROCERY SALES, EXPENSES, PROFIT,
AND STOCKS.
From the titne of commencing to keep a separate Account.
IX YEARS.
YEAR ENDING
January, 1875 (3 qrs.)
„ 1876
„ 1877 (53 weeks) . . .
„ 1878
1879
December, 1879 (50 weeks) ...
„ 1880
1881
18^
1884 (53 weeks)
1885
1886
1887
1888 ,
1889 (53 weeks) .
1890
1891
1892
Sales.
£
72385
130752
184879
210415
216314
232660
274965
289748
296767
887758
875968
445876
527904
739279
848378
893470
1122798
1206449
9059637
Expenses.
Amount. Rate.
£
1542
2365
8026
3286
8881
3570
4066
5310
5001
6441
6288
7485
8468
11886
14028
15176
17020
20910
23790
1614^
0 4J
Pbopit.
Kate.
567
1584
4182
2320
2388
5239
.3559
2149
3776
4680
5062
9101
9719
8839
9377
10667
12668
11438
13533
120798
0 ^
Stocks.
£
7316
7219
12668
10511
8489
18694
20789
7394
10636
24266
24789
47319
41562
44017
57847
75578
95
LONDON BEANCH DBAPERY SALES, EXPENSES, PROFIT, AND
STOCKS.
From the time of commencing to keep a separate Account.
IN YEARS.
Sales.
YEAR
ENDING
jl^^^'y Boots
""•^ and
i Fur-
nisliing
Shoes.
Total.
Expenses. Pbofit.
Rate. I
Rate.
Rate.
Stocks.
Dec, 1880 (2 qrs.)
1881
1882
1883
1884 (58 wks)
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889 (53 wks)
1890
1891
1892
£
1657
12558
21754
2900S
40448
53749
63224
77888
61455
67084
78583
85801
£
6500
13448
15629
17983
19826
22324
26090
19191
£
8157
26006
32565
39737
48829
62772
79839
82415
77888
61455
67084
78583
85801
312 I 0 ^
1268 0 111
2412
2807
3554
4529
5530
6901
6050
5817
5752
6609
£
36
149
312
286
532
684
776
1 llj
1 7
1 5J
1 6g
191
1513
2959
1902
7
187
610140 140991 751131 ;52677 i 1 4^ 2775
Less Profit
6709
2775
Leaves Net Loss.
0 0^
0 4§
0 ll|
0 6|
o'oi
£
8805
7054
9524
10011
9977
11502
13713
14967
19484
18189
12607
18080
19147
3934 0 IJ
Note. — To September, 1887, and March, 1889, Boot and Shoe and Furnishing figores
included respectively.
LONDON BRANCH BOOT AND SHOE SALES, EXPENSES, PROFIT,
AND STOCKS.
From the time of commencing to keep a separate Account.
IN YEARS.
YEAR ENDING
' Expenses.
Profit.
Loss.
Stocks.
1 Amount
Rate.
Amount
Rate.
Amount
Rate.
December, 1887 (13 weeks)
£ 1 £
7155 323
s. d.
0 m
£
8. d.
47
s. d.
0 IJ
£
8891
„ 1888
80108 1 1598
1 Oi
89
0 og
4884
1889 (53 weeks)
82658 1791
1 i»
55
0 Of
6305
1890
85527 1933
1 1
165
0 1
6051
„ 1891
41249 2317 1 li
24
0 Oi
..
..
7887
„ 1892
46444 2978 1 8|
566
0 2i
12194
1
198181 10935 1 li
278
668
, ,
Less Loss
278
Leaves Net Profit
390
0 Og
96
LONDON BRANCH FURNISHING SALES, EXPENSES, PROFIT,
AND STOCKS.
From the time of commeticing to keep a separate Account.
IN YEARS.
TEAR ENDIXO
EZPKKSBB.
Profit.
Loss.
Stocks.
JAmonnt
Rate.
Amount
Rate.
Amount Rate.
Decamber, 1889 (40 weeks)
„ 1890
£ ! £
220U4 1 1806
81878 i 2682
40988 8066
41016 . 8489
8. d.
1 7J
1 8i
1 6i
1 81
£
8. d.
£ 8. d.
883 0 8i
619 0 4g
818 0 13
196 0 li
£
4626
8857
1891
1892
4698
6761
186956 1 11082
1 71
1466 1 0 2i
CRUMPSALL BISCUIT WORKS SUPPLIES, EXPENSES, PROFIT,
AND STOCKS.
From tlie time of commencing to keep a separate Account.
IN YEARS.
I
'a
EXPEKSKS.
Rate on
Pboduction.
Net
Profit.
Net
Loss.
OQ
TSAR
1
•s
■^
>> !
h B>
-s
a
,
ENDING
s
•3
a
2.2
O CC
a
o
H
u
§
S
3««
1
£
£
£
£
£
£
£ s. d.
s. d.
£
s. d.
£
H. d.
£
Jan., 1874*..
2987
287S
604
60
87
751
26 1 10
5 2>l
15
0 \i
1678
„ 1875..
13189
13124
2190
323
495
300822 18 5
4 7
22a
0 4i
2029
„ 1876..
13664
13392
2515
324
371
3210 23 19 5
4 U
712
1 0!
1588
„ I877t.
1586«
16065
3282
398
441
4121 25 13 0
5 lA
630
0 9i
3867
„ 1878..
18018
18126
2672
444
500
361619 18 11
3 114
514
0 6i
2961
„ 1879..
17553
17289
2798
481
481
3760 21 15 0
4 44
4 7?
1.518
1 9
2506
Dec., 1879: .
16623
16454
2852
532
447
383123 5 8
1004
1 n
2885
„ 1880..
19158
100(59
2985
572
429
398620 18 1
4 2|
9as
1 Oi
1793
„ 1881..
20122
20274
3056
576
429
4061 20 0 7
4 0
887
0 10
2105
„ 1882..
21f.32
21578
3095
578
401
4074 18 17 7
8 9i
1498
1 4
1703
„ 1883. .
21897
21712
3228
589
408
422519 9 2
3 10b^
2081
1 11
1896
„ 1884+ .
21549
21565
3841
665
430
4936 22 17 9
4 6
2aso
v%
2129
„ 1885. .
21479
21830
4794
786
454
6034 27 12 9
5 6
1491
8584
23534
228a5
5815
897
529
724131 12 93
8394 28 16 10|
6 3^
61 0 Oi
4207
„ 1887. .
28314
29100
6371
1278
745
5 9i
8
5618
32079
32155
6616
1364
862
8842 27 9 U^
5 5
222
0 1ft
7688
„ 18891.
42081
42836
7483
1375
929
978722 16 ll|
4 6J
1274
0 7
9411
„ 1890..
51916
54197
9431
1394
957
1178221 14 98
4 2I
39
0 0
-
12712
„ 1891..
68561
70942
11H74
1778
1812
14964 21 1 loi
8281
0 llj
22S68
„ 1892..
70697
75S80
13656
2038
1
1728
17422
23 1 Oi
4 7i
2485
0 8|
28264
540914 551051 99158 16452 12436 128045
28 4 8|
4 71
20670
286
286
Less Loss
]
^eav*
;s Net
Profit . . . ,
20884
0 9
* One quarter. f Fifty-three weeks. J Fifty weeks.
97
j
1 LEICES^
rER
BOOT
AND SHOE WORKS SUPPLIES, EXPENSES,
PROFIT, AND STOCKS.
From the time of commencing to keep a separate Account.
IN YEARS.
YEAR
ENDING
Net
Sup-
plies.
§
1
1
0^
Expenses.
Rate on
Production.
Net
Profit.
Net
Loss.
Sun-
dry.
o a
II
1
5
£
Per
cent.
Per
£.
"a
o
s
<
1
1
<
1
£
£
e £
£
£ 8. d.
8. d.
£
8. d.
£
8. d
£
Jan., 1874*..
34-22
5190
1281 6
29
1316
25 6 8
5 Oj
8
0 Oi
2579
„ 1875..
29456
38684
10047 36
342
10425
;6 18 11
5 4i
584
o'sj
6466
„ 1876..
531587
5371 '2
169361 124
543
17603
32 15 6
6 6S
912
0 4
9186
1 „ 1877t..
62205
60104
206311 246
780
21657
36 0 6
7 2f
886
0 8i
14181
„ 1878..
71140
67603
28357! 416
1023
24796
36 13 6
7 4
211
0 0^
12922
„ 1879..
73881
72939
259021 424
998
27324
37 9 9
7 6
1575
0 5j
14515
Dec, 1879*..
774'; 6
77746
280161 417
945
29378 '37 15 8
7 6«
1645
0 5
21733
„ 1880..
84655
84429
2986n
444
1241
3155li37 7 4
7 53
309
o'oi
15772
„ 1881..
87607
89150
321582
448
1087
34217:38 8 8
7 8
452
0 li
0 8|
13594
„ 1882..
99098
99517
36388
495
1113
3799r).S8 3 5
7 7J
1649
14192
„ 1883. .
91986
90214
3386.S
511
1040
3541939 5 2
7 lOl
19' 1
0 0*
10884
„ 18«4|..
107 16G
106333
39237 838
1267
41342'33 17 7; 7 9i
3261
0 7|
17800
„ 1885..
10946-1
107806
398461 1077
1315
42238139 3 7 7 10
3078
0 6i
15752
„ 188ti. .
1224f!3
122703
44731
1104
1244
4707938 7 41' 7 8
6059
0 111
17736
„ 1887..
126417
12432J
45895
1120
1230
48245138 16 lg| 7 9i
6344
1 0
19118
„ 1888..
14c«88
139955
53206
1124
1381
5571li i9 16 1*1 7 111
6453
0 lOJ
22496
„ 1889t
172267
175712
65998
1236
16313
68867 39 3 lol; 7 10
8347
0 llg
83265
„ 1890..
201)499
220763
81461
1140
2134
84735 38 7 7|! 7 8
8743
OlOi
. . i
61985
„ 1891..
•Ji55410
23U858
89350
995
2679
9:W24'40 5 10|
8 Of
2.i94
0 2g
62980
1892..
256116
292388
109811
.3755
4364
117930 40 6 8 J
8 of
4961
0 41
978»1
2218903
2J60U5
828509
15956
26388
870858
38 10 7i
7 ^
57944
317
..
Less Los
3
317
Leaves Vet Profit
57627
0 6i
• One
quarte
r. + Fifty-three weeks. X Fifty weeks.
1
98
HECKMONDWIKE BOOTS, SHOES, AND CURRYING WORKS
SUPPLIES, EXPENSES, PROFIT, AND STOCKS.
From its Commencement.
IN YEARS.
ToUl
Sup-
plies.
u
ens
ToTAi. Expenses.
B. & S. Rate on
Pboduoiion.
pi'oHT. NET Loss.
«a
TEAR
ENDING
*i a
Sun-
dry.
^"3
fl
i
Pa-
per cent. £.
3
o
1
1
1
1
cc
£
£
£
£
£
£
£ 8. d. ' 8. d.
£
8. d.
£ ' 8. d. £
Dec., 18H0*
soco
8438
1057
16
30
1103
32 1 7 6 4J
181
1 Og 2473
1 Of 2288
„ 1881..
11151
11417
3592
57
157
3806
as 6 8 6 8
608
„ 1888..
14602
15454
5041
66
183
5290
84 4 8 6 lOi
168
0 2i; 4016
!, 1883..
mm
16877
5435
68
222
5725
34 19 IS 6 ll|
294
0 4
8950
" 188U
18215
18138
5924
94
22(>
6288
84 7 10 6 10
287
0 8
8606
„ 1885.
22666
28811
7832
176
256
8264
84 14 116 11
261
0 2i
6814
222S1
2S418
7867
267
405
8589
36 9 ft 7 S
875
0 4
6800
„ 1887.
22S19
19641
7110
813
880
7803
37 10 ft 7 6
237
0 a
9883
„ 1888..
29.S07
22998
9371
488
58H
10447
35 8 loi 7 Og
1('21
0 9
. 10868
„ 1W»+
29815
22899
9155
602
687
10444
35 10 84! 7 1}
34 15 94 6 llS
1922
1 5
. II02H0
„ 1800..
85135
28fX;4
11036
719
797
12552
1398
0 10
. 11825
" 1891..
42919
34853
18908
748
872
155aS
36 1 2; I 7 2*
8280
1 8|
. 14594
„ 1892..
46198
39347
15155
784
4898
926
16865
35 15 10 1 7 l|
2017
0 11$
. 15875
814479
279855102478
5728
112599
35 7 4i 7 Oil 11092
958
.... 1 ....
L
Less Loss
eaves Net Profit..
952
10140
0 ev
Two quarters.
+ Fifty-three weeks.
HECKMONDWIKE CURRYING SUPPLIES, &c., STATED SEPARATELY.
FIGURES INCLUDED IN PREVIOUS ACCOUNT.
From its Commencement.
IN YEARS.
YEAR E.N'DING
December, 1887 [one q'rterl
1888
1889 (53 weeks).
1890
1891
1899
588
8362
3263
4103
4404
8755
cc
£
391
2065
1987
2861
2524
2850
EXPEHSEB.
&1S
fi_
£
27
109
227
262
264
264
£
17
119
148
166
167
168
19425 11628 1213 780 18621 |l4 0|l 1198
Less Loss 237
a
£
435
8. d.: £
16 2 55
13 m 413
14 If ..
2307
2789 {13 7g| 890
29.55 lis 5 I 840
I
2782 {14 9| . .
Leaves Net Profit 961
8. d.
2 Oj
2 5g
1 10]
1 6>
0 113
Loss.
86
237
GO
8. d. £
218
687
1 3|i 306
416
0 2^1 286
99
DURHAM SOAP WORKS SUPPLIES, EXPENSES, PROFIT,
AND STOCKS.
From its Commencement.
IN YEARS.
Net
1
Expenses
! Rate on
1 Production.
Net j
Pkofit.
Net j
Loss. I
YEAR
. ^
"S
.
■S 1 .
a
1 .a
ENDING
Sap-
plief.
1
Sun-
dry.
S.2
0-3
2
"a
3 Per
o cent.
Per
£.
Amou
Rate
1
1 ^
£
£
£
£
£
£ £ 8. d.
s. d.
£8. d.
£
s. d. £
Jan., 1875* ....
2099
2976
130
75
85
290 9 14 10
1 Hi
1 io|
19 0 IJ
.. I 1809
„ 1876 ....
9264
9309
512
155
213
880, 9 9 0
236 0 6
.. ! 1303
„ 1877+....
9549
9725
488
177
271
936i 9 12 6
1 11
191 0 45
3871
„ 1878 ....
11098
11918
684
336
448
146812 6 5
2 5J
307
0 61 ! 3721
„ 1679 ....
11735
11169
sas
845
430
1658 14 16 10
2 HI
676
1 211 3130
Dec, 1879: ....
8903' 9387
715
277
349
134114 5 8
2 10:
115
0 2| 3769
„ 1880 ....
11730
11404
781
289
323
1393 12 4 3
2 5J
138 0 2^
3571
„ 1881 ....
11871
12265
842
292
876
151012 6 2
2 5,
132 0 2^
.. 1 3707
„ 1882 ....
12801
12504
795
292
350
1437 11 9 10
2 a
99
0 1? 2628
„ 1888 ....
14751
15941
910
299
.359
1568 9 16 8
1 lis
62' 0 01
5185
„ 1884+....
15219
14721
849
327
343
151910 6 4
2 O-
97 0 l|
8489
„ 1885 ....
17911
17994
1117
320
3U0
1737 9 13 0
1 UJi
907 1 0
4361
„ 188« ...
15886
15783
16-23
320
252
2195 13 18 1|
2 98
741 0 11 i
8999
„ 1887 ....
15280
14888
1516
320
244
2080 13 19 5
2 9i
524 0 8|
8637
21756
22I26i
1916
32U
269
250511 6 5i
2 3|
590 0 6i
5448
„ 1889+....
24648
23986 i
1821
328
299
244810 4 li
2 Og
234 0 21
4988
„ 1890 ....
284.56
28318
1800
327
255
2382 8 8 2J
2311 7 3 0|
1 8J
733 0 6i
5097
„ 1H91 ....
83432
323031
1869
178
269
1 51
1248: 0 8l
.. ' 5694
„ 1892 ....
33981
32528,
1842
172
268
2282' 7 0 8|
1 4^
2316 1 4|
.. 1 8251
810865
809240 21093
5144
5708
81940il0 6 6|
2 Of
8168J ..
1191
.. 1 ..
1
Less Loss
Leaves Net
Profit.
119l] . .
6977' 0 5?,
* Two quarters.
f Fifty-three weeks.
J Fifty weeks.
100
DUNSTON CORN MILL SUPPLIES, EXPENSES, PROFITS,
AND STOCKS.
From its Commeitcemcnt.
IN YEARS.
Net
Sup-
plies.
0
1
EXPKN8E8.
Rate on
Pboductiok.
NsT Loss.
TEAR
ENDIKO
Sun-
dry.
Depre-
ciation.
Total.
Per cent
PerJE.
Amount
Rate
per£.
It.
Deo., 1891*..
„ 1862..
£
178683
848264
185104
816804
£
8994
16289
£
8681
6255
£
80.S8
4912
£
15668
27406
£ 8. d.
8 9 2i
7 18 OJ
s. d.
1 8J
1 65
£
548
17888
8. d.
0 Oi
1 Oi
£
72252
46881
521947
5819081 25238
1
9886 1 7945 43064
8 1 11
1 71
18881
0 8|
* Thirty-8ix weelis.
LONGTON CROCKERY DEPOT TRADE.
From its Commeiicement.
IN YEARS.
DATE.
Dec., 1886'
,. 1887
„ 18H8
„ 1889+.
„ 1890.
„ 1891.
„ 1892.
SUPPLIKS.
TOTAI.
EXPKNKBS.
Net Pbofit. i Net Loss
Selves. I Scot'ish Total. Amount Bate. Amonnti Rate. Amount Bate.
£
8968
11925
14478
17466
21792
27238
804
1072
1188
981
12229
15545
18649
22773
27234
29627
£
•372
876
1000
1174
1644
1819
2014
s. d.
1 lOi^
1 3
1 5i
1 4
1 4i
126489 ! 8566 130055
Less Loss
Leaves Net Profit
1 4i
179
853
533
543
4^8
681
2777
37
8. d.
0 "sj
0 5
U 6-
0 5|
0 4| I
0 5i
2740 0 5
87
8. <1.
0 2i
Stocks.
£
640
596
U16
1989
8068
♦ Two quarters. + Fifty-three weeks.
101
BATLEY WOOLLEN MILL TRADE.
From its Commencement.
IN YEARS.
1
d
o
1
■a
2
04
Expenses. „ ^^"^^ °^
Pboduction.
Net
Profit.
Net Loss.
DA^TE.
a
B
id
h O
AS
a
Total. ^^l
cent.
Per
£.
a
§
1
Bate.
1
Bate.
1
£
£
£
£ 1 £
£ £ s. d.
B. d.
£
s. d.l £
8. d.
£
Dec, 1887 ....
2478
8495
3720
131 164
4015 47 5 34
6873 49 13 5|
9 Sf
.. 483
3 lOf
8061
„ 1888 ....
11590
13836
6063
297 513
9 111
. . :i62g
2 9S
11876
„ 1889*....
17189
12332
5705
333 534
6572 53 5 lOi 10 7|
6244 48 3 ll|: 9 7g
. . 3918
4 6i
7808
„ 1890 ....
13069
12955
5485
363 396
.. 766
1 2
7326
„ 1891 ....
17018
17178
6267
396 407
7070 41 3 if 8 2|
622
0 8-1 ..
7740
„ 1892 ....
16155
77499
15870
5799
422 390
6611 41 13 li 8 3|
325
0 4f! ..
7557
80666
33039
1942 2404
37385 46 6 lOg 9 3J
947
. . 6796
Less Profit
947
Leaves Net I
OSS ..
5849
1 6
* Fifty-three weeks.
LEEDS AND BATLEY READY-MADES.
From its Commencement.
IN YEAE8.
a
Expenses.
Net PaoFiT.
Net Loss.
s
DATE.
Sundry.
iTot. '■"<■«•
Total.
Amonnt
Bate.
Amount
Rate.
1
Dec, 1888*..
„ 1889+..
„ 1890..
„ 1891..
„ 1892..
£
318
4132
6202
12929
14476
£
392
2833
3189
59H3
7925
58
78
186
148
£
8
49
71
121
131
£
413
2940
3338
6189
8204
£
687
640
s. d.
I'oi
0 10
£
182
812
131
s. d.
11 5i
3 Hi
0 5
£
820
495
1816
1498
2274 •
38057
20272
Leave
432
Less
i8 Net Pr
880
Loss . .
oflt
21084
1827
1125
1125
202
0 li
* Oae quarter. } Fifty-three weeke.
102
DISTRIBUTIVE EXPENSES AND RATE PER CENT ON
SALES =
Expenses =
TOTALS.
Wages
Anditors' Fees
„ Deputation Fees
„ Fares
„ Deputation Fares
Fees — General and Branch Committees. .. .
„ Sub-Committees
„ Propa»;anda Committee
„ Finance Committee
„ Stocktakers
„ Scrutineers
„ Secretaries
„ Deputations
Blileagea— General and Branch Committees
„ Sub-Committees
„ Propaganda Committee
„ Finance Committee ../...'
„ Stocktakers
„ Deputations
Fares and Contracts — General and Branch
Committees
„ Sub-Committees
„ Finance Committee
„ Stocktakers
„ Scrutineers
„ Deputations
Price Lists : Printing
„ Postage
Balance Sheets : Printing .'....
Printing and Stationery
Periodicals
Travelling
Telegrams
Stamps
Petty Cash
Advertisements
Rents, Rates, and Taxes
Coals, Gas, and Water
Oil, Waste, and Tallow
Expenses : Quarter Iv and Special Meetinss
Legal .'
Repalts, Renewals, &c
Telephones
Conference and Exhibition Expenses ....
Propaganda Expenses
Oi>eniog Expenses — Birmingham Saleroom
Employes' Picnic
" Annual "
Dining-rooms
Insurance — Fire and Guarantee
Depreciation : Land
„ Buildings
„ Fixtures
Interest
T^a.jL.nTC'^^Brrssst.
GROCERY.
£8,580.509.
Amount.
68662-07
285-01
11-74
115-00
19-84
867-92
461-94
13-25
78-26
50-29
9-01
90 00
753-24
206-86
134-90
403
88-27
12-01
69-73
567-18
245-87
8-63
15-42
7-24
923-55
1465-46
322-72
342-99
5215-98
105-90
6207-44
447-17
8789-10
875-72
498-97
8755-41
2968-77
169-77
565-88
144-44
4339-82
246-25
48-94
15-89
25-45
97-46
970-68
8962-04
2149-84
1776-93
8i71-72
4216-49
39604-64
165787-58
Rate^
£100.
£4,400,999.
Amount.
Rate ^
iElOO.
192-05
0-80
0-08
0-82
0-06
a-43
1-29
0-04
0-22
0-14
0-08
0-25
2-11
0 58
0-38
0-01
0-09
0-08
0-20
1-59
0-69
0-02
0-04
0-02
2-58
4-10
0-90
0-96
14-59
0-30
17-36
1'25
10-60
1-05
1-88
10-50
8-30
0-48
1-58
0-40
12-14
0-69
0-12
0-04
0-07
0-27
2-72
11-08
6-01
4-97
23-14
11-79
11078
468-57
£
21197-67
146-89
6-05
59-07
10-20
839-32
107-63
6-82
40-21
5-02
4-65
25-00
352-41
67-30
16-03
2-08
1710
0-80
18-29
243-67
46-35
4-31
0-99
8-73
416-15
660-13
153-25
170-60
2059-83
48-40
1196-46
808-80
18-25-72
191-23
261-27
1412-64
1096-95
90-73
382-45
132-35
1959-88
112-96
19-46
1-83
25-45
ao-82
498-20
1887-50
212-55
585-89
1843 53
1117-97
13775-88
55189-60
d.
115-60
0-80
0-03
0-82
006
1-85
0-59
004
0-22
0-08
0-08
0-14
1-92
0-87
009
0 01
0-09
0-01
0-10
1-88
0-25
0-02
001
002
2-27
3-60
0-84
0-93
11-23
0-26
6 '52
1-68
9-96
1-04
1-43
7-70
6-98
0-49
2-09
0-72
10-68
0-62
0-10
001
0-14
0-11
2 72
10-29
1-16
2-92
10-05
6-10
75-12
800-69
103
SALES FOE THE YEAR ENDING DECEMBER 24th, 1892.
■lv^-A-I^^CI3:ESTEI^.
DRAPERY.
wo <LLENS AND
RRADY-MADE8.
BOOT AND SHOE.
FURNISHING.
je370,495.
£40,650.
1
£233,097.
£142,986.
1
Rate^
Rate^
Rate^
Rate ^
Amount.
jeioo.
Amount.
flOO.
Amount.
jeioo.
Amount. £100.
£
d.
£
d.
£
d.
£ d.
8380-90
539-66
1076-65
685-64
3540-00
364-48
3044-55 511-02
12-31
0-80
1-36
0-80
7-83
0-81
4-41 0-74
0-50
003
0-05
0-03
0-32
0-03
0-18 ! 0-03
4-99
0-32
0-54 ,
0-82
313
0-32
1-76 1 0-30
0-86
0-06
0-08 1
0-03
0-53
0-05
0-30 0-05
28-69
1-86
8-14
1-85
1810
1-86
10-18 1-71
51-39
3-33 '
5-77
3-41
32-37
3-83
17-87 800
0-57
0-04 1
006 1
0-04
0-35
0-04
0-19 003
8-39
0-22
0-86
0-22
2-14
0-22
1-20 ' 0 20
10 50
0-68
1-50
0-89
1-85
0-19
1-50 0-25
0-88
0-02
004
0-02
0-25
0-03
0-14 002
7-42
0-48
0-45
0-27
4-18
0-43
295 0-50
55-77
8-61 1
5-27
311
30-67
3-16
19-53 i 3-28
5-65
0-87
0 63
0-37
8-57 0-37 1
2-05
0-34
17-51
1-18
189
1-11
10-99
1-13
6-18
1-04
0-17
0-01
0-01
0-01
010
001
0 05
0-01
1-44
0-09
0-16
0-09
0-91
0-09
0-51
0-09
4-01
0-26
022
0-13
0-65
0-07
0-80 0-05
607
0-39
0-69
0-41
4-07
0-42
243 ' 041
21-77
1-41
2-36
1-39
13-86 1-43
7-70 1-29
1419
0-92
1-94
1-15
11-20 1-15
5-88 ' 0-99
0-87
0-02
0-05
008
0-26 0-03
0-16 ' 0-03
0-72
0-05
0-29
0-17
0-94 010
0-33 0 06
0-81
0-02
003
0 02
0-21 \ 0-02
0-11 i 0-02
52-04
8-37
4-49
2-65
2666 2-74
15-62 ' 2-62
16-23
1-05
5-50
3-25
48-54 5-00
95-51 16-03
2-29
0-15
732 i 0-75
19-88 I 3-25
14-35
0-93
1-58
093
914 1 0-91
5-12 i 0-86
491-69
31-85
54-00
31-88
809-47 31-86
174-75 29-33
6-37
0-41
0-41
0-24
1-43 0-15
1-46 1 0 25
1054-55
68-81
449-67
265-49
165-63 17-05
135-32 22-71
6-22
0-40
6-97
4-12
2-56 0-26
5-15
0-86
151-77
9-83
16 92
999
96-49 t 9-93
54-65
9-17
20-75
1-34
14-55
8-59
14-88 1-53
12-87
2-16
19-03
1-23
5-09
3-01
12-15 1-25
680
1-14
19104 12-88
19 06
11-25
122-04 12-57
177-10
29-73
154-01 9-98
85-99
21-25
123-88 12-75
128-29 1 21-58
7-69 0-50
0-84
0-50
4-85 0-50
2-71 0-45
82-15 208
3 74
2-21
21-61
2-22
11-91 2-00
0-64 1 0-04
007
0-04
0-35
0^4
0-21 1 0-04
460-57
29 81
29-40
17-36
250-15
25-76
267-80 1 44-95
1012
0-66
1-58
0-98
2-35
0-24
9-83 ! 1-57
0-74
005
0-08
0 05
0-37
0-04
0-25 0-04
0-16
0-01
0-01
001
0-08
0 01
0-05 0-01
16-72
1-68
1-50
0-89
7-55
0-78
6-52 l"69
42-47
2-75
4-62
2-73
26-37
2-72
14-92 2-50
455-60
29-51
4919
29-04
278-30
28-65
160-64 26-96
279-56
18-11
43-31 [ 25 57
16400
16 89
78-63 1 13-aO
277-72
17-99
37 -9-2 1 22-89
215-38
22-18
280-17 47-0:4
1027-92
66-59
140-28 i 8282
664-22
68-89
891-15 149-58
791-42
6127
62-47 1 3ii-88
294-67
80-84
215-48 ; 36-17
4702-45
804-62
856-37
SOS 61
2762-89
284-47
1657-30
278-17
18866-15
1222-11
2949-15
1741-19
9321-81
959-78
7559-55
1268-85
104
DISTRIBUTIVE EXPENSES AND RATE PER CENT ON
JiTE"WO -A. S TXjIE .
Wages
Auditors' Fees '. . .
„ Deputation Fees
„ Fares
„ Deputation Fares
Fees— General and Brancii Committees
„ Snb-Comniittecs
„ Propa^andK Committee ■ •
„ Finance Committee
„ Stocktaliers
„ Scrutineers
„ Secretaries
„ Deputations
Mileages — Gen. & Branch Committees..
„ Sub-Committees
„ Propnganda Committee
„ Finance Committee ......
„ Stocktakers
„ Deputations
Fares and Contracts — General and
Branch Committees .
„ Sub-Committees
„ Finance Committee
„ Stocktakers
„ Scrutineers
„ Deputations
Price Lists : Printing
„ Postage
Balance Sheets : Printing
Printing and Stationery
Periodicals
Travelling
Telegrams
Stamps
Petty Cash
Advertisements
Rents, Rates, and Taxes
Coals, Gas, and Water
Oil, Waste, and Tallow
Expenses : Quarterly& Special Meetings
Legal
Repairs, Renewals, &c
Telephones
Conference and Exhibition Expenses. .
Propaganda Expenses
Open'g Expenres— Birm'gh'm Saleroom
Employes' Picnic
" Annual "
Dining-rooms
Insurance— Fire and Guarantee
Depreciation : Land
„ Buildings
„ FixtoFes
Interest
OROCERT.
£1.564,121.
"Rate^
Amount.
£
8612-66
51-92
2-15
21-01
3-65
202-13
62-18
2-45
14-31
8-35
1-64
13-18
58-25
4-2-41
10-45
0-74
6-08
0-46
4-02
; 104-96
25-12
1-57
1-62
1-31
88-05
183-95
31-. 9
40-96
854-60
11-26
464-32
80-39
81518
49-27
90-05
254-92
457-78
22-10
40-39
2-66
860-15
52-89
0-91
7-48
177-26
478-77
184-29
llB-88
728-87
814-61
4989-85
18986-97 291-88
jeioo.
d.
132-15
0-80
0-08
082
0-06
810
0-95
004
0-22
0-05
008
0-20
0-89
0-65
0-16
0-0 1
0-09
0-01
0-06
1-61
0-89
0 02
0-0:!
0-02
0-68
2-06
0-48
0-63
5-44
0-17
713
1-23
484
076
1-38
8-91
7-02
0-34
062
0-04
5-53
0-80
002
0-11
2-72
7-35
206
1-74
11-10
4-88
76-56
DRAPERY.
BOOTS & SHOES.
£241.002.
|RHte^ ;
Amount, i £100. i Amount.
£125,484.
£
8481-30
7-97
0-83
3-22
n-55
47-34
23-01
0-87
2-18
8-75
0-25
7-62
8-08
9-15
2-98
0-12
0-98
1-05
0-98
16-85
7-98
0-28
0-22
0-20
5-54
6-29
125-52
1-11
410-58
4-00
158-89
5-48
13-81
17»-11
113-44
3-50
6-12
0 43
102-95
5-15
0-14
7-44
27-40
128-86
143&7
61-27
422 93
171-60
2071-28
7796-82
d.
846-68
0-79
008
0 32
0-05
4-71
2 29
004
0-22
0-37
0-03
076
0-80
0-91
0-30
0-01
0-09
0-10
010
1-68
0-79
0-02
0-02
0-02
0-55
0-68
12-50
0-11
40-89
0-40
15-77
0-55
1-88
17-24
11-80
0-85
061
0-04
10-25
0-52
0-01
0-74
2-73
12-78
1433
610
4212
1709
20B-27
£
1572-48
419
0-18
1-69
0-29
19-86
14-40
019
1-15
1-50
013
0-66
3-78
8-45
1-62
(1-06
0-49
0-02
0-20
8-75
4-41
0-14
0-82
0-10
3-48
0-76
8-28
96-47
1-05
225-15
4-00
5125
8-33
7-25
141-25
41-45
1-79
3-27
0-20
88-87
2-89
008
1-88
14-18
67-63
82-07
48-63
338-88
184-86
1107-48
Ratef
£100.
776-39 I 4063-78
d.
800-75
0-80
0-08
0-82
0r06
8-70
2-75
004
0-22
0-29
0-02
0-18
0-71
0-66
0-81
0-01
0-09
0-01
004
1-67
0-85
0-03
0-06
0-02
0-56
0-66
0-14
0^
18-45
020
48-06
0-77
9-80
0-64
1-39
27-02
7-92
0-34
0-68
0-04
7-48
0-56
002
0-86
a-70
12-98
15-70
9-80
64 81
26-79
211-82
777-28
105
SALES FOE THE YEAE ENDING DECEMBEE 24th,
1892.
ITE-VT-C JLSTI.E .
Xj O ISr ID O IsT .
FURNISHING.
GROCERY.
DRAPERY.
BOOTS & SHOES.
1
FURNISHING.
£81,966.
£1.206,448.
£85,801.
£46.444.
£41.016.
, Rate^
Rate^
1 Kate^
Rate^
Rate per
Amount. flOO
Amonnt.
£100.
Amount. £100.
Amount.
£100.
Amoant.
£100.
£ rt.
£
d.
£ d.
£
d.
£
d.
2070-70 606-31
9956-88
198-06
2819-10 788-55
127503
658-87
1684-65
985-75
2-71 0-79
40-14
0-80
2-S5 0-80
l-.';5
0-80
1-38
0-81
Oil 00:1
1-65
0-03
0-11 0-03
006
0-03
0-05
008
1-09 0-32
16-19
0-32
1-14 |- 0-32
0-62
0-32
0-55
0-32
0-19 0-06
2-79
00«
0-20 1 OOd
0-11
0-06
0-09
0-05
1-2-68 3-71
142-.56
2-84
21-73 ; 6-08
: 11-54
5 96
11-15
6-52
822 ; 2-41
75-90
l'5l
26-74 ! 7-48
20-23
10-45
16-23
9-50
0-13 004
1-86
0-04
0-13 i 0-04
0-07
0-04
008
0 04
0-74 0-22
1101
0-22
0-77 j 0-22
0-42
0-21
038
0-22
412 1-21
8-15
OIC
4 40 1 1-23
1-85
0-96
2 20
1-29
0-08 i 0-02
1-28
0-03
0-09 ! 002
004
002
0-04
002
0-.'54 0-16
18-50
0-37
7 64 1 2-14
! 099
0-51
0-87
0-51
2-91 0-85
144-41
2-87
83 92 9-49
; 18-52
9-57
19 77
1-57
2-20 0-64
46-58
098
11-72 1 8-28
\ 6-12
816
6-03
3-53
1-03 0--0
40-07
0-80
1176 8-29
7-67
3-96
6-72
3-93
0-04 0 01
0-57
0-01
0 04 0-01
0-(i3
0 02
002
0-01
0-31 0-09
4-B8
0-09
0-33 0-09
018
0-09
0-15
0-09
0-45 ' 013
1-51
003
1-07 0-30
0-79
0-41
0-68
0-40
0-22 0 06
20 78
0-41
4 53 1-27
4-00
2-07
3-45
2-02
5-66 i 1-66
116-83
2-32
11-71
327
6-70
3-46
6-36
8-72
2-69
0-79
86-93
1-7S
18 52
5-18
10-00
5-17
10-68
6-25
0-09
0-03
1-23
003
010
003
006
0-03
0-06
0-04
033
O-iO
912
0-18
0-27
0-08
0-17
009
010
0-06
0-07
0-02
103
0-02
0-07
0-02
0-04
0-02
0-03
0-02
1-90 ! 056
254-88
5-07
45-93
12-84
28-42
14-69
30-95
1811
14-75 4-32
425-27
8-46
'
22-35
11-55
39-80
23-28
2-35 0-69
98-72
196
2-40
1-24
5-17
8-03
2-12 062
78-29
1-56
' 5-56
1-56
302
1-56
2-68
1-57
109-60 3209
907-48
1805
289 55
80-99
124-68
64-4S
118-29
69-22
1-48 0-43
26-93
0-54
290
0-81
0-90
0-47
2-20
1-29
80-41 23-54
924-51
18-39
503 56
140-85
283-43
146 46
318-85
183-64
200 0-.59
25-10
0-50
0 97
027
0-19
010
0-82
0-48
131-61 38 54
713-36
14-19
151-94 1 42-50
53 99
27-90
67-88
89-72
3-61 1-06
4340
0-86
10-49 2-93
832
1-71
2-54
1-49
4 70 1-38
63-19
1-26
4-86 1-36
2-44
1-26
3-33
1-95
154-38 45'20
835-15
16-61
130-74 36-57
63-24
32-68
80-74
47-24
28-90 i 8-46
530-73
10-56
113-42 31-73
86-89
44 90
57-04
33-37
1-23 0-36
24-66
049
4-44 1-24
3-20
1-65
2-03
1-19
2-05 ■ 0-60
49-93
099
5-58 : 1-56
3-40
1-76
3-28
1-92
015 004
4-98
0-10
0-99 0-28
0-92
0-48
OSO
0-29
20 06 5-87
611-38
12-16
125-05 84 98
75-02
38-76
89-04
22-84
1-95 0-57
82-53
0-65
6-93 1-94
3-45
1-78
4-62
2-70
0-04 ; 0 01
19-7H
0-39
0-99 0-28
0-66
0-34
0-44
0-26
(
11-52
0-23
0-88 0-24
0-45
0 23
0-38
0-22
'0-93 '0-27
16-61
0-38
"5-10 "l-4S
' 1-81
' 0-6!^
' ' 3-60
211
9-29 2-72
136-46
2-71
9-72 ' 2-72
5-19
2-68
4-65
2-72
4339 12-70
275-24
5-48
66-12 18-49
87-34
19-30
33-96
15-87
53-35 15-62
475-05
9-45
272-76 i 76-30
112-91
58-35
97-49
5704
50-18 14-69
92-12
1-83
34-18 9-56
10-99
5-68
19-15
11-21
352-19 103-12
1054-17
20-97
420 84 117 71
140-70
72-71
251-04
146-89
144-36 4-2-27
583-13
11-60
234-71 65-65
68-58
35-44
82-60
48-33
852-94 , 249-75
4725 34
94-00
1182-64 830-80
47243
244-13
448-79
262-60
4187-23 1226-03
23790-06
473-25
6609-79 1848-87
2978-61
1539-20
8488-56
2041-28
106
OFFICES :
CITY BUILDINGS, 69, CORPORATION STREET,
MANCHESTER.
WHAT IS THE CO-OPERATIVE UNION?
IT is an institution charged witli the duty of keeping alive and diffusing a
knowledge of the principles which form the life of the Co-operative move-
ment, and giving to its active members, by advice and instruction — literary,
legal, or commercial — the help they may require, that they maj- be better able to
discharge the important work they have to do.
WHAT HAS IT DONE?
Thk greater part of the legal advantages enjoyed by Co-operators originated in
the action of the Central Board of the Union, and the Central Committee which
it succeeded. They may be summarised as follows : —
(1) The right to deal with the public instead of their own members only.
(2) The incorjwration of the Societies, by which thej' have acquired the right of
holding in their own name lands or buildings and property generally, and
of suing aud being sued in their own names, instead of being driven to
employ trustees.
(3) The power to hold £200 instead of £100 by individual members of our Societies.
(4) The limitation of the liability of members for the debts of the Society to
the sum unpaid upon the shares standing to their credit.
(5) The exemption of Societies from charge to income tax on the profits of their
business, under the condition that the number of their shares shall not
be limited.
(6) The authorising one Registered Society to hold shares in its own corporate
name to any amount in the capital of another Registered Society.
(7) The extension of the jjower of members of Societies to bequeath shares by
nomination in a book, without the formality of a will or the necessity of
appointing executors, first from £30 to £50, and now to £100, by the
Provident Nominations and Small Intestacies Act, 1883, which also
makes this power apply to loans and deposits as well as to shares.
(8) The Industrial and Provident Societies Act, 1871, which enables Societies
to hold and deal with land freely.
(9) The Industrial and Provident Societies Act 1876, which consolidated into
one Act the laws relating to these Societies, and, among many smaller
advantages too numerous to be mentioned in detail, gave them the right
of carrying on banking business whenever they ofier to the depositors the
security of transferable share capital.
(10) The Industrial and Provident Societies Act, 1893.
The Union consists of Industrial and Provident Societies, Joint-Stock
Companies, and other bodies corporate.
No Society is admitted into Union unless its management is of a representative
character, nor unless it agree —
(1) To accept the statement of principles in the rules of the Union as the rules
by which it shall be guided in all its own business transactions.
(2) To contribute to the fund called the Congress Fund the annual payment
following :—
(a) If the number of members of any such Society, or of the employes
of any such industrial partnership, is less than 500, then the sum
of 2d. for each member.
(6) If the number of such members or employes exceed 500, then, at
least, the sum of l.OOOd.
107
In estimating the number of members of a Society comprising other Societies,
each such Society is considered to be one member.
Tlie subscription is considered due, Id. in the first and Id. in the third quarter
of each year, but may be wholly paid in the first quarter.
The financial year commences on April 1st in each year, and ends on March
31st following.
N.B. — Secretaries forwarding Cheques on account of the Union are requested
to make them payable to the Co-operative Union Limited; Money Orders to
A. Whitehead, Cashier.
SUMMAEY OF THE LAW EELATING TO SOCIETIES
UNDER THE
INDUSTRIAL AND PROVIDENT SOCIETIES ACT, 1876,
The Customs and Inland Revenue Act, 1880, and the Provident
Nominations and Small Intestacies Act, 1883.
I. The Formation of Societies —
1. Application must be made to the Registrar of Friendly Societies, in London,
Edinburgh, or Dublin, according to the case, on a form supplied by the office,
signed by seven persons and the secretary, accompanied by two copies of the rules,
signed by the same persons.
2. These rules must provide for twenty matters stated on the form of appli-
cation.
3. No fees charged on the registration of a society.
N.B. — ^Model rules on these twentj' matters can be obtained from the Regis-
trar's office ; and the Co-operative Union Limited, 14, City Buildings, Corporation
Street, Manchester, publishes, at the cost of IJd. a copy, general rules, approved
of by the Chief Registrar, providing also for manj' other matters on which rules
are useful ; and capable of being adopted, either with or without alterations, by
a few special rules, with a great saving in the cost of printing.
The General Secretary of the Union will prepare such special rules, without
charge, on receiving a statement of the rules desired.
II. Rights of a Registered Society —
1. It becomes a body corporate, which can by its corporate name sue and be
sued, and hold and deal with property of any kind, including shares in other
societies or companies, and land to any amount.
2. Its rules are binding upon its members, though they may have signed no
assent to them ; but maj- be altered by amendments duly made as the rules
provide, and registered, for which a fee of 10s. is charged. The application for
registration must be made on a form supplied by the Registrar's office.
3. It can sue its own members, and can make contracts, either under its
seal or by a writing signed by any person authorised to sign, or by word of mouth
of any person authorised to sj)eak for it, which will be binding wherever a contract
similarly made by an individual would bind him.
4. It may make all or any of its shares either transferable or wthdrawable,
and may carry on any trade, including the buying and selling of land, and banking
under certain conditions, and may applj' the profits of the business to any lawful
purpose ; and, if authorised by its rules, may receive money on loan, either from
its members or others, to any amount so authorised.
5. If it has any withdrawable share capital it may not carry on banking,
but may take deposits, within any limits fixed by its rules, in sums not exceeding
10s. in any one pajaiient, or £20 for any one depositor, payable at not less than
two clear days' notice.
6. It may make loans to its members on real or personal security ; and may
invest on the security of other societies or companies, or in any except those
where liability is unlimited.
108
7. If the number of its shares is not limited either by its rules or its practice,
it is not chargeable with income tax on the profits of its business.
8. It can, in the way provided by the Act, amalgamate with or take over
the business of any other society, or convert itself into a company.
9. It can determine the way in which disputes between the society and its
officers or members shall be settled.
10. It can dissolve itself, either by an instrument of dissolution signed by
three-fourths of its members, or by a resolution passed by a three-fourths vote at
a special general meeting, of which there are two forms— (A) purely voluntary,
when the resolution requires confirmation at a second meeting ; (B) on account
of debts, when one meeting is sufficient. In such a winding up hostile pro-
ceedings to seize the property can be stayed.
III. Rights of the Members (see also IV., 4, 5, 6) —
1. They cannot be sued individually for the debts of the society, nor compelled
to pay more towards them than the sum remaining unpaid on any shares which
they have either expressly agreed to take or treated as their property, or which
the rules authorise to be so treated.
2. If they transfer or withdraw their shares, they cannot be made liable for
any debts contracted subsequently, nor for those subsisting at the time of the
transfer or withdrawal, unless the other assets are insufficient to pay them.
3. Persons not under the age of 16 years may become uiembers, and legally
do any acts which they could do if of full age, except holding any office
4. An individual or company may hold any number of shares allowed by the
rules, not exceeding the nominal value of £200, and any amount so allowed as a
loan. A society may hold any number of shares.
6. A member who holds at his death not more than £100 in the society as
shares, loans, or deposits, may, by a' writing recorded by it, nominate, or vary or
revoke the nomination of any persons to take this investment at his death ; and
if he dies intestate, without having made any subsisting nomination, the com-
mittee of management of the society are charged with the administration of the
fund ; subject in either case to a notice to be given to the Commissioners of
Inland Revenue whenever the sum so dealt with exceeds £80.
6. The members may obtain an inquiry into the position of the society by
application to the Registrar.
IV. Duties of a Registered Society —
1. It must have a registered office, and keep its name painted or engraved
outside, and give due notice of any change to the Registrar.
2. It must have a seal on which its name is engraved.
3. It must have its accounts audited at least once a year, and keep a copy of
its last balance sheet and the auditors' report constantly hung up in its registered
office.
4. It must make to the Registrar, before the .31st of ^larch in every year, a
return of its business during the year ending the 3 1 st December previous, and
supply a copy of its last returns gratis to every member and person interested in
its funds on application.
5. It must allow any member or person interested' in its funds to inspect his
own account and the book containing the names of the members.
6. It must supply a copy of its rules to every person on demand, at a price
not exceeding one shilling.
7. If it carries on banking, it must make out in February and August in
every year, and keep hung up in its registered office, a return, in a form
prescribed by the Act ; and it has also to make a return every February to the
Stamp-office under the Banking Act.
The non-observance by a society of these duties exposes it and its officers to
penalties varying from £1 to £50, which are in some cases cumulative for every
week during which the neglect lasts.
109
THE
44
^o=opevatxve Wews^'
JOUENAL OF ASSOCIATED INDUSTEY.
The Official Organ of Industrial and Provident
Co-operative Societies.
CpHE NEWS is the property of a Federation of Co-operative
Societies located in all parts of Great Britain. It is an
exponent of opinion, thoroughly impartial and comprehensive, upon
all subjects connected with Association, particularly in its applica-
tion to the Distribution and Production of Wealth. It is a free
platform for the discussion of topics bearing upon the social well-
being of the people, and affords an opportunity for the expression of
every view of Co-operation which commends itself as thoughtful and
sincere.
The importance of maintaining a vehicle for the conveyance of
co-operative intelligence cannot be over-rated.
Each Society is invited to become a Shareholder, and every
Individual Co-operator is solicited to Subscribe.
The Neics may be had by application to any Bookseller, through
the Local Stores, or from the Offices of the Society,
88 AND 90, CORPORATION STREET, MANCHESTER ;
119, PAISLEY ROAD, GLASGOW ;
AND
35, RUSSELL STREET, COVENT GARDEN, LONDON, W.C.
N.B.— CLOTH CASES for the Netvs will be Supplied Gbatis to
Societies who send copies to public and semi-public reading-rooms.
PRICE ONE PENNY WEEKLY.
Sold, at tnnnji of the Stores at One Mnlfpetitn/.
110
THE
Co-operative Insurance Company
LIMITED.
ESTABLISHED 1867.
HEAD OFFICES :
CITY BUILDINGS, COEPOEATION ST., MANCHESTEK.
PRINCIPAL AGENCIES :
SCOTTISH CO-OPERATIVE WHOLESALE SOCIETY LIMITED,
119, Paisley Road, Glasgow;
And each Branch of the Co-operative Wliolesale Society Limited.
DIRECTORS :
Chairman— Mr. WILLIAM BARNETT, Macclesfield.
Mb. WM. BA:MF0RTH, Manchester. | Mb. ROBERT HOLT, Rochdale.
Mb. B. HEPWORTH, Heckmondwike. ' Mb. A. MILLER, Glasgow.
Mb. W. a. HILTON, Bolton. Mr. T. RAWLINSON, Burnley.
Mb. T. wood, Manchester.
AUDITORS :
Mb. a, hackney, Bolton, and Me. J. E. LORD, Rochdale.
MANAGER :
JAMES ODGERS.
BANKERS :
THE CO-OPERATIVE WHOLESALE SOCIETY LIMITED.
Ill
CpHE CO-OPERATIVE INSURANCE COMPANY LIMITED was registered
on August 29th, 1867, to save the diSerence between the premiums usually
charged for insurance and the actual losses and central and local expenses
incurred.
This difference consists of two parts —
(A) Any excess of Agents' Commission over fair payment for local work
done ; such commissions being fixed percentages, irrespective of the
ratios of losses and expenses of management.
(B) The balances of premiums left after paying claims, expenses, and com-
missions ; such balances increasing the funds when the claims do not
exceed the average, and reducing them when the claims are excep-
tionally heavy.
Every member, whether a shareholder or not, guarantees £5, no part of which
is to be paid up except in the remote contingency of the Company being wound
up. In the latter event no loss can be suffered under these guarantees, unless
the fully subscribed capital of £50,000 should prove insufficient to meet the
liabilities.
The balances of premiums referred to in clause B above are required by the
Articles of Association to be accumulated to form three separate Insurance
Funds, for the Fire, Fidelity, and Life Departments respectively, " neither of
which shall be available for the payment of a dividend to shareholders as such,"
this growth of the funds being needed to provide for the growing liabilities of the
Company under its policies.
The income from the investments of the Life Insurance Fund is credited to
that fund, the profits of which are divisible exclusively with Life policy-holders.
The balance of the income from all other investments after paying an annual
dividend of 6 per cent upon one-fifth of the shareholders' liability, i.e., upon the
four shillings per share called up, and 3 per cent upon the sum (if any) paid up
in advance of calls, is carried to the Reserve Fund to increase the general
security.
112
The following statement shows the progress of the
Company to the
end of 1892:—
p4
Sev
fiubacribpd
Fira Insurance.
Fidelity
Ouarantee.
Life
Insurance
•__ Commis-
Funds
in
PrcmiumB
Capital, 48.
per Share
Called up.
en £
after
Deducting
He-
InsaraDoes.
£
1
B
i
it
a
i
£
£
Allowed to
Society
Agen' 8.
excess
of
Paid-up
Capital.
£ £ £
£
£
£
1868..
mout
hs only —
included
with next year.
S 8 §
1869..
41
1,715
208
6
67
Nil.
Nil.
Nil
• s'?^ £
188
1870..
41
1,715
167
1
123
li«^|
378
1871..
42
4,216
173
Nil.
162
-11^
597
1872. .
46
6,468
256
62
253
. w«
961
1873. .
51
9,494
369
28 392 3
• '
Nil.
1,488
1874..
64
10,706
571
29 1 449 200
2
2,121
1875..
71
11,314
1,075
1,861 559 Nil.
*100
1,508
1876..
89
11,877
1,725
39 J 457
18
3,444
1877..
96
12,365
3,896
1,613 525 270
34
5,250
1878..
109
13,208
6,-343
6,933 399 Nil.
51
3,545
1879..
128
15,996
5,114
3,888 568 23
142
4,094
1880..
144
17,698
3,405
3,403 ; 543 50
229
3,426
1881..
169
19,377
3,062
2,738 541 402
357
3,068
1882..
180
20,170
2,834
1,741 537 692
426
3,197
1883..
194
22,985
3,111
2,275 ! 551
278
•
609
3,403
1884..
204
23,700
3,448
461 1 620
286
•
470
5,369
1885..
236
26,475
4,4^5
2,463 777
1,132
552
5,665
1886..
260
29,020
4,711
1,117 699
300
118
588
8,007
1887..
268
30,540
5,590
1,387 803
794
613
663
10,666
1888..
278
31,855
6,138
1,245 i 786
225
963
. • 672
14,761
1889..
287
33,775
6,702
3,400 i 894
726
1,069
12
5 ; 722
17,163
1890..
293
43,465
7,393
3,005 ! 958
37
1,256
10(
3 ' 745
21,376
1891..
305
50,000
8,086
2,634 ;1070
268
1,692
2
5 835
26,767
1892..
317
50,000
9,199
5,261 11188
222
1,950
m
3 898
30,396
Individuals are no longer admitted members of the Company, and when existing
members wish to dispose of their shares the preference as transferees is given
to societies.
All Co-operative Societies in the United Kingdom that are
not yet connected with the Company are invited to join it as
members and agents. By doing so they will be entitled to take
part, by representation, in the general meetings which elect the
directors and control the administration; ana will obtain the
usual commission on insurances effected through their agency,
including commission on insurances of their own corporate
property.
FIRE DEPARTMENT BEGUN 1868.
Claims Paid, £45,590.
Iksurances against loss bj- Fire are effected on Co-operative Stores, Dwelling-
houses, Schools, Public Buildings, Churches, Chapels, Farming Property, and
most other classes of risk.
Losses by Lightning are paid, also losses by the Explosion of Coal Gas in
buildings other than gasworks.
Societies are invited to transfer Insurances from other companies to the
" Co-operative." Their members are also invited to have their Houses, Furniture,
and other property insured by it.
113
FIDELITY DEPARTMENT BEGUN 1869.
Claims Paid, £5,908.
PoiiiciES are issued insuring Co-operative Societies against loss by acts of
Embezzlement or Theft committed by persons employed by them in situations
of trust.
LIFE DEPARTMENT BEGUN 1886,
Claims Paid, £350.
Low Rates. — Surplus divisible exclusively with Life policy-holders. Claims
paid immediately after proof of death and title. All reasonable facilities given
to prevent lapsing of policies. Liberal surrender values.
Premiums for the Insurance of £100 at death.
Age next
Birthday.
Single
Premium.
Yearly.
Half-yearly.
Quarterly.
Age next*
Birthday.
20
30
40
50
£ s. d.
37 8 6
43 17 1
51 13 3
60 17 5
£ s. d.
1 15 8
2 5 10
3 18
4 7 6
£ s. d.
0 18 10
14 0
1 12 1
2 5 4
£ s. d.
0 10 0
0 12 8
0 16 8
13 4
20
30
40
50
Premiums for the Insurance of £100 at age 60 or at death, if
THAT event should OCCUR EARLIER.
Age next Single
Birthday. Premium.
Yearly.
Half-yearly.
Quarterly.
Age next
Birthday.
20
30
40
50
£ s. d.
43 1 2
51 19 2
63 11 7
79 11 4
£ S. d,
2 5 2
3 3 0
4 17 11
9 14 11
£ s. d.
1 3 11
1 12 11
2 10 9
5 14
£ s. d.
0 12 11
0 17 5
16 6
2 12 3
20
30
40
50
NEW SYSTEM OF DEFERRED INSURANCE ON CHILDREN'S
LIVES WITHOUT MEDICAL EXAMINATION.
The full sum insured becomes payable at death if taking place after age
twenty-one, or on the attainment of age fifty. The whole of the premiums paid,
with compound interest thereon at 4 per cent per annum, will be returned in the
event of death occurring under age twenty-one.
The policies carry the right to participation in the profits of the not medically
examined section of the Life business of the Com.pany.
The Rates of Premium for the various Insurances will be supplied on application.
Policies Insuring £25, £50, and £75 are issued for proportionate parts of the
premium for £100, subject to the limitation that no Life Policy is issued for a
less premium than Five Shillings.
Forms of Application for Admission of Societies as Members, and for Appointment
as Agents ; also Proposal Forms for Insurance, may be obtained frovi the
Office as above.
9
115
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THE
SCOTTISH
CO-OPERATIVE WHOLESALE SOCIETY
LIMITED.
PLATES, ADYEETISEMENTS, STATISTICS, &c.,
PAGES 118 TO 170.
119
INTRODUCTION.
To THE Members :
yN placing the "Annual" for 1894 in your hands, we have
no doubt that the interest it will excite will be not less
than that evoked by previous issues. The contents are
equally varied and interesting, and well worthy, we think, of
a careful and thoughtful perusal. The subjects dealt with in
the general part of the volume are of widespread importance,
and we feel certain that the manner in which they are treated
will do something in the way of solving some of the social
problems which are being so generally debated at the present
time.
Those portions of the volume which are specially reserved
for matters affecting the Scottish Wholesale are compiled on
the same lines as last year. The statistics have been
brought up to date, and record continued progress in all
departments of the Society. We do not think it necessary
to say anything further by way of recommending the
" Annual." We leave it to speak for itself, and that is,
after all, really the truest and best recommendation.
Twenty-five Years' Wholesale Distribution in Scotland.
\
^
^o-operafive '^joksafe ^ocief^ ffd.
Yeabs.
Capital.
Sales.
Profits.
Yeabs.
1868, 13 weeks
£1,795
£9,697
£48
13 weeks, 1868
1869, 52
i>
5,175
81,094
1,304
52
„ 1869
1870, 50
i>
12,543
105,249
2,419
50
„ 1870
1871, 62
i>
18,009
162,658
4,131
52
„ 1871
1872, 62
»
30,931
262,530
5,435
52
„ 1872
1873, 52
i»
50,433
384,489
7,446
52
„ 1873
1874, 52
»»
48,982
409,947
7,553
52
„ 1874
1875, 52
>(
56,751
430,169
8,233
52
„ 1875
1876, 51
»>
67,219
457,529
8,836
51
„ 1876
1877, 52
.,
72,568
589,221
10,925
52
,, 1877
1878, 52
)i
83,174
600,590
11,969
52
„ 1878
,1879, 52
>»
93,077
630,097
14,989
52
„ 1879
1880, 52
i>
110,179
845,221
21,685
52
„ 1880
1881, 54
>>
135,713
986,646
23,981
54
„ 1881
1882, 52
»
169,429
1,100,588
23,220
52
„ 1882
1888, 52
>i
195,396
1,253,154
28,366
52
„ 1883
1884, 52
>»
244,186
1,300,331
29,435
52
„ 1884
1885, 52
n
288,946
1,438,220
39,641
52
„ 1885
1886, 60
II
333,653
1,857,152
50,398
60
„ 1886
1887, 53
II
367,309
1,810,015
47,278
53
„ 1887
1888, 52
>i
409,668
1,963,853
53,538
52
„ lass
1889, 52
II
480,622
2,273,782
61,756
52
„ 1889
1890, 52
II
575,322
2,475,601
76,545
52
„ 1890
1891, 52
II
671,108
2,828,036
89,090
62
„ 1891
1892, 53
II
778,494
3,104,768
96,027
53
„ 1892
1893, 26
II
821,541
1,538,449
48,970
26
„ 1893
Totals.
821,541
28,899,086
773,218
Totals.
r^ /?..
Ji $^^\
r — c.^ 10(^0
s
121
SCOTTISH CO-OPERATIVE
WHOLESALE SOCIETY LIMITED.
Enrolled 20th April, 1868, tinder the provisions of the Industrial and Provident
Societies Act, 20th Atuj/tist, 1867, 30 and 31 Vict., cap. 117, sec. 4.
Business Commenced 8th September, 1868.
REGISTERED OFFICE, GROCERY AND PROVISION WAREHOUSE :
119, PAISLEY ROAD, GLASGOW.
DRAPERY WAREHOUSE :
DUNDAS AND ST. JAMES' STREETS, GLASGOW.
BOOT AND SHOE WAREHOUSE :
PATERSON AND ST. JAMES' STREETS.
FURNITURE WAREHOUSE :
DUNDAS STREET, GLASGOW.
BOOT AND SHOE FACTORY, CLOTHING FACTORY, CABINET WORK-
SHOP, PRINTING WORKSHOP, PRESERVE AND CONFECTION
WORKS, MANTLE FACTORY, COFFEE ESSENCE WORKS,
TOBACCO FACTORY, AND PICKLE WORKS :
SHIELDHALL, near GOVAN, GLASGOW.
122
Scottish Co-operative Wholesale Society
Limited.
BRANCHES :
LINKS PLACE, LEITH. GRANGE PLACE, KILMARNOCK.
TRADES LANE, DUNDEE.
HENRY STREET, ENNISKILLEN, IRELAND.
TEA AND COFFEE DEPARTMENT :
Hooper Square, Leman Street, Whitechapel, London.
BANKERS :
THE UNION BANK OF SCOTLAND LIMITED.
HEAD OFFICES :
GLASGOW : LONDON : EDINBURGH :
Ingram Stbeet. 62, Cobkhill, E.C. Geobge Street.
MANAGER : MANAGEB : MANAGER :
CHARLES GAIRDNER. JOHN A. FRADGLEY. HENRY HAY NORIE.
123
^exxexaC Committee.
PEESIDENT :
Mr. WILLIAM MAXWELL, 36, Woodburn Terrace, Morningside, Edinburgh.
SECKETAKY :
Mr. ANDREW MILLER, Moss Road, Tillicoultry.
DIRECTOES :
Mr. ISAAC MACDONALD 7, Knoxland Street, Dumbarton.
Mr. DANIEL THOMSON 67, Priory Lane, Dunfermline.
Mr. JOHN STEVENSON 2, Park Lane, Kilmarnock.
Mr. T. C. Mc.NAB 25, Dalmeny Street, Leith.
Mr. JOHN ARTHUR 139, George Street, Paisley.
Mr. HENRY MURPHY Bloomgate, Lanark.
Mr. JOHN PEARSON Ludgate Place, Alloa.
Mr. JOHN ADAISIS 12, Anderson Street, Kinning Park.
Mr. PETER GLASSE Myrtle Street, Glasgow.
Mr. THOMAS LITTLE 3, Hall Street, Galashiels.
SUB-COMMITTEES.
[Mr. WILLIAM MAXWELL,
Finance:^ Mr. JOHN STEVENSON.
Mr. ANDREW MILLER (Convener),
rMr. ISAAC MACDONALD.
Mr. HENRY MURPHY.
Building:-,' Mr. ANDREW MILLER.
Mr. THOMAS LITTLE.
Mr. WILLIAM MAXWELL (Convener)
(Mr. ISAAC MACDONALD.
PhoductiveJ Mr. JOHN ADAMS.
t Mr. JOHN PEARSON (Convener).
/Mr. THOMAS LITTLE.
Mr. PETER GLASSE.
Mr. T. C. M(iNAB (Convener).
'Mr. HENRY MURPHY.
Mr. DANIEL THOMSON.
Mr. JOHN ARTHUR (Convener).
Drapery :
Gboceey :
AUDITORS :
Mr. JOHN ALEXANDER, Paisley. | Mr. JOHN MILLEN, Rutherglen.
Mr. JAMES INGLIS, Paisley.
124
Officers of ffte ^ocief^.
MANAGER :
Mr. JAMES MARSHALL, Glasgow.
ACCOUNTANT :
Mr. ROBERT MACINTOSH, Glasgow.
CASHIER :
Mr. ALLAN GRAY, Glasgow.
BUYEKS, SALESMEN, &c.
GROCERY AND PROVISION DEPARTMENTS.
Mr. E. ROSS Glasgow.
Mr. J. MACDONALD Glasgow.
Mr. R. REYBURN Glasgow.
Mr. JNO. JAMIESON Glasgow.
Mr. JAS. CALDWELL (Carting Superintendent) Glasgow.
Mr. W. F. STEWART Leith.
Mr. PETER ROBERTSON Leith.
Mr. ANDREW PENNEY (Cattle Buyer) Leith.
Mr. W. LAIRD Kilmarnock.
Mr. DAVID CALDWELL Kilmarnock.
Mr. J. BARROWMAN Dundee.
Mr. WILLIAM WHYTE Enniskillen.
Mr. CHARLES FIELDING (Tea) London.
Mr. JOHN M'INTYRE (Potatoes) Glasgow.
Mr. JOHN WHITE (Potatoes) Leith.
Mr. N. ANDERSON (Traveller, Grocery Department) Glasgow.
Mr. GEORGE BLACKWOOD (Traveller, Grocery Department) ..Glasgow.
Mr. WM. DUNCAN (Cattle Buyer) Glasgow.
Mr. DAVID GARDINER (Drapery Department) Glasgow.
Mr. ALEX. Mc.FARLANE (Tailoring Factory) Glasgow.
Mr. ALBERT JOHNSON (Boot and Shoe Factory) Glasgow.
Mr. WILLIAM MILLER (Furniture Department) Glasgow.
Mr. DAVID CAMPBELL (Printing) Glasgow.
Mr. HENRY HEGGERTY (Preserve Works) Glasgow.
Mr. THOMAS HARKNESS (Tobacco Factory) Glasgow.
Mr. JAMES DAVIDSON (Clerk of Works) Glasgow.
Mr. JAMES COATS (Mechanics' Department) Glasgow.
125
ujsines^ Jlrrangemenfe.
EEGISTERED OFFICE :
119, PAISLEY ROAD, GLASGOW.
BEANCHES :
LINKS PLACE, LEITH ; GRANGE PLACE, KILMARNOCK ;
TRADES LANE, DUNDEE ;
HENRY STREET, ENNISKILLEN, IRELAND ;
HOOPER SQUARE, LEMAN STREET, WHITECHAPEL, LONDON.
BUSINESS AEEANGEMENTS.
Societies or Companies Registered (to which our trade is strictly confined)
desirous of opening an account with this Society, will please forward a copy of
the registered Rules and latest issued balance sheet. If newly started, a state-
ment showing the number of members ; value of shares ; amount subscribed for
and paid up ; weekly turnover expected ; also, if credit is allowed, the amount
per member in proportion to the capital paid up. The information forwarded
will be carefully considered, and, if found satisfactory, goods will be supplied on
the usual business terms.
CASH PAYMENTS.
Besides the usual invoice sent with each consignment of goods, a weekly state-
ment of accounts (see page 126) is sent to each society, so that there may be no
delay in remitting the amount due for the month, the limit of credit allowed by
this Society. Interest at the rate of 5 per cent per annum is charged on all over-
due accounts, and by a resolution adopted at a general meeting of the members,
the committee of management are instructed and empowered to examine the
books of defaulting societies and take the necessary steps to protect the interest
of the federated societies.
BUSINESS NOTICE.
When ordering goods state price or brand of the article wanted, also mode of
transit, and name of station to which the goods are to be sent. Orders for the
different departments should be written on separate slips. Goods not approved
of must be returned at once and intact. No claim for breakage, short weight,
&c., can be entertained unless made within six days after goods are received.
Delay in delivery should be at once advised.
126
WEEKLY STATEMENT OF ACCOUNT.
6th Week. Ledger Folio, 929.
73BD Quarter. 119, Paisley Road,
GLASGOW, September 3rd, 1887.
The Grahamston and Bainsford Co-operative Society Limited.
Dr. Co The Scottish Co-operative Wholesale Society Limited. Cr.
GOODS.
CASH .
VND
CREDITS.
Date.
Amoant of
Balance last
Date. 1 Cash.
Credit.
Totals.
each Invoice.
Statement.
£ 8. d.
£ B. d.
698 7 2
1
£ B. d.
£ B. d.
£ B. d.
Aug. 30..
0 4 3
....
Aug. 30..
....
0 5 0
....
., 30..
18 11 7
, ,
„ 31..
10 0
„ 80..
29 0 8
„ 31..
0 12 9
„ 30..
32 4 0
, ,
: ,. 31..
0 12 10
„ 30..
0 17 7
, .
Sept. 1..
0 5 6
., 30..
4 10 0
, ,
., 1..
10 10
„ 30..
4 4 0
, ,
,. 1
13 6
.. 30..
3 2 6
» 1..
2 7 0
„ 31..
0 6 6
, ,
„ 2..
0 12 9
n 31..
0 8 3
, ,
1 „ 2..
0 12 9
„ 31..
0 10 10
, ,
,. 2
0 14 9
., 31..
0 8 3
, ,
„ 2 .
0 10 0
„ 31..
15 0
, ,
., 3..
0 15 6
,, 31..
0 10 11
, ,
„ 3..
10 11 1
„ 81..
69 16 9
,, 3..
0 15 6
„ 31..
0 11 3
„ 3..
'
1 12 0
„ 31..
7 3 6
22 11 11
600 0 0
Sept. 1.!
2 10 6
,, 2..
600 0 0
» 1..
4 17 6
,. 1..
0 15 2
.. 3..
0 6 6
» 3..
0 9 2
„ 3..
17 10 0
„ 3..
0 18 0
„ 3..
3 10 6
» 3..
5 13 8
» 3..
12 11 1
,, 3..
4 18 7
>. 3..
6 3 6
« 3..
0 12 9
« 3..
0 1 10
» 3..
2 14 9
., 3..
18 6
„ 3..
27 12 8
255*i6 5
To balance,
£
By balance
331 5 8
937 17
7
953
17
7
If the above Statement differs from your Books, we shall be glad if you
will point out the difference at once.
127
^erm^ of ^^embexs^ip.
MEMBEKSHIP.
The Bules relating to the admission of members are : —
No. 6. — The society (that is, the Wholesale) shall consist of such co-operative
societies, registered or deemed to be registered under the Industrial and Provident
Societies Act, 1876, or Companies Act, 1862-67, as have been admitted by the
committee, and each admission must be entered in the minute book of the
society. Every application for shares must be sanctioned by a resolution of a
general meeting of any society or company making such. The application must
be made on the printed form supplied, and duly attested by the signatures of the
president, secretary, and three members thereof, and stamped with such society's
seal. Every society or company making an application for shares shall state the
number of its members, and take not less than one share for each member, and
shall increase the nmnber annually as its members increase in accordance with
its last return to the Registrar ; but no member other than a society registered
under the Industrial and Provident Societies Act, 1876, shall hold an interest in
the funds exceeding £200.
No. 7. — The capital of the society shall be raised in shares of twenty shillings
each. Every member on admission shall pay the sum of not less than one shilling
on each share taken up, and the unpaid portion of the shares may be paid up by
dividends and interest ; but any member may pay up shares in full or part at
any time.
Application Form.
Whereas, by a resolution of the Co-operative
Society Limited, passed at a general meeting held on the day
of , it was resolved to take up shares (being
one share of twenty shillings for each member), said shares being
transferable, in the Stottis^ Co-opcratibt M^oltsnle Soiictg I'imittb,
and to accept the same on the terms and conditions specified in
the Rules. Executed under the seal of the society on the .... day
of Attested by
[■ Three Members.
128
BENEFITS DERIVED FROM MEMBERSHIP.
(a) The liability of the member is limited, each member being only responsible
for the value of the shares held.
(b) Members receive double the rate of dividend on purchases paid to non-
members.
(c) Share capital is paid 5 per cent per annum.
(d) Members have a share in the management of the Wholesale in proportion
to the amount of goods bought, as each society, besides one vote in right of
membership, is allowed an extra vote for each £1^000 worth of goods bought.
These advantages, added to the special benefits secured by the leading position
of the Wholesale, will, we trust, induce societies as yet non-members to carefully
reconsider the question, and take the necessary steps to secure to their members
the full benefits of co-operative distribution.
CORRESPONDENCE.
All letters must be addressed to the society, and not to individuals. Addressed
envelopes are supplied at cost price. Separate slips ought to be used for the
different departments — the Accountant's, Grocery and Provision, Drapery,
Boot and Shoe, Furniture. The slips can all be enclosed in the one envelope.
Attention to tliis simple rule ^vill greatly facilitate the despatch of goods and
ensure promptitude in answering inquiries ; it will also aid in the classification
of the letters for reference in any case of irregularity or dispute.
GLASGOW GUOCEliY AND PIIOVISION WAliEHOUSE AND HALL,
CLARENCE STBEET. — See paqe 132.
5 ^
129
(ga^i^ Remittance,
Cheques must be made payable to the Society. If remitted through the Union
Bank of Scotland Lisiiti
LIST OF B RANG BE
:d, the usual commission charged will be saved. |
S OF THE UNION BANK OF SCOTLAND
Limited. 1
Head Offices : —Glasgow, Ingram Street; Edinbubgh, George Street.
London Office: — 62, Cornhill, E.G.
Branches: \
Aberdeen.
Edinburgh, Morningside.
Lerwick .
Aberdeen, George Street.
„ Newington.
Leslie.
West End.
,, Norton Park.
Lochgelly, Fifeshire.
Aberfeldy.
,, S. Morningside
Lochgilphead.
Aberlour, Strathspey.
(sub to Morningside).
Macduff.
Alloa.
Edzell.
Maryhill.
Alva.
Elgin.
Maybole.
Auchterarder.
Ellon.
Mearns (open on Tues-
Auchtermuchty.
Errol.
days and Fridays — sub
Ayr.
Fochabers.
to Barrhead).
Ballater.
Forfar.
Millport.
Banchory.
Fraserburg.
Moffat.
Banff.
Galston.
Moniaive.
Barrhead.
Gatehouse.
New Pitsligo.
Barrhill.
Girvan.
Paisley.
Bathgate.
Glasgow, Anderston.
Partick.
Beith.
„ 174, Argyle St.
Perth.
Blair-Athole (sub to Pit-
„ Bridgeton Cross.
Peterhead.
lochrie).
,, Cowcaddens.
Pitlochrie.
Blairgowrie.
„ Hillhead.
Port-Glasgow.
Braemar.
,, Kinning Park.
Portsoy.
Brechin.
,, St. Vincent St.
Renfrew.
Bridge of Allan.
,, Tradeston.
Rosehearty.
Buckie, Banffshire.
,, Trongate.
St. Margaret's Hope,
Castle-Douglas.
Gourock.
Orkney.
Coatbridge.
Govan.
Scalloway, Shetland(open
Coupar-Angus.
Greenock.
on Tuesdays and Fri-
Crieff.
Hamilton.
days — sub to Lerwick).
Cullen.
Helensburgh.
Shawlands, Glasgow. !
Dalbeattie.
Huutly.
Stewarton.
Dairy, Ayrshire (open on
Inverary.
Stirling.
Thursdays-sub to Beith)
Inverness.
Stonehouse (open on Mon-
Dairy, Galloway.
Inverurie.
days, Wednesdays, and
Darvel (sub to Galston).
Irvine.
Saturdays-sub to Lark-
Doune.
Johnstone.
hall).
Dumbarton.
Keith.
Stranraer.
Dumfries.
Killin.
Strathaven.
Dunblane.
Kilmarnock.
Stromness.
Dundee.
Kincardine.
Tarbert, Lochfiue,
Dunkeld.
Kirkcaldy.
Tarland.
Dunning.
Kirkwall.
Thornhill.
Dunoon.
Kirriemuir.
Tillicoultry.
Edinburgh,Downie Place.
Ladybank.
Troon.
„ Forrest Road.
Largs.
Turriff.
„ Haymarket.
Larkhall.
Wick.
„ Hunter Square
Leith.
10
130
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134
QUARTERLY STATEMENT,
Fbom Date of keepikg
Quarter Ending
Net Sales.
Expenses.
August 5. 1882
£ s. d.
6,594 0 5
8,849 10 3
9,894 13 1
10.192 13 4
7,979 7 10
11,625 19 8
8.446 16 2
9,492 2 9
9,145 12 11
12,989 ^ 11
10,094 9 8
8,874 3 9
8,644 2 7
14.012 17 7
9,461 10 4
9,439 14 11
9,434 7 4
23,129 5 10
11,129 13 7
9.928 13 5
15,469 2 4
16,152 2 11
11,715 9 7
13,539 14 3
13,946 14 7
15,162 13 11
10,597 n 5
11,538 7 6
14,378 11 7
17,926 18 8
12,361 8 6
13.618 4 4
14.223 6 2
16.807 11 3
14,162 9 0
14,804 7 6
16,299 14 11
22,168 2 4
16,745 1 7
15,327 12 8
17,342 12 1
23,251 16 11
17,353 1 8
15,298 10 11
£ B. d.
190 15 1
221 7 8
245 18 11
236 7 10
245 14 8
225 0 1
217 I 5
197 12 5
208 15 8
198 7 11
204 18 3
159 14 3
192 11 K
•208 14 3
204 13 0
177 13 6
193 15 8
H09 3 2
170 8 9
189 4 9
221 10 8
245 9 8
179 9 8
202 10 10
218 14 2
2^29 9 1
178 4 0
216 13 3
224 18 1
233 2 5
194 12 5
275 0 3
199 8 3
246 2 10
222 li 6
274 11 7
264 15 11
327 I 2
276 11 9
315 14 3
335 16 11
374 11 5
305 15 3
339 9 7
November 4 1882
February 3, 1883
May 5, 1883
August 4 18H8
November 3, 1883
Februarv 2, 1884
May 3. 1884
August 2, 1884
November 1 1884
January 31. 1885
May 2, 1885
August 1, 1885
October 31, 1885
Jautiatv 30 1886
May 1 1886
July 31 188G
•December 25. 1886
March 26. 1887
June 25. 1887
September24, 1887
tDecember 31. 1887
March 31, 1888
June 30, 1888
September29, 1888
December 29, 1888 .
March, 5J0 1889
June 29, 1889
September28, 1889
December 28, 1889
March 29, 1890
June 28, 1890
8eptember27, 1890
December 27, 1890
March 28, 1891
June 27. 1891
8eptember26, 1891
December 26, 1891
March 26, 1 892
June 25. 1892
8eptember24, 1892
tDecember 31, 1 892
April 1, 1893
July 1, 1893
Totals
579,549 16 11
10,300 0 7
Twenty-one weeks. -f Fonrteen weeks.
135
GEOCERY DEPARTMENT,
A Sepaeate Account.
KILMARNOCK.
Rate per & of
Sales.
Net Profit.
Rate per & of
Sales.
Stocks.
d.
£ 8. d.
d.
£
70
163 7 8
60
535
6 0
137 9 1
3-7
1,550
5-9
362 1] 7
8-7
2,320
5-5
472 3 0
111
2,120
7-3
238 4 11
7-1
720
4-6
176 13 6
36
1,663
6-1
123 10 4
3-5
2,898
4-9
162 2 9
4 0
1,781
5-4
114 15 5
3 0
963
3-7
235 6 3
4-2
2,812
4-8
69 14 9
1-6
2,521
4-3
258 5 9
6-9
1,750
6-3
102 4 1
2-8
1,132
3-5
534 12 2
91
2,300
5-2
295 13 5
7-5
2,010
4-5
289 7 4
7-3
1,600
4-9
264 10 0
6-7
760
3-2
908 16 9
9-4
2,070
3-6
364 3 8
7-8
2,615
4-5
255 7 8
61
1,525
3-4
895 18 3
13-6
1,070
4-2
758 15 6
11-2
2,585
4-0
328 8 3
6-7
2,850
3-6
379 15 5
6-7
2,410
3-8
23 10 11
0-4
2,329
3-6
324 10 8
51
3,200
4-0
178 19 2
4 0
2,080
4-5
102 6 9
21
2,600
.S-7
406 12 5
6-8
1,420
31
623 11 11
8-3
2,910
3-7
660 3 8
10-8
2,040
4-8
563 8 7
9-9
1,050
3-3
550 8 9
9-2
190
3-5
972 15 1
13-8
2,400
3-7
685 3 1
11-6
1,480
4-4
609 2 3
9-8
2,000
3-8
620 3 7
91
1,170
3-5
875 2 0
9-5
2.225
3-9
1,070 6 5
15-3
2,400
4-9
786 7 3
12-3
2 440
4-6
358 10 10
4-9
2,070
3-8
897 7 7
9-2
2,000
4-2
658 4 6
9-1
2,070
53
298 14 7
4-6
1,985
4-2
19,047 7 6
7 9 1
136
QUAKTERLY STATEMENT,
From Date of keeping
Qnarter Ending
August
November
February
Ma.y
August
November
February
May
August
November
January
May
August
October
January
May
July
•December 25
March 26
June 25
September 24
t December 31
March 31
June 30
September 29
December 29
March 30
June 29
September 28
December 28
March 29
June 28
September 27
December 27
March 28
June 27
September 26
December 26
March 26
June 25
8«-ptember 24
tDecember 31
April 1
July 1
1882
1882
1883
1883
1883
1888
18S4
1884
1884
1884
1885
1885
1885
1885
1886
1886
1886
1886
1887
1887
1887
1887
1888
1888
1888
1888
1889
1889
1889
1889
1890
1890
1890
1890
1891
1891
1891
1891
1892
1892
1892
1892
1893
1693
Totals
N'et SaleB
Expenses.
£
s.
d.
£
B. d.
«,328
4
0
237
2 11
7,180
12
3
207
17 9
8,513
10
1
217
6 4
8,583
16
3
226
13 4
9,050
6
4
245
1 3
8,533
5
8
218
11 2
9,278
1
10
235
12 9
10.943
14
6
252
16 9
12,648
2
11
262
11 10
18,776
3
6
275
12 6
12,080
7
2
291
8 8
13,424
7
0
242
12 6
14,930
3
3
251
12 1
15,685
3
4
271
7 11
12.248
16
9
248
12 8
13,616
12
9
283
8 7
14,912
1
10
265
7 11
22,975
17
8
397
17 9
13.916
4
6
244
« 5
13,810
2
11
241
9 2
15,064
15
6
265
8 7
16,231
4
0
281
14 4
12,205
12
7
246
11 4
14,865
19
7
262
6 11
14,857 13
3
281
9 7
15.323
1
0
284
8 1
16,415
11
3
256 13 3
20,090 11
2
286
1 0
19,022
12
6
295
18 4
17,987
15,713
11
6
8
7
284
274
1 6
19 11
16,324
16
0
288
16 9
18,593
3
6
321
13 11
16,411
8
5
303
8 0
19,284
18
2
322
10 5
1 19,673
16
4
313
17 9
• 21 683
3
1
310
16 4
19,207
14
2
296
1 6
21,503
7
8
290
18 2
22,609
4
I
314
3 2
24.100
0
1
354
16 8
23,459
3
2
314
3 2
21,282
4
1
299
13 0
24,031
11
5
313
9 1
688,405
3
9
12,181
11 0
* Twenty-one weeks.
i Fourteen weeks.
137
GEOCERY DEPARTMENT, DUNDEE.
A Separate Account.
1
Bate 1
Rate
Rate
per S, of Net Profit.
per £ of
Net Loss.
per £ of i Stocks.
1 Sales.
1
Sales.
Sales.
d. £ s. d.
d.
£ 8. d.
d. £
8-8
....
126 19 9
4
•8 1,205
70
98 12 7
3
•3 1,474
61
5712 4
1*8
1,040
6-3
96 1 7
2-7
1,080
6-5
5 15 3
01
, 1,923
6-1
71 2 5
2-0
2,455
6-1
88 14 11
2-2
2,250
6-6
181 7 10
4-0
1,975
50
260 9 7
4-9
2,950
48
73 16 8
1-3
! 2,690
0-8
111 1 3
2-2
1,080
4-3
189 3 2
3-4
; 1,950
40
359 16 4
5-8
1 2,940
4-2
348 15 2
5-3
2,890
4-8
238 13 5
4-6
; 1,300
6-0
86 11 2
1-5
2,670
4-2
205 17 7
33
3,250
41
348 8 3
3-7
2,600
4-2
163 5 0
2-8
...
1,385
4-2
210 10 3
8-6
3,050
4-2
212 6 11
3-4
3,020
4-2
279 17 11
42
3,210
4-8
286 9 8
5-6
\ %11^
4-2
154 19 5
2-5
3,740
4-5
253 8 2
4-1
5,370
4-4 ' 321 3 11
60
2,710
3-7 1 245 2 6
3-5
3,230
3-4 1 618 7 4
7-3
5,940
3-7 60 4 11
0-7
4,590
3-7 206 9 7
2-7
4,150
4 2 1 244 7 7
3-7
8,420
4-2 244 8 2
3-6
... .
3,590
41 290 8 8
3-7
... •
5.390
4-4 1 364 2 5
5-3
4,070
4-0 i 282 12 10
3-5
4,070
3-8
309 10 10
3-7
.
5,200
3-4
458 0 11
5-0
4,360
3-7
338 8 8
4-2
3,550
3-2
390 5 0
4-3
3,500
3-3
251 1 8
2-6
4,660
35
464 9 11
47
7,940
32
553 0 11
5-6
3,990
3-3
453 10 4
5-1
\ 2,970
31
606 6 8
60
1 5,280
4-2
1
10,996 7 1
225 12 4
••
225 12 4
.. 1 .... 1
1 ;
10.770 14 9
3-7
1
138
QUARTERLY STATEMENT,
Ebom Date of keepinq
Quarter Ending
Nbt Sales.
Boots,
Fnmitare.
Drapery.
August
November
Februarj-
May
August
November
February
May
August
November
January
May
August
October
January
May
July
•December 25
March 26
June 2.5
September 24
fDecember 31
March 31
June 30
September 29
December 29
March 30
June 29
September 28
December 28
March 29
June 28
September 27
December 27
March 28
June 27
September 26
December 26
March 26
June 25
September 24
fDecember 31
April 1
July 1
1882.
1882.
1883.
1883.
1883.
1883.
1884.
1884.
1884.
1884.
1885.
1885.
1885.
1885.
1886.
1886.
1886.
1886.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1888.
1888.
1888.
1888.
1889.
1889.
1889.
1889.
1890.
1890.
1890.
1890.
1891.
1891.
1891.
1891.
189i.
1892.
1892.
1892.
1893.
1893.
£ 8. d.
8,351 15 0
9,267 11 10
7,520 4 4
8,159 0
9,368 12
9,658 4
8,944 16
9,782 13
10,981 0 10
10 884 13 3
Totals.
f 8. d.
2,693 6 11
2,057 1
2,280 17
1,904 14
3,045 1
2,518 II
2,994 17
2,307 11
4,595 4
2,887 1
£
21,144
25,587
22,301
25,682
23,937
30,562
26,445
30,463
28,337
34,034
30,267
37,153
33,578
39,994
33,029
44,570
42,129
75,835
40,647
50,432
47,697
55,420
48,630
56,216
57,138
.56,928
55,006
64,163
67,747
74,256
71,632
81,166
82,909
90,353
75,469
87,041
87,043
100,331
90,987
100,312
97,495
112,572
92,117
94,045
s. d.
6 11
12 9
14 3
6 9
10 11
12 8
3 8
14 9
2 6
16 0
3 3
15 9
12 7
14 4
17 3
7 11
5 5
10 10
13 5
4 9
15 3
13 10
9 0
13 4
9 11
16 6
12 0
0 0
12 0
14 3
I 2,542,821 13 5
Twenty-one weeks. f Fonrteen weeks.
139
DEAPEE^
' DEPAETMENT.
A Sepakate
Account.
Nbt Sales.
Expenses.
Rate
per £ of
Net Profit.
Rate
per £ of
Stocks.
Total.
Sales.
Sales.
£ s.
d.
£ s.
d.
£
£ S. d.
£
£
32,189 8
10
1,123 9
9
8-4
1,171 8 2
8-7
28,560
36,912 6
6
1,356 1
2
8-8
1,308 6 6
8-7
34,030
32,102 15
10
1,409 11
3
10 5
967 14 0
7-2
33,260
35,746 1
8
1,438 12
11
9-6
1,090 8 2
7-3
31,231
36,351 5
0
1,447 8
1
9-5
1,284 12 4
8-5
31,253
42,739 8
9
1,534 9
3
8-6
1,807 4 8
101
32,281
38,384 17
6
1,588 18
8
9-9
1,605 11 5
100
33,192
42,553 19
0
1,666 5
8
9-4
1,591 16 7
9-0
36,065
43,913 8
2
1,731 9
9
9-4
1,717 4 10
9-3
35,784
47,806 11
0
1,827 15
5
9-1
1,899 14 5
9-5
39,661
30,267 3
3
1,290 0
9
10-2
1,319 11 1
101
31,084
37,153 15
9
1,414 15
11
9-1
1,492 17 7
9-6
32,340
33,578 12
7
1,438 19
0
10-2
1,211 0 11
8-7
31,020
39,994 14
4
1,547 6
10
9-2
1,847 0 5
11-0
35,990
33,029 17
3
1,554 9
2
11-2
1,216 7 10
9-0
33,150
44,570 17
11
1,641 9
6
8-8
1,709 19 3
9-2
36,340
42,129 5
5
1,705 8
3
9-7
1,801 11 5
10-3
40,100
75,835 10 10
3,362 6
4
10-6
3,983 5 11
12-6
45,740
40,647 13
5
2,028 12
8
11-9
1,248 2 8
7-3
47,670
50,432 4
9
2,081 15
1
9-9
2,185 17 1
10-4
42,170
47,697 15
3
2,065 14
10
10-3
2,234 6 10
11-2
45,870
55,420 13
10
2,294 1
9
10-0
2,487 10 2
10-7
41,400
48,630 9
0
2,176 17
7
10-7
1,661 14 11
8-2
48,645
56,216 13
4
2,257 IB
4
9-6
2,175 16 9
9-2
43,240
57,138 9
11
2,324 4
0
9-7
2,186 15 11
9-2
50,050
56,928 16
6
2,486 11
6
10-4
2,057 16 3
8-6
47,990
55,006 13
0
2,493 3
11
10-8
2,294 3 2
100
54,600
64,163 10
4
2,645 6
9
9-9
3,167 18 6
11-8
50,900
67,747 18
7
2,776 1
7
9-8
2,707 18 0
9-5
64,600
74,256 1
8
2,887 18
9
9-3
3,230 4 0
10-4
58,800
71,632 4
4
2,997 12
3
100
8,297 1 4
110
72,080
81,166 2
4
3,306 17
9
9-7
3,416 9 5
101
62,200
82,909 0
0
3,597 19
6
10-4
3,400 5 8
9-8
74,620
90,353 10
7
3,709 0
1
9-8
4,456 19 3
11-8
64,000
75,469 2
3
3,915 7
4
12-4
2,738 0 2
8-7
78,000
87,041 2
1
4,101 15
7
11-3
3,088 16 11
8-5
70,100
87,043 18
2
4,030 16
4
IM
3,269 6 3
9-0
80,980
100,331 15
2
4,091 11
4
9-7
4,716 18 9
11-2
69,970
90,987 12
0
4,312 4
7
11-3
3,410 19 8
90
84,400
100,312 14
3
i 4,375 13
0
10-4
4,331 15 8
10-3
77,810
97,495 2
3
4,641 0
1
111
4,141 16 5
10-2
85,680
112.572 7
1
4,838 11
9
10-3
5,132 1 9
10-9
79,420
92.117 12
4
4.708 2
4
12 2
2,895 2 10
7-5
90,050
94,046 12
6
4,793 14
5
12 2
3,645 10 11
9-3
85,269
2,663,024 14
fi
' 114.917 10
9
10-3
108,606 4 9
9-8
(
140
QUAETEELY STATEMENT,
From Date of keeping
Net Sales.
Expenses.
£ 8. d. 1
£ s. d.
Quarter ending Jannary 31, 1885 . .
10,188 11 5
290 18 9
)<
„ May 2,1886..
12,549 19 5
353 2 4
„
„ August 1,1885.,
16,185 10 11
429 16 10
>»
„ October 31,1885..
16,542 18 4
529 0 6
»i
„ January 30,1886..
14,120 7 6
549 9 11
,,
„ May 1,1886..
16,190 5 3
556 12 0
„
„ July 31,1886..
16,467 16 11
538 0 6
«i
„ •December 25, 1886..
28,856 18 8
980 7 10
«i
„ March 25,1887..
14,242 19 10
602 18 11
»»
„ June 25,1887..
18,416 14 3
602 10 3
,,
„ September24. 1887..
17,259 16 10
598 15 6
„
„ tDecemberSl, 1887..
20,704 14 9
736 4 10
„
„ March 31.1888..
16,373 12 5
669 10 7
»»
„ June 30,1888..
19,721 3 3
652 6 7
1)
„ September59, 1888..
19,657 10 9
705 7 2
„
„ December 29, 1888..
22,183 2 7
781 13 8
i»
„ March 30.1889..
18,000 17 5
751 17 11
,,
„ June 29, 1889
24,306 1 9
873 14 1
»»
September28, 1889..
22,671 17 3
872 5 2
„
„ December 28, 1889..
26,200 2 6
893 19 7
„
„ March 29,1890..
22,593 13 8
900 17 4
f)
„ June 28,1890..
28,847 19 5
1,022 19 8
„ September27, 1890..
29.285 17 2
929 3 8
1 !)
December 27, 1890 . .
31.008 16 11
958 18 0
„ March 28,1891..
27,090 17 3
988 0 7
jj
„ June 27, 18»1..
34,702 19 11
1,040 19 8
,1
September2t), 1891 . .
33.273 16 8
1,019 3 9
,^
„ December 26, 1891..
37,424 1 0
1,097 15 8
_j
„ March 26,1892
29,028 13 5
1,088 15 7
II
,. June 25,1892..
1 .S9,526 1 10
1,230 1 10
II
September24, 1892..
35.601 10 8
1,200 1 5
II
,, tDeceajber3l. 1892..
42,902 19 10
1,387 11 9
,l
April 1,1893.,
32,874 3 1
1,352 1 5
., July 1,1893..
Totals
43,534 17 11
1
1,742 5 2
j 838,537 10 9
28,927 8 5
* Twenty-OBe weeks. + Fourteen weeks.
141
BOOT AND SHOE DEPARTMENT.
A Separate Account.
Rate
Rate
per S,
Net Profit.
per £,
Stocks.
of 6ales.
of Sales.
£ 6.
d.
1
£
6-8
596 3
8
140
5,990
6-7
608 18
9
11-6
5 530
6-4
777 3
8
11-5 i
9,400
76
499 12
2
7-2
11,520
9-3
460 h
6
7 8
11,200
8-3
560 19
3
8-3
11,130
79
585 11
5
8-5
11,490
8-2
942 0
7
7-8
15,500
10-1
25fi 19
6
4-3 1
14,150
7-8
616 6
6
80 1
13,185
8-2
310 11
7
4-3
14,730
8-3
605 2
9
70 j
15,490
10-1
153 9
6
2-3 i
15,630
8-0
389 IB
3
4-7
11,710
8-6
464 2
1
5-6
13,300
8-4
424 2
5
4-7
15,390
10-0
240 2
8
3-2 1
14,680
8-0
589 8
9
6-8 '
15,070
9-2
441 0
7
4-7
18,000
8-2
720 13
3
6-6 I
16,950
9-5
444 10
10
4-7 i
1
16,420
8.5
885 16
10
7-4
16,560
7-7
888 6
1
7-2 !
15,650
7-4
1,012 6
5
7-8
14,360
8-7
889 8
2
7-8
14,930
7-2
1,292 6
11
8-9
17,050
7-3
1,238 11
2
8-9
14,800
70
1,515 18
10
9-7
17,470
9-0
1,009 4
2
8-3
17,«30
74
1,645 17
8
9-9 1
16,760
8-1
1,208 12
7
8 1
16,650
7-7
1,906 4
3
10-6
20 490
9-8
1,084 0
1
79
21,480
9-6
1,442 18
6
79
25,747
80
26,706 18
4
7-6
142
QUARTERLY STATEMENT,
FURNITURE
From Date of keeping
Net Sales.
Expenses.
:
£ B. d.
£ 8 d.
Qoarter ending January 31, 1885
3,022 18 2
210 11 11
„ May 2, 1885
.! 2,636 9 6
262 5 10
„ Augxist 1, 1885
7,200 12 9
392 6 7
„ October 31. 1885
5,599 11 1
420 1 5
„ „ January 20,1886
6,744 8 11
445 7 4
„ May 1, l«ft6
7,026 7 0
47» 18 2
„ July 31, 1886
9,621 1 11
500 9 6
„ „ -December 25, 1886
13,157 12 1
914 4 7
„ March 25, 1887
7,315 11 8
577 14 1
„ June 25,1887
11,033 17 4
590 17 11
„ „ September24, -1887
8,567 19 0
618 12 4
„ 'December 31, 1887
11,956 12 7
723 6 11
„ March 31,1888
8,295 17 1
667 6 7
„ June 30, 1888
12,865 9 6
738 3 6
„ ,, 8eptember29, 1888
9.876 13 4
780 1 6
„ December 29, 1888
12,582 11 8
860 10 4
„ „ March 30, 1889
9,970 0 8
814 4 1
„ June 29, 1889
.j 15,812 15 7
918 7 0
„ September28, 1889
J 12,451 19 0
1
905 16 2
„ December28, 1889
.| 16,871 0 8
930 18 5
„ March 29,1890
14,418 6 7
926 4 4
„ June 28, 1890
21,501 17 11
1,045 3 0
„ September27, 1890
.| 18,076 15 11
1,103 5 1
„ December 27, 1890
.1 22,149 13 4
1,261 10 4
„ March 28,1891
.! 15,095 13 8
1,287 17 7
„ June 27, 1891.
25,335 18 11
1,412 1 8
„ 8eptember26, 1891
.: 19,759 6 0
1,384 18 2
„ December 26, 189 1.
• i 24,953 4 7
1,471 7 10
„ March 26,1892
18,157 8 11
1,492 1 11
„ June 25, 1892
27,834 1 5
1,578 10 5
„ 8eptember24, 1892
.1 20,853 9 11
1.527 8 3
„ J December 31, 1892
27,476 19 0
1,740 6 7
„ AprU 1, 1893
19,575 15 1
1,662 14 7
„ July 1. 1893
Totals
28,271 11 10
1,870 18 4
.' 496,069 12 7
32.506 12 3
♦ Twenty-one treeks.
t Fourteen weeks.
143
AND FURNISHING DEPARTMENT.
A Separate Account.
Rate
Bate
per £ of
Net Profit. per £ of
Stocks.
Sales.
Sules.
d.
£ 8. d.
d.
£
16-7
81 13 3
6-4
3,500
•23 8
H 17 11
0-4
4,410
130
221 4 9
7-4
4,620
18-0
133 3 10
5-6
5,600
15-8
145 4 10
5-2
6,180
160
195 9 8
6-4
7,020
12-4
410 10 0
10-2
7,650
16-6
292 9 7
5-4
7,400
18-9
160 16 8
5-2
8,750
12-8
641 14 4
13-9
9,290
17-3
323 12 11
90
9,570
14-5
677 17 2
136
9,150
19-8
311 7 10
9 0
10,370
13-9
735 16 7
13-9
10,540
18-9
245 16 0
5-9
10,000
16-4
412 16 5
7-8
10,820
19-6
285 2 3
6-8
11,990
13-9
762 19 10
7-5
11,170
17-4
625 14 2
120
10,380
13-2
916 2 10
130
10,450
15-4
567 11 8
9-4
11,410
11-6
1,339 5 4
14-9
11,150
15-3
1,287 13 10
170
12,240
13-6
1,504 lO 0 16-2
13,600
20-4
557 8 2
8-8
15,700
13-3
1,323 6 11
12-5
16,350
16-8
1,138 9 3
13-8
16,520
141
1,026 0 6
9-9
16,400
19-7
410 18 11
5-4
18,330
13'6
1.368 12 10
11-8
16,600
17-2
1,096 18 3
12-6
16,700
15-2
1 298 19 10
11-3
16,330
20-3
356 2 2
4-3
17.350
160
1,440 19 1 1 12-2
17,453
15-7
22,.301 6 7 10-9
t Loss.
144
PRODUCTIVE DEPARTMENT.
1
Quarterly Statement showing
(Quarter Eudiog
Transferred.
Production
Kxpenpes
on Production.
£ s.
d.
£ B.
d.
£ S. d.
November 4, 1882 . .
427 10
10
427 10
10
319 12 11
February 3,1883..
542 7
3
542 7
3
386 2 6 '
May 5,1883..
541 8
10
541 8
10
404 5 6
August 4, 1883
647 18
2
647 18
2
484 17 7
November 3, 1883 . .
537 13
10
537 13
10
357 13 9
Febniarj- 2,1884..
464 3
0
464 3
0
304 3 7
May 3,1884..
587 6
0
587 6
0
435 16 7
August 2, 1884 . .
631 8
0
631 8
0
463 8 0
November 1, 1884
838 10
10
838 10
10
450 5 9
Januai-j- 31, 1885 .
661 1
6
661 1
6
426 4 10
May 2,1885..
838 8
3
838 8
3
491 7 3
August 1, 1885 . .
947 8
5
947 8
5
569 11 6
October 31,1885..
1,164 13
7
1,164 13
7
692 2 0
January 30,1886..
1,128 2
2
1,128 2
2
742 7 1
May 1,1886..
1,474 0
7
1,474 0
7
814 6 1
July 31,1886..
1;511 2
1
1,511 2
1
869 4 8
•December 25, 1886 . .
2,139 13
9
2,139 13
9
1,420 12 6
March 26,1887..
1,587 2
3
1,587 2
3
926 18 10
June 25, 1887 . .
2,265 11
8
2,265 11
8
1,351 1 8
September 24, 1887 . .
1,927 17
10
1,927 17
10
1,282 9 8
December 31, 1887..
2,298 14
10
1,965 1
1
1,286 17 8
March 31, 1888 . .
1,529 11
9
1,692 5
1
1,077 12 1
June 30,1888..
2,212 9
9
2,227 2
1
1,335 15 10
September 29, 1888..
2,270 9
2
2,203 14
3
1,404 15 8
December 20, 1888
2,319 5
1
2,.516 5
1
1,492 14 4
March 30,1889..
1,892 6
4
1,784 6
5
1,210 6 10
June 29,1889..
2,464 17
4
2,449 6
3
1,450 15 11
September 28, 1889..
1,865 7
0
1,932 14
0
1,258 6 5
December 28, 1889 . .
3,027 12
11
3,233 4
0
1,660 14 6
March 29,1890..
2,624 6
1
1 6,446 19
H
1,703 14 3
June 28,1890..
4,078 11
4
1,957 3 8 '
September 27, 1890..
3,208 11
1
- 7,691 2
10 /
1,996 16 4
December 27, 1890..
3,957 18
3
2,175 4 5
March 28,1891..
2,249 16
9
] 6,012 16
5 1
1,666 3 10
June 27,1891..
3,877 5
5
1,908 17 10
September 26, 1891 . .
2,507 17
0
[ 6,743 18
1 J
1,8H8 12 2
December 26, l»!91
4,482 8
3
1,878 19 3
March 26, 1892 . .
2,558 0
1
^ 7,283 9
10 [
1,973 10 ('
June 25, 1892 . .
4,886 4
6
2,212 16 0
September 24. 1892..
2,952 8
1
]- 8,533 19
11 ■!
1,974 6 8
tDecember 31, 1892..
5.201 6
11
2,436 5 7
April 1.1893..
3,429 12
9
8,263 11
8 -
2.182 7 8
July 1,1893..
Totals
' 4.601^ 15
1
8
2 515 6 9
92,368 5
2
91,843 5
1
53,785 14 10
' Twentv-one weeks.
•f Fourteen weeks.
145
^ TAILORING FACTORY.
Expenses and Net Profit.
Rate per
Cent.
Net Profit Rate per
on Production. Cent.
1
Net Loss.
■ Rate per
Cent.
Stocks.
£ s. d.
£ s. d.
£
74-71
1 11 2 0-23
....
71-21
34 9 10 6-27
. • ■ •
• . * •
168
74-67
15 9 5
2-77
187
74-80
7 2 10
1-08
258
66-48
0 8 2
....
304
65-51
13 14 9 '2-80
• * • •
..
289
74-11
.... ....
1 16 4
0-2
344
1 73-37
15 1 0 ! 2-37
....
....
415
53-70
18 9 9 i 2-14
• • . .
....
341
64-45
• • • .
38 15 8
5-74
306
58-59
54 17 5
'6-44
....
327
60-08
58 3 2 ; 6-12
• . . .
....
410
59-45
5 19 5 ! 0-51
...
....
445
65-78
4 1 11
0-35
523
55-22
38 'i4 11
'2-57
326
57-51
15 13 10
0-99
268
66-38
36 ii' 2
i-'es
485
58-34
21 3 11
i-32
....
407
59-64
111 17 4
4-90
«...
617
66-52
139 11 0
7-21
849
65-44
68 18 3
3-51
424
63-65
42 14 2
'2-48
....
615
59-94
109 15 2
8-16
....
687
63-73
167 6 10
7-58
....
....
818
59-30
189 7 3
7-51
• • . •
1,083
67-76
84 0 11
4-70
....
1,083
59-12
241 16 2
9-84
....
....
1,012
65-11
142 3 3
7-35
....
....
1,278
51-34
467 1 9
14-44
1,280
■ 56-77
646 2 7
10-02
—
1.191
' 54-23
699 16 9
910
—
1,564
1 59-46
550 6 9
9-15
—
1,638
1 55-02
736 18 7
10-92
—
1,222
- 57-47
867 10 0
11-90
—
1,218
• 51-67
1,011 1 4
11-84
—
1,663
- 66-84
1026 10 2
12-41
....
1,782
58-56
7,372 8 2
313 0 9
313 0 9
0-34
....
7,059 7 5
7-68
11
146
PRODUCTIVE DEPARTMENT.
Quarterly Statement Showing
1
Quarter Ending |
Transferred.
Production.
Expenses
on Production.
1
£ 8. d.
£ 8. d.
£ 8. d.
November 4,1882..,
201 11 0
201 11 0
159 13 10
February 3,
1883..
207 9 10
207 9 10
176 16 1
May 5,
1883..
208 8 0
208 8 0
171 5 8
Angast 4,
1883..
168 1 11
168 1 11
147 14 11
NoTember 3
1»83..
175 13 4
175 13 4
159 3 1
February 2
1884..
225 16 1
225 16 1
188 4 5
May 3
1884..
234 2 3
234 2 3
193 8 0
August 2
1884..
178 18 8
178 18 8
161 13 5
November 1
1884..
231 2 7
231 2 7
200 15 11
January 31
1885..
294 9 10
294 9 10
244 0 8
May 2
1885..
474 7 1
474 7 1
256 1 5
August 1
1885..
303 19 5
303 19 5
182 7 11
October 31
1885..
334 11 4
334 11 4
202 10 8
January 30
1886..
355 4 8
355 4 8
216 10 6
May 1
1886..
409 10 4
409 10 4
245 3 7
July 31
1886..
422 4 4
422 4 4
252 13 2
December 25
1886..
705 17 7
705 17 7
418 5 3
March 26
1887..
391 17 6
391 17 6
248 3 1
June 25
1887..
400 7 4
400 7 4
235 18 8
September 24
1887..
343 6 10
343 6 10
228 16 4
December 31
1887..
496 4 8
514 14 4
320 12 8
March 31
1888..
517 4 1
510 6 9
314 13 9
June 30
1888..
557 17 2
564 7 9
377 0 4
September 29
1888..
605 11 11
606 7 8
410 5 2
December 29
1888..
691 7 4
699 12 10
475 8 0
March 30
1889..
765 6 11
753 8 2
443 10 7
June 29
1889..
677 5 1
677 7 0
429 14 6
September 28
1889..
650 4 0
643 7 8
406 11 7
December 28
1889..
705 1 8
730 5 7
448 10 7
Maich 29
1890..
674 5 11
1 1,357 11 9 -[
409 13 6
June 28
1890..
695 7 3
431 7 9
September 27
1890..
614 9 2
]- 1,495 2 10 1
1 431 0 2
December 27
1890..
874 10 9
' 509 0 0
March 28
1891..
608 3 7
[- 1,687 17 8 1
475 0 10
■ June 27
1891..
1,059 13 5
; 523 3 3
September 26
1891..
566 17 11
|- 1,666 15 3 1
i 471 3 6
December 26
1891 . .
1,155 17 3
577 11 4
March 26
1892..
637 4 9
■■- 1,570 7 10 1
490 16 11
Jnue 2o
,1892..
909 19 9
1 530 6 5
September 24
,1892..
631 17 2
1- 1,862 13 4 1
j) (
503 18 5
December 31
,1892..
1,181 18 5
688 16 9
April 1
, 1893..
880 18 5
1 1,816 19 3 1
573 14 8
July 1
,1893..
994 10 11
643 4 1
Total
3
23,418 17 5
2a,424 5 7
; 15,174 11 4
147
SHIET FACTOEY
Expenses and Net Profit.
Rate per
Cent.
Net Profit
on Prodnction.
Rate per j^ ^ y Rate per
Cent. Net Loss. jj^^j
Stock*.
£ s. d.
! £ 8. d. 1 i £
7910
i 21 9 4
10-44 .... I
85-02
8 5 6
3-86
12
82-21
5 7 8
t 2-40 .... 1
12
87-5
7 16 9
i 476
11
i 90-85
0 9 3
! .... .. .,
15
83-55
9 18 8
4-44 1
29
1 82-47
7 16 10
2 99
22
90-44
8 16 10 4-91
16
86-57
7 9 9 3-22
20
83-02
13 I 3
4-42
20
o4-00
37 16 7
7-80
55
60-06
: 23 18 5
7-78 !
■ ■ • •
53
60-47
14 9 3
4-19
.... 1 70
60-84
10 18 9
3 09
.... 1 52
59-9
14 10 1
3-42
: 43
59-71
26 7 6
6 16 .... .... 61
, 59 29
20 7 0
2-83 , 48
63-26
8 10 8
2-04 .... .... 108
5900
8 8 3
200 .... i .... ' 90
66-76
3 11 6
1-02
86
62-25
19 15 0
3-83
....
92
61-57
9 10 1
1-76
97
66-84
1 11 10
i ....
• • ■ •
115
67-65
12 9 7
1-98
114
67-85
, ,
11 17 10
1-71
112
. 58-80
69"7 11
916
....
102
63-36
30 7 9
4-43
.... 1 106
6314
58 19 9
9-17
• • < >
.... 1 105
61-37
51 13 11
712
....
119
- 61-09
122 10 9
8-99
.... ; 9-1
|- 62-87
131 5 9
8-76
.... i 72
1
[ 59-16
142 5 10
8-41
.... i 131
J 62-90
192 18 10
11-58
120
} 65-03
141 6 3
8-98
215
[ 64-01
103 19 8
5-58
208
1 66-97
147 2 7
8 09
146
64-78
1,465 19 3
40 14 0
0-17
40 14 0
••
1,425 5 3
6-08
148
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PRODUCTIVE
DEPAETMENT.
Qi
UARTERLY STATEMENT SHOWING
Quarter Ending
Transferrec
.
Prodaction.
Expenses.
£
B.
d.
£ s.
d.
£ 8. d.
May 2, 1885..
3,298
16
7
3,298 16
7
1,183 10 5
August 1
1885..
5,222
6
4
5,222 6
4
1,042 8 2
October 31
1885..
5,283
9
S
6,283 9
3
1,680 10 3
JanuaiT 30,
1886..
5,456
19
0
5,456 19
0
1,723 7 0
May 1,
1886..
6,635
2
5
6,535 2
6
2,010 0 5
July 31,
1886..
6,217
1
1
6,217 1
1
2,101 11 6
•December 25,
1886..
15,607
4
2
15,607 4
2
4,290 7 0
March 26,
1887..
6,105
16
5
6,105 16
5
2,161 8 4
June 25,
1887..
8,757
13
0
8,757 13
0
2,790 10 6
September 24,
1887..
9,100
13 10
9,100 13
10
2,882 11 1
December 31,
1887..
9,892
17
1
9,870 13
7
3,198 1 6
March 31,
1888..
7,857
5
5
8,162 3
4
2,759 2 8
June 30,
1888..
6,564
3
5
7,293 17
3
2,747 6 0
September 29,
1838..
11,007
15
8
11,335 14
3
3,813 4 4 !
December 29,
1888..
12,744
8
7
12,575 18
10
4,243 14 6
March 30,
1889..
9,242
10
9
10,446 4
1
3,091 18 3
June 29,
1889..
13,064
4
11
14,383 1
10
4,049 4 7
September 28,
1889..
14,117
19
7
14,256 5
10
5,174 0 5
December 28,
1889..
13,205
8
3
15,000 9
10
5,407 3 1
March 29,
1890..
10,904
14
3
1 28,621 13
-1
4,854 0 8
June 28,
1890..
16,035
18
0
5,611 6 2
September 27,
1890..
14,536
8
8
t 30,503 18
M
5,555 17 10
December 27,
1890..
15,871
2
0
5,824 0 0
Maich 28,
1891..
12,981
3
3
- 36,406 9
M
5,794 18 7
June 27
1891..
19,068
3
9
6,789 1 8
September 26
,1891..
16,072
6
8
1 36,629 1
10 1
6,248 2 6
Deceml>er 26
, 1891..
23,005
11
5
7,194 6 9
March 26
1892..
16,447
13
2
i 38,374 15
M
6,629 12 5
June 25
, 1892..
20,794
11
8
7,512 4 7
September 24
1892..
19,032
8
6
I 47,150 2
>0{
7,280 1 6
t December 31
1892..
20,477
1^
5
9,894 2 8
AprU 1
,1893..
19.388
17
1
I 52,446 7
4 -'
1
8,464 16 11
July 1
, 1893..
28,250
0
7
9,578 9 8
Totals
428,208
7
2
445,041 14
4
155,393 0 5
Twenty-one weeks.
f Fourteen weeks.
151
BOOT AND SHOE FACTOEY.
Expenses and Net Profit.
Rate per
Cent on
i Production.
Net Profit
on Production.
Bate per
Cent on Net Loss.
Production.
Rate per c».,„i.-
Cent. ^'"'''^"•
£ 8. d.
£ 8. d.
£
35-87
1
' 47 9 10
1-42 2,176
! 31-44
65* 14 11
1-24
2,613
31-91
175 4 4
3-31
3,435
31-57
81 8 8
1-48
3,386
30-75
165 13 2
2-52
4,042
i 33-77
216 3 5
3-45
5,231
i 27-49
651 19 9
4-17
4,020
j 35 39
60 12 7
0-98
7.189
31-92
63 15 4
0-72
7,350
31-66
393 16 3
4 31
6,108
32-40
619 19 8
6-28
6.406
33-80
405 4 1
4-96
6,965
37-66
282 10 0
3-86
7,886
33-64
450 13 11
3-97
10,606
33-74
621 9 0
4-93
• ■ . •
11,869
35-32
430 0 7
411
12,4-23
32-32 611 3 0
4-24
12,588
36-29 600 7 3 ,
4-28
14,658
36-04 909 12 1 i
6-06
15,890
■ 36-56
1,867 10 10
6-52
19,920
- 37-30
1,744 10 11
5-71
17,349
■ 34-56
1,635 2 2
4-49
24,080
■ 36-69
1,996 18 7
5-45
18,292
|- 36-85
2,115 17 8
5-51
18,006
- 36.42
2,743 19 7
5-82
18,220
'- 34-40 4,070 11 6
7-76
24,660 j
34-91 22,978 19 3
47 9 10 0-01
47 9 10
••
22,931 9 5
5-15
162
PEODUCTIVE DEPAETMENTS.
CABINET
Quarter Ending
Transferred. i Prodnction.
Expenses.
January 31
May 2
Aognst 1
October 31
Jannary 30
May 1
Jnly 31
•December 25
March 26
Jnne 25
September li4
December 31
March 3)
Jnne 30
September 29
December 29
March 3<>
Jnne 29
September 28
December 28
March 29
Jnne 28
September 27
December 27
March 28
Jnne 27
September 26
December 26
March 26
Jnne 25
1 September 24
t December 31
April 1
Jnly 1
, 1885..
, 1886..
1885..
1885..
, 1886..
1886..
1886..
1886..
1887..
1887..
1887..
1887..
1888..
1888..
1888..
1888..
1889..
1889..
1889..
1889..
1890..
1890..
1890..
1890..
1891..
1891..
1891..
1891..
1892..
1892..
1892..
1892..
1893..
1893..
£ B. d.
144 3 9
338 8 1
888 0 5
417 17 7
361 0 0
371 8 1
504 6 6
994 19 4
620 2 1
582 12 0
656 13 0
629 9 6
457 14 8
960 9 2
1,194 4 6
1,477 10 8
1.445 7 0
1,830 0 8
1,784 1 6
2,594 18 11
2,626 4 5
3,511 12 4
2,933 19 11
4,266 18 5
2,682 8 8
4,294 4 10
3,364 10 4
4,338 3 11
3,182 12 0
4,374 4 4
3,793 5 6
5,168 3 11
2,983 11 9
5,549 4 11
£ 8 d.
144 3 9
338 8 1
388 0 5
417 17 7
361 0 0
371 8 1
504 6 6
994 19 4
620 2 1
582 12 0
656 13 0
697 19 11
651 11 8
801 0 9
1,269 8 0
1.601 12 11
1.612 15 3
1,797 2 9
1,707 6 11
2,654 14 7
I 6,116 7 10 ■
\ 7,312 2 1 -[
]■ 7,340 2 9 1
I 7,806 11 0 1
1 7,784 17 1 1
1 9,602 0 0
I 9,781 11 7 1
£ 8. d.
102 19 9
179 12 0
228 3 10
214 13 5
219 0 5
209 0 6
276 16 0
499 14 10
312 11 11
326 19 9
329 10 7
410 6 10
330 15 11
384 2 8
680 17 9
914 6 0
885 4 8
950 10 7
927 14 11
1,258 14 10
1,520 7 11
1,740 10 6
1,674 16 6
2,180 11 7
1,791 8 2
2.140 1 1
1,868 19 0
2,196 7 4
1,973 16 7
2,277 5 11
2.141 0 0
2,879 15 3
2,319 11 6
2,618 4 7
To
tal8....
70,822 12 8
73,916 15 11
38,964 13 1
* Twenty-one weeks.
+ Foorteen weeks.
153
QUAETEELY STATEMENT.
WOEKSHOP.
Rate 1 Bate
per Net Profit. i per
Net Loss.
Rate per
Stocks.
Cent. Cent.
Cent.
( £ 8. a.
£ 8. d.
£
71-52
, ,
10 6 0
6-94
298
52-95
4 1 11
1-18
^ ^
294
58-76
16 14 8
4-12
, ,
425
51-31 ! 9 19 8
2-39
,.
364
60-66
15 14 5
4-30
, ,
444
56-06
0 6 11
..
484
54-76
14 7 6
2-77
486
5015
69 3 5
6-93
, ,
425
50-32
18 1 0
2-90
..
520
56-18
6 18 3
120
..
676
5015
15 11 6 2-28
787
58-73
27 0 3 3-86
, .
1,069
50-69
24 9 8 368
1.415
47-94
12 7 7 1-49
1 1.281 1
53-58
i
115 ii 2
7-38
1,818
57-08
58 1 10 1 3-62
, .
2,152
54-90
30 0 1 1-24
, ,
2,467
52-86
19 8 6 1-05
..
2,358
54-30
20 16 0 1-23
2,341
47-40
113 13 11 4-25
..
2,466
1 53-30
478 5 4 7-81
..
3,470
1 52-72
420 19 9
5-75
..
4,975
I 53-55
..
• •
40 12 10
0-54
5,484
1 52-07
215 6 10
2-75
..
6,124
1 54-61
216 4 7
2-77
..
5 845
■- 52-28
724 4 5 7-54
..
..
6,808
I 50 48
510 16 10 1 0-21
••
7,976
5271
3,042 14 10
166 10 0
166 10 0
0-22
2.876 4 10
3-89
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NUMBEE OF EMPLOYES, SEPTEMBEE 30th, 1893.
Distributive Departments.
Collective
Totals.
Counting House — General Glasgow 96
Grocery .*. ,, 72
Stationery , ,, 7
Saddlery ,, 6
Ham Curing „ 20
Potato ,, 3
Cattle Buying ,, 1
Sugar Forwarding ,, 1
Drapery — General ,, 118
Edinburgh Sample-room , 2
Mantle „ 9
Millinery ,, 4
Furniture ,, 49
Boot „ 35
Clarence Street Dining-room ,, 5
Shieldhall Dining-rooms „ 14
Sausage Work ,, 9
Carting ,, 53
504
Leith 46
Kilmarnock 14
Dundee 4
Enniskillen 15
79
Productive Departments, Shieldhall.
General 7
Boot Factory 594
„ Parkview 122
Tailoring Factory 232
Printing Department 121
Cabinet Workshop 185
1,261
Carried forward 1,844
160
NUMBER OF EMPLOYES, SEPTEMBER 30th, 1893.
Productive Depabtments, Shieldhall. — Con.
Collective
Totals
Brought forward 1,844
Presen'e and Confectiouery Works 138
Tobacco Factorj- 73
Hosiery 47
Slop „ 47
Mantle „ 36
Shirt , 89
Coffee Essence Factory 6
Drug Department 9
Mechanical Department 42
Tinware Factory 14
Pickle Work 22
523
Building Depabtment.
Glasgow — Joiners 67
Builders 10
Bricklayers 10
Hewers 21
Labourers 75
Cooper 1
Slaters and Plasterers 2
Carvers 4
Causeway Layer 1
Plumbers 10
Painters 28
Electricians 3
Management 5
Leith — Joiners 22
Builders 46
Hewers 67
Labourers 75
Painters 2
Plumbers 8
Farm — Carbrook Mains 16
236
Total 2,840
237
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SCOTTISH CO-OPERATIVE WHOLESALE
SOCIETY LIMITED.
— -^iiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii^
WE repeat statement for 1892, setting forth the total
purchases made in that year by the various Co-opera-
tive Societies, and the percentage of those purchases
made through the Wholesale Society. We again think it
right to explain that the figures are taken from the sales
shown in last Congress Eeport, less 20 per cent. This
deduction does not, we admit, give in some cases the actual
difference which ought to be deducted from selling to arrive
at cost price, but we think that, generally speaking, the
deduction is a fair one. We are certain that a comparison
of this statement with that of last year will be of very
considerable interest, and we earnestly hope that the result
will be more loyal and consistent purchasing from the
Wholesale Society.
1-A
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171
AMERICAN IMMIGRATION LAWS.
BY EDWARD PORRITT.
" Our territory is broad, and our people few in numbers. People
of all nations shall be permitted to come to our land without let or
hindrance."
i
OE nearly a century this was the sentiment which
governed the pohcy of the United States towards
immigration. It was only in 1875 that the first Act of
Congress was passed for the restriction of inmiigration,
and this was intended to exclude only immigrants of
an undesirable and obnoxious kind. Hitherto America
had welcomed all comers, and all Federal legislation
up to this time had been with a view to attracting
immigration. In 1819, and again in 1847 and in 1882, Congress
passed laws dealing with the vessels in which immigrants were
carried across the Atlantic. The country wanted immigration, and
it was the desire of Congress to make the coming of the inunigrants
as safe and as comfortable as possible. This was the intention of
all these laws ; but especially of that of 1882, which was passed to
meet the new conditions in the innnigrant passenger trade due to
the substitution of steamers for sailing vessels.
In the Act of 1882 Congress showed its eagerness to take some
oversight of the new comers to America before they reached the port
of debarkation. The Act was put through the Lower House at
Washington by Mr. Gunther, a Congressman from Wisconsin, who
had arrived in New York as an immigrant only sixteen years prior
to that time. His speeches on the bill showed that he was not of
that more recently-developed class of inmiigi-ants who, having come
to America and done well, desire to set up a wall round the country
to keep out new comers. In 1881, the year previous to the passing
of this Act, 669,431 immigrants had landed in America, and an even
larger number was expected in 1882. " The countries of Europe,"
said Mr. Gunther, in his speech in Congi-ess in behalf of the bill of
1882, "look upon this inmiigration with jealous eyes. It is the
marrow bone that leaves them. It is not to be presumed that the
law-making powers of these countries will exert themselves to any
great extent in favour of the people. On the contrary, they look
173
upon the privations which the emigrants have to undergo with a
sort of gi'im satisfaction. But we, the representatives of the
American people, who receive the benefits of this immigration —
a people which is ever ready to stand by those who need our help,
always willing to correct all abuses of human beings — should not now
hesitate to pass a law which is so urgently required." Other
speeches in the same vein were made in support of the bill, which
was the last passed by Congress in the spirit expressed in the speech
of the Congressman from Wisconsin. This Act was approved by
Congress on the 2nd of August, 1882; and on the next day
approval was given to another Act, which was the first ever passed
with a view to sifting and restricting immigi-ation fi*om Europe, and
not aimed exclusively at those who were vicious or criminal, as was
the Act of 1875.
In any review of the immigration laws and policy of the United
States, it is well to deal first with those laws which ai-e aimed at
the Chinese, and afterwards with those which are intended as a
check on immigration from Europe. Each of these movements
makes an interesting chapter in the economic history of the United
States. Up to ten or fifteen years ago America gave a cordial
welcome to all comers, and had been almost effusive in her invitation
to the people of China to make their homes within her borders.
To understand the attitude of the Federal Government towards
Chinese immigration, and the drastic legislation which has been
passed since 1882, it is necessary to go back to the Burlingame
Treaty of 1868, in which the effusive invitation to Chinamen was
given. The treaty was negotiated in behalf of the United States
by Messrs. W. H. Seward and Anson Burlingame, and was
supplementary to a treaty which had been in existence between the
United States and China since 1858. In the fifth article of the
Burlingame Treaty it was declared that the " United States of
America and the Emperor of China cordially recognised the inherent
and inalienable x'ights of man to change his home and allegiance,
and also the mutual advantage of the free migration and emigration
of their citizens and subjects respectively from one country to the
other for purposes of curiosity, of trade, or as permanent residents."
In the next article it was set out that " citizens of the United States
visiting or residing in China shall enjoy the same privileges,
immunities, or exceptions in respect to travel or residence as may be
there enjoyed by the citizens or subjects of the most favoured
nation, and, i-eciprocally, Chinese subjects visiting or residing in the
United States shall enjoy the same privileges, immunities, and
exceptions in respect to travel or residence as may there be enjoyed
by the citizens or subjects of the most favoured nations." This
treaty, with its most favoured nation privileges and its further
173
AMERICAN IMMIGRATION* LAWS.
promise that " Chinese subjects shall enjoy all privileges of the
public education institutions under control of the Government of the
United States," is in singular contrast with the series of Federal
legislative enactments against the Chinese, commencing with the
Act of 1882 and culminating in the now notorious Geaiy Act of
1892, the operation of which has caused so much controversy and
legal and diplomatic turmoil within the present year.
About the time the Burlingame Treaty was proclaimed, and for
some years later, there was work in abundance for the Chinese
labourers in the development of California and the territories on the
slopes of the Pacific. In response to the Spread Eagle invitation
contained in the treaty. Chinamen literally swarmed into the country.
They made the railways, drained the tule lands, worked the mines
of California and of the neighbouring territories, and for a time were
so useful that the only apprehension was that they would not
continue to come in sufficient numbers. The Emperor of China,
with full faith in the Burlingame Treaty, favoured the emigi-ation,
and as was stated in 1880 by his Commissioners, when the United
States were seeking to take back some of the privileges granted
in 1868, " when other powers were exceedingly urgent in their
need for Chinese labour and desii'ed this Government to allow
its subjects to go of their own free will, this Government, because
those other powers treated the Chinese labourers harshly, and not
with the kindness shown them by the United States, could not do
otherwise than take this difference into consideration." In 1850,
when California was admitted to the Union, the Chinaman was given
a place in the procession in San Francisco in honour of that event.
In 1869, when the negotiators of the Burlingame Treaty were on
their way back from China, they were publicly entertained at San
Francisco, as an acknowledgment of their services.
The Chinamen had been coming to the country for years before
the treaty was negotiated; but the increased numbers in which
they came after 1868 soon led to a revolt on the part of the white
labourers on the Pacific Coast, and a violent agitation was
commenced for the recalling of the invitation which had been
extended to them in the Burlingame Treaty. The State Legislature
of California early in the agitation passed several laws against the
Chinamen, and the agitation reached such a point that in 1877 a
Committee of Congress went from Washington to California to
investigate the subject. Shortly before this time a representative
committee of the labour organisations in San Francisco had issued
an appeal to the working men and women of the United States to
side with them in the conflict with the Chinese labourers. In this
appeal it was declared that "the competition of Mongolian labourers
is inevitably destructive, and will be certain to force the labouring
174
AMEBICAN IMMIGRATION LAWS.
American down in habits and expenses of life to the level of the half
barbarian." " In the struggle between the coolie and free white
labour," continued this appeal, "the latter is heavily handicapped.
The coolie brings neither wife nor family with him, consequently he
finds no difficulty in underbidding the Caucasian worker, who
maintains his family in a decent civilised manner, and has been
taught to believe that honourable toil is worthy of something more
than a mere subsistence. His five thousand years' training to
wretched frugality in competition with his five hundred million
fellow Mongolians has taught him how to live upon the least possible
amount of air and food." It was further alleged by the San
Francisco labour organisations that the Chinese "underbid white
men in the labour market, purchase little or no American products
or manufactures, live squalidly crowded together, constantly
engendering disease, and, unlike white immigrants, they do not
come to make homes with us, and help to build up the country, but
come withovit wives and children, and do not and cannot assimilate
with the Caucasian race."
This appeal epitomises the case of the white labourers against the
Chinese. The statements and opinions it expressed were practically
those adopted by the Congressional Committee which went to
California in 1877. In its report to Congress this Committee
declared that it had become painfully evident that the Pacific Coast
must in time either become American or Mongolian, and that "the
Chinese have advantages which put them far in advance in the race
for possession. They can subsist where the American would starve;
they can work for wages which would not furnish the barest
necessaries of life for an American."
It was not denied that Chinamen were good workers ; even the
labour organisations did not raise this cry. Their complaint was
that it was impossible for white men to compete with them, and that
the Chinaman made neither a good neighbour nor a good citizen.
"As labourers upon public works," wrote the late Senator Morton,
who was of the Congressional Committee which went to the Pacific
Coast in 1877, "they were entirely reliable ; they worked more hours
than white men, were not given to strikes, and never undertook any
combinations to control the price of labour." Even the allegation
of the labour organisations that the Chinaman was not a good
citizen was frequently challenged. The Chinaman had no vote, and
consequently no help from the politician ; but he had some friends,
and among them was Joaquim Miller, the poet, who had been a
journalist and a judge in Grant County, Oregon, during the time of
the Chinese invasion of the Pacific Coast. In a letter written in
February, 1879, Mr. Miller stated that during his official residence
in Oregon, he had never seen a drunken Chinaman, a Chinese
175
AMERICAN IMMIGRATION LAWS.
beggar, or a lazy Chinaman. "The Creator of us all," wrote Mr.
Miller, "opened the Golden Gate to the whole wide world. Let no
man attempt to shut it in the face of his fellow men." But the
upshot of the agitation on the Pacific Coast was that in 1882 the
Golden Gate was shut, and has since been kept shut in what would
strike most people as a harsh if not a brutal manner.
Before anything could be done in this direction, however, it was
necessary that the Burlingame Treaty should be abrogated, or at
least so much of it as contained the effusive invitation to Chinese
immigrants to settle in America. To this end Messrs. Angell, Swift,
and Trescott were sent to Pekin in 1881 to negotiate a new treaty.
Their task was not an easy one, as the Chinese Government was
not readily disposed to give up the favoured nation privileges of the
treaty of 1868. The American Commissioners pointed out that the
great immigration from China which had followed the Burlingame
Treaty had subjected the Government of the United States to very
grave embarrassments, both from its immense volume and from the
fact that in several respects it differed from the immigration from
other countries. "Of late years," pleaded the American Com-
missioners, " the immigration has concentrated itself in cities and
come into direct competition with native labourers, making their
struggle for livelihood a hard one, and disabling them by their
exclusion from accustomed work to discharge those social and
political duties which the Government of the United States expects
from every one of its citizens. This competition engenders popular
discontent, and raises questions which, if left unsettled, may disturb
the friendly relations of the two countries. The Commissioners of
China will, we are sure, understand how grave a problem it would
be for solution by their own Government if one hundred thousand
foreign labourers were in a body introduced into the capital, or into
any great city of the Empire, to bring their new and strange manners
and habits, and take the places of the same number of the native
Chinese, whose ability to discharge their duties as subjects by
contributing their taxes and fulfilling their other liabilities was in a
great measure dependent upon their capacity to maintain themselves
and their families by their daily work."
To all this and to the other arguments of the American Com-
missioners, including the one that only a certain number of Chinese
ports were open to Americans, the Chinese Commissioners replied
by recalling the invitation extended to Chinamen to immigrate into
America contained in the Burlingame Treaty, and by pointing to the
part which Chinamen had taken in developing California and the
adjoining territories. " In the many years of Chinese immigration
to California," urged the representatives of the Emperor, " a hundred
lines of enterprise have arisen, and commercial activity has developed
176
AMERICAN IMMIGRATION LAWS.
to an immense extent. The Chinese have given a large amount of
their labour to your people, and the benefits of that labour to your
country have certainly not been few ; but now, because the Chinese
do good work for small remuneration, the rabble are making
complaints. Since the amount paid the labourer is small, the
employer is able to save more, and hence the benefit still inures to
the citizen of the United States."
It was undoubtedly true, as the Chinese Commissioners pointed
out, that Chinamen in California worked for small wages ; and this
was just the argument of the labour organisations against their
presence there, and it was in obedience to the popular outcry, based
upon this argument, that the Commissioners were at Pekin to
negotiate for a new treaty. There was much further parleying, but
the American Commissioners finally carried their point, and the
treaty was concluded on November 17th, which has been the basis
of all subsequent legislation dealing with the Chinese in America.
The first article of the treaty of 1880 set out that "whenever in the
opinion of the Government of the United States the coming of
Chinese labourers to the United States or their residence therein
aflfects or threatens to affect the interests of that country, or to
endanger the good order of the said country or of any locality within
the territory thereof, the Government of China agrees that the
Government of the United States may regulate, limit, or suspend
such coming or residence, but may not absolutely prohibit it. The
limitation or suspension shall be reasonable, and shall apply only to
Chinese who may go to the United States as labourers, other classes
not being included in the limitation. Legislation taken in regard to
Chinese will be of such a character only as is necessary to enforce
the regulation or suspension of immigration, and immigrants shall
not be subject to personal maltreatment or abuse."
Even before the American Commissioners went to Pekin to
negotiate the 1880 treaty. Congress had passed an Act restricting
immigration from China; but the Supreme Court at Washington,
which decides the constitutionality of all laws. State and Federal,
had declared it invalid, owing to its contravention of the Burlingame
Treaty. The Pekin Treaty w^as proclaimed in the United States in
October, 1881, and in the ensuing Session of Congress an Act was
passed prohibiting the Chinese immigi'ation for a period of twenty
years. This Act, however, was vetoed by President Arthur. He
accepted it as an expression of the opinion of Congress that the
coming of Chinese labourers and their residence in the United States
endangered good order throughout the country; but in his message
to the Senate the President pointed out that the Act altogether
exceeded the concession China had made in 1880, when it was
agreed that the United States might "regulate, limit, or suspend the
177
AMERICAN IMMIGRATION LAWS.
coming of Chinese labourers," but that "it should not absolutely
prohibit it," and that " the limit or suspension should be reasonable."
The President's message was mai'ked by consideration for the rights
of Chinese under the treaties of 1868 and 1880, and contained a
noteworthy tribute to the work of the Chinese immigrants on the
Pacific Coast. "No one," wrote President Arthur, "can say that the
country has not profited by their work. They were largely instru-
mental in constructing the railways which connect the Atlantic with
the Pacific. The States of the Pacific slopes are full of evidences of
their industry. Enterprises profitable alike to the capitalist and to the
labourer of Caucasian origin would have been dormant but for them.
A time has now come when it is supposed they are not needed, and
when it is thought by Congress and by those most acquainted with
the subject that it is best to try to get along without them. There
may, however, be other sections of the country where this species of
labour may be advantageously employed without interfering with
the labours of our own race. In making the proposed experiment it
may be the part of wisdom as well as of good faith to fix the length
of the experimental period with reference to this fact."
President Arthur's suggestion was accepted by Congress, and the
Act was so altered as to provide for the exclusion of Chinese
labourers for a period of ten years. This measure, however, did not
work at all satisfactorily, and it was greatly added to and amended
by another Act passed in July, 1884. Under this amended Act
Chinese immigration was suspended for a period of ten years, and
Chinese other than labourers who desired to visit America had to
obtain permission of and be identified by the Chinese Government
and receive a certificate from that Government. If the intending
visitor were a merchant from China, the certificate had to set out
"the nature, character, and estimated value of the business carried
on by him prior to and at the time of his application to his Govern-
ment for a certificate." If the applicant desired to travel for
curiosity, it had to be stated in the certificate whether he intended
to pass through or travel within the United States, together with
his financial standing at home. All these certificates had to be vised
by the diplomatic representative of the United States in the country
in which they were issued, or by the consular representative of the
United States at the port or place from which the holders of the
certificates were about to embark, and the diplomatic or consular
representative was charged with the duty of examining into the
truth of the statements set forth in the certificates. The measure
provided for heavy penalties against masters of vessels who violated
its provisions, and for the issue of certificates by collectors of
customs to those natives of China already in the United States who
desired to visit their native country and return to America. These
13
178
AMERICAN IMMIGBATION LAWS.
certificates were to set out the individual, family, and tribal names
of the Chinamen to whom they were granted, their ages, occupations
and where followed, the last place of residence, physical marks or
peculiarities, and all facts necessary for the identification of each
and all such Chinese labourers.
The Act of 1884, exacting as were its pi'ovisions, failed to satisfy
the popular demand for the exclusion of the Chinese, and in
September, 1888, during the last year of Mr. Cleveland's 1885-89
Administration, another Act was passed going beyond the Act of
1882, which President Arthur vetoed, and prohibiting Chinese
immigration altogether. The Act of 1888 was to apply to all persons
of Chinese race, and set out that the words "Chinese labourers,"
whenever used, should be construed to mean "both skilled and
unskilled labourers and Chinese employed in mining." This Act
made it unlawful for "any Chinese person, whether a subject of
China or of any other power, to enter the United States, except he
were a Chinese official, a teacher, a student, a merchant, or a
traveller for pleasure or curiosity." It was also provided that no
Chinese labourer in the United States should be permitted, after
havmg left, to retui'n, unless he had a "lawful wife, child, or parent
in the United States, or property therein of the value of a thousand
dollars, or debts of a like amount due to him and pending settlement."
"The marriage to such wife," it was pro\aded, "must have taken
place at least one year prior to the application of the labourer for
permission to return to the United States, and must have been
followed by continuous cohabitation of the parties as man and wife."
With a view to simplifying the working of this drastic Exclusion
Act, it was provided that Chinese certificate holders must not land
except at the ports of San Francisco, Portland (Oregon), Boston,
New York, New Orleans, Port Townsend, or such other port as
might be designated by the Secretary of the Treasury. Ordinary
immigrants are landed at twenty-four ports. Among the other
clauses of the Act of 1888 was one which provided that in case of a
vessel having Chinamen on board coming on shore as a wreck the
Chinamen were to be taken away within three days.
The provisions of the Acts of 1884 and 1888 were all carried out
with great stringency, but notwithstanding this there grew up a
feeling on the Pacific Coast that further legislation was necessary
to prevent Chinamen smuggling themselves into the United States
across the Canadian border, and to prevent the misuse of certificates
issued under the provisions of the Exclusion Acts. Accordingly in
May, 1892, in the last year of Mr. Harrison's Presidency, the Geary
or the Registration Act was passed. It continued all the existing
laws against the Chinese for another period of ten years, and
contained new regulations applicable to all Chinamen lawfully in the
179
AMERICAN IMMIGRATION LAWS.
country. There were at this time, it was estimated, some
107,000 Chinamen in America, and under the provisions of the
Geary Act all Chinamen, except capitalists, merchants, and other
employers of labour, were compelled to appear in person at
the office of the Federal collector of internal revenue in their
neighbourhood and register, "the certificates of which registration
shall be evidence of their right to remain in the country." The
Treasury instructions for carrying out the Geary Act as oi'iginally
drawn up called upon each Chinaman to lodge his photograph
at the office where he was registered; but this provision was
abandoned before May oth, 1893, the date when the Act went fully
into force. Failure to register rendered the Chinaman liable to
imprisonment, and forcible deportation to China at the end of the
term. The Eegistration Act caused a great outcry, especially in the
Eastern States, where the feeling against Chinamen was never quite
so strong as it was on the Pacific Coast. Only a few people were
disposed to question the wisdom of restricting immigration from
China; but there was a very strong feeling that the Act of 1892 was
totally at variance with the provisions of the Pekin Treaty of 1880.
This treaty, it will be remembered, while giving the United States
Government the right "to limit, regulate, or suspend" Chinese
immigration, stipulated that "if Chinese labourers or Chinese of
any other class now either permanently or temporarily residing in
the United States meet with ill-treatment at the hands of any other
persons, the Government of the United States will exert all its power
to devise measures for their protection and to secure to them the
same rights, privileges, immunities, and exemptions as may be
enjoyed by the citizens or subjects of the most favoured nation, and
to which they are entitled by treaty."
Here and there a few Chinamen complied with the Geary Law ;
but the overwhelming majority of them, acting on the advice of the
Chinese organisation in San Francisco, known as the Six Companies,
failed to register before the 5th of May. As the Federal authorities
learned that the Chinamen had determined upon testing the consti-
tutionality of the new law, no immediate general attempt was made
to deal with those who had not complied with its provisions. In
New York, where there is a large Chinese colony, three Chinamen
who had failed to register were arrested by the United States
Marshal in order that the constitutionality of the law might be tested
by the Supreme Court at "Washington. The case was remitted from
the Federal Court of the Southern district of New York to the
Supreme Court, and on May 15th, 1893, the Supreme Court
pronounced in favour of the validity of the Geary Act.
Five out of the eight judges who were on the bench at the time
concurred in the decision ; the other three judges dissented. Mr.
180
AMERICAN IMMIGRATION LAWS.
Justice Gray delivered the judgment of the Court. In this it was
stated that it was one of the fundamental principles of the law of
nations that every independent nation had the inherent right to keep
aliens out of its territory, and to order them out of its territory.
As to the alleged conflict between the Geary Law and the treaties
existing between the United States and China, the Court held that
if Congress made a law inconsistent with a treaty, it might give a
foreign nation the right to complain, and to take such action as it
might deem fit for its own intei'ests ; but the duties of the Courts of
the United States were clear, and they must recognise the force of
the law.
The three dissenting judges held that the law was unconstitutional.
Chief Justice Fuller entertained no doubt that while the Federal
Government was invested, so far as foreign countries were concerned,
with all the powers necessary to the maintenance of its absolute
independence and security, it could not in virtue of a supposed
inherent sovereignty absolutely deal with persons lawfully and
peacefully within its dominion. " The Act before the Court," he
continued, "was not an Act to abrogate or repeal a treaty, nor to
expel Chinamen lawfully here, and no such intent could be imputed
to Congress. Its object was to prescribe a method of registration,
and the deportation by way of punishment was in his view an
unusual punishment not authorised by the Constitution." Mr.
Justice Brewer argued that if the Geary Act w^ere upheld there was
no guarantee that a similar treatment might not be accorded to other
classes of the population of the United States than the Chinese.
Mr. Justice Field took the same view. " As men having our common
humanity," he said, in reference to the Chinese labourers, " they
are protected by all the guarantees of the Constitution. To hold
that they are subject to any different law or are less protected
in any particular is, in my judgment, against the teachings of our
history, the practice of our Government, and the language of our
Constitution."
After the constitutionality of the law had been put beyond question
by the judgment of the Supreme Court at Washington, further
proceedings were taken in the Federal Court, in New York, in order
to determine how the provisions of the Act were to be carried out.
It was then discovered that while the United States Marshals and
other Federal officers were authorised to arrest Chinamen who were
without registration certificates. Congress had made no provision
for the cost of deporting the defaulting Chinamen to their own
country. Consequently, the three Chinamen who had been arrested
in New York were at once liberated, and the Geary Act had to
remain in abeyance pending the action of Congress either in provid-
ing large funds for its administration or in repealing the law.
181
As was stated at the outset, it was not until 1875 that the first
United States law was passed with a view to excluding any class of
immigrants. Prior to that time the Federal Government had asked
no questions whatever as to the present condition, character, or
antecedents of the immigrants arriving at its ports. All comers had
been welcome. In March, 1875, however, Congress passed an Act
excluding women imported for an immoral purpose, and all persons
who had been convicted of felonious crimes, and whose sentences
had been remitted on condition of their emigration. In this Act, as
in subsequent Acts, Congress was careful to make an exception in
favour of persons who had been sentenced for political offences, or
who had been convicted of crimes arising out of political offences.
That part of the Act dealing with women of an undesirable class was
aimed mainly against those coming to the Pacific Coast from
China — at the wretched camp followers of the great army of Chinese
immigi-ants which was settling itself in California and in the neigh-
bouring territories as the result of the Burlingaine Treaty. The
labour organisations had no voice in the demand for the Act of
1875 as they had in the demand for the exclusion of the Chinese,
and for the series of Acts directed at immigration from Europe, which
has been passed since 1882.
Organised labour first turned its attention to the restriction of
immigration in 1882. In that year Congress was dealing with the
law applying to vessels in which immigrants are carried, and also
with the question of pauper inunigration, and was generally over-
hauling the system of receiving immigrants at the various United
States ports. The first of the measures dealt with steamship owners,
and gi-eatly increased their responsibilities towards the passengers in
the steerage. The second Act established a new systein for the
reception of immigrants. To meet the expenses of this new
arrangement it was proposed by Congress to fix a head tax of fifty
cents, to be paid by the shipowners, the proceeds of which were to
be used in paying the expenses attendant upon the superintendence
of the landing of immigrants, and in relieving such immigi'ants as
were in distress. At this juncture what was then known as the
Independent Labour Party first made the suggestion in regai'd to
restricting inunigration, which has been again and again repeated by
various organisations of labour, but which so far has gone unheeded
by Congress. In a petition which was presented to the House of
Kepresentatives when the bill of 1882 was under discussion, the
Independent Labour Party urged that instead of a head tax of fifty
cents, intended simply to cover the expenses of carrying out the law,
Congress should impose a tax of one hundred dollars on every
immigrant. McKinleyism was unheard of at this time. It was six
years later before the Mc.Kinley tariff was adopted; but even in
182
AMERICAN IMMIGRATION LAWS.
1882 the United States had a high protective tariff, a survival from
the war times, and the idea of the Independent Labour Party was
that, if employers were to be protected by Federal laws, similar
protection ought to be afforded to workmen. They argued that if it
was necessary to protect the employer from the product of the cheap
labour of England and the other European countries, it was only
equitable that the workpeople should be protected from the labourers
from Europe, who were crowding into America and competing with
them in the mines, the factories, and the workshops. This argument,
however, had no effect on Congress, and there is no trace in the Act
of 1882 of any response to the appeals which the Labour Party made
in favour of restriction.
The Act of 1882 provided for the levying of a duty of fifty cents
for " each and ever)' passenger, not a citizen of the United States,
who shall come by steam or sail vessel from any foreign port to any
port in the United States." The duty was to be paid to the United
States Collector of Customs at the port of entry, and to constitute
an immigrant fund, which was to be used under the direction of the
Secretary of the Treasury to defray the expenses of regulating
immigration, for the care, of the immigrants landing in the United
States, for the relief of such as were in distress, and for the general
expenses of carrying the Act into effect. The Act also gave the
Secretary of the Treasury the supervision of the business of
immigration, and officers appointed by him or deputed to act for
him were empowered to go on board of and through any vessel
bringing immigrants, and if on examination there should be found
among the passengers " any convict, lunatic, idiot, or other person
unable to take care of himself or herself without becoming a public
charge they shall report the same in writing to the collector of such
port, and such persons shall not be permitted to land." The
expenses of the return of such persons as were not permitted to
land, the Act provided, "shall be borne by the owners of the vessel
in which they came."
After the Act of 1882 had been in force a short time, it was
discovered that the immigrant tax told against American vessels
trading between the ports of the United States and the ports of
Canada and Mexico, placing them at a disadvantage as regards railway
competition. Accordingly, on the 14th of June, 1884, a clause to
obviate the difficulty was introduced into an "Act to remove certain
burdens of the American mercantile marine." It provided that until
the section of the Act of 1882 which levied a tax upon immigrants
"shall be made applicable to passengers coming to the United States
by land carriage, said provision shall not apply to passengers coming
by vessels employed exclusively in the trade between ports of the
United States and the Dominion of Canada and ports of Mexico."
183
AMEBIC AN IMMIGEATION LAWS.
An Act which closed the gates only against convicts, lunatics,
idiots, and persons likely to become a public charge, did not satisfy
the labour organisations. A demand was raised for another
restrictive measure, one which should be directly in the interests of
labour. This time the organisations were somewhat more reason-
able and more explicit in their demands. They asked for a measure
to prevent American employers from making contracts and bargains
with workmen and labourers from Europe before they arrived in
the country. This demand came principally from the mining
regions of Pennsylvania, although the skilled labourers and factory
workpeople of the Eastern cities were also in favour of it, and were
not slow to take advantage of the law to this end which was passed
by Congress in 1885. The Hungarians, Poles, and Italians are the
immigrants who have always been regarded as most undesirable by
the labour unions, and against these nationalities, particularly
against the Hungarians, there has of recent years been as strong a
feeling of opposition as there was against the Chinamen on the
Pacific Coast. Nearly all the allegations which were made against
the Chinamen in the agitation for their exclusion have been made
against the Hungarian labourers, w4io are numerously employed in
the coke and iron regions of Pennsylvania. " They will work for
little or nothing, live on fare w^hich a Chinaman w^ould not touch,
and will submit to any and every indignity which may be imposed
upon them." This is the indictment which Mr. T. V. Powderly, of
the Knights of Labour, made against them at the time of the
agitation for the Contract Labour Law.
Against the Chinaman it had been urged that he could live
cheaper than an American labourer, because he was unencumbered
with a wife or family. Against the Hungarian at work on the
Pennsylvania coal fields, it w^as urged that he brought his wife and
daughters with him and compelled them to help him in underselling
the American labourer. "Before Hungarians were imported," said
Mr. Powderly, in the speech from which a quotation has already
been made, "the task of an ordinary man was to draw five ovens;
but the Hungarian takes the contract for six ovens for less money
than the American received for five. He compels his wife or grown-
up daughters to accompany him to the ovens in a morning, and
assist in the work until about noon; after that they may go home."
It was objected to the Hungarians, the Poles, and the Italians, that
from the nature of things, from their inability to speak English,
from their low standard of living, and from their haste to make a
little money and leave the country, that they were more likely to
become victims to the worst form of the contract system than
any other class of inunigrants. English and German immigi-ants
occasionally made contracts before they started for America, and
184
AMERICAN IMMIGRATION LAWS.
sometimes these immigi-ants were introduced when strikes or lock-
outs occurred; but the contract system was at its worst in connection
with the lower grade of immigrants, and it was against these
imported labourers who came in large numbers that the labour
unions demanded protection.
Between 1885 and 1888, Congress passed three Acts in response
to the demands of the labour unions for protection against contract
labourers. The first Act — that passed on the 26th of February,
1885 — made it unlawful "for any person, company, partnership, or
corporation, in any manner whatsoever, to prepay transportation, or
in any way assist or encourage the importation or migration of any
alien or aliens, any foreigner or foreigners, into the United States,
its tei'ritories, or the District of Columbia, under contract or
agreement, parole or special, expressed or implied, made previous to
the importation or migration of such alien or aliens, foreigner or
foreigners, to perform labour or services of any kind in the United
States, its territories, or the District of Columbia." All such con-
tracts were declared to be void, and it was provided that a penalty
not exceeding a thousand dollars might be sued for and recovered
by the United States, or "by any person who shall first bring his
action therefor." A separate suit could be brought for each alien.
The Act also made it a misdemeanour for a ship-master to bring
contract laboui'ers, punishable by a fine of not more than five
thousand dollars for each labourer so brought. The master might
also be imprisoned for a term not exceeding six months. The Act
provided that foreigners temporarily residing in the United States
might engage other foreigners as private secretaries, and as servants
or domestics. " Nor shall this Act," continues another clause,
"be so construed as to prevent any persons from engaging, under
contract or agreement, skilled workmen in foreign countries to
perform labour in the United States, in or upon any new industry
not at present established in the United States, provided that skilled
labourers for that purpose cannot be otherwise obtained; nor shall
the provisions of the Act apply to professional actors, artists,
lecturers, or singers, nor to persons employed strictly as personal or
domestic servants." "Provided also," set out another exempting
clause, "that nothing in this Act shall be construed as prohibiting
any individual from assisting any member of his family, or any
relative or personal friend, to emigrate from any foreign country to
the United States."
Two years later, in 1887, another Act of Congress was passed,
charging the Secretary of the Treasury at Washington with the
duty of carrying out the Contract Labour Act of 1885, and
empowering his representatives to go on board incoming vessels,
and if they should find "any persons included in the prohibition in
185
AMEEICAN IMMIGRATION LAWS.
this Act, they shall report the same in writing to the collector of
such port and such persons shall not be permitted to land." The
Act was passed on the 23rd of February, 1887, and came into
operation in Max'ch of the same year.
Under the Act of 1885 it was open to any person to bring an
action for its infringement, and the coui'ts soon had cases before
them in which it was charged by trade-unionists that immigrants
had come to the country in pursuance of contracts made with
employers before sailing. In a few cases, at the instance of the
courts, the men were sent back to the port from which they had
sailed. The number of immigrants so returned, however, was small
in comparison with the number who were refused a landing after
the Act of 1887 came into force, and it became the custom for
contract labour inspectors in the employ of the Federal Govern-
ment to board all incoming vessels as soon as they got within the
limits of New York harbour. Several hours usually elapse
between a steamer's entering the harbour and disembarking her
passengers, and it became the practice of the inspectors to spend
this time mingling with the intermediate and steerage passengers,
using all kinds of underhand means to learn w^hether any of the
immigrants were under contract to work for employers in the
places to which they were going. If they were, they were refused a
landing, and returned by the steamers by which they came. The
length to which this system of detecting immigrants who had made
contracts was carried was shown by a case which occurred in
November, 1892. There was a strike on at a Pittsburgh glass
factoiy, and the unionists expected that men would be brought
over from Belgium to take the places of those who were out.
Accordingly every incoming steamer from Belgian ports w^as watched
by the contract labour inspectors. One of these officers boarded
the Antwerp steamer "Friesland," and went about among the male
passengers carefully noting the lips of each for the callosities which
are the result of long use of the blow pipe. He picked out a
number of men by this sign, and was greatly commended by several
of the newspapers in New York for his smartness. The men so
picked out were glass blowers, but the inspector was unable to
make out a case under the Contract Labour Laws, and after about
a week's detention at Ellis Island, where the immigrants arriving
at New York are passed by the Federal inspectors, the men were
permitted to go about their business.
The stringency with which the Contract Labour Laws have been
carried out since 1887 is shown by the fact that in the year ending
June 30th, 1892, 932 immigrants coming within the provisions of
the laws were sent back to Europe. Of this number, 832 were
refused a landing at New York. Almost every steamer which
186
AMERICAN IMMIGRATION LAWS.
arrives at New York takes back several of her passengers in
consequence of the alertness and zeal with which the contract
labour inspectors carry out their duties.
The Act of 1885, amended as it was by the Act of 1887, still
failed to meet the wishes of the advocates of restriction, and in
March, 1891, another Act was passed dealing in a more far-reaching
manner with contract labourers, and also imposing new restrictions
on the methods adopted by steamship companies in stinmlating the
emigrant passenger trade. One of the clauses of the Act of 1892
provided that "it should be deemed a violation of the Contract
Labour Law of 1885 to assist or encourage the importation or
migi-ation of any alien by promises of employment, through adver-
tisements printed and published in any foreign country, and any
alien coming to this country in consequence of such advertisement
shall be treated as coming under a contract as contemplated by
such Act." Another important section dealt with the advertising
of passenger steamship companies. It provided that "no steamship
or transportation company or owners of vessels shall directly or
through agents, either by writing, printing, or by oral representation,
solicit, invite, or encourage the immigration of any alien into the
United States, except by ordinary commercial letters, circulars,
advertisements, or oral representations, stating the sailings of their
vessels and terms and facilities of transportation therein."
Almost immediately after the Act of 1885 went into force, the
Chui'ch of the Holy Trinity, New York, gave an invitation to the
Rev. E. Walpole Warren, of Lambeth, London, to become its pastor.
Mr. Warren accepted the invitation, and had hardly taken up his
duties when an action was commenced against the church trustees
for an infringement of the Contract Labour Law. The action was
at the instance of a Scotch society in New York, and was in
retaliation for the sending back to Glasgow of several Scotch
immigrants through proceedings under this Act. There was no
feeling against Mr. Warren, nor against the trustees of Holy
Trinity, the only object of the proceedings against the new rector
being to give the public an object lesson in the absurdity of some of
the provisions of the law of 1885. The action was long drawn out,
extremely harrassing to Mr. Wan-en and his friends, and ultimately
resulted in Holy Trinity Church being mulcted in a fine of one
thousand dollars. When the Act of 1891 was before Congress, a
clause was introduced to prevent actions of this kind, and the
exemptions of the Act of 1885 were extended to "ministers of any
religious denomination, persons belonging to any recognised pro-
fession, and professors for colleges and seminaries." The Act of
1885 permitted an immigrant's passage money to be paid by "any
relative or personal friend." In the amended Act of 1891 this
187
AMEBIC AN IMMIGRATION LAWS.
permission was withdx'awn, and persons already in the United
States were permitted to pay passage money only for members of
their own family.
In the new Act of 1891 an endeavour was made by Congress to
xneet the complaint of the New York State Board of Charities, a
department somewhat similar to the old Poor Law Board which
existed in England before the Local Government Board was
established, that there were serious defects in the law of 1882
excluding paupers and idiots, and that notwithstanding that Act,
large numbers of chronic and helpless paupers were permitted to
land, soon to become a charge upon the State of New York. In
support of more drastic legislation on these lines, it was stated by
the Board of Charities that two-thirds of the paupers in New York
State were recruited from a class of immigrants who ought not to be
allowed to land. In the new Act it was provided that the following
classes of aliens should be excluded — "all idiots, insane persons,
paupers, or persons likely to become a public charge, persons
suffering from a loathsome or a dangerous contagious disease,
persons who have been convicted of a felony, or other infamous
crime or misdemeanour, or involving moral turpitude, polygamists,
and also any persons whose ticket or passage is paid for with the
money of another, or is assisted by others to come, unless it is
affirmatively and satisfactorily shown on special inquiry that such
person does not belong to one of the foregoing excluded classes, or
to the class of contract labourers excluded by the Act of February
26th, 1885."
Another important clause provided that "if any alien become a
public charge within one j^ear of his landing from causes existing
prior to his landing, his so becoming chargeable shall be deemed to
have rendered his coming a violation of the law, and he shall be
returned in the same manner as an alien who comes within the
classes defined by the Act."
It was this Act of 1891 which created the Emigration Bureau at
Washington as a department under the control of the Secretary of
the Treasury. An immigrant who is refused a landing by the
medical inspectors, who are of the Federal Marine Hospital Service,
or by inspectors under the Contract Labour Laws, or by the
ordinary inspectors employed by the Treasury Department, has an
appeal from these authorities at the port of arrival to the Superin-
tendent of Immigration at Washington, and from the Superintendent
to the Secretary of the Treasury, in whose department all matters
connected with immigration are included. Until March, 1893,
immigration at the port of New York was superintended by a
commissioner and an assistant conunissioner. By an Act of
Congress, passed in March, the offices of these commissioners were
I
188
AMERICAN IMMIGBATION LAWS.
abolished and a board of four inspectors was constituted, whose
duties are to pass on all cases of immigrants detained under the
various immigration laws. The favourable report of three of these
inspectors is required to pass a detained immigrant.
By the same Act of Congress, additional duties and responsibilities
were thrown upon the steamship companies in regard to the
conveyance of immigrants Formerly the interrogatories put to
immigrants were administered after they had landed at Ellis Island.
Under the Act of 1893, a new form of passengers' manifest was
brought into use, and now all passengers on a westward-bound
transatlantic steamer, whether in the saloon, in the intermediate
cabin, or in the steerage, are compelled to furnish the representatives
of the steamship companies with information necessary to the
answering of the following questions : —
1. Full name.
2. Age.
3. Sex.
4. Whether married or single.
5. Calling or occupation.
6. Whether able to read or write.
7. Nationality.
8. Last residence.
9. Seaport for landing in the United States.
10. Final destination in the United States.
11. Whether having a ticket through to such destination.
12. Whether the immigrant has paid his own passage, or
whether it has been paid by some other persons, or by
any corporation, society, municipality, or government.
13. Whether in possession of money, and if so whether upwards
of §30, and how much ; if $30 or less.
14. Whether going to join a relative, and if so, what relative,
and his name and address.
15. Whether ever before in the United States, and if so, when
and where.
16. Whether ever in prison or almshouse, or supported by
charity.
17. Whether a polygamist.
18. Whether under contract, expressed or implied, to perform
labour in the United States.
19. The immigrant's condition of health, mentally and physically,
and whether deformed or crippled, and if so, from what
cause.
Not only has the work of obtaining answers to these questions
been thrown upon the steamship companies, but in the event of their
bringing an undesirable immigrant they are liable to a fine of $20,
189
AMERICAN IMMIGRATION LAWS.
besides being compelled to carry the rejected immigrant back to
Em-ope, and maintain him while he is still at New York. The
manifest containing the particulars thus ascertained is divided into
a number of sheets, no one of which may contain more than thirty
names. Each sheet is lettered and numbered, and each immigrant
receives a check, or tag, bearing the letter of the sheet on which his
name appears, and also his individual number. Towards the end of
the voyage the ship's officers are supposed to drill the immigrants
into groups of thirty. When they are admitted to the Rotunda, at
Ellis Island, the immigrants are compelled to arrange themselves
into these groups, and pass before the inspectors in this order. Each
gi'oup is lettered alphabetically, and one group at a time in the order
of lettering is taken by the Ellis Island inspectors. While awaiting
their examination the immigrants are detained in railed-off enclosures,
and then, in the order of their grouping and numbering, are passed
along gangways to the desks of the inspecting officers. These officers
have copies of the steamer's manifest before them, and as each
immigrant presents himself at the desk, he is called upon to answer
a second time the nineteen questions which were put to him by the
representatives of the steamship company before he started upon the
voyage across the Atlantic. If the answers of the immigrants agree
with those sworn to at home, the immigrants are passed on to the
contract labour inspectors, and when free of them are allowed to
depart. If, however, any discrepancy is found between the answers
on the manifest and the verbal ones given at the inspectors' desk
the immigrant is marched ofi' to the detention room for further
examination. If he can explain the matter to the board of inspectors,
he is allowed to leave the island ; if he cannot, and the case appears
at all a doubtful or an unsatisfactory one, he is returned to the
steamer from which he was landed and sent back to Europe.
The inspection by the officers employed under the Contract Labour
Laws comes after the interrogatories administered by the ordinary
immigrant inspectors, and in this work the inspectors receive
considerable help from the various labour unions. Some of the
more active of these unions keep up a correspondence with agents
abroad, and when they are informed that a party of contract
labourers is coming from a particular port, they put the labour
inspectors at Ellis Island on the alert, and thus secure the return
of the new comers.
Since 1882 there has hardly been a year in which the immigration
in some form has not occupied the attention of the United States
Congress. It is still the subject of much public discussion, and
there is every likelihood that the Fifty-third Congress — the one
elected at the same time that Mr. Cleveland was chosen President —
will have the question brought before it during the session of 1894.
190
AMERICAN IMMIGRATION LAWS.
Before turning to the present aspect of the immigration question,
it may be useful to give some idea of the vohime and character of
the immigi-ation which the United States has been receiving during
the last three-quarters of a century. The figures of the Immigration
Department go back to 1830, and the accompanying table shows
the number of immigi'ants arriving by sea during the seven decades
between 1820 and 1890:—
From 1820 to 1830 128,393
„ 1830 to 1840 539,391
„ 1840 to 1850 1,423,337
„ 1850 to 18G0 2,799,423
„ 1860 to 1870 1,964,061
„ 1870 to 1880 2,834,040
„ 1880 to 1890 5,246,613
As this table shows, one-third of the total immigration since 1820
arrived in the decade betw^een 1880 and 1890. This table does not
include arrivals from Mexico and Canada; these do not come under
the supervision of the Immigration Department. The falling off in
immigration in the 18^0 -to 1870 decade was due to the War of the
Eebellion.
The nationalities of the five-and-a-quarter million immigrants
arriving between 1880 and 1890 were as follows : —
Germany 1,452,970
England 657,488
Ireland 655,482
Sweden and Nonvay . . 568,362
Austria-Hungary 353,719
Italy 307,309
Russia and Poland 265,088
Scotland 149,869
Denmark . .
Switzerland ,
China
Netherlands ,
France
Belgium
88,132
81,988
61.711
53.701
50,464
20,177
All others 480,153
The sexes of the immigrants are set out in the accompanpng
table : —
Country from which
Arrived.
Males.
Per cent
f Males
of Total
Females.
Per cent
Females
of Total.
Total.
Germany
Ireland
England
Sweden and Norway . . . .
Italy
Russia, including Poland
Austria
Hungary
Scotland
836,290
334,229
395,273
346,862
243,923
174,481
142,221
94,243
92,252
57-6
510
61-3
61-0
79-4
65-8
62-9
73-8
61-6
616,680
321,253
249,407
221,600
63,386
90,607
83,817
33,438
57,617
42-4
49-0
38-7
390
20-6
34-2
37-1
26-2
38-4
1,452,970
666,482
644,680
568,362
307,309
265,088
226,038
127,681
149,869
191
AMERICAN IMMIGRATION LAWS.
The age at which immigrants arrive is shown by the following
figures : —
Country from which
Arrived.
Germany
Under 15
Years.
No.
386,934
Ireland | 92,-308
England 151,315
Sweden and Norway. 104,254
Italy 47,063 j
Eussia 65,427
Austria | 50,020
Scotland I 36,192
Hungary ! 18,785 1
%
26-6
14-1
23-5
18-3
15-3
24-7
22-1
24-2
14-7
From 15 to 40
Years.
No.
904,002
515,089
420,303
414,609
212,475
174,754
149,909
97,819
95,635
%
62-2
78-6
65 2
73-0
69-2
65 9
66 3
65-2
74-9
Over 40
Years.
No. I
162,034 1
48,085
73,062 i
49,499 i
47,771
24,907
26,109 ;
15,858 1
13,261 1
%
11-2
7-3
11-3
8-7
15-5
9-4
11-6
10-6
10-4
Total.
No.
1,452,970
655,482
644,680
568,362
307,309
265,088
226,038
149,869
127,681
From the table showing the sex of the immigrants, it is easy to
distinguish the general character of the immigration. The figures
for Ireland, England, Germany, Sweden, Norway, and Scotland
seem to indicate that families keep together, as the percentage of
males and females is almost equal. Those for Hungary and Italy
disclose the greatest disparity between the sexes, and help to
substantiate the complaint of the labour unions against the Hun-
garian and Italian labourers that they do not come to the United
States to settle, but to make a little money and hurry back to their
native land as soon as the object of their stay is accomplished.
The occupations of the immigrants arriving between 1880 and
1890 are given in a general way in the following table : —
Classes of Occupations.
Males.
Females.
Total.
Professional
Skilled ,
Miscellaneous . . . . ,
Not stated
Without occupation ,
25,257
514,552
1 833,325
73,327
759,450
Total
3,205,911
1.749
25,859
245,810
42,830
1,724,454
27,006
540,411
2,079,135
116,157
2,483,904
2,040,702
5,246,613
In spite of all the restrictions and regulations which were in force
in 1892 with a view to restricting immigration, and especially those
intended to prevent the steamship companies from picturing America
as El Dorado, the number of immigrants was nearly 600,000. The
AMERICAN IMMIGRATION LAWS.
exact figures were 579,663, of whom 445,987 were landed at New
York, 55,870 at Baltimore, 32,352 at Boston, and 30,703 at
Philadelphia.
The occupations of this vast army of new comers were as follows : —
Occupation.
Architects ....
Brewers
Butchers
Barbers
Bakers
Blacksmiths . .
Bartenders ....
Bricklayers . .
Carpenters
Cabinetmakers
Confectioners
Cigarmakers . .
Cooks
Coopers
Farmers ;
Florists
Gardeners
Hatters
Ironmoulders
Labourers ....
Locksmiths . .
Laundrymen . .
Masons
Miners
Number.
Occupation.
99
764
2,723
1,121
2,506
2,608
392
1,319
5,201
1,844
443
2,653
594
500
51,630
264
954
796
1,001
171,483
1,665
29
3,709
6,966
Machinists
Millers
Musicians
Painters
Peddlers
Plasterers
Porters
Potters
Printers
Saddlers
Shoemakers
Spinners
Tailors
Tanners
Tinplate-workers
Tinsmiths
Wagon-smiths
Weavers '. . .
Waiters
All other occupations
No occupation, including
women and children
Number.
Total
193
AMERICAN IMMIGRATION LAWS.
In a measure, but only imperfectly, the next table shows how this
vast immigration — in numbers larger than the population of Man-
chester— distributed itself over the various States and Territories : —
State and Territories. \ Number.
Alabama 409
Alaska 4
Arizona 225
Arkansas 442
Connecticut 8,642
Colorado 2,018
California 10,936
Delaware ; 754
District of Columbia 861
Florida ' 4,829
Georgia 1 390
Indiana ! 3,407
Indian Territorj' I 314
Illinois ; 46,012
Iowa I 8,066
Idaho 343
Kentucky- 1,046
Kansas 3,552
Louisiana 4,062
:\Iaine 1,111
^larj^land ■ 7,286
Michigan 14,630
Missouri 5,544
Minnesota 12,740
^lississippi ; 349
Montana 1,244
Massachusetts i 39,987
States and Territories.
Number.
New Hampshire
North Carolina
North Dakota . .
Nebraska
Nevada
New Jersey ....
New Mexico ....
New York . .
Ohio
Oregon
Oklahoma ....
Pennsylvania . .
Rhode Island . .
South Carolina
South Dakota . .
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
West Virginia . .
Wisconsin ....
Washington ....
Wyoming
Total ..
1.215
331
2,525
5,768
626
16,665
340
242,668
15,040
1,192
6
83,414
4,385
241
1,666
551
3,097
611
759
502
985
16,066
1,236
571
579,663
In the foregoing table, the destination of 242,668 immigrants is
given as New York State, and 39,987 as Massachusetts. It does
not follow, however, that anything like these numbers settled in
those States. A large proportion of the immigrants booked to New
14
194
AMERICAN IMMIGRATION LAWS.
York and Boston had no definite destination in mind at the time of
embarking. The majority of them would soon be compelled to go
further afield.
Among the other statistical tables drawn up by the Commissioner
of Immigi'ation at Washington is one showing the money brought
by immigrants. An immigrant must have at least ten dollars on
landing; otherwise he is refused under the provisions of the Act of
1882, excluding paupers and persons likely to become public charges.
In the six months ending June 30th, 1892, 152,360 immigrants over
twenty years of age arrived at New York, bringing with them a
total sum of $3,060,908, or an average of $20-09, or a little over £4
each. Those from France brought the largest amount of money, the
average being $55*67 each. For the Swiss immigrants, the average
was $44-01; for Welsh, $43-06; for German, $35-42; Enghsh,
$26-43; Scotch, $22-77; and Irish, $15-64. The Hungarians, Poles,
and Italians brought less than any other nationalities. For Poles,
the average was $12-31; Italians, $11-77; and Hungarians, $11-42.
In New York, the Hungarians, Poles, and Italians are known as
the "ten dollar immigrants," and much of the popular outcry for
the restriction of immigration is aimed at these nationalities.
As to what becomes of these armies of new comers, arriving in
larger numbers every year, it would take years of travel and
observation to be able to tell, and even then only in a general way.
A writer in the Observer, a weekly jom-nal of high standing in
New York, in discussing this question in the issue for July 6th,
1893, divides the new comers into three classes — those who do not
manage, those who manage too much, and those who manage very
well.
" Of those who do not manage," he writes, " some need not
manage because they are managed. Here on the dock is a large
squad of Southern Europeans, nearly all men. They have little
but muscle. Somehow they discovered that their muscle was in
request here. True enough, they have scarcely landed before agents
of large corporations or employment bureaus are on the spot to pick
up and forward this usable material. Nearly all of it goes to places
where large use is to be made of the pick and spade. After they
arrive there, they are still managed. They are housed in hovels
owned by the company ; boarded in the company's boarding houses ;
supplied out of the company's stores ; and for the remainder,
manipulated so as to assist in making the biggest dividends for the
stock represented, whether by fair means or foul."
Concerning the second class, he continues, ' ' they consist of
persons who come here to escape trouble, or to make or retrieve a
fortune. As a rule they regard themselves as too good for menial
work, and resemble the growing class of native genteel people who
195
AMERICAN IMMIGBATION LAWS.
burden the community. Since money is the standard of success
among us, it cannot in fairness be said that very many of this class
ultimately fail to answer the first purpose required by our people."
The writer admits, however, that the vast bulk of immigrants
manage excellently. " They come, indeed," he writes, " from
necessity but with good will, a worthy aim, a noble zeal, and large
hope. Their coming has been prepared. They know^ whither they are
going, and what they want. They either have tickets to their final
destination, or money enough to get there, at the advice of friends
or safe counsellors. Nearly all the churches of foreign connections
have reliable agents at the ports to assist the immigrant at his
arrival. To those who go no further than the cities, the bonds of a
common nationality and a common religion furnish aid which is
essential. Those who go inland are almost certain to bring up
among relatives or friends and acquaintances. The husband goes at
once to work with his friend. The elder girl finds domestic service.
The larger boys find a place in some factory. For the younger
children, places are waiting in the public schools. Generally a
church of their own creed and of their own tongue is open to them.
They are soon at home. If they have ordinary health they are
independent from the start ; in fact, they begin at once to accumulate.
On a moderate but sufficient scale, the surplus earnings go into
furniture and clothing suited to their new condition. In a
surprisingly short time many have a title to a lot, and soon they
have a house of their own to be paid for in time. Then comes the
saving of money which shall enable them to buy a piece of land, or
start a little business to make them independent citizens."
During the autumn of 1892, and in the early part of 1893, the
question of immigration became complicated with the question of
quarantine. New York had worked itself up into a state of panic
over the cholera scare, and in that city and in other parts of the
country there grew up a demand that all immigration should be
suspended until it was satisfactorily ascertained that cholera was
no longer epidemic in any of the continental European cities. For
three months or more in the latter part of 1892 all immigration was
suspended in consequence of the President's proclamation issued on
the 20th of September. A bill for prohibiting immigration for a
year was also submitted to Congress. It was supported in the press
and on the platform by those writers and speakers who are in
favour of still more drastic legislation against immigration than has
been passed by Congress since 1882, and who were anxious to turn
the panic to account; but nothing came of the bill. A number of
other bills were brought forward dealing with the restriction of
immigration, one of which proposed an educational test. As,
however, this was the last session of the Fifty-second Congress, and
196
AMERICAN IMMIGBATION LAWS.
as a new Administration was coming into office in March, 1893, it
was deemed well to let the new Congress and the incoming
Democratic Admmistration settle the lines on which any further
restrictive measures should be drawn.
The movement for restriction, as it now stands, is largely due to
the fact that there still exists among the labour organisations,
especially among those in which the foreign element predominates,
and to some extent outside these organisations, the feeling which
led the Independent Labour Party in 1882 to petition Congress to
fix a head tax on innnigrants of §100. This suggested tax was
intended to be prohibitive, as prohibitive as many of the duties
imposed on manufactured articles by the McKinley tariff. To what
extent a large head tax like this would have been absolutely
prohibitive may be seen from the figures as to the money in
possession of immigrants, quoted from the return of the Federal
Superintendent of Immigration. Had such a tax been in force in
the last half of 1892, or even had each inunigrant been obliged to
possess such a sum as a condition of landing, only 5,814 out of the
152,360 immigrants over twenty years of age who arrived at the
port of New York could have paid the tax, or complied with the
condition. Those who advocate such a tax do so in the apprehen-
sion that the United States are in danger of becoming over-populated,
and that it is necessary to protect futui'e generations from this evil.
Another of their arguments is one which was urged against the
Chinamen, that exclusion of a low grade of immigration is absolutely
necessary to maintain the existing standard of life and comfort
among the American working people.
Other advocates of restriction who are not so outspoken, but who
aim at the same end, urge that the test as to what constitutes a
person likely to become a public charge, should be made more
stringexit. The possession of ten dollars at landing has come to be
regarded as placing an able-bodied immigi-ant of good antecedents
and character beyond the danger of being rejected as a pauper, or
as one likely to become a pauper. It is urged that this sum is too
small, but those who raise this objection overlook the fact that,
under the law of 1891, an immigrant who becomes a public charge
within twelve months of his landing is returned, in the same way as
an inunigrant who is discovered to have come in contravention of
the Contract Labour Law.
The more moderate advocates of restriction admit that America
still needs immigi-ation of the right kind, but insist that the
immigrants who are offering themselves in such large numbers
should be sifted with gi-eater discretion than is possible under any
existing laws. The Italians, the Poles, and the Hungarians give
those who take this view most concern. They urge, and with some
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AMEBICAN IMMIGRATION LAWS.
truth, that but a small proportion of the immigrants belonging to
these nationalities ever permanently make their homes in the
United States and thus become of the American people, and that
their influence on the economic and social conditions of the country
is not good. An abortive attempt to deal with this class of
immigration was made in the last Congress by a bill which, if
passed, would have prohibited the landing of any alien "until he
shall have made an affidavit and filed the same with the consul or
diplomatic representative of the United States resident at, or
nearest to the place of residence of the applicant, that his removal
to the United States is with the bond-fide intention of residing
there permanently." If this bill had become law, however, it w^ould
have been like so many other Acts passed by the United States
Congress as well as the State legislatures — altogether inoperative,
for it would be utterly impossible to retain any immigrant in the
country if he did not desire to stay.
An educational test is also suggested, but not much is likely to
come of this suggestion. The Immigrant Department at the United
States ports is not the place for the application of a test of this kind.
It should be applied at a much later period of the imrnigi-ant's
connection with the new country — when he seeks naturalisation and
is desirous to take upon himself the rights of citizenship in the
United States. All that is now necessary for this end is that the
applicant for naturalisation should be able to prove before a circuit
or a district court that he has resided continuously within the United
States for at least five years, and within the State or territory
where such court is at the time held one year at least, and that
during that time "he has behaved as a man of good moral character,
attached to the principles of the Constitution of the United States,
and well-disposed to the good order and happiness of the same."
All this can be done without the applicant's being able to read the
Constitution to whose principles he is attached. It would be no
great hardship on immigrants who are anxious to naturalise and
exercise the electoral franchise to demand from them that they shall
be able to read the language in which the Constitution is written,
and when once an educational test of this kind is imposed, the
movement for the restriction of immigration will lose much of the
support of those people who are apt to confuse the economic and
political arguments which are advanced in favour of restriction.
There are many Americans who feel that their country has still
need of a large immigration, but who side with the restrictive
movement because of the disastrous effects which the votes of the
illiterate foreign-born citizens have upon municipal and State
politics.
Farmington, Connecticut, July, 1893.
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A CENTURY OF INDUSTRIAL AND SOCIAL
LEGISLATION.
BY GEORGE HOWELL, M.P., F.S.S.
A CENTURY AGO ! It seems but a short period in the life of a
nation, shorter still in the history of the world. Yet how few
of us can realise what this England of ours was only a hundred
years ago. In the year 1793 France was in the throes of a
great Revolution. The year opened with a proposal to appeal to the
people with respect to the King, which was rejected. Then the
death of the King was decided upon in the Assembly, by ballot.
Judgment was pronounced, and on January 21st, 1793, the King,
Louis XVI., was beheaded. Soon afterwards, on February 1st,
France declared war against England, Spain, and Holland, and
on the 11th of the same month, England declared war against
France, though Pitt, the English Minister, tried his utmost to avert
it. After the death of the King the Revolutionary Tribunal was
established ; then the Committee of Public Safety, and soon after-
wards Robespierre and his colleagues were invested with dictatorial
power and absolute authority. Later, in the same year, the Queen,
Marie Antoinette, Philipe Egalite, Madame Roland, and a host of
other notable persons, were executed. The Reign of Terror in France
lasted from May 31st till July in the following year, 1794, during
which period the streets of Paris reeked with the blood of Girondist
and Jacobin alike, Marat being assassinated by Charlotte Corday,
in July, 1793. In the same year the "little corporal" — Napoleon
Bonaparte — first distinguished himself at the siege of Toulon. The
war which was kindled in that year continued, with some slight
intermissions, till the 18th of June, 1815. For twenty-two years the
national life of England, as well as of France and other continental
nations, was coloured by the events of the French Revolution, the
Reign of Terror, the career of Napoleon, and circumstances connected
therewith, or arising therefrom.
The war, or rather series of wars, in which we were engaged, from
1793 to 1815 inclusive, operated most disastrously for our people.
"We had for some time to bear the brunt of the whole contest for the
security of the crowned heads of Europe, against France as a
Republic, under a despotism, and under the Empire, and we also
became involved in a war with America. In these struggles the energies
and resources of England were taxed to the utmost. But the wars
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A CENTURY OF INDUSTRIAL AND SOCIAL LEGISLATION.
told upon the community in different ways. The govei'ning classes
grew wealthy by such trade as was carried on, by high prices, by the
enormous expenditure of the Government, the prizes of war, and the
loans which had to be negotiated to carry on the war, and to subsidise
foreign States. On the other hand, the great mass of the people
were impoverished, general industry was stagnant, wages were low,
work was scarce, and provisions were high in price. Homes were
rendered desolate ; privation and misery bred discontent, and
tumults arose in various places. These were put down as ruthlessly
and cruelly as were the armies of Napoleon on the battlefields of
Europe. For more than a quarter of a century the people were
despoiled by the ravages of war, by the huge debt which was piled
up, by burdensome taxation, by the high price of provisions, the 4tb.
loaf having risen in price to Is. ll|^d. at one period, in consequence
of bad harvests and closed ports to the importation of corn, while
industry was everywhere crippled. The masses were, indeed,
reduced to abject poverty, and every effort was made to reduce them
to political servitude. The poor rates were used to keep down
wages, and savage penal laws to keep down discontent. The cravings
of hunger were heard, but were too often disregarded, until civil
strife was imminent, when doles of bread and soup were dispensed.
For some years prior to 1793 there had been peace and industrial
progress. The cotton and woollen trades had developed by recent
inventions ; manufacturers and merchants had prospered by commerce
and trade ; and many had grown wealthy by new and thriving
industries, and by foreign and colonial enterprises. A newer life
liad begun to manifest itself, and the middle classes were clamouring
for a share of political power and social recognition. Attempts were
made to improve the representation, to lessen the power of the
boroughmongers, and infuse a more just spirit into our criminal code.
Some of the more daring reformers welcomed the French Eevolution
as a means to those ends. But the excesses of that Revolution
cooled the ardour of many, while others took advantage of those
excesses to still further curtail public liberlry in this country.
Reform was forgotten, or brushed aside ; repressive laws were passed ;
prosecutions were instituted ; Habeas Corpus was suspended ; the
press was attacked ; speakers and even preachers were thrown into
prison, and some were transported for harmless remarks. The Court
and the Parliament were corrupt, and the judgment seat was
perverted to base ends. Juries sometimes had the pluck to give a
verdict of not guilty in spite of the judge, and of the temper of the
Court and Parliament ; but generally they were in sympathy with
the ruling sentiment, and lent themselves to the ruling despots of
the times. Now and again the eloquent voices of the few were
raised in Parliament, and outside of it, in protest against wrong
200
A CENTURY OF INDUSTRIAL AND SOCIAL LEGISLATION.
doing; but they mostly suffered in some way for their temerity.
The oppressors have passed away, but the fame of the defenders of
liberty remain to us as a precious heritage of those tr6ublous times.
The industrial condition of the masses was worst of all. They
had been bereft of the advantages of the old Guild laws and
ordinances, and they had lost the protection accorded by law under
the Acts of Elizabeth, and some subsequent statutes. But not only
had they no protection under those laws, for they were also denied
the right of association under the Combination Laws. To these were
added the Treason and Sedition Acts, the Corresponding Societies
Acts, and Press Laws. Poverty and prosecution wei-e the lot of men
who dared to combine. What wonder if incipient revolt and even
outrage broke out under such circumstances. The social condition of
the people was deplorable ; their homes — heaven save the mark ! — were
dilapidated and filthy ; their food was coarse and scanty, and their
clothing little else than rags. Education was denied to them, and
when they had work their hours of labour were long, and the wages
of labour were at starvation rates. And this state of things did not
end with the close of the last century, nor with the close of the war
in 1815. In many respects the condition of the poor had not much
improved up to the year 1840, when elaborate inquiries were instituted
into the condition of the population, and of the workers in factories
and mines. The work of amelioration was tardy and slow, very
slow. But, singularly enough, the first step in a series of Acts
was taken in 1793, which have grown into a body of legislation
advantageous to the whole people. It is my duty to trace the
legislation, under separate heads, from that date to the present time.
The space at command will only permit of a very brief summary,
but the course of that legislation will be so far indicated that the
reader will be able to fill in the outline for himself.
I.— ENABLING LEGISLATION.
I^'HE series of measures comprised in this class are manifold in
character, and varying in their nature ; they are none the less
far-reaching in their effects, and important in their results.
A. FRIENDLY SOCIETIES — 1793 TO 1893.
The first Act of this group was passed in 1793, the 33 Geo. III.,
c. 54. It was very properly called " An Act for the Encouragement
and Eelief of Friendly Societies." The fact is that the germ of the
friendly society is to be found in the old Guild system ; the relief of
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A CENTUEY OF INDUSTRIAL AXD SOCIAL LEGISLATION.
distress, succour and support in illness, and the burial of the dead
were integral parts of that system. When the Giiild existed no
longer methods were found to carry out these objects in another
form, though less organised and not so effectual. Legislation
was resorted to with the view of restoi'ing, or, as the Act says,
"encouraging" a more systematic and permanent form of mutual
relief. The Act was amended in 1795, and again in 1803. In 1796
a similar Act was passed by the Irish Parliament ; this was
amended by the 19 Geo. III., c. 58, in the year 1809, by the House
of Commons of the United Kingdom. In the same year the first
Act was again amended — 49 Geo. III., c. 125.
In the year 1811 two Acts were passed, one for England and
"Wales, and one for Scotland, giving protection to members of
friendly societies who were engaged in military duty as militiamen.
In 1817 the first Savings Bank Act was passed, enabling friendly
societies to deposit their funds in such banks. In 1819 an "Act for
the further Protection and Encouragement of Friendly Societies, and
for preventing frauds and abuses therein," was passed. In 1825 an
Act was passed relating to infants and lunatics, protecting their
rights as members of friendly societies ; and in 1828 one relating to
the administration of estates, legacies, and money in savings banks.
In the year 1829 the Acts relating to friendly societies were
consolidated and amended — 10 Geo. IV., c. 56. This Act was
amended in 1831-2, and again in 1833, as regards investments, and
again in 1834. In 1834 the Building Societies Act was passed, an
outgi'owth of the former Acts ; while in 1840 the Act of 1829 was
further amended. In 1846 an Act was passed which exempted
friendly societies from the Corresponding Societies Act, and other
Acts, and enabled such societies to establish branches, up to which
time they were merely local benefit clubs. In this Act was inserted
the famous frugal investment clause.
From 1846 tliose societies were permitted a further development.
In 1847-8 a further amendment of the law was effected as I'egards
the investment of funds in the savings banks, Ireland; and in 1849
regimental benefit societies were established by law. In the year
1850 the existing laws were consolidated by the 18 and 14 Vict., c.
115, but it was only a temporary Act. That Act was continued by
cap. 65, in 1852. The laws relating to investments were amended
in 1853, and, as regards Ireland, in 1854. In the same year (1854)
the Act of 1850 was further continued, and amendments were made
in the l&w, by four other Acts, having reference to the militia and
volunteer forces, and some other matters.
In the year 1855 the laws relating to friendly societies were
consolidated and amended by the 18 and 19 Vict., c. 63, which Act
continued to be the principal Act until they were again consolidated
202
A CENTURY OF INDUSTRIAL AND SOCIAL LEGISLATION.
in 1875. The Act of 1855 was amended in 1858; and again in 1859,
as regards seamen. It was further amended as regards members of
volunteer coi'ps in 1860 ; and in the same year by two other Acts,
one relating to investments. Further Acts were passed in 1861,
two in 1863, and one in 1864. These four Acts had reference to the
administration of estates, and volunteers. In the year 1866 the
privileges of the Friendly Societies Acts wex'e restored to societies
for the assurance of cattle, &c., by 29 and 30 Vict., c. 34; and in
1873 provision was made for members in the Royal Naval Volunteer
Force,
In the year 1875 the laws were again consolidated and amended,
by the 38 and 39 Vict., c. 60, which is now the principal Act in
force. Since 1875 twelve Acts have been passed effecting several
amendments in 1876, repealed in 1877; in 1879, repealed; two in
1882, one repealed; in 1883, 1884, 1885, latter repealed; in 1887
and 1888 two, one repealed ; and one in 1889. Friendly societies
are now governed under fourteen Acts, or portions of Acts, five of
which date prior to 1875, relating to investments, policies, assurance,
and savings banks ; and seven subsequent to that Act. Of the latter
three, the Acts of 1877, 1882, and 1888 relate to investments; one,
1883, to nominations; one to summary proceedings, and two
amend certain clauses in the Act of 1875. In Session 1. of last
year, 1893, the writer of this article carried an x\ct, the 56 and 57
Vict., c. 30, to amend the Friendly Societies Act, 1875, by restoring
the rights of arbitration in cases of dispute, under ^ 22 of the
principal Act, which had been over-ridden by a recent decision in
the House of Lords. Whatever defects may exist in those Acts
they have assisted to develop institutions in our midst such as no
other country in the world can boast of. Their operations are on
a gigantic scale; their membership is immense, their funds are
enormous, and their influence for good is vast and far-reaching.
They are self-governed, self-sustained, and mutual-help associations.
B. BUILDING SOCIETIES — 1829 TO 1893.
Building societies are an outgrowth of, and an offshoot from, the
legislative measures for the encouragement of friendly societies.
The first germs of legislative sanction are to be found in the 10
Geo. IV., c. 56 (1829), and the 4 and 5 Wm. IV., c. 40 (1834).
But those Acts only gave a negative sanction to this form of self-
help, as an object that was not unlawful, and was therefore
permissible.
The first Building Societies Act was passed in 1836 — the 6 and 7
Wm. IV., c. 32 — "An Act for the Regulation of Benefit Building
Societies." The preamble recites that such societies had been
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A CENTURY OF INDUSTRIAL AND SOCIAL LEGISLATION.
established in different parts of the kingdom, principally amongst
the industrious classes, for the purchase of small freehold or lease-
hold property, and that it is expedient to afford encouragement and
protection to such societies, &c. The Act then confers the power,
and applies the provisions of the two above-mentioned Acts.
Between the years 1836 and 1874 fifteen other Acts were passed,
all of which applied to benefit building societies in one or more of
their provisions; these had reference to legal proceedings, stamp
duties, and other details relating to management, as altered by
legislation subsequently to 1836.
The Acts at present in force are: 6 and 7 Wm. IV., c. 32 (1836).
The 33 and 34 Vict., c. 97 (1870), relating to stamp duties. The 37
and 38 Vict., c. 42 (1874), the principal Act now in force, and which
repealed the Act of 1836 except in so far as it applies to any society
established prior to 1874, and which did not incorporate under the
Act of that year. The 38 and 39 Vict., c. 9 (1875), substituting a
new clause for § 8. The 38 and 39 Vict., c. 60 (1875), as to
registration. The 40 and 41 Vict., c. 63 (1877), as to change of
office, actions at law, &c. ; and the 47 and 48 Vict., c. 41, as to
disputes, &c. (1884).
In the present year (1893) four Bills were introduced to amend
the law, all of which were referred to a Select Committee of the
House of Commons. The Government Bill was amended and
reported to the House, but it was abandoned towards the close of
the session by reason of opposition to some of its clauses. The
other three Bills were dropped.
C. LOAN SOCIETIES — 1835 TO 1893.
The Loan Societies Acts also grew out of Friendly Societies Acts
legislation. The first Act was passed in 1835, the 5 and 6 Wm.
IV., c. 23. In the following year, 1836, the Act was extended to
Ireland, but on a better and surer basis. Then came the Act of
1840— the 3 and 4 Vict., c. 110, "An Act to Amend the Laws
relating to Loan Societies" — for one year only. This Act was
continued yearly until 1853, when it was continued for three years.
It was again extended until the year 1863, when, by the 26 and 27
Vict., c. 56, the Act of 1840 was made perpetual. The Act was
slightly amended in 1875, and again in 1888, as to registration, and
the transfer to County Councils of the business of Quarter Sessions.
Loan societies are the least satisfactoiy of all the Acts under the
head of Enabling Law. But the object was a good one, and in
Ireland the legal basis was more sound than in the English statutes.
To be of any real sei"vice and benefit the law will have to be
remodelled entirely.
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A CENTURY OF INDUSTRIAL AND SOCIAL LKGI8LATI0N.
D. INDUSTRIAL AND PROVIDENT — 1850 TO 1893.
Co-operative effort preceded legislative sanction and encourage-
ment, and some progress had been made before legal protection was
accorded to such efforts. In the Friendly Societies Act, 1850 — the
13 and 14 Vict., c. 115 — the famous frugal investment clause was
introduced, which gave legal sanction to certain forms of co-operative
enterprise. This clause gave an impetus to the movement which had
already commenced.
In the year 1852 the first Act was passed — the 15 and 16 Vict.,
c. 31, " An Act to Legalise the Formation of Industrial and Provident
Societies " The Act recites the purport of the frugal investment
clause in the Act of 1850, and states that many associations for the
purposes therein named had been formed. The Act was amended in
1854 by 17 and 18 Vict., c. 25; in 1856 by 19 and 20 Vict., c. 40; and
in 1859 by 22 and 23 Vict., c. 53, relating to savings banks. These
Acts were repealed in 1862 by the 25 and 26 Vict., c. 87 — "An
Act to Consolidate and Amend the Laws relating to Industrial and
Provident Societies." This Act carried the objects and the means
forward to some extent, &,nd advantageously. In 1866 facilities were
given for the insurance of cattle and other animals by the 29 and 30
Vict., c. 34, and the Act of 1862 was fui^ther amended in 1867 by the
30 and 31 Vict., c. 117, and in 1871 by the 34 and 35 Vict., c. 80, and
by the Friendly Societies Act, 1875- -the 38 and 39 Vict., c. 60—
in some of its provisions.
The principal Act in force in 1893 was the 39 and 40 Vict., c. 45 —
" An Act to Consolidate and Amend the Law relating to Industrial
and Provident Societies, 1876." This Act was amended in 1880 by
43 Vict., c. 14, j 8, in so far as the payment of income tax is
concerned ; in 1883 by the 46 and 47 Vict., c. 47, relating to nomina-
tions and cases of intestacy by increasing the amounts from £50 to
£100 ; and in 1884 by the 47 and 48 Vict., c. 43, by the repeal of
divers enactments rendered unnecessary by the Summary Jurisdic-
tion Acts, &c. In this session (1893) a Bill to Consolidate the Law
relating to Industrial and Provident Societies was introduced by the
writer of this article, and was designed to amend the law in several
important particulars. That measure has now become law as the
56 and 57 Vict., c. 39. This group of measures has been the most
fruitful of good of all the legislation which has grown out of the
Friendly Societies Acts. Formerly mining and banking were
prohibited ; now industrial and provident societies may and do
carry on all kinds of industry, and several of them, including
banking, most successfully.
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A CENTURY OF INDUSTRIAL AND SOCIAL LEGISLATION.
E. WORKING MEN S CLUBS.
Though there may be differences of opinion as to the value of
workmen's pohtical and social clubs, there can be no doubt as to the
advantages of legal protection being accorded to them. Thej* may
be registered under either the Friendly Societies Acts or under the
Industrial and Provident Societies Acts, and most of the bond fide
clubs are registered. There was a Bill befoi-e Parliament this year
to compel registration, to which the bona fide clubs offered no
serious objection. It was aimed at bogus clubs chiefly. That Bill
was referred to a Select Committee, by whom some of the clauses
w^ere made more drastic. This evoked opposition, and the Bill w^as
abandoned.
F. SAVINGS BANKS, GOVERNMENT ANNUITIES, ETC. 1797 TO 1893.
The aids to thrift provided by the various kinds of legislation
under these heads show a tendency to expand and increase in
several directions. It seems that the idea of instituting banks for
small savings originated in Switzerland, the first of its kind being
established at Berne, in the year 1787. This bank was for domestic
servants only. A similar bank was established at Basle in 1792, this
one being open to all comers. In the year 1797 Jeremy Bentham
proposed the establishment of a frugality bank in England. In 1799
the Kev. Joseph Smith, of Wendover, Bucks, started a benevolent
institution on the savings bank plan, the basis being the same as
that of trustee savings banks subsequently started in various parts
of the country. In the years 1803-4 Miss Priscilla Wakefield
opened a charitable bank at Tottenham, near London. In the year
1810 the Rev. Henry Duncan opened a parish bank at Ruthwell, in
Scotland, a similar bank being established in Edinburgh in 1814.
The movement spread so rapidly that during the next three years
many such banks were started both in England and Scotland.
(1) Trustee Savings Banks, 181 T to 1893. — The first Savings
Bank Act was passed in 1817 — the 57 George III., c. 130, "An Act
to Encourage the Establishment of Banks for Savings in England."
In the same year an Act was passed similar in character for Ireland.
Those Acts were designed to encourage thrift among the poorer
people, facilities for which were afforded for the safety of the
deposits both as regards the constitution of the bank, and the
security exacted from the treasurer. In the year 1819 " An Act for
the Protection of Banks for Savings in Scotland " was passed, 59
Geo. III., c. 62. Amending Acts were passed in 1818, in 1820,
and a still more important one in 1824. In the year 1828 the laws
were consolidated and amended by 9 Geo. IV., c. 92. Between the
years 1828 and 1862 twenty-four other x\cts were passed amending
206
A CBNTUBY OP INDUSTRIAL AND SOCIAL LEGISLATION.
and extending the before-mentioned Acts, including those Acts which
afforded facihties to soldiers and sailors for utilising the savings banks
at home and abroad. In 1861 the Post-office savings banks were
established, and in 1863 the principal Act now in foi'ce was passed.
Since that date twenty-seven other Acts have been passed. The
Acts relating to trustee savings banks are now grouped under the
collective title of "The Trustee Savings Banks Acts, 1863 to 1891,"
three of which were passed in the last Parliament (1887 to 1891), for
the better protection of depositors and the security of their savings,
but, at the same time, the interest now given is less than it was
prior to that date.
(2) Post-office Savings Banks, 1861 to 1893. — The first Post-office
Savings Bank Act really originated out of the opposition of the
trustees, managers, and officials, principally the latter, to the
proposed reforms suggested by the Government for the better
management of trustee banks. That Act, 24 and 25 Vict., c. 14,
was intituled "An Act to grant additional facilities for depositing
small savings at interest with the security of the Government for due
payment thereof." The Act was amended in 1863, and again in
1874; also in 1880, in 1887, and in 1891, in the three later Acts by
specific provisions, the other provisions applying to trustee savings
banks or to both classes of savings banks generally. The Acts
specifically relating to the Post-office savings banks are now
grouped under the general or collective title of "The Post-office
Savings Banks x\cts, 1861 to 1891," and consist of six Acts, besides
several others relating to such banks, or the provisions of which
apply in some particulars. There are in all no fewer than thirty-
seven Acts or portions of Acts still in force relating to savings
banks. Of these, four relate to seamen and their wages ; two to
military, and two to naval savings banks. A system of general
inspection is now in force relating to trustee savings banks ; the
Post-office savings banks are under a central department; the
investments are under the control of the National Debt Com-
missioners in both cases. Facilities are afforded to friendly
societies, trade unions, and all similar societies to invest their funds
in such banks, but it can scarcely be said that they have hitherto
been encouraged to do so.*
• In Session I., 1893, a further Act was passed extending the annual limit
from £30 to £50. The Government proposal was £100, but the opposition of the
banking interest was such that a compromise was agreed to in order to save the
Bill. With the consent of the National Debt Commissioners a clause was also
introduced into the Industrial and Provident Societies Act, 1898, to enable such
societies to deposit without limit, as in the case of Friendly Societies. See 56
and 57 Vict., c. 39, s. 39.
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A CENTURY OF INDUSTRIAL AND SOCIAL LEGISLATION,
(3) Government Annuities. — As eaiiy as the year 1776 an Act was
passed to encourage the granting of hfe annuities by 17 Geo. III.,
c. 26, but that Act related to provision out of estates for the
wealthier classes. Three or four other Acts of the same character
followed, but possibly those measures gave rise to the idea, subse-
quently elaborated in the 10 Geo. IV , c. 24, in 1829, to afford
facilities to the working classes to provide such annuities in
connection with the savings banks system. Other Acts relating to
annuities were passed in 1832, in 1833, in 1853, in 1864, in 1873, in
1882, and in 1887, all of which Acts are now collectively known
under the short title of " The Government Annuities Acts, 1829 to
1887." The object of these Acts is to enable thrifty persons to
provide annuities by regular periodical payments of small amounts.
The rates are somewhat higher than those of joint- stock companies
or industrial insurance societies, and other societies ; but there is
absolute security, which, after all, is the chief thing. Immeasurable
as the advantages of the foregoing legislation have been in promoting
thrift among the people, the indirect benefits have scarcely been less,
for the legislation enumerated has stimulated private enterprise in
the same direction, often with great benefit to the people, but, alas,
sometimes also with disastrous failure and gigantic frauds.
G. THE PAWNBEOKEBS ACTS 1603 TO 1893.
Singularly enough, the earliest pawnbroker of whom we have an
authentic account was Northburgh, Bishop of London, 1354, who
was in the habit of lending sums of money to the citizens on pledges,
at interest. If at the end of the year they were not redeemed the
Bishop, preaching at St. Paul's Cross, gave notice that at the end of
fourteen days the pledges, if not redeemed, would be sold. Legislation
for the regulation of brokers commenced in 1603, with 1 James I., c. 21.
Ten other Acts were passed between that date and 1800, when the
business of pawnbrokers was regulated by 39 and 40 Geo. III., c. 99.
Some dozen other Acts were passed having reference to pawnbroking
up to 1872, when the law was consolidated. The object of the Acts
was at once enabling and protective ; they enabled the poor to obtain
small sums on pledges, and they protected the borrower from being
charged beyond a certain rate of interest, and provided also for the
redemption of the goods. Unfortunately the practice of pawning is
much abused.
H. PATENTS, REGISTBATION OF DESIGNS, AND TRADE MARKS, ETC.
The old system of granting patents was in the nature of a
monopoly, the Crown granting the privilege to Court favourites, or
for gain. Even when the old monopoly could no longer be left
undisturbed the cost of a patent was such as to be prohibitive.
208
During a period of 217 years from the reign of Queen Elizabeth to
the 15th 5^ear of Queen Victoria, in 1852, only 14,358 patents were
granted. In 1852 the Patent Law Amendment Act was passed,
reducing the cost, regulating the modes of payment, and applying
one system to the whole of the United Kingdom. The laws were
consolidated in 1883 by 46 and 47 Vict., c. 57, covering inventions,
designs, and trade marks. That Act was amended in 1884, 1886,
and 1888. The cost was greatly reduced, and the modes of payment
were made much easier. Those statutes are at once of an enabling
and of a protective character, and provision is made for the protection
of inventions exhibited at exhibitions, &c.
I. THE COMPANIES ACTS, PARTNEESHIPS, ETC.
The laws relating to companies were in the nature of monopolies
in former times. Attempts are often made to use them as such
even now. The Companies Acts in force mainly date from 1862,
but thirty-six Acts apply, dating from 1767 to 1892. These Acts
have been woefully abused, and the public have been defrauded and
robbed by promoters and directors, and also by a detestable class
called "wreckers." But the Acts have enabled great industrial and
commercial enterprises to. be undertaken which could not otherwise
have been attempted. All kinds of insurance — life, fire, marine,
cattle, and other risks — are provided for; railways, canals, ships, and
other transit; gigantic manufacturing and trading businesses are
carried on, and we seem to be fast drifting into limited companies
for everything, to the annihilation of the individual trader and
employer. The law alone can protect the public in the case of
limited companies.
J. TRADE UNIONS.
All the earlier legislation relating to labour, for nearly six centuries
down to the year 1824, was adverse to the workmen. The Law of
Conspiracy, 28 Edw. I., c. 10, and subsequent statutes of the same
kind; the Statutes of Labourers; the laws relating to sedition, to
public assemblies, the Combination Laws, specifically so called; the
Corresponding Societies Acts, and various other Acts were all used
to prevent all associative efforts by workmen to ameliorate their
condition. Singularly enough, those earlier and some later Acts were
alleged to be levelled against the i-estraint of trade, whereas they
were really so interpreted and administered as to be used in resti-aint
of liberty, and they, with other laws in force, were employed to
shackle trade and prevent working people from associating together
to protect their rightful interests, and promote their welfare by
mutual aid. The only break in that long series of disabling Acts
was in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, when she passed an Act
embodying many of the best Guild ordinances which had been more
209
or less in favour of labour. But these were gradually rendered
obsolete or were disregarded, and the provisions were repealed
before any attempt was made to give freedom of association to
wox'kmen.
The Combination Laws were repealed in 1824-5, that Act being
amended and explained by the 22 Vict., c. 34, in 1859. The first
Act passed in favour of trade unions as such was the temporary Act
in 1869, the 32 and 33 Vict., c. 61, giving protection to their funds.
The Trade Union Act, 34 and 35 Vict., c. 31, was passed in 1871;
but even then a restraining Act was also passed in the same session,
lest the former Act should give too much power to associations
deemed to be dangerous combinations. In the year 1875 the Labour
Laws were passed, repealing the provisions of the old Master and
Servants Acts, and also the Conspiracy Laws, in so far as they
related to trade disputes. In 1876 a useful Act was passed
amending the Trade Union Act, the 39 and 40 Vict., c. 22. In 1883
the right of nomination was further provided for in all friendly and
other similar societies; and in the present year (1893) the provident
funds of trade unions were exempted from income tax, on the same
lines and to the same extent as friendly societies, and other societies
of a like character, by the 56 Vict., c. 2, introduced and carried by the
present writer. The legislation as regards labour and trade unions
is both enabling and protective, and it marks the era of progress
during the last twenty-five years. A quarter of a century ago trade
unions were denounced and tabooed — were even threatened with
suppression ; to-day they are recognised as a powerful social force.
K. ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION IN TRADE DISPUTES.
The first Act in favour of arbitration as a mode of settling disputes
was passed in 1603, the 1 James I., c. 10, now 290 years ago.
Several other Acts were passed of a like character, or amending
former Acts, before the principle was applied to labour disputes.
The first Act having reference to labour disputes was passed in
1773, being the first of the "Spitalfields Acts," the 13 Geo. III., c.
68. That Act was amended and extended by subsequent Acts. In
the year 1800 an Act was passed, 39 and 40 Geo. III., c. 90,
extending the principle to the cotton trades. Prior to the year
1824, when the 5 Geo. IV., c. 96, was passed, that being " An Act to
Consolidate and Amend the Laws relating to the Arbitration of
Disputes between Masters and Workmen," twenty-one Acts were
passed, many of which were repealed by the 5 Geo. IV., c. 66, and
the others by the later Act of the same year, above quoted. Six
other Acts were passed between that date and 1867, either amending
the principal Act, extending its provisions, or applying the principle
to certain trades.
I5
210
A CBNTUBY OF INDUSTRIAL AND SOCIAL LEGISLATION.
In the year 1867 an Act was passed "to establish equitable
councils of conciliation to adjust differences between masters and
workmen," the 30 and 31 Vict., c. 105; and in 1872 the "Arbitration
Act," 35 and 36 Vict., c. 46, was passed. None of those Acts have
been really used for the settlement of labour disputes, but the
principle has been applied in many cases most successfully. There
are at present eight Acts, or parts of Acts, on the statute book
relating to arbitration in labour disputes, but they are mostly
defective, and require to be consolidated and amended. The law
relating to commercial and trading disputes has been admirably
consohdated in the Arbitration Act, 1889, the 62 and 53 Vict., c. 49,
but the Acts relating to labour disputes are still in a state of chaos.
There are provisions in the Friendly Societies Acts, in Building
Societies Acts, in Industrial and Provident Societies Acts, and in
the Trade Union and other Acts relating to arbitration, so as to
prevent litigation, all of which have admirably served their purpose
up to the present time. But the arbitration clauses have had to be
amended in the present session (1893), because of a decision in the
House of Lords which to some extent brought those societies under
the Arbitration Act, 1889. This legislation has partaken of the dual
character of being enabling and protective at the same time, the
effect of which has been most beneficial.
PART II.
PEOTECTIVE LEGISLATION.
1. THE FACTORY AND WORKSHOPS ACTS — 1802 TO 1893.
THE first of this series of Acts was the 42 Geo. III., c. 73, "An Act
for the preservation of the health and morals of apprentices and
others employed in cotton and other mills, and cotton and other
factories," dated June 22nd, 1802. This Act contained provisions
relating to sanitation, separate sleeping accommodation for males
and females, hours of labour, night work, clothing, inspection, and
for instruction in reading, writing, and arithmetic, and instruction
on Sundays. The Act was amended in 1819 by 59 Geo. III., c. 66,
which provided that no child should be employed in cotton mills
under nine years of age, and that no young person under sixteen years
should be employed for more than twelve hours per day. It also
211
A CENTUKY OF INDUSTRIAL AND SOCIAL LEGISLATION.
provided for regular meal times. The Act was further amended in
1820 by 60 Geo. III., c. 5, as to hours for dinner, and as to employ-
ment by night, in cases where mills were destroyed by fire, (fee.
In 1825 the preceding Acts were amended and extended by 6
Geo. IV., c. 63, as to the age and hours of working, hours of work
on Saturdays, hour and time for breakfast and dinner, no labour
during meal times, sanitation, and provision was made for the
prosecution of offenders, convictions, and punishments. This Act
was amended in 1829 by 10 Geo. IV., c. 51, and by 10 Geo. IV., c.
63, mainly as to legal proceedings under the Acts. In 1831 all the
foregoing Acts, except the first one, were repealed by 1 and 2 Wm.
IV., c. 39, other provisions being substituted in lieu thereof. This
Act was repealed in 1833 by 3 and 4 Wm. IV., c. 103, the provisions
being extended to the "United Kingdom." The last-named Act
was explained and amended, in 1834, by 4 and 5 Wm. IV., c. 1,
workers in silk mills being included in its provisions, children in
such mills, under thirteen years of age, being allowed to work ten
hours every day, except Sundays. The laws were further amended
in 1844 by 7 and 8 Vict., c. 15, by which date the Factory Acts had
assumed a definite form, both as to character and administration.
In 1845, by 8 and 9 Vict., c. 29, the provisions of the Factory Acts
were extended to "print works," and included women, young
persons, and children. This Act was amended in 1846 by 9 and 10
Vict., c. 18, and in the same year by 9 and 10 Vict., c. 40, certain
rope works being excluded from the provisions of the Acts. Then
came, in 1847, the famous Ten Hours Act, 10 and 11 Vict., c. 29,
"An Act to limit the Hours of Labour of Young Persons and
Females in Factories." The iVct is dated June 8th, 1847. In the
same year the law requiring the attendance at school of children
employed at print works was amended by 10 and 11 Vict., c. 70.
In 1848 certain provisions of the Public Health Act, 11 and 12
Vict., c. 63, were applied to factories. In 1850, by 13 and 14 Vict.,
c. 54, and in 1853, by 16 and 17 Vict., c. 104, the Acts were further
amended, the latter prohibiting night work for children in all mills
and factories under the Acts.
In the year 1856 " The Factory Act," 19 and 20 Vict., c. 38, was
passed, and in 1863 bleaching and dyeing works were brought under
the operation of the Factory Acts by 23 and 24 Vict., c. 78. In 1861,
by 24 and 25 Vict., c. 117, lace works were brought under the opera-
tion of the Acts. In 1862, by 25 and 26 Vict., c. 8, the employment
of women and children engaged in certain processes of bleaching and
dyeing during the night was prohibited. In 1863, by 26 and 27
Vict., c. 38, the provisions of the Bleaching and Dyeing Works Acts
were extended to finishing processes. In the same year the Bake-
houses Eegulation Act, 1863, the 26 and 27 Vict., c. 40, and the
212
A CENTUKY OF INDUSTRIAL AND SOCIAL LEGISLATION.
Alkali Works Act, 1863, the 26 and 27 Vict., c. 124, were passed.
In 1864 "The Factory Acts Extension Act," 27 and 28 Vict., c. 48,
and a further amendment of the law relating to bleaching and
dyeing works, 27 and 28 Vict., c. 98, were passed.
In the year 1866 " The Sanitary (England) Act," 29 and 30 Vict.,
c. 90, and in 1867 "The Public Health (Scotland) Act," 30 and 31
Vict., c. 101, were passed. In the same year "The Factory Acts
Extension Act, 1867," the 30 and 31 Vict., c. 103, was passed, and
also "The Workshops Regulation Act, 1867," the 30 and 31 Vict.,
c. 146. By the 31 and 32 Vict., c. 36, "The Alkali Works Act,
1868," the provisions in the former Act, 1863, were amended. In
1870, by 33 and 34 Vict., c. 62, the Factories and Workshops Acts
were amended and extended. In 1871 Jewish workers were exempted
from penalties for working on Sundays, by 34 and 35 Vict., c. 19;
and in the same year certain provisions of the Factory Acts were
extended to workers in brickfields by 34 and 35 Vict., c. 104. In
1874 the Alkali Works x\cts were amended by 37 and 38 Vict., c. 43;
the Factory and Workshops Act, 1874, 37 and 38 Vict., c. 44, greatly
extended and improved the provisions formerly in force as to health,
education, and otherwise. In 1875 the Public Health Act, 38 and
39 Vict., c. 55, and the Employers and Workmen Act, 38 and 39
Vict., c. 90, were made to apply in some respects; and in 1876 the
County Courts Act, 39 and 40 Vict., c. 75, and the Elementary
Education Act, 39 and 40 Vict., c. 79, were made to apply in certain
of their provisions.
In 1878 " An Act to Consolidate and Amend the Law relating to
Factories and Workshops," the 41 and 42 Vict., c. 16, was passed.
This is the principal Act now in force. In the same year the Public
Health (Ireland) Act, 41 and 42 Vict., c. 52, was made to apply in
certain cases. In 1881 the Alkali Works Acts were consolidated
and amended by 44 and 45 Vict., c. 37. In 1883 the law was
amended as to white lead factories and bakehouses by 46 and 47
Vict., c. 53. Summary proceedings under the Acts were dealt with
in 1884 by 47 and 48 Vict., c. 43 ; holidays in Scotland, in 1888, by
51 and 52 Vict., c. 22 ; and cotton cloth factories, in 1889, by 52 and
53 Vict., c. 62. The Factories and Workshops Acts were amended
in 1891 by the 54 and 55 Vict., c. 75, and in London by Public
Health Act, 54 and 55 Vict., c. 76. In 1892 the Alkali Works Act
was amended by 55 and 56 Vict., c. 30; and the Shop Hours Act,
55 and 56 Vict., c. 62, was passed. The series of Acts before
enumerated are unparalleled in any country in the world for their
fulness and completeness, and their beneficent intentions and results.
2. THE MINES EEGULATION ACTS — 1842 TO 1893.
There were numerous Acts passed prior to 1842 with respect to
the rights to and the property in mines and minerals, both as
213
regards Eoyal or Crown rights and the rights of private owners.
There were also many Acts for punishing workmen for offences
against those rights, and for regulating the transit of coals to
London, and the measurement and sale of such coals. But not
one Act was passed for the protection of the miners. An inquiry
was instituted into the condition of the mining population in
1840-42 by a Eoyal Commission. This led to the passing of the
5 and 6 Vict., c. 99, "An Act to Prohibit the Employment of
Women and Girls in Mines and Collieries, and to Eegulate the
Employment of Boys therein," August 10th, 1842. " An Act for the
Inspection of Coal Mines in Great Britain," 13 and 14 Vict., c. 100,
was passed August 14th, 18q0. The law was amended in 1855 by the
18 and 19 Vict., c. 108, and again in 1860 by 23 and 24 Vict., c.'l51,
both as regards regulation and inspection. In the same year (1860)
the Act 23 and 24 Vict., c. 139, relating to the use of gunpowder,
was applied to mines; and in 1861 three Acts, 24 and 25 Vict.,
cc. 96 and 97, relating to offences, and c. 130, relating to the sale
and use of gunpowder. In 1862 the law relating to coal mines
was amended by 25 and 26 Vict., c. 79 ; and in 1866, as to foreshores,
rights to mines, by 29 and 30 Vict., c. 62, H 21 to 25.
In the year 1872 the Acts relating to coal mines were consoli-
dated and amended by 35 and 36 Vict., c. 76, and the law relating
to metalliferous mines by 35 and 36 Vict., c. 77. In 1874 metalliferous
mines were subjected to rating by 37 and 38 Vict., c. 54. In 1875
three Acts were passed, 38 and 39 Vict., cc. 17, 39, and 55, and in
1878 the 41 and 42 Vict., c. 49. These related to explosives,
metalliferous mines, nuisances, and weights and measures
respectively. In 1881 the Stratified Ironstone Mines Act, 44 and 45
Vict., c. 26, and in 1882 the 45 and 46 Vict., c. 3, were passed, both
relating to the use of powder, itc. The Summary Jurisdiction Act,
1884, the 47 and 48 Vict., c. 43, applied, and in 1886 the Coal Mines
Act was amended by the 49 and 50 Vict., c. 40. In 1887 "An Act
to Consolidate with Amendments the Coal Mines Acts, 1872 to 1876,
the Stratified Ironstone Mines Act, 1881," 50 and 51 Vict., c. 58,
was passed, and another in 1891, the 54 and 55 Vict., c. 47, "An
Act to Amend the Metallifei'ous Mines Act, 1872."
The whole of the statutory law relating to mines now in force
comprise seventeen Acts, of which five deal with "royal mines," four
with offences and procedure, one with coal mines, three with metal-
liferous mines, two with explosives, one with weights and measures,
and one with foreshores. Certain provisions in the Stannaries Acts,
relating to Devon and Cornwall, also apply. The protection afforded
to miners by the Acts specially relating to them are as important
as that afforded by the Factory and Workshops Acts to workei'S in
the trades to which they apply, and reflect credit upon the country
214
A CENTURY OF INDUSTRIAL AND SOCIAL LEGISLATION,
enacting them. Neither of the Bills introduced in 1893 were
carried, though one, the Miners' Eight Hours Bill, was read a
second time.
3. COALWHIPPERS AND BALLAST-HEAVERS.
Of all persons engaged in manual labour one would have thought
that coalwhippers and ballast-heavers would have been the last to
need protection by law. But for the most part they were hired by
contractors, who were either publicans or in league with them. As
late as 1852 out of a total of thirty-nine contx'actors twenty-seven
were beerhouse keepers or small tradesmen, so that drinking and
"truck" was the rule. Every inducement was held out to drink,
and often indirect compulsion was used to do so. Acts regulating the
vend of coal in London and the home counties were passed as early
as the reign of Queen Anne. Several other Acts were passed in the
reigns of Geo. III. and Geo. IV. The 1 and 2 Wm. IV., c. 76,
regulated the vend and delivery of coal in London and Westminster
and in parts of seven counties. But the first Act to protect the
coalwhipper was 1 and 2 Vict., c. 101, August, 1838. Section 12 of
that Act provides that the men are to be paid in coin daily, and on
board the vessel. Payment at any other place rendered the employer
liable to a penalty of £10. In 1843, by 6 and 7 Vict., c. 101, an
oflBce for the benefit of coalwhippers was established, under the
supei'vision of a Board of Commissioners. Eegulations as to wages,
hii'ing, recovery of wages, and other matters were made, and a fund
for their benefit was established. In 1846 the office was transferred
to the Board of Trade by 9 and 10 Vict., c. 36, by which it was
enacted that no person was to be employed except crews of
"colliers," unless such person be registered. The shipmaster was
bound to apply at the office for workmen, the rates for unloading
being fixed by the statute, whether by individuals or in gangs ; if the
latter, the mode of apportioning the pay was set forth. But gangs
could tender for the job. The men were to be paid on discharge of
cargo. The Acts were all temporary in duration, but were renewed
year after year, or at periods, until 1856, when the opposition to the
Act was so great that further legislation was abandoned. But the
coalowners agi'eed to established an office, and to carry out the
regulations generally. The ballast-heavers were placed under the
protection of the Trinity House by Prince Albert, after an inquiry
into their case. The result of the regulations as regards these
two classes of men was to improve their condition, to decrease
drunkenness, and ensure more regular work, at better wages, and
shorter hours of labour.
4. CHIMNEY SWEEPERS 1789-1893.
The first Act for the protection of chimney sweepers was passed
in 1789—28 Geo. III., c. 48, "An Act for the better regulation of
215
A CENTURY OF INDUSTRIAL AND SOCIAL LEGISLATION.
Chimney Sweepers and their Apprentices." In 1834 the 4 and 5
Wm. IV., c. 35, was passed with the same title, but with this
addition, "and for the safer construction of chimneys and flues."
In the year 1840 another Act was passed, the 3 and 4 Vict., c. 85, by
which, from and after July 1st, 1842, no child under sixteen years of
age was to be apprenticed to a chimney sweeper, and no child was
to be compelled to climb chimneys. All indentures of those
previously apprenticed were to cease and be void, if the apprentice
was under the age of sixteen years. The terrible sufferings of the
climbing chimney boys, their suffocation in the flues, and their
treatment by their masters had long engaged the attention of public
men, and hence the efforts to mitigate, if they could not cure, the
evils of the system. But perhaps the greatest boon was the
invention of the sweeper's machine, in 1805, by a man named
Smart, who was awarded a medal by the Society of Arts. The
machine now in use was invented by Joseph Glass, who died in
1868. Neither of the inventors benefited by the invention. Acts
relating to chimnev construction and other matters were passed in
1844, in 1854, in 1864, and in 1876. In 1893 five Acts, or parts of
Acts, were in force relating to chimneys and chimney sweepers. In
this session (1893) the law relating to the latter was consolidated
and amended. In London the matters of chimney construction,
sweepers, and fires caused by foul chimneys, are governed by the
Metropolis Management Acts, and in the provinces by the Towns and
Police Clauses Acts. Perhaps no more beneficial Act was ever passed
than the Act of 1840 to prevent the climbing of chimneys by young
boys — parish apprentices, orphans, or the children of drunken
parents who cared nothing for their children's welfare. Sometimes
the poor little climbers were forced up the flues by being progged
with iron pins in the end of long sticks, and sometimes by lighted
straw or shavings to force them to the top. Some, being suffocated,
even died in the flues, and had to be cut out from the outside.
5. BAKERS AND BAKEHOUSES — 1800 TO 1893.
Acts for regulating the sale of bread, &c., date back to the time of
Henry III., in the year 1266; but the first Act, apparently, which
deals with journeymen bakers was the 39 and 40 Geo. III., c. 18, in
the year 1800. This Act regulated Sunday work in the Meti'opolis.
In 1835 the provisions were made general by the 6 and 7 Wm.
IV., c. 37, but it did not apply to Scotland. In 1863 the Bake-
houses Eegulation Acts, 26 and 27 Vict., c. 40, was passed, j 107 of
which limited the hours of work. In the year 1878, bakers and
bakehouses were brought under the Factory Acts as to employment,
cleanliness of the bakehouse, &c. The Public Health Acts also
216
A CENTURY OF INDUSTRIAL AND SOCIAL LEGISLATION.
apply. The condition of bakehouses is not all that could be desired
even now, but there is less laxity in administering the law than
there was formerly.
6. EARTHENWARE FACTORIES AND BRICKFIELDS 1864 TO 1893.
Workers in earthenware factories and the pottery trades were
brought within the scope of the Factory Acts, in 1864, by the 27 and
28 Vict., c. 48. In 1871 workers in brickfields and brickyards were
also brought within the provisions of the Acts by 34 and 35 Vict.,
c. 104. The wretched condition of the women and children working
in the brickfields was a matter of public notoriety. The change
effected in their condition since that date is marvellous through the
operation of those Acts. As late as 1859 and 1860, Wm Burn, a
shoemaker, was appointed secretary of the union, as there was no
brickmaker sufficiently educated to correspond and keep the
accounts.
7. WOMEN AND CHILDREN EMPLOYED IN AGRICULTURE 1867 TO 1893.
In the year 1867 was passed the 30 and 31 Vict., c; 130, "An Act for
the Eegulation of Agricultural Gangs," fixing the age at eight years,
below which children were not to be employed. It also I'egulated
the employment of women. In 1873 the age was raised to ten years
for children by the 36 and 37 Vict., c. 67. In 1876 ten years of age
was made general by the Elementary Education Act, 39 and 40
Vict., c. 79. In 1878 the Factory and Workshops Acts were made
to apply in certain cases. The age is now virtually raised to eleven
years by the Act of 1891, although its operation is restricted to
factories and workshops, and does not apply to workers whose age
is fixed by the Elementary Education Act, 1876.
8. EMPLOYMENT OF CHILDREN IN PLACES OF PUBLIC AMUSEMENT
1879 TO 1893. ,
The object of this Act is to protect children under fourteen years
of age by prohibiting their employment in dangerous performances.
Both the employer and the parent or guardian who permits or abets
such employment are liable to a penalty not exceeding £10. It also
makes the employer liable for injuries up to £20 by way of com-
pensation, and to an indictment for assault in case of injury. In
case of dispute as to age the burden of proof rests with the person
or persons pi'osecuted. The recovery of penalties are by the
Summary Jurisdiction Acts in England, the Summary Procedure
217
Act in Scotland, and the Petty Sessions Act in Ireland. Some
relaxation as to employment is permitted in certain cases, but only
by previous application to the proper authorities. The value of this
Act is undeniable.
9. MEKCHANT SEAMEN 1729 TO 1893.
Acts for the protection of British seamen, as regards their wages,
commenced with the 2 Geo. II., c. 36. Other Acts were passed,
and the first-named Act was made perpetual by 2 Geo. III., c. 31,
in 1761. Eegulations were also made as regards apprentices, one
being allowed to a certain tonnage, and as to forfeiture of wages,
and wages due in case of death. All previous Acts were consolidated
and amended in 1854 by the 17 and 18 Vict., c. 104. In the same
year all the earlier Acts were repealed by 17 and 18 Vict., c 120. The
former Act provides in an elaborate manner for engaging seamen,
for payment of wages, allotment notes, inspection of provisions,
accommodation, medical attendance, and numerous other matters.
It also provided for the seawoi-thiness of the vessel by j 243. But
the facts disclosed by Mr. Sam. Plimsoll, in the years 1872-74, showed
that little had been really done either for the safety of the crew, their
accommodation, or their food. Since that date several Acts have
been passed with the view of making life on board ship a little more
endurable. The writer of these notes passed a Load-Line Act in
1891, and an Act for the survey of pi-ovisions in 1892. The life of
the sailor is now more endurable than it has ever been, and there is
a willingness to extend the provisions of the Acts. Towards the
close of last session, 1893, a Bill to consolidate the law was
introduced. The Bill consists of 434 pages, and purposes to repeal
43 Acts or parts of Acts. It is the largest Bill ever introduced.
10. CANAL BOATMEN— 1877 TO 1893.
Mr. George Smith was practically the. author of the Act of 1877,
the 40 and 41 Vict., c. 60, the object of which was to provide for
the registration and regulation of canal boats used as dwellings.
Eegulations were made by the Local Government Board in 1878.
The Bill was amended in 1881, and again in 1882, an inspector
being appointed to see that the Acts were enforced. These Acts
have brought the children of canal boatmen under the Education
Acts, and have made the boats more endurable, from a sanitary
point of view, both for the children, the boatmen, and their wives.
11. THE passenger ACTS — 1842 TO 1893.
These Acts are designed to ensure both the safety and the comfort
of passengers and emigrants, who are not in a position to pay high
rates for accommodation and food. The keen competition of
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A CENTURY OF INDUSTRIAL AND SOCIAL LEGISLATION.
shipping companies necessitate not only careful but generous treat-
ment on board the steamers and vessels to all parts of the world.
But fifty years ago it was different. On passenger ships the crews
fare tolerably well as to food, but their accommodation is often
deplorably deficient. Legislation encouraged reforms, even whei'e
it did not initiate them. Competition for passengers and freights
has done much more. We now hear less about food, treatment,
and accommodation, but more about wages, though the seamen in
some instances still complain about the former. The chief agitation
of late has been for an increase of the monthly rates of seamen, and
better accommodation for sleeping.
12. ACCIDENTS AND PERSONAL INJURIES ; COMPENSATION FOR INJURIES ;
AND employers' LIABILITY FOR PERSONAL INJURIES TO WORKMEN.
(a) Accidents and Injuries. — The object of all legislation under
these heads is the prevention of accidents ; compensation for injuries
is but a subsidiary object. The earliest Act of this sei'ies was the
28 Geo. III., c. 57, passed in 1788; amended by 30 Geo. III., c. 36
(1790); by 46 Geo. III., c. 136 (1806); and by 50 Geo. III., c. 48.
These Acts regulated the number of persons to be carried on the
outside of stage coaches or other carriages, and the conduct of
drivers and guards thereon, as to furious driving or racing, to the
danger of the passengers. The 1 Geo. IV., c. 4, passed in 1820,
made the drivers criminally responsible for accidents occasioned by
wilful misconduct. The provisions of these Acts are now embodied
in the general Criminal Law. Special pi'ovision is also made in
sundry Acts, relating to inquiries into the causes of accidents, and
of the persons responsible, under the head of Coroner; as to furious
driving; as to mines, railways, factories and workshops, merchant
shipping, explosives, threshing machines, and insurance, in Scotland.
{b) Compensation for Injuries. — Up to the year 1846 no action at
law was maintainable against any person who, by his wrongful act,
neglect, or default, caused injury and death to another person. By
the 9 and 10 Vict., c. 93, all such persons causing injury and death
were made answerable for damages for the injury caused. This Act
was amended in 1864 by the 27 and 28 Vict., c. 95, but both Acts
were limited to cases "of persons killed by accidents." The
operation of the Act was subsequently further limited by a decision
in the courts as regards workmen by what is known as the Common
Law "doctrine of common employment." So far the object of the
Act was frustrated.
(c) Employers' Liability. — The object of the Employers' Liability
Act, 1880, the 43 and 44 Vict., c. 42, was "to extend and regulate
the liability of employers to make compensation for personal injuries
219
suffered by workmen in their service." This Act did not abolish
the doctrine of common employment, but it limited its application.
Liability was enforced in so far as the accident was caused by
negligence, Sec, of any person in authority, the employer being held
responsible therefor. The sum recoverable as compensation was
also limited, but so also was the trial of actions, to a certain extent.
The Act never satisfied the workmen because of the power of con-
tracting out of it; and several Bills have been introduced by
members of Parliament to amend and extend its operation. This
year (session of 1893) the Government brought in a measure, which
at this date has passed through a Select Committee, by which the
provisions of the Act of 1880 are amended and extended, the existing
Act itself being repealed. The chief opposition is against the provision
which abolishes the right of contracting out of the Act, as virtually
given in the Act of 1880. That Bill is put down as one of the two
measures to be dealt with in the Autumn Session.
13. THE TRUCK ACTS, PAYMENT OF WAGES, ETC. 1464 TO 1893.
SiNGULABLY enough, legislation for the protection of workmen as
regards the payment of their wages, dates back more than four and
a quarter centuries. The first statute dealing with the matter was
4 Edw. IV., c. 1, by § 2 of which it was enacted that wages were
to be paid in money. This was followed by two Acts in the reign
of Elizabeth, in 1566 and 1572 respectively, in which payment of
wages, and for goods in certain cases, was to be in ready money.
There were four Acts in the reign of Anne of a similar character,
three in the reign of Geo. I., four in the reign of Geo. II., and
two in the reign of Geo. III., prior to the commencement of the
present century. These were followed by Acts in 1809, the 49
Geo. III., c. 109; two in 1817, the 57 Geo. III., c. 115, and
c. 122; and in 1818 by 58 Geo. III., c. 51. A clause in the
Arbitration Act, 1824, the 5 Geo. IV., c. 96, provided that tickets
of work were to be delivered in certain cases to ensure proper
payment of wages. In 1831 the previous Acts relating to ti'uck and
payment of wages were repealed by 1 and 2 Wm. IV., c. 36, and
in the same year the 1 and 2 Wm. IV., c. 37, was passed — "An
Act to prohibit the Payment, in certain Trades, of Wages in Goods
or otherwise than in the current coin of the Realm." This statute
is still the principal Act in force.
During the present reign, commencing in 1839, seven other Acts
have been passed relating to the payment of wages, stoppages from
wages, and similar matters. The principal Act of this series was
the 50 and 51 Vict., c. 46, " An Act to amend and extend the Law
relating to Truck," passed in 1887. This Act repealed wholly two
220
of the older Acts, and certain sections in others. The earlier Acts
were restricted to the woollen and other textile industries. The
provisions were extended from time to time to numerous other
trades, all of which were specifically mentioned in the several
statutes. In reality the law was only made general in 1887.
Perhaps no series of enactments have had more beneficial results
than those Acts denominated the "Truck Acts." Without them the
workpeople would have been held in a state of social and industrial
bondage.
14. TICKETS OF WORK.
Apparently the first legislative attempt to prevent workpeople
being defrauded of their rightful earnings by paying less than was
legally right was made in 1778-9 by the 19 Geo. III., c. 49. This
Act was " to prevent abuses in the payment of wages " in the lace
trade. Similar legislation was passed as regards silk weavers. The
clause in the Arbitration Act, 1824, the 5 Geo. IV., c 96, before
referred to, provided that tickets of work should be given in certain
cases. In 1845 two Acts were passed, 8 and 9 Vict., c. 77, respecting
tickets of work to be delivered to workers in the hosiery trade, and
by c. 128, in the silk trade. In 1891, by 54 and 55 Vict., c. 75, par-
ticulars are to be supplied to woi'kers in the cotton trade in cases
where payment is by the piece. All the Acts passed from 1831 to
the present time are still in force in the trades specified, the object
being to prevent workpeople being defrauded of their proper wages.
15. STOPPAGES OF WAGES.
It is an old legal maxim that stoppages are not payments, but this
maxim was seldom applied to wages until of late years. The most
important Act on this subject is the Hosiery Act, 37 and 38 Vict.,
c. 48, passed in 1874, which enacts that wages are to be paid net, in
the current coin of the realm, without any stoppages whatever, and
all contracts to stop wages and for frame rents were declared illegal
and void. Deductions for bad work are not illegal, but generally
deductions and stoppages are so far regarded as unlawful that the
practice is dying out.
16. attachment of wages.
Attachment of wages, in Scottish law " Arrestment of Wages," is
wholly abolished by the 33 and 34 Vict., c. 30, passed in 1870.
This method of seizing or arresting wages was found to be baneful,
and consequently the power of so doing is abolished, in so far as any
judge of a Court of Eecord or inferior court is concerned. The Act
is a model of brevity.
221
17. PBEFERENTIAL PAYMENT OF WAGES.
The Bankruptcy Act, 1883, 46 and 47 Vict., c. 52, § 40, gives
preference, after (a) rates and taxes, (b) to wages or salary of clerk
or servant, and (c) wages of any labourer or workman, not exceeding
£50, in respect of services rendered within four months of the
bankruptcy, whether for time or piecework. This practically
covers all wages.
18. PAYMENT OF WAGES IN PUBLIC HOUSES.
The payment of wages in or at public houses is wholly prohibited
by 46 and 47 Vict., c. 31, passed in 1883. In so far as miners were
concerned, payment in public houses was prohibited by the Mines
Eegulation Acts, 1872. Much earlier it was rendered illegal as
regards coalwhippers and ballast-heavers by 1 and 2 Vict., c. 101, in
1837. They were to be paid on board the vessel, under a penalty of
£10. The whole of this series of Acts have operated to the
advantage of the workmen, both directly and indirectly. All work-
men are now usually paid on the job, without delay.
19. HOUSING THE WORKING CLASSES 1851 TO 1893.
Up to the year 1851 no distinctive legislation had been inaugurated
to improve the condition of the dwellings of the working classes.
An elaborate inquiry into the "Sanitary Condition of the Labouring
Population" was instituted in 1841-2, the reports as to which were
published in 1842-3. The facts disclosed in those reports were so
alarming in their character that some efforts were made to improve
the sanitary condition of the urban and rural districts, and of the
water supply in the towns more particularly. Lord Shaftesbury
and Prince Albert were the pioneers in the series of Acts relating to
lodging houses and workmen's dwellings. Singularly enough, in this
instance legislation commenced for the benefit of the very poorest.
(a) Common Lodging Houses, 1851-93. — In 1851 two Acts were
passed, 14 and 15 Vict., c. 28, and 14 and 15 Vict., c. 34, the former
for the well-ordering of conniion lodging houses, providing for
inspection, sanitation, kc, and the latter for the estabhshment of
lodging houses for the labouring classes. In the same year further
provision was made in the Metropolitan Sevvei'S Act in furtherance
of the same object. These lodging houses are now regulated by the
County Council, in London ; elsewhere by Towns Improvements Acts,
in England and Scotland, ^nd in Ireland by the Pubhc Health Acts.
(6) Artisans and Labourers' Dwellings, 1855-93. — The 18 and 19
Vict., c. 88, was an Act to facilitate the erection of dwelling houses
in Scotland, 1855, and the 18 and 19 Vict., c. 132, was for the
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A CENTURY OF INDUSTRIAL AND SOCIAL LEGISLATION.
erection of similar dwellings elsewhere. In 1860, 1864, 1866, and
1867 were provisions passed in Land Acts, and Loans Acts to
facilitate the erection of such dwellings. In 1868 the Torrens' Act
was passed, 31 and 32 Vict., c. 130, and applied to the whole of the
United Kingdom. In the years 1871, 1872, 1874, and 1875 further
provision was made in the Local Government Board Act, the Public
Health Acts, and the Municipal Corporations Act, and in the latter
year (1875) further provision was made as regards Scotland. From
1875 to 1890 fifteen other Acts were passed in which provision was
made to extend the facilities for housing the working classes. The
law was consolidated in 1890 by the 53 and 54 Vict., c. 70, and
further, in 1891, by the Public Health (London) Act. The whole
question is now governed by six separate Acts in force.
(c) Labourers' Cottages, Ireland. — In addition to the general law
relating to the dwellings of the working classes, special provision has
been made for labourers' cottages, Ireland, by clauses in the Land Acts,
and other Acts, and by eight Acts under the above title, from 1881
to 1893, all of which are in force, or such portions of them as apply
to labourers' cottages. The Lands Clauses Acts, portions of the
Towns Improvement Clauses Acts, the Eailway Clauses Acts, and
the Loans Commissioners Acts, also apply to the housing of the
working classes. Legislation as regards the dwellings of the
working classes is as yet in its infancy, and doubtless greater
provision will be made in the near future in this respect.
20. CHEAP TRANSIT BY RAIL AND TRAM 1844 TO 1893.
The necessities of our vast and growing population in large towns
required that facilities should be given to the poorer classes to travel
cheaply, as well as that better dwellings within the area of such
towns should be provided. The first Act to provide such facilities
was the 7 and 8 Vict., c. 85, in 1844, which attached certain
conditions to the construction of railways authorised by Act of
Parliament. Among other things it provided that there should be
one cheap train each way per day, the fares not to exceed one penny
per mile. The provisions were amended and extended in 1858 by
21 and 22 Vict., c. 75, made perpetual by the 23 and 24 Vict., c. 41,
in 1860. In 1868 it was provided that the fares should be posted
at all railway stations by 31 and 32 Vict., c. 119; and in 1883, by 46
and 47 Vict., c. 34, passenger duty was abolished as regards the
cheap fares, and further provision was made for third-class
passengers. In 1889 passengers' tickets were to have the fares
printed thereon by 52 and 53 Vict., c. 57. Cheap fares are thus
encouraged by Act of Parliament, both by rail and by tram, while
the free competition of railways has led to improvements in accom-
modation, and also cheaper fares with the view of extending and
223
A CENTURY OF INDUSTRIAL AND SOCIAL LEGISLATION.
developing travelling by the poorer classes generally, and workmen
in particular. Further provision in this respect is sure to follow at
no distant date.
21. BATHS AND WASH-HOUSES — 1846 TO 1893.
Under the old fiscal legislation soap was taxed, and then the
masses were denounced as the great unwashed. Kecent legislation
removed that blot, and encouraged cleanliness. The first Act to
encourage the establishment of public baths and wash-houses was
passed in 1846, the 9 and 10 Vict., c. 74. That Act was amended
in 1847 by the 10 and 11 Vict., c. 61, and provision was made for
bathing facilities in the Towns Improvement Act of that year, 10
and 11 Vict., c. 34, §§ 136 to 142 inclusive. In 1875 further
provision was made in the Public Health Act. In 1878 the law
relating to baths and wash-houses was amended by the 41 and 42
Vict., c. 14, and it was further amended by the 45 and 46 Vict., c.
30, in 1883. Local authorities were empowered to adopt the Act by
a vote of the ratepayers, and in very many cases they have done so ;
but the adoption of these Acts is not so general as could be desired.
Provision is also made for the adoption of the Acts relating to
Ireland by legislation commencing with the 9 and 10 Vict., c. 87, in
1846. The two-thirds majority clause has operated against the
adoption of the Acts in many places, but there is a growing tendency
in the country to give further facilities for bathing, even if no
provision is made for wash-houses, the latter not always being
equally necessary.
22. COMMONS, OPEN SPACES, PUBLIC PARKS, ETC. — 1795 TO 1893.
The necessity for breathing spaces for the people was barely
recognised half a century ago. The physiological fact that animal
life depends upon vegetable life, and vice versa, was scarcely apphed
to practical life, though, as a scientific fact, it was well known.
The gases thrown off by the one are absorbed by the other, each
nourishing the other in its turn, and contributing to the healthy
atmospheric conditions so essential to animal and plant life.
(a) hiclosure of Common and Waste Lands. — The Acts for the
inclosure of common lands commenced in the reign of Queen Anne, in
whose reign two Acts were passed inclosing 1,439 acres. Up to the
year 1797 no fewer than 1,776 Acts were passed, inclosing 3,142,074
acres. In the next three years 180 Acts were passed, inclosing
369,740 acres. Altogether 1,956 Acts, inclosing 3,511,814 acres,
were passed up to the end of 1800. The idea then was that it was
essential that all such land should be inclosed and cultivated to
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A CENTURY OF INDUSTRIAL AND SOCIAL LEGISLATION.
provide food for the people. This policy continued under new
conditions and simpler Acts down to 1845, during which 45 years
2,060 Acts were passed, inclosing an additional 2,801,612 acres. In
1845 the General Inclosure Act was passed, 8 and 9 Vict., c. 118.
Since that date fourteen other Acts have been passed, inclosing
about 750,000 acres. The whole of these Acts are now known by the
short title — The Inclosure Acts, 1845 to 1882. All inclosures are
now made under provisional orders, and are closely watched.
(b) Public Play and Recreation Grounds, 1847 to 1898. — Power
was first given to municipal corporations and other local bodies to
acquire land for public recreation grounds, in 1847, by the Towns
Improvement Act, 10 and 11 Vict., c. 34. The powers thus
corierred have been extended by various Acts from 1852 to the
present time. Facilities are also given by various Acts for the
conveyance of open spaces for public purposes, by gift or bequest, by
private individuals.
(c) The Open Spaces Acts, 1877 to 1890.— The Acts of 1877 and
1881, the 40 and 41 Vict., c 35, and 44 and 45 Vict., c. 34, were
Metropolitan Acts. Those passed in 1887 and 1890, the 50 and 51
Vict., c. 32, and 53 and 54 Vict., c. 15, respectively, are general Acts,
all affording greater facilities for securing open spaces for the benefit
of the people.
(d) The Metropolitan Commons Acts, 1866 to 1878. — These Acts
were passed to prevent the further inclosure of commons in or
near the Metropolis. Under these Acts several important and
extensive areas have been secured.
(e) Public Parks. — Special Acts have been passed from time to
time for the purpose of securing public parks, and powers have been
granted to local authorities under local and private Acts for all those
purposes. The growing tendency is to secure the best available
sites in the Metropolis, and to provide in most of our large towns
some parks, pleasure grounds, gardens, &c., for healthful resort and
recreation in all parts of the kingdom.
23. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES ACTS — 1357 TO 1893.
It is rather curious to note the long period over which legislation
has extended for the establishment in this country of an uniform and
true standard of weights and measures. The Statute of Westminster,
31 Edw. III., c. 2, statute ii., enacted that a standard of balances
and weights shall be sent to every county. During nearly 440 years
numerous Acts were passed to ensure a true standard down to 1794-5,
when the 35 Geo. III., c. 102, was passed "for the more effectual
prevention of the use of defective weights and of false and unequal
balances." From that date to 1878 some thirty or more Acts, or
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A CENTUBY OF INDUSTRIAL AND SOCIAL LEGISLATION.
provisions in other Acts, were passed, the object of which was to
establish uniformity in weights and measures, and to prevent the
use of false weights and measures. In 1878 the 41 and 42
Vict., c. 49, was passed, " An Act to Consolidate the Law relating
to Weights and Measui-es." That Act was amended by the 52 and
53 Vict., c. 21, in 1889, and again by the 55 and 56 Vict., c. 18, in
1892. The provisions in those Acts in force i-elating to weights and
measures are fairly good and complete ; whatever defects exist relate
to their administration and enforcement. Full weight and full
measure belong of right to every person in their dealings and
purchases, and perhaps the co-operative store has done nearly as
much as the law, of late, to ensure even-handed justice in these
respects. Those cheated the most and worst were the very poor,
but even these have now their remedy.
24. ADULTERATION OF FOOD, DRINKS, DRUGS, SEEDS, ETC.
1267 TO 1893.
Adulteration of food was prohibited by the statutes made at
Kenilworth, 51 Henry III., st. i., in 1267. Various other enactments
were passed, the chief being in 1581 and 1604. Other statutes were
passed relating to adulteration, but the extent to which it was still
carried on in the year 1822 is seen in Mr. Accum's book, " Death in
the Pot." The adulteration of bread and flour was further dealt
with in 1836 by 6 and 7 Wm. IV., c. 37, and again in 1851. In
1855 Dr. Hassall dealt with the subject in his book, " Food and its
Adulterations." In 1860 parochial chemical analysts were appointed
under the 23 and 24 Vict., c. 84. In 1869 the adulteration of seeds
was prohibited ; amended in 1878. In 1872 the Adulteration of
Food and Drugs Act was passed, and also clauses i-elating to liquors
in the Licensing Act of that year. The Select Committee of the
House of Commons, in 1874, said that the people were cheated rather
than poisoned ; and in 1875 the " Sale of Food and Drugs Act" was
passed, 38 and 39 Vict., c. 63. This was amended by the 42 and 43
Vict., c. 30, in 1879. Here again the co-operative store has exercised
an important influence, and conferred a public benefit. The quality
of the food, drink, drugs, &c., that we consume is as important as
the quantity sold ; both should be up to the true standard as by
law established. To cheat the people by false weight or measure,
or by adulteration, is cruel in the extreme, and deserves severe
punishment.
25. THE LAW OF DISTRAINT — 1267 TO 1893.
The provisions of the Law of Distraint now actually in force date
back to the Statutes of Marlborough, in 1267, the 52 Henry III.,
16
226
A CENTURY OF INDUSTRIAL AND SOCIAL LEGISLATION.
cc. 1, 2, 4, and 15. Then follows the 8 Edw. I., c. 16, in 1275; the
Statute of Westminster, in 1285, the 13 Edw. I., c. 37, and several
others down to the 32 Henry VIII., c. 37, in the year 1540. The
object of these statutes was to prevent wrongful distraints, and to
punish unlawful distresses for rent, dues, and debts. The 2 Wm.
and Mary, c. 5, in 1689, gave further protection, but at the same
time awarded damages in case the goods were rescued. The first
real protection was afforded in 1737 by 11 Geo. II., c. 19, § j 8 and 9,
extended by 56 Geo. III., c. 50, § 6, in 1816, as regards growing
crops and cattle, in the case of rent. As regards the poor the first
Act to give relief was the Lodgers' Goods Protection Act, 1871, the
34 and 35 Vict., c. 79. In 1888 wearing apparel and tools, up to
the value of £5, were exempt from distraint by the 56 and 57 Vict.,
c. 21, and in the next year (1889) wages were made to rank next to
rates, as a first charge on the goods distrained of bankrupt or
company, in certain cases, by the 52 and 53 Vict., c. 60, | 4. The
cruelties of the Law of Distraint are now, to a large extent, things
of the past. But until recently the homes of the poor could be
stripped of everything — tools, wearing apparel, the bed and bedding,
all could be taken, except the clothes being worn at the time of the
distraint. Cruel injustice may still be inflicted by the way in which the
laws are administered, or mal- administered, but the general tendency
of legislation in this respect is now in favour of poverty — of the
debtor, not of the creditor.
26, MARRIED women's PROTECTION AND PROPERTY ACTS —
1833 TO 1893.
Up to the beginning of this century the position of a married
woman was little better than that of a chattel of her husband, with
no recognised individual rights. A man could not legally sell his
wife, but it was done, in some cases openly, in others covertly, the
wife thus sold having but little legal remedy. Some men thought
that they had as much right to beat a wife as to chastise his child,
and even now the courts generally treat very leniently the wife-
beater. In cases of ill-usage the law does, however, step in, and
cruelty is now regarded as an offence for which there is a legal
remedy, either in the police courts or in the divorce courts. The
law as to the disposition of property dates back to 1833, the 3 and 4
"Wm. IV., c. 74. Protection orders are granted under the 21 and 22
Vict., c. 108, in 1857-8; and again by the 27 and 28 Vict., c. 44, in
1864. Married women's property and savings are protected by the
Married Women's Property Acts, 1870 to 1884, the principal now in
force being the 45 and 46 Vict., c. 75, and 47 and 48 Vict., c. 14, in
1882 and 1884 respectively ; and in Scotland by the Acts of 1877
I
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and 1881. No right-minded man will complain of such protection
as these Acts afford to a married woman ; on the contrary it is a
protection to him, his home, and their children, and operates
beneficially to the community.
27. NATIONAL EDUCATION : AGENCIES AND INSTITUTIONS.
It is questionable whether the progress and welfare of the masses
of the people depend upon any series of legislative or administrative
Acts more than upon those encouraging the education of the people.
Legislative aid for England only dates back to 1833 ; in Ireland, how-
ever, grants in aid were made centuries before, but chiefly for the
purposes of proselytism. In Scotland systematic encouragement was
given in the early days of the Eeformation. The co-operators of the
United Kingdom deserve honourable mention for the encouragement
of education among the working people of both sexes, and all ages.
A mere index of the Acts and agencies now in operation for the
spread of education would occupy more space than is at command
in this year's "Annual," and therefore only the more important
groups of legislative measures can be indicated at present.
(a) Parliamentary Grants. — The first yearly grant was made in
1833, in the first year of the Eeformed Parliament, of £20,000
towards providing school accommodation. In 1839 the Committee
of Council on Education was established, and the annual grant was
raised to £30,000, which amount was annually voted up to 1842.
In that year it was increased to £40,000. By the year 1851 it had
reached £150,000; in 1861 to £803,794; and in 1870 to £914,721.
In that year the Elementary Education Act was passed, under
which the annual grants have risen year by year until it has now
reached £6,200,000. School fees were abolished in 1891. Board
schools are supported out of the rates, in addition to the Govern-
ment grants. And this year the Evening Continuation School Code
has been issued, the effect of which will be to advance education
enormously among the working classes.
{h) The School Sites Acts, 1SS6 to i.S-5^.— This series of Acts
afforded facilities for the conveyance of school sites, and for the
endowment thereof. These Acts, from the repealing Act of 1841,
are still in force as the "School Sites Acts, 1841 to 1852."
(c) The Public Schools Acts, 1866 to 1873.— This, series of Acts
apply to higher schools, and provide for the government and
property of public schools.
228
A CENTURY OF INDUSTRIAL AND SOCIAL LEGISLATION.
(d) TJie Endowed Schools Acts, 1869 to 1889. — These Acts relate to
secondary education, and provide for the better administration of
endowments for educational purposes, schemes for the management
of which are being made year by year.
(e) The Universities and College Estates Acts, 1858 to 1880. —
These Acts provide for the better administration of university and
college property. Under various Acts scholarships are provided for
the poorer classes, the universities being open to clever children,
even from the board schools. Eeligious tests are also abolished.
(/) Free Libraries, Museums, and Art Galleries. — In the year
1845 an Act was passed for encouraging the establishment of
museums in large towns ; in 1850 an Act was passed to enable town
councils to establish public libraries and museums ; and in 1855 the
Public Libraries Act was passed. In 1892 the Acts relating to
England were consolidated by the 55 and 56 Vict., c. 53. The
provisions of these Acts apply to the United Kingdom, but those for
Scotland and Ireland are in separate Acts. Those relating to
Scotland were consolidated in 1887 by the 50 and 51 Vict., c. 42.
The attempt to consolidate those for Ireland, in 1893, failed.
Schools and institutions for the promotion of education and culture
are advancing with rapid strides, to some of which even the poorest
have access. May they take full advantage of all their opportunities.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION.
In the preceding brief outline of social and industrial legislation,
during the last one hundred years, the exigences of space have
compelled the omission of references, except incidentallj', to several
very important groups of Acts bearing upon and relating to the
interests and the welfare of the working classes. Those specifically
dealt with are more or less direct and special in their character and
application, while those now to be mentioned are more general, but
some of these might also come within the same category, only that
their inclusion would greatly extend the limits accorded to this
paper.
229
A CENTURY OF INDUSTRIAL AND SOCIAL LEGISLATION.
Among those omitted for want of space are: (1) The Poor Laws,
the foundations of which were laid in the Act of the reign of Queen
Elizabeth, remodelled to a large extent in the year 1834 by the 4
and 5 Wm. IV., c, 76. (2) The Public Health and Sanitary
Acts mainly passed during the present reign, attention to which
was directed by the outbreaks of cholera and other epidemics.
(3) Municipal Reform, in 1835, by the 5 and 6 Wm. IV., c. 76, and
subsequent extension of Local Government in Urban and Rural
Districts, and latterly by County Councils in 1888. (4) Fiscal
Legislation, the removal of burdens upon trade, of taxes on food,
and on all other necessaries of life, with some few exceptions now
imposed at very reduced rates. (5) Law Reform, by the repeal of
bad old laws, by the consolidation and simplification of existing
laws, and by the enactment of such laws as those previously
mentioned. (6) By the repeal of the old laws relating to "Master
and Servant," and by the enactment of more just laws relating to
appi'entices, domestic and farm servants, as to the contracts of
hiring and of service, and similar agreements. (7) Acts for the
Protection of "Women and Children. (8) Nor should we omit the
Acts relating to "sports " and cruelty to animals, all of which show
a more humane spirit. (9) And, lastly, the several Reform Acts
which have given to the working classes the rights of citizenship,
and a voice in the creation of the laws by which they are governed,
the passing of which have inspired the better laws mentioned.
In conclusion, I venture to say that the body of laws to which
attention is called in this article is not only unsurpassed, but is
unequalled in the legislation of the world. In many respects they
are still imperfect; in some respects the administration is scarcely
up to the level of the intention of the Acts; but the path is more
easy for the future. One very important feature ought not to be
omitted, namely, the urgent need of consolidation in all cases where
it has not yet been effected, so that the law shall be simple, concise,
and readily available, in a compact and cheap form, for the use of all
classes of the people. The great necessity for consolidation can be
230
A CENTURY OF INDUSTRIAL AND SOCIAL LEGISLATION.
proved by three examples: The Poor Laws consist of nearly 140
enactments, besides a huge volume of Provisional or Statutory
Orders of about 1,000 pages. The Acts relating to charities and
charitable uses extend to about 50 enactments, besides a huge mass
of "Schemes." The Merchant Shipping Acts consist of 43 enact-
ments; the provisions of the Consolidation Bill cover 358 pages, and
consist of 774 clauses. In chaos there is confusion. The very term
Law implies order and exactitude.
ADDENDA,
(1) Employers' Liability, page 218. The chief opposition to this
Bill was to clause 2, the provision against contracting out of the
Act. On the report stage in the House of Commons, on November
10th,~1893, the amendment to that clause, to grant exemption in
certain cases, was defeated by 236 to 217 — majority for the Bill, 19.
(2) Adulteration, page 225. In reference to Adulteration, it should
be stated that an Act was passed last session, the 56 and 57 Vict.,
c. 56, to prevent the adulteration of fertilisers, and of feeding stuffs
for cattle, &c.
231
THE HISTORY AND EFFECTS OF THE PRHaLEGED
CLASSES IN CIVILISED COMMUNITIES.
BY HENRY DUNCKLEY, M.A., LL.D.
THE title prefixed to this paper describes in general terms
the subject to be dealt with. " Privileged classes " are
mentioned, but the scope of the phrase is undefined, and they
are to be considered in relation to civilised society as it may
exist in this or any other country. We are asked to give the
history of these privileged classes, and to speak of the efifects they
produce upon the society in which they are found. It is evident
that, as a first step, we must reduce the abstract to tlie concrete.
We must single out and identify the classes in question before we
can say anything about their history, or attempt to trace the effects
which may be ascribed to them. Abstract discussions have their
proper place, but in dealing with practical questions it is best to
start with facts and to keep them always in view. The world is full
of civilised communities. There are not many that are altogether
uncivilised. We think unfavourably of the Turk, but he is not a
barbarian. India, China, and Japan are the seats of ancient
civilisations, differing, indeed, from the civilisations of the West, but
of a relatively liigh level. For the sake of precision and definiteness
it is desirable to pick out one civilised society from among the rest,
and perhaps we cannot do better than choose our own. It is the
one with which we are best acquainted, and any conclusions to which
we may be led in the survey of classes at home will, with due
discrimination, be applicable elsewhere.
We must further add that in describing certain classes as
"privileged" the word is to be understood in a popular rather than
in any striotly legal sense. There are some privileges which are
conferred by laws now in force; there are some which had their
origin in laws that are now obsolete; there are others which have
no higher sanction than social tradition and usage. Society is itself
a legislator. It steps in where the law of the land ceases, issues its
own decrees, and assigns penalties for their non-observance. In
this way it keeps alive distinctions which would else have died out,
and establishes fresh ones from time to time in defence of arrange-
ments which it is anxious to presei-ve. Society is eminently
conservative whatever may bathe political opinions of its members.
232
THE HISTORY AND EFFECTS OF THE PRIVILEGED
It attaches itself to the past ; it draws its inspirations from the past ;
its ideals and its ambitions are essentially those of the past. No
doubt it moves on but it moves slowly, keeping leagues in the rear
of legislation. Recent constitutional changes have made England a
democracy, and the balance of opinion as declared at the poll-booth
is in favour of diffusing the democratic spirit through all our
institutions. The essence of democracy lies in the equality of
citizenship. Politically and civilly one man is as good as another,
each having the same share in the government of the State. From
this fact, and from the doctrine on which it rests, it would seem to
follow that a feeling of equality should penetrate all the relations of
life. Against such a transformation society resolutely sets its face.
Parliament may do what it likes, but there is a force outside
Parliament which traverses its enactments and will not permit
them to meddle in any way with established ideas. This social
conservatism no doubt finds its most congenial soil in political
conservatism. There everything is in harmony, and kindred
sentiments grow well together. But politics have very little to do
with the question, and it will be often found that social exclusiveness,
which is nothing else than the setting up of class distinctions, in
other words, of class privileges, is practically compatible with the
strongest professions of Radicalism. To such an extent as this does
society push its reactionary tendencies and set up the class idea in
opposition to the sentiments of democracy.
The popular mind is not very apt at analytical observation. It
does not trouble itself with nice distinctions. Perhaps this is to be
regi-etted, but its faculties will ripen as education advances. At
present one who is merely a citizen working for his bread sees above
him, rising as it were tier above tier, the various classes and orders
of people who constitute the upper sections of English society.
They seem to live in a region which he can never hope to enter.
Perhaps if he knew them better he would see less to envy, but
looking at them from the outside they appear to him to be a
privileged portion of mankind. As a matter of fact he owes much
to them. But for the part which some of them have taken in the
political conflicts of the last sixty years he would not have risen to .
the position he now occupies. These upper classes have furnished
the working classes with some of their most eloquent advocates and
most influential leaders. It was Earl Grey, Lord Althorpe, and
Lord John Russell who carried the first Reform Bill, which had in
it the seeds of all subsequent reforms. But the I'apid succession of
political changes at a more recent period and down to the present
time has probably helped to chill the spirit of Liberalism in these
higher regions, and arrayed "the classes" in opposition to further
progress. Hence the feeling of antagonism which has lately been
233
CLASSES IN CIVILISED COMMUNITIES.
developed between " the classes " and " the masses." The two words
have even been turned into a political war cry. The circumstance
is to be regretted, but at any rate it furnishes us with an occasion
for taking a critical survey of "the classes" and considering how far
they may be regarded as incongruous elements in a civilised society.
The first fact to be taken into account is that we are living under
a monarchy. With monarchy as a purely political institution we
need not concern ourselves. We have to consider it solely on its
social side. It is a necessary I'esult of monarchical institutions that
one family is raised to a position of solitary pre-eminence above all
other families in the realm. Were it not for two marriages which
the Queen has been pleased to permit, one would say that the height
of dignity which this family occupies is absolutely unapproachable.
As it is the line of demarcation is well maintained. Between
members of the royal family and members of the most aristocratical
families in the land no comparison can be instituted as regards rank.
They are incommensurable quantities. Between the blood royal
and the bluest blood in the veins of the nobility there is a difference
which may yield indeed to the researches of the ordinary physiologist
but is socially absolute. We have here the archytype and model of
all other class distinctions. Here is an example held up to the
whole community which they naturally aspire to copy and imitate
in various ways. Their efforts may be poor as compared with the
end to be achieved, but they are always sincere and in a measure
they are generally successful. The sovereign is the fountain of
honour. Hence the desire so widely felt to stand as near that
fountain as possible in the hope of catching some of its sprays. To
have access to the Queen is deemed one of the highest distinctions.
As a rule this can only be enjoyed by those members of the Privy
Council who are entrusted with the government and by the small
number of persons who form the permanent court, but the social
functions of the sovereign allow of an extension of the privilege to a
much wider circle. Levees and Drawing Eooms are held several
times in the course of the year at which hundreds of presentations
take place. It is not everyone who can find admission. The list of
applicants is submitted to the Queen, who through the Lord
Chamberlain erases names that for any reason are deemed unfit. It
is understood that considerations of character enter largely into this
small exercise of the Queen's prerogative. Subject to scruples of
this kind the doors of St. James's are always open to members of the
aristocracy, to people of rank or wealth, and to persons occupying
distinguished official positions. The honour seems to be highly
234
THE HISTORY AND EFFECTS OF THE PRIVILEGED
prized. It is regarded as a patent of social precedence and as a
passport into the most select society, for who, it is suggested, can
hesitate to receive those who have been "received at court"? The
validity of the patent, however, is by no means universally
acknowledged. There are numbers of people who in such matters are
more fastidious than the Queen. When the dignity of one class has
to be maintained against the ambitious pretensions of another, self-
appreciation becomes almost a duty.
Streamlets from the fountain of honour trickle all over the land.
Some are made peers, others baronets or knights. Such honours
are often worthily bestowed. A man founds perhaps an hospital or
a picture gallery; this shows that he is wealthy and public spirited.
He can "support a baronetcy" — why should he not have one? The
position he has acquired has given him influential friends, and a
suggestion made on his behalf in the right quarter generally meets
with a favourable response. The bestowment of honours has
become, perhaps has always been, an important instrument in the
art of government. In former times kings conferred them on their
personal favourites. The sovereign now has not much choice in the
matter. Like other prerogatives of the Crown, the honour-conferring
prerogative is put in commission and is exercised by the Queen's
ministers. Every government in succession looks after its own
friends. A wealthy man who has served his party faithfully for
many years can have almost any titular distinction he chooses to ask
for. Sometimes the fact that he has not served his part}' too
faithfully will do almost as well, since it is possible that proper
attention will secure a more steadfast support in the future. It may
be said that all this seems to savour of corruption. However that
may be it does not concern our present purpose, but we must not
be too severe with human motives. They are generally of a mixed
description, and to insist upon entire indifference to what makes for
personal advancement would be to put a stop to half the machinery
of human life. From whatever motive such honours are given or
accepted they have important social consequences. They help to
strengthen the conservative forces of society. They are additional
supports to the existing fabric of government. When a good citizen,
the elect of his fellow citizens, finds himself all at once a Lord Mayor
he is naturally disposed to think more favourably of the aristoci-atical
elements in the Constitution than he did the day before his elevation.
In the same way he who accepts a title from the Ci'own is likely to
be led to the opinion that, whatever Eadicals and levellers may say,
social distinctions are good and useful things. He can hardly fail
to harbour sentiments appropriate to the honour he has received,
and however generous their character may be they are not likely to
harmonise with the equality of citizenship. The very principle of
235
CLASSES IN CIVILISED COMMUNITIES.
all such honours is that it is well to raise men above the common
level and to arrange society into classes which shall derive their
chief value from the comparatively small number they contain and
the enormous number who are excluded. This indeed is the essence
of privilege. Its worth lies in its exclusiveness. It is valuable
chiefly because it is not possessed by other people.
11.
We have not only a monarchy; we have also an aristocracy, and
this is the second fact to be taken into account. Of the Parliament
of Great Britain consisting of Queen, Lords, and Commons, two of
the branches are hereditary — the Sovereign and the House of Lords.
From anything that may seem invidious in this distribution of power
the Crown must be held excluded and exempt. The Crown in its
legislative as well as in its executive capacity is represented by its
ministers for the time being, and never fails to give its sanction to
any measure which has passed the two Houses. As a result of recent
political changes the legislative powers of the House of Lords have
been very much abridged, though remaining the same in theory.
All they can do with regard to any measure is to interpose a certain
period of delay before it becomes law. Nevertheless the share of power
they still possess is great and striking, and it is undiluted privilege.
The peers are a permanent body in the State, independent alike of
the sovereign and the people. Except in the case of new creations
they owe their place in Parliament to their birth. When a peer dies
his son or other nearest male heir succeeds to his position and begins
his duties as a legislator; there are no guarantees for his ability, his
wisdom, his knowledge of affairs, or his moral worth. It is by no
means certain that he will not turn out a fool, and there are some
members of their Lordships' House who have been accustomed to
shine in that capacity. When once a man has been made a peer the
right to a seat in the Legislature is secured to his descendants as long
as the race shall last.
The privileged position which the peers enjoy in the sphere of
legislation has been turned to their advantage in many ways. It
has enabled them to maintain or to .acquire other privileges. Aided
by their allies in the other House, where till far within the present
century landed influence was supreme, they succeeded in keeping
in their own hands the greater part of the land and in establishing
a virtual monopoly which included almost all the rest. The peerage
had to be maintained — this was the first canon to be observed. It
could only be done by keeping the family estates together and
handing them down in undiminished bulk from one generation to
another. The older law of entail, which established the succession
236
THE HISTORY AND EFFECTS OF THE PBIVILEGED
to landed property in the line of eldest sons, was broken in upon by
the fictions of the law courts, and the practice is now strictly limited,
but means of evasion have been discovered. Land can only be
settled legally for a life or lives in existence and twenty-one years
beyond. This allows time for the next heir to come of age, and by
an agreement between him and the tenant for life the land is
resettled in the same way for another period. It is clear that this
practice, which is all but universal, is pretty much the same in effect
as a perpetual entail. The greater part, one might almost say the
whole, of the land is under strict settlement. It is thus kept out of
the market, and as it is heavily burdened with provisions for
dowagers, sisters, and younger sons, no surplus is left for the
improvement of the estate. For the same reason rents have to be
kept up at the highest competitive level, and the farmer till lately
ran the I'isk of having to pay rent on his own improvements.
Manorial rights, as they exist over a large part of the country, are
remnants of privileges which the peers of England acquired at an
early period. The manor is an institution which dates from Saxon
times. It was adopted and extended by the great barons among
whom the land was distributed after the Conquest. None have been
created since 1290, when the statute Quia Emptores put a stop to
sub-infeudation. As an institution the manor no longer survives
except as an historical curiosity, though there are still places where
the manorial courts, the Court Baron and the Coui't Leet, are kept
up as a matter of form. But there are some rights which the lord
of the manor still asserts. The statute of Merton, passed in 1236,
gave to the lord of the manor the right of enclosing all common land
that was not absolutely required by the freeholders. As a proof of
the vitality which this old statute is held to possess after the lapse
of almost seven centuries, it may be mentioned that Lord Salisbury
appealed to it the other day in opposition to a measure proposed by
the Government in the interest of the rural districts. Every bit of
the waste land of the manor belongs to the lord, and what
constitutes waste is likely to receive at his hands a rather liberal
interpretation. An outlying common, the grassy stretches that lie
along either side of many a country road, and in some cases
extensive open spaces which from their being near to some large
town have become valuable for building purposes, are liable to be
impounded by the lord of the manor. His rights are, perhaps, all
the more vexatious because they are not rigidly defined. No one
can tell exactly where or how he may interfere, and in counti'y
districts, where it is dangerous to dispute his authority, he has
hitherto been able to have pretty much his own way. The Game
Xaws may be cited as another instance of the privileges which have
been acquired by the lords of the soil. They have their origin in the
237
CLASSES IN CIVILISED COMMUNITIES.
Forest Laws, which were framed by our early kings for the protec-
tion of large tracts of country where game was presei-ved for the
diversion of themselves and their courtiers. In course of time, as
population increased, it was deemed necessary to extend these laws
to all land where game was found, in order, as was alleged, to
prevent its extii-pation, but in reality to deprive the common people
of their right to capture things that were wild by nature and no
man's property. The Game Laws have been carried out in a spirit
of tyranny, and have been a fruitful source of demoralisation. They
have helped to terrorise the rural districts. The village labourer
hardly dares to look over a hedge for fear of catching the game-
keeper's eye and exciting his suspicions. The gamekeeper is the
despot of the woods and the country side, a foe to be held in awe
and placated by all manner of submissiveness.
We have spoken of some privileges which are conferred by social
usage, and the landed aristocracy have always had the largest share
of them. The peers throughout the country stand first in social
position. They are at the top of the ladder which many are
ambitious to ascend. They are the Lord Lieutenants of counties.
Every bench of magistrates is filled with their nominees. Their
social influence is supreme. A peer is accepted as the most
distinguished personage in the district where he resides. He may
be only the first of his line, and his immediate ancestors may have
risen from the industrial ranks, but imagination invests him with
the immemorial splendour of the class to which he now belongs. He
lives on terms of easy condescension with the more important gentry
of the neighbourhood, and his patronage and countenance are
sought by all who have any special interests to serve or any
ambitious wish to gratify. It is a common saying that the English
people dearly love a lord, and there is a good deal of truth in it. The
lord has his relations. While they share his honours they also help to
extend his influence and to difiuse the incommunicable aroma of
noble birth through large portions of society. The dignity of the
peerage is restricted to the peers themselves. Their brothers and
sons are commoners, from a legal point of view on a level with the
rest of the community. But the sons have courtesy titles. The
eldest son of a duke is styled a marquis, and so on through the
descending steps of the peerage. In "Burke's Peerage" there is
published a table of precedence which determines the relative
position held by the various members of the aristocratic hierarchy,
so that all shall know their places, and not ignorantly or pre-
sumptuously usurp the privileges of the class above them. This
sei^ves as an object lesson to the rest of the community who are
taught to emulate in their several degrees the example of their
betters.
238
III.
We have now to descend a step or two to consider other dignities
of less renown. The lowest degree in the peerage is that of baron.
It therefore seems appropriate that the highest dignity below the
peerage should be that of baronet, or little baron. It was instituted
by James I., in 1611, for reasons savouring more of business than of
chivalry. He had recently "planted" the North of Ireland with
Protestant farmers from Scotland. The Ulster Plantation, as it was
called, having a hostile population on its borders had to be furnished
with means of defence, and as the king had no money to spare, while
honours could be created at no cost, he instituted the dignity of
baronet in order, as the saying is, to raise the wind. The terms
were that the new baronet should support thirty soldiers to serve
in Ireland for three years, paying them at the rate of eightpence a
day, and a year's wage had to be paid into the exchequer at once.
The total cost to the baronet was about £1,000, and there was no
guarantee that the money would be applied to the purpose for which
it was raised. The number of baronets was fixed at two hundred,
and the king did not go beyond that limit, but it was afterwards
exceeded, and no limitation is recognised now. Some regard was
had to the birth and means of those upon whom the honour was
bestowed. They were to be gentlemen of coat armour of at least
three descents, that is at a remove of three generations from the
common people. The dignity carries with it nothing beyond a
titular distinction, denoted by the prefix "Sir," but it is hereditary,
and that is of some consequence, occasionally, perhaps, an incon-
venient one, since it involves the endowing of a family with
permanent means of maintaining its rank. Care has been taken to
keep the baronets in their proper place. In order of precedence
they rank after the younger sons of viscounts and barons.
Next to the baronets come the various orders of knighthood,
which have at any rate the prestige of greater antiquity. We are
familiar with the designation from the earliest times. Or-iginaUy the
knights were the immediate attendants upon the king and the great
nobles. Under the feudal system they were bound to service in war,
and the military obligations of the tenants of the Crown were
reckoned at so many knights' fees. Then came the days of chivalry
when knights sallied forth to challenge all and sundry in maintaining
the superior perfections of the ladies to whom they had pledged
devotion. The Church interested itself in the creation of knights,
and had various orders of its own, the Knights Templars, for
example, whose chief business was the rescue of the Holy Land from
the hands of the infidel. At one time the investiture with the honour
of knighthood was accompanied by a religious service. The candidate
239
CLASSES IN CIVILISED COMMUNITIES.
had to bathe himself, attend the confessional, spend a night in lonely
vigil before the altar, and receive the sacrament. He laid his sword
upon the altar as a sign of his resolution to defend the cause of the
Church and lead a holy life. The title was conferred by binding
upon him the sword and spvirs, after which the person conferring the
order struck him gently on the cheek or shoulder, adjuring him to be
a good and faithful knight. He then took an oath " to protect the
distressed, to maintain right against might, and never by word or
deed to stain his character as a knight and a Christian." One may
admit the poetry of such a ceremonial. The knight became a sort of
idealised personage. The romancers of the period introduced him
into fables. To them we owe the fictions of the Paladins of
Charlemagne and King Arthur's Knights of the Bound Table. The
chivalry in which the knight was the most prominent figure lasted
longest in Spain, where in the last days of its decline it was finally
laughed out of existence by Cervantes in his "Don Quixote." In
England the military knight perished more prosaically. Having
been originally bound to military service he was held liable either to
serve or pay an equivalent. His service was not wanted. The
king wanted money, Hence knighthood was forced upon people who
were supposed to be able to pay, and they often agreed to pay the
money on condition of being allowed to decline the honour. It thus
became a mere instrument of extortion, and was finally got rid of in
the reign of Charles II. by the abolition of knights' service on which
the demand was founded.
The mystical and legendary associations connected with the
knighthood of the Middle Ages confer some lustre upon the various
orders of knighthood which have been created in modern times. The
oldest of British orders, the Order of the Garter, goes back to the
days of Edward III., a monarch whose head was rather full of
nonsensical ideas derived from the practices of chivalry. It is
restricted to the Sovereign, the Prince of Wales, and twenty-five
companions who are elected from among sovereign princes and other
members of ruling houses, and the most distinguished members of
the British aristocracy. The figure of St. George on horseback
encountering the dragon, which is one of its principal decorations,
gives it a specially English character, St. George being regarded as
the patron saint of England. As counterbalancing distinctions of a
national character we have the "most noble and most ancient Order
of the Thistle," which was revived by James II. in 1687, and the
"most illustrious Order of St. Patrick," which was instituted by
George III. in 1783. Both these orders are restricted, the former
to sixteen, the latter to twenty-two knights, in addition to the
Sovereign or, in Ireland, the Lord Lieutenant, as Grand Master,
and they are elected from among the chief nobility of the respective
240
THE HISTORY AND EFFECTS OF THE PRIVILEGED
nationalities. From a social point of view the most important of the
regular orders is that of the Bath, owing to the various gi*ades
comprised within it and the very large number of persons upon
whom it is conferred. Its origin is in some doubt, but it is believed
to have been founded in the reign of Henry IV., in the year 1399,
and to derive its name from the ablution which the knight of old
time had to undergo previous to his investiture. Whenever it may
have been instituted it was re\dved in 1725, and enlarged in 1815
and 1847. It is both a military and a civil order. The first division
consists of the Knights Grand Cross (G.C.B.), the second of Knights
Commanders (K.C.B.), the third of Companions (C.B,). The
first and second give the title of knighthood, the third only the
right of adding two honorary letters to the name. Once on the
roll of the order there is a prospect of some advance, and the
companion may hope some day to be made a knight commander.
Other orders which have been founded or, in one case, extended
during the present reign are " the most exalted Order of the
Star of India," " the most distinguished Order of St. Michael and
St. George" (founded in 1818 but enlarged and extended in 1868
and 1877), "the most eminent Order of the Indian Empire," "the
Eoyal Order of Victoria and Albert," and "the Imperial Order of the
Crown of India." The two latter are exclusively for ladies. The
Order of St. Michael and St. George is intended chiefly for persons
connected with the colonies, as the Indian orders are intended for
Indian notabilities, native as well as European, and persons
connected, directly or indirectly, with the administration of Indian
affairs.
So much for the orders of knighthood ; but there are a multitude
of knights who belong to no order, and it is with these that we are
chiefly brought into contact in social life. They are described as
Knights Bachelors, but why they are called bachelors is not
immediately obvious. The reason seems to be that as they stand
upon the lowest level of knighthood they may be held to have taken
their first and initiatory degree. In civil life the bachelor is often,
but not always, young, and in the university the status of a bachelor
in any of the faculties is that which is first reached. The distinction
is conferred upon persons who have acquired eminence in any line of
achievement, whether in science, art, or letters, or in connection
with the administration of public affairs or by services rendered to
the community. It is a sign of social desert, of public merit, and is
supposed to carry with it the approbation of the sovereign, by whom
it is usually conferred in private audience. The candidate drops
upon one knee, the Queen deftly strikes him with the sword on one
or both shoulders and bids him rise under his new title. It is not
to be supposed, however, that the sovereign as a rule exercises any
241
CLASSES IN CIVILISED COMMUNITIES.
power of selection in bestowing the honour. The royal observation
is not sufficiently extensive or minute to be able to single out all
whose merits entitle them to the favour of the Crown. That
critical service is performed by the Prime Minister, who is himself
aided by those in whom he can place confidence. In this way the
more meritorious members of the community are discovered, and the
sovereign seldom, we must suppose never, fails to accept the list
submitted with such credentials.
IV.
We must now descend a little lower than the distinguished
personages with whom we have so far been concerned. In so doing
we pass into circles which have a far wider sweep and comprise
large portions of the community. We are familiar with the title
"esquire." Perhaps most of us have had the honour to be described
by it, at any rate in the address on a letter. It is also well known
that there is a iinely discriminating force in the epithet "gentleman,"
while the word is occasionally used to designate the status of
individuals whose social position it would otherwise be difficult to
define. The distinctions indicated by these names are perhaps of
more importance to us than the grand titles which are borne by
people of high rank. They are the low-clipped hedges or skeleton
railings which shut off all who pretend to "quality" or "condition"
from the broad unenclosed common lands on which the great mass
of the people dwell. Anciently an esquire was one of the attendants
upon a knight. He carried the knight's shield, assisted him when
he put on his armour or when he took it off, added to his state at
tournaments, and was ready with his services on the field of battle.
The esquire necessarily lost his occupation when military knight-
hood fell into disuse, but the name survived, probably in the families
of those who had once worn it and was gradually extended to others
who could allege no such reason. The time came when it was hard
to say who had or who had not a right to the designation. Blackstone
says, in one of his chapters on " The Eights of Persons " : "It is,
indeed, a matter somewhat unsettled what constitutes this distinction,
or who is a real esquire, for it is not an estate, however large, that
confers this rank upon its owner. Camden, who was himself a
herald, distinguishes them the most accurately, and he reckons up
four sorts of them: 1. The eldest sons of knights and their eldest
sons in perpetual succession. 2. The younger sons of peers and then-
eldest sons m like perpetual succession. 3. Esquires created by the
king's letters patent or other investiture and their eldest sons.
4. Esquires by virtue of their offices, as Justices of the Peace and
others who hold any office of trust under^the Crown." Formerly a
- _
242
THE HISTORY AND EFFECTS OF THE PRIVILEGED
Knight of the Bath used to constitute three esquires at his installation,
but this privilege has been abolished. It was perhaps time to do so
since the title could be so easily assumed or conferred. At present it
is given to everybody who is somebody, from which it seems logical to
infer that he to whom it is not given is a nobody, and this perhaps
is the chief objection to its use. Asa rule it may be said to be given
to all who do not earn their living by retail trade or by manual
labour, and it thus forms one of the most extensive boundary lines
between the "classes" and the "masses."
The same indistinctness attaches to the woi'd "gentleman," when
used as the designation of a class, and not as merely descriptive of
personal manners, though there can be no doubt that it has a more
distinguished ancestry than "esquire." We are told by those who
may be considered authorities in this branch of antiquarian research
that the word is properly descriptive of those who are held to be the
untitled nobility of England, that is to persons "of family," who can
trace out a lineage in what is known as "gentle blood." The
ancient definition of a gentleman was one who had a right to coat
armour, or, as we now call it, a coat of arms. We are told that a
"gentleman" and a "nobleman" were once identical in meaning,
and that the English "gentry" are properly on a level with those
who on the continent are entitled to prefix to their names the
ennobling particles von and de. In Germany these matters are
carefully looked after, and no one can assume the prefix von who is
not entitled to use it. The equivalent de in France has been more
unfortunate and means little more than our esquire. The right to a
coat of arms was once carefully restricted in England. The various
colleges of heralds kept a jealous watch over the counties, and any
one assuming arms to which he was not entitled was called to
account. In our days the college of heralds is more obhging, and is
willing to furnish a coat of arms to anybody of any social pretentions
who can make out a colourable lineage and is willing to pay the
fees. In practice a person may assume what arms he pleases, only
the Government taxes him for the luxury. We are told that "the
gentry of England formerly had many privileges recognised by law.
If a churl or peasant defamed the honour of a gentleman the latter
had his remedy in law, but if one gentleman defamed another the
combat was allowed. In equal crimes a gentleman was punished
with less severity than a churl, unless the crime were heresy, treason,
or excessive contumacy. A gentleman condemned to death was
beheaded, not hanged, and his examination was taken without torture.
In giving evidence the testimony of a gentleman outweighed that of
a churl. A churl could not challenge a gentleman to combat,
because their conditions were unequal." In this description we are
reminded of some vestige;^ that still linger in Eng:lish society. In
243
CLASSES IN CIVILISED COMMUNITIES.
course of time the "gentleman" went the same way as the old
knights and esquires. Sir Thomas Smith was a statesman and
diplomatist of the sixteenth century and wrote a book on the
Commonwealth of England from which Blackstone quotes the
following passage : —
As for geutlemen they be made good cheap in this kingdom, for whosoever
studieth the laws of the realm, who studieth in the universities, who professeth
liberal sciences, and (to be short) who can live idly and without manual labour,
and will bear the port, charge, and countenance of a gentleman, he shall be called
master and shall be taken for a gentleman.
The "master" of Sir Thomas Smith is our present Mister or Mr.,
and this title is at any rate very generally bestowed, though it has
its limitations.
We may perhaps venture to make some slight reference to
privileges of another kind — those which spring from the exceptional
position of the Church of England. In doing so we need hardly
disclaim all sectarian prejudices or preferences, and still less any
desire to touch upon pending controversies. With the question in
its religious and even in its ecclesiastical bearings we have nothing
to do. From us it challenges consideration purely on political and
social grounds, and as a matter of fact and not of opinion. The
Church of England comprises within its pale a large and perhaps a
preponderating section of all classes, and in this sense it cannot be
regarded as a class institution. But it may also be said that in
another sense it founds a class and sets up a class distinction on the
largest scale. It is an Established Church ; all other churches are
non-established. It is the Church to which the State gives its
sanction, thereby recommending it as the one to be chosen in
preference to any of the rest. The Sovereign is in a special sense
the head of this Church and is bound by law to be in communion
with it. The highest dignitary of this Church officiates at the
Coronation, places the Crown on the head of the Sovereign, and
recites the terms of the oath by which the Sovereign is pledged to
maintain the rights and privileges of the Church. The Queen
appoints a number of clergymen to act as her chaplains. She
could not appoint a nonconformist minister in that capacity. What
would happen if the Queen were to be seen in a Methodist chapel it
is impossible to conjecture. We can only imagine the sensation
that would thrill the realm. The Church is represented in the
House of Lords by twenty-four archbishops and bishops, the
bishops beyond this number succeeding in the order of their
consecration as vacancies arise. They are not peers; they sit as
Lords of Parliament and practically enjoy all the privileges of the
regular peerage. The Speaker of the House of Commons appoints a
244
chaplain who says prayers every day when the House meets for
business, but his choice is restricted to the privileged order of
clergymen. It is so with almost all public appointments of a clerical
kind throughout the country. A nonconformist minister cannot
legally be appointed even to the chaplaincy of a workhouse. The
land is divided into parishes, and in every parish there is one
minister who is maintained by law in the enjoyment of exclusive
privileges. Our ancestors left tithes and glebes for the support of
religion in connection with the only Church which then existed. Their
descendants are now distributed among a dozen large denominations
who aim at the same objects as the Church of England, and do
their share in promoting the religious and moral interests of the
community. But the property bequeathed by our common ancestors
for religious purposes is appropriated exclusively to the maintenance
of the Established Church.
What we are most concerned with is the social effect of these
arrangements, and chiefly with their tendency to set up a class
distinction involving privilege on one side and disability on the other.
There cannot be much doubt that they have this result. Laws may
be just, but they may be administered in an illiberal spirit, so
administered as to disregard their intention while obeying them in
the letter. Usage is more powerful than the law, and we have to
consider what sort of usages the established institutions of the
country help to foster. It is found in practice that the existence of
an established church helps to foster among those who belong to it
a feeling of superiority and exclusiveness towards nonconfoi'mists.
There are thousands of public offices throughout the country which a
nonconformist, however highly qualified, has no chance of obtaining.
It is asked, or it comes to be known, to what denomination he
belongs, and if he does not belong to the Church that fact of itself is
enough to turn the balance against him. The offlces in question
may be maintained out of the rates to which all classes contribute,
but that makes no difference. Of course the actual disqualification
is never mentioned. If it were it would be repudiated with decent
indignation. But it is silently acted upon all the same. A like
result takes place very generally in connection with voluntary
institutions, such as hospitals and schools. Other things being equal,
and often when they are not equal, to belong to the Church of
England, or at least not to belong to a nonconformist denomination,
decides the choice. A widely established prefei-ence of this kind is
privilege of a very substantial character. So far as it is produced by
sympathy of opinion it may be regretted but cannot be helped,
except by the inculcation of broader views, but it appears in a
different light when we find it traceable to the authority and example
of the State.
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CLASSES IN CIVILISED COMMUNITIES.
V.
In this review of the privileged classes it may seem that one thing
is absent which ought to be found in it, namely, the idea of wealth.
The distinction between the privileged and the unprivileged classes
is indeed often taken to be the same as that between the rich and
the poor. The allusions made to the privileged classes in popular
literature, and especially in speeches, are often so worded as to make
it difficult to understand whether those classes are considered
objectionable because they are privileged or because they are rich.
Probably in most cases the two ideas of privilege and wealth are
fused together as if they meant one and the same thing, and were
naturally inseparable, nor is it difficult to account for the formation
of this habit. The rich can allow themselves many indulgences
which are out of the reach of the poor. They can live in large
houses, they can surround their dwellings with gardens and pleasure
grounds, they can afford to keep horses and carriages and a good
many servants, perhaps to have more houses than are necessary, and
to move about from one part of the country to another for the sake
of health or pleasure. They do all this without working, and simply
because their income is large enough to enable them to live as they
please. In a very obvious sense of the word they may be considered
a highly privileged section of the community, and we regard them
without difficulty as a privileged class. Assuming wealth to be a
privilege, it is at any rate infinitely varied in degree. Those to
whom the description just given applies are comparatively few.
Beneath them there are innumerable gradations till we reach the
level of those whose income, though modest, is equal to all their
wants. They live, perhaps, in a house of their own ; they are able
to save something out of their earnings or out of the profits of their
trade, and are gradually accumulating a little property which they
will leave to their children. These gi'adations of wealth come so
near together that it is not easy to tell where to draw a dividing
line. Below them all we come to the great mass of the population
who have nothing beyond their weekly wages to subsist upon, and
find them no more than sufficient — if sufficient — to maintain their
families. But even among this large class there are many sub-
divisions, and those on the higher level may well be looked upon as
privileged beings by those who occupy the lowest.
The question arises, then, whether wealth can be regarded as a
privilege in the same sense as the distinctions we have been
considering, and whether the wealthy class, simply because they are
wealthy, are to be ranked among the privileged classes. For some
help in deciding this question let us turn to our common friend, the
dictionary. "We find "privilege" defined (1) as a particular and
246
THE HISTORY AND EFFECTS OF THE PRIVILEGED
peculiar advantage enjoyed by a person, company, or society beyond
the common advantages of other individuals, and (2) as any peculiar
benefit or advantage, right or immunity, not common to others of
the human race. "Privilege," as a verb, that is to confer a privilege,
is to grant some particular right or exemption ; to invest with a
peculiar right or immunity, as to privilege I'epresentatives from
arrest, to privilege the officers and students of a college from military
duty. The participle "privileged," the word used in the title of this
paper, is defined as the enjoying a peculiar right or immunity. It
will be gathered from these explanations that the ruling note of
privilege is that it is something conferred ; something that is not to
be acquired by individual exertion ; something from which all are
debarred except those upon whom it is bestowed. This is the
universal attribute of privilege, and it is not the attribute of wealth.
The evidence of this is a matter of every-day experience. Most
people try to better their condition, that is in the homely and
material sense of the word. They seek to become richer than they are.
Some have far greater opportunities than others, but all use, or are
expected to use, the opportunities they have. They do this without
asking anybody's leave. In a free counti'y it is a right common to
every member of the community. And very wonderfully is it
improved. It has been said of the wealthier portion of our manu-
facturing communities that in the case of most of them their fathers
or grandfathers wore clogs, and it is sometimes the fate of their
posterity to return to clogs again. Many of the wealthiest men of
this generation were born among the very poor, and so in a lesser
degree, owing to the fewer opportunities afforded in former times, it
has always been. When men become wealthy they are often marked
out for privilege in the true sense of the word. Hence we see the sons
of men who started poor and made a fortune raised to the peerage
and taking their seats among our hereditary legislators. But the
privileged classes and the wealthy classes are not commensurate.
They are not of the same bulk, and do not cover the same area. The
wealthy classes extend far and wide beyond the domain of privilege.
Many of the privileged classes are comparatively poor. The shrinkage
of the incomes derived from land has brought something like poverty
into many an aristocratic abode, and it may almost be sftid that the
pecuniary straits to which members of the aristocracy have been
driven have helped to make poverty conventionally respectable.
The existence of a leisured class, exempt from the necessity of
working for a livelihood, depends chiefly upon the right of bequest,
in the exercise of which a person who has acquired wealth leaves it
to his children at his death. This right, again, is one of the incidents
of the institution of private property, in recognition of which the
State guarantees to ndividuals the quiet possession of what they
247
may have acquired by their own exertions or inherited from their
ancestors. Private property, if not the creation of law, is dependent
upon law for its protection and for its secure transmission from one
individual to another. It is possible to imagine the passing of laws
which would put an end to it. The State might appropriate to
itself the property of all its citizens, and forbid them to acquire more.
The way to do this would be to prohibit them from working for their
own advantage, and to throw the results of their labour into a
common fund which should belong to the whole community. This
is one of the forms of socialism, the merits of which it is not by any
means our purpose to discuss. What we may observe, however, is
that society has never yet existed on that basis. In ancient times,
and in some countries, we find something like a common possession
of land, and the village communities in Eussia and India still
preserve some traces of the ancient practice, but in the countries of
the West the possession of land in severalty, in other words its
possession by private owners, seems to have been coeval with an early
stage in the progi'ess of civilisation. No great advance appears to
have been made in agriculture, or, so far as evidence goes, would
seem to have been possible, till a premium was put upon produc-
tion by a recognition of private ownership in land. By the Brehon
Laws as they existed in Ireland the land belonged to the sept or clan.
It was allotted to individuals for life, and on their death was
redistributed. The barbarous condition in which Ireland existed
for many centuries has been ascribed to this arrangement, while the
"magic " of proprietorship is held to be illustrated by the indomitable
industry of the French peasantry who for the most part own the land
they till. But land is a comparatively small part of the aggi-egate
wealth of a country like ours. How much of that vast aggregate
would be in existence to-day if the rights of private ownership had
been abolished a hundred years ago it is needless to conjecture. It
is sufficient to say that those rights are acknowledged in all civilised
countries, and always have been from the time when civilisation as
we understand it made any important advance. In all ages and in
all countries the amount of protection afforded them by the laws of
the State may be taken as the surest measure of the character of the
Government and the general welfare of the people.
But while property is not privilege, the right of acquiring it being
open and common to all, it must be admitted that it forms the basis
of the most obvious and the most irritating of class distinctions, and
carries with it many of the practical effects of privilege. The first
thing that strikes us in a survey of the community is the division
which everywhere exists between the rich and the poor. It may not
be true, as is sometimes asserted, that with us the rich are every
day becoming richer and the poor poorer. Judged by such tests as
248
THE HISTORY AND EFFECTS OF THE PRIVILEGED
are within our reach, the statement is one which it would not be easy
to make good. The income tax returns, the statistics of building
societies, and we may add, since we are on our own ground, the
marvellous results of co-operation, show that wealth is less unequally
distributed at the present time than it has been at any former
period of our history. Nevertheless the inequality is great, and
in some respects alarming. Wealth is a form of power. It gives to
those who possess it the command of labour, and makes them the
stronger party in any dispute that may arise over the division of
profits. Since the division is a simple one between those who find
the money and those who work for wages the contest takes
an abstract shape, as if two great powers were contending for
victory. Capital and labour figure upon the scene like super-human
beings whose interests are irreconcileable, and who are bound to
fight till one of them lies crippled in the dust. In reality it is all a
delusion, as we may hope will be some day demonsti-ated when
better methods are adopted and wealth is more generally diffused.
It foUows almost naturally that the two classes are kept very much
asunder. They do not live in the same part of the town. Cheaper
dwellings and the convenience of being near their work fix the
places where they are to take up their abode. They crowd
together in narrow streets and dingy surroundings, while the rich
betake themselves to the suburbs where the sky is not always over-
hung with smoke, and trees and fields are close at hand. Differences
of cost and of taste prevent the two classes from sharing in the same
amusements. They do not meet much even in church, though it used
to be said that there the rich and the poor meet together, God being
the maker of them all.
Class implies class feeling, and it is impossible to deny that the
feeling exists. It exists on both sides, among the poor as well as
among the rich. With the former it sometimes takes the shape of
servility — a degrading vice which happily is not spreading ; more
frequently of habitual deference, as if some tribute were naturally
due to those who are better off ; while with others the feeling is one
of mere dislike, seasoned with a spice of defiance and even of disdain.
The rich, on the other hand, too often give themselves airs as if the
mere circumstance of their being rich conferred upon them some right
which their poorer neighbours do not possess. They talk to them as to
inferiors, using certain forms of speech and certain tones of expression
which they would never think of employing with persons on a level
with themselves. They appear to forget the plain fact that assumption
of this kind is sheer impertinence. The poor owe them nothing.
Their wealth is but a personal accident — something which has
happened to them, but conveying no legal or moral title to superiority.
It is needless to say how many exceptions there are to the rule. We
249
CLASSES IN CIVILISED COMMUNITIES.
know them and honour them when they occur. If we wish to gauge
the moral worth of a rich man let us hear how he addresses his
workmen or his domestic servants, the porter who handles his
luggage, or those who wait upon him at his club or hotel. The
test is a slight one, but it is not the least decisive. The poor, who
are the chief sufferers from such ill-conditioned manners, would
perhaps think themselves avenged if they could see how the class
feeling based on superior wealth pervades the whole of society.
Those whom they group together as the rich, because they are all
richer than themselves, are themselves split up into innumerable
sections, which lie upon each other horizontally like the strata of
some geological formation, the order in which they lie being
determined by their comparative wealth. The tens of thousands,
the thousands, and even the hundreds keep well together. They all
know their place, or are made to know it. To a very large extent
money is taken as the measure of the man. The professions cross
these lines ; their business brings them into contact with people of
all classes, and they serve in some sense as a reconciling and uniting
medium. But even their position is more or less rigidly defined.
A wide social interval separates them from the tradesman and the
artisan, while an interval quite as wide leaves them only a permitted
and tolerated intrusion for other than professional purposes into the
ranks which lie nearer the skies. Society is furrowed all over with
class distinctions based solely upon wealth. If it did not happen
that money sometimes makes to itself wings, ours would soon
become like India — a country of castes from one generation to
another.
VI.
The history of the privileged classes is in a broad sense the history
of human society. It is a vast theme, and all we can do is to
attempt to convey some conception of the process which, as a matter
of fact, has led to existing social conditions. But, first, it may be
necessary to disabuse ourselves of some ideas which are apt to
influence our conclusions almost without our being aware of it.
There is a widely-spread notion that society as we find it is the
result of a deliberate arrangement devised by the ancestors of the
race; that it was in some way designed and planned and finally
fixed upon as the best that could be adopted. The supposition of a
voluntary choice implies that there was some other plan which
might have been selected had they thought fit. They might, for
example, have declared that in the society of the future there should
be neither kings nor nobles, neither rich nor poor, but that all its
members should be placed on a footing of perfect equality as regards
each other. This seems to be so fair that these distant ancestors
250
THE HI8T0BY AND EFFECTS OF THE PRIVILEGED
in rejecting it might well be held responsible for their choice, and be
regarded as justly chargeable with all the inconveniences, all the ills
and wrongs, that have resulted from their unwise decision. These
ideas must be set aside as the offspring of the imagination. There
is nothing to justify the supposition that the subject was ever
considered, that such alternative plans. ever existed, or that there
was ever anything in the way of consultation or choice as to the lines
along which society should travel. We may almost venture to say
that any such concert or decision was in the nature of things
impossible. At the furthest point to which we are able to trace the
existence of mankind we find them broken up into scattered and
independent communities, each pursuing its own course, each
developing itself out of previously existing conditions, and all more
or less hostile to each other. We find, as a matter of fact, that each
successive stage in the history of the race, or of any portion of the
race, has been the result of the stage previously reached. One
generation follows another, each inheriting the ideas and customs of
its predecessor, and generally improving upon them as intelligence
advances and as experience leads to the adoption of better methods,
but a distinct line of continuity is maintained throughout. So we go
further and further back till we reach a point whei'e history forsakes
us, and science aided by geological records takes up the lamp,
enabling us to see in the glimmering twilight the remote progenitors
of our race living in caves, or mud huts, or lake habitations,
sharpening Hints into arrow heads, and subsisting upon the raw
produce of the soil and such animals as they were able to kill.
Their situation cannot have been very desirable, but their desires
went for nothing except as motives for bettering their condition.
They had to struggle with nature, and they had to do so with very
imperfect weapons. Nevertheless, there were the elements of
heroism in their condition. They were the vanguard of the race;
it depended upon them what succeeding generations should be, and
it is of some importance to us that they came off victors in the
unequal contest.
We have then to exclude from our conception of the way in
which society has reached its present condition all ideas of design, of
deliberation, and of pre-arranged plans. In a moi-e exact sense than
that in which the remark has been made of the English Constitution,
it may be said that society is not a manufacture but a growth. It
naturally follows that all thoughts of blame or reproach must equally
be excluded. We have no right to censure our ancestors for not
having seen things as clearly as we do. Just as fairly might we
blame the child or the youth for not having the experience of the
full-grown man. We may fancy that we see points where they took
the wrong turn and might have done better. But they acted as we
251
do, according to their lights. They acted in harmony with the
spirit of the age in which they hved, making such changes as
circumstances seemed to demand, and as were within their power,
thus preparing a new field for the energies of their successors.
Moral causation is discernible in the passage from one stage to
another, but nothing like fatalism. The great secular forces in
operation have to deal with the human intelligence and will, and are
modified accordingly in their results. The process is a never-ending
one, and the present generation has its proper place in it. We have
to begin where our fathers left off, and endeavour to push the wheels
of progress a little further.
The active forces at work in the formation of society are to be
distinguished from its visible structure. What are they, and where
shall we find them ? We need not go far in our search. Here,
perhaps, we may borrow an illustration from geolog}^ We are told
and unhesitatingly believe that the globe on which we live has
undergone enormous and repeated changes during the millions upon
millions of years that it has been in existence. All that is now dry
land was once at the bottom of the ocean. Continents and seas
have changed places. The distribution of land and water in our
immediate neighbourhood was very different once from what it is
now. There was no sea between this country and the Continent.
A former school of geologists explained these changes by supposing
the occurrence of tremendous catastrophes from time to time which
broke in upon the settled order of things, after which it might be
said that nature resumed her usual course. Lyell put an end to this
theory by carefully investigating the physical agencies that are at
present at work in every part of the globe, and showing that, giving
them time enough, measurable by hundreds of thousands or millions
of years, they are adequate to explain the changes that have taken
place. We need not conjure up sudden catastrophes. The causes
now at work, with results that can be seen and measured, yield a
sufficient explanation.
It is much the same with the growth and development of society.
To explain the various forms it has assumed and the inequalities it
now exhibits we need only look at the causes which are in actual
operation. It is probable that no two men who are born into the
world are exactly alike in their physical and intellectual endow-
ments. Marriages are said to be made in heaven, but as we know
them on earth they may be said, as regards the mating of tempera-
ment and dispositions, to be pretty much a matter of chance, and the
result is such as it may be. Some children are weak and sickly from
their birth. Without great care they would not long survive, and
as they grow up they are ill fitted to battle with the storms of life.
Others are vigorous and hearty, and they turn out strong men, fit,
252
as the saying is, for anything. The differences are as great on the
side of the intellect. In some an eager curiosity seems to possess
them from their childhood. They have a quick observation which is
sharpened by exercise and adds every day to their practical know-
ledge of the world, and of the circumstances in which they live ;
while others are dull and indifferent, seeing but little through their
eyes, and turning what they see to little account. These differences
exist in every class; they are among our most familiar experiences.
There are other differences which we call moral, but which have for
the most part a congenital root. They may be modified by parental
training, but the capacity to give such training, and the disposition
to give it, only suggest a class of advantages which are very
unequally distributed. But moral qualities, however acquired and
however cultivated or neglected, often tell with decisive force upon a
future career. The will is a mysterious power. It seems to come
from our inmost self, and those, perhaps, are not wrong who see in
it the very essence of our individuality. Force of will is another
name for force of character. It varies with the individual, and we
all know the enormous practical difference there is between a weak
and a strong will. The weak will gives in at once before difficulties,
refusing to contend with them, and allowing judgment, so to speak,
to go by default ; whereas the strong will wrestles with them, and
generally ends by overcoming them. We recognise the strength
that resides in a "plodding man." He may seem rather dull, but
he has the faculty of not knowing when he is beaten. He pushes
on quietly and steadily from day to day, and gains his end at last.
These differences are not found for the first time in the present
generation. They have always been at work, and from the nature
of the case it is safe to assume that they must always have led to
corresponding results.
Along with these differences in the natural equipment of
individuals we have to recognise certain characteristics as moi'e or
less common to mankind, since they seldom fail to show themselves
when there is room and opportunity for their development.
Acquisitiveness is one of them — the love of possession, the love of
wealth. Akin to it is another, the love of power, the instinct of
domination or of domineering. We shall all readily recognise a third
in a thirst for distinction, a love of fame, a desire to stand high in the
estimation of the world, and more than a willingness to enjoy some
outward attestation of it. Happily there are also the sympathetic
virtues, the love of one's neighbours, kindness, generosity, pity.
Their influence is exerted in a quiet and unobtrusive sphere, but it
may be said that without them society would never have held
together. It has been said that the family is the nursery ground of
the social affections, the fruitful soil into which their seeds are
253
thrown ; but, granting that this is true, it must also be admitted that
the family invariably asserts itself as an independent interest, and
becomes in some sense a powerful rival of all other interests that lie
beyond its sphere. A man works for his family, all that he acquires
and is able to keep he desires to leave to his family. He loves them
so that if he were able he would assure to them and their
descendants the perpetual enjoyment of the competence, the social
position and perchance the honours which he has succeeded in
procuring for himself. We have no difficulty in recognising these
characteristics as existing and energetically at work within the
compass of our experience, nor can we doubt that they operated as
powerfully a thousand years ago as they do to-day. But the precise
way in which they have exerted themselves has been determined
by the stage of civilisation that was reached, by the condition of
society and the temper of the age. We have amongst us a class of
men whom it was once the fashion to call "the captains of industry."
In earlier days they would have been captains of a different sort.
The place now held by industry as a means of making fortunes was
then held by the sword. Money was then scarce, and the multiplied
agencies by which wealth is now acquired had no existence. Land
was the chief form of wealth, and this fell to those who had the power
to take and keep it. Laws were then very fragile ; they could be
easily broken, and such central authority as existed was too weak,
and perhaps not too willing, to enforce obedience. Turbulent spirits
endowed with strong arms and strong wills had then many chances
open to them which gradually disappeared before the increasing
reign of law. Such men would not pass muster to-day before any
moral tribunal, but they must be included among the forces by
which the social fabric was reared.
VII.
The earliest societies of the Teutonic stock, of which we are an
offshoot, appear to have been of a simple type. The affairs of each
community were administered by the general body of its members,
who met for the purpose at stated intervals. They were all on the
same footing, owing no allegiance to any superior, and regarding each
other as equals. It is likely they had slaves, consisting of enemies
captured in war, strangers and persons who, having sunk into the
lowest depth of poverty, sometimes it is said through gambling, had
sold themselves for the means of living. But these classes were
not very numerous. The great bulk of the community — the whole
of it, considered politically — was composed of freemen who
recognised no subordination and no inferiority among themselves.
It is not necessary to suppose that there were no differences. Some
254
THE HISTORY AND EFFECTS OF THE PRIVILEGED
may have had more land than others ; some would be distinguished
by their wisdom in council, by their skill in arms, and by their
knowledge of affairs, and the influence thereby acquired would tend
to become hereditary in particular families, but there were no classes
and no class privileges. The basis of society was democratic. Only
when war broke out or an expedition was planned with a view to
conquest was it necessary to fix upon a leader, and then the choice
would naturally fall upon the one who was considered the wisest and
the bravest. It is easy to imagine circumstances which would lead to
a continuance of this arrangement. Frequent wars, frequent dissen-
sions with other communities, the constant presence of danger from
invaders of another race, would need a chief who should always be
in readiness to give the alarm and lead the attack. The influence
thus acquired would favour the establishment of powerful families
in which the chieftainship would become more or less hereditary.
In some such way as this Germany came at last to be divided among
a number of potentates who, without pretending to the regal title,
exercised supreme authority over the people within their several
territories. They were dukes, that is leaders, of the nation. In
after times, when the idea of sovereignty was introduced by the
example of Eome and the conquests of Charlemagne, some of them
became electors of the emperor and some of them emperors them-
selves. These old families or their representatives may be found
among the ruling families of Germany to-day. One of them, through
the Guelphs of Hanover, is on the throne of England.
The chiefs of the Teutonic people who remained at home did not
become kings, but it was different with those who took the lead in
foreign expeditions. The circumstances attending conquest led at
once to the establishment of the regal power, and we find kings of
Teutonic descent in Gaul, in the North of Italy, in Spain, and in our
own country. We need only mention the Heptarchy, the seven
kingdoms, as they are roughly counted, which were founded by the
various English invaders and were at last moulded into one kingdom
under the rule of Egbert. In this way royalty and royal families
arose, but naturally a good deal else rose with them. They had
their friends and associates, they required the assistance of leading
men, they had to exercise their authority through persons in whom
they could place confidence. Gradually a court was formed and
that meant an aristocracy, at first an aristocracy by office and then
an aristocracy by birth. There was a great deal of unallotted or
unappropriated land out of which grants could be made to the king's
favourites. By degrees the feudal system crept in first on the
Continent and then in England. It was a time of violence, a spirit
of rapacity widely prevailed, laws were of little force, there was no
settled order. It was a great thing in such circumstances to have
255
CLASSES IN CIVILISED COMMUNITIES.
the protection of some powerful personage who was able to defend
those who attached themselves to him against the attacks of other
parties, powerful against the smaller men, but less powerful than
himself. Hence arose a general disposition on the part of landowners
to surrender their lands to some great lord, receiving them back from
him on terms implying the reciprocal duties of fealty on one side and
protection on the other. The system reached its height when kings
entrusted the government of their provinces to some of these great
lords who gradually made themselves independent of the sovereign,
relying upon the support of their feudatories. In England the system
was not carried so far. William the Conqueror parcelled the land
out among his military followers, but he made those who held land
under his great barons, as well as the barons themselves, take an
oath of allegiance to himself. Originally the lands bestowed by the
Conqueror were revocable at the death of the holder, but this was
moi'e a matter of theory than of practice. The barons knew that
they had won them by the sword, and they were prepared to defend
them by the sword against the King himself. They became, in fact,
their own property, descendible to their heirs in the line of their
eldest sons. Hence the custom and law of primogeniture. Hence,
too, in later times, the anxiety of the peers of England and of the
untitled aristocracy of all degrees to keep their estates together and
send them down undiminished to their descendants. This was done
at one time, as has been said, by perpetual entail, and though this
practice has been abolished by the Legislature, legal ingenuity has
contrived to attain the same end by means of settlements periodically
renewed.
It has been necessary to trace this development in outline
inasmuch as the class privileges and distinctions which we see
amongst us to-day have their root in this older order of things, and
especially in the feudal system. We owe to it the hereditary
peei'age, the prestige of birth, the idea of a nobility of blood
descending through aristocratic veins from generation to generation.
We owe to it the modern conception, empty and pale as it has
become, of the knight, the esquire, and the gentleman. We owe to
it above all the idea of class, as distinguishing a part of the
comnmnity from the rest, an idea which has become seminal, giving
birth to a series of classes which ascend from the broad level of
undistinguished humanity, only of late emerging into citizenship,
through higher and higher circles till we reach the throne. The age
of feudalism has been followed by an age of industrialism. Industry
itself has the oldest origin of all, for it was only by industry that
the first steps were taken in the progress of mankind, and that great
men had anything to quarrel about. In England, especially on the
mercantile side, it obtained some honourable recognition at an early
256
THE HISTOBY AND EFFECTS OF THE PRIVILEGED
period, and the descendants of wool-staplers are now in the peerage.
But the workers, the actual producers, the men who ploughed the
land or tended the pastures, remained obscure, practically bound to
the soil they tilled and prevented by the law of settlement from
seeking to improve their position elsewhere. Industrialism in the
modern sense of the word dates from about the middle of the last
century. Its achievements have been on a gigantic scale. It has
produced fortunes surpassing those of the aristocracy. It has turned
the balance against them and become the dominant power in the
State. But the spirit of feudalism has conquered its conquerors.
They worship at the ancient shrines. They fashion themselves on
the models of the past. They hunger after distinctions which but
for their eagerness to possess them would by this time have been
effete. We live in a democratic age. Yet more peers have been
created during the last fifty years than within any former period of
equal duration, and the same ratio would probably be found to hold
good of the last ten years. Politicians of advanced principles accept
seats in the House of Lords, are grateful for baronetcies, and
appreciate the honour of being knighted Only lately a new
distinction has been bestowed upon the first magistrate in two of our
largest towns. They were Mayors, and they are now Lord Mayors.
This is not the place for hinting either at praise or blame. We
mention these facts purely for their historical significance.
VIII.
These facts suggest a question to which some reply must be given.
What is the relation between class privileges and class distinctions
on the one hand and civilisation on the other, and is the relation
such as would enable us to say that in proportion as civilisation
advances those privileges and distinctions will disappear? At first
sight the answer which history dictates does not seem at all favour-
able to civilisation. The earliest political societies of which we have
any certain knowledge were, according to modern ideas, the least
civilised; certainly much less so than those which succeeded them
a thousand years later. Yet in these earliest societies we find the
fewest class distinctions. One might almost venture to say that
there were none at all. In propoi'tion as these earliest ages were
left behind, as population and wealth increased, and a higher
standard of living was introduced, class distinctions sprang up and
multiplied. Wars were an eai'ly concomitant of civilisation, and as
they led to conquest and subjugation, class privileges and distinctions
of a very substantial and permanent character were the result. The
most civilised nations of to-day are among the most warlike, but as
civilisation has modified the character of war, making it at once
257
CLASSES IN CIVILISED COMMUNITIES.
more destructive while it lasts but less brutal in its effects upon the
conquered, it does not produce the social changes which it once
did. The growth of civilisation brought into existence new offices,
new occupations, and new arts; it gave a stimulus to trade, it
favoured the increase of knowledge among certain classes and in
certain directions; it opened a wide field for the activities of the
clergy who became its zealous allies, and were at one time the
scholars, legists, statesmen, and architects of the age. As with
other growths, there has been at every step a tendency to differentia-
tion, to the creation of fresh wants, and the production of special
agencies for the purpose of meeting them. It would be a mistake
to suppose that there has been much foresight or much deliberate
intention at work in the bringing about of these changes. The
practical force employed has been the rule of thumb. Society may
be said to have lived from hand to mouth, in other words, it has
taken up what we now rather grandly call "the problems of the day "
and given them the readiest solution. A curious uniformity may be
observed in the progress of society in lands far remote and in races
very different from each other. Among Teutons, Celts, and Slavs,
in Italy and in Greece, we find the same primitive assemblies and
an advance along almost parallel lines, special circumstances usually
of a geographical charactel* accounting for any divergence. Japan
affords a remarkable illustration. It is cut off from Europe by half
the world. It is inhabited by a race which has no affinity and no
connection with any of ours. Yet it seems to have made its way
through stages corresponding to those which figure in European
history. It has had its feudal system, and it has emerged from it in
much the same way that we did, but more rapidly, having the aid of
foreign examples. It is now a constitutional monarchy, with a
representative system and a Parliament like that at Westminster.
There is a wondrous similarity in the folk lore of all nations. The
most obvious explanation of these coincidences, political and
mythical, is that man is pretty much the same everywhere, allowance
being made for different capacities and different degrees of training,
and that the human intelligence when brought face to face with the
same facts generally takes the same course in dealing with them.
Ought we then to quarrel with civilisation for having handed down
to us distinctions of which our judgment disapproves and which we
wiould like to get rid of? And is it not strange that civilisation,
which we so highly honour and in the fruits of which we are so glad
to participate, should be chargeable with results which seem to be
anti-social and mischievous in their tendency? The truth is that
the word we use to describe the general progress of mankind has no
absolute meaning. " Civilisation" is a strictly relative term. Every
successive state of society has been civilised as compared with that
18
258
THE HISTORY AND EFFECTS OF THE PBIVILEGED
which preceded it. The civilisation of one age would be comparative
barbarism if prolonged into the next. Its great use at any stage is
to produce such intellectual and .social improvements as enable us to
find out its imperfections and to advance to something better. Out
of one set of experiences, much richer and finer than those of our
predecessors, we frame certain ideals reflecting a state of things
richer and finer still, and these ideals we cannot help wishing to
realise and embody for the benefit of ourselves and our children.
The founders of the American Commonwealth had an opportunity of
doing this systematically and on a great scale. They proclaimed
the equality of mankind, they based their Constitution on a
recognition of the equal rights of every member of the community,
and they made it a law that titles of nobility should neither be
accepted nor assumed by any of their citizens. The French followed
their example at the Eevolution. With them it was a work of
violence, carried out with dreadful deeds of blood, and an exhibition
of brutal passions which it is impossible to think of even now
without horror. The violence displayed is largely due to the
political difficulties which had to be overcome, and it has been^sadly
atoned for by the recurrent calamities of the last hundred years.
We have been going through the same process for the last two
centiu-ies, and of late rather swiftly. The final result so far is that
in point of political freedom, setting forms aside and looking only
at realities, we are abreast of both countries, as democratic as
France, and in some respects more democratic than the United
States, since the people have a more direct control of the government.
The thing which they have gained and we have not gained is social
equality. We are still a nation of classes.
IX.
Citizenship and the citizen. These words set forth the primary
relations which exist in civilised societies, and we may look forward
to a time when it will be universally acknowledged that to those
relations all others are subordinate. Very important advances have
already been made in this direction. By successive extensions of
the franchise the political inequahties which formerly prevailed have
been swept away, and all men who have assumed the ordinary
responsibilities of adult life have a share in the government of the
country. The share is not yet absolutely equal. Some have more
votes than others. They have qualifications in various constituencies
and can vote in all. Moreover, in certain elections for local purposes
the value of the vote varies with the ratable value of the property
to which the vote is attached. But these are merely the insignificant
survivals of a restricted franchise, and are doomed to disappear.
259
CLASSES IN CIVILISED COMMUNITIES.
Broadly speaking, complete political equality now prevails. The
village cottager goes to the ballot box along with the squire at the
manor house. The property qualification for a seat in the House
of Commons was abolished many years ago, but the wider freedom
thus given in the choice of representatives has acquired fresh
importance from the establishment of household suffrage. Thirty
years ago there was no chance of a working man being sent to
Parliament. There are several in Parliament now, and their number
is likely to be increased. A Warwickshire farm labourer, Joseph
Arch, has attained to the dignity of a county member, and the
representative of the Durham miners, himself for many years a
working miner, holds an office in the Government. In several
towns and counties working men have been placed on the Commission
of the Peace and share in the privileges of "the great unpaid." It is
not at all improbable that before long distinguished members of the
working class will be admitted to the Privy Council, and as the
principle determining the distribution of honours becomes more
democratic a considerable number may be held deserving of the
hondtir of knighthood. When once the question "why not?" is
fairly asked, the range through which such distinctions are dis-
tributed may become very wide indeed. Where privilege is
concerned the invidiousness it involves may be got rid of in either
of two ways, by levelling up or by levelling down, and those who
guide affairs may as a matter of policy prefer the former to the latter.
Such a course would be in harmony with the twofold character of
our Government, which is at once monarchical and democratic, and
it may well seem that the surest method of securing a long life to
social distinctions is to increase the number of those who have a
personal interest in maintaining them.
Tendencies of this kind will be regarded with suspicion by those
who keep the loftier ideal of citizenship in view. Distinctions may
lose much of their value by being more lavishly bestowed, but to
whatever extent they retain their accustomed prestige they exert a
dividing rather than a uniting force ; they help to perpetuate those
class divisions of which an intelligent and free people will aspire to
be rid. Political equality has been reached; what is much to be
desired is that political equality should give birth to a sense of social
equality, and there is reason to believe that this will be its ultimate
result. Of all existing class privileges the greatest is that which is
represented by the House of Lords, and one of the problems of the
day is to know exactly what to do with it. The hostility with which
it is regarded by a large section of politicians may be to some extent
softened by remembering that the House has not made itself; that
the peers have not by mere ambitious devices placed themselves in
the position they now occupy. The institution comes to us as one
260
THE HISTORY AND EFFECTS OF THE PRIVILEGED
of the historical bequests of a distant past; it has been the growth
of many centuries. That it is out of harmony with the rest of our
institutions is pretty generally admitted. It resembles the Crown in
being hereditary, but there the resemblance ends. The Crown exists
by a Parliamentary title. Those prerogatives which formerly served
as the pretext for arbitrary power have been shorn away, and those
that remain are virtually put in commission to be employed partly
by the Cabinet and partly by Courts of Justice in the interests of the
people. The Crown really acts in a representative capacity, just as
much, one may almost ventui-e to say, as if the head of the State
were elected every four years. No change of the same character
has been undergone by the House of Lords. Its members, or those
more distinguished membei's who lead the rest, are no doubt fully
aware that the powers theoretically vested in them have been
practically much diminished, but theory counts for something, and
in point of theory the Lords are co-ordinate in authoritj- with the
Commons, while they hold no responsibility either to the Crown or
to the people. Some change may be distinctly foreseen in the near
future, and whatever plan may be adopted there can be but little
doubt that it will be based directly or indirectly upon the principle
of representation. The social influence of the peerage would probably
survive its political power, but it would enter upon a descending
scale, and the titles which now derive so much importance from the
substantial prerogatives attached to them would become mere
honorary decorations.
X.
As aids in the advance towards social equality two things hold the
first place — education and good manners. Perhaps these two things
are so far identical that the one may seem to imply the other, but
they are not commensurate, and they are not always found together.
Education is not invariably successful in teaching the rudiments of
refinement. It sometimes produces a fastidiousness and an
exclusiveness which are hardly less tolerable than the pretensions
founded on rank and wealth. On the other hand we often meet
with persons for whom education has done but little, and worldly
fortune perhaps still less, but who exhibit in their conduct a gentle-
ness, a considerateness, and a self-restraint, together with a natural
civility and courteousness, which are signally wanting in many w'ho
would deem themselves their betters. Education is wanted in order
to furnish the basis of a common understanding between people
whom social distinctions help to keep apart. Between knowledge
and ignorance there cannot be much fellowship. A man of large
information finds himself in some difficulty when brought into
intercourse with another man whose knowledge extends no further
261
CLASSES IN CIVILISED COMMUNITIES.
than the occupation and incidents of his daily life. They cannot
get on together very far. In matters pertaining to history and
philosophy, to art and science, to literature, and even to the general
principles of politics, they soon have to part company. This perhaps
is the most formidable of the divisions that keep men asunder, and
till this middle wall of partition is broken down the social equality
towards which every feeling of patriotism and citizenship would lead
us to aspire is to a large extent unattainable. Happily we live at a
time when it is possible to cherish the largest hopes of improvement
in this direction. The schools established under the Education Acts
have brought elementary instruction within the reach of every child,
while the evening classes and the higher gi-ade schools supply
educational facilities which not long ago were only within the means
of the well-to-do. The working classes should strive to the utmost
of their power to give their children the advantages of a good
education, and at the cost of some self-denial boys and girls of
promise should be sent to the best schools within reach. There are
intermediate schools in most of the large towns, and it will soon be the
business of the Government to establish them everywhere. Every
lad who passes from the elementary to the intermediate school and
thence perhaps to the university helps to bridge the chasms of the
classes and to raise the standard of self-respect in that from which
he sprang. The question of good manners is one of greater delicacy,
though hardly of less importance. We have already made an
exception which takes from it all invidiousness, and we might, had
we the opportunity, single out thousands from among the poor who
would serve as admirable examples of everything we could wish to
suggest. Among the many incidental benefits which have been
derived from trade unions and friendly societies is the moral
discipline they have imposed upon their members, the effects of
which are everywhere recognisable. One could hardly desire any-
thing better "than that a discipline of this kind could be extended
over the whole area of the population. There is no reason why one
class should have any advantage over another in those refined and
gracious manners which are a part of the salt of life. They can be
acquired at no cost. They need no teacher. With thought and
observation everyone can teach himself. It is in this line that any
class can bring itself abreast of all other classes and outstrip them if
it chooses, while no achievement would tend more efifectually to
obliterate class distinctions. The best results of civilisation are not
seen in those great enterprises which attract the attention of
mankind, nor in the exploits of science, nor in the accumulation of
wealth, nor in the extension of trade. Its fairest fruits are found in
the habits and manners of the people.
262
IHE HISTORY OF THE POOR LAW.
1
BY GRAHAM WALLAS.
'T^HE Poor Eates are part of the price which we have to pay for
personal freedom. At the time when personal freedom was the
exception rather than the rule we had no Poor Law, and
indeed could have had none. In the serf villages of Saxon
and Norman England, men, women, and children were all too
valuable to be allowed to look to anyone but their lord for their
support. A law of William the Conqueror enacts, for instance, that
" bondmen shall not go away from their lands, nor make device how
they may defraud their lord of the service due to him ; and if any
bondman shall so depart, a man shall not harbour him nor his goods,
but shall cause him to return to his lord with all that is his."
Within the village the stewai"d took care that the total of his lord's
people, the "souls" as the Eussians would say, should not be
diminished. An orphan boy might cost for the moment more than
he was worth, but the steward could easily billet him on some
childless pair, and he would soon be able to pay the service of three
days' work a week for a freshly cleared villein's holding, or toil
hopelessly all his life long as a slave with neither land nor hut of
his own. A girl would some day bring up bondmen for my lord, or
even if she married into another's homage would at least pay her
merchet fine. The sick might recover to enrich their master, the
old could be continued on their land and supported by the sons who
performed their services and would some day succeed them. One
even seems to detect a certain disinterested kindliness in the entries
on the manor rolls which record that some old woman held her
scrap of land by the ser\nce of carrj-ing water to the hapnakers, or
some old man did "cartage on his back."
Inside the little walled towns things were indeed different,
especially in those which had won by hard bargaining the right of
freeing any man's bondman who for a whole year had borne his
portion of the town burdens. The personal freedom of the townsmen,
restricted as it was, brought with it the problem of poverty in
something hke its modern form. But the townsmen were few in
numbers; when Domesday Book was made the eighty English towns
only contained about one hundred and fifty thousand inhabitants.
They were on the whole a prosperous folk, and the trader and
craftsman soon learnt the advantage of compact association, involving
263
THE HISTORY OF THE POOR LAW.
as a rule mutual succour in times of need. They were also intensely
religious, and casual destitution could be dealt with by the offerings
in the parish church, or the alms daily distributed at the gate of
that cathedral or abbey close which sometimes took up half the
space within the walls.
In such a social system public authority in the persons of the
sheriff and his men would only be forced to consider what to do with
the homeless and breadless, when some anxious owner of geese or
swine pointed out a group of wanderers camping by the road side
without visible means of subsistence. In such cases the answer was
easy; if the vagrant's master were known let him be sent back to his
own village, if he had no master, or his master were untraceable, let
him choose one or himself be chosen. So the Assize of Clarendon
(a.d. 1166) orders that the vagrant "be taken and held until his lord
come to give surety for him, or until he himself find safe pledges."
Lunatics wandered about arid perished, the crippled and the blind
and the ingrained vagabond haunted the gate-houses of the great
country monasteries, but the village poor rubbed along as Langland's
touching lines afterwards described them —
Poor folk in cottages
Burdened with children and chief rent to their lords ;
That which with spinning they may spare they spend it in house hire,
And in milk and meal to make cakes with.
To satisfy their children that cry after food.
They themselves also suffer much hunger
And woe in winter time, with waking a-nights
To rise to the reel, to rock the cradle,
To card and to comb, to clout and to wash.
To rub and to reel, rushes to peel.
So that it is pity to tell or in rhyme show
The woe of these women that dwell in cottages,
And of many men also that much woe suffer.
Both a-hungered and athirst, who turn the best outward,
And be abashed for to beg, and will not have it known
What they need at their neighbours. *
But by the beginning of the fourteenth century the old order was
already breaking up. The growing practice of keeping exact accounts,
and treating every village and its inhabitants merely as a means of
profit making for an absentee lord, was making serfdom more
intolerable and stirring up a formidable spirit of resistance. The
scientific law which was being administered in the king's courts,
while it often injured the serf by identifying him with the Eoman
slave, was nevertheless an engine by which customary rights when
once gained could be stiffly upheld. Edward I., by destroying in
large measure the private jurisdiction of the lords, had gone far to
• "Vision of Piers, the Plowman" (Passus X., 72-87), written about a.d. 1390.
A few modern words have been substituted for others which have become obsolete.
264
THE HISTOBY OP THE POOR LAW.
paralyse that constant pitiless discipline by which alone serfdom
could be made to pay. Above all, a steadily increasing number of
the villagers had bought freedom from forced labour and held their
lands at a money rent, or, having no land, were serving for a money
wage. The towns were growing larger, wealthier, and more free,
and that greatest of all revolutionary forces, a rise in the general
standard of life, was beginning to make itself felt. It was therefore
on a social system already showing signs of disintegi'ation that there
fell the Black Death, when it slew one-half of the population of
England (1348). From that time forward serfdom was doomed.
The King's Council, frightened by the rise of wages which instantly
followed the Death, attempted indeed through the " Statute of
Labourers" (1349) to abolish at one stroke all personal freedom below
the fi-eeholding class. "Every man and woman," they declared,
"of our realm of England, of whatever condition he be, free or bond,
able in body and within the age of three score years, not living by
merchandise or exercising any craft, nor having of his own whereof
he may live, nor land of his own about whose tillage he may himself
occupy, and not serving any other, if he in convenient service (his
estate considered) be required to serve, he shall be bounden to serve
him which so shall him require ; and take only the wages which were
accustomed to be given in the places where he is to serve the twentieth
year of our reign of England (1347) or five or six other common
years next before, provided always that the lords be preferred before
all other in retaining their bondmen or their land-tenants in their
service." Thirty years later came the Peasants' Eevolt, under "Wat
Tyler, to quicken the change. The king's troops could conquer the
peasants, but they could not conquer the fact that free labour now
paid better than bond. John Smyth, the old stewai'd of the Lords
of Berkeley, describing long afterwards the "husbandries" of Lord
Thomas of Berkeley at the end of the fourteenth century, says :
"Then began the times to alter, and he with them (much occasioned
by the insurrection of Wat Tyler and generally of all the commons
of the land). And then instead of managing his demesnes in each
manor with his own servants, oxen, &c., under the oversight of the
reeves of the manor . . this lord -began to take in other men's
cattle into his pasture grounds by the week, month, and quarter
. . and after, in the reign of Henry IV., let out by the year still
more and more by the acre. . . But for the plough none gaineth
thereby but he that layeth his eye or hand daily upon it." '•'
Throughout the fifteenth century the improvement in agriculture
which free labour rendered possible made the rents, at w^hich
services were commuted or land held, constantly easier to pay, and
the wages of agricultural labourers bought more food than they have
• "Lives of the Berkeleys." Vol. ii., p. 6.
265
THE HISTORY OF THE POOR LAW.
ever bought since. This delayed for a time the appearance of those
darker social symptoms which a system of free contract in agriculture
has always tended to produce. The many laws which were passed
during the fifteenth century to regulate the condition of agricultural
labour were merely cruel and useless attempts to bring wages back
to their old level, or to prevent the labourer from moving in search
of work, or living expensively, or apprenticing his children to the
town crafts.
The old German rhyme which says that ' ' when the peasant has
money the whole world has it" was certainly true of this time. The
towns, through their rapidly growing commerce and the increased
demand for their manufactures, enjoyed a full share of that general
prosperity which the Wars of the Koses and the occasional confusion
of the central government did little to check. Casual distress of
course even in times of prosperity is an ever-present fact of town
life, but the alms of the church were supplemented in the fifteenth
century by a system of "hospitals" and almshouses often officially
administered by the town authorities, and by occasional gifts, such
as "twelve pence to the poor man keeping the poor child," from the
town chest. '■'
In the sixteenth century, however, all the problems which the
period of prosperity had delayed presented themselves with a tragic
intensity that compelled the attention of the whole nation. The
landowners found that the system of free labour gave them a more
absolute power in the management of their land than they had ever
enjoyed under the old system of serfdom. The rise of the wool
industry tempted them to dispossess by force or fraud the
customary tenants of their holdings, to turn the arable land into
pasture, and to lower wages by dispensing with labour. At the.same
time the fall in the value of money, due at first to depreciation of
the coinage and afterwards to the importation of silver, while it made
customary rents almost ridiculously low and put the copyholder into
as good a position as the freeholder, reduced the already small
earnings of landless labourers down to the starvation point. Professor
Ashley is probably right in his contention that the dissolution of the
monasteries between 1536 and 1539 rather threw upon the roads a
number of sturdy beggars than deprived the industrious poor of a
means of assistance in hard times. Yet the dissolution at least
destroyed the only widespread organisation which made any pretence
of dealing with the problem, and the State was now left to face a
condition of things which was becoming every year more intolerable.
A vigorous discussion on the proper principles of poor relief was,
during the Keformation, carried on throughout Europe both by
Catholic and reforming theologians. By this discussion, and by the
• Mrs. J. R. Green's "Town Life in the Fifteenth Century." Vol. i., p. 41.
266
THE HISTORY OF THE POOR LAW.
action of some of the continental cities, the distinction between
"deserving" and "undeserving" poverty had been made familiar to
every European statesman, and in 1530 an Act was passed ordering
that "aged and impotent persons" should be licensed to beg within
a defined district, and that beggars "whole and mighty in body and
able to labour" (giving alms to whom was forbidden under penalties)
should be flogged at the cart-tail and sent to the places where they
were born. This was repealed in 1536 by an Act ordering that the
officers of towns and parishes shall succour the impotent with
voluntary charitable alms in such wise as none of them shall of
necessity be compelled to wander and go openly in begging, and
somewhat vaguely providing that valiant beggars shall be set and
kept to continued labour in such wise as they may get their own
living with the continued labour of their hands. On these lines a
subsequent series of Acts proceeded gradually, introducing more and
more compulsion into the gathering of "voluntary charitable alms,"
taking the collection of them from the church into the hands of the
civil authorities, and providing more and more definitely for the
means of setting the able bodied to work. Finally the great "Act of
Elizabeth" (1601) established the complete system of parochial poor
law as it existed almost unchanged for the next two centuries. By
this Act two or more "substantial householders" were to be yearly
nominated by the Justices of the Peace to serve as Overseers of the
Poor in each parish. The overseers were to raise " weekly or
otherwise, by taxation of every inhabitant, such competent sums of
money as they shall think fit," for (a) setting to work the children
of all such whose parents shall not be thought able to keep and
maintain them ; (6) for setting to work all such persons married and
unmarried having no means to maintain them, and who use no
ordinary and daily trade of life to get their living by; (c) for
providing a convenient stock of flax, hemp, wool, thread, iron, and
other ware and stufi", to set the poor on work ; (d) for the necessary
relief of the lame, old, impotent, blind, and such other among them
being poor and not able to work. Children whose parents cannot
maintain them are to be apprenticed till the age of four-and-twenty
years in the case of boys, and twenty-one years or the time of
marriage in the case of girls. The overseers may, with the leave of
the Lord of the Manor, erect houses for the impotent poor on any
waste or common. No provision is made for the erection of any
house in which work may be done, and it was evidently intended that
the flax, hemp, &c., should be worked up at the houses of the poor.
But an Act of 1576 had already empowered the justices of each
county to erect "houses of correction " in which "such as be already
grown up in idleness and so rogues at this present" should be set
to work under strict prison discipline; and the justices were now
267
THE HISTORY OF THE POOR LAW.
ordered to commit to these places or to the common gaol those who
refused to work on materials pi'ovided by the parish. What they
had to expect at the houses of correction may be seen from one of
the rules of the Suffolk House for the year 1589 — "Item, it is
ordered and agreed upon that every strong or sturdy rogue at his or
her first entrance into the said house shall have twelve stripes upon
his bare skin with the said whip provided for the said house ; and
every young rogue or idle loiterer six stripes with the said whip in
form aforesaid. And that everyone of them, without fail, at their
first coming into the said house, shall have put upon him, her, or
them some clogs, chain, collars of iron, ringle or manacle, such as
the keeper of the said house shall think meet." No wonder that
Mr. Hext, J. P., of Somersetshire, says that when he sent about this
time "divers wandering suspicious persons to the house of correction,
all in general would beseech me with bitter tears to send them
rather to the gaol."
The new Act was only gradually carried out. In 1622 " A Well-
wisher" complains, in a tract called "Grievous Groans for the Poor,"
that "though the number of the poor do daily increase, there hath
been no collection for them, no not these seven years, in many
parishes of this land, especially in country towns ; but many of those
pai'ishes turneth forth their poor, yea and their lusty labourers that
will not work, or for any misdemeanour want work, to beg, filch,
and steal for their maintenance, so that the country is pitifully
pestered with them ; yea and the maimed soldiers that have ventured
their lives and lost their limbs on our behalf are also thus requited.
So they are turned forth to travel in idleness (the highway to
hell) . . until the law bring them unto the fearful end of
hanging." In Southampton, and probably in many other places,
voluntary contributions continued to be collected by the church-
wardens until the middle of the seventeenth century instead of the
compulsory rate ordered by the Act, and many parishes kept to the
plan laid down in an Act of 1547, and sent round the paupers to be
employed by the ratepayers in turn. In particular, that part of the
Act which related to the provision of work seems to have been only
partially and unsuccessfully adopted from the first ; and indeed the
experiment of handing out a stock of flax or wool to be worked up
by unemployed agricultural labourers, tramps, and village drunkards,
without supervision or the means of preventing theft, must often
have been abandoned as soon as it was tried. Nor was that Act of
1628 likely to be more successful which permitted the churchwardens
and overseers of the poor to establish I'egular parish workshops, and
"set up, use, and occupy any trade, mystery, or occupation, only for
the setting on work and better relief of the poor." The overseers
were indeed, as a rule, either hard-worked farmers, who held their
268
THE HISTORY OF THE POOR LAW.
office unwillingly and did not wish to add to its duties, or small
manufacturers who would not be eager to establish a competing
business.
The county houses of correction, on the other hand, being regular
workhouses of a somewhat brutal type, did exercise a very real
deterrent effect. But they were expensive, and the Justices of the
Peace in Quarter Sessions have always been anxious to keep the
county rate as low as possible. The Act of 1601 assumes their
existence, but in 1596 it was stated that they had been "put down
in most parts of England,"* and an Act of 1609, after complaining
that the "said houses of connection have not been built," orders that
they shall be provided for every county, "together with mills,
twines, cards, and such like necessary implements to set the said
rogues, itc, on work." This, however, was not done in all counties,
and the magistrates seem often to have fallen back upon the
savage old vagrant laws, which required less troublesome and
expensive arrangements. "I have heard the rogues and beggars,"
says a writer in 1646, "curse the magistrates unto their faces
for providing such a law to whip and brand them and not provide
houses of labour for them."t But the houses of coiTection
were still thought of as a necessary part of the poor-law scheme,
and the word "workhouse," when used by contemporary writers,
refers to the county establishment and not to the little parish
pooi-houses.
Indeed almost as soon as the Act of Elizabeth began to be tested
by experience it seems to have been felt that the fourteen thousand
odd English parishes, with their varying and often tiny populations,
were extremely inconvenient units for the administration of a system
which needed detailed skill and watchfulness and a thorough grasp
of principle if it was to succeed at all. In the great plan of
centralised poor-law reform which Charles I. issued in the form of
a commission to the Privy Council, the almost obsolete police
division of the hundred is taken as the main unit of supervision.
The magistrates are to gather together once a month the parish
officers of each hundred, and examine them as to how far they
have done their duty in the execution of the laws, reporting the
results of their examination and the penalties they have inflicted to
the sheriff, who is to forward their reports to the Lords Com-
missioners of the Priv}'^ Council. But while this sort of routine
office work was just that which the county justices, already almost
entirely unpaid, would be least likely to carry out with anything like
regularity, Charles's whole scheme was certain to be resisted as part
* Rilton Turner. " History of Vagrants," p. 125.
t Quoted by Eden. Vol. i., p. 169.
269
THE HISTORY OF THE POOR LAW,
I
of an unconstitutional attempt to legislate without Parliament. It
therefore had no effect, and the thirty thousand overseers continued
to administer the law according to their own lights.
During the Civil War the law remained unchanged, and the
Settlement Act of 1662, which followed directly upon the Eestora-
tion, simply gave effect to the evil tendencies w^hich were the certain
result of parochial administration. The old laws by which the lord
was enabled to recapture his escaped serf had left traces upon
various Vagrant Acts in the form of ill-defined directions that rogues
and beggars should be sent back to the places in which they were
born or had lived. The notion, however, of the wandering labourer
as a valuable piece of property had now, after three centuries of free
labour, given way to the proved experience that under modern social
conditions he is a certain source of expense to any district which
may have to deal with him. Therefore the landlords were now as
anxious to force the loosely attached members of the population into
each other's villages as they had been to claim them for their own.
The Act of 1662 provided a regular machinery for so doing. It
recites that " by reason of some defects in the law, poor people are
not restrained from going from one parish to another, and therefore
do endeavour to settle themselves in those parishes where there is
the best stock [of materials for parish manufacture] , the largest
commons or wastes to build cottages, and the most wood for them
to burn and destroy ; and, when they have consumed it, then to
another parish, and at last become rogues and vagabonds, to the
great discouragement of parishes to provide stocks where it is liable
to be devoured by strangers." It therefore enacts that the justices
may remove out of a parish any newcomer who is not occupying a
tenement worth ten pounds annually, unless he bring a certificate
from the minister and one churchwarden and overseer of his former
parish acknowledging their responsibility for his relief, or can induce
some inhabitant to become surety for any expense which he may
cause. This Act at once divided England into fourteen thousand
warring communities, each determined, at whatever cost to the
national welfare, to throw its burden of involuntary charity upon
its neighbour. A huge code of case law, developed by hundreds of
judgments and appeals, was founded upon the muddled sentences of
the original Acts. Every possible subtlety as to the effect of every
variety of hiring or apprenticeship, or the validity of indentures
given by a parish where the churchwardens and overseers were the
same persons, was defined to a hair's breadth, while the incurable
vagrant, the too ambitious labourer, the widow, the lunatic, the
invalid, the miserable causes and instruments of this warfare, were
carted and whipped and scorned and driven backwards and forwards
from one cruel little parish to another.
270
THE HISTORY OF THE POOR LAW.
The outburst of brutal materialism which followed the return of
Charles II. seems to have checked even the attempts which had
been made by certain of the great towns to deal with their poor on
some more reasonable plan than a necessarily vain struggle to drive
them over the town boundaries. During the Commonwealth there
had existed a "corporation for the poor of London," whose president
was the Lord Mayor. Two broadsheets issued by this body in
1655 are preserved in the British Museum. In these the governors
announce that they do at present by the pious assistance of voluntary
charity "maintain and educate about 100 poor children in learning
and arts," and that they have from year to year given public notice
of their having a stock of flax, hemp, and tow at their two work-
houses at Blackfriars and in the Minories, and that "many hundreds
of poor people and families are employed by the said corporation in
the manufactures of spinning hemp, flax, and tow, and weaving of
it into cloth." But the "pious assistance" seems to have come to
an end at the Kestoration, and clauses were inserted in the Act of
1662 giving powers for the reconstruction of the corporation and the
levying of a special rate on the metropolitan parishes. These powers
were, however, not exercised till 1696, when the end of the seven-
teenth century had brought about a reaction in favour of serious social
and religious endeavour. In that year, William III. , when appointing
his new Board of Trade, instructed them to "consider of pi'oper
methods of setting on work and employing the poor, and making
them useful." In the same year a Bristol merchant named John
Cary proposed the erection of a workhouse for the united parishes
of Bristol. Two years later a new "corporation" was formed for
London, and several houses in Bishopsgate Street were bought. Into
these houses were taken "the poor distressed children that lay up
and down in the streets of the city," and others for each of whom
the churchwardens of the various city parishes paid a shilling a
week. There were about four hundred in all, and one nurse was
provided for every thii'ty "to see that they are well fed, clothed, and
lodged," as well as a labour master to superintend the spinning
work, and a school master and mistress to teach them to read and
instruct them in their catechism. The expense outside the contri-
butions of the parishes was borne by voluntary charities and " that
little which they all earn by their labour." It was noticed as an
effect of this that in 1702 the number of young criminals that were
arraigned at the session house had much decreased. Another part
of the establishment was inhabited by the infirm and sick whom
"four able and generous physicians and a skilful surgeon" attended
gratis, the medicines being given by the Apothecaries' Company.
Work for the able bodied was provided in the manner ordered by
the Act of Elizabeth, the corporation advertising that they "deliver
271
THE HISTOBY OF THE POOB LAW.
out at their workhouse, five days a week, wool and flax to all who
come for it, to be spun at their own habitations, and pay the best
prices that are anywhere paid." Beggars, vagrants, and those who
refuse to work are kept in the house and put to such hard labour
that "many have voluntarily entered themselves in the late king's
and the queen's service, and others have transplanted themselves to
the Western Plantations."
Meanwhile Gary, at Bristol, had succeeded after many difficulties
in obtaining a private x^ct incorporating all the town parishes into a
union, and had brought his fellow townsman to share for the moment
his own warm philanthropy and sanguine hopes of social justice. A
workhouse was established of which he writes a few years later :
" The success hath answered our expectation ; we are freed from
beggars ; our old people are comfortably provided for ; our boys and
girls are educated to sobriety, and brought up to delight in labour;
our young children are well looked after, and not spoiled by the
neglect of ill nurses ; and the face of our city is so changed already
that we have great reason to hope that these young plants will
produce a virtuous and laborious generation, with whom immorality
and profaneness may find but little encouragement."
The example of Bristol was followed by Plymouth, Worcester,
Hull, Exeter, and other places, all of which obtained private Acts for
the erection and support of workhouses within the next few years.
The results, both in suppressing vagrancy and keeping down the
rates, were so good that in 1722 a general Act w^as passed allowing
parishes either singly or in combination to build workhouses, and to
refuse relief to all who would not enter them. At once a very large
number of workhouses were erected in many parts of England, and
particularly in the suburban parishes of London. Their first effect,
especially where the rule refusing outdoor relief was strictly enforced,
was shown in a very considerable decrease of the rates.
Now those who administered the workhouses were under no
illusion as to the cause of this decrease. In a book published in
1725, describing about a hundred of the newly-established houses, a
correspondent from Rumford writes : "I must, sir, observe to you
that the advantage of the workhouse to the parish does not arise
from what the people do towards their subsistence, but from the
apprehension the poor have of it." The Oxford correspondent
writes: "Some who received alms of the parish appear to have
money of their own, and strive to work to keep themselves out of
these (as they call them) confinements." Of Maidstone it is said :
"Great numbers of lazy people, rather than submit to the confine-
ment and labour of the workhouse, are content to throw off the mask
and maintain themselves by their own industry."
But the legislature and the governing classes generally were still
272
THE HISTORY OF THE POOR LAW.
dominated by the fixed idea that the work of paupers ought to be
actually profitable, and would be profitable if it were carefully
organised. Sir Matthew Hale, one of the wisest and best men of his
time, in his "Discourse concerning Provision for the Poor," written
some time before 1662, advocates the building of workhouses for
unions of parishes, and the employment of the poor in them. "By
this means," he says, "the wealth of the nation will be increased,
manufactures advanced, and everybody put into a capacity for eating
his own bread." John Locke's report to the Board of Trade,
written in 1697, contains exact calculations as to the value of the
labours of young children and of those who being decayed of their
full strength could yet do something. Even Henry Fielding, with all
his experience as a police magistrate and his own practical good sense,
suggested in 1753 that the workhouse might be made a place where
industrious destitute men might support themselves by the sale of
their work ; and lesser men than Hale and Locke and Fielding, issued,
from the middle of the seventeenth till the end of the eighteenth
century, a constant succession of pamphlets advocating various
schemes for "employing the poor to profit " generally by engaging them
in the woollen or linen manufactures. Rose-coloured accounts were
given of the commercial success of such experiments in Holland, and
the existence of a destitute and degraded class who may be set to work
was sometimes represented as a positive advantage to a nation. " We
have wool enough," write "Several Well-wishers" in 1679, "fullers
earth enough, vagrants, petty felons, nurses of debauchery, &c.,
sufficiently enough to make cloth enough to revive the glory, wealth,
strength, and safety of the whole nation."* This idea perverted the
administration of the new workhouses from their very beginning.
The good moral and social effects of a well-managed workhouse were
little thought of, while elaborate accounts were annually required of
the cost of materials and the profit from the work. Boys who were
eventually to be sent to sea were kept all day long for years at
oakum-picking or twine-spinning, although their labours "did not
more than pay the charge of the masters of the children's work, the
wheels, and the waste they made." t Defoe indeed objected, in his
tract "Giving alms no charity" (1704), to the whole plan of parish
work. "Suppose now," he said, "a workhouse for the employment
of children sets them to spinning of worsted; for every skein of
worsted these poor children spin there must be a skein the less spun
by some poor person or family that spun it before." His protest,
however, seems to have had little effect, though a clause in the
private Act for Worcester, "that no cloth or stuff, either woollen or
* Proposals for promoting the woollen manufacturing promoted by " Several
Well-wishers," 1679.
t An account of several workhouses, 1725.
273
THE HISTORY OF THE POOR LAW.
linen, manufactured in the workhouse or houses of correction shall
be sold by retail within the city of Worcester and the liberties
thereof," was a further warning that the traders might object to any
serious extension of the system. But when the annual accounts of
every corporation showed unanswerably that even the best-managed
workhouses were certain to be a source of heavy expense, a general
reaction followed in favour of the old system of parochial selfishness
and brutality. Of Bristol, where John Gary had begun his
experiment thirty years before with such splendid hopes, it is said,
in 1728 : "The magistrates have that city in such excellent regulation
that foreign beggars dare not appear; they are not troubled with
obnoxious sights so common with us, their workhouses are terrible
enough to them, for as soon as any of them are espied in the city
they are taken up and whipped." '■• The explanation is given by
another writer in 1732. "As soon as the poor children," he says,
"came to do anything tolerably well, that they might have been
assisting to the younger and less practised, they went off to sea, or
were apprenticed in the city, by which means the public were so far
benefited, thovigh the corporation bore the loss of the charge of
teaching them, and of all the tools with which they were to work and
of the materials for it, for they made nothing perfect or merchantable
fi'om their work but only spoiled the materials."
With this reaction from the workhouse system of 1722 all
consistent principle or generous motive disappeared for a time from
the administration of the Poor Law. Dr. Burn, writing in 1764,
describes in a long passage of stern sarcasm the conception which
the country overseers had formed of their duties towards the poor —
"to prevent them from coming into the parish ... to send
them out into the country a begging ... to bind out poor
children apprentices, no matter to whom or to what trade, but to
take especial care that the master live in another parish ... to pull
down cottages, that is to depopulate the parish in order to lessen
the poor rate." But since all parishes were equally eager to
get rid of their responsibility, it was impossible for any to succeed
in doing so, and every village had its list of "pensioners" receiving
their weekly doles, and its frowzy little poorhouse occupied, as the
report of 1834 aftei'wards described it, "by three or four dissolute
families mutually corrupting each other."
In London things were much worse. There in the first quarter
of the eighteenth century had begun that ghastly period of cheap gin
and shameless drunkenness, the horror of which still lives in
Hogarth's engi-avings. Already in 1715 a Committee of the Com-
mons had reported that the beggars in the streets were generally
• " Treatise on Trade and Navigation." Joshua Gee, 1728. Quoted by Eden,
vol. i., p. 282.
ly
274
THE HI8T0BY OF THE POOR LAW.
obliged to spend what they had taken "at some tippling house kept
by the beadles, or by their friends or relations, who sell unwholesome
spirits, which carry off multitudes of them every year." In 1773 the
inmates of the workhouse itself, "situated, perhaps, in a narrow
alley, with dirt and filth before the dwelling, and hard treatment,
disease, and vermin within it," are described as being "made a job
of by some of the parish oflBcers, stripped of their little remains by
the pawnbroker . . . and accustoming themselves to gin drinking to
serve them as an opiate against reflection.""-
The case of the children was even more lamentable. In 1715,
before the great majority of the Incorpoi-ated Workhouses were built,
a Commons Committee reported that in London "a great many poor
infants and exposed bastard children are inhumanly suffered to die
by the barbarity of nurses, who are a sort of people void of com-
miseration or religion, hired by the churchwardens to take off a
burden from the parish at the cheapest and easiest rates they can ;
and these know the manner of doing it effectually, as by the burial
books may evidently appear." In 1767, after the failure of the
Incorporated Workhouses, another Committee reported that of the
children born in workhouses or parish houses or received there under
twelve months old in the year 1763, they were only able to trace
seven in a hundred as being alive in 1765.
But the worst was yet to come. The first sixty years of the
eighteenth century had been a period of good harvests, low prices,
and steady wages. The last forty years of the century were marked
by scanty harvests and famine prices, by the industrial dislocation
resulting from the sudden development of machinery, and towards
the end by an unsuccessful war with Eevolutionary France abroad,
accompanied by fierce sedition and tyrannous coercion at home.
In the earlier years of this dreadful period some attempt was made
to reform the Poor Law on the lines suggested by actual experience.
The inconvenience of the parochial area had been constantly pointed
out, and by Gilbert's Act (1782) parishes were permitted to form
unions and build joint poorhouses. Only the aged and infirm,
however, were to be sent to these houses, and in the Gilbert unions
(which included about a thousand parishes) the principle was
deliberately adopted that work was to be found in the neighbourhood
for the able-bodied, and that any difference between their wages and
the sum necessary for their maintenance was to be made up from
the rates. In 1790 another Act was passed attempting to create a
system of inspection of poorhouses by justices and the clergy. But
as soon as the French War had begun (1793) the Poor Laws began to
be administered in a spirit of blind panic. By this time the justices
• " Considerations on the Present State of the Poor " (anon., probably by B.
Potter), 1773.
275
THE HISTORY OF THE POOR LAW.
had taken upon themselves most of the responsibility for the amount
and character of the relief granted by the parish overseers. It had
been originally intended by the Poor Law of Elizabeth that they
should, through their right of appointing the overseers, exercise a
general control over the system, but an Act of 1691 had been so
interpreted as to give them an unlimited right of ordering relief
themselves, in spite of the opposition of the overseers.
In 1795 the magistrates of Berkshire " and other discreet persons "
at a meeting held at Speenhamland, near Newbury, announced that
they would make an allowance in aid of wages to "all poor and
industrious men and their families," raising the household income in
each case to a minimum varying with the price of bread. Next year
the clauses of the Act of 1723 allowing parishes to offer the work-
house test instead of outdoor relief were definitely repealed. And so
began the pauperisation of the English rural population. Hitherto
relief, in theory at least, had been confined to the exceptionally
unfortunate. Now the rates were to become part of the normal
industrial system; farmers discharged their men in a body to take
them back next day as paupers with part of their wages paid by the
parish. The position in the pauperised parishes of labourers residing
but not "settled" there, of unmarried men who only received a
single "allowance," of those who still felt an obstinate repugnance
to parish pay, or had made the overseers or magistrates their
enemies, became every year more intolerable, while the wife of the
soldier serving abroad, who had been told to look on relief from the
rates as her just right, the self-respecting farm hand, the incurable
loafer, the consumptive, the village prostitute, all were confused in
one degrading system of "allowances," "bread scales" and "head
money."
The whole story of the administration of the Poor Law at the end
of the eighteenth and the beginning of the nineteenth century is a
crucial instance of the extreme danger of class government. The
English landed gentry of that time accepted with a loyalty that has
always astonished foreign observers the tradition that required them
to spend as members of Parliament or as magistrates a large section
of their waking hours in laborious and unpaid public work. Some
were mere bullying brutes, like Fielding's Squire Western, with
whom "to keep their own parish under their own government and
to prevent other persons from exercising authority there" was, as a
member of Parliament writes in 1751, '■'• sufficient motive for their
official work. Many, however, were just and high-minded men, and
most seem to have had a dogged notion of carrying out their duty.
But the strongest instinct in any class is the instinct of self-
• " Considerations, &c., for the Better Maintenance of the Poor," by Charles
Gray, M.P. for Colchester, 1751.
276
THE HISTORY OF THE POOR LAW.
preservation, and during the years following the destruction of the
French aristocracy, when every campaign of the victorious French
ai'mies resulted in the sweeping away of feudal power in yet another
European kingdom, this instinct overmastered all others. The
people must be bribed as well as coerced into quiescence. "It was
deemed wise by many persons at this time to present the Poor Laws
to the lower classes as an institution for their advantage peculiar to
this country, and to encourage an opinion among them that by this
Uieans their own share in the property of the kingdom was
recognised."* In the same way one may perhaps detect, in the
eagerness to grant bread allowances, a fear lest the temporary high
price of food shall be used by the labourers as a reason for extorting
a permanent rise of wages.
Some, however, of the recklessness with which outdoor relief was
then thrown open to all comers must have been due to genuine
humanity. The sufferings of that time were obvious enough to
move anyone who chose to open his eyes, and the outburst of
social compunction which marked the French Eevolution must have
influenced many who were scarcely conscious of its source. A
feeling of kindliness must have dictated that Act of 1792, which
forbade for the first time the whipping of female vagrants, or
the other Act of the same year which dealt with the condition
of parish apprentices. The Act, indeed, of 1696, which empowered
the parish authorities to force apprentices upon unwilling masters,
and that of 1703, which required all ships of over thirty tons
burden to take one apprentice from the parish, nmst have given
rise to thousands of unnoticed tragedies. Often the fate of those
who were voluntarily taken by their masters was not much better.
Mr. Purfeet, of Stroud, in 1723 complains of the practice of
putting out children with little money "to sorry masters, that
'tis little better than murdering them." In 1747 the justices were
permitted on receiving a complaint to inquire into the treatment
of any apprentice "upon whose binding out no larger sum than
£5 was paid," and to discharge him if necessary from his indentures.
It was found, however, that masters deliberately illtreated their
apprentices in order that, having received and spent the fee,
they might be released from further responsibility. Now, therefore,
the justices were given power to forbid all assignments of apprentices
of which they did not approve, and to compel a brutal master
to pay £10 towards the cost of new indentures. The new Act of
1792 had, however, but little effect. In 1802 the sickening cruelties
inflicted on the parish apprentices who were sent from the South of
England to work in the Lancashire cotton mills brought about
another Act providing for periodical inspection. In 1810, Crabbe,
• •' Report of the Poor Law Commissioners," 1834, p. 70.
277
THE HISTOBY OF THE POOR LAW.
who put into the form of verse a minuteness of social observation
worthy of Mr. Charles Booth at his best, described how Peter
Grimes, the boatman, treated his wretched little victims : —
Peter had heard there were in London then —
Still have they being ! — workhouse-clearing men,
Who, undisturbed by feelings just or kind,
Would parish boys to needy tradesmen bind ;
They in their want a trifling sum would take,
And toiling slaves of piteous orphans make.
Such Peter sought, and when a lad was found
The sum was dealt him, and the slave was bound.
Some few in town observed in Peter's trap
A boy with jacket blue and woollen cap;
But none inquired how Peter used the rope.
Or what the bruise that made the stripling stoop ;
None could the ridges on his back behold,
Nor sought him shivering in the winter's cold ;
None put the question — " Peter, do'st thou give
The boy his food ? What, man ! the lad must live ;
Consider, Peter, let the child have bread.
He'll serve thee better if he's stroked and fed ! "
None reasoned thus— and some, on hearing cries.
Said, calmly, " Grimes is at his exercise ! "
More successful was another well-meant Act of 1795, which repealed
the scarcely credible laws allowing parishes to remove industrious
labouring families on the plea that they might become chargeable.
Further, "since poor persons are often removed or passed to the
place of their settlement during the time of their sickness, to the
great danger of their lives," it enacted that the justices shall suspend
all orders of removal till the poor person shall be fit to travel. It
was not till 1809 that justices were forbidden to remove healthy
members of a family while keeping the sick or dying behind.
But the mingled fears and benevolence of the time found their
fullest expression in the great Bill of one hundred and thirty clauses,
which was drawn up under Pitt's superintendence during the year
1796. The speech in which Pitt first outlined his Bill is a noteworthy
instance of the intellectual confusion of the time. He was criticising
(Feb., 1796) a proposal of Whitbread's to revive that Act of 1563
which, in continuance of the old Statute of Labourers, had ordered
the Justices of the Peace to regulate the wages of agricultural
labour. Pitt had carefully read Adam Smith's " Wealth of Nations,"
where such laws are denounced as a gross interference with personal
liberty, and practically repeated Smith's arguments as against
Whitbread. The Poor Law itself, however, is only once mentioned
in the "Wealth of Nations," in a passage strongly condemning the
stupidities of the old Law of Settlement. Pitt had already reformed
that law in the preceding session, and he again denounced the
regulations which "prevented the workman from going to that
278
THE HISTORY OF THE POOR LAW.
market where he could dispose of his industry to the greatest
advantage, and the capitahst from employing the person who was
qualified to procure him the best returns for his advances." But
he was too busy a man, and had taken to active political life too
young, to be able to think out for himself the poUcy of poor relief
which was bound to follow from the principles of laisser faire.
Therefore, in the absence of any direct advice from Adam Smith, he
drew up his own proposals on the lines of Sir M. Hale and John
Locke, declaring that "upon such authority he had no difficulty in
recommending the plan to the encouragement of the legislature."
His Bill, accordingly, though introduced by an appeal to the new
doctrine of individual liberty, w'as in reality a mixture of the old
profit-making ideas with the dole system begotten by the fears and
loose good nature of the country gentlemen of the day. The first
clauses contained a scheme for the establishment of " Schools of
Industry" in all parishes or unions of parishes, for employing "all
or any poor persons, as well grown up persons as children, who shall
want relief in the same parish and who cannot conveniently work at
home," part of the expense of erection and furnishing of such places
being provided by an owner's rate to be paid by occupiers and by
them to be deducted from their rents. Elaborate directions are
given as to the distribution of the "profits arising from the labour of
the poor," and this part of the scheme assumes that the justices
and overseers could, if they would, so organise the indigent as to
make them both support themselves and be a source of wealth to
the community. But this assumption is apparently only half
believed in, for poor persons are also to be allowed to work for
private employers at an insufficient living wage, and to have their
wages made up from the rates to the "full wages usually given in
such parish." Parish funds are further to be created (with the aid
of the rates and of voluntary subscriptions) into which the poor may
pay and so secure sick benefits and old-age pensions. "When any
poor person "shall be possessed or can obtain possession of land, or
is entitled to common of pasture sufficient to maintain a cow or other
animal yielding profit," any two Justices of the Peace are to be
allowed to gi'ant him a " cow or other animal" from the rates, or to
direct "security to be given for the rent of such land." Nor shall the
possession of real estate or visible property of the amount of £30 be
any bar to the receipt of relief if such property take the form of a
tenement or cottage, or tools or household furniture, wearing apparel
or other necessaries.
Pitt at that time was nearer to absolute power than any English
statesman has been since or perhaps before, and his Bill passed in
the spring of 1797 as far as the report stage with no division except
in committee. But vigorous petitions poured in from parishes and
279
unions all over the country protesting against the enormous increase
of I'ates which must result from its becoming law. At the same
time Jeremy Bentham, who understood, if anyone did, the political
implications of the new industrial economics, wrote certain
observations on the Bill which he sent in manuscript to Pitt, and
possibly, after his usual fashion, to most of the leading statesmen
of the day. Bentham afterwards declared that this criticism of
Mr. Pitt's " plan for throwing the parish upon the parish,"
with its genial humour, its air of modest puzzlement, and its
scorching logic, powerfully contributed to secure the abandonment
of the measure. Perhaps Pitt himself, who certainly was quick
enough to take a point, was really convinced. In any case the Bill
was dropped with the same matter-of-course unanimity with which
it had been accepted.
For the next twenty years Poor Law legislation proceeded on no
discoverable principle whatsoever, excepting perhaps a steady
tendency to increase the authority of the magistrates by empowering
them to alter rates and strike off names from the rate book, to audit
accounts, remodel the rules of workhouses, and order relief more
easily against the wish of the overseers. Even when, in 1817, the first of
a long series of Parliamentary Committees began to take evidence on
the question, no consistent opinion emerged as to the causes or cure
of the abuses which everyone acknowledged. The report of the
Commons Committee of 1817 uses arguments aimed at the very
existence of a Poor Law: "By diminishing the natural impulse by
which men are instigated to industry and good conduct, by
superseding the necessity of providing in the season of health and
vigour for the wants of sickness and old age, and by making poverty
and misery the conditions on which relief is to be obtained, your
committee cannot but fear . . . that this system is perpetually
encouraging and increasing the amount of misery it was designed
to alleviate." But the same report endorses Locke's scheme of
labour schools for the children of the poor, by which "the mother
will be eased of a great part of her trouble in looking after and
providing for them at home, and so be at more liberty to work,"
and the children " from their infancy be inured to work." Locke
had admitted that the children's work might not pay at first, but
had suggested, in a passage quoted by the committee, that if they are
fed on bread and a little warm water gruel, and kept at work from
three to fourteen years of age, "as much work being required from
each of the children as they are reasonably able to perform, it will
quickly pay its own charges with an overplus." In the same way,
after stating the "wages-fund" theory in its crudest form and
declaring that " by following the dictates of their own interests,
landowners and farmers become, in the natural order of things, the
280
THE HISTORY OF THE POOB LAW.
best trustees and guardians for the public," the report neverthe-
less recommends, in a somewhat hesitating way, the establishment
of parochial farms. In 1818 a Lords Committee declared that
the Poor Law, "interwoven as it is with the habits of the people,"
ought to be "essentially maintained;" while in 1819 a Commons
Committee reported against any relief being given to the able-bodied
at all. The battle, in fact, between the old tradition and the new
"Political Economy" was still undecided.
Meantime, while Parliament was trying to make up its mind, the
legislation of 1796 and the magisterial policy which dictated the
Speenhamland edict were steadily working out to their logical
result. The rates actually expended on the poor, which had been
under £2,000,000 in 1754, were over £4,000,000 in 1803, and were
vei-y nearly £8,000,000 in 1818. Better times and a temporary
improvement in administration reduced them to about £6,000,000 in
1825, but in 1832 they were again over £7,000,000, being 10s. per
head of the population, as compared with about 6s. in 1891. But
poor as the country then was, the actual burden of the rates was a
small evil compared with the cei'tainty that almost all this
expenditure was doing more harm than good. The State in the
first third of the century, like the Church in the Middle Ages, "did
but maintain the poor which it made." Here and there the general
laxity of administration might enable a clever boy to be apprenticed
to a skilled trade, or an aged couple to spend their last days in peace,
or an energetic workman to tide over a period of ill-health. But, as
a rule, the easy bounty of outdoor relief could only be accepted at
the price of life-long degradation. The nominal cost of the system
was probably at least doubled by the loss on the ineffective labour of
those whom the "roundsmen" system billeted upon all the larger
ratepayers in pauperised parishes, or part of whose wages were paid
by the rates. Farmers and landowners were beginning to look upon
such a condition as normal, and even to fear the effects of freedom,
and to complain that "high wages and free labour would ovei-whelm
them." Imprisonment and actual flogging were reappearing as the
only means of enforcing industry, and the Poor Laws, themselves
the result of liberty, seemed likely to reproduce the old serfdom
whose tradition had never entirely died out from the country side.
And those who were not supposed to work, the women whose
income increased with the growth of their illegitimate families, the
children and the aged, herded together in the filthy comfort of the
fever- saturated poorhouse, were even worse off' than the rest.
But the contest was near its end. "Political Economy" had by
this time consolidated itself in the writings of Eicardo and
MacCulloch, and James Mill. Malthus had demonstrated the
important part which the struggle for life had played in the history
281
THE HISTORY OF THE POOR LAW.
of human society as well as in the animal world. No member of
Parliament could now repeat without criticism the light-hearted
argument of Mr. Charles Gray in 1751, that the Poor Law "makes
young laborious people venture to marry when nothing else would,
and helps to propagate a race of the most useful subjects we have."
The old ideas as to the profitable employment of the poor scarcely
appear in the reports of the Commons Committees of 1824 and
1828, and having been rediscovered, without a suspicion of their
past history, by Eobert Owen in 1812, were now associated in men's
minds with revolutionary schemes of equality.
At the same time the new doctrine that human society is best
managed when no man is either hindered or helped in supporting
himself and his family seemed to be justified by actual experience
in Poor Law administration.
In the parish of Southwell, near Nottingham, the rates had been
already enormously reduced by the building of a prison-like work-
house and the exaction of labour, useless, perhaps, but severe and
unpaid, as a condition of bare subsistence. Similar experiments
with the same success had been tried in several other parishes.
The "laws of political economy" were vaguely felt to have
established themselves in a position of gloomy orthodoxy, and when
in 1832, during a lull in the fierce struggle for the Eeform Bill, the
Whigs in power appointed a Royal Commission on the Poor Laws,
its strongest members were known and ardent partisans of the
newly-accepted science. Their report, after two years of incessant
labour on the part of the Commissioners and their paid assistants,
was presented in 1834, and is still the most magnificent State paper
in existence, admirable in form and crushing in argument. It
ended by recommending a radical alteration of the whole system.
Parishes were to be formed, with or without their consent, into
Unions, whose accounts were to be inspected and whose by-laws
were to be drawn up by a body of three Commissioners sitting in
London, and represented by travelling sub-commissioners in the
country. Outdoor relief to able-bodied persons was to be pro-
hibited. Finally, and chiefly, the whole administration of the law
was to be regulated on the principle that "the condition of the
paupers shall in no case be so eligible as the condition of persons of
the lowest class, subsisting on the fruits of their own industry."
When the report was presented the legislative zeal of the
Reformed Parliament had not yet been baffled by the calculated
inactivity of Lord Melbourne and his colleagues. Lord Althorpe, in
introducing a Bill founded upon the recommendations of the report,
apologised for the existence of a Poor Law at all, and confessed
that the "more strict principles of political economy prohibited the
exercise of private charity itself." After this both Commons and
282
Lords seem to have thought that they were doing a comparatively
moderate thing in passing the Bill, almost unchanged, by over-
whehning majorities.
The three Commissioners who were immediately appointed were
gentlemen of respectable abilities and moderate political opinions,
with a fanatical belief in the sufficiency of the new administrative
principles, who were served by sub-commissioners still more enthu-
siastic than themselves. Their first three annual reports showed
that the rates were rapidly falling, and that relief in aid of wages
had almost entirely disappeared. The Commissioners arranged for
the emigration of surplus population, especially widows with
children, from the South of England to the factory districts of the
North. They declared that "those w^ho have been for years idling
on the roads have at last gone out of the parish, and have found work
at good wages," and that " every sort of profitable employment is now
sought to be obtained for the children." They circulated pamphlets
urging the labourers to join independent sick clubs, and obviously
hoped that steady industry and voluntary mutual insurance would
combine with gi'owing independence of character and a wholesome
fear of workhouse discipline to minimise, if not to abolish, the whole
burden of public relief.
Difficulties, however, were not long in coming. The years 1834-
1836 were prosperous, but 1837-1843 were years of great distress,
greater than had been known since 1817. The rates steadily rose
again from just £4,000,000 in 1837 to £5,200,000 in 1843. And the
first beginning of the distress brought with it a great popular agitation
against the new law. The fact that the Times and the leading Tory
papers joined this agitation was probably due more to the desire for
revenge which the Reform struggle had left behind it than to the
fear of irresponsible centralisation, which was made the chief pretext
of their opposition to the "Three Bashaw^s of Somerset House."
But both among the people and the gentry there was a veiy real
feeling of outraged humanity. Englishmen have always been much
more ready to resent the deliberate infliction of even a moderate
amount of carefully measured pain than any quantity of casual
brutality. And if retired generals and admirals, after a day's
shooting, will work themselves into a fury over the inoculation of
anthrax into a single rabbit's ear, much more did the sight of old
men and women being carried off from the old workhouses to the
new, and the knowledge that they would there be intentionally
placed in " undesirable or perhaps repulsive conditions,"* madden
the crowds who saw them go, or heai'd the " hell-broth " gruel and
the prison discipline of the "Bastile" described by practised orators.
• " History of the English Poor Law," by Sir J. Nicholls (one of the first
commissioners). Vol. ii., p. 4-39.
283
THE HISTOBY OF THE POOB LAW.
The sordid abominations of the old law were soon forgotten, and
the religious working man as well as the revolutionary Chartist
loathed the new science which aimed, it was said, at reducing the
population to Parson Malthus's standard by starving the paupers
and separating man and wife in direct defiance of the word of God.
Meanwhile the rates, in spite of the new law, were creeping up to
their old level, and that great rise in agricultural wages for which
the more sincere of the political economists had hoped did not take
place. Freedom of combination was the first condition of such a
rise, and on the very night after the new Poor Law was introduced,
Lord Ho wick repeated the refusal of the Whig Cabinet to interfere
with that flagrant sentence of transportation upon the Dorchester
labourers which made combinations in agriculture impossible.
The opposition to the new law soon penetrated to the House of
Commons, and it was with increasing difficulty that the powers of
the Commissioners were from time to time renewed. At last, in
1847, the Poor Law Commission was dissolved, two out of the three
worthy gentlemen of the day disappeared, having perhaps taken
themselves rather too seriously as solitary protesters against an
evil world, and an official Poor Law Board with a Parliamentary
head was created. By 1871, so many duties of various kinds had
been assigned to the department that it took the name of the Local
Government Board, which it still retains. Sixty years have now
passed since the new Poor Law was first enacted. During that
time the great evil noted by the Commissioners of 1834, the relief of
able-bodied men in aid of wages or as a premium upon idleness, has
practically disappeared. Of the 728,042 persons in receipt of relief
on the first of July, 1891, there were only 3,641 adult men in good
health receiving indoor and 3,419 out-door relief — these last being
helped only in some urgent crisis. There wei'e at the same time not
more than 6,351 women in health inside the workhouses, and 52,679,
almost all of whom were widows, receiving relief outside. Our
pauper population now consists of deserted or orphan children,
helpless old men and women, invalids, and lunatics. Their
number has remained wonderfully steady for the last twenty
years, though it does not at present increase with the increasing
population. But the amount spent in their relief does slowly
increase, and there is no sign of that extinction of the poor rates
which most political economists in the early part of the century
looked for as a result of good administration. And in the
light of the carefully recorded experience of sixty years the
principle that " the situation of the paupers shall not be made
really or apparently so eligible as the situation of the independent
labour of the lowest class " is no longer looked upon as pro-
viding a simple and easy resolution of the whole problem.
284
THE HISTORY OP THE POOR LAW.
The idea of profitable expenditure has come in to disturb the
rigid debit and credit of the classical economy. It has come
to be seen that each shilling which was saved by the deliberate
dreariness and penury of the infirmary wards in the early union
workhouses was a loss and not a gain to a community, seeing
that the length of every illness was thereby increased. The pauper
invalid is now generally handed over to a trained staff in a properly
equipped hospital, with instructions that he is to be made well as
soon as possible. Even in the case of the lunatics, to whom every-
thing must be given and from whom nothing can be received, the
community thinks well to spend freely on the means of mere
happiness. In the treatment of the children the new economy and
the old are still confused. It is true that no serious attempt is
made to render their condition in the workhouse schools "really and
apparently" worse than it was when they were starving in the
slums. But they are still too often fed on an intentionally
monotonous diet, and clothed in an intentionally ugly dress, while
more than half of them are still taught by underpaid masters, and
examined, not by the regular educational authorities but by Poor
Law inspectors, whose standard is intentionally low. But here,
too, a rapid and general improvement both in practice and in
intention is showing itself. Against such an improvement the
older political economists, who assumed family solidarity as
absolutely as they neglected social solidarity, would have protested
as being likely to encourage parents to throw their children upon
the rates; while they would have pointed to the deterrent system as
likely to induce the parents to support their children by their own
exertions. A saner view now recognises that the compassion of the
community is sometimes more to be trusted than the compassion of
the parent, and that when a father cannot or will not give his
children food and education, it is sometimes better to feed and
educate them ourselves, and then, if necessary, to apply to him the
direct compulsion of a summons rather than the indirect compulsion
of the knowledge that they are leading a prison life. The actual
teaching of the pauper children will probably be taken over by the
Education Department, and perhaps the healing of the sick by the
sanitary authorities. Already in London the medical officer of health
can send a fever patient directly to the hospitals of the Metropolitan
Asylums Board without communication with the relieving officer.
Possibly a day will come when the Chancellor of the Exchequer
will deal directly with those old people, who with the aid of a
Government pension can be trusted to look after themselves. Even
then the Poor Law system, with its accumulation of stern experience,
would still be required to fix and enforce the terms on which public
charity can be safely granted to those who have strength to work.
285
THE HISTORY OF THE POOR LAW.
A careful study of that experience has never been so necessary as
at the present moment. Hitherto the whole administration of the
Poor Laws has been studiously kept from popular control. The
new law of 1834 left to the justices the power of sitting and voting
upon the Boards of Guardians, and ordered that the elected
guardians themselves should be chosen on a high property qualifica-
tion and by a plural property vote. The property qualification has
been already practically abolished, and the passing of the Parish
Councils Bill may at any moment abolish ex-officio membership and
the plural vote. At the same time the great powers of the Local
Government Board are controlled by a Parliament in which both
parties are growing more and more democratic every year. The
great masses of the people can scarcely be said to have accepted the
new Poor Law; certainly few of them now understand the circum-
stances which made its enactment at the time inevitable. Perhaps
no one of those who, at the Trades Union Congress of 1893, passed
with acclamation a resolution calling on the Government to provide
"honourable and profitable employment" for a million unemployed
persons knew anything of the weary centuries of experiment which
proved that in a free country work for work's sake may be necessary
but cannot be profitable. But while there is much need for study
and discussion, there is little reason for alarm and less for inaction.
Experiments will again be tried, and modern statistical inquiry will
after a few months ascertain and publish their results. But from
the first it must be realised that a national system of relief is to be
judged not by the "old" test of its effect in producing profitable
work, nor by the "new" test of saving the rates, but by its success
or failure in "comforting and helping the weak-hearted and
strengthening such as do stand."
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EDUCATION IN CITIZENSHIP.
BY HENRY DYEB, C.E., M.A., D.SC, MEMBER OF THE SCHOOL
BOARD OF GLASGOW, ETC.
INTEODUCTOEY.
ONE of the most remarkable signs of the times is the great
change which is taking place in social ideals. It is being
recognised that individual and selfish interests are insignificant
when compared with those of the community, and that if we
look at our own lives, and all that concerns them in their physical,
intellectual, or moral aspects, we see that we owe almost everything
to the combined action of our predecessors and contemporaries.
The growing tendency is, therefore, to appeal to our social instincts
and to impress upon us the fact that the complete society of the
present only is real, and that the parts of which it is composed, if
they do not exist only in abstraction, at least are very subordinate
in importance.
The consequence has been a great development in social legislation,
and a growth in civic spirit. Hence the necessity for such a training,
that every member of the community may be able to take a fair
share of the work which should fall to every citizen.
The ideal which should run through all our educational and social
institutions should be that which was kept in view in ancient Greek
education, the characteristics of which were unity, comprehensive-
ness, proportion, aimfulness. It extended to the whole human
being, and endeavoured to bring the various elements of the nature
of the students into complete harmony in view of an end. That end
was the State, in which the individual citizen was expected to find a
field for all his activities. We want men who are not only able to
practice a craft, but can also intelligently cast their vote and take
part in the rehgious and political struggles of the day, and share in
all social movements. In order to do this they must be able to
follow intelligently the developments of political, social, or economic
history far beyond the limits of their own country. In short,
they must have been fully trained in the duties, they must value
the privileges, and be prepared, if necessary, to defend the rights of
citizenship.
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EDUCATION IN CITIZENSHIP.
The share of the duties of citizenship which falls to individuals
cannot be formulated by exact rules and regulations. That must
depend largely on the special conditions, opportunities, and abilities
of the persons concerned, but no one who is anxious to work need
have any difficulty in finding some sphere of a social nature. The
main fields for the exertion of social energy are the management of
education, of parochial, municipal, or county, and in some cases of
national and imperial affairs; but, in addition to these, there are
many opportunities in smaller ways of helping on the progress of
humanity. Improved means of recreation and enjoyment generally,
and opportunities for all leading healthy and happy lives, open up
wide spheres for social work. It should be strongly brought home to
every citizen, through our educational institutions, churches, and
other public agencies, that we owe almost all our personal advantages
to the fact that we form an organised society, and that we cannot
relieve ourselves of the responsibility of doing what lies in our power
to advance the welfare of the community as a whole.
WHAT MAY BE DONE IN EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS.
The great defect of our present system of education is that it is
awanting to a very large extent in social aims, and is directed chiefly
to the advancement of selfish interests. The idea of competition is
instilled into the scholars instead of co-operation, and many of the
evils of the present state of society are perpetuated and increased.
If the education were made real and attractive, it would stir the
intellectual activities of the scholars, and urge them on in their work
without the artificial and wrong stimulus of competition with their
neighboui's. On the contrary, if the duty of mutual help and
co-operation were prominently kept in view, not only would the
educational results be better, but the whole tone of the schools
would be immensely improved. Moreover, what was begun in the
schools would be continued throughout life, and it would be distinctly
recognised that it is the duty of all, not simply to live for themselves,
or even for those directly dependent upon them, but that they ought
to devote part of their energy to work which was for the benefit of
the society in which they live, or of humanity generally. Hence the
justification of the saying that all real social reform must begin in
the schools.
Professor Bryce, M.P., has recently reminded educationists that
reading and writing are no more education than the lane that leads
into a field is the field itself ; and you might as well try to feed a
flock of sheep on the flints of the lane as send children away from
school and hold them to have been prepared for their life's work with
the mere possession of reading and writing. It is not the power of
reading that makes the difference between one man and another so
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EDUCATION IN CITIZENSHIP.
much as the being taught what to read and how to read, that is
having acquired the taste for reading and the habit of thinking about
what is read. More and more it is our task to-day not to be
content with having built schools and gathered children into them,
and compelled their attendance by law, and relieved the parents
from the payment of fees, but to widen the scope and deepen the
grasp of the teaching given, leading the child to love knowledge, and
forming in it wholesome tastes and high feelings. The same
distinguished writer and politician dwells especially on the import-
ance of the teaching of civic duty. He thinks that the schoolmasters
should strive to make their pupils know what is best for their country
as a whole ; to make them willing to place its interest above party
feeling or any other sectional passion or motive ; to be willing to take
trouble, personal and even tedious trouble, for the well governing of
the community to which they belong, be it a township or parish, a
ward or a city, or a nation as a whole.
How far education fitted to prepare for such work can be given in
the different kinds of educational institutions will depend on their
nature and special objects and the conditions of the scholars. There
should be something of it, however, through the whole of them. All
the scholars should have some idea of the great institutions of the
country, and the knowledge should be imparted in such a way as
would inspire the wish to serve her. This knowledge should include
a general conception of the constitution of the nation, the organisa-
tion and methods of government, and the functions of the various
local and central authorities and the relations which they bear to one
another, together with a history of these institutions in Britain, and
of the chief relations of this country to foreign countries and to our
own colonies. Special attention should be paid to the constitutions
and powers of the local bodies of which the scholars hear or read
every day, as, for instance, town and county councils, parochial
boards, school boards, and sanitary authorities. The difference
between the making and the administration of laws should be
clearly explained, as well as the duties and responsibilities of every
citizen to both these departments. The sense of civic duty would
thus be cultivated, and the exercise of the voting power would be
felt to be a solemn trust, on the proper performance of which would
depend the future welfare of the country. The gi'eat extension of
local government which is taking place makes accurate information
regarding civic and local duties a national necessity. As Henry
George has well said —
More and more intelligence must be devoted to social affairs, and this not the
intelligence of the few, but that of the many. We cannot safely leave politics to
the politicians, or political economy to college professors. The people themselves
must think, because the people alone can act. The intelligence required, more-
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EDUCATION IN CITIZENSHIP.
over, is not a mere thing of the intellect. It must be animated with religious
sentiment and warm with sympathy for human suffering. It must stretch out
beyond self interest, whether it be the self interest of the few or of the many.
It must seek justice, for at the bottom of every social problem we shall find a
social wrong.
The growing importance of social subjects is gradually showing
educationists the necessity for a change being made in the methods
of teaching history. Hitherto there can be little doubt that of all
the ordinary school subjects history has been about the worst taught.
A teacher may know a multitude of facts, names, and dates, and yet
be quite unable to impart a real knowledge of history to his pupils.
In order to do this he must be able to realise the great movements
which influenced the lives and conditions of the people, and to
distinguish between the past and the present. He must have
imagination enough to realise the dead past in the living present. In
short, he must not only be acquainted with the facts of history, he
must know its methods. While not neglecting ancient history he
must attend chiefly to what has a bearing on present day life.
* One who is an authority in the theory and practice of education
has pointed out how absurd it is to find children knowing about the
Heptarchy and the feudal system, and yet not knowing how our
present Parliament is constituted, and what are its duties and
functions. He says he not infrequently finds, in examining
candidates for the public service, students who really possess a good
deal of book knowledge about the constitutions of Clarendon and the
Act of Settlement showing lamentable ignorance as to the way in
which laws are made at the present moment. He points out that
almost all the writers on the Constitutional History of England
confine themselves to accounts of the struggle between Crown and
people, and into the gradual assertion of the right of representation
and of what Carlyle cynically describes as the " liberty to tax
oneself."
Although this is a very important part of English History, it is not
the whole. Such subjects as the removal of the impediments to
printing and to the diifusion of knowledge ; the history of slavery
and its abolition ; the gradual disappearance of religious disabilities ;
economic and commercial reform; the imposition and working of
the Poor Law ; the provision for national education in the form of
ancient endowments and afterwards by public gi-ants; the reform
of our representation ; the growth of literature ; the extension of our
colonies; all these subjects deserve to be looked at separately, and
to furnish the material for special lessons in the lecture form. Hs
recommends that, concurrently with the study of history by periods,
there should be arranged a series of lessons according to subjects, on
this wise —
• Dr. J. G. Fitch.
_
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EDUCATION IN CITIZENSHIP.
The Crown and its Prerogatives.
The House of Lords.
The House of Commons.
The History and Progress of an
Act of Parliament.
Ministers.
Judges.
Magistrates.
Municipal Corporations.
Juries.
Taxes.
A General Election.
Treason.
The Army.
The Navy.
The Civil Service.
Public Trusts.
The Administration of Towns
and Parishes.
Guardians of the Poor.
Such a course, carefully prepared and well illustrated by historical
examples, would have the effect of making the scholars sensible of
the responsibility which will devolve upon them as members of a free
community ; a State which asks the voluntary services of her
citizens in the administration of justice, in the management of public
trusts, and in the conduct of public business. Every scholar should
be made to feel that he is expected to render unpaid service to the
community in some shape or form. Dr. Fitch points out that this
sense of civic duty is the necessary correlative to that consciousness
of civic rights which Hallam and the constitutional writers are apt
to dwell on so exclusively. He moreover points out the necessity
for so teaching as to inspire the scholars with a love and admiration
for the country we live in, and for the institutions by which we are
governed. While in what usually goes by the name of patriotism
there may be much that is selfish and vulgar, still patriotism is one
of the things which our teaching ought to cultivate, a rational and
affectionate regard for the country in which we were born and for
the privileges we enjoy in it, and a noble ambition to live lives which
shall be worthy of it.
The historical method of treatment might be extended to a great
many subjects which might be taken up by the older scholars.
Attention especially should be paid to the history of great political
ideas, to the social conditions of the people and to the forces which
moulded them, and the relation of these to the development of social
ideas and of schemes of social reform, as shown in the history of our
own country and of foreign countries.
The students will not have proceeded far before they discover a
very intimate connection between the method of the tenure of land
and social problems. They will find that land was originally the
property of the nation, and that those who became its nominal
owners did so on the condition that they performed very definite
national duties. They will further find that when pei'sonal services
were not required, land bore the greater part of the expense of the
army and navy and of the education of the country, in short, that
land has never been recognised as absolute private property, but only
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EDUCATION IN CITIZENSHIP.
as held in trust for the benefit of the whole community. The history
of the connection of land and the expense of education, from the time
when the monasteries were the only schools down to the passing of
the present Education Act, would start many thoughts in the minds
of the students, and, while it would be neither desirable nor necessary
for the teachers to enter into details of schemes of reform, these
thoughts would germinate, and cause the present position of the land
question to be thoroughly considered, and steps to be taken to rectify
the evils connected with it.
A study of the evolution of industry from the earliest to the present
time would be the best preparation for dealing with many of the
problems which are now awaiting solution. The record of the various
stages of our industrial development would not only show most
distinctly the difficulties and dangers to be avoided, but also give a
good idea of the possibilities of the future and the conditions which
are necessary not only for the successful carrying on of trade and
industry, but also for ensuring the welfare of the workers and of the
community generally.
Special attention should be paid to the history of industrial and
social institutions such as mediaeval guilds, trade unions, boards of
arbitration and conciliation, co-operation, friendly societies, and poor
laws, and the bearing of these on the social conditions of the poorer
classes should be carefully considered. Some of the relations of
trade and industry should be studied, and especially the difficulties
which arise between employers and workers, and how far some of
the above-mentioned institutions might, if properly used, lead to the
solution of industrial struggles.
The excellent scheme of study in the " Life and Duties of the
Citizen," which has been inserted in the Education Department Code
of Eegulations for Evening Continuation Schools, under the direction
of Mr. Acland, who has long taken a personal interest in this matter,
is a great step in the right direction, and if it be carried out
under proper conditions must lead to very important results. Its
fundamental principle is that public duties accompany all forms of
work in life, whatever the occupation or profession, and that serving
personal interest alone is not enough. The individual benefits from
a well-ordered community, and the community ought to benefit in
its turn from the efforts of the individual; "all for each" should be
requited by "each for all." It further points out that we have no
right to expect just legislation or impartial administration unless we
perform with intelligence those public duties which devolve upon all,
and that if we suffer injustice in connection with public affairs, we
have little right to complain unless we have done our own duty. If
this course of instruction were faithfully carried out in every school in
the country, we would soon have an ideal of individual and civic duty
292
EDUCATION IN CITIZENSHIP.
in the community which would have a powerful effect on our social
and economic conditions, and solve many of the problems with which
we are now confronted.
The difficulty, however, of carrying out a complete course of study
in social and political subjects in ordinary educational institutions is
at once recognised when we consider how much opinions differ on
such subjects, varying as they do from those of the extreme
individualists to the state socialists, and any attempt to draw out
a complete authorised curriculum would show even greater diversity
of opinion than exists regarding religious education. All that should
be attempted, therefore, should be such general truths and facts as
are not disputed, and which every intelligent citizen ought to know.
If in some cases the teaching had a bias in certain directions, the
danger arising therefrom would be much less than the danger of
neglecting to give any instruction at all. Instruction regarding
civic and industrial organisations, combined with the study of
history in the manner I have indicated, would prepare the way for
the independent study of the subjects by private reading and the
help of the various voluntary associations which exist in all parts of
the country. The fundamental condition of real progress is perfect
freedom of thought and action, and that is seldom possible in any
organisation of an official or semi-official nature.
FUTUBE OF TRADE UNIONS.
The most important of these voluntary associations are the trade
unions (using that term in its general sense and thus including all
professional and trade organisations), and it seems as if the time
had now come when these ought to be considerably developed and
become real modern trade guilds, which would take an interest in
all that affects the welfare of the workers. The training and
education of apprentices, for instance, should receive special
attention, for by these means not only would the unionists keep
out of their ranks all who were not worthy of the position, but they
would also show that their objects were not simply "more work"
but "better work," and the improvement of the intellectual, moral,
and economic conditions of the woi'kers, and ultimately the welfare
of the whole community.
The trade unions, either directly or by means of literary and
scientific associations which might be affiliated to them, should
afford their members opportunities for the study and discussion of
the wider questions which affect their interests. Especially should
this be the case when the trade-unionists are also co-operatoi'S, for
the fundamental principle on which co-operation should be based
should not be the making of profit or dividend, but the improvement
of the workers and the good of the community. In short, the trade
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EDUCATION IN CITIZENSHIP.
unions should, like the mediaeval guilds, become not simply organisa-
tions for maintaining the economic rights of the members, but
living groups of men and women, animated by common principles of
religious and industrial faith, and united for the satisfaction of the
permanent needs of human life.
USE OF LEISUEE.
The real education of the citizen must, it is evident, therefore be to
a large extent apart from schools, colleges, and universities, and
take place during his ordinary daily work and what are usually
considered spare hours. This leads us to consider the proper use of
leisure.
x\n ancient Greek philosopher has said that the chief end of
education should be to enable a man to make a rational use of his
leisure time, while a modern philosopher has expressed the opinion
that "the future social type will neither use the products of industry
for maintaining a militant organisation nor exclusively for material
aggrandisement, but will devote them to the carrying on of higher
activities, a type which, instead of believing that "life is for work,"
will hold the inverse belief that "work is for life." This ideal
should be clearly kept in view in all schemes of education. As I
have pointed out, even in those of a special nature, the more general
aspects of human society and requirements should never be over-
looked. Every man and woman should have some interest in subjects
apart from those by which they earn their living, and above all in
some healthy form of recreation, for we may rest assured that the
means of rational enjoyment are necessities not only for individual,
but also for national existence. Reading, di^awing, painting, or
other work of an artistic or scientific nature, should occupy a certain
proportion of our leisure time, for too much excitement is demoralising
both to soul and body. Physical exercise should be duly attended
to, so that health may be maintained and the best intellectual
efforts made possible. The necessity for moderation, however, should
be impressed on all young people, for modern athletics too often
degenerate into mere "sport" to aflbrd a convenient means of
betting, or into efforts to break the record in some form of exertion.
Such performances do more harm than good, and very often
permanently injure the health of those who indulge in them.
Gymnastic exercises in well-ventilated rooms or in the open air,
and games of all kinds played for the sake of the exercise they give,
are very useful for developing the bodies of the young. Those of
more advanced years, however, will, on the whole, find walking the
most generally useful and instructive means of exercising and
developing every part of the body, and at the same time affording
opportunities for training the mind by observation. Not only in
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EDUCATION IN CITIZENSHIP.
this way might the natural sciences of botany, geolog}% and zoology
be cultivated, but also the equally interesting studies of archaeology,
history, and geography might be carried on to the advantage of the
persons most directly concerned and to the community, for the
results of the observations might often be imparted to the public
by means of papers or books which would interest and instruct
many in the neighbourhood, and in some cases the nation or even
the whole civilised world. The wider aspect of such work would
naturally lead the students to the consideration of social, economic,
and political subjects. They would inquire into the manner of the
lives which were led in the homes both of our large cities and
country districts, and they would be compelled to consider whether
these were what they might be. Their reading and observation
would gradually take a more definite course, and the gi'eat problems
connected with education and health, the conditions of labour,
poverty, crime, and so forth, would all be seen in their extent and
intensity, and would cause them to make a determined efi"ort to
improve matters. It is in this manner that all real social progress
and reforms have their origin in education, for when once men's
minds are prepared for any change, no power on earth either in the
shape of government or general enviix>nment will prevent it taking
place. Even politics depends for its ultimate victory upon educational
methods and not upon clever tactics, a fact which is too often
forgotten at the present day. It seems to be thought necessary
that when a man attains any degree of fame or notoriety in the
political world, he should henceforth form a party, and then the
interests of the community are forgotten in the struggle of party
politics and personal animosities. A well-known scientific man *
has remarked: —
That if the evils which are inseparable from the good of political liberty are to
be checked, if the perpetual oscillation of nations between anarchy and despotisna
is to be replaced b}- the steady march of self-restraining freedom, it will be
because men will gradually bring themselves to deal with political as they now
deal with scientific questions ; to be as ashamed of undue haste and partisan
prejudice in the one case as in the other; and to believe that the machinery' of
society is at least as delicate as that of a spinning jenny, and as little likely to
be improved by the meddling of those who have not taken the trouble to master
the principles of its action.
A few of the most important problems of the future may be noted
in order that the nature of the training required may be more clearly
understood and carried out with a definite purpose, for much time
and energy are wasted unless each one marks out for himself, in
addition to more general objects, a more or less restricted sphere of
action.
* Professor Huxley. " Science and Culture," p. 23.
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EDUCATION IN CITIZENSHIP.
ECONOMICS.
Of all the problems with which machinery and modern industry
have brought us face to face, and the solution of which will require
our most earnest eiforts, probably the most urgent is the construction
of a new system of economics suited to the requirements of the
times, for without some guiding principles clearly understood we
will be apt to drift aimlessly, or, at least, our efforts are not likely
to lead to useful results. The economics of the future will differ
from that of the past in regarding the true life of man, and not the
mere production of wealth as the ideal to be kept in view, and the
whole must be consciously dominated by a social purpose; that
purpose being the raising of all men to similar chances of true life
in labour. In all production the chief factor is the human factor,
and whatever affects this will affect wealth production, and every
effort must be subjected to the question : What effect will it have on
the entire life of the nation and on humanity? The new economics
will have for its starting point the ethical community of w^hich the
individual is a member, and the gulf which at present exists between
morality and economics will be filled up, and wealth will be compelled
to take its place as a means to an end, and not be magnified into
the chief end of life.
* The practical end of our study will be to show how most wealth may be
produced at the least expense of human life and well being; not at the least
expense of labour, but by forms of labour wherein a man shall find a worthy and
congenial life ; and how distribution of wealth can be effected, not by competition
or scramble, but by the generous emulation of moral men with a definite social
ideal of life before them.
Such an ideal would enable John Euskin's conception of political
economy to be realised, namely: "A system of conduct and
legislature, founded on the sciences, directing the acts and impossible,
except under certain conditions of moral culture."
EDUCATION.
A PROPER system of economics having been constructed, it is
absolutely essential for the solution of our social problems that we
should have a system of education in which the ideals which pervade
the economics should be kept in view from the earliest years of the
pupils. Such a system would include all the parts we have
mentioned, but in a more thorough and complete manner than at
present, and would afford the training which is necessary to produce
a healthy rational being, what is required to enable him to perform
his duties to himself and those immediately dependent on him, and
• William Smart. "The Old Economy and the New ;" Fortnightly Review,
August, 1891, p. 292.
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EDUCATION IN CITIZENSHIP.
what is expected of him as a citizen who recognises that the welfare
of the community is intimately bound up with his own, and is, in
fact, indispensable to it.
The education of women is now receiving considerable attention,
and arrangements are made for them obtaining the same opportuni-
ties as men for training, not only in branches of pure learning, but
also in the applications to many professions and industries, and the
full economic bearing of the subject is now being recognised, as it is
seen to be the true means of arriving at a solution of many of our
social problems.
BECREATION.
Closely connected with an adequate system of education is that of
a rational system of recreation. This is one of the greatest needs of
the present day, for it must be remembered that man is a social
being, and, further, that success in every department of life depends
to a large extent on his bodily health. While everything should be
done to brighten the homes of the people, we have now arrived at
such a stage of social development that the community should
provide its members with the means not only for intellectual
improvement, but also for social enjoyment and healthy recreation in
the way of reading rOoms, music halls, and public parks, art
galleries and museums, and public institutions of all kinds. A great
advance has been made in these matters during recent years, but we
are still far behind the leading continental countries. While a great
deal may be done by voluntary associations for the improvement of
the enjoyments of the community, still I am of opinion that much
of the work should be municipal in its character, at least in those
departments which can be taken advantage of by the people
generally. Voluntary effort will always find sufficient outlet in
those matters which are of an individual and personal character.
More complete arrangements for rational recreation and enjoyment
would go a long way towards solving the drink problem, for it must
be distinctly recognised that public houses as at present constituted,
or very much worse, will never be got rid of until something better
be put in their places. It must always be remembered that not only
is drink the cause of poverty, but also that poverty is the cause of
drink, many being driven to it in their efforts to drown their troubles.
Temperance reformers often look too much to one side of the subject
and fail to see the necessity not only of competing directly with
drink, but also of improving general social conditions. While
admitting the evils connected with intemperance they ought to
remember more distinctly than they do that very often drinking
habits arise from the misery, overwork, pain, and monotony of life,
and that when these evils are removed the temptation to drink
to excess passes away.
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EDUCATION IN CITIZENSHIP.
A thorough system of recreation, combined with an adequate
education in the relations of personal and public health, would have
a great effect on moral and social conditions, and be a powerful
factor in elevating the great masses of the people, for only by these
means can it be brought home to a nation that the acquisition of
health means the acquisition of wealth. Sir Andx'ew Clark recently
expressed the opinion that doctors lived by the sins, ignorances, and
follies of mankind. If that be so, we should not attempt to convert
the world into a huge dispensary for drugs to cure moral and
physical ills, but rather remove the causes of these ills by improved
education and social and economic conditions.
SOCIAL MORALITY.
A MORE unselfish system of economics would cause many of the
current notions of morality and conduct to be revised. For instance,
the virtue of thrift is one which is emphasised by almost all classes of
teachers and preachers as one of the means of improving the condition
of the masses, and no doubt, as society is at present constituted, a
certain amount of thrift is not only advisable but necessary.
The well-to-do should be frugal and economical in order that they may
be better able to help those who require assistance, and that should
be given in such a way as to enable them to help themselves. Those
who have nothing but their own industry to depend upon should
save something for a rainy day, and endeavour to make some
provision for sickness and old age. Children should be taught the
value of thrift and encouraged to provide special things, either for
their own advantage or the benefit of othei-s. The habit would thus
grow upon them, and when they became men and women they would
not only take care to live within their incomes, but also to make some
provision for the future. At the same time, it must be evident that
thi'ift can never be a remedy of universal application. The income
which is derived from past savings must come from present labour, and
if all worked, such income would merely be a transference of a certain
amount of money from one pocket to another. Moreover, the money
which is said to be saved is generally employed by capitalists to
increase production, so that the saving workman is helping to increase
the difficulties which are constantly arising from periods of over-pro-
duction and corresponding depression. The only real way to enable
all to be well off is for all to perform some useful work so long as they
are physically able. The effect of saving on the workman himself is
very often not all that could be desired. Someone has truly said :—
England is the land of sad monuments. The saddest monument of all is,
perhaps, the respectable working man, who has been erected in honour of thrift.
His brains, which might have shown the world how to save men, have been spent
in saving pennies ; his life, which might have been happy and full, has been
dulled and saddened by taking thought for the morrow.
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EDUCATION IN CITIZENSHIP.
Instead of so much prominence being given to the orthodox
lessons on thrift, it might, on the whole, be more useful if people
were taught the duty of laying out their savings sensibly, and with
thought for others. The subject of old-age pensions is one which is
now being very much discussed, and which requires to be carefully
studied in all its bearings. It ought specially to be remembered
that while it is highly desirable that every person should either
directly or indirectly make a provision for old age, or for those he
may leave behind him, it may safely be said that with many wage
earners that provision could only be paid for by such a sacrifice of
present necessities as would greatly increase the risks to be provided
against. With such, the best thrift is to give themselves such food,
lodging, and clothing as will keep them in the best working health,
and to afford their children such advantages of food, clothing, and
education as will give them a fair chance of growing up strong and
well qualified to take their part in the work of the world. Probably
the education of wants is of more importance to the community than
the constant inculcation of habits of thrift. An utter absence of
rational wants is one of the greatest hindrances to social advance-
ment, while a misdirection of them may be very demoralising.
It is now being recognised that the old Grecian ideal is the correct
one in this I'espect, namely, that personal wants should be few and
simple, and that temperance in all things should be the rule of
individual life. On the other hand, the aim of all good citizens
should be to make the corporate life full and complete, with every
facility for healthy life, pleasant recreation, and instructive study
and research. The ambition of many people at the present time is
to save sufficient wealth to live ujmu their means, as the ordinary
expression has it. An improved system of economics and of
education would rapidly cause this delusion to disappear, for it
would be seen that a great deal of what is generally considered
accumulated wealth is nothing more than a burden on present
labour. Even as it is, it is being recognised that wealth has few,
if any, rights apart from duties, and in the future all who fail to
take a fair share of duties will be looked upon as mental and moral
weaklings and treated accordingly. How accumulated wealth is
administered is an important public question, which will certainly
be put in earnest in the future.
Not only in the ideas regai'ding such commonplace virtues as
thrift and temperance, but also in the more general principles of
morality, there is likely to be a change in the methods of education,
and the applications to practice. Too often, at present, we find
men who turn up their eyes in pious horror at a breach of the
seventh commandment, which they seem to consider the full
embodiment of morality, but who forget all the other parts of the
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Decalogue and the whole of the New Dispensation. They not only
covet their neighbours' houses, but all that they possess, and they
use every means in their power to obtain their wishes. They kill
by the slow process of starvation and overwork, or by breaking the
hearts and ruining the business of their smaller competitors ; they lie,
not of course in the vulgar way, but by their whole lives, and they
set up as their gods, mammon, honours, and position; in short, they
may be destitute of all the Christian virtues if they only keep up
an appearance of piety, and liberally patronise the subscription lists
of the churches and of institutions which are commonly called
philanthropic. The most difficult feature in the matter is, that
many of them do not recognise the wrong they are doing, for they
have adopted a false standard of conduct and provided tlaemselves
with ample justification for all their misdeeds. Their morality has
become entirely perverted by long association with the ways of
mammon. Not infrequently they have a very sensitive vicarious
conscience. They do not exercise a veiy close watch over their own
moral duties, or those of corporations by which they directly profit,
but they have a keen perception of the motes in their neighbours'
eyes, and a feehng of intense responsibility for the conversion of
the heathen.
The greatest change will, however, take place not in the personal
but in the social or public virtues, for all will be trained to high
ideals of public duty. It must be remembered that the first condition
of any social reform is that its pioneers should be capable of some
sacrifice, and it will be found that the success and extent of the
reform is exactly proportioned to that capacity.
The spending and the investing of money and generally the use of
wealth are what are most likely to appeal directly to individuals.
When people buy cheap goods they very often forget that they buy
the lives of men and women, and share in the guilt which causes
their degradation or their death. When they invest their money,
while they will not do the harm they see they will not see the harm
they do. The multitude of public companies has removed almost
all feeling of direct responsibility. It has been well said —
That a company is just a long chain, which pulls at something out of sight
of the puller. You stand at one end with your capital and apply the force ; at
the other end it is fastened round some wretched slave of toil, and that little tug
you give the chain when you purchase some new article of luxury has wrung from
him— nay, her — another drop of sweat — it may be blood.
What is true of companies is true of many other forms of invest-
ment, such as house rents and foreign bonds. How many owners
of property take any interest in the welfare of their tenants so long
as they get their rents? How many bondholders who invest in
Turkish, Egyptian, or other bonds consider for a moment that
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in doing so they become slaveholders, for whom the last coin,
possibly the last handful of grain, is wrung from a wretched
peasantry to pay their dividends ? How many men who have the
reputation of being honourable would hesitate to get rid of their
shares in a rotten company, or their bonds of a bankrupt govern-
ment on receiving early information of a collapse? It is good
lousiness to place such shares or bonds on the market, very likely to
be bought by some widow woman, struggling to increase her income
for the support of her family and herself, and who next day finds
herself a beggar. In the meantime our business man goes to church
regularly, and takes part in many philanthropic and charitable
undertakings, and is considered a pillar of society. It almost seems
as if morality demanded that a man should determine not to become
rich than, having enriched himself, he should in the usual conven-
tional manner charitably dispose of some of his wealth.
The ancient Greeks considered that to be well or nobly born was
one of the best gifts of the gods. Campanella, in his "City of the
Sun," written nearly four hundred years ago, said that —
The people in his ideal city laughed at us who exhibit a studious care for our
breed of horses and dogs, but neglect the breeding of human beings.
Herbert Spencer has made a similar remark —
Consider (says he) the fact from any but the conventional point of view, and it
will seem strange that while the raising of first-rate bullocks is an occupation on
which men of education willingly bestow much time, inquiry, and thought, the
bringing up of fine human beings is an occupation tacitly voted unworthy of
their attention.
Men and women at present throw, on what they call the mysterious
dispensations of Providence, the responsibility for their own ignorance,
sensuality, or carelessness. If they were perfectly honest to them-
selves they could explain those so-called dispensations, and it is
certain the society of the future will not accept such lame excuses
for neglect in the performance of the highest duties of the race. No
plea whatever can be received as an adequate excuse for ignorance
of some of the chief duties and responsibilities of citizenship. All
the aspects of what is usually called the "population question" in
their physiological, economic, and social bearings should be carefully
studied, for conditions are being evolved which will compel our
teachers and legislators to recognise that the population question
cannot be blinked for ever, or left to the blind workings of animal
instinct. If the question were approached in a reverent spirit, as
becomes its importance, it would be found that increase of know-
ledge and self-control in this as in other social problems are the root
factors of the solution. If the foundations for sound physiological
knowledge were laid in our schools, and these were followed up by
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economic and social studies, there would soon be evolved such a
strong public opinion on the subject that many of our most difficult
social problems would gradually disappear.
The change which will take place in the ideas of public duty and
in the manner of imparting them to the rising generation may be
best illustrated by the opinions which will be held with regard to
education itself. At the present time a good many people who have
educated their own children, or who have no children of their own
to educate, say that it is a hardship for them to pay for the education
of other people's. They do not complain much of poor or police
rates, they do not object to prisons and lunatic asylums being
erected at their expense, and they contribute willingly to all sorts
of charities, which they seem to look upon as necessaries to
civilisation. They fail to see that education is the only safe charity,
and that if it were of the proper kind it would make all the other
forms unnecessary. It is long since Sir Thomas More wrote —
If you suffer your people to be ill-educated, and their manners to be corrupted
from their infancy, and then punish them for their crimes to which their first
education disposed them, what else is to be concluded from this, but that you
first make thieves and then punish them.
Euskin was considered a dreamer, an impracticable man, when
almost forty years ago he wrote that —
In order that men may be able to support themselves when they are grown,
their strength must be properly developed while they are young ; and the State
should always see to this — not allowing their health to be broken by too early
labour, nor their powers to be wasted for want of knowledge.
He also suggested that there —
Ought to be Government establishments for every trade, in which all youths
who desired it should be received as apprentices on their leaving school ; and
men thrown out of work received at all times.
We have not yet got so far as Euskin indicated as desirable in
the matter of education and training, but we are moving rapidly in
that direction, and it seems as if the forces at work will ultimately
cause all his ideals to be realised.
Free education is, in short, only a partial recognition of the fact
that the world is a social organism in which it is the duty of all to
share in the responsibility of providing for the proper training of
every member of the comnmnity. The ideal should, therefore, be to
transform all our miscellaneous kinds of charitable taxes and contri-
butions into a school rate which will include them all, and be
sufficient to provide thoroughly equipped educational institutions of
every kind. When higher social ideals prevail the nation will
demand that these institutions shall have the first claim on the
national resources. Then, also, men and women, instead of striving
after riches for themselves, which they can neither enjoy in this
world nor take with them to the next, will devote their efforts
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towards making their town or county rich in institutions which can
be made use of by the whole community, or in adding to their
country's greatness by their works in Uterature or art, their
discoveries in science, or their successful efforts in wise legislation
and administration.
The education and social life of the future must, therefore, be
largely permeated by the moral and religious element, but it must
be imparted not so much in the shape of theological dogmas as in
high ideals of life and duty. It should be impossible to draw a line
between the religious and the secular part of our lives. Eeligion
should be life, and life should be religion.
In the church of the future the greatest heresy will be uselessness
and neglect of social duties, and the greatest sin the sin of selfishness.
At present, petty, narrow, sectarian jealousies prevent the different
sections of the church calling itself Christian from uniting to form a
church which would be wide enough to include all good Christians,
and powerful enough to regenerate the world. The formation of
such a church is one of the root problems of the future, for if it were
solved many of the others would solve themselves. Its chief function
will be to combat vice and selfishness, to help the helpless, and to
implant in man, as cotiviction and habit, an ever-present sense of
accountability to God and disinterested duty towards man. A
thoughtful writer,''' however, has reminded us that —
The service of man will not be made lighter or simpler in a democratic age.
The complexity of social problems is so great, they need regarding from so many
points of view, their right solution is so important, their wrong solution so
perilous, that they can no longer be left to any official or limited class of
inquirers. They concern all citizens, and few duties in our day are so imperative
as their earnest, persistent study. They do not, happily, need much book lore.
Clear heads and resolute hearts, aided by eyes open to the facts around them,
will for this purpose more avail than academic culture. The modern man in
search of well-being has two ends to bear in mind. First, his own self-cultiva-
tion, especially of his heart, as incomparably most important both to his own
happiness and that of others. Secondly, it behoves him to help his fellows to
the extent of his power by such improvements in the practice and theory of life
as he can make good by sound reasons. In this direction I admit that he may
encounter not prosperity but persecution or even worse, but if he is a true man
he will not mind that.
The true test of morality is evidently to be found in the answer to
the question — are its results social or anti-social ? A man's conduct
is not to be measured by his knowledge of the abstract doctrines of
metaphysics and philosophy, or his belief in the dogmas of reHgion.
As Henry George has said —
He who observes the law and the proprieties, and cares for his family, yet
takes an interest in the general weal, and gives no thought to those who are
trodden under foot save now and then to bestow alms, is not a true Christian, nor
is he even a good citizen.
• J. C. Morrison. " The Service of Man." Preface, p. xxix.
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PHILANTHKOPY.
The practice of what is usually called philanthropy is considered
the legitimate outcome of religion. The very first idea, however,
which we ought to get rid of, is that philanthropy as commonly
understood will cure the evils of society. If we had justice between
man and man, there would be little or no need for philanthropy.
Euskin has reminded us that —
This healing is only possible by means of justice — no love, no faith, no hope will
do it; men will be unwisely fond, vainly faithful, unless primarily they are just,
and the mistake of the best men through generation after generation has been
that great one of thinking to help the poor by almsgiving, and by preaching of
patience and hope, and by every other means, emollient or consolatory, except
the one thing which God orders for them — justice.
Ordinary philanthropy is content with trying to put right what
social and economic conditions put wrong. Eeal philanthropy not
only does this where it is absolutely necessary in the spirit of true
charity, but it also endeavours to put the social conditions themselves
right. The most depressing feature in society at the present time
is the fact that many who bear the character of being both
philanthropic and religious, who subscribe largely to all kinds of
church purposes and charitable institutions, are in their daily
business submerging more than their money will ever raise. In
many cases subscriptions are simply apologies for neglected duties
and hush money to uneasy consciences.
While many of our philanthropic agencies have been maudlin in
spirit, imbecile in methods, and consequently mischievous in results,
they have at present their useful, even their sacred side. We ought,
however, to remember that the object should be to get rid of them as
soon as possible, and not allow them to be magnified as ends in
themselves. There has already been a beginning of co-ordination of
agencies which must ultimately put an end to all special societies,
and their duties, if any be left, will be transferred to that society of
societies which is society itself.
DEMANDS OF LABOUR.
The problems connected with labour and the organisation of
industry are the problems which should receive the most careful
study from all classes, for on their solution depend many of the
other problems which demand attention.
The workers are beginning to recognise their power, and to expect
that they should receive a larger share of the proceeds of their
labour, and that an improvement should be made in their social
conditions. It cannot be doubted that the am.ount and reasonable-
ness of their demands will depend to a veiy considerable extent on
the efficiency of their education as citizens. They cannot be accused
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of extravagance if they ask that their labour should receive sufl&cient
reward to enable them with prudence and economy to comfortably
maintain themselves and their families, and that without requiring
their wives to take any part in factory or other similar work, and to
make provision, either directly or indirectl)', for their decent support
after their labouring powers have failed, that they should have
healthy and convenient houses and workshops, that they should be
protected, as far as possible, from injury when following their occupa-
tions, and that their hours of labour should not be so long as to injure
their health and prevent them from enjoying a reasonable amount
of leisure, and that proper facilities be given for the useful enjoyment
of that leisure, either in their own homes or through the public
institutions of various kinds which have been already mentioned.
Although these are reasonable demands they open up many
questions on which much difference of opinion exists, and therefore
they should be carefully studied and discussed from all points of
view, so that their bearings may be fully understood and public
opinion educated in such a way as to lead to solutions which will
advance the welfare of the whole community. Another demand
which is being made with increasing intensity, by those who cannot
find employment in the usual manner, is the right to labour in
order to obtain at least the necessities of life without subjecting the
labourers to the taint of pauperism.
This also seems reasonable, but great care must be taken in making
arrangements to meet it, for those which at first sight may seem
the simplest and most direct may in the end only make conditions
worse. Hence the necessity for a careful study of all the economic
bearings of the problem. No possible objections, however, can be
taken to arrangements which permit those who cannot otherwise
obtain work to raise the food needed for their own maintenance.
While admitting that improved legislation and administration may
do a good deal for the improvement of the conditions of the workers,
it must be always distinctly recognised that the emancipation of
labour is not so much an affair of legislation or agitation as of morals.
There is no power on earth that can emancipate men who are slaves
to degrading passions or habits, or who are awanting in dignified
self-respect. Contrariwise, there is no power on earth can hold
down working men, whose habits are wholesome, who put their
hearts and their brains into their work as well as their arms, and
who meet equals and superiors alike with courteous self-reliance.
After all, true education will be found the most effective means of
attaining the ideal of equality, if not of conditions, at least of
opportunities, for which so many are now striving. A well-known
French writer* has said —
• Leroy-Beaulieu. Revue des Deux Mondes, December, 1889.
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EDUCATION IN CITIZENSHIP.
The social problem is before all things a religious and moral problem. It is
not only a question of stomachs, it is quite as much a question of the soul.
Social reform can only be accomplished by means of moral reform. In order to
raise the life of the people we must raise the soul of the people. In order to
reform society we must reform man, reform the rich, reform the poor, reform
the Workman, and reform the master, and give back to both of them what is
at present lacking, equally to each of them, a Christian spirit.
Even without much legislative or administrative change, a great
many of the evils from w^hich society at present suffers would
disappear if there were a more earnest cultivation of the individual
sense of honourable obligation. The education of public opinion in
the right direction on all social matters is therefore a very pressing
duty on all who have any influence, not only because of its direct
effects, but also because public opinion in a country like ours is
legislation in its nebular state.
TENDENCIES OP THE AGE.
One of the most useful and interesting departments of study is the
comparison of the different movements which are going on at the
same time, in order to ascertain how far they are all tending in the
same direction, or, in the language of dynamical science, to find
their effective component. It is evident that many of the tendencies
of the age are not due to any extent to voluntary action, but to a
dominant overmastering evolution produced by forces inherent in
our system of civilisation, and however much the results may be
modified in details by private enterprise and legislation, they are to
a very large extent beyond the control of individuals and govern-
ments, although these may direct them in such a manner as to
benefit the whole community and not simply a comparatively small
section of it. It is, therefore, necessary that social reformers and
legislators should carefully study the tendencies of the age, and
endeavour to guide them to the highest possible good. They should
be sure that their efforts are always in the right direction, for this
is of more importance than the extent of the steps they take. The
forces in action must inevitably bring about the necessary change of
conditions by the slow and sure method of evolution as soon as
men's minds and morals have been prepax*ed for them.
As already indicated, a study of the evolution of industry would
open up many subjects for discussion and consideration. Society
would be seen to be in a state of unstable equilibrium. On the one
side would be found the instruments and the means of production in
the hands of a comparatively small number of capitalists, and on the
other the great body of the people dependent on these capitalists for
the means of subsistence, and the question would naturally be asked,
what is to be the next stage in the evolution ?
21
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The answer to that question might be influenced by a study of the
use of machinery, and the resiilts which it has had on the social and
economic conditions of the capitahsts and the workers, and probably
if the students were of a very logical turn of mind they might be
driven to the conclusion that the only way of solving the problems
of labour was by the community taking possession of all machinery
and other instruments of production, for they would feel that so long
as the competitive system prevails little attention will be paid to the
welfare of the workers when the introduction of new machinery is
proposed. If, however, their logic were tempered by a study of
history and science, they would also see that changes of conditions
to be permanent must be slow, and take place only as men's minds
and morals were prepared for them. They would see that an
extension of the present system would inevitably lead to large
monopolies, which will hold society at their mercy for the necessaries
of life, and that the only alternative is some form of co-operative
organisation which, while attending to the welfare of the workers
directly concerned, will at the same time be controlled in the
interests of the whole community.
They would recognise that the preparation was taking place by
the increased attention which is being paid to education, and to the
changed ideals of religion. Education is beginning to widen in its
objects, and it is now seen that it should not be used simply as a
means for individuals "getting on," but for raising the whole standard
of national life. If education of the i-ight kind were given and
properly applied, it would lead to a solution of all our social
problems, and in order that it may be so it must be permeated by
religious ideals. Nothing is more striking at the present day than
what may be called the socialisation of religion. It is now being
recognised even by theologians that religion should not be so much
a creed as an experience or life, not a restraint but an inspiration,
not an insurance for the next world but a programme for this world,
and that the chief item in that programme should not be looking
after our own safety or welfare, but saving ourselves by helping to
save others and bearing some of their burdens.
The socialisation or nationahsation of education and of religion
is gradually leading to the socialisation of public health. The
resources of the community are being employed in the prevention of
disease, which is recognised as a more rational use than the
maintenance of hospitals and other institutions for the reception of
those whose health has been injured or ruined by unwholesome
conditions of work or existence. A great deal of what has hitherto
been called philanthropy is thus being rendered unnecessary, for
philanthropy, as we have seen, like everything else, follows a well-
defined law of evolution.
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As the result of the various social forces at work, there has been
slowly going on alongside the industrial revolution another revolution,
which indeed was necessary to counteract some of the evils which
arose in consequence of the industrial changes. The relations of
rights and duties are being more distinctly recognised, and a
revolution is taking place in men's ideas regarding social economy;
the duties of property are being insisted upon, and the rights of
labour are being demanded.
Legislation, which is simply public opinion in a crystallised form,
has been profoundly affected, and the change in ideas has been
reflected in the laws which have been enacted during recent years.
These have done much to limit the power of money and to improve
the position of the workers, and we have a long series of enactments
which have been most effective in preventing disastrous social
consequences. Among these need only be mentioned the various
Acts of Parliament which repealed the disabilities of the workers
and enabled them to form trade unions for their own protection and
to influence legislation in their own behalf, the Factory Acts, and
the numerous measures relating to sanitation and many other points
affecting the welfare of the people. In fact, the struggle which for
centuries has been going on between employers and employed has in
great part been transferred to the floor of the House of Commons,
and it has now reached what may be called its critical point. The
effect of recent legislation has been to increase the power of the
State over almost every department of life. The army and navy, the
police and courts of justice have long been recognised as proper
functions of the State, although they were at one time left to private
enterprise. Public education, the post-office and telegraphs, and all
their associated agencies are the most important recent efforts of the
central government for the general improvement and convenience of
the people.
Social reformers, however, are no believers in the centralisation
of power, which too often means dull, lifeless, official routine, but,
on the contrary, are of opinion that it is only possible to carry out
their ideas when the power is localised, and when those who
exercise it can observe all the conditions of the problems which
they are called upon to solve, and hence the great development of
what is usually called "Municipal Socialism." Gas and water
works, public libraries, museums, art galleries, and parks now form
part of the regular organisation of every large town, and in many
cases steps have been taken in various directions which promise
immense developments. In short, both politicians and economists
are beginning to recognise, although in a somewhat blind, unconscious
manner, that industrial society will not permanently remain without
a systematic organisation, and that the mere conflict of private
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interests will never produce a well-ordered commonwealth of labom\
As Mr. Frederick Harrison * remarked —
That most of what is called socialism is a perfectly healthy reaction against
the pragmatical prejudices that profess to be political economy. The old
plutouomy we may trust is dead and buried. Socialism is in the air, and is
modifying the whole current of our politics and our legislation. So far as it has
yet gone, it means in the main the moralisation of our social and political
system, and we may wish it a long and victorious career. That it throws up a
mass of crude and suicidal "nostrums" is true enough, but these must be met
by the practical sense of our political leaders and a more serious education of
the people.
The tendency towards the socialisation of industries and institu-
tions is increasing the demand for local government, so that effective
and intelligent control may be exercised over the different under-
takings, for with social reformers the machinery of local government
is merely a means to an end, namely, the welfare of the people.
In its widsr aspects local government takes the form of home rule,
which is merely the co-ordination of the local government of a
district or country, as the case may be, all, however, subject to a
certain amount of control from a central power. The truth of
Carlyle's words is being recognised, namely, that "Government
and co-operation are in all things the laws of life; anarchy and
competition the laws of death." The development of local govern-
ment and of home rule must inevitably bring about an end to the
desire for empire and territorial expansion, and with it must
necessarily disappear the bloated armaments which are the disgrace
of our civilisation. The enei'gy which is at present wasted on these
will be employed in making the earth more healthy and our cities
and towns more beautiful, in short, in transforming this rather
dreary and care-worn world into a happy home for the children
of men.
The various social movements which we have been considering
form connecting links between individualism and socialism. This
is especially the case with trade-unionism and co-operation. It
must be admitted that the first of these has been entirely individualistic
and selfish, but now a broader spirit is beginning to be developed,
and trade-unionists see that, even from a personal point of view,
they must look not only at the interests of their fellow-members,
but also at those of other trades and of the community generally.
On the other hand, it must also be admitted that many who call
themselves co-operators have forgotten the ideal of co-operation,
and been utterly awanting in the true co-operative spirit, and that
many of the works which are called co-operative are simply joint-
stock companies in which the dividends are the chief concerns of
the shareholders. A higher ideal, however, is gradually being evolved,
• Fortnightly Review, July, 1893, p. 38.
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EDUCATION IN CITIZENSHIP.
and it is being recognised that the first essential in co-operation is
not profit or dividend, but the improvement of the conditions of the
workers.
Both trade-unionists and co-operators should recognise that after
all the most important aspect of the movement with which they are
connected is neither the increase of wages, the shorter hours, nor the
dividends. Far more important in each case is its educational value.
Wages rise and fall, hours increase or diminish, and dividends
fluctuate or disappear, but the educational effect on the characters
of the members remains, and no one can be a good trade-unionist or
a good co-operator without at the same time possessing many of the
qualities which go to make a great citizen.
It must further be stated that many trade-unionists and socialists
denounce both co-operation and profit sharing, and fail to see that
the chief hindrances to their own proposals lie in the mental and
moral unfitness of all classes of the community for anything approach-
ing a socialistic regime, and they discourage the only practical
systems which are fitted to produce the needed capacity and to
assist in the evolution of a state of society in which the highest ideals
of all social reformers wovild be fully realised, and in which it will
be found that trade-unionism and co-operation are both necessary.
As Mrs. Sydney Webb has put it, the proper relationship of trade-
unionism and co-operation is that of an ideal marriage, in which each
partner respects the individuality and assists the work of the other,
whilst both cordially join forces to secure the common end, the
co-operative state, in which the inequalities of wealth distribution
would be redeemed by co-operation, either voluntary, municipal, or
national.
The evolution in that direction would be very much hastened if
men's minds were prepared for it by such an education as I have
indicated, and if the churches assumed their proper attitude with
regard to social problems, and pointed out with greater clearness
than they do at present that destitution and crime can only be made
to disappear by the spread of knowledge, and that the true
millennium — the kingdom of God upon earth^can only come when
truth has been discovered in all that relates to human welfare and
has been called into practical effect. Moreover, knowledge must be
supplemented by the feeling that the progress of civilisation and the
welfare of the race depend for their development on the extension of
the sense of duty which each man owes to society at large.
POPULAR REPRESENTATIVES.
Such subjects as we have been considering should take a very
important place in the education of those who aim at being either
local administrators or imperial legislators, and yet how seldom are
m
EDUCATION IN CITIZENSHIP.
the qualifications of candidates for these positions seriously inquired
into. The thoroughly respectable citizen whose ideas have never
got beyond looking after the interests of himself or his class, the rich
young man anxious for social position, the rising lawyer, the
successful manufacturer or merchant who are willing to pledge
themselves to any programme which is likely to secure for them the
support of a large number of voters, are the most popular candidates
with the average constituency, and our legislation proceeds in a
haphazard manner.
The position of member of Parliament, although it is the most
important in the country, is almost the only one which is filled by
men who have not been trained in some degree for the duties they
have to perform, and whose qualifications are not tested before they
are allowed to undertake them. Even for local bodies much more
attention should be paid to the qualifications of the members. It is
quite evident that there can never be any real reform in any
department of public business unless through the uprising of civic
spirit throughout the countrj', and the consequent demand by the
public that their representatives shall apply themselves to the
business which they are sent to perform, namely, the carrying on
of the administration and the development of the good government
of the country.
The problems before us will require for their solution the best
efforts of our noblest men, and if that solution is to be complete it
must not simply be empirical, but scientific in the widest sense of
that term. It must take into account not only the economic but
also the i-eligious, ethical, and political elements of the questions.
The statesmen and administrators of the future nmst, therefore, be
acquainted with the various factors of the problems with which they
have to deal, and be able to look at them in all their bearings and
not simply from their own special points of view, as is too often the
case at present. They must not be content with constructing
ladders whereby a few may escape from the social degradation of
the masses, but they must deliberately consider, with all the aid of
science and economic investigation, how the resources of the
community can best be used to raise the standard of life throughout
the nation.
In the matter of education especially, and therefore practically in
all that refers to the welfare of the nation, it is of the greatest
importance that those elected to the position of school board
members should be thoroughly qualified to consider all the aspects
of the problems with which they are expected to deal. They should
not confine themselves to the mere administration of certain Acts of
Parliament or orders of the Education Department, and the purely
financial aspects of the work, but they should also use their influence
311
EDUCATION IN CITIZENSHIP.
to make the education what it ought to be, and thus cause it to have
effect on the thought, the work, and the Hfe of the people. They
should have studied the history of education and the different
problems which have from time to time been discussed, for nothing
is more discouraging to those who are anxious to do their duty in
the management of education than to find that questions which were
supposed to be settled generations ago all require to be gone
over again.
The work of education is the most important in the country, and
the selection of those who take charge of it should not be left to
sectarian or political parties. A seat at the school board should be
one of the highest honours in the gift of the citizens, and should
therefore be neither sought nor bought. The citizens should find
out the persons best fitted for the position, and ask them as a matter
of public duty to fill it to the best of their ability. If this were done,
I am certain that there is sufficient public spirit in the country to
ensure that men and women would be found both able and willing
to undertake the work. The business of a school board is to make
the education of their district as efficient as possible, due I'egard
being had to economy, and I beheve that if they showed that good
work was being done the ratepayers would not grudge the money.
If the work were carried out thoroughly the problems of government
would become easy, and our social difficulties would gradually
disappeai'.
SPHERE OF GOVERNMENT.
For a considerable time, however, the subject on which the greatest
differences of opinion are likely to be found among representatives
of all kinds is the part which government, either local or central,
should take in the affairs of the country, and especially in matters
connected with trade and industry, for it raises all the questions
relating to individualism and socialism.
A glance at the histoiy of the past quarter of a century shows
most distinctly, as we have seen, that the tendency is increasingly
socialistic, and that events in the social and industrial worlds are all
leading to a form of society in which socialism in one shape or other
will play an important part. A dignitary of the Church of England
has recently said "that revolution we may perhaps escape, but
that evolution in the direction of socialism he believes to be
inevitable."
Probably Lord Rosebery expressed the opinion which is most
likely to be generally accepted when he said —
• Do not be frightened by words or phrases in carrying out your design, but
accept help from whatever quarter it may come. The age seems to be tottering
• Speech at Glasgow. 13th Majr, 1892.
312
EDUCATION IN CITIZENSHIP.
now between two powers neither of which I altogether follow, but each of which
has its seductive sirens wooing the spirit of the age to advance. The one is
socialism and the other is individualism. I follow neither one school nor the
other, but what I think your association may look at is to borrow something of
the spirit of each, to get the best qualities of each, to borrow from socialism its
large conception of municipal life, and from individualism to take its spirit of
self-reliance and self-respect in all practical affairs.
Unfortunately the term socialism has been discredited by
extravagant proposals and violent deeds, but it is a term which
needs to be claimed for nobler uses. It is quite evident that if
socialism ever becomes universal it must be by a slow process of
evolution, which would not only produce the necessary economic
changes, but also the moral qualities which are essential to make it
successful, for success is only possible with a higher form of
individualism. The best schools for the production of that among
the workers will be found to be improved trade unions of the kind I
have mentioned, which will lead not only to co-operation in work,
but in all that relates to the welfare of the members and of the
community. It is probable, therefore, that the society of the not
very distant future will contain a considerable admixture of trade-
unionism, co-operation, and state socialism, and that it will be found
not only that there is room for all, but also that all are necessary.
Moreover, as we have seen, a careful study of the inevitable
tendencies of those forms of joint action shows that they are all in
the same direction, and further,^ that a moralised individualism is
not opposed to any of them, and is in fact required to render them
complete.
During the next quarter of a century we may rest assured that
much history will be made. In the material, social, and political
worlds vast forces are waiting to be born, which will mightily
influence the future of humanity. The developments of science will
have placed the forces of nature more within our command, the
progress of opinions will have brought many of our social difficulties
within the sphere of practical politics, while the power of the
democracy will be so organised as to place great experiments, which
may result in good or evil, under the control of the people. One of
the main objects of educationists, and of social and political
reformers, should be to try to ensure that the transition from the
old to the new industrial and social system will be effected almost
impei'ceptibly, and without any break of continuity. They should
try to impress all, over whom they have any influence, that sudden
changes in the forms of government are of little avail, and that they
are only valuable when they are the products of national character.
Evolution, not revolution, is the method to be followed, and, as we
have seen, the tendencies of the age are all in the direction of some
form of co-operation.
313
EDUCATION IN CITIZENSHIP.
Some one has truly said, "A map of the world which does not
include Utopia is not even worth glancing at," for life without
ideals is not truly life. If the rising generation were trained to
high ideals of life and duty, and if only a small portion of the
energy which is at present devoted to the pursuit of mammonism,
or of the heroism which has been displayed in subjugating foreign
countries, were directed and utilised in administration which had
for its object the promotion of the welfare and happiness of the
great masses of the people, a change might be produced within a
century which would transform the world.
We may rest assured that the time has come when Britain as
well as other democracies, if they are in any way to control their
own destinies, must not only form a clear ideal of the goal of social
organisation, but also decide as to the best and surest means of
reaching that goal, and it is the duty of every citizen to endeavour
to fit himself to understand the various aspects of the problems, so
that he may assist in their solution by intelligent effort.
314
SOME ASPECTS OF INDUSTRIAL MORTALITY.
BY VAUGHAN NASH.
THE title of this article may seem to call for some explanation
at the outset. Why, it may be asked, should statistics and
information bearing upon the question of mortality be classified
on social lines ? Are there not divisions enough amongst us
during life that the masses must be separated from the classes at
death? My answer must be that though the subject is as yet in a
somewhat confused and uncertain condition, sufficient is known to
make it quite certain that a line, and a very deep and broad line, is
drawn between the life and death of all those who give their bodily
labour and skill as wage earners to the services of the community,
and the children of such, and those whose occupations are light and
well remunerated. It is not a matter for speculation at all, but one
of hard facts ; and surely it is right that we should know what
are the penalties exacted for the crime or privilege, whichever it
may be regarded, of hard labour, why they are imposed, and whether
there seems to be any means of mitigating their severity.
I cannot deal with the question as a skilled statistician, or as
a physiologist. To treat it at all adequately the best statisticians
and men of science will have to be pressed into the service ; but it
is possible for anybody who observes the facts of life and acquaints
himself with the elements of vital statistics to come to certain
conclusions as to the bearing of modern industry upon the quality
and extent of human life. At fii'st sight it may seem hopeless to
get beyond the familiar medical labels with which the language
of the doctors and the weekly returns which are published in the
newspapers by the Eegistrar General have familiarised us. Both in
the east end and the west end the people die of diseases of the
same name. Fever, influenza, and lung diseases are no respecters
of persons. You may have the means of satisfying yourself that the
death of your neighbour, the bricklayer, which was described as due
to phthisis, was due to different causes altogether from the death of
Lady C, who succumbed, so the doctor said, to the same disease.
The bricklayer came by his death owing to no defects of constitu-
tion, as was the case with Lady C, but because the pursuit of his
daily work led him to inhale so much of the gritty particles given off
by the bricks that his lungs in the course of time became good for
nothing. This was heightened by the constant exposure to all sorts
of weather, and, in spite of fine physique and good constitution, he
died, as we say, before his time. Or, again, we may know perfectly
b
315
SOME ASPECTS OF INDUSTRIAL MORTALITY.
well, though we might not be able to demonstrate it in black and
white, that the epidemic of diarrhoea, which has been cai-rying off the
infants in the quarter where we live, is directly attributable to the
fact that the infants' parents were poor, and consequently had to go
to work when they ought to have been at home nursing the children,
with the result that, what with being fed on the wrong food, with
neglect, and the hot weather, they died four times as fast, or more, as
the children in the healthier quarter, where the houses are larger,
the play of the air more free, and the mothers do not go to work/''
The urban worker has to put up with less air and less space than,
let us say, the urban employer or professional man, or the urban
dividend receiver, and with far less than the countryman enjoys.
The doctor has no name for the deaths which result from breathing
impure air, or from living cramped up in stuffy and crowded rooms.
He knows people die, and die in very large numbers from these
causes, just as plants will die which have not fit soil to grow in or
sufficient sunshine and air to nourish them. We can see in
gardens or woods the lower branches of trees withering and going to
pieces, whilst the upper ones prosper. This is simply because the
underwood crowds out the air and sunshine from the lower part of
the trees, whilst the top has free access to them. The interpreta-
tion of this little parable is sufficiently plain, but the doctors do not
say "he died for want of air and light," or "he was crowded out
of existence."
Now there are two main roads along which we must travel in our
search for the causes which differentiate industrial mortality from
general mortality. There is the environment of the home and the
environment of the worker to be considered.
We will begin by considering how the worker is affected by town
life. The modern town is, of course, a purely industrial phenomenon.
The excessive crowding that we find in it occurs because the workers
want to live as near to their work as they can. But the density of
the population is not the only directly mischievous factor in the case.
As Dr. Ogle remarks: —
The direct consequences of close aggregation are probably as nothing in com-
parison with its indirect consequences and concomitants. The more crowded a
community the greater, speaking generally, is the amount of abject want, of filth,
of crime, of drunkenness, and of excesses ; the more keen is competition, the
more feverish and exciting the condition of life. Moreover, and perhaps more
than all, it is in these crowded communities that almost all the most dangerous
and unhealthy industries are carried on.
City life, then, tends to pack together into the minimum of space
a maximum of wealth-making appliances both human and material,
and it is in this evil and um-egulated mixture of the elements of
* According to Dr. Drysdale, the death rate of infants in 1889 was 11 per cent
in the wealthy parishes of London, and 38 per cent among the poor of the east end.
316
SOME ASPECTS OF INDUSTRIAL MORTALITY,
production that we find the clue to the abnormally high death rate
which prevails in many urban districts. The late Dr. Farr, whose
statistical work upon these matters is historic, has brought out the
relation of density of population to high death rates with admirable
clearness, as the following extract from his "Vital Statistics"
shows : —
It is well established that the mortality of the population of cities is generally
higher than the mortality of people in the country. And it has been shown in
the annual reports that there is a constant relation between the density of
the population and the mortality. This has been fvurther tested by averaging all
the districts in the order of their mortality during the ten years — 1861-70 — and
then determining the density of their population. A table presents a summary
review of the results. The general mortality of the 631 districts ranged from a
rate of 14 to 33 deaths in 1,000 living. If the facts are arranged in five great
groups, the following result is obtained : —
(1) Where the mortality was 14, 15, or 16, the population was in the propor-
tion of 86 persons to the square mile.
(2) Where the mortality was 17, 18, or 19, the population was 172 persons to a
square mile.
(3) Where the mortality was 20, 21, or 22, the population was of the density
expressed by 255 to a square mile.
(4) Where the mortality was at the rate of 23, 24, or 25, the population was of
the density expressed by 1,128 to a square mile.
(5) And where the rate of mortality was 26 and upwards, the average density
was expressed by 3,399 persons to a square mile.
Taking the healthy districts during 1861-70, there were 166 persons to a square
mile ; in all England, 367 ; in Liverpool, 65,823.
The following (excluding London) mortality per 1,000 utuler the age of five years
is in the seven groups as under : —
I.
n.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
Females . . .
. 34 .
. 44 .
. 58 .
. 76
. 89 .
. 106 .
. 134
Males
. 41 .
. 51 .
. 68 .
. 88
. 101 .
. 118 .
. 145
7
7
10
12
12
12
11
Mean
. 38
48
63
82
95
112
146
Mem. — The groups are numbered in their order of density.
Dr. Farr continues : —
Take the group of 51 districts called healthy for the sake of distinction, and
here it is found that the annual mortality per cent of boys under five years of age
was 4,246. of girls 3,501. Turn to the district of Liverpool ; the mortality of
boys was 14,475, of girls 13,429. Is this destruction of life to go on indefinitely?
It is found that of 10,000 children born alive in Tiverpool. 5,396 live five years—
a number that in the healthy districts could be provided by 6,544 annual births.
Then the sacrifice of the lives of men at the most productive ages, from 35 to 55,
is almost equally great ; the deaths out of the same number living are as three in
the Liverpool district to any one in the natural state of the working population
of extensive districts in the kingdonn.
The relation of density of population to the death rate has been
worked out for the next decennium by Dr. Ogle in a table of great
value : —
317
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318
SOME ASPECTS OF INDUSTRIAL MORTALITY.
The foregoing figures are the last available for the whole country,
and we cannot expect to have the results of the last census grouped
by the Kegistrar for another couple of years. We shall probably find
when these are published that there has been a slight improvement,
that the intensity of crowding is somewhat less, and that the death
rate in the crowded centres is less excessive. It does not do to be
too sanguine on these matters, however. Though there is undoubtedly
more vigilance and more science put into their sanitary work each
year by the local authorities, local conditions are often too much for
them, and such sanitary measures as are adopted apply to only a
part of the mischief-making conditions. There is a general concensus
of opinion now in favour of attacking infectious diseases root and
branch, and eradicating their causes as far as may be. Typhoid is
a conspicuous case in point, but the crusade against typhoid with
the necessary measures for safe and effective drainage, though
immensely important, is after all directed against only one of the
monstrosities of town life. We can, however, with the help of the
medical officers' reports of some of the great towns, bring Dr. Ogle's
figures sufficiently up to date to satisfy ourselves as to the pi'ogress
that has been made in certain typical cases. If we take the annual
report on the health of the Borough of Sheffield for the year 1891,
we find at a glance what seems a fairly satisfactory allowance of
space, the average for the whole borough being 16*5 pei'sons per
acre. On looking a little more closely into it, however, you find that
whereas the allowance in the Upper Hallam division is 0*4 persons
per acre, that in Sheffield North is 234-1; in Sheffield West, 71-1;
and in Sheffield South, 72-8. These great variations are instructive
as showing how misleading it is to lump together the industrial and
non-industrial districts of a town for the purpose of such calculations
as ours. Upper Hallam is, of course, the favoured and suburban
district in which dwell the manufacturing and professional classes
of Sheffield, whilst the congested districts are peopled by the artisans
for whose skill Sheffield is celebrated. The death rate for the entire
borough is equally misleading. The death rate for the year 1891
was 23-5, which gave Sheffield the twenty-eighth position amongst
the large towns. But the medical officer points out that after
allocating various deaths to their proper districts and distinbuting
those which occurred in public institutions, whereas in Upper
Hallam the death rate was only 12-5, it was 33*4 in Sheffield North,
and 31-7 in Sheffield West. Let us hope that the great cutlery
centre is an exceptionally bad case, for its death rate was higher in
1891 by three per 1,000 than it was in 1881.
London is a remarkably healthy place taking it altogether, and the
death rate has been reduced by four per 1,000 in the last twenty years.
It now stands at 20 per 1,000. But London has its Upper Hallams
319
SOME ASPECTS OF INDUSTRIAL MORTALITY.
as well as Sheffield, its St. Greorge's, Hanover Square, as well as its
St. George's-in-the-East. It does not make life a moment longer
for the dock worker of East London or the costermonger of South-
wark to know that the people of Kensington, Notting Hill, and
Wandsworth are bettering their chances of life each year. The
Southwark medical officer's report for the year 1892 shows that
there is a district in that great wilderness of poverty where people
die at the rate of 33 per 1,000 per annum — where, out of every 1,000
children born, 220 die under the age of one year. The average
density for the whole of London is 67 per acre. In this district each
acre is packed with 259 souls. London is well provided with some
of the most magnificent open spaces possessed by any town, but the
only recreation grounds in this district are the disused burying
ground of St. George's Church and the Lock Burial Field, and these
small and dolorous grounds are filled with plague and cholera cases.
Imagine what the condition of life must be in a district where death
is so rampant. A lady who has lately been much in the district,
and who has spent years of her life amongst the poor of White-
chapel, told me that she did not know what poverty was till she
found herself in Southwark, where semi-starvation is the chronic
condition of a very large number of the inhabitants, and sickliness
and disease are written on innumerable faces.
Abundant similar contrasts are to be found in the metropolitan
district. Thus, in Hampstead there are 30 persons to the acre ;
whereas in St. Giles' there are 166 ; in St. George's-in-the-East,
188 ; in the district of Marylebone, 217 ; and in Bethnal Green, 230.
Newcastle-on-Tyne showed a death rate of 23*6 in the year 1891,
but there was one district in the city which I find gives the almost
incredibly high rate of 60. There is no need to multiply instances
in greater or less degree, for all the manufacturing and trading
centres of the country have these precipitous death frontiers dividing
the poor from the well-to-do districts. There is no getting over the
evidence. The city death tax, to use an expression of Dr. Farr's, is
a heavy one indeed, and its incidence falls most heavily upon those
whose only capital is in their health and strength. It cannot be
repeated too often that the conditions under which vast numbers of
us are living are abnormal. Adaptable as man is, nature draws the
line somewhere, and human life simply refuses the terms which
are offered to it by modern industry. That is the point to be
remembered. We are subordinating happiness and comfort, banish-
ing the beauties and delights of nature and art, and sacrificing
scores of thousands of lives simply and solely because of our
modern industrial arrangements. There are certain conditions
under which such a sacrifice may be justified, but I fancy that few
people will justify this on the strength of its results. Where, be it
320
SOME ASPECTS OP INDUSTRIAL MORTALITY.
remembered, we find that a high death rate is constant, we find as
a complement to it a population of stunted, feeble, and half-
developed human beings. So far as they are concerned, the capacity
for enjopnent, or even for demanding a better condition of things,
does not exist. It may be held by some that the trading classes or
the national commerce — that misleading abstraction — gain some-
thing in exchange for so many souls; however, it will not do at this
stage to break off into this side of the question. It is sufficient to
know that the problem being closely bound up with our ti-ading
methods, co-operators have a vital corporate interest as well as a
personal one in laying hold of and, as far as may be, dealing with
the facts.
The question of infant mortality is closely bound up with the
whole subject of industrial health. Infants are naturally more
susceptible to the conditions of life which surround them than those
who have weathered the storms of childhood, and whilst they afford
a test of the health of the district and the hygienic conditions to be
found there, it is too often only gained at the expense of their lives.
This massacre of the innocents which is going on year by year
unchecked is one of the most, if not the most fearful thing which
our town life has to shOw. It is all very well for people to say, as
they constantly do — "Ah, but it is the parents' fault, the ignorance
of the mothers or the carelessness of their neighbours with whom
the child is left." How is it, then, that the child of the agi-icultural
labourer manages to survive so much oftener than the town child?
Are the mothers who live in the country so much more cai'eful and
better educated in maternal duties than those who have to bring up
their offspring in the towns? The thing is absurd. The country
child may have poorer parents, parents whose wages do not amount
to more than one-half or one-third of the town workman's ; but then,
the country parents can give their children what the others cannot
have — clean, fresh air and abundance of space and food which, if
poor, does not consist of opiates or adulterated messes. There are,
however, other aspects of the question to be considered besides the
deprivation Vv'hich all town children must suffer more or less from —
pure air, sunshine, and space. I allude to the case of children in
factoiy towns where the mothers are frequently working in the mills
and factories. There is convincing evidence to show that there is a
special factory death tax to which the children contribute as well
as a city death tax. Twenty years ago Dr. Farr constructed the
following table, which puts the matter in the most graphic form.
He takes, it will be seen, the towns of Oldham, Nottingham, Man-
chester and Salford, Leicester, Leeds, Norwich, Portsmouth, and
London. Against each town he sets the number of women of twenty
years of age and upwards, specifying those who are engaged in textile
321
322
SOME ASPECTS OF INDUSTRIAL MORTALITY.
manufactures and those who are engaged in household duties, and
the proportion these bear to the total number of women. Then he
gives particulars of the infant mortality for the period 1873 to 1875.
It comes out at once that in those towns where a large percentage of
women are employed in the mills, an abnormal percentage of infants
succumb. Thus in London, where half of the women are classified
as being engaged in household duties, the death rate per thousand
births is 159. In London we observe also that there is practically
no textile labour at all. If we take Portsmouth, where two-thirds
of the women are engaged at home, we find the death rate per one
thousand births is 146. Leicester, on the other hand, shows a death
rate of 217; Nottingham, 200; Oldham, 180; Manchester, 188; and
Leeds, 201. It is quite true that a very large percentage of women
in these places do not go to the mills, but note the number who do.
In Oldham they are set down at 11,000; Nottingham, 6,000;
Manchester and Salford, 22,000; and Leicester, 3,000. The
inference is that the excess of mortality in these cases is simply due
to the conditions of factory labour, which tend to reduce the health
and vigour of the mother, and which necessitate the placing of the
child in the care of strangers who cannot, even with the best of
intentions, nourish and tend the factory nursery as a mother can
her own children. Dr. Farr does not drop his inquiry here. He
proceeds to classify the main causes of death amongst infants during
these years, and in another table he divides these out amongst the
group of textile towns and compares the results with the mortality
and statistics of London, which serves as the basis for the non-textile
towns. In the first column he shows the number of infants carried
off during the years 1873-74-75 from eleven different causes, whilst
in the second column is given the excess or deficit as shown by
seven towns in which textile manufacture is the staple industry. A
glance at the following table shows the terrible havoc played by
diarrhoea, convulsions, atrophy, debility, and premature birth.
Thus in London diarrhoea was represented by 20*4, in the factory
districts by 31*9; convulsions in London by 18*5, in the factory
towns by 27-4; in London, atrophy and debility by 20*5, in the
factory districts by just double that figure, viz., 40-9. In London
premature birth is 10-4, and in the factory towns 13*8. These
figures refer to a period of twenty years ago, but unfortunately the
evidence points to no improvement whatever — in fact, the state of
things is worse rather than better to-day. The Eegistrar General,
in his last annual report which gives the vital statistics of England
for the year 1891, is so impressed by the state of things that he
refers to the subject in even more detail than did Dr. Farr. He
takes three towns — Leicester, Preston, and Blackburn — in which the
rate of infant mortality has been sustained at an abnormal height
323
SOME ASPECTS OF INDUSTRIAL MORTALITY.
through the whole decennium of 1881 to 1890, during which, in fact,
these three towns had the highest infant death rate of all the towns
included in the weekly returns. Then he takes another group of
five mining and manufacturing counties, and a third group of rural
counties. Starting from the basis of 100,000 births in each of these
three groups during the years 1889-90-91, he compares the deaths,
with their causes, of children under one year of age, and these are
again sub-divided into periods of three months, six months, and
twelve months.
♦CAUSES OF INFANT MORTALITY IN TOWNS IN THE THREE
YEARS 1873-5.
Causes of Death.
London.
Textile Manufac-
turing Towns.
Death Rate per
1,000.
Excess or
Deficit of London.
All causes
159-1
+ 34-9
The eleven subjoined causes
135-6
+ 31-9
Measles
31
11
8-3
3-6
20-4
18-5
31-9
13-8
20-5
10-4
4-0
-f 0-1
Scarlet Fever
-f 0-5
Whooping Cough
- 1-9
Teething
- 0-4
Diarrhoea
+ 11-5
Convulsions
Lung Diseases
-f 8-9
- 3-8
Tubercular Diseases
- 3-3
Atrophy and Debility
+ 20-4
Premature Birth
+ 3-4
Suffocation
- 3-5
* In the above table the death rates from each of the eleven causes in these
seven textile manufacturing towns in the aggregate are compared with those in
London, and the results indicate in a striking manner that over and above a
certain proportion of the mortality which may be attributable to indifferent
sanitary arrangements, the causes most fatal to infant life in factory towns,
and which are inseparable from bad nursing and feeding, are diarrhcea,
convulsions, and atrophy. The mortality from premature birth was also in
excess. Thus the respective death rates of infants in London and in the seven
factory towns were — from diarrhoea, 20-4 and 31-9; from convulsions, 18-5 and
27-4; from atrophy, 205 and 40-9; from premature birth, 10-4 and 13-8 per
thousand.
324
SOME ASPECTS OF INDUSTRIAL MORTALITY.
In the table which follows he gives the general result : —
Of 100,000 born, the Numbers
surviving at each Age.
Annual Death Rates per 1,000
living in each successive
interval of Age.
Age.
Three
Rural
Counties.
Five
Mining
and Manu-
facturing
Counties.
100,000
92,051
88,574
83,081
Tliree
Selected
Towns.
Three
, Rural
1 Counties.
Five
Mining
and IManu-
facturing
Counties.
Three
Selected
Towns.
At Birth..
3 Months.
6 ,.
12 „
100,000
94,820
93,068
90,283
100,000
90,874
85,574
78,197
213
1 75
61
;
331
154
128
382
240
180
It will be seen at once that whilst in the selected rural counties
there are in round numbers 10,000 deaths of children under the age
of one year, there are 22,000 deaths in the towns of Leicester,
Preston, and Blackburn, whilst the mining and manufacturing
districts lie between the two. I ought to mention that of the three
agx'icultural counties, Hertfordshire, Wiltshire, and Dorsetshire, and
the five mining counties of Staffordshire, Lancashire, Leicestershire,
West Riding, and Durham, the latter comprise some of the selected
textile towns as well as certain industries which are notoriously
unhealthy and a big sprinkling of great towns where overcrowding
and bad sanitary conditions exist, so that the health standard is by
no means a high one. By means of another table, the results of which
I will summarise, the Registi'ar ascertains that there are certain
particulars in which the counties and the towns agree. Thus, the
mortality is at its maximum in the first week, it falls enormously in
the second week, remains at much the same level in the third week,
and then shows a considerable decline in the fourth week, though
even in the fourth week the mortality is very high. Passing from
weeks to months, the mortality falls in the second month to a small
fraction of its previous height, and then gradually continues until the
seventh or eighth month, after which no noticeable change takes place
through the remainder of the period, though there is a tendency to
further decline. These points distinguish infantile mortality generally,
and they are to be observed alike in rural and mixed industrial
and factory districts. When we come to the points of difi"erence we
find that the manufacturing rate, besides being considerably more
than double the rural rate, is higher for each fraction of the year with
the exception of the fourth, fifth, and sixth days of the week after birth.
Then again, and this is a most important point, the town rates are
326
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327
SOME ASPECTS OF INDUSTRIAL MORTALITY.
most in excess of rural rates not in the earliest weeks or months of
infancy, but in the . later months. In the first week of life the
Registrar points out that the town rate exceeds the rural rate by 23
per cent, in the second week by 64 per cent, in the third week by
83 per cent, and in the fourth week by 97 per cent, thus showing a
progressive or accumulative increase in the deleterious effects of
town conditions as compared with rural conditions upon infantile
life. Taking months instead of weeks, in the first month the town
mortality is 27 per cent above the rural rate, in the second month
121 per cent above it, and the excess goes on amounting up until the
sixth month, when it stands at no less than 273 per cent. It is in
this sixth month that the difference is greatest, though it remains
throughout the rest of the year at not a very much lower point.
But if we are to trace this wholesale sacrifice of life back to its
causes we must know from what the child died. Accordingly, the
Registrar has had the causes of death for the three years extracted
in the case of the 100,000 rural infants and mill babies. The
foregoing tables, which are the first of the kind ever prepared,
are of such exti'eme importance that we append them in full.
The inference which must be drawn from Dr. Farr's tables is
very clear. If we glance at the deaths ascribed to diarrhoea,
premature birth, atrophy, and convulsions in the towns and the
rural districts respectively, we find most appalling results. For
instance, whilst 480 of the country children died from diarrhoea and
disease during the three years, the Preston, Leicester, and Blackburn
figui-es stand at 3,961. Convulsions, again, are represented by 1,381
in the country, and 3,776 in the towns. Atrophy was 1,738 in the
country, and 2,734 in the towns. Premature birth stood at 1,381 in
the country, and 2,279 in the towns. If we take enteric fever and
diarrhoea together, we find that the mortality from these diseases is
more than seven times as great in the towns as in the country.
Again, measles and scarlet fever, which the Registrar General points
out are spread by the close aggregation, are considerably more than
three times as high in the towns as in the countries. Turning back
for a moment to Dr. Farr's first table, we find that whereas Leicester
then (which stood highest in his list of textile towns) was represented
by a death rate of 217 per thousand births, the figures for the
period nearly twenty years later for the three towns of Preston,
Leicester, and Blackburn were represented by 218. This shows
clearly enough that nothing has been done to check the evil. If we
could assign the real causes to the deaths of these children, in how
many cases should we have to put on the death certificate that the
child died because the mother worked in the mill, because of
improper feeding with the neglect which comes not through
ignorance or carelessness but through the unnatural course of things
328
SOME ASPECTS OF INDUSTRIAL MORTALITY.
which gives to a stranger the care of a child. The fearful number of
deaths from diarrhoea is unquestionably due to this latter fact.
Anyone who reads the weekly returns from the great towns must
notice how in the hot months the death rate of the textile towns
leaps up to something like double the normal figure, and closer
inspection shows that this is very largely accounted for by the deaths
of children from diarrhoea. In Leicester, which is known amongst
medical officers and medical men as one of the diarrhoea towns,
there is such a scare amongst the well-to-do people during the
months of August and September that they leave the town and go
away to the country or the seaside. But the Leicester well-to-do
people need not be frightened ; the children who die are the children
of the poor and the children of mothers who go to work, and
are consequently not brought up but let out to be cared for. The
Registrar is somewhat guarded in his expressions on this point,
though he is forced to admit that in the case of mortality from
premature birth "part of the excess may be ascribed with much
probability to the employment of young married women in the
textile factories."
"What one would like to know is, what the Local Government
Board is going to do failing the action of the local sanitary
authorities and the intervention of the law in the shape of the
Factory Act. Are we to carry local government to such a pitch as
to license these manufacturing towns to murder as many children
annually as they please? And if infanticide is not to become a
recognised British institution, what steps are we to take to put an
end to it? The industrious compilation of statistics and scientific
treatment of them will not lessen infant mortality, but it is for the
administrators of the country and those who make its laws to take
these statistics, to gather their bearing and to check the evil by the
adoption of preventive regulations.
The influence of occupation upon life and health has not been
studied to the same extent as other aspects of the public health
question. For some reason or other it has scarcely claimed any
attention on the part of medical men, whilst no body of public
opinion to speak of has been formed on the question. Of course,
there has been a strong feeling against the more obviously barbarous
forms of labour which existed unchecked in the case of women and
children before the Ashley regime. When the nation found out that
children of five years of age were being sent down the mines, that
women were crawling along on all-fours dragging after them corves
of coal fastened to their bodies by chains, that the tender bodies of
infants, who in well-to-do families would scarcely have been out of
the nursery, were being tossed into the Lancashire mill and sucked
dry of all their little strength, a fit of passionate indignation seized it,
329
SOME ASPECTS OF INDUSTRIAL MORTALirY.
and in defiance of all economic teaching and the protests of the free-
traders, Cobden, Bright, and Gladstone, laws were made limiting
the hours of child and female labour, and the age at which certain
occupations might be begun. It took years to work up this strong
human feeling on the question, but when once it was brought home
to the country and to Parliament only the most inveterately
commercial-souled of men stood up for the abominations which were
practised in the name of commerce. Unfortunately, the men of
science were not called in as in the case of the Public Health Act.
The administration of the Factory Acts, which embody our industrial
hygienic code, was left in the hands of men totally unversed in the
science of health. Parliament having drawn up certain regulations
which were calculated to check unsanitary evils, left the rest to the
administrators, and the administrators, in their turn, to Providence.
The consequence is that to-day we have to buckle to again to fill up
the gaps which have been left in our Factory Acts. We have to
find out, in the first place, to what extent those Acts are simply a
legislative framework or an administrative reality, and alongside of
this inquiry we must pursue the same line of investigation in regard
to the influence of occupation upon health as was pursued by Dr.
Farr and Sir John Simon in their researches into urban mortality.
There is no sort of doubt that the kind of work which men and
women do has a close effect upon the health and vitality of those
engaged. The shop assistant, who stands behind the counter for
seventy or eighty hours a week ; the clerk, who stoops over his desk
for many hours a day ; the tailor, who incessantly repeats the same
motions with the same set of muscles ; the cotton spinner, whose
nerves are incessantly on the strain in the race with the swift
machinery ; the ironworker, who passes from the terrific glow of the
gi^eat furnaces into the chill night air ; the coal miner, screwed up into
a space as small as a grave, hewing and picking at the coal ; the black-
smith, working like a Titan ; the chemical-worker, straining with
his huge iron rake at the glowing mass inside the furnaces, breathing
poisonous vapours instead of pure air ; the potter, working all day
in a room the hot and stuffy air of which is filled with minute
particles of stone which tear and irritate his lungs as they are
inhaled, plunging the ware into the vats of liquid poison which are
to give the glaze of which Staffordshire is so proud ; the cutler,
cramped up in his wretched cabin in some Sheffield slum, bending
over the wheel which grinds out a stream of deadly particles of iron
and stone ; the seamstress and the tailoress, stitching and stitching
in the confined rooms where they sat when the "Song of the Shirt"
rang in men's ears ; the baker, stewed in an undergi-ound den ; the
arsenic and whitelead worker ; the japanner and brassworker.
These and the great category of textile workers who follow the swift
330
SOME ASPECTS OF INDUSTBIAL MORTALITY.
machinery, and breathe the close unwholesome air of the mill with
its deadly mixture of fibrous dust, have all of them their special
stories to tell, if only they knew how, of the effects of their industry
upon their health.
But the worker as a rule is not in a position to tell the story. He
does not trace the effect back to its cause. The Sheffield cutler who
is dying from consumption will tell you that on such and such a day
he got a cough, which has steadily got worse. The mill girl in
Belfast, who lives on a diet of bread and tea, and works all day long
in a moist and tropical atmosphere, finds her strength giving way ; she,
too, has a cough, but she does not know why. The doctor tells her
presently that she is in a consumption, and she and her friends
suppose that the end is coming in the appointed way. So, too, with
many other classes of workers. Habit is second nature, and the
habits and surroundings of their lives are accepted unquestioningly,
and when health breaks down they attribute it to natural causes.
Now, there are two main di\'isions into which these industrial
diseases may be classified. Certain of the workers enumerated
above suffer from the conditions which surround their work, such as
closeness of atmosphere, excessive heat, and alternations of heat and
cold. Others suffer from immediate contact with their work — for
instance, the whitelead workers, arsenic workers, and chemical
men, and with these we may include those who suffer from the
extreme intensity of toil, like blacksmiths, who reach the high-water
mark of vitality at the age of eighteen. We must, therefore, keep in
mind the environment of the workers, the amount of space, light,
fresh air, &c., allotted to them, and the particular nature of their
work itself — for instance, the poisonous properties of materials, the
offensive and injurious matters given off during the process of manu-
facture, and which assume various forms of poison, dust, and vapour.
Taking the surroundings of the workers first, there is no need to
spend time in insisting upon the vital importance of a proper supply
of fresh air, yet for lack of realising all that this means we are
paying a terrible death and disease tax every year. You cannot
batten up so many men and women in a workshop or factory day
after day and week after week with an insufficient amount of pure
air and expect them to keep up a healthy standard of life. The
thing is a physical impossibility. Just as the human organism
revolts against being expected to assimilate impure water or putrid
food, so does it protest against being expected to keep up the natural
chemistry of life upon poisonous air. I may here, by way of illustra-
tion, give the effects of pure and impure air upon the health of the
troops. The Sanitary Commission which inquired into the health
conditions of the army, and which was appointed through the
instrumentality of Miss Florence Nightingale, brought out the fact
331
that whilst in civil life (as illustrated by the population of twenty -
four large towns) the deaths from pulmonary diseases at the
soldiers' ages were 6-3 per 1,000, they amounted in the cavalry to
7-3, in the infantry of the line 10-12, in the guards 13-8 per 1,000 ;
and of the entire number of deaths from all causes in the army,
diseases of the lungs were responsible in the cavalry for 53-9 per
cent, in the infantry of the line 57*277 per cent, and in the guards
67"683 per cent. Now in the army the soldiers are on the whole
well fed and well clothed. Whence, then, this excessive mortality
from pulmonary diseases ? The commissionei's say : —
They are to be traced in a great degree to the vitiated atmosphere generated by
overcrowding and defective ventilation and the absence of proper sewerage in
barracks. This one cause acting with such intensity especially when superadded
to a certain amount of exposure, has not only produced in the foot guards an
amount of disease in question which is greater than is produced in civil life by all
the four causes united, but which actually carries off annually a number of men
in the infantrj' equalling, and in the guards actually exceeding, the number of
civilians of the same age who die of all causes put together.
Sir John Simon, the late Medical Officer of Health to the Privy
Council, in a retrospective article on his work, remarks : —
We had shown that death and disease in very large quantities were accruing
from removable causes which attached to certain branches, and in general most
extensive branches, of national industry, so that certain large district populations
had, so to speak, their epidemic diseases almost as marsh populations have ague ;
that in several of these the workers were suffering from tubercular phthisis in
terrible amount through the over-crowdedness and unventilatedness of the spaces
allotted to work ; that in several others the workers were suffering not less
terribly from non-tubercular (viritaline) disease of the lungs because of the
absence of reasonable care to remove from the industrial atmosphere the dust
and other vitiating matter which the industry tended to diffuse in it.
It will be noticed that Sir John Simon divides phthisis into two
classes, the one being due mainly to bad air and exposure, and the
other to the admission into the respiratory passages of irritating
substances. In the following table, which is drawn up by Dr. Ogle,
of the Eegistrar's department, from the figures supplied in the
census of 1881, a graphic presentation is afforded of all the ravages
of phthisis and respiratory diseases amongst certain classes of trades.
It is impossible to separate the two classes here. In many cases —
for instance, in that of earthenware manufacture — no doubt the
operatives die largely from both causes, and this would be true in the
case of cotton manufacture. With cutlers, on the other hand, a
greater proportion of deaths would be due to the irritant nature of
the metallic particles inhaled. Look, however, at the fisherman,
who, in spite of constant exposure to all sorts of weather and
temperatures, is infinitely less the victim to pulmonary complaints
than any of the indoor workers. Where 198 fishermen die from
382
SOME ASPECTS OF INDUSTRIAL MORTALITY.
Occupation.
Phthisis.
Diseases
of
Respiratory
Organs.
Phthisis
and Diseases
of the
Respiratory
Organs.
Coal Miner
Carpenter, Joiner
Baker, Confectioner
Mason, Builder, Bricklayer
Wool Manufacturer
Cotton Manufacturer
Quarryman
Cutler
File Maker
Earthenware Manufacturer
Cornish Miner
Fisherman
these diseases, the table shows that 1,148 Cornish miners, 1,118
earthenware operatives, and 543 cotton operatives die. We must
refer to this table again later on when we come to consider the
diseases of occupation more in detail.
Before we go any further it may be as well to point out where the
law stands in regard to these matters. So far as the structure of
workshops and factories is concerned there are no regulations
whatever. It is only after the place is built and the plant laid down
that the law steps in and says, adequate provision must be made for
ventilation and for cleansing the air of all the impurities generated
in the course of manufacture. Without deprecating in any way
those regulations which the Factory Act is supposed to enforce,
common sense suggests that it would be better for the State to step
in before instead of after the factory is built. Of course, what
happens is that the architect, the manufacturer, and the engineer
do not trouble their heads about anything except the strictly
manufacturing pui'poses to which the mill, factory, or workshop is
to be put ; and in a large proportion of cases the factory inspector,
who knows absolutely nothing about the science or practice of
ventilation himself, is powerless to suggest a way by which the place
may be fitted for human beings whose kings are constructed in the
ordinary way. Theoretically, the Act gives powers to enforce a
sufficient supply of space and pure air to everyone ; in practice, the
theory utterly breaks down. I have looked through the list of
convictions under the Factory Act for the last few yeai-s and can
find no single case in which proceedings have been taken against a
manufacturer for the infringement of the Act in respect to space or
333
SOME ASPECTS OF INDUSTRIAL MORTALITY.
ventilation. The factory inspectors must not be blamed too severely
for their inaction in the matter, because they do not pretend to be
qualified for the extremely difficult duties in respect of health
supervision which are laid upon them, but it reflects little credit
upon the authorities at the Home Office that for many years past
they have been pretending to administer the Act, which, so far as
its hygienic features are concerned, there are no proper means of
carrying out. We do not appoint retired naval captains or army
officers as medical officers of health, and yet we expect gentlemen
drawn from varied and promiscuous walks of life to discharge duties
of a very similar nature in connection with factories and workshops.
This is a piece of administrative neglect which has probably cost
more lives than all the wars in which England has been engaged
during the past half century. Either we should abandon the
pretence of securing healthy conditions for the operatives, or proper
steps should be taken, first to lay down a standard of what is
necessary, and secondly to appoint propex-ly qualified officers to see
that this is kept to, and those who break the law should be treated
with at least as much severity as vendors of rotten fish or putrid
meat. It is only another instance of the sheer levity with which
the interests of life and health, as compared with the interests of
property, are treated by the Government and Civil Service, which is
mainly drawn from the ranks of those who do not realise the facts
of the workman's life, and whose own health is subject to a different
set of conditions altogether from those which have so powerful a
bearing upon industrial mortality.
The mass of working men and women are still living and working
under conditions which are the same as Dickens described in his
wonderful sketch of Coketown : —
Coketown was a towu of red brick, or of brick that would have beeu red if the
smoke and ashes had allowed it ; but as mattei-s stood it was a town of unnatural
red and black, like the painted face of a savage It was a town of machinery
and tall chimneys, out of which interminable 'serpents of smoke trailed them-
selves for ever and ever and never got uncoiled. It had a black canal in it, and
a river that ran purple with ill-smelling dj-e, and vast piles of buildings full of
windows where there was a rattling and a trembling all day long, and where the
piston of the steam engine worked monotonously up and down like the head of an
elephant in a state of melancholy madness. It contained several large streets all
very like one another, inhabited by people equally like one another, who all went
in and out at the same hours, with the same sound upon the same pavements, to
do the same work, and to whom every day was tiie same as yesterday and
to-morrow, and every year the counterpart of the last and the next. These
attributes of Coketown were in the main inseparable from the work by which it
was sustained You saw nothing in Coketown but what was severelv
workful. If the members of a religious persuasion built a chapel there, as the
members of eighteen religious persuasions had done, they made it a pious
warehouse of red brick, with sometimes (but this is only in highly-ornamented
examples) a bell in a birdcage at the top of it All the public inscrip-
tions in the town were painted alike, in severe characters of black and white.
334
SOME ASPECTS OP INDUSTRIAL MORTALITY.
The jail might havo been the infirmary, the infirmary might have been the jail ;
the town hall might have been either, or both, or anything else for anything that
appeared to the contrary in the graces of their construction. Fact, fact, fact,
everywhere in the material aspect of the town ; fact, fact, fact, everywhere in the
immaterial. The McChoakumchild school was all fact, and the school of design
was all fact, and the relations between master and man were aU fact, and every-
thing was fact between the lying-in hospital and the cemetery, and what you
couldn't state in figures or show to be purchasable in the cheapest market and
saleable in the dearest was not, and never should be, world without end. Amen.
We have glanced already at the impi'ession which these streets of
Coketown leave upon their inhabitants. Let us now see what sort
of human fabric is being spun and combed out in these throbbing
mills, what pattern of flesh and blood the decorative and ornamental
arts, as we are carrying them out, is tracing, how fire and vapour
fulfil the word of the manufacturer upon men as well as metals.
Take that district of Coketown known as Sheffield. Everyone is
proud of Sheffield, and its manufactures boast that wherever the
British flag flies there is Sheffield ti'ade ; and when it flies for war,
Sheffield steel is not far off. It has a school of protection of its own
for Sheffield goods, so keen is the pride it takes in its cutlery. But
what a life the Sheffield workman lives who earns his bread at the
grindstone! Here is what the Medical Officer for Shefiield says
about the place where these men live and work : —
Houses of the poorest description, with damp walls and cellars, in many
instances standing several inches deep in water, contaminated with sewage and
giving out foul gases into the rooms above; comis confined and occupied by
large, sodden privy-middens so near to the dwellings that ventilation becomes
impossible and absolutely dangerous; sink pipes discharging in the channels,
usually defective, and allowing the slops to form stagnating pools before reaching
the gullies which are situated often fifty yards away ; or, what is worse, permitting
of percolation into the soil of the yard. All these conditions exist in many parts
of the district, and no doubt are largely accountable for the high death rate. At
present almost every available foot of ground is occupied, if not by houses by
privies, stables, or outhouses; the air is stagnant and the ground polluted with
sewage and decomposing matter.
Hundreds of these wretched jerry-built slum houses have been
turned into workshops in which the grinders and cutlers stoop over
their wheels. Somewhere in the court a gas engine is working, and
a network of bands are connected with the wheels which whiz around
in every dark hole and corner that they can be squeezed into. You
go up ricketty ladders into lofts, where the boards are worn and
covered with an ancient grime of steel and stone particles of file dust
and filth. Here you will find women finishing off the men's work.
Very likely the water comes through the roof when it rains and lays
the dust. The gi-inders and cutlers rent these places. They enjoy
the privilege of freedom, which, in this case, is one of the strangest
and most ghastly privileges men could claim. They have their own
wheels and their own tools. They pay so much rent for the place,
335
SOME ASPECTS OP INDUSTRIAL MORTALITY.
SO much rent for the gas, and so much rent for the power ; mean-
while, the manufacturer, so called, sits in his warehouse or office
giving out steel in the rough, first to the forger who passes it to the
grinder, and so on to the polisher and finisher until the round is
completed and the finished stuff comes back into the other door
"warranted best Sheffield cutlery." The trade is a highly skilled
one, and the work is extremely hard. The wages run from 168. for
light grinders, to 25s. for heavy grinders. The wages of Sheffield
are literally death. The lungs of the cutler and grinder get charged
in the course of time with the metallic particles given off during
their work, and they contract that form of phthisis locally known as
"grinder's rot." These particles, owing to their mineral constitution
and sharp jagged outline, are peculiarly harmful, and at last the
lungs can stand it no longer and cease work.
The following tables are extracted from the reports of the Medical
Officers of Health : —
1888.
Grinders died from all causes 99
Grinders died from phthisis and respiratory diseases 58
Cutlers died from all causes 156
Cutlers died from phthisis and respiratory diseases 73
1889.
Grinders died from all causes 101
Grinders died from phthisis and respiratory diseases 64
Cutlers died from all causes 1.30
Cutlers died from phthisis and respiratory diseases 59
1890.
Grinders died from all causes 131
Grinders died from phthisis and respiratory diseases 92
Cutlers died from all causes 171
Cutlers died from phthisis and respiratory diseases 98
1891.
Grinders died from all causes 121
Grinders died from phthisis and respiratory diseases 87
Cutlers died from all causes 147
Cutlers died from phthisis and respiratory diseases 77
If the 181 grinders who died in the year 1890 had
shown the average health conditions of the country, not 92 but
27 ought to have died from phthisis and respiratory diseases.
The figures show how terribly large is the proportion of these
diseases to the total number of deaths, and yet Dr. Littlejohn, the
Medical Officer of Health, asserts that they fall far short of the
actual facts, as many workmen at the cutlery trade when their
health begins to fail go into some lighter occupation under which
their deaths are registered.
In the Potteries people are dying or living only half-animated
lives from much the same causes as in Sheffield. The string of
towns, Longton, Fenton, Stoke, Hanley, Cobridge, Burslem, and
336
SOME ASPECTS OF INDUSTRIAL MORTALITY.
Tunstall, are all so many sigments and repetitions of the " Coketown "
of "hard times." The same pall of smoke hovers over them and
penetrates the air which people breathe, and smears the red brick till
it turns black. The amount of unconsumed smoke that settles in
the form of soot every day in the Potteries is something depressing
to think of. The manufacturers throw the waste and rubbish,
which amounts to tens of thousands of tons in the course of a year,
out into the country around and down in the valleys, so that the
Potteries seem to be getting embedded in a wilderness of scavengings.
Then there are the gi*eat heaps of slack from the collieries, and the
multifarious accumulations from ironworks and other manufactories,
which spread desolation over the country and makes such feeble
greenery as can survive against the smoke look like a mockery to
nature. "Potter's rot," which carries off the people in these parts,
is closely akin to the Sheffield "grinder's rot." Doctors call it
phthisis or consumption, but it has nothing to do with the tubercular
form of that disease, though it may exist in connection with it or
awaken the germs when the sufferer is predisposed to tubercular
trouble. The fibroid phthisis, which is the scientific name, signifies
that potters are stricken down by the work by which they earn their
livelihood, because of the fearful quantity of dust generated in the
manufacture to which they are exposed. This dust is of a most
insidious kind. Walking through the rooms where the men and
women are at work you may not notice it, but when you come out
you find your clothes are covered with a sprinkling of white powder.
The air gets charged with this, and not only is it given off by the
swift rotating ware as it comes into contact with the finishing tool
or the sand paper, but the moist clay, which gets broken off into
fragments and falls about the workshop, dries into powder, which
the vibrations of the floor caused by the jolting and thumping of
machinery, and the movements to and fro, tend to keep in
suspension. Here again, as in Sheffield, the dust is a mineral one.
There are particles of stone and bone in the composition, and worst
of all, a flint which is broken up into the most vicious tearing atoms.
Nearly everyone engaged in the potters' shops get their share of dust,
though those who work with lathe, jigger, or jolly, as the whirling
stands are called on which the ware is shaped, get the biggest share
of it. The reader will readily understand that when a shai-p tool is
held to earthenware that has been already baked, a fine spui*t of dust
must be the result. Multiply this spurt by a few dozen or a few
score, and you have the process which is continually going on. In
some instances manufacturers have put up ventilating fans which
carry off a considerable percentage of the dust. In many there are
no arrangements whatever of the kind. The women who suffer most
are the towers and the china scourers. The tower's business is to
337
SOME ASPECTS OF INDUSTRIAL MORTALITY.
put a finishing on the surface of the ware by means of sand paper or
some other rough surface, and she sits all day long stooping over a
small cyclone of dust. Where proper fans are not installed she is
doomed. So, too, is the china scourer, who bi'ushes the particles of
flint from the ware when it comes from the saggers, or great earthen
vessels, in which there has been packed a bedding of flint dust.
There is scarcely a china manufactory in the Potteries which has
made any provision whatever for carrying away this terrible flint
dust. The women's faces and hair are frequently white with it, and
in the majority of cases they are only able to work for a few years
before they utterly break down with the "potter's rot."
A glance at Dr. Ogle's table some pages back, showing the deaths
from phthisis and respiratory diseases in various trades, will show
the reader the position of the potters in this ominous category.
There may have been some slight improvement since these figures
were taken out, but not much. Dr. Ogle's figures show that in Hull
there was a higher mortality figure for the decennium ending 1881
than for that ending in 1871. Since then, however, a good many
manufacturers have introduced better ventilating arrangements. Dr.
Arlidge, who has spent a great part of his life in the Potteries, where
he has held the post of Certifying Surgeon and of Physician to the
North Staffordshire Infirmary, has collected statistics which show
how much more severely the dangers of dust and poisoning are felt
in some departments of the woi"k than they are in others. He finds
that the pressers who have been treated in the infirmary show an
appallingly heavy proportion of pulmonary disorders. Out of 263
pressers, bronchitis was present in 55-5 and phthisis in 17"8. In
other departments the figures were bad enough, but not so terrible
as these. It is a well-known fact that many of the children in the
Potteries whose mothers are engaged in the factories are born
with a predisposition to lung troubles, whilst the rate of infant
mortality is excessively high. Lead poisoning is present in this
trade in a much larger degree than is generally known, for the raw
whitelead is used in very large quantities to produce a glaze upon
the earthenware and china. It is impossible for the workpeople to
come into contact with this lead either in the liquid form in which it
is spread upon the ware or in its dry and powdeiy state without
suffering from it, though there are a few exceptional cases, where
the constitution appears to get seasoned to what is in fact a most
deadly poison. Every year at the North Staffordshire Infirmary a
large number of cases of lead poisoning are treated, whilst if you
move about amongst the people, or extend your explorations to the
Stoke workhouse, you find a pitiable number of cases in which
chronic paralysis has been the outcome of contact with the lead. I
have seen young girls in the Potteries ruined for life from this cause.
_
338
SOME ASPECTS OP INDUSTRIAL MORTALITY.
Cases of lead colic are also plentiful, and when once this hideous
and agonising disorder has made itself felt it is pretty certain to
recur at longer or shorter intervals whilst the victim remains at the
occupation. The third form of lead poisoning is that in which the
poison touches the brain, and the sufferer dies in a series of con-
vulsions. Such cases occur every year in the Potteries. There, as
in other trades where lead poisoning exists, the sufferers are mostly
young women. Dr. Arlidge notes that out of 60 persons employed
in the dipping house (that is the department where the ware is
dipped into the great vats of liquid glaze) who applied for medical
advice, 47 suffered from colic or paralysis, or both, or arthralgia.
Women employed in decorating the ware also suffer terribly from
lead poisoning. The paint dries on their hands, on their clothes, or
in their hair ; and in the rougher department, being used in large
quantities, the risk of inhalation and absorption in the skin or from
swallowing with food is, in spite of every precaution on the part of
the workpeople, very grave. The most wanton decorative method
that probably exists is that known as "ground laying." The women
dust the colour, which is mixed with lead, on the surface of the ware,
so that they work in an atmosphere of lead particles. Sometimes
when there is a rush of business in this class of ornamentation the
women succumb to its effects as they would if they had drank
strychnine. A poor creature who had been an inmate of the
infirmary at Stoke workhouse for twelve years told me that she had
been "done for" by this "ground laying" in just such a rush of
orders, whilst the two women alongside of whom she was working
both died.
It is a matter for hearty congratulation that co-operators, through
the Co-operative Wholesale Society, have set their face against the
use of raw lead as a glaze. In common with almost every other of
the deadly features of industry, it is absolutely unnecessary. There
are methods of preparing glaze without any lead at all, and the more
human and scientific of the manufacturers in the Potteries are now
"fritting" their lead — that is to say, it goes into the furnaces with
the rest of the constituents of the glaze, where it is chemically
transformed from the carbonate, which is soluble in the human
system, to a silicate, which is practically insoluble. Let us mention
that world-renowned houses have during the last few months used
nothing but lead "frit," and they pronounce themselves more than
satisfied with the result. Mr. Campbell, the great tile manufacturer,
has for the past two or three years "fritted" all his lead, with the
result that not a single case of lead poisoning has occurred amongst
his workpeople. Mr. Ehodes, the buyer of the Co-operative
Wholesale Society, has taken up this question warmly, and with
the co-operation of the firms who do business with the Wholesale
339
SOME ASPECTS OP INDUSTRIAL MORTALITY.
and who have entered into his ideas with the utmost heartiness and
cordiaUty, he can see his way to supply co-operators with goods
which have not left the trail of deadly disease and horrible death
behind them. The Home Secretary has also during the past year
appointed a Departmental Committee to go into the whole question
of the effect of the industry upon the health of the operatives.
Before this appears in print their report will be published On this
committee, besides three factory inspectors, have sat Dr. Arlidge and
Dr. Spanton, who are both intimately acquainted with the health of
the workpeople, and Mr. A. P. Laurie, a Fellow of King's
College, Cambridge, who is an expert both on whitelead and the
action of dusts. It seems not unreasonable to hope that whilst the
special rules, which the Home Secretary will issue on the
recommendation of this committee, may not at once put a stop to
the use of raw lead, they will, at any rate, make it easier for the
manufacturers who ai'e willing to go out of the beaten and in this
case inhuman track, and that regulations which will result in vastly
improving the ventilation and a reduction of the excessively hot
atmosphere will be enforced. There is no sort of doubt that if this
is the case the potters' trade wull be revolutionised, and instead of the
occupation being nearly the unhealthiest in the country it will
become one of the healthiest, for it is a light occupation and by no
means an unpleasant one.
For sheer unadulterated brutality and recklessness in the use of
lead I know nothing to beat the case of the manufacturers of
enamelled sheet iron advertisements which have been coming much
into fashion during the last year or two. This is practically a new
trade, and it is carried on almost entirely in the black country,
women's labour of the cheapest kind being employed upon it. From
careful inquiries I have made on the spot, there is no doubt whatever
that the conditions of this industry are such that every woman
employed upon it suffers in a greater or less degree from the horrors
of lead poisoning. The poor girls work in a cloud of dry paint as
they stand all day long dusting the colour from the lettering in the
stencil plates. Means of ventilation for carrying it off there are
none. In the same workshop with them the furnaces are roaring
where the enamelling process is canned on. The employers like to
get their labour from the little town of Sedgley, which stands several
hundred feet above the sea, overlooking the smoke of Wolver-
hampton, Dudley, Bilston, and the other towns of the black country,
for the air of Sedgley is so fine and bracing that the women are
enabled to shake off the effects of the lead much faster than any-
where else in the district. Sedgley serv'es the economical purpose,
therefore, of a convalescent home for the lead poisoned, whilst its
distance from the scene of work tends to allay ugly questions being
340
SOME ASPECTS OF INDUSTRIAL MORTALITY.
asked by the ratepayers who have to pay for the medical attendance
of these women. The poor-law doctor tells me that he never is free
from cases, and that there is no woman employed at the work who
does not show on her gums a little blue line, which signifies the
presence of lead in the system. Only a week before my visit a girl
had died in this convalescent home from lead convulsions after a few
hours' illness, and there were others whom I saw who were suffering
from more or less severe attacks of this form of advertising murder.
Unless drastic measures are taken promptly every girl in the trade
will be ruined for life, to say nothing of those who are being
mercifully sent to the grave. Last year at the Wolverhampton
Infirmary alone there were close upon one hundred cases of lead
poisoning treated, a far larger number probably than at any other
infirmary in the country, and yet there are considerably under a
thousand women employed in the industry altogether. Such an
industry as this is no doubt abnormal, but it shows the danger of
allowing the manufacturers to take the law into their own hands.
Here again the Home Secretary, on having the facts brought to his
notice, has promptly intervened, and referred the case to the
consideration of another departmental committee which is dealing
with the whitelead trade.
In the manufacture of whitelead itself there are probably not more
than 5,000 or 6,000 people employed in this country, but the
comparatively small amount of labour does not make the work any
easier or safer for those who are engaged in it. The work in the
whitelead works is hard, and in many respects brutal and terribly
dangerous. Women's labour is for the most part employed, and
women are far more subject to the effects of lead than men. The
whole question of its effects has been studied by medical experts, and
Dr. Oliver, of Newcastle, says, unhesitatingly, that the ravages
wrought by whitelead fall far more disastrously upon women than
upon men. The chief centres of the trade are Newcastle-on-Tyne
and the East of London. Charles Dickens, whom nothing seemed
to escape, describes in the "Uncommercial Traveller" a visit paid to
the whitelead works in Limehouse. His description is highly
picturesque : —
Hopping up ladders, and across planks, and on elevated perches, until I was
uncertain whether to liken myself to a bird or a bricklayer, I became conscious
of standing on nothing particular, looking down into one of a series of large cock-
lofts, with the outer day peeping in through the chinks in the tiled roof above. A
number of women were ascending to and descending from this cockloft, each
carrying on the upward journey a pot of prepared lead and acid for deposition
under the smoking tan. When one layer of pots was completely filled, it was
carefully covered in with planks, and these were carefully covered with tan again,
and then another layer of pots was began above, sufficient nieans of ventilation
being preserved through wooden tubes. Going down into the cockloft then filling,
I found the heat of the tan to be surprisingly great, also the odour of the lead and
341
SOME ASPECTS OP INDUSTRIAL MORTALITY.
the acid to be not absolutely exquisite, though I believe not noxious at that stage.
In other cocklofts, where the pots were being exhumed, the heat of the steaming
tan was much greater, and the smell was penetrating and peculiar. There were
cocklofts in all stages ; full and empty, half filled and half emptied ; strong, active
women were clambering about them busily ; and the whole thing had rather the
air of the upper part of the house of some immensely rich old Turk, whose
faithful seraglio were hiding his money because the sultan or the pasha was
coming.
Dickens takes a cheerful view of this work, but the girls whom I
saw doing it at Newcastle looked neither strong nor active, as they
walked wearily backwards and forwards with loads of lead on their
heads, or climbing high ladders, as he describes, balancing on their
heads great planks, or loads of tan or of lead that was to be carbonated.
Personally, I doubt if there is any other country in western Europe
where women would be allowed to do such work. All this fetching .
and carrying and lifting could be done by machinery, but because
women's labour happens to be cheaper, and they will submit to do
the work of hoists and trucks, the thing goes on. But the more
dangerous part of the work comes when the stack is uncovered after
many weeks of chemical action, and the women mount once more to
what is known as the "white bed," in contradistinction to the "blue
bed." The lead gets in under their finger nails, and about their
hands and arms, and over their clothes, as they pull it up from its
bedding and remove it to the mill.
At last (continues Dickens) this vexed whitelead, having been buried and
resuscitated, and heated and cooled and stirred, and separated and washed and
ground, and rolled and pressed, is subjected to the action of intense fiery heat.
A row of women stood, let us say, in a large stone bakehouse, passing in the
baking dishes as they were given out by the cooks, from hand to liand, into the
ovens. The oven, or stove, cold as yet, looked as high as an ordinary house, and
was full of men and women on temporary footholds, briskly passing up and
stowing away the dishes. The door of another oven, or stove, about to be cooled
and emptied, was opened from above for the uncommercial countenance to peer
down into. The uncommercial countenance withdrew itself with expedition and
a sense of suffocation from the dull glowing heat and the overpowering smell. On
the whole, perhaps, the going into these stoves to work when they are freshly
opened may be the worst part of the occupation.
It is indeed a strange and uncanny sight to see these pale women,
with red handkerchiefs bound tightly over their hair, enveloped in a
sack-like overall, passing the pans of wet poison up and up into the
great stove. But it is when the lead is dried and it has to be
removed in a state of powder that the worst time comes. It is
desperately hard work, for the stove is cleared at high pressure, and
it has to be done with a muffler placed over the mouth, a thing which
is no sort of use in keeping the lead out. Frequently the women
work in their bare feet. By the time they have done both their
outer and under clothes are covered with the lead dust, and the pores
of their skin being opened by the desperate exertion, the lead has
342
SOME ASPECTS OF INDUSTRIAL MORTALITY.
every opportunity of finding its way into their system. In 1883 Sir
William Harcourt, who was then at the Home Office, drew up
certain regulations for the protection of the workers. These con-
sisted of the provision of baths and nail brushes, and acid drinks for
the purpose of turning the lead carbonate after it has been swallowed
into a sulphate, and the like. It was a well-meant measure, but it
would have been wiser and kinder to have recognised at once the
necessity of enforcing some different method of manufacture, or the
substitution of machinery for women's labour. The nail brush policy
has done something, but it has not stopped lead poisoning, either in
its more gradual or sudden forms ; nor has it availed to check the
deaths of children whose mothers work in the lead mills, the great
majority of whom die within a few weeks or months of birth in
convulsions.
During the last five years 145 cases have been treated at the New-
castle Infirmary, and a large number at the Newcastle Union, whilst
the Gateshead Union had 13 cases on their hands in 1892. At Poplar
28 cases were treated during 1892, as compared with 30 ten years
ago. Shoreditch and Holborn both show an improvement, the former
having treated seven cases in 1892, and the latter 13 in 1891 and
1892. I have looked through the register at the London Hospital,
where a number of cases have been treated, but as the occupation of
the patient is not described, how many cases are whitelead workers
I cannot say.
But after all it is not a question of statistics. If there is a single
case of unnecessary suffering, a single case of wrecked health or
premature death, the blame lies on the community which allows
human beings to be tortured and killed for the purpose of gain.
Vivisection is at least practised for the sake of relieving the sufferings
of humanity, but the unspeakable agonies, the symptoms of which
are too horrible for description, are inflicted with no high end what-
ever in view, but the merely vulgar one of making money out of
cheap labour. It reflects little credit on those who administer our
laws that these wanton actions should have been permitted so long.
As for the manufacturers, they are part of a system which works on
the assumption that life is cheap, that the cheaper it can be got in
the shape of labour the more there is to be made out of it, and so
long as there is abundance of labour it will sell itself on their terms.
What is there to trouble about ? It is a free country, and labourers
need not hire themselves unless they like. But it is precisely on
behalf of these citizens, whose necessity forms the opportunity of
the manufacturer, that the law must inten-ene unless every pretence
of protecting human life is to be abandoned by the State. It remains
to be seen what recommendations the Departmental Committee of
the Home Office will make on this question. They have spared no
343
SOME ASPECTS OF INDUSTRIAL MORTALITY.
pains, and their inquiries have carried them to every whitelead
works in the country, and the presence of Dr. OHver on the com-
mittee, who holds that women should be forbidden to work at this
trade, entitles one to hope that the recommendations will not be
merely of a perfunctory character. During the present year both
France and Germany have issued drastic regulations on this matter,
and in Germany the women are now forbidden to work in contact
with the lead at all.
In the alkali works we come across an entirely different class of
labour. With the exception of the men employed in the construction
of public works, there is probably no finer set of workmen to be
found in the country than those in the employment of the great
corporation known as the United Alkali Company. This company
has acquired nearly all the chemical works in the country, and it
employes something like 20,000 men. The conditions under which
these men work have been so fully brought before the public of late
in the Press and before the Labour Commission, that it is
unnecessary to deal with their case at length. A distinctive feature
about the trade is that it wears out the workmen prematurely
because of the intensity of the toil, the alternations of heat and chill,
and most of all the exposure to noxious vapours. The traveller who
passes through Widnes, even in an express train, draws up the
window to keep out the choking sulphurous fumes. These centres
of the chemical industry are in truth "hell-holes" for those who
have to live and work in them. Taking one week with another,
most of the men do their twelve hours a day in the works, and
taking one man with another their life is over by the time they are
47.''' The gases and vapours which do the mischief bring on
bronchitis, and in the winter time the hospitals and workhouses are
full of patients from the chemical works. The men who work on
what is called "salt-cake" have their teeth rotted away in the
course of time by the hydrochloric acid gas; others suffer from
contact with vitriol ; others again do their work in air which is filled
with stinging caustic; the men in the "lime-house" constantly get
burned by the action of the perspiration of the lime particles which
settle on their bodies ; and worst of all, bleaching powder men suffer
daily semi-suffocation and bodily torture of a dreadful kind in the
chlorine chambers which they enter with their mouths swathed
with a huge protuberance of flannel. Nothing could be more
barbarous and crude than the labour conditions in these wox'ks.
The United Alkali Company have over and over again been taxed
with it, but they reply that the men are well paid, as if, forsooth,
• I make this statement on the authority of the medical officer of health for St.
Helens, who has kindly supplied me with the figures.
344
SOME ASPECTS OF INDUSTRIAL MORTALITY.
that had anything to do with it, and that they are a fine, strong
body of men, as if men who were anything else could stand the
terrific strain imposed upon them. But a visit to the infirmaries
and the workhouses, where the wrecks of the chemical men are laid
for the ratepayers and the charitably disposed to look after, disposes
of the high pi'ofessions of the great syndicate. There were ninety-
nine chemical workers in the Whiston workhouse when I visited it.
The life had all been worked out of them, and there was darkness
and vacancy in the disused human workings. Happily this is
another of the trades which Mr. Asquith has scheduled as dangerous,
and a committee of experts and factory inspectors is engaged in
drawing up regulations for the protection of the workmen.
We have now passed rapidly in review certain typical occupations
in which poisons and mineral dusts and vapours cut short the lives
and injure the health of the workers. There remains the category
in which havoc is wrought by the inhalation of vegetable particles.
In many of the departments of the textile industry the w^orkpeople
suffer, and suffer severely, from the particles of dust given off, and
whilst they are not to be compared with mineral dust in their
destructiveness, yet a great deal of phthisis and pulmonary disorders
is the experience by the operatives in these trades. And here, as in
many other industries, troubles do not come singly. The atmosphere
of the mills and factories is close and hot, and frequently excessively
humid. In the cotton-weaving sheds regulations have now been
adopted at the instance of the operatives, and the Cotton Cloth Act
limits the amount of heat and humidity. But a beginning has
scarcely been made in introducing really healthy conditions into this
great staple industry. In Belfast, which is the centre of the linen
trade, and where at least 30,000 girls and women are engaged in
linen weaving, spinning, and finishing, the rate of mortality from
phthisis and respiratory diseases is quite appallingly high. The wet
weaving and spinning which are carried on are most deadly in their
effects, as the women and childx-en work in an atmosphere of steam
all day. In the preparing department, in which men are also
engaged, the flax dust, which is highly irritant in its effects, is
constantly present in large quantities. The people who are doomed
to this labour are so poorly paid that they are unable to feed or
clothe themselves properly. The women live for the most part on a
diet of tea and bread, never really tasting meat or procuring really
nourishing food. The strain and exhaustion and the insanitary
conditions of their labour are such that the greater number of the
mill girls die at the age of 18 than at any other age. The following
table, which has been prepared from the records of the Belfast Union
for the year 1891, shows more clearly than any words can do the
death tax which the linen industry is paying : —
345
Age.
Causes of Death. i
Phthisis.
Respiratory Diseases.
Other Causes. 1
.
Male.
Female.
Male.
Female.
Male.
Female.
10 ... .
..
11 ....
, ,
"i
12 ....
'i
..
13 ... .
..
' 14 ... .
5
.. 1
1
15 ... .
i
7
"2
1
16 ... .
3
14
2 i
1
5
17 ... .
1
13
1
6
18 ... .
3
17
'.'. 3
4
19 ... .
17
1
6
20 ....
2
11
1
7
21 ... .
2
14
1
'i
5
22 ... .
1
9
1
, ,
8
23 ... .
1
5
2
24 ... .
i 2
12
1
i
4
25 ... .
! 2
6
1 1
..
26 ... .
7
.. ! 2 1
"i
"2
27 ... .
"i
9
. .
, ,
3
28 ... .
, ,
5
j 2
1
29 ... .
10
1 2
..
2
30 ....
i
5
4
,
6
31 ... .
6
2
..
3
32 ... .
, ,
4
3
3
33 ... .
. ,
3
.. i
1
2
34 ... .
, .
4
3
3
35 ... .
6
.. ..
2
36 ... .
1
37 ... .
3
5
2
i
3
38 ... .
2
2 1
2
39 ... .
"i
1
2 1
2
..
40 ... .
1
4
1 1
, ,
5
41 ... .
2
, ,
1 1
1
42 ... .
2
' 4
, ,
1
43 ... .
1
1 2
, ,
1
44 ... .
1
1 1
1
3
45 ... .
2
2
1
4
46 ... .
1
2 2
1
47 ... .
i 1
2
1
"2
48 ....
1
4
1
1
49 ... .
1 1
1 2
1
50 ... .
1 i
1 1 5
i
a
51 ... .
• • • •
1 • 1
, ,
52 ... .
. ,
1
53 ... .
2
1
1
64 ... .
1
, ,
1
55 ... .
.. i
, ,
1
56 ... .
• • • •
i
'2
1
2
57 ... .
1 1 1
, ,
2
58 ... .
.*! ' i
3 1 2
1
. ,
59 ... .
\
1 1
1
60 and
'
upwards
11 11
18
20
Total . . . .
32 1 210
42 1 71
1
42
182
346
SOME ASPECTS OF INDUSTRIAL MORTALITY.
In the space that remains at my disposal, it is not possible to
enter as fully as I had hoped to do into the question of remedies.
The passing by the House of Commons in November last of a clause
in the new Employers' Liability Bill making employers liable for
injury to the health or life of their workpeople in cases where
reasonable precautions have been neglected is a remedial
step of the first importance. But I believe it will be found
that nearly, if not quite all, of the evils to life and health caused
by our present industrial conditions are capable of remedy. The
wonders that have been worked by the Public Health Acts in many
of our towns are a proof of what great things may be done
when once the community wakes up to the vital importance of
obtaining public health. We should be somewhat over sanguine,
however, in expecting any strenuous attempt on the part of the
Local Government Board to set anything like a high standard of
health, to exact a low weekly death rate, or to know the reason
why, until the people of Great Britain have pulled themselves
together on this question and done something to master their
existing powers, and the strength as well as the limitations of local
government ; above all, until they have formed some idea in their
own minds of what should constitute a healthy and wholesome life.
So long as they allow manufacturers to pollute the air with smoke
and to fill the rivers with filth, to blacken the green country, and to
make cleanliness in the home almost impossible because of the drift
of grit and smuts — so long as we tolerate workshops and factories
whose air is not fit for human beings to breathe and whose sanitary
arrangements are simply pestilential, workmen and women and
their children will continue to be treated by the powers that be as
though their lungs were of brass and their nerves of steel. Considering
how fast the great portions of our race, pent up in some of our
high-pressure, unhealthy towns, are hurrying down hill, deteriorating
generation after generation in stamina, fibre, and muscle— how
the country districts are being drained of their people, until the
reserve force, which rural England has so long provided, is dwindling
out of sight, it is high time that the people woke up to the necessity
of grappling with the conditions which shape, not only the lives, but
even the very characters of our race. Factory Acts and Public
Health Acts are, after all, only instruments of greater or lesser
efficiency according to the will and skill to use them. If property
and trade are the first considerations, then we may be very sure
that the administration will be slack and slovenly and the death
tax exacted, by these lords paramount, very high. But as soon as
human welfare becomes the first thing needful, it is wonderful
how difficulties and impossibilities vanish away. The first-rate
minds which have hitherto been in the pay of trade, or driven
347
SOME ASPECTS OF INDUSTBIAL MOBTALITY.
into exile from the world of affairs — the men of science,
philosophers, biologists, sanitarians, the poets, and artists, and
musicians, and all those whose work is something of a revolt against
conditions that defile or that are repugnant to nature — all these men
will help to make the marching music of progi'ess. The successful
city will no longer be a place stockaded round with big villas, each
with its greenhouses, and shrubs, and gate posts, on which the
name of Chatsworth, or Haddon, or some other modest rendering of
the city man's ducal ideal, is inscribed, and an inner place of
plausible but delusive high streets which only shut out the dull, low
levels of poverty, where ill-health, mental and physical, is written
in the gloom and cheerlessness that prevail. The new city will be
prouder of the height of its children, and their measurement round
the chest, than of the height of its chimneys and the bulk of its
manufactures; and if it has less in the way of vulgar and ugly
pretension to display, there will be better oi'der, arrangement,
and symmetry, as well as more colour and free movement of life in
the new city. It is even conceivable that people may grow light-
hearted again — a thing which is impossible to the cave-dwellers of
modern life. We may hear workmen coming home from their
work — and the strictly workaday part of the town, where the
necessarily noisy, jarring, and dirty work has to be carried
on, will be a quarter by itself when public health is president
of the new republic — marching along as they do in Italy, singing
airs which are worth listening to, such as the old English airs were
before the days when nothing but the naked screech of the music-
hall could make itself heard above the roar of the streets.
Co-operatoi-s know well enough, without being told of it, that they
stand committed to this work of reconstructing society on healthy
and cheerful lines. The reform of trade and industry on which
they are engaged must carry with it the reform of those bad
conditions of life which we have been considering. Our social
organism is lopsided because the strong prey upon the weak, the
idle upon the toiling — because exchange is robbery as conducted at
present, and distribution in its most profitable form the art of
interception. As all that is altered, and people have time to think
and energy to pull themselves up to a higher level of life, the ugly
markings with which trade has tattooed everything will speedily
disappear. To take a case in point. The Co-operative Wholesale
Society undertakes to manufacture boots and shoes on a democratic
plan for the co-operators of England and Wales, its object being to
provide good and reliable, yet economical, workmanship. If the
Society had simply been in the search of profits it would scarcely
have built such a palace of health and comfort as the Wheatsheaf
Works at Leicester, nor would it have installed the electric light and
348
SOME ASPECTS OF INDUSTRIAL MORTALITY.
set up a great cyclone ventilator which sends a stream of fresh air
through the works all day and whirls away every particle of dust pro-
duced in the course of manufacture. Co-operators argue, however, that
you must look for the qualities of your work in the qualities of the
surroundings of your workers, and that to expect good, reliable
workmanship under bad and unwholesome conditions would be a
contradiction in terms. Take the Shieldhall Works, again, where
everything has been planned for the comfort of the workers, and
you find just the same considerations prevailing. Or go to the
co-operative bakeries which exist in so many towns, and compare
them with the private bakeries. Doubtless, in many respects, the
co-operative workshops conducted by the stores do not come up to
the establishments of private traders, but in the matter of bakeries,
which are after all one of the most vitally important branches of
manufacture, co-operators may claim to be leading the way. And
there is no reason to doubt that the policy which commends itself
to them in their own institutions will be advocated as the
co-operators gain increased representation on local public bodies.
Much is to be hoped from their influence; from their training as
organised consumers, when the gi'eat health crusade is undertaken
in earnest, and the rigJit of the workman to healthy surroundings
in the workshop and the home takes its place as a vital part of the
claim for the living wage.
349
FURNITURE WOODS, WITH SUGGESTIONS FOR THE
INTRODUCTION OF NEW KINDS.
BY JOHN E. JACKSON, A.L.S., ETC., CUEATOR OF MUSEUMS,
ROYAL GARDENS, KEW.
[illustrated by JOHN ALLEN.]
THERE is probably no one subject connected with the products
of the vegetable kingdom that has such numerous and extended
ramifications as that which brings under review the forest
produce of the world, as distinct from that of agriculture and
cultivation generally. Twenty or thirty years ago to speak of forest
produce meant alone the timber, yield of the trees which composed
those forests. It is true that caoutchouc, or india-rubber and gutta-
percha, together with cinchona and other drugs of vegetable origin,
and tanning and dyeing materials, amongst other articles of com-
merce, were equally well known then as now, but it has been resers'^ed
to quite recent years for anything like an adequate considex'ation to
be given to the less known products of the forests of India and our
far and wide colonial possessions, under what is now collectively
and generally known as " minor products."
This increasing development of the natural resom'ces of the world
arises from several causes, not the least of which is the ease and
rapidity of intercommunication with all parts of the universe, not
only by personal transit, but also by flashing thoughts that are con-
tinuously encompassing the circumference of the globe. As a natural
consequence of this it has become possible to transmit from one part
of the world to another, and often a very distant one, valuable
economic plants to be established and cultivated not only to ensure
the perpetuation of any given product, but to increase its yield to
meet the constant demand of the ever-growing popula.tion.
From energy and enterprise thus displayed we are enabled to
obtain many important economic products from counti'ies far and
wide of each other, and equally distant from the original home of
the plant producing such product. If such forethought for the
welfare of future generations has been considered necessary in plants
of easy and rapid culture, how much more important is the question
of perpetuating the timber supplies of the world, for the production
of timber from new plantings is not a matter that can be accomplished
in the course even of a few years. It is, however, satisfactory to
350
FURNITUBE WOODS, WITH SUGGESTIONS
know in this connection that within the last ten or fifteen years a
considerable amount of attention has been given to re-afforestation
in almost every part of the globe where forest productions form an
important item of revenue. The most notable example of the organi-
sation of a most thorough system of tree protection and planting,
is that which has been so successfully carried on in India, under a
complete staff of able officers — trained foresters, and many of them
capable scientific men and excellent botanists — which constitutes a
distinct department of the Indian Civil Service, under the title of
the Forest Conservancy. With the accumulated knowledge of such
a body of men who are intimately acquainted with the botanical
affinities of the trees under their charge, whereby they are able to
judge of the nature of the woods themselves, and their suitability to
compete with allied woods for certain purposes, as well as with
their habits and rates of growth, and many other important details,
the Indian forests are now carefully protected and their utility
ensured for the benefit of future ages, besides which their resources
are continually being developed.
The importance of the proper consen^ation of forests in all parts
of the world and the preservation of forest trees cannot be over
estimated, for it is a matter that does not ati'ect us alone as a
nation, though even from that somewhat restricted point of view it
is great, for the natural resources of our Indian and colonial
possessions play a very large part in our commercial prosperity, but
it is a much farther-reaching affair and affects the prosperity of the
whole world. Taking only a few of the best known Indian timber
trees as illustration of this we need only refer to teak, saul, satin
wood, ebony, and sandal wood, the supplies of which in a few years
would have become considerably diminished, if not exhausted, had
not steps been taken by a system of careful cutting and replanting
to perpetuate their existence, and to continue if not to increase the
sources of supply.
From another point of view, also, the Indian forest system is one
that commends itself as an example to other countries, for the
attention of the officers has not only been directed to the preserva-
tion of their own indigenous trees, but the introduction of well-known
timber trees from other countries has formed part of their scheme,
a,nd this has been considerably advanced by the co-operation of the
several botanic gardens in different parts of India. One of the
trees, not a native of the East, that has received perhaps the greatest
amount of attention, is the mahogany, which has its home in the
forests of the far-distant countries of Cuba, Honduras, Mexico, and
Central America. It must be confessed, however, that the mahogany
tree has met with only a varied success in India, and its prospects for
extended culture in this part of our Empire is not so promising as
351
FOE THE INTRODUCTION OF NEW KINDS.
we might wish, but this is no reason why further experiments should
not be prosecuted to their utmost limits with hundreds of other
trees of acknowledged value. This is no doubt a work that is slowly
progressing in all or nearly all the British possessions, and the
establishment of botanical stations, notably in the West Indies and
West Africa, will in course of time develop this, as well as other
branches of economic botany.
Next in importance to India as a timber-producing country
belonging to the British Crown ranks Australia, with its neighbours,
Tasmania and New Zealand, the timber resources of which are not
only extensive with regard to geographical area, but are also rich
in individual species known to furnish some of the most durable
timbers for building purposes, as well as the most valuable and
beautiful woods for cabinet work, some of which are already known
in English commerce, while many others are known only in the
colony producing them, and have yet to be developed in British
trade. Fortunately for Australasia the forest products have had a
considerable amount of attention paid to them by competent
authorities, and though they are not perhaps worked with the
systematic methods under which the Indian forests are placed, an
authentic flora has been produced, and this, with the botanical
gardens at Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide, and Brisbane, has done
much to promote a knowledge of the great timber resources of these
colonies. It will be seen that our remarks so far have been directed
chiefly to the products of our own possessions, but though we are
naturally inclined to look at home first for the purpose of increasing
the trade with our colonies, we must not forget that English
commerce is much farther reaching than this, and that the products
that are constantly being brought into our ports are gathered from
all parts of the globe. If we take, for instance, the natural resources
of the large Continent of South America we shall find that some of
the most valuable and beautiful woods known to the English cabinet-
maker are brought from the dense forests of Brazil, and it is a fact
worth noting that, though many of these woods have been known to
English commerce for the past 100 years or more, botanists are still
in ignorance as to the nature of the trees which produce them. No
better illustration of this fact can be mentioned than that of rose-
wood, a wood always more or less in demand for work boxes,
dressing cases, desks, and similar uses. The deep, rich brown
colour of this wood with its bold dark markings are characters
not possessed by other woods, and though it is in frequent
demand and a regular article of import the tree or trees which
furnish it are still unknown, and apparently likely to remain so
without some active steps, which have been so long wanting, are
taken to send a trained botanical collector into the forests with the
352
FURNITURE WOODS, WITH SUGGESTIONS
wood cutters. The ignorance which prevails generally with regard
to the ornamental woods and timbers of the great South American
Continent is curious and very marked. The most we can say of
rosewood is that it is probably the produce of one or more species
of Dalhergia belonging to the natural order Leguminosae, and we can
say but little more with regard to many other Brazilian trees whose
woods are articles of trade. Paraguay, again, is known to abound
in valuable timber trees, for the most part extremely hard and very
durable — timbers that have recommended themselves for use in
many important engineering works in the Republic, but of the
nature and character of the trees producing them absolutely nothing
is known. We find the same want of knowledge again in the
timber produce of our own colony of British Guiana, which we
know to be especially rich in valuable cabinet woods. Again, in the
English colony of British Honduras, from whence indeed much of
that well-known wood, mahogany, comes, the timber resources are
very great but the knowledge of them is extremely small.
It may be asked what advantage to commerce would a know-
ledge of the scientific or botanical origin of the individual denizens
of any of these forests be? The answer to this, we think, is clear.
First, if we know the botanical affinities of any well-known timber
tree we are able to judge at once of its density, durability, strength,
or otherwise ; we are also able to form an opinion as to the suitability
of such and such plants for introduction and acclimatisation into
other countries, perhaps far removed by geographical range from
that in which the plant is indigenous. Besides this, forests of young
trees, which might perchance not be known in their youthful
condition by the wood clearer, would perhaps be sacrificed, which in
a few years, if left standing, would yield valuable timber. All these
possibilities, or rather probabilities, of mischief are averted by the
establishment of a systematic scheme of forest conservancy or
preservation such as has been adopted in India, and the question is
one of such vital importance, not only to the countries most directly
concerned, but also to the commerce of our own land, that, with the
view of placing the matter in the strongest light before our readers,
we take the opportunity of embodying in this paper some remarks
on the distribution of Indian forests made by that experienced forest
ofl&cer. Sir Dietrich Brandis, so long ago as 1872. His remarks and
recommendations have, so far as the Indian forests are concerned,
been adopted, with the result that the supply of Indian timbers is
ensured to future generations. Sir Dietrich, of course, reviews the
subject of forest conservancy from all the most important points,
and says, whatever views may be held regarding the slow, gradual,
and limited effect of forest growth upon the climate, there is no
doubt that in a hilly country, forests enable us in many cases better
Plate 1.
No. 1. — MiCHELIA CHAMPACA.
No. 2.— Shorea uobusta.
No. 3.— Chickrassia tabularis.
Plate 2.
Ko. 4. — Cedrela Toona.
No. 5.— SCHLEICHERA TRIJUOA.
No. 6. — GlUTA TRAVANCOBICA.
Plate 3.
No. 7. — OdINA WODIER.
No. 8. — OUGEINIA DALBERGIOIDES.
No. 9. — Dalbergia Sissoo.
Plate 4.
No. 10. — Albizzia Lebbek.
No 11. — Olea cuspidata.
No. 12. — HOLARRHENA ANTIDY8ENTEBICA.
Plate 5.
No. 13.- Flindersia australis.
No. 14. — Castanospermum australe.
No. 15. — Olearia argophylla.
'^.%./i?r
Plate C.
No. 16. — Grevillea robusta.
No. 17. — Fagus Cunningham:.
No. 18. — PT.TiROXYLON UTILE.-
Plate 7.
No. 19. — Olea laurifolia.
No. 20. — Calophyllum Calaba.
No. 21. — Hymen.iia Courbaril.
353
FOE THE INTRODUCTION OF NEW KINDS.
to husband the existing water supply for irrigation. Whether the
drainage from the hills is collected in tanks and artificial lakes, as
is the case in Eajpootana and Mysore, or whether it is employed to
feed canals to carry water, fertility, and wealth into distant districts,
the object is the same, to utilise to the utmost the water supply
available during the year. Experience in India and elsewhere has
proved that where hills are bare the rain rushes down in torrents,
carrying away loose soil, sand, and stones, silting up rivers and
canals, breaching and overflowing dams and embankments ; but that
where the hills are covered with meadows, fields, or forest, the
superficial drainage is gradual, the dry weather discharge of rivers
regular, the springs better supplied — in short, all conditions united,
to ensure the more regular and useful filling of tanks and canals ;
and in many cases the attainment of these objects is in itself of
sufficient importance to justify measures for the preservation and
improvement of natural woodlands, and for guarding against the
denudation of hilly tracts. Nor is it at all impossible that in some
cases the preservation and extension of arborescent vegetation may
have a beneficial efi"ect upon the sanitary condition of a district.
The unhealthiness of the Mauritius has generally been ascribed to
the gradual denudation of the island, and to remedy this legislative
measures were proposed for a system of reforesting the waste lands.
Beyond all doubt, however, forest conservancy in all parts of the
world has become necessary in order to meet the growing demands
for timber, wood, and other forest produce. Under the influence of
peace and prosperity advances are made in the habits of the peoples
of most countries. The peasantry of entire districts in India, for
instance, who were at one time content to live in miserable huts,
now build good substantial houses and use better furniture, hence
there is an increased demand for bamboos, wood, and timber.
Again, in countries not fully opened up, the demand for timbers for
railway construction is always more or less on the increase, for
besides the rougher timbers required for sleepers and the construction
of the permanent way, a large quantity is also required for buildings
and fittings, and the choicer and figured varieties for carriages and
the linings of them.
We have thought it best thus far to treat of forest produce
generally, for to establish a system of forest conservancy every
kind of product which the forests are capable of yielding must be
equally considered. Timber trees for structural and building
purposes must receive as much attention as those trees which
are capable of supplying us with the choicest cabinet woods. For
the purpose, then, of making the forests of the world more
productive, not only in timbers and woods of acknowledged
reputation, but also by the interchange of timber and wood-
24
354
FUBNITURE WOODS, WITH SUGGESTIONS
producing plants of various climes, we most strongly advocate in all
wooded countries a most thorough system of preservation and careful
treatment of the existing indigenous arboreal vegetation, and of the
introduction of such plants, as in the opinion of a practical forester
and botanist, would be likely to succeed and worthy of introduction,
either from a reputation already established, or from their botanical
affinities might prove new sources of supply to the great wood
markets of the world, and thus be the means of furnishing novelties
for our cabinet-makers and sources of wealth to the exporting
countries. A point to be borne in mind by those who may be
entrusted with the charge of forests is that fashion rules the demand
for furniture woods equally with that of articles of clothing. At one
time light coloured woods only are in request, at another dark
woods are demanded. Many years ago rosewood and the darkest
and boldest figured walnut was greatly in demand, then mahogany
came forward as a powerful rival, and was used alike for
drawing, dining, and bed room furniture. Mahogany held its
position as the furniture wood par excellence for a long time, when
American walnut became introduced, and very soon established
itself, not only for the modern Queen Anne and so-called Chippendale
furniture, but also for cornices, mouldings, and similar work. In
the American walnut we have a wood which, from its brown tint
and even grain, without much figure, is so distinct from the deep red
of the mahogany, that when once a change was introduced the
fashion took like wildfire. No polish was needed for a wood of this
character, for when simply rubbed down with oil the rich brown
colour was its chief recommendation. Enormous quantities of this
wood were for a time shipped from America, and it was stated, as
an illustration of the keen demand for it and the good prices
realised, that one landed proprietor in America, who had in previous
years cut down a large number of black walnut trees and had them
sawn up for fencing for his ground, found it worth his while to pull
the fencing down and export it, replacing it by a less costly wood.
The reign of dark woods had their day, to be succeeded, especially
for bedroom furniture, by American birch, a wood that commends
itself for its warm, pinkish yellow tint and even grain, though it has
little or no figure in the bulk of the wood.
Notwithstanding that the English cabinet-maker has at his
command some very choice woods wherewith to develop his artistic
taste, it cannot be said that he has a very great variety to select
from, to enable him to produce such distinct changes in his work to
avoid the monotony of repetition. This limited character of the
material the workman is called upon to utilise, is at first not
apparent, but a glance through the collections of woods that were
brought together at the several International Exhibitions, and
355
FOR THE INTRODUCTION OF NEW KINDS.
notably at the Colonial and Indian Exhibition in 1886, would prove
the truth that not a tithe of the world's productions of ornamental
woods have yet become utilised as they ought to be; indeed, we
may go further and say that as yet they are scarcely known out of
their own countries. And this brings to our mind the question
whether the gigantic and varied collections of all kinds of produce
that are brought together at these periodical exhibitions are
calculated to promote their extended application or to develop
their usefulness. The matter is one upon which varied opinions
have been expressed, and though it does not come within our scope
for argument, we may perhaps express our own opinion that the
result in any one direction has not been such as was desired or
expected. More satisfactory work was accomplished in this
connection at the Colonial and Indian Exhibition than at any of its
predecessors, for many of the woods were tested practically with
regard to their strength and durability, and reports published of
these experiments. A permanent collection of woods, such as that
shown in the Timber Museum of the Eoyal Gardens, Kew, is likely
to do much more good in a quiet way than any exhibition carried
on under great excitement and as a show, rather than as a place for
study and thought. It cannot be too widely known that the series
of woods at Kew have been very carefully selected, mostly from the
several exhibitions, and that they can be seen and examined daily,
and every facility is offered for such examination to anyone specially
interested in them. The woods are arranged geographically, that
is according to the countries producing them, so that the resources
of any individual colony can be seen at a glance. Though we have
reason to believe that this collection has been of much use to a
number of persons pi'actically engaged in the wood industry, its
existence is perhaps not sufficiently known to enable it to be of that
service which a national collection of this character ought to be.
It is with the view of bringing a few of the most marked and
interesting of these woods to notice, in the hope that they may find
a market here, that we refer to this collection, and draw special
attention to them in the following pages.
In a collection of this nature, where the woods are brought side
by side and the specimens are, for the most part, of unusual
dimensions for museum specimens — indeed many of them are of the
full diameter of the trees as they grow — the large size of many of
our Indian and colonial trees, when compared with those of our
own country, are the more striking, and, again, the character and
markings of the woods are more readily seen. There are several
elements which go to make up beauty in cabinet woods; firstly,
colour, and the deepest colours are for the most part found only in
the heart wood, the sap wood being usually colourless and without
356
FURNITURE WOODS, WITH SUGGESTIONS
figure; to this last element of beauty the medullary rays, or thin
plates, which radiate from the centre outwards, play a very
considerable part, the silver grain of the oak and plane, which is so
characteristic of these woods, being entirely due to this large
development of medullary plates. In the highly-coloured woods
where the medullai-y rays are prominent the value of the wood is
considerably enhanced from an ornamental point of view, varying
very often not only in size but in boldness of character, colour,
tone, and lustre, so that when seen in different lights they present
different colours. A botanical knowledge here helps a connoisseur
in woods vastly, for it is only in some natural orders of plants that
we may expect to find this large development of medullary rays.
The oak and plane, just referred to, are familiar examples amongst
British-grown woods, while amongst foreign woods we have many
examples in the natural order Proteacese, which includes the silver
tree of the Cape [Leucadendron argenteiim) and several species of
Protea, and amongst Australian woods the silky oaks (Stenocarinis
saligmis and Grevillea rohusta), the Australian honeysuckle (Banksia
integrifolia) and several other species of Uanksia. Again, in the
natural order Casuarineae a similiar character of figuring prevails,
but accompanied by a deeper and richer reddish tint; the woods
are also considerably harder, much heavier, and more difficult to
work than those of the Proteaceae. The several species of Casuarina
which have their headquarters in Australia, are mostly known in
that colony by the appellation of oaks, such as she oak, forest oak,
swamp oak, and sometimes beef wood. It is, then, to trees belonging
to these families, namely, Corylaceaj (oak), Platanaceae (plane),
Proteaceae (silky oak), and Casuarineae (she oak) that we must look
for woods having this distinctive character of figure. Another
source of beauty or variety in wood marking is due to the disposition
of the annual rings, whether broad or narrow, regular or irregular,
the greater the irregularity the more variety there is shown when
the wood is cut through. An alternation of colour very often
accompanies these concentric rings, producing different effects, not
only of light and shade, but absolute contrasts. We find illustra-
tions of this in the Brazilian tulip wood {Physocalymma florid a), in
yew {TaxKS baccata), as well as in some other woods, the scientific
names of which are still unknown, such as king wood, partridge
wood, &c. These characters, founded on the disposition of the
annual layers, are not confined to any particular families of plants,
such as we have seen is the case with the arrangement of the
medullar}- rays. Another character which is more or less general
to all natural orders is the symmetrical distribution of colour, which
often passes by insensible degi'ees into stripes or veins, of which
zebra wood {Omphalobiiim Lavihertii) and rosewood are examples.
357
FOR THE INTBODUCTION OF NEW KINDS.
Knots or burrs, which often grow on the trunks of trees, furnish
some of the most beautifully marked furniture woods. These are
due to abnormal growths, or arrested branches, and are common to
all natural orders alike ; the most familiar examples of this figuring
ai-e to be found in bird's-eye maple, and wavy or curled maple
(Acer saccharinum), amboyna wood, furnished probably by a
species of Pterocarjnis, and that most beautiful of all woods the
thuya or citron wood of Algeria {Callitris quadrivalvis). Woods
cut from burrs or knots bear no similarity whatever in appearance
to planks cut from the main trunk, which, for the most part, is not
only plain and straight grained, but often of an entirely different
colour from that of the burrs.
In directing special attention to the following woods as likely to
prove valuable additions to the comparatively limited number at
present known to English cabinet-makers, we have thought it best
to arrange them under the heads of the countries producing them
as being probably the most useful for reference by those who may
be specially interested in the produce of any one part of the world,
while for those who may be acquainted with the timber and hard
wood produce of the world generally, it will be easy to select
any given wood with which they may not be acquainted, and
if thei'e are points in the character or description of such wood,
which would in their opinion recommend it, it would then be quite
within the range of practicability to obtain samples of such wood
for trials here, with the view of testing its capabilities for any
particular branch of cabinet work, or the possibilities of its being
taken up by the British public. It must be understood that the
woods enumerated in the succeeding pages are either quite new to
British commerce, or, having been occasionally introduced, have
not been fairly tested by the voice of public opinion, and are,
therefore, practically unknown.
INDIAN WOODS.
1. Michelia Champaca. — This is a tall evergreen tree, often
producing, at the age of 100 or 120 years, a trunk 8ft. in girth.
It is known as Champa by the Hindoos. The wood is com-
paratively soft, and seasons, cuts, and polishes well. The sap wood is
white and the heart wood of a light olive brown colour, the annual
rings being distinctly marked by a white line. It is very durable,
and is used in India for furniture, house building, and especially
for planking, also for door panels and carriage work. The tree is
found wild in Nepal, Bengal, Assam, Burma, and in the forests of
the Western Ghats, and is cultivated throughout India. An allied
species [Miciielia excelsa) known as the Bara champ, likewise a lofty
but deciduous tree of Eastern Himalaya and the Khasia Hills,
358
FUKNITUBE WOODS, WITH SUGGESTIONS
produces a wood somewhat similar in appearance, equally- durable,
and much used for building purposes, especially for door and window
frames, as well as for furniture. It is indeed the principal building
and furniture wood of the Darjiling Hills. (See No. 1, l-'late 1.)
2. Calophyllum sjyectabile. — This is a tall evergreen tree of
Tenasserim and the Andaman Islands, where it is known as the
Panta-ka. The wood is of a light red colour, somewhat cross
grained with a shining appearance, and moderately hard. In the
Andamans it is used for masts, spars, planking, and for building
purposes generally.
3. Calophyllum inophylhim. — This fine tree is known in India as
the Alexandrian Laurel, or Puna. It is an evergreen, and is very
common in the forests of South India, Burma, and the Andaman
Islands, and is very frequently cultivated in other parts of India on
account of its ornamental character. The tree is not confined to
India in its geographical distribution, but is common in tropical
Asia, Polynesia, Mauritius, and Madagascar, where it is known as
the Tatamaka. The wood is of a reddish brown colour, moderately
hard, and close grained, and often shows a good deal of well-marked
and choice figuring. In India it is used for masts and spars, for
which purposes it is noted for its strength. Eailway sleepers are
also made from it, and for machineiy work it is extensivel}' applied.
Though the wood is somewhat hea%y it might be found a useful
wood for certain kinds of furniture.
4. Calophylluin tomentosum. — This is another species of the same
genus as the last two, and is known in India by Europeans as the
Poon Spar tree, and by the natives as Poon. It furnishes the Poon
spars of commerce, which often fetch high prices ; besides this it is
used in India for building, especially in the construction of bridges.
The wood is very similar in structure and appearance to that of
C. spectabile (No. 2). The tree is a large evergi-een, found in the
forests of the Western coast from the Concan southwards, and
extending into Cej'lon.
5. Mesua ferrea. — This is commonly known as the Nagesar, or
Indian Iron wood. It is a large evergreen tree, very widely spread
in India, both in a wild state and under cultivation ; it is also found
in Ceylon, Burma, and the Andamans. The wood is very hard, as
its common name would indicate, of a beautiful rich, dark red colour.
It has a high reputation in India for durability, and it is used for
building purposes, for bridges, gun stocks, and tool handles. Its
fine colour would recommend it as a furniture wood, though its
weight and hardness would tell against it. It might, however, be
used for veneers. The tree is very frequently planted in India for
the sake of its handsome fragrant flowers, which the natives use for
sachets.
359
FOR THE INTRODUCTION OF NEW KINDS.
6. Schima Wallichii. — The Chilauni of the Indians, a large ever-
green tree of moderately fast growth, native of Northern and Eastern
Bengal and Chittagong, up to an elevation of 5,000 feet. The wood,
which is of a red colour, is fairly hard and very durable, though it
is apt to shrink in seasoning if care is not taken with it. Its principal
use in Northern Bengal and Assam, is for building purposes, and it
is stated that many of the Darjiling tea factories have been built of
it. Large quantities of well-grown, straight, timbers are available in
India, and as the tree produces abundance of seeds every year,
which, falling from the fruit, readily germinate and come up in
profusion, where there is sufficient light and a freshly stirred soil, so
that should there spring up a demand for the wood, there is no fear
of the supply failing.
7. Dipterocarpus turbinatus. — A very tall evergreen tree, known
as the Gurjun oil tree, growing in Eastern Bengal, Chittagong,
Burma, and the Andaman Islands. The wood is moderately hard
and even grained, the heart wood of a reddish grey colour. It is
used in Burma both for house and canoe building. It is a wood
that might be found useful for many purposes in English trade.
It yields a quantity of oil, resin, or wood oil, used in painting
houses and ships.
8. Dipterocarpus tuberculatits.^k very large deciduous tree,
known both to Europeans and to natives as the Eng tree, and
forming large forests in Burma called Eng forests. It is found also
in Chittagong. Like the last named, the wood is hard and close
grained, and of a reddish colour, and is used very extensively in
Burma for house building, canoes, and similar purposes.
9. Dipterocarpus alatus. — This tree grows to a very large size,
and is found in Chittagong, Burma, and the Andaman Islands.
It is generally known as the Kanyin tree, but sometimes the name
of Gurjun is applied to it, like that of D. tiirbinatus. The sap wood
is white, and the heart wood of a reddish gi'ey colour, fairly hard
and well grained. It is chiefly used in the countries where it grows
for house building and canoes ; but for these purposes it is said not
to be durable, but for furniture it might prove a useful wood.
10. Shorea robusta. — This is the Sal or Saul tree, one of the best
known of Indian timber trees. It grows to a very large size, and is
seldom or never quite leafless. It has a wide distribution in India,
extending through tropical Himalaya, and along its base from
Assam to the Sutlej, in the Eastern districts of Central India, and
Western Bengal Hills. The trunk has but a small development of
sap wood, which is of a whitish colour, and not durable, while the
heart wood is brown, finely streaked with dark lines, very hard, but
somewhat coarse grained, with a peculiar fibrous and cross-grained
structure. In consequence oi the great value of this wood in India
360
FUBNITUBE WOODS, WITH SUGGESTIONS
a considerable amount of attention has been paid to its careful
preservation, the rate of growth, weight, strength, and other details.
It seems, however, to be a difficult wood to season, warping and
splitting in the process of drying without very great care is
exercised. It is apt to dry rapidly on the surface, remaining for a
long time wet beneath, and the perfect evaporation continuing at a
very slow rate. With proper precautions, however, the wood can
be thoroughly seasoned, and when dried very slowly it is unrivalled
for strength, durability, and elasticity, all of which properties it
retains without the slightest change for any length of time. In
Northern India Sal wood is perhaps the most extensively used wood
of any produced in the Indian forests, being in regular request for
piles, beams, planking, bridge work, door and window posts, gun
carriages, and also for canoes. (See No. 2, Flate 1.)
The Sdl tree possesses the power of natural reproduction in a
remarkable degree. The seeds ripen at the commencement of the
rains, and sometimes even germinate before leaving the tree; being
naturally scattered abroad, they fall to the ground, when a crop of
seedlings soon spring up, to be destroyed too often by jungle fires,
but so great is the vitality of the plant that the roots of the stems
desti'oyed soon put out fresh shoots, and, this happening in successive
years, a large hard burr or ball of wood is formed. With protection
from fire the Sal forests would become very widely spread, and the
supply perpetuated. The seedlings of a few years' growth soon kill-
the grass, and smaller growing plants, and form forests, often of
some extent, and consisting entirely of Sal trees. Besides the wood
the Sal is valuable for its other products, exuding, on being tapped,
large quantities of a light-coloured resin, which has an aromatic
odour. This resin is often found in very large masses, buried in the
ground, at the bases of the trees, from whence it is dug up, collected,
and sold for caulking boats, as well as for burning as a kind of
incense. The resin, which has remained buried in the ground for a
very long period, and which has become semifossilised, occurs
sometimes in English commerce, and is used for varnish making.
It will be gathered from these remarks that the Sal tree is one of
the most useful of Indian trees, and though the wood is extensively
used in the country where it is produced, its uses might be still
further extended and even exported for English trade.
11. Hopea odorata. — ^This is a large evergreen tree, known as the
Thingan in Burma, in the forests of which, and the Andaman
Islands, it is found scattered. The wood is of a yellow or yellowish
brown colour, hard, close and even grained. It is described as the
chief timber ti'ee of Tenasserim, and is used for house building,
canoes, cart wheels, &c. It is a remarkably durable wood. Boats made
from it are said to last in perfect condition for quite twenty years.
361
FOR THE INTBODUCTION OF NEW KINDS.
12. Thespesia populnea. — This is sometimes known by Europeans
as the Indian tuhp tree, and is an evergreen of moderate size.
It is a native of the coast forests of India, Burma, and the
Andaman Islands, and is distributed in many parts of tropical Asia,
the Pacific Islands, and Africa. The sap wood is soft, but the heart
wood is hard, of a pale reddish brown colour. It is durable and not
difficult to work, and is valued in all the countries where it grows,
Vjeing adapted to many useful purposes. In India it is used for
furniture, carts, carriages, boats, and for gun stocks.
13. Pentace hurmanica. — This is a very large and lofty tree, native
of Mai*taban and Pegu. The wood is of a yellowish red colour,
shining, somewhat soft, and even grained, and takes a good polish.
It is known in Burma as the Thitka tree, where it is very largely
used for boat building, as well as for boxes. Large quantities of
this wood are now said to be annually exported from Burma, and
some finds its way to the European markets, though a few years
ago it was almost or quite unknown.
14. Berrya Ammonilla. — A large tree closely allied botanically to
the last named, and found in Southern India, Burma, and Ceylon.
It is known to Europeans as Trincomali wood, and to the Burmese
as Petwoon. It has a very hard, close grained, dark red heart wood,
noted for its durability, flexibility, and tovighness. Its chief use in
India is for carts, agricultural implements, and spear handles. Its
colour and strength should recommend it for many uses in this country.
15. MeMa Azadirachta. — This is the well-known Neem, or Margosa
tree of India, growing to a large size, and found commonly planted
and self-sown over the greater part of India and Burma, as well as
in other tropical countries. It has a grey coloured sap wood and a
very hard, red coloured, heart wood, much used in India for carts
and ship building, as well as for agricultural implements, and in
Southern India especially for furniture. It is one of the trees held
sacred by the Hindoos, who make their idols from it. The tree also
furnishes many other useful products, such as gum, which is used in
medicine as a stimulant, and a yellow coloiu'ed bitter oil is obtained
from the fruit used as an antiseptic and anthelmintic, as well as for
illuminating purposes.
16. Melia Azedarach. — This is a closely allied tree to the last, and
is known in India by the names of Persian lilac, bastard cedar, or
bead tree. It is commonly cultivated thi'oughout India, and is
found also in Persia and China. The sap wood is of a yellowish
white colour, and the heart wood red and somewhat soft. It is ver^
frequently found with handsome markings, and the wood takes a
good poHsh. In India it is much used for furniture. The name
bead tree is given to it because the nuts are used for making
necklaces and rosaries.
362
FUBNITURE WOODS, WITH SUGGESTIONS
17. Dysoxylunn procerum. — An evergreen tree found in Assam, the
Khasia Hills, and Cachar to Pegu and Tenasserim. The wood has
a very handsome appearance, is of a bright red colour, polishes well,
and might be found very useful, were it better known. D. Hamiltonii,
an allied species, has also a close grained, hard, red coloured wood,
which is used in Assam for boats and planks.
18. Sandoricum indicum. — The Thitto of Burma, where it forms
a fine evergreen tree. It has been introduced into Southern India,
and is found also in the Malay Islands. It has a grey sap wood,
and a beautifully red mottled heart wood, close grained, moderately
hard, and takes a fine polish. In Burma it is used for carts and
boat building, and is quite worth a trial as a furniture wood in this
country.
19. Amoora Rohituka, commonly known in India as the Eohituka.
A large evergreen tree with a reddish coloured, close, and even
grained, hard wood, which, though of acknowledged merit, is but
little used, though in Chittagong canoes are said to be sometimes
made of it. The tree is widely distributed over India, and is found
also in Ceylon, the Malay Archipelago, and the Philippines.
20. Carapa moluccensis.. — This is a moderate-sized evergreen tree
of the coasts of Bengal, Malabar, Burma, and Ceylon. The wood is
hard, of a whitish colour, turning red on exposure. In Burma its
chief use is for house posts, tool handles, and spokes of wheels. The
tree is a close botanical ally to the crab wood of British Guiana
and the West Indies {Carapa gwjanensis), and yields, like that tree,
from its seeds, a quantity of oil, which the people use either for
burning or for the hair.
21. Soymida febrifuga. — The Indian red wood, or Eohan, of the
Hindoos. It is a large deciduous tree of Central India and the
Deccan, and occurs also in Ceylon. It has a small whitish sap
wood and an intensely hard, close grained heart wood, of a reddish
black colour. The wood is used in India for various works of
construction, and for oil mills, well work, ploughshares, &c., on
account of its extreme durability. The colour and appearance of
the wood has much to recommend it for furniture, but its hardness
and weight would probably be against it. The bark has a bitter
taste, and is well known in India as a remedy in diarrhoea and
dysentery.
22. Chickrassia tabularis. — A fine tree known as the Chittagong
wood, or by its Bengal name, Chikrassi. The tree occurs through
Eastern Bengal, Assam, Chittagong, Burma, and Southern India,
as well as in Ceylon and Malacca. This is a hard, compact, and
very beautiful wood, varying in colour from yellowish brown to
reddish brown, with a beautiful wavy, satiny lustre, somewhat after
the fashion of satin wood, but with bolder and deeper toned
363
FOE THE INTRODUCTION OF NEW KINDS.
markings; these wavy lines, which catch the light in various
directions, give an exceptional character to this wood, which seasons
and works well. It is much used in India for furniture and for
carving, and we feel sure that if it were once introduced for cabinet
work in our own country there would be a great demand for it.
A fine specimen of this wood may be seen in the Timber Museum
at Kew. In addition to the value of the wood the bark is powerfully
astringent, and the flowers furnish a red or yellow dye. (See No. 3,
Plate 1.)
23. Cedrela Toona. — A large tree known in India as the Toon
tree. It is abundant in Southern India, Bengal, and Burma, and
extends to Java and Australia. It is a tree of rapid growth, and
produces a soft and easily-cut wood of the mahogany type, to which
indeed it is closely botanically allied. It is perhaps rather more
distinctly red in colour than mahogany, and much more open
gi-ained, consequently it is a lighter wood. It seasons well, and is
not liable to split or warp, and has a fragrance similar to that of
cedar. In India the wood has a very wide reputation, and is highly
valued for furniture of all kinds, besides which it is also used for
house carpentry, door panels, and carving. At one time the trunks
of the very large trees were used for dug-out canoes in Bengal and
Assam, where, as well as in Burma, trees have been commonly
found up to a height of 80 or 100 feet, with a girth of 20 feet.
Notwithstanding that the wood is said to be exported to the English
market from Burma under the name of Moulmein cedar, it does
not seem to be so well known amongst cabinet makers as it deserves.
Some planks of this wood cut from trees grown in New South
Wales and Queensland, and described as the produce of Cedrela
avstralis, are of very fine figure and remarkable beauty, and are
well shown in the Kew collection. Considering that the plants are
easily propagated from seed its cultivation in India and Australia
should be as widely extended as the use of its wood should be in
this country. (See No. 4, Plate 2.)
24. Elceodendron glaucum, known in India as the Mirandu. A
tree of India, Ceylon, and the Malay Archipelago. It has a
moderately hard, even, and close grained wood, of a light brown
colour, frequently with a reddish tinge, often very beautifully curled ;
it works well, takes a good polish, and is valued in India for cabinet
work, as well as for making picture frames.
25. Schleichera trijuga. — This is a large deciduous tree, known as
the Kosum, found in India, Burma, Ceylon, and Java. It furnishes
a hard wood, of a reddish brown colour, extremely strong, and very
durable, and might be found useful for the heavier kinds of furniture.
The seeds furnish a large quantity of oil used for burning in Malabar.
(See No. 5, Plate 2.)
364
FUBNITURE WOODS, WITH SUGGESTIOKS
26. Gluta travancorica. — A very large evergreen tree of Tinnevelly
and Travancore. The wood is very hard and close grained, of an
extremely rich dark red colour, almost approaching crimson when
polished; it is, moreover, often beautifully mottled with light and
dark streaks. It works well, and, though but little used in India,
its qualities and general appearance should recommend it to notice
as a first-rate cabinet wood. A very fine slab is in the Kew
collection. (See No. 6, Plate 2.)
27. Odina Wodier. — A moderate-sized or large tree, found through-
out the hotter parts of India, as well as in the Andaman Islands
and Ceylon. To the natives it is known as Kiamil. The heart
wood is of a light red colour when freshly cut, changing to a reddish
brown by age and exposure. It is fairly hard, close grained, seasons
well, and is not liable to warp, though the wood is said not to be
very durable. It is used in India for a variety of purposes, such as
spear shafts, wheel spokes, oil presses, and rice pounders. From its
colour and general appearance the wood might be found useful for
ordinary furniture. (See No. 7 . Plate 3.)
28. Millettia pendula. — A deciduous tree of Burma, where it is
known as the Thinwin. Though the heart wood is of small diameter,
it is beautifully streaked, purplish black, and very hard. It is but
very little used in India, but is quite worthy of attention as a
cabinet wood, or for inlaying.
29. Oiujeinia dalbergioides. — This is the Sandan of the Hindoos,
and is found in Northern India and the Concan, forming a moderate-
sized tree. It has a light brown, or sometimes a reddish brown,
mottled heart wood, hard and close grained, very tough and
durable, and susceptible of a high polish. In India it is used for
furniture, building purposes, carriage poles, wheels, and agricultural
implements. (See No. S, Plate 8.)
30. Dalhergia Sissoo. — This is the Sissoo, one of the best known
Indian timbers. It is a large deciduous tree, common through
India, and found also in Afghanistan and Beluchistan. It is planted
extensively as an avenue tree all over India. The heart wood is of
a brown colour, with dark longitudinal veins, very hard, close and
even grained, and seasons well, not liable to warp or split, and is
very durable. For furniture, cart, caiTiage, and boat building it
has the reputation of being unsurpassed by any other wood. It is
not unknown in this country, but it deserves to be much better
known and its use extended. Dalhergia latifolia, the black wood or
rose wood of Southern India, is a closely allied species to the Sissoo,
and is equally well known and reputed as a valuable furniture
wood. It is stated that wood of this tree sent to the London
market in 1878 realised £13. 10s. per ton. Treated with oil, as it
often is in India, the wood becomes almost black. The most
365
FOE THE INTEODUCTION OF NEW KINDS.
elaborately carved Indian furniture is mostly made of this wood.
Dalbergia cultrata, of Burma, and other species of Indian Dalbergia
are all worth careful consideration and trial. (See No. 9, Plate 3.)
31. Pterocarpus indicus. — The red wood of the Andamans and
Padouk of Burma. It is a lofty tree of the Andamans and Burma,
and is found also in the Malay Islands, Philippines, and China.
The beautiful dark red colour of this wood, together with the fact of
its being a good wood both to season and work, and its capability
of taking a splendid polish, are all strong recommendations for its
extended use by English cabinet-makers. A plank sent to the Paris
Exhibition of 1878 measured nearly 4 feet across. Some furniture
made by a well-known English firm in the same year attracted a
good deal of attention, the makers considering it suitable for all
kinds of furniture. The red sanders, or red sandal wood of Southern
India, the produce of an allied species {Pterocarpus santalinus), is,
when freshly cut, of a blood-red colour, blackening, however, by age ;
but as this wood is valued as a dye, and as a medicine on account
of its astringent properties, and, moreover, as it is a small tree,
it would scarcely be obtainable in sufficient quantity or at a
price suitable for cabinet purposes. The same may be said of
Pterocarpus viarsupium, which is a large tree of Centi'al and
Southern India, but valued for the red astringent colouring matter,
known as kino, which is obtained by tapping the tree as it stands.
32. Cassia sianiea. — This tree is the Beati of the Tamils, and is
perhaps better known under the scientific name of Cassia florida.
It is of moderate size, and grows in Southern India, Ceylon, Malay
Peninsula, and Siam. The wood is of a very distinct character,
dark brown, or nearly black, and exhibiting a very beautiful
mottling. It is very hard and durable. In Burma it is used for
mallets and walking sticks, and is probably worth some attention
being given to it as a cabinet wood.
33. Adenanthera j^f^vonina, commonly known as the Eakta-
chandan, and sometimes as red sandal wood. It grows in India,
Ceylon, Malay Islands, Philippines, and China. It has a hard, close
grained, red coloured heart wood, used in Southern India for cabinet
making and house building. A red dye is obtained from it. It is a
wood that might be used for ordinary work.
34. Acacia arabica. — The Babool or Indian Gum Arabic tree. It
is either a moderate-sized or large tree, according to locality, and is
found cultivated or self-sown, throughout the greater part of India,
as well as in Ceylon, Arabia, Egypt, tropical Africa, and Natal.
The heart wood, when freshly cut, is of a pinkish white colour,
turning to a reddish brown on exposure, and often mottled with
dark streaks. It is hard and very durable, and is largely used in
India, for all kinds of work, where strength and durability are
366
FURNITURE WOODS, WITH SUGGESTIONS
required. It is, perhaps, rather too heavy for ordinary furniture,
but might prove useful for the framework of dining and billiard
tables. With a tree so widely distributed as this is in different
parts of the tropics, there should be no difficulty in obtaining it
should a demand arise. Useful woods might also be found amongst
other species of Indian acacias, such, for instance, as A. letixophloea,
A. ferruginea, and others.
35. Alhizzia Lebbek, commonly known by Europeans in India as
the Siris tree. It grows to a large size in India, Ceylon, Burma,
Malay Islands, China, North Australia, and tropical Africa. (See
No. 10, Plate 4.) The wood of this and several other species of
Alhizzia, natives of India, are hard, dark brown, with darker coloured
longitudinal streaks. It is largely used in India for a variety of
purposes, amongst others for furniture, boats, oil mills, wheel work,
&c. The woods of all the species of Alhizzia are quite worth the
attention of the cabinetmaker, all being similar to the above, of a
rich brown colour, more or less streaked, taking a good polish and
having a beautiful appearance when so finished. Amongst the most
prominent species may be mentioned, A. odoratissima, A. procera,
A. liocida, A. Julibrissin, A. stipulata, and A. amara.
36. Prunus Puddttm. — The Paddam tree of the Hindoos, ranging
from a tree of moderate size to one of large growth, and found
in India and Burma. The heart wood is fairly hard, and is
beautifully mottled, shining, and wavy, of a reddish colour. It
has a fine appearance when polished, and though used occasionally
in India for furniture, deserves to be known amongst English cabinet
woods.
37. Carallia integerrima. — This small evergreen tree is known as
Kierpa in Bengal. It is found in India, Ceylon, Malay iVrchipelago,
China, and Australia. The heart wood is very durable, works well,
and takes an excellent polish. It is of a bright reddish tint with
fine cross markings, and is used both in India and Burma for
furniture. Its distinct character should recommend it.
38. Gareya arborea. — A large deciduous tree known as the Kumbi.
It grows in many parts of India and Burma, and produces a
moderately hard and very durable wood, which seasons well, works
well, and polishes well. In some specimens, more particularly
in the younger trees, the wood is of a dull red colour, but in the
older trunks it becomes of a very rich dark claret, or crimson, and
sometimes finely mottled. Some of the uses to which it is put in
India and Burma are for furniture and various kinds of cabinet
work, house posts, and gun stocks, but the wood has not received
the attention it merits.
39. Stephegyne parvifolia. — A large tree found throughout India
and Burma, and also in Ceylon. It is known as the Kaddam, and
367
FOB THE INTRODUCTION OF NEW KINDS.
produces a lightish coloured wood, with a pinkish brown tint,
moderately hard, easily worked, and durable, and takes a good
polish. This wood has less colour than any that we have yet
considered, and might be found useful for the lighter kinds of
furniture. In India it is not only used for furniture and agricultural
implements, but it is one of the woods that is largely used for
turning and carving, and for platters, cups, spoons, combs, &e.
40. Diospyros Kurzii. — An evergreen tree of the Andaman Islands
and Nicobars. It is a close botanical ally to the ebony and
calamander woods of commerce, and the wood is somewhat similar
in appearance to the latter, but is composed of black and greyish
streaks rather than blotches, which is the case with calamander. It
is indeed sufficiently distinct from the better known wood to recom-
mend it for bold inlaying, or even for panels, and though it is but little
used in its native country, it is certainly a wood that ought to be known
to English commerce. The tree is said to be pretty common in the
Andaman forests. Some choice examples of the wood are shown
in the Kew Museums. The woods of some allied species of Indian
Diospyros, besides that which yields the ebony, furnish wood with
an ebony-like centre, such, for instance, as D. melanoxylon, D.
montana, D. cordlfolia, and others, all of which are worth a trial.
41. Olea cuspidata. — This is sometimes known as the Indian
olive, but by the people of Scind, where the wood is much valued for
making combs and for carving, it is known as Khan. It is a tree about
30 feet high, common in India and Beluchistan. The wood is smooth
and even grained, extremely hard, and takes a splendid polish. In
colour it ranges from a light to an olive brown, or, in some specimens,
nearly black. The beautiful marking of this wood is similar to that
of the European olive, but the whole tone of it is darker, and its
character is therefore sufficiently distinct to recommend it for
adaptation in England. (See No. 11, Plate 4.)
42. Holarrhena antidysenterica. — A small deciduous tree known
as the Karra, and found throughout the forests of India, Travancore,
and Malacca. The wood is white, soft, and even grained, and is
much used by the natives for carving, and in Assam for furniture.
(See No. 12, Plate 4.) Amongst other white woods of a similar
character that are mostly used in India for carving platters, bowls,
basins, and such like articles, are the Keor (Wrightia tomentosa) and
the Dudhi (W. tinctoria). These three are the chief woods used in
India for these purposes. The light colour and comparative ease
with which all three of these woods are cut, would probably adapt
them for inlaying.
43. Mortis indica. — This is one of the Indian species of mulberry,
and is known by the Hindoos as Tutri. It is a moderate-sized
deciduous tree of India, Burma, China, and Japan. The wood is
368
FURNITURE WOODS, WITH SUGGESTIONS
fairly hard, of a yellowish brown colour, with dark streaks, and
bears some resemblance to that of the common white mulberry.
This wood, together with that of Morns serrata, a tree of some 60 to 70
feet high, having, when polished, a beautiful golden lustre, would, no
doubt, if it were better known, become a useful cabinet wood ; and the
same may be said of several species of Artocarpus, the woods of all
of which are yellow, or yellowish brown, sometimes approaching to
an orange colour, and have a rich appearance when polished. Of
these trees we may mention the Bread fruit {Artocarpus integrifolia),
the Lakuch (./. lakoocha), the Chaplash (A. chaplasha), the Ayni
{A. hirsuta), &c.
We have devoted considerable space to this selection of about fifty
Indian trees, because they fairly represent the types of suitable
furniture woods to be found in our great Eastern forests, and
because they have been carefully taken from amongst others, widely
scattered over the whole range of the natural orders, which constitute
the great vegetable kingdom. Upon actual trial many of the woods
themselves may not prove so useful as we have anticipated, but they
indicate spots on the great map of nature in the neighbourhood of
which others may be found.
Next in importance to India amongst British possessions as a
timber-producing country, both in extent and variety, we may place
Australia, and it is to a few of the choicest woods of that country
that we will next draw special attention. Foremost amongst
Australian woods stand, of course, the numerous species of
Eucalyptus, but though valuable as they are for a variety of uses
their weight and density cause them to be quite unsuited for
furniture, so we have to exclude them from any consideration in the
present paper.
AUSTRALIAN WOODS.
1. Zanthoxykom brachyacanthum. — This is a tree some 40 or 50 feet
high, of Northern New South Wales and Queensland, where it is
known as satin wood. It is close grained, easily worked, of a bright
yellow colour, with a soft satiny lustre. It is used for cabinet work,
and is said to be supei'ior to the satin wood of the English trade.
2. Dysoxylum Fraseranum. — The two most common names of this
wood ai-e rose wood and pencil cedar. The tree grows to a height
of from 50 to 70 feet in Northern New South Wales and Queensland,
and the wood is of a reddish colour, of good figure, works well, and
takes a good polish. It is somewhat similar both in appeai-ance
and grain to mahogany, for which, indeed, it has been suggested as
a substitute, if it could be brought into the market and sold at a
reasonable price. In Australia it is a favourite furniture, cabinet,
and turning wood.
369
FOB THE INTBODUCTION OF NEW KINDS.
3. Fliiidersia australis. — This is known as the Austrahan ash, or
beech, and is a tree growing to a height of 80 to 100 feet, found in
Northern New South Wales and Queensland. The wood is hard,
close grained, and of great strength and durability, has an oi*ange
brown tint, and takes an excellent polish. (See No. 13, Plate 5.)
An allied species [F. Oxleyana) known as the light yellow wood, a
tree of similar height to the last, and found in the same districts,
produces a wood of a fine even grain, often of a pretty yellow colour,
which should recommend it, as there are so few woods having this
tint naturally. In Australia it is used both for cabinet work and
for boat building.
4. Alphitonia excelsa. — A tree 45 to 50 feet high, known as the
mountain ash, red ash, or leather jacket, and found in New South
Wales, Queensland, and Northern Australia. It has a hard, close
grained, and durable wood of a bright red colour, darkening,
however, with age. In some samples the wood passes from a dark
brown to pink, and in others the colours are blended.
5. Harpullia penclula. — This is the tulip wood of New South
Wales, and grows to a height of from 50 to 60 feet in Northern New
South Wales and Queensland. The wood is close grained, firm, and
hard, and is most beautifully marked with irregular, longitudinal
streaks of black and yellow. It is one of the most striking woods
of Australia, and is consequently much esteemed by the colonial
cabinet-makers, and should be known in this country.
6. Rhus rhodanthema. — Known as the dark yellow wood, or yellow
cedar. It grows in Northern New South Wales and Queensland,
attaining a height of from 60 to 70 feet. The wood is soft, fine grained,
easily worked, sound and durable, has a brownish or yellowish bronze
colour, with a fine silky lustre, somewhat darkening by age, but losing
none of its beauty. It is classified as one of the handsomest of
Australian timbers, and is much used in the colony for cabinet work.
7. Gastanospermum australe. — This is a fine tree of Northern
New South Wales and Queensland, growing to a height of 80 to
90 feet, and known as the bean tree, or Moreton Bay chestnut, from
the fact that the seeds are large, about the size of a chestnut, and
are eaten in a similar way. The wood is soft, fine grained, and
marked with beautiful dark, cloudy Unes, which strongly recommends
it as a cabinet wood. This wood was one of those submitted to a
series of trials at the time of the Colonial and Indian Exhibition,
and the report upon it was as follows: —
A beautifully figured, browu wood. The sample sent being very wet was tried
under somewhat unfavourable circumstances. A baluster was turned from it,
and some boards and panels planed, the work from both lathe and planing
machine being excellent. The wood should prove valuable for cabinet makers,
but should be thoroughly seasoned before being used, as it shrinks very much in
drying. (See No. 14, Plate 5.)
25
370
FUBKITUBE WOODS, WITH SUGGESTIONS
8. Acacia acimiinata. — A tree some 30 or 40 feet high, native of
Western Australia. It is sometimes known as Myall, though it is
not the true Myall as known in England, for the manufacture of
pipes. The dark, rich reddish brown colour of the wood, and the
scent, which is compared to that of fresh raspben-ies, together with
its close and compact gi'ain, are recommendations for its application
in cabinet work. Mr. Ransome, in his report in 1886, remarked
that this wood ought to find a ready sale in England for ornamental
work. A large number of species of Acacia grow in Australia,
indeed, it may be said that it is the headquarters of these plants.
The true Myall is obtained from two species, A. pendula and A.
hovialophylla, whilst amongst others to which attention should be
given may be mentioned A. Cunninghanii, the bastard Myall ;
A. glaitcescens, the Brigalow; and A. melanoxylon, the black wood.
This last is a very beautiful and valuable wood, presenting a most
varied character in different trees, and being suitable for almost
every purpose of cabinet and carpentry work.
9. Olearia argophylla. — The musk wood of Tasmania, Victoria,
and New South Wales, where it grows to a height of from 20 to 30
feet. We quote the following description of this beautiful wood
from a colonial authoi'ity: —
This timber has a pleasant fragrance and a beautifully mottled appearance,
well adapted for turning, cabinet work, and perfumery purposes. It works well,
and may be had in any quantity, and in slabs of from 18 to 36 inches diameter.
The wood of the gnarled butt and roots of the tree are beautifully mottled, and
consequently much prized. (See No. 15, Plate 5.)
10. Bedfordia salicina. — A tree about 30 feet high, native of
Tasmania, Victoria, and New South Wales. It is the dog wood of
Tasmania, and the cotton wood of New South Wales. The wood is
hard, of a pale, greyish brown colour, and very prettily mottled. Its
appearance is sufficient to recommend it for furniture, but it is said
to be very difficidt to season, and, moreover, it emits a foetid smell
when freshly cut.
11. GrevilUa robusta. — This is one of the trees known in the
colony by the name of silky oak. It is found both in New South
Wales and Queensland, and grows to a height of from 70 to 80 feet.
The wood is moderately hard, and works well. It is of a lightish
grey colour, with silvery cross wavy markings, due to the large
development of the medullary rays. When polished the satiny
sheen is well brought out. The absence of any dark colour in the
wood causes it to possess a dehcate lustre which would befit it for
choice boudoir or bedroom furnitvu-e. It is stated that in consequence
of the wood being much used in Australia for the staves of tallow
371
FOB THE INTBODUCTION OF NEW KINDS.
casks it is becoming scarce, but the tree has been proved to grow
well in Ceylon, where it has been introduced, so that it is capable of
extended cultivation, besides which it resists drought in a remark-
able degree. (See No. 16, Plate 6.)
12. Stenocarpus salignus. — This tree is a close botanical ally to
the last named, and, like it, is known in Australia by the common
name of silky oak, in addition to which it is sometimes called silvery
oak and beef wood. It ranges from 30 to 50 feet high, and is found
in New South Wales and in Queensland. The marking of the wood
is very like that of GreviUea robusta, but the colour being of a deep
red, it is altogether of a more striking appearance. It is a favourite
wood in Australia for furniture, picture frames, and walking sticks.
In the Jurors' Eeports of the International Exhibition of 1862 it is
referred to as "altogether one of the most beautiful woods in the
Exhibition, and of the highest merit."
13. Banksia integrifolia. — One of the trees known as the Australian
honeysuckle, growing in Victoria, New South Wales, and Queens-
land, and attaining a height of from 20 to 30 feet. The wood is
mottled in the same way as the two preceding, belonging as it does
to the same natural order. It is moderately hard, of a pinkish
colour, and very suitable for furniture or fancy work. It is said to
be perishable when exposed to atmospheric influences, but otherwise
durable. Banksia serrata, also known as honeysuckle, has a similajr
wood, but more of a purplish mahogany colour, and quite worth a
careful trial as a cabinet wood.
14. Xylo7nelum pyriforme, known as the native or wooden pear, in
allusion to the hard woody pear-shaped fruit, is a tree of New South
Wales, growing from 20 to 40 feet high, producing a dark coloured
and beautifully marked wood of a similar character to the last three,
but deeper in colour. Like those just mentioned, it is much valued
for ornamental cabinet work in Australia.
15. Casuarina stricta. — A tree some 20 to 30 feet high, found in all
the Australian colonies except Western Australia and Queensland.
It is known as shingle oak or coast she oak, and produces a very
tough and hard wood, of a reddish colour and a fine mottled surface,
caused by the broad medullary plates forming dark bands. When
polished these have a very fine effect, and the wood has an
extremely handsome appearance. Its weight and hardness, however,
may tell against its general use as a furniture wood, though it is
well worth a careful trial, and at most might be used for veneers.
Several other species of Casttari/na are found in Australia, and many
of them might prove useful, such as C. suberosa, C. torulosa, and
others which are generally known as swamp oaks or shingle oaks.
16. Fagus Cunninghami. — This tree, though it is a close ally to
the common English beech, is known in Tasmania as myrtle. It is
372
FUBNITUBE WOODS, WITH SUGGESTIONS
a magnificent tree, sometimes attaining 200 feet in height, but
averaging about 100 feet. It grows both in Tasmania and Victoria.
" The wood is prized for sash and door work, and, indeed, for all
kinds of light joinery. It is a hard, richly coloured furniture wood,
and the wai'ty protuberances on the trunk of the tree afford a most
beautiful figure, as do slabs, which may be procured 6 feet long in
almost any quantity. It is used for the cogs of wheels by mill-
wrights." Some very beautiful examples of this wood are shown in
the Kew Museum, and it is surprising that it has not already become
an article of commerce with us. (See No. 17, Plate 6.)
17. Dacryclinm Franklinii. — This is another of Tasmania's most
beautiful woods. It is the produce of a tree belonging to the
coniferae or pine family, and is found only in Tasmania, where it
grows usually to a height of from 60 to 80 feet, but sometimes
attains to 100 feet, and is known as Huon pine. The wood is light
but tough, and extremely durable, in consequence of which it is much
in demand for boat building and house fittings. As a proof of the
durability of the timber, it is stated that fallen trees have been known
to lie in the damp forests for many years without rotting. The colour
of the wood is a pale yellow, and in the knots and burrs the character of
the figuring is so peculiar and distinct from any other wood, that it is
difficult to describe. The small eyes or knots, partake somewhat of
the character of bird's-eye maple, but they are darker and more
defined, surrounded by a wav)^ satiny lustre, which, under the
effects of polish, produce in each one a different degree of light
and shade, changing upon every position of reflected light. The
wood, indeed, may be said to be without a rival. Many years ago
it attracted considerable attention at a meeting of the Society of
Arts, the result of which was that many wood gi-ainers attempted to
imitate it, but the changeful effect of light was beyond their powers,
and the interest dropped after the very fine examples in the Kew
Museum had been visited and examined by many practical men.
We believe that in consequence of the great demand for the wood in
the colony the tree is becoming scarce, and the wood is therefore
fetching high prices. It should be carefully planted and extended,
not only into the other Australian colonies, but also in other
countries where it is hkely to flourish.
Space will not allow us to point out any further individual
examples of the forest treasures of Australia. We have not
included in our review any examples from New Zealand, though
there are many to which we might allude, such, for instance, as
mottled and wavy Kauri [Agathis or Damniara australis), a variety
of wood that we sometimes do see in England, but which is not so
well known as it ought to be. The Totara, again {Podocarpus totara),
373
FOE THE INTRODUCTION OF NEW KINDS.
is a wood well worth attention. In a "Report on the Durability of
New Zealand Timbers," in 1875, Mr. Kirk says, writing of the Eewa
Rewa (Knightia exceha) : —
That although nearly valueless at present, it might be advantageously exported
if sawn into planks from 3 to 6 inches in thickness, and dried in airy sheds.
From its liability to become " foxy " it would be useless to ship it unseasoned, as
it would become worthless during the voyage. I am convinced that if once fairly
established in the London market the demand would speedily exceed the supply,
so that good prices would be realised. At present thousands of trees are destroyed
yearly with the progress of clearing, so that its utilisation in any way would be of
great advantage, as it is a timber, even when dry, of difficult combustion. It might
be advantageously used for certain special purposes irrespective of its beauty.
These remarks were written eighteen years ago, and what was said
then practically applies to the present time.
Turning next to our South African possessions, we find both at
the Cape and in Natal a flora rich in timber-yielding plants, and
though the trees as a rule do not grow to the majestic proportions
of those of Australia, or even India, and consequently, would not
supply timber of equal diameter or bulk, we nevertheless find a
number of valuable trees, producing hard, even grained, and durable
woods, and not a few of which possess sufficient colour or figure
to recommend them for cabinet or furniture making. It must be
confessed that there is not the variety in the South African forests
that we find in those of the colonies we have already considered,
from which to make such a varied choice. The bulk of the timbers
are perhaps more suited for building than for cabinet purposes.
Again, in two colonies so comparatively close as the Cape and Natal,
we might expect to find, as is the case, many of the same kinds of
trees growing in both. A few references to suitable Cape woods will
suffice to show that the forests of these colonies are quite of sufficient
interest to warrant an examination and trial of their resources, with
the view of future development.
CAPE WOODS.
1. Ekebergia capensis. — This is known as the Essenboom, or Cape
ash. It is a tree 20 to 30 feet high, producing a strong, close grained,
and durable wood, of a light yellow colour. In the colony it is used
for furniture and wagon work, for which it is much valued.
2. Elaodendron croceuvi. — The saffron wood of the colonists. It
is a tree averaging from 20 to 40 feet or even 60 feet high. The
wood is of a yellowish pinkish colour, very fine grained and delicately
striped, hard, close, and tough ; used for cabinet work, beams,
planks, wagons, and agricultural implements. The bark is valued
for tanning and dyeing.
374
FURNITURE WOODS, WITH SUGGESTIONS
3. Hartogia capensis. — A small tree, seldom exceeding 16 feet
high, with a hard, fine gi'ained, close, tough wood. It takes an
excellent polish, and has an appearance equal to the finest mahogany,
but generally of a lighter colour. It is well adapted for all kinds of
superior cabinet work, as well as for tui-ning and building purposes.
It is known at the Cape as ladle wood.
4. PtcBToxylon utile. — This is the sneeze wood of South Africa, and
is ranked amongst the most important and valuable woods of the
country. In point of durability it is said to rank with greenheart
and jarrah. The following extract from a paper on " Cape Woods
and Forests," by A. W. Hey wood, of the Cape Forest Department,
published in connection with the Colonial and Indian Exhibition of
1886, is given as a pi'oof of the durability of this wood. The
writer says : —
The heart wood of sneeze wood is regarded as imperishable for fencing posts.
It is not attacked by the white ant, and posts put in by the earliest colonists are
sound to the present day. Unfortunately, the supply of wood is now very
limited. Its extirpation was imminent when the forests were taken over for
management, and felling is now prohibited in Government reserves. Natural
re-growth is everywhere abundant, and with careful conser\'ation much may be
done towards the restoration of sneeze wood to the economic uses it is so
eminently suited to fulfil.
The wood is often very beautifully marked with cross undulating
wavings, giving it a very handsome appearance. The tree gi-ows to
a height of from 20 to 30 feet. It derives its name of sneeze wood
from the fact of its producing violent sneezing when sawn or worked.
(See No. 18, Plate 6.)
5. Rhus Thunbergii. — This is a small tree, from 15 to 20 feet high,
known as the rock ash. It has a yellowish, hard, close grained
wood, with a satiny wavy lustre, much valued for fancy cabinet
work, fancy furniture, and musical instruments.
6. C'unonia capensis, known as red cedar. A large tree, ranging
from 20 to 60 feet. The wood is of a rich reddish brown colour,
hard and tough, taking an excellent polish, and forming a very
handsome furniture wood.
7. Platylophus trifoliatus, the white alder of the colonists, is a
tree 30 to 40 feet high, producing a light coloured hard and tough
wood, the roots and knots being very finely marked. The wood is
in request for ordinary furniture and for making boxes.
8. Olinia cymosa. — This is a plant of varying height, averaging
about 16 feet, but sometimes gi-owing up to a height of 30 feet. The
wood is of a light greyish colour, very compact, and heavy, hard,
and tough. It is much used in the colony for general fancy work,
musical instruments, as well as for wagon and cart work.
375
FOB THE INTBODUCTION OF NEW KINDS.
9. Olea laurifolia. — This is a straight growing tree, from 40 to 70
feet high, known as the black iron wood. The sap wood is white,
and the heart wood ahnost black, streaked with darker wavy
markings similar to common olive, but much blacker. It is very
hard and somewhat heavy, but, nevertheless, is an excellent
furniture wood. (See No. 19, Plate 7.)
10. Ocotea or Oreodaphne hullata, a tree growing 50 to 60 feet high,
and having a diameter of fi'om 4 to 5 feet. It is known as stink
wood or laurel wood, the first name being given to it from the fact
of its emitting a most disagreeable odour when freshly cut. Stink
wood has little or no sap wood. The wood is very highly prized,
being little inferior if not equal to teak in strength and durability.
It is used in the colony for nearly every kind of cabinet work, wagon
and house building. It takes an excellent polish, and the dark rich
colour has much to recommend it in comparison to walnut.
11. Protea grandifiora. — This is only a shrub of some 6 or 8 feet
high, but the wood is of such a beautiful deep red colour, marked
with a cross, or reticulated grain of a light silvery grey, which
imparts to it a lace-like appearance, that it would be very valuable
for small articles of furniture, and for inlaying. The tree is known
as the wagon tree.
12. Podocarpus latifolius. — This is a very tall tree, perhaps the
tallest in the colony, growing up to 70 feet or more. It is known
as the upright yellow wood to distinguish it from an allied species
designated Outeniqua yellow wood, which, however, runs the other
very close with regard to height. The woods are very difficult to
distinguish one from the other, both are of a pale yellow colour,
close and even grained, and both are highly valued for a variety of
uses. Besides the quality of the wood itself, the great length and
diameter of the planks that can be cut from the enormous trunks,
are points which recommend it. The cleanness with which the
wood cuts, and the high polish it takes, are also recommendations
for its use as a light coloured furniture wood. The furniture made
from it and exhibited in the Cape Court of the Colonial and Indian
Exhibition in 1886 attracted a good deal of attention.
These few examples of Cape woods may be taken as typical of
what the forests are capable of producing, and, under the system
of forest preservation inaugurated in 1880, it is satisfactoiy to be
able to look forward to the yield of the forests being increased
rather than diminished. The gloomy outlook of the Cape forests
previous to the period above referx-ed to is thus described in Mr.
Heywood's paper already mentioned. He says : —
The management and working of the Cape forests was of a very unsystematic
and thriftless character. Fellings were not confined to limited areas or sections,
wood cutters were allowed to pick and choose their trees indiscriminately
376
FURNITURE WOODS, WITH SUGGESTIONS
throughout the forests, and to pay only for the wood actually removed. The
consequence of such a method was that only the choicest trees were felled, and
their rejected portions left to cumber the ground. It has been estimated that
by working on this system nearly thirty cubic feet of wood were wasted for every
one utilised and paid for. Natural reproduction was thus severely handicapped ;
many forests disappeared altogether, and those which now remain, and are at all
accessible, have been impoverished to the last degree. In 1880 the question of
forest management was brought before Parliament. It was pointed out that the
officers in charge had received no special training for the work, which had in
consequence suffered severely, and the salary of a trained forest officer was voted
by the Legislature. The Crown agents in London were consulted, and, with the'
assistance of Colonel Pearson, then at Nancy, the services of Count de Vasselot
de Regn6, of the French Forest Department, were secured. This officer arrived
in Cape Town early in 1881, and, as superintendent of woods and forests, under-
took the organisation of the present forest department. In 1883, by the courtesy
of the Indian Government, the services of Mr. Hutchins, deputy conservator of
forests, were made temporarily available to the colony.
Such is the brief history of the estabUshment of the forest depart-
ment at the Cape, an estabhshment of comparatively recent date,
but one that has ah'eady done good work, and the results of which
will be felt quite as much, or more, in the future in providing material
for the use of generations to come, not only amongst the colonists
themselves, but also amongst those of their own countrymen, who
may wish to extend their commercial relations in the commodities
they have to offer.
These notes would be very imperfect without a sketch of the
nature of the wood produce of our "West Indian possessions. We
have only incidentally alluded to those of British Guiana and
British Honduras, but in like manner, as we were compelled to
omit Ceylon when treating of Indian woods, in consequence of its
nearness to the great Continent of India and the similarity, to a
certain extent, of its timber produce, notwithstanding that Ceylon
is extremely rich in choice cabinet woods, we must omit anything
more than a mere glance of one island, as an indication of what may
be found in most of the others, and we take Trinidad as the
example, because more has been done in this island in the actual
and careful development of its timber resoui'ces than in any other.
At the several International Exhibitions the collections of woods
from Trinidad have always stood out prominently, not only in the
variety and number of specimens shown, but also in the size of the
slabs and the care exercised in their selection. This was particularly
the case in the collection brought together at the Colonial and
Indian Exhibition in 1886, which collection is now contained in the
Kew Museum. The following is a selection made from these woods : —
377
FOR THE INTRODUCTION OF NEW KINDS.
TRINIDAD WOODS.
• 1. Calophyllum Calaba. — This is called the Galba or Palo Maria
tree. It grows to a large size, and the wood, which is of a pale
i-eddish tint, beautifully marked by light wavy lines, is considered
one of the best woods of the country. It is strong and durable in
all situations. (See No. 20, Plate 7.)
2. Byrsonima spicata. — The Surette, or shoemakers' bark tree, in
consequence of the bark being an article of export to England for
tanning purposes. The tree grows to a height of from 30 to 40 feet,
and is found also in St. Lucia, Dominica, and in Brazil. Its wood
is of a dark brownish red colour, strong and durable in dry situations,
but apt to decay when exposed to the weather.
3. Trichilia triuitensis. — A small tree of Trinidad and Guiana.
It has a close and even grained wood of a dark colour, and is known
as Naranjillo Blanco.
4. Cassia spectabilis. — It is the Casse of Trinidad, and is widely
spread in the West Indies and South America, growing to a height
of from 20 to 30 feet. The wood is of a dark or blackish tint, with
darker stripes, and is strong and durable.
5. Hymencea Courbaril. — An enormous tree, known as the Locust,
often growing to a height of 80 feet before branching, and forming a
diameter of from 8 to 9 feet. The wood is of a fine brown colour,
streaked with reddish veins. It takes a beautiful polish, is hard,
close grained, and compact, and as it is not liable to split or warp,
is much in demand, especially in British Guiana, where it perhaps
attains its greatest size, for mill timber, engine work, ships — planks,
&c. The wood is not altogether unknown in this country. A
quantity of resin is often exuded from the trunk which gets buried
in the ground, and lying there for some time becomes partially
fossilised, and when dug up is cleaned and used like anime for
varnish making. (See No. 21, Plate 7.)
6. Pentaclethra filavientosa. — A tree 30 to 40 feet high, known in
Trinidad as the Bois Mulatre. The wood is of a dark colour, even
grained, and said to be very durable, especially in damp situations.
7. Lecythls Idatwion. — This is a large tree, known in Trinidad as
Guatecare ; it is found also in Guiana. The wood is of a yellowish
colour, strong, and very durable, and much valued in the colony for
building and other purposes. This wood may perhaps be found too
coarse in the gi-ain for the general run of cabinet work, but we have
seen samples quite suitable for many kinds of furniture.
8. Citharexylum quadrangulare. — A fine tree gi*owing to a height
of from 20 to 60 feet, found in the other islands of the West Indies,
as well as in Guiana. It produces a very compact and even grained
378
FURNITURE WOODS, WITH SUGGESTIONS
wood, of a lightish brown colour. It is very strong, and is much
valued in the West Indies as a building wood. It is known as
fiddle wood, a name corrupted from Ihis fidele.
9. Vitex capitata, known as the Bois Lezard. It is a timber tree
of Trinidad, Guiana, and Equatorial Brazil, and produces a strong,
durable, and very valuable wood.
10. Chlorophora tinctoria. — A large tree capable of furnishing
planks 20 feet long and 12 or 15 inches wide. The wood is close
grained, hght in weight, of an orange yellow colour, easily worked,
and capable of taking an excellent polish. It is used by wheel-
wrights, and, to some extent, for furniture; but its bright colour
should cause it to be better known.
Amongst the timbers of Trinidad and British Guiana are to be
found some of the most distinct in point of colouring of any known
woods — woods which may be said to possess a self colour, that is,
an uniform colouring throughout without streaks, light, shade, or
mai'kings of any kind. Two of the most striking instances of this
description of wood are to be found in the purple hearts of the West
Indies, Guiana, Central America, and North Brazil, over which
countries the species of Copaifera, which produce these woods,
flourish, and also in a wood known as "Ducaliballi," the produce
of a tree described as growing to a height of 50 feet or moi'e, in
British Guiana, but the scientific name of which has not yet been
discovered. In the purple hearts, as the name implies, the wood,
which is close and even grained, is of a rich uniform purple colour,
and when freshly cut and pohshed it has a remarkably rich eflect ;
unfortunately, however, the colour is not permanent, for after a
comparatively short exposure, the wood blackens, and loses all the
character for which it is valued in its fresh condition, requiring to
be newly scraped to bring up the colour again, a manifest drawback
for a furniture wood. This is not the case with the wood of the
Ducaliballi, which is of a deep red colour which it retains with very
little change for a long period. The wood is, moreover, close
grained, compact, and susceptible of a high polish, so that with all
these recommendations it is much in demand in the colony for
cabinet and turning work.
Throughout these pages we have dwelt almost exclusively on the
wood produce of India and the British colonies, but from tiine to
time Englishmen plant their feet on new soil, and by making it their
future home and annexing it for commercial purposes open up fresh
sources of produce. In new countries thus opened up, it is usual to
clear off forest growth, for the pui-pose of forming plantations for the
cultivation of some well-known economic plant ; but care should
always be had of existing arboreal vegetation, not only for purposes
of shade and for preserving the proper amount of rainfall, but also
379
FOE THE INTRODUCTION OF NEW KINDS.
for preserving the timber supply. In these new countries it not
unfrequently happens that new products are discovered, and woods
fresh to commerce may be, and indeed have been, amongst those
brought to Hght. A recent instance of this kind in connection with
the opening up of tropical Africa, is the development of the trade in
the so-called African mahogany, a wood that has been known to
botanists for a considerable time as the product of a tropical African
tree closely allied to the true mahogany, and described as Khaya
senegalensis. This wood has been brought more prominently to
notice during the past year or two, and its mahogany-like chai'acter
will no doubt recommend it for general use with us. In British
North Borneo, again, where much has been done of late years to
develop the natural resources of the country, as well as to prove its
adaptability for new cultures, the timber yield has been well pushed
to the fore, so that some of the best woods of the country are now
known in English trade.
As these remarks are being written, the opening of the Imperial
Institute at South Kensington has become an accomplished fact, and
we briefly take the opportunity of referring our readers to the study
of the woods in the Colonial Courts of the building. The screens
dividing these courts from each other are made entirely of the woods
of each colony, and are apt illustrations of their adaptability for
cabinet and joinery purposes. We commend them to all who are in
any way interested in the subject of this paper.
380
THE UNIVERSITY AND THE PEOPLE; AND THE
UNIVERSITY OF THE FUTURE.
BY PROFESSOR S. S. LAURIE.
THE subject on which I have been asked to write is a novel one.
The universities of the past and present have, during the
last seven or eight years, received more wide-spread attention
from writers of monographs and of larger histories than at any
previous time, but the " relation of the university to the people and
the university of the future " have not engaged the attention of any,
so far as I know. ■■'■ Not many years ago I printed a book which
dealt largely with the rise and constitution of universities, and had
to form my own judgments and draw my own conclusions from
restricted, and often contradictory, materials. The authority of the
great writers of the past — Wood, Bulaeus, Crevier, Meiners — from
whom all the minor wi'iters had borrowed was generally questioned,
and in the case of Paris an attempt was being made by Denifle to
reverse the view taken by his predecessors. The most important
book in English was by Bass Mullinger on the University of
Cambridge, and the learned author himself, were he to issue a new
edition, would doubtless seize the opportunity to revise and ainend
some of his opinions. Nor even now, spite of the researches of
Kauffmann, have we the materials for a complete and critical
narrative, although a good history might now be written with
one-tenth the labour which would have been required ten years ago.
We must await the completion of the various monographs on
particular universities before we can take a final historical survey
of the whole field, and exhibit the university life of Europe in its
relation to the ever-changing aspects of thought and political life
since the twelfth century.
At the same time the leading historical outlines have for some
time been clear enough, it seems to me ; sufficiently so, at least,
to enable us to understand the purpose of the higher institutions
of learning and to forecast their function in the future.
But if we are to do this and to convey to the reader anything but
a mass of uninterpreted facts, we must find a point of view which
* Since this was in type a survey of the historical relations of English
universities has been published by Professor Jebb.
381
THE UNIVERSITY AND THE PEOPLE ; AND THE UNIVERSITY OF THE FUTURE.
will also be a point of departure. We must go back to the pre-
Christian world, and find there the beginnings of our modern
academic life. The reader must not be impatient of apparently
remote events if he desires to understand the universities of the
present day, still less if he would form an intelligent conception of
the aims of the "university of the future."
We may say, generally, that the chief purpose of the higher
academic institutions was always knowledge. This knowledge,
however, had always for its aim a practical purpose — the explanation
of man's life and destiny with a view to the settlement of questions
which bore on the conduct of life.
Three nations have moulded the life of modern Europe — Palestine,
Greece, and Eome. As soon as these nations had settled down to
civilised life and had leisure to " look before and after," there
gradually grew up among them groups of men who devoted
themselves to investigation and thought. In every nation of the
past, the mass of men were too deeply engrossed in industrial work
and in the duties of government and war to find time to do more
than acquiesce blindly in the theory of life which they had inherited
from their ancestors, and which was embodied in their customs,
religion, and laws. Only a few could give themselves to thought
with a view to knowledge and the criticism of custom. So it is now,
and so it will ever be. And if we are to continue to advance in
knowledge of nature and man, and in a true comprehension of the
significance of human life, the growing pressure of industrial
competition and the clamant demands of each exacting day make
it more than ever necessary that institutions should exist in which a
few men may be set apart to maintain the connection of the present
with the past, and to advance the knowledge of mankind for the benefit
of their fellow men and of future generations. It is true that men so
set apart are apt to forget mankind in their devotion to their sub-
jects, and prosecute their studies with little thought of their practical
bearing ; but none the less, perhaps all the more, are they the leaders
of thought and the benefactors of their race. The printing press
disseminates their results, and all can now share in the fruits of
their labour. The love of knowledge is in man inextinguishable,
and the attainments of one generation are but the starting point for
new enterprises of discovery.
Accordingly, were it the fact that knowledge for the sake of
knowledge engaged exclusively the universities of Europe and
America, it would still be necessary to maintain them in the
interests of humanity at large. But they do not exist for this
purpose alone, but for teaching what is known to all who frequent
their halls, for preparing the next generation of investigators, and for
382
THE UNIVERSITY AND THE PEOPLE ;
training to the various professions which minister to our daily
wants. The clergyman, the physician, the lawyer, the teacher, the
engineer, and the agriculturist can (speaking generally) find in
universities alone the knowledge bearing on their respective fields
of social activity, ready organised and fashioned for their use.
Every man, however humble, who benefits by the law of his
country, whose diseases are diagnosed and alleviated, whose
children are instructed, and to whom the teachings and consola-
tions of religion are offered, is a debtor to universities. And it is
scarcely necessary to point to the close connection of the higher
mathematics and physics with engineering, railways, telegraphs,
steamships, &c., &c., and of chemistry with innumerable industi'ial
arts, to satisfy even the most exacting that to universities are due
not only the thought which elevates the mind of man and lifts him
to a higher plane of existence, but that exact knowledge which makes
his life more tolerable w'hile it lasts and promotes further advances
in the conquest of nature and in the equitable adjustment of
social relations. It is true that in modern times much of the
function of universities is discharged with surpassing ability by
the agency of those living outside them by means of the printing
press ; but the majority, if not indeed all, these active agents
in civilisation ultimately owe their knowledge and inspiration to
the work of men who live alone for abstract knowledge, and who
are chiefly to be found now, as in the past, within academic
walls working in accordance with academic methods. It will be
apparent, then, that universities which at first sight seem remote
from the life of the ordinary citizen are in truth closely connected
with that life, existing, as they do, not merely for knowledge but for
the dissemination of knowledge, which is thus made the possession
of all. No institution, accordingly, is so essentially democratic in its
aims, for none is so universal in the benefits it confers, irrespectively
of race, religion, or social position.
It will be apparent that I am using the word "university" to
include all schools of higher learning set apart for young men and
women above seventeen years of age, the aim of which is at once
scientific and practical — that is to say, which exist to prosecute
departments of human inquiry and to teach what is ascertained to
others. By these tests we may always safely try the higher
university schools of the past and the present. If they fail to identify
themselves with the advancement of learning, but confijie themselves
to the teaching and training of the youth of the country with a view-
to the professions, they discharge only partially the function of
imiversities ; they are merely advanced secondary schools. If,
again, they aim at knowledge for its own sake alone they become
semi-monastic institutions, and are divorced from the life of the
383
AND THE UNIVERSITY OF THE FUTURE.
nation : if, further, they take up only one part of the encyclopaedia
they become departmental colleges and divorce themselves from the
great name of university.
These remarks are naturally suggested by our reference to the
sources of our modern academic life — Palestine, Greece, and Eome.
In Palestine we find the higher intellectual life of the Hebrews in the
" schools of the prophets," out of whom came the great men who
formed the religious and moral conceptions of the Jewish race.
These men of genius gave us the Old Testament, in so far as it is a
book for the whole world and not merely for a Semitic tribe. These
men desired to knoiv, but the supreme object of their knowledge was
God and the relation of men to Him. Consequently they were great
spiritual teachers, not only to the Jews, but to all mankind.
In Greece, we find that the thought of that wonderful race,
concentrated chiefly at Athens, did not restrict itself to the idea
of God, for which indeed it substituted Art, but sought knowledge
in every direction impartially and with an open eye, giving to
Europe its philosophy and the elements of the sciences, as well as a
pure and noble literature which in the interests of the humblest
modern citizen must ever be conserved and studied anew.
In Eome, again, we find a practical spirit. The Romans took up
Greek thought and speculation, and tried to correlate it with the
practical life of man. In so far as they speculated at all, they followed
the Greeks ; in so far as they were original, their higher schools gave
prominence to law and oratory — the one to regulate social life and
the administration of the State, the other to influence opinion and
direct current politics and public policy.
If now we leap forward over a space of 2,000 years to the present
day we find that a fully-equipped university comprehends these
three great national aims — knowledge of God and His relations
to man and the world; knowledge pursued in the Hellenic spirit,
wide and impartial, including philosophy, literature, science; and
jurisprudence and politics pursued after the Roman manner. To
these has been added, in the course of the centuries, and as necessary
outcome of the primary ideas, the scientific study of medicine, of
history, philology, engineering, agriculture, and education, some
of these more obtrusively "practical" in the ordinary sense of that
word than the others, but all claiming a place in our higher
institutions of learning, in so far as they rest on abstract
knowledge and can be handled scientifically . To constitute a
modem ideal university accordingly, which is at the same time to
be the university of the future, we have to take all that was valuable
384
THE UNIVERSITY AND THE PEOPLE ;
in the higher teaching of antiquity, and to extend our investiga-
tions on every side in accordance with the spirit and needs of
the time we Hve in. The ancient nations, it is true, had no
institutions called "universities," nor any higher institution with
this encyclopaedic aim, but they had the reality without the name,
each in its own special line of national genius. To the Greeks, for
example, we owe scientific medicine and our medical faculties; but,
except at Alexandria, medicine was not included in the philosophical
and rhetorical schools, which were the true universities of Greece,
and subsequently of Eome. And yet, by a succession of distinguished
men, medicine, closely bound up with the study of nature, was taught
to willing disciples ; and when, after a lapse of time, modei'n Europe
began to rise out of the ruins of the Eoman Empire, it at once took
its place as a leading subject.
About 2,000 years ago there occurred a great breach in the
intellectual continuity of the race. Let us consider this for a
moment : with the exception of Palestine, the religious faiths of the
ancient world were going to pieces when Christ appeared, and the
higher schools of thought were themselves fast degenerating into
arenas for speculative disputations or into rhetorical forcing-houses.
They had worn themselves out. The earnest pursuit of truth for
truth's sake was represented only by a man of genius here and
there. The more earnest minds, which had thrown off the
superstitions by which their ancestors had lived, were clinging with
unconcealed despair to some scheme of philosophy which seemed to
offer them the only solution of man's life and duty in this transitory
existence. The teaching of Christ now interv^ened, with its direct
bearing on human life in all its relations. The divine enthusiasm
which it inspired in its converts, began to remould the civilised
world, and even before the recognition of Christianity by the Emperor
Gonstantine, towards the end of the fourth century, its doctrines had
engaged the attention of almost all the ablest minds. It is,
however, an error to suppose that the new religion undermined the
university schools of Athens, Alexandria, and Eome. They were
already tottering to their fall, when the new spiritual movement
gave them their coup de grace. Had Christianity, indeed, assumed
a purely negative attitude to the Eomano-Hellenic life and culture,
and done no more, it would have to be classed among the destructive
powers of barbarism. But it had its positive side ; it had in it a
power to build up as well as to throw down. It introduced more
than one new idea into the life of our race. It broadened and
deepened the sentiment of the common brotherhood of man by
giving to human sympathy and love a divine sanction. Most
385
important of all, it fortified the sense of personality. The individual
was now not only a free, thinking spirit which had its personal life
and personal rights, but this self-conscious spirit, the true person of
each individual, was now seen to be rooted in God — to be of infinite
importance "even in His eyes." Thus, by one stroke, as it were, the
personality of each man was deepened, nay, consecrated, while at
the same time his bond of sympathy with all other human beings,
as children of the same Father, was strengthened. Two opposite
results were thus attained; and these two were conciliated. For
the deepening of man's spiritual, personal life meant in truth the
life with God, and it was in and through this life that his
personality became a matter of infinite worth. This rooting of
the finite subject in the eternal and universal Eeason, while giving
infinite worth to the soul of each man, at the same time made
impossible that insolence of individualism and self-assertion which
had characterised the subjective movement among the Greeks.
Man became as a personality, much greater than the most exalted
Stoic could have conceived; but by the very same act he was
taught humility, dependence, humanity, love. Education had now
to be reconstructed from this foundation.
As may be easily understood, that part of the new doctrine which
taught that man lived for a hereafter, and that this life was a
preparation for that hereafter, first told on the educational efforts of the
time. The leaders of the new Evangel directed themselves chiefly to
catechising and instructing with a view to a city not of this world;
and they did so in expectation of the early dissolution of all things.
They also began to prepare ministers of Christian doctrine; for the
people had to be instructed in the new philosophy of life, and temple
services had to be conducted. There was great moral activity and
a wide comprehensiveness in the new "sect;" and so far as
education was concerned, it might fairly be said that every Christian
assemblage where the gospels were read, prayers offered, and hymns
sung, was a people's school. To discharge this religious duty and to
train its ministers was as much as the infant community could be
expected to do. This it did in the catechetical and, afterwards, in
the episcopal schools;'' and thus a fresh beginning was made for
the education of the human race.
The rise of Christianity and Christian education, and the irruption
of the Teutonic races from the North into the fruitful fields of Southern
Europe, finally dissolved ancient society, and swept away the very
memory of Hellenic genius. Even in the East, where nations were
held together by Byzantine dynasties governing from Constantinople,
it was the settlement of Christian doctrine that now exclusively
* These schools, as distinct from pagan institutions, date from the close of the
second century.
26
386
THE UNIVERSITY AND THE PEOPLE ;
engaged the minds of men, and, save in the department of
jurisprudence and medicine (at Alexandria), the Hellenic and Eoman
conceptions of man and nature had vanished for ever. But even in the
defining and developing of Christian dogma which had been going on
side by side with the decay of ancient learning, there were no great
minds engaged after the death of St. Augustine (395 a.d.) ; and for
600 or 700 years after his death, the higher education as it had been
understood at the great ancient seats of learning was practically
non-existent. Ancient books and traditions, however, were
fortunately preserved in the monasteries, and such learning as existed
was to be found in these secluded religious communities.
If we are to understand modern Europe, we must at this point of
history turn our back on the disintegrating past and fix our eyes on
the new constructive forces which were already beginning in the
fourth and fifth centuries to mould the Europe of the future.
These forces were essentially ethical in their character, as indeed are
all the forces which ultimately determine and explain the history of
nations. On the one hand, the Christian scheme of a philosophy of life,
and on the other hand, the civil and the civilising law of Eome
were the great living operative institutions. It was a grand
conception, this new conception of a Church. Men organised not
merely as political societies, but as a one all-embracing spiritual
society — a community of souls whose ethical life and immortal
destiny were the supreme concern, all else being subordinate and of
small (because transitory) importance. This church idea ran parallel
for a time with the civil and secular law of the State, but ere long
it sought to overpower the latter, as it had already overshadowed it.
Hence the beginnings of a contest between two principles still alive
in our own day, a contest which at bottom is a struggle between the
civil and the spiritual conception of society. It was the spiritual
power which alone, as might have been expected, concerned itself with
education, and nothing could consistently be held by it to contribute
to the forming of the life of a human being save what trained up to the
church conception of human life, which was necessarily a theological
conception. Man's inner history had now a far more profound
significance than anything dreamt of by the most forward races of
antiquity. Greece and Eome as sources of intellectual and moral
teaching had been blotted out, and the atmosphere breathed for at
least 750 years was, essentially, that of Palestine. Men, however, could
not live permanently bound and restricted by the theological idea
and the narrow formalism of a crystallised creed. The perennial and
ever-recurring claims of reason as reason had to be satisfied. It was
in the eleventh centm-y that the mind of Europe began to be stirred
to activity in various directions outside the ecclesiastical. In the
field of education it gave itself to the furtherance of the higher
387
AND THE UNIVERSITY OF THE FUTURE.
learning and not to the education of the people. And, I think,
rightly. What the people chiefly wanted was good clerics, good
physicians, good teachers, good lawyers; and for this they had to
look to higher schools. More is accomplished for the civilisation
and education of the masses by supplying every part of a country
with good professional men than by teaching everybody their A, B, C.
The educated professional few carry with them a standard of life
wherever they go, while serving their fellow-men in all that concerns
their daily needs and highest interests.
The voluntary associations of learned men which represented the
awakening mind of Europe, and formed the nucleus of universities,
were in truth engaged in restoring the thought of Greece and Eome
in connection with the now dominant and organised Christianity.
Eoman law in its full historical sense and Greek philosophy and
medicine formed the substance and source of the new teaching:
the men of the 12th century were knitting together the broken
continuity of the life of reason. The thought of Greece and Eome, in
short, had now to be co-ordinated with that of Palestine in the life
and education of a modernised Europe.
It will be apparent from what I have said that the modern
university had now and henceforth for its function the carrying
forward, in accordance with modern methods, of the united traditions
of Palestine, Greece, and Eome, and, as pioneers of humanity,
advancing the bounds of knowledge on these ancient lines. They
did this, however, and are still doing it, in no abstract spirit, but
with a view to place men on a higher plane of rational life and to
prepare for the various professions, so that the wliole nation may
through the professions benefit by the endowments which have
been left by far-seeing citizens, and the privileges which have been
granted by wise statesmen.
It was, in point of fact, this practical and professional side of
the higher learning which engaged the attention of the originators
of universities — then called Studia Publica or Generalia. The
earliest of these institutions was, in fact, a medical college, with,
of course, a preparatory training in arts (1060). It was situated in
Salerno, near Naples, and probably owed its origin to the
Benedictine monks of Monte Cassino, not far off, who had
always a reputation as skilful leeches. The next institution
holding university rank was Bologna, which also was a specialist
school devoting itself to law (1080). The university of Paris
may perhaps rank next in order : theology constituted its
special feature, and teaching and the services of the church its
practical aim. But as theology required for its scientific treatment
388
THE UNIVEBSITY AND THE PEOPLE ;
the study of philosophy (including under this, ethics, and Aristotelian
physics), it naturally and early came about that for philosophy and
theology Paris was eminent, and kept the lead of Europe for
centui'ies. Oxford and Cambridge next arose as schools of arts and
theolog}-, and Montpellier, in France, as a school of medicine.
It was only after these universities, or specialist shulia imhlica,
had existed for a considerable time that each began to add to itself
(and that very gradually) the faculties in which it was deficient, and
accordingly, before the year 1300, no institution was regarded as a
complete university which did not profess investigation and teaching
in the four faculties of theolog}', law, medicine, and arts. By "arts,"
in its more restricted sense, was meant grammar, logic, rhetoric, and
mathematics.
It was not necessary, however, that all the faculties should be
included in order to justify the title of "university," for this word
meant nothing more than a Stiulium Publicum, or Universale, or
Generale; that is to say, a school open to all the world which gave
the higher teaching in one or more departments, and granted a
qualification to practise the professions or to teach. To this day
many of the universities are incomplete in their faculties, and
it is only of late years that great universities like Oxford and
Cambridge have revived faculties which had been allowed to die,
such as medicine and law. In the ancient university of St. Andrew's,
in Scotland, there is even now no faculty of law, and Aberdeen is
only trying to form one. The faculty of medicine also in St. Andrew's
is only now being established on a proper basis by means of a
separate but incorporated college.
The above facts sufficiently show that the original aim of the
higher schools of the modern world was practical and professional ;
nor could they have existed on any other terms. It was at Paris
alone that philosophical inquiry, embracing under philosophy
questions of natural science in accordance with Hellenic tradition,
truly flourished, leading in the course of time to freedom of
speculation and to scientific investigation, and thus indirectly
accomplishing much for the political liberties of Europe by pro-
moting liberty of thought in abstract fields.
Let us now advert to the primary constitution of the first
universities, which is the next point of interest as bearing on the
university of the future.
Universities were, to begin with, not founded either by Pope or
King. They were voluntaiy associations or colleges of teachers,
who offered to instruct all who came to them with a view to the
different professions. They lived by fees. They had no public
389
AND THE UNIVERSITY OF THE FUTURE.
buildings. The lectures of the masters or doctors were given in
their own houses or in hired halls. Their great ceremonies were
performed in churches borrowed for the occasion. These voluntary-
associations of learned men were free, in so far at least as they
professed and taught free from monastic restrictions, although it is
true monks taught, and in course of time monastic orders tried to
get possession of the whole academic machinery. The university,
accordingly, is to be regarded as not only marking the beginning of
professional studies, but as the beginning of the liberation of the
mind of Europe from the monastic and ecclesiastical control of the
earlier half of the Middle Ages. It is absurd, I think, to say
that the university was a " lay " movement in antagonism to the
ecclesiastical spirit, but it was unquestionably a lay institution
and contained the seeds of intellectual liberty. To the university
accordingly the modern world is deeply indebted. It can never
pay its debt, so great is it. And resting as heretofore on a
historical basis, and discarding merely theoretical views, I affirm
this, in addition to certain other propositions already implicitly
laid down as emerging from the above survey of historical origins,
viz., that freedom of thought and speech is essential to the idea of a
university, just as it was in the inmost heart of them when they
began to live.
Further, I would say that these self-constituted, self-governing
communities moulded themselves, consciously or unconsciously, on
the mediaeval guilds. They were guilds of learning — literary guilds.
Of these guilds even the scholars were members, and the masters
(afterwards called professors) held very much the same relation to the
scholars as a master in an industrial guild held to his apprentices.
The masters were equal one with another and elected their own
rectors ^in some cases with the concuiTence and votes of the
scholars). From this historical fact emerges another mark or note of a
true university. It is a guild, republic, or commonwealth resting on
intellect and character alone, and in no way dependent for the
position of its members on the adventitious circvimstances of fortune
or birth.
Ere long the Pope granted Charters of Privilege to these
institutions, and soon after kings and emperors began formally to
found them within their dominions for the benefit, primarily, of their
own subjects, though they were open to all the world. The stream
of young men constantly traversing Great Britain and Europe to
study at Paris and Bologna was thus gradually reduced. But it can
be easily understood that the founding of universities and granting
of privileges gradually abstracted somewhat from the freedom and
independence of the learned communities. But the freedom,
independence, and autonomy were never wholly lost, and under new
390
THE UNIVERSITY AND THE PEOPLE ;
forms they substantially exist to this day in the leading universities
of Europe. In so far as a learned institution is not autonomous, but
governed by a single head or an outside committee or board, it is
not a true university, but merely a college or school, however great
its reputation may be. There can be no doubt that it is the freedom
of thought and speech, the personal freedom, the republican equality
and autonomy of universities which, more than anything else, have
attracted to them the intellects of Europe. It has been from the
first in the interests of the people, and under democratic conditions
it is in an especial sense their interest, that universities should be
self-governing and free, and be in a position to offer resistance to
temporary phases of popular feeling or oligai'chic despotism.
I may now sum up the characteristic notes of a university in its
modern and best form as these are suggested by the above brief
survey, and propound them anew as the essential marks of the
university of the future : —
1. The university must embrace the whole tradition of philosophy
(including under this religion), science, and learning (language,
philology, literature, history, law, &c.), and each subject must be
represented by a professional expert, with such lecturers, assistants,
and tutors as may be required working round him as centre.
2. As the university exists for knowledge which all are to share,
each professor is under obligation to advance the bounds of his subject
and contribute them to the world outside the university (and this
should be done at the expense of the university if need be).
3. Each professor, with his staff, must teach the subject, and the
method of investigation peculiar to it, to all who may come to him,
whether they intend to gi-aduate or not. The professor is there to
teach as well as to learn.
4. Each university must so group its studies as to train for all the
professions, and so benefit the world at large by sending out its
ambassadors and representatives among the people in every depart-
ment of intellectual, as distinct from industrial, activity, so that
all may share in the thought of universities.
5. Each university must, as a guild of investigators and teachers,
be a Uterary republic, self-governing and free, with only such
restrictions and right of supervision as the State may in the general
interest determine
6. As a guild, each university must train its own apprentices or
specialists, so as to secure the apostolic succession of competent
representatives.
7. As the guardians of the realm of knowledge and ministers of
science, each university must be at once a storehouse of the learning
of the past and a leader of thought. To it, graduates, who, wherever
391
AND THE UNIVBBSITY OF THE FUTUEE.
they may be, always remain members of the guild, should be
encouraged to return from time to time to find there (without
payment) the last results of investigation — each in his own depart^,
ment of social activity. x\nd this for the general weal.
As regards the students in statu jmpillari : These are presumed to
enter on their various groups of studies fitted to do so, not merely
by acquired knowledge, but by maturity of mind. Graduation in this -
or that subject or group, so far from being essential to a university
may be said to be in these days almost a superstition. Universities, it
is true, have inherited the sole privilege of granting degrees; but they
do not exist for this purpose. They exist to prosecute study for the
sake of mankind, and to equip young men for the work of life. In
the interests of the people and for their protection, however, it is
necessary that every man and woman entering a profession should
have a certified qualification, and this we call a "degree." Such £C
qualification is best to be had through the universities to whom the
privilege originally belonged, and the State should always depute it
to them in order to save the duplication of agencies, and to give
strength and dignity to their highest educational institutions. But,
except for this specific purpose, degrees are mere accidents of a
university ; and my conviction is that if there was less competition
for honours in graduation and for the rewards attached to these,
our universities would produce more and teach better. In any
case, few, I hope, will question the position that every professor
and every subject should be accessible to the general public without
reference to graduation..
. As to their means of support : It is quite clear that if universities
are to accomplish their work for the nation they cannot be self-
supporting. Even primary schools cannot be self-supporting, much
less secondary schools, least of all universities. They have to look
ultimately not to individual benefactors, but to the whole body of the
people for maintenance. They are entitled to it in a sense in which
no other institution is entitled to it, because, as I have shown, they
work for the whole nation and not for a part of it only. Let the idea
and purpose of universities, as I have endeavoured to explain it, be
thoroughly understood by the people, and the people will not grudge
their fitting maintenance. In Germany, where the university idea-
has been most fully developed, the State contributes 72 per cent of
the total expenditure. In England and America (outside the
State universities) the main source of revenue is private endowment
and the fees of the students. In Scotland the State contributes
about £70,000 a year.
The poorer class of citizens, while frankly acknowledging the
benefits they receive from universities, may yet sometimes have felt
392
THE UNIVERSITY AND THE PEOPLE
aggrieved that they are not open to their clever sons. In a sound
social system the rise and fall of families is necessary to the health
of the body politic and to the stability of social order. To
facilitate this, reasonable provision should always be made to
secure for scientific investigation and the professions the really
able children of the people; but only the really able. Much
nonsense has been talked about the "ladder" from the gutter
to the university. Make that ladder climbable by the ordinary
brain, and, ere long, young men of creditable diligence but of
ordinary capacity will find themselves, among a crowd of com-
peting graduates, elevated to genteel destitution and supreme
discontent, instead of earning an honest solid wage in the service
of society in some congenial occupation. In this "ladder" phrase
of the popular orator we encounter, it seems to me, both a super-
stition and a vulgarity. A superstition because many seem to
imagine that the "higher education" can be obtained within the
sacred walls of a university alone. This is in these days notoriously
not the fact. Professional fitness, it is true, can alone be adequately
obtained in such institutions, but echication can be obtained outside
them by all who have it in them to care about their own education.
Libraries, cheap literature, lecture courses, have placed within the
reach of every youth in our towns (and will ere long do the same for
our villages also) all the education a man needs either for this world
or the next. I guard myself so far as to say that the "ladder" has
a meaning, and it should exist, as it has always existed in Scotland,
for the specially able; but I hold, in the interests of the climbers
themselves, that it should be difficult to mount. Were a university
course necessary to education and culture, in the best sense, of a
human being, the ladder should then be made easy to climb; but
to suppose this is to be the victim of a survival of an effete idea.
Education is what all want, and all may now get it, if they
choose, without going to universities. University teachers
themselves are, as a matter of fact, frequently not educated
men in the sense of "cultured" men. Each man is too much of a
specialist, and ridiculously exaggerates the importance of his own
corner of the vineyard. This is, so far, well for the advance of
knowledge ; but it is fatal to the education of the individual. He
does not come into contact with nature, with man, and all the
realities of life in the broad and liberal w'ay which is possible for
the citizen of the world; and thus he is apt to be finally and
fatally narrow. This is not education. There must always be an
aristocracy of mind — a select few who are specially endowed for the
advance of science, philosophy, and literature. God has arranged
for this; but there need now be no aristocracy of education in
the true sense of that word. If the living fountains may not be
393
AND THE UNIVERSITY OF THE FUTURE.
approached without money and without price, they are now
accessible at a cost which every man who is prepared to sacrifice
a httle may easily pay.
I have said also that the "university ladder" is a vulgarity as well
as a superstition, because there underlies it the notion that only by
rising into another class in life can a man fulfil his function as a man
and be also " happy." I presume that provision is made for the
absorption into the professions and the work of investigation of the
very best brains of the poorer classes; but, speaking generally, there
can be no doubt that the average man will best attain both education
and "happiness" by doing thoroughly well the business for which
he is best suited, it matters not what it is. Infinitely more
important than the "ladder" ai-e such industrial arrangements as
shall admit of social relaxation, literary interests, and intelligent
political study on the part of all. It is not desirable to tempt men
into professions. The gospel of "getting on" is after all a devil's
gospel. All any man can rationally desire is the means of adequately
maintaining himself and his family under civilised conditions — con-
ditions which will enable him to make the best of his humanity,
while doing effectively his specific duty in the social organisation.
The university of the future, as will now be seen, is simply the
ideal university of the present ; and that, again, is a product of
the best traditions of the past. Is there nothing else and nothing
new that they can in these days be expected to accomplish for
the nation which supports them? This they can do^they can
further extend their aims so as to embrace all subjects which admit
of scientific treatment and scientific methods. To the genuine
academic man as opposed to the narrow academic pedant there is
nothing common or unclean. I do not mean that universities
should have chairs of the science of the art of fly-fishing, or
the art of sweeping the streets, but only of such subjects as are
general in their relations and cover an uncountable, or at least an
uncounted, number of details. The nation is entitled to claim this
comprehensiveness. Exclusiveness in particular lines of study will
be fatal to universities when they finally rest on the popular will ;
and it ought to be fatal to them. A university which imagines that
it attains the ends of its existence by the production of a "classical
fellow" is digging its own grave. Vast now are the fields of
knowledge, vast the intellectual and ethical interests of mankind.
In every field the university, while not breaking with the past, has to
adapt itself to the present and the future, and in every department
to investigate, to propound, and to guide. As soon as the broad
394
current of the life of humanity passes them by, leaving their walls
untouched by its living waters, they will perish, as they have
perished often in the past.
Again, the university of the future which teaches by publications
will not convert its University Press into a tradesman's shop, but
use it after the example set by President Schurman in Cornell
University, New York State, by the University of Chicago, and by
Harvard, to issue journals of philosophy, education, and science,
telHng the world what it is accomplishing for it, and sharing with
it the results of its studies. We have much to learn from the
United States of America.
If the above be a correct statement of the nature of a university,
it follows that a body constituted solely to examine for degrees usurps
the name of university. It has only one characteristic of a true
university, and that is an accidental and adventitious, rather
than an essential, characteristic. It is in my opinion vital to
true education that those who teach should also examine on
the lines of study which they have laid down ; assessors being
appointed to check narrowness, and to secure an equitable
exercise of a power which affects materially the rights of students.
Colleges may be constituted parts of a university provided
they comply with university requirements as to qualification and
standing of teachers, and accept the university assessors. In that
case, however, the assessors, as discharging the function of judges,
carrying a certain standard of attainment and method from one
college to another, must be highly-paid officers, if we are to secure
men eminent in their respective departments, of independent
character, and above suspicion. In this way the university of the
future may extend its centres of influence by recognising local
colleges.
There is still a foui'th way in which the university of the future
will continue to extend its benefits and consequent influence ; and
this, by bringing them in contact with the people, will re-act on them
by stimulating their vitality, for it will supply to them some of the
breath which sustains the great world outside. I refer to the
Extension Lecture system.
At this point I pause to take up a paper by Professor Mahaffy,
published in the Nineteenth Century, and I find that, while
concurring with much that is there said, I dissent totally from the
tone, spirit, and practical purpose of the article so far as universities
are concerned. Anything more un-Hellenic I never read. It is not
only conservative and obscurantist in its attitude, but retrogressive.
The narrow and wholly unhistorical meaning which Professor
Mahaffy gives to "liberal arts" shows that he would have contended
for the exclusion of medicine from the ancient university of Paris
395
AND THE UNIVERSITY OF THE FUTUBE.
700 years ago, and of civil law from other universities. He would
have kept the universities mere "trivial" schools of scholastic logic
and a little mathematics with metaphysics and theology for the
more advanced. The university of the future, I hold, must, in loyalty
to the sj)irit of the past, and in obedience to the bidding of ancient
Greece itself, include all subjects which have a general bearing
on the life of society and admit of scientific method. And, as to
languages, while, not admitting that French, German, and Italian
are so important educationally as Latin and Greek, they yet can
be handled in an academic spirit, and yield a culture far transcend-
ing the miserable scraps of antiquity which the "pass" graduate
crams for his degree. Professor Mahaffy in his admiration of the
"great old studies," as he calls them, gazes with fond admiration on
the past. But he does not look far enough back. Athens and Eome
knew nothing of the "great old studies;" the mediaeval universities
knew nothing of the "great old studies." " The number and division
of the subjects for a liberal education [now accepted] " were not "fixed
by long mediaeval tradition." They are modeni. It is only the past
of Professor Mahaffy's great-great-grandfather that constitutes his
ideal and calls forth his sentimentalism. Even in the sixteenth
century where was history? where was Greek? and in the middle
of the fifteenth where was even Latin? Even in Milton's time we
are told by that true inheritor of the genius of antiquity that the
universities ofi'ered an "asinine feast of sow-thistles."
But to pass from this, I would recur to the fourth way, and
say that the universities can maintain their connection with the life
of the people by that very system of extension lectures which a
sacred few who monopolise "true culture," and whose intellectual life
revolves round elegant sentences and the settlement of all questions
by epigrams, despise. The idea is an old one and will be found in the
New Atlantis. No doubt this new movement requires criticism, and
will be the better for it. Above all, it requires to be purged of the
greatest of all the evils that attend it — examinations and marks.
But who originated this essential departure from the idea of
genuine education but the universities themselves, where these things
flourish rampant, destroy unencumbered freedom of study, tend to
quench original investigation and devotion to truth irrespective of
"rewards?"
If we put an end to this educational abuse, and to the false notion
that extension lectures can give a university education, what but
good can come of courses of lectures which widen the interests and
help to direct the thinking of the middle and artisan classes? Every
good movement has its attendant evils. Professor Mahaffy thinks it
a poor result of the great movement of popular education that those
who have learned to read, read only trashy stories and partisan
396
THE UNIVERSITY AND THE PEOPLE; AND THE UNIVERSITY OF THE FUTURE.
newspapers. But what is the result of secondary education among
the upper classes, not "persons of the poorer sort" (whom Professor
Mahaffy feels to come between the wind and his academic nobility) ?
What does the Public school boy, who has been bred on the "great
old studies," read? What does the young lady peruse in the
bovidoir after she has been duly "finished " ? Who reads the " odious
weekly press," with its adulteries, society scandals, &c. ? Professor
Mahaffy thinks that it is the board-school boy and girl. Does he
forget that these journals, with few exceptions, cost sixpence? In
truth, the argument of the brilliant Irishman is an argument against
all education except that of the college don, who is to sit in his
chamber and gaze with rapt eye at the "great old studies," although
he probably has not read, except for professional purposes, a play of
Sophocles or a line of Lucretius since he used them for the double
purpose of gaining money and place. Does he really, in his heart,
think that the "common room" product of the "gi'eat old studies"
is the triumph of civilisation?
Let me say, in conclusion, that the danger to which the university
of the future is exposed is interference with their liberty of thought
and government on the part of the democracy. Slow to apprehend
remote issues, and swayed by the impulse of the moment, the
people may be intolerant of abstract study, and may also resent
teaching which runs counter to their own temporary convictions
and supposed interests. To obviate this, we can only look to the
general diffusion of education, and to the action of the universities
themselves in casting aside aU narrow conceptions of their duties
to the public.
University of Edinburgh, September, 1S9S.
397
SOIL— AND WHAT IT WILL GROW.
BY JAMES LONG.
AUTHOBOF "BRITISH DAIRY FARMING," "THE DAIRY FARM," FORMERLY PROFESSOR
OF DAIRY FARMING AT THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, ETC.
1EEMEMBEE that as a boy, when scientific teaching — nay,
scientific revelation — was but little recognised, I formed a belief,
founded doubtless upon the basis of religious instruction, especially
with regard to the Divine power, that the plants of the field
grew in mysterious obedience to the omnipotent will without the
contributory aid of air, light, or food. Since then unhappily many
years have passed away, but science has been gradually developing
and formulating facts which enable the student of to-day to look
upon the soil and the plant as men of the past generation looked upon
food and animals. We are now led to regard both plants and
animals as organised and living creations alike feeding to live, and
alike flourishing in the sunshine and the pure atmosphere which
surround them. There is a connection between the plant and the
soil which is more subtle than appears at first sight. The rotation
adopted by the farmer in growing his crops is not more salutary
than the rotation by which he unconsciously converts plant or
organic life into constituents of soil, and constituents of soil into
organic or plant and animal life. He harvests his crops, large portions
of which, after passing through the animals he owns or beneath their
feet, are converted into manure, carried into the fields, and by the
process of decomposition reconverted into their original elements.
Briefly, the larger the quantity of manure returned to the soil the
larger the crops it yields ; hence it follows that the larger the crop
grown upon a given area the larger the number of animals it will
feed, and the greater the quantity of manure it secures. Fritnd
facie, it appears that inasmuch as a large quantity of the produce of
the soil, direct and indirect, is removed from it for the use of man,
the soil must be gradually submitting to a course of impoverishment.
Whatever may be the case, however, where soil is badly tilled, it
is not so under the recognised agricultural system. Nature does a
gi-eat deal, as we shall see, to supply fertility, but man also does
something, and it is within his power to levy contributions from
nature without cost and with as little trouble as he exerts in
purchasing and utilising artificial fertilising matter.
SOIL — AND WHAT IT WILL GROW.
Soil is matter, and matter has been described as that which
occupies space. Our earth is a globular mass of matter, one-fourth
of which is covered with a crust composed of rocks. These rocks,
it has been estimated, are to the extent of one-half composed of
oxygen, which has been absorbed from the atmosphere. The earth's
crust is almost wholly composed of sixteen elements, although the
majority are present in but small, in some cases even minute
quantities. The rocky crust of the earth, however, is not soil, yet
portions of rocks contribute to soil formation, and are necessary to
its composition. The materials of which organic life is composed
are oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and carbon — all derived from air and
water — lime, potash, sulphur, phosphorus, iron, and other elements,
in very small quantities it is true, derived from the earth's crust, or
in other words from the primitive rocks. These earthy elements
are taken up by the roots of plants direct from the soil in which they
grow, in some cases through the medium of water in which they
are dissolved. Water itself supplies them with oxygen and hydrogen,
the atmosphere with carbon through the medium of carbonic acid,
and in some cases it is now known directly with nitrogen. Thus it is
comprehensible when we see plants growing on a heap of stones, trees
on barren rocks and almost desert sands. A fertile soil, however, is
very different in its composition to either a sandy desert or a barren
rock. As we shall show, organic matter, the product of animal or
vegetable life, usually called humus, is a necessary constituent.
It is indeed a constituent supplying in its decomposed form not only
every kind of food necessary for the sustenance of plants, but
providing the physical properties which assist in admitting air and
water and maintaining heat, all so essential to plant life.
It is unnecessary to inquire as to the origin of the earth's rocks, the
basis of soils, and the structure upon which soil rests. Astronomers
and geologists have advanced theories which are accepted to a
more or less extent. The origin of plant life itself is a subject' which
has exercised the greatest minds.
Scientific men of the first rank have suggested that fungi of certain
kinds represent more closely than any other living forms the
original ancestors of the vegetable world. Professor Huxley, who
deprecates even the right to give an opinion, says that if he were
able to look beyond the abyss of geologically recorded time to the
still more remote period when the earth was passing through
physical and chemical conditions, which it can no more see again
than a man may recall his infancy, he would expect to be a witness
of the evolution of living protoplasm from not living matter. He
would expect to see it appear under forms of great simplicity,
no doubt like existing fungi, with the power of determining the
formation of new protoplasm from such matters as ammonium
399
SOIL AND WHAT IT WILL GROW.
carbonates and other similar substances, and water, without the
aid of light. It has been suggested by another eminent scientific
man that the first life-form may have arrived upon the earth upon
one of those metallic fragments which, whether portions of the
debris of other planets or not. have at all events puzzled the minds
of the most famous astronomers when attempts have been made to
account for their origin and presence on the earth. Whatever,
however, may have been the first cause, we have to take it for
granted that the germ of organic life is protoplasm (protos plasma,
first moulded), protoplasm being, as Sir Henry Eoscoe describes, a
structure, not a compound.
Soil has been produced by the gradual disintegration and decomposi-
tion of rocks. The agents in this action have been, as they are to-day,
for it is still going on, rain, frost, and the atmosphere. It consists of
a fine powder mixed with particles of matter of larger and varied size.
This powder may be divided into mineral and organic matter of
both vegetable and animal origin, of w^hich we may take decaying
plants, such as the roots of our cereal crops and grasses, and manure
as examples. The actions which have produced it are assisting to
increase it, and that constantly. Let us first refer to the disintegra-
tion of rock. It will be remembered that if a lump of clay be
exposed to rain until it is saturated with moisture, and then
similarly subjected to the action of frost, it will ultimately fall to
pieces ; as it is commonly termed, it is pulverised by weathering.
The agriculturist takes advantage of these forces of nature to assist
him in preparing his soil for seed. Similarly rocks exposed to the
air become saturated upon their face, frost supervenes, and disin-
tegration follows with a similar result. The atmosphere assists in
the work of decomposition through the medium of its oxygen which
combines with some of the constituents of a soil; this is termed
oxidation. A soil essentially consists of sand and clay with pro-
portions of humus, lime, iron, and other materials ; but we may take
it that neither sand nor clay are present in pure forms. From the
point of view of fertility the surface soil is rich, the subsoil poor.
Portions of the subsoil by continual acts of tillage are being brought
to the surface and mixed with the surface soil, and in this way a
greater depth of surface soil is continually being provided. The
produce of the earth is, practically speaking, the produce of the soil
and of the atmosphere, for air is as necessary as the mineral con-
stituents of the soil, and as water. It is easy to ascertain not only
that plants are partially composed of water, but the proportion of
water they contain. If a given weight — ten pounds, for example —
of grass be cut during fine weather in order that thei'e may be no
suspicion of rain or dew upon it, and subsequently dried until its
weight remains constant, it will be seen by deducting its dried
400
SOIL — AND WHAT IT WILL GROW.
weight from its original weight when green exactly how much
moisture has been driven oflf. Similarly it is easy to ascertain that a
large proportion of the gi'ass — and the same applies to all plants — is
air derived. The dried grass being ignited and every particle burnt,
the weight of the ash remaining, deducted from the origmal weight of
the dried grass, will give the proportion which has been dissipated
by combustion, and which is in fact air derived. The balance, being
non-combustible and inorganic, is ash or mineral matter which alone
came from the soil. Let us take from Ville an example. He shows
that in a hundred pounds of wheat, 93ilbs. are air derived, while
of the remaining 6|^lbs. only three consist of nitrogen, also air
derived. Potash, phosphoric acid, and lime alone are of importance,
the balance representing mineral matter which is usually found in
all soils in sufficient abundance. The water of a soil is not only a
direct food of itself, but it is as it were a vehicle by means of which
the soluble constituents of a soil needed by the plant are conveyed
throughout its structure, for it must be remembered that a portion
of the indestructible ash residue of the burnt plant is dissolved in
water. The mineral matter of a soil in solution in water has been
shown to vary between 2 and 100 per 100,000 parts. The pro-
ductive power of a soil relates chiefly to those of its elements which
can be assimilated by plants, while its fertility chiefly depends upon
its physical condition.
The differences in the temperature of soils are especially notice-
able after heavy rain. On soils of the lighter class, those in which
sands and gravels predominate, the ploughman is able to go to work
almost immediately the rain has abated. The heavier soils, which
are chiefly composed of clay, he is unable to touch, without inflicting
damage, for some considerable time, often many days, after x'ain has
fallen. Soils may be divided into clays, sands, gravels, chalks, peats,
and loams. A clay is a soil in which clay largely predominates; the
same remark applies to sands and the soils of other classes. A loam,
however, is a soil of a mixed character. Technically it has been
assumed that a loam is composed of a mixture of clay and sand, but
practically it is recognised as a soil containing libex'al pi'oportions of
clay, sand, limestone, and humus, or organic matter. A rich,
workable, fertile loam may consist of —
Per cent
Clay 40
Sand 40
Per cent.
Limestone 10
Humus 10
In practice, soils of each class, if we except loam, are improved by
the addition of those materials in which they ai-e deficient. A light
sandy soil is improved in texture by the addition of clay, in which
certain mineral food constituents of plants are also present. If to
this sufficient lime is added a foundation is prepared for the growth
401
SOIL — AND WHAT IT WILL GROW.
of crops, and with a natural deficiency of humus the grower will at
once attempt to fui-ther improve it by either ploughing in green crops
which he is able to grow, and which rapidly form humus, or by
feeding the crops he grows upon the soil, enriching it with manure,
which is practically the same thing. Similarly a clay soil is
improved by the addition of sand and vegetable matter. Knowledge
of the process by means of w^hieh this addition is affected is,
however, most desirable. A light sandy or gravelly soil would be
improved by the trampling of sheep folded upon it within hurdles,
and feeding upon the crops produced for their benefit ; but the clay
soil, already tenacious enough, would be damaged by any such
process, hence the crop is either ploughed under the surface or
carried away and returned in a dry form such as is recognised in
long manure, composed chiefly of straw, for the reason that it
lightens the texture and is the means of admitting air and rain into
a composite mass which is so plastic that it would otherwise refuse
admittance to both.
We have noticed the fact that in the formation of soil, water
in the form of rain plays an important part, but it has done a
great deal in another way. If we notice the efi'ect of rain upon
a gi'avel road after a severe storm we shall see that the gravel
has been washed clean, and that the fine sandy matter which
has been produced by constant wear has been carried to the
bottom of the hill, where it remains as silt or as a mixed sandy
and earthy mass. Larger masses of water have similarly carried
soil away from a higher to a lower altitude, during the vast
period of time, until deposits of a very large extent have been
formed, ultimately resolving themselves into luxuriant fields. In
many parts of our country large tracts of soil have been deposited in
another way. An example may be given, although it is one afforded by
the skill of man. In parts of North Lincolnshire land is constantly
being subjected to what is known as warping. The waters of the
Humber are turbid with organic matter. At high tide, the soil over
a given area, for which provision has been made at considerable cost,
is flooded. The matter in suspension in the water is deposited and
the water is subsequently run off, leaving behind it its most valuable
ingredient. Similar floodings take place until the deposit has
reached perhaps a foot in thickness. The soil is then immensely
improved, and is capable of growing luxuriant crops for a very
considerable period. The benefits, however, which are derived by
the soils in some districts from the action of rain, which brings
them valuable deposit, have the very reverse of a salutary effect
upon the more elevated soils, which, as in parts of Devon, for
example, are as constantly impoverished, although they are improved
by the persistent efforts of the farmers. In times past it was the
27
402
SOIL — AND WHAT IT WILL GBOW.
practice to carry soil to the higher fields from the lower, which
could well spare it, in order to enable them to produce crops. The
formation of soils has also been assisted in bygone days by the action
of glaciers, which, as they ploughed along, ground the I'ocks beneath
them, leaving matter behind for the benefit of future generations.
CLAY SOILS.
As clay soils are most tenacious so are they, unless too plastic for
cultivation, most retentive of the fertilising matter they contain. A
clay soil containing a fair proportion of sand and vegetable matter is
capable of producing heavy crops, and although difficult to work in
dry and wet weather it is essentially fertile. It absorbs heat very
slowly, especially below the surface, and for this reason it is usually
described as a cold soil. For the same reason, also, decomposition is
slow, a certain amount of heat being necessary for the decomposition
of organic matter. As oxidation is essential, too, that is not very
rapid, for air is unable to enter unless by frequent cultivation the
soil is stirred. Artificial manures of great value on lighter soils are
not so effective as farm manures upon clays for the reason we have
already stated, the physical influence of the straw of dung being
almost as important as its manurial influence. Clay is also retentive
of water, which it permits to evaporate but slowly, so that a clay soil
may be dry on the surface and yet damp below ; in consequence, too,
of its peculiar tenacity capillax-y action is slight. If a piece of sugar
be placed in a small quantity of water just covering its bottom
siu'face it will be observed that the water mounts upwards. Similar
action occurs in a soil of any but the most plastic texture, and this
action is continually proceeding, to the great benefit of plants with
shallow roots. On some clay soils the action of rain causes the clay
to separate from the sand with which it is combined. Thus a crust
is formed on the surface, which is almost inipermeable to both rain
and air. Clay is practically composed of alumina — a combina-
tion of aluminium and oxygen — of silica and water, with small
proportions of potash, magnesia, calcium, and iron. Its alkaline
properties are of considerable value to plant life, and for this reason
clay soils are usually able to produce certain crops which could not
be grown upon other soils without expensive preparation or manuring.
A loam in which clay is predominant, and which is called a clay
loam, is the best class of soil for the production of wheat and clover.
It possesses two properties which are especially valuable to the latter
plant — its possession of potash and its firm texture. Clover is
recognised by the farmer as a good preparation for wheat, clover
having the faculty of being able to obtain free nitrogen from the
atmosphere which, after the decomposition of its roots, is available
for use by the wheat plant.
403
SANDY SOILS.
Sandy soils, which are the easiest to cultivate, are among the
poorest in nature, their poverty depending to a large extent, how-'
ever, upon the proportion of sand which they contain. No soils are
so hungry ; in other words, no soils retain the fertilising constituents
of manure 30 badly, hence they are always ready for manure however
recently it may have been given. The sand of a soil is usually silica
or quartz, but it may be largely composed of feldspar, a substance
which is rich in potash, in which quartz is deficient. A sandy soil
in which feldspar is present becomes richer in potash year by year
under ordinary tillage. A sandy loam is not only an easy soil to
handle, but it is excellent in all-round properties — sufficiently heavy
to retain moisture and fertilising matters, it is tillable in almost all
weathers, it is easily warmed, capillary action is constant, and it
will grow almost all kinds of crops. In the management of a gravel
soil it is preferable to manure often, giving a small dose on each
occasion rather than heavy dressings at wider periods apart.
Oxidation and decomposition of vegetable matter is easily carried on
in consequence of the penetrability of sandy soils, air and water
permeating them with ease. Soluble fertilising matters are
distributed on such soils in spring, when they are taken up with
rapidity by the growing plant. At other times of the year they are
easily carried through the soil into the subsoil and lost in the
drainage water unless crops are growing, when they may be to some
extent retained. Sand has the property of not only making a soil
lighter but warmer and drier, hence where sand preponderates plant
life may be stai"ved for want of moisture. Pure sands are practically
useless for this very reason, and although, as we have shown in the
case of feldspar or mica, some plant food may be present, it may
not be available unless other physical constituents of a fertile soil are
present in sufficient quantity.
In a gravelly soil the particles of the original rock are
larger and more varied in size, although constantly decreas-
ing in both size and quantity as well by the wear consequent
upon continuous tillage as by the action of the elements. Stones
have the property, and it is a useful one, of warming a soil, but
where they are of large size they hinder vegetation and diminish the
size of a crop. For this reason they are often picked off and carried
aw;ay. By the removal of stones the percentage of true soil or
mould is increased with advantage.
LIMESTONE.
Limestone, which is not often pure, may be described as carbonate
of calcium, or carbonate of lime. It supplies one of the most
404
SOIL — AND WHAT IT WILL GROW.
valuable of soil constituents — lime. When burnt the carbon is driven
off and its place is taken by oxygen. Quicklime, as it then becomes,
is scientifically known as oxide of calcium. Slaked, by the addition
of water, it becomes hydrate of calcium ; left exposed to the air,
carbon is absorbed, and it reverts to its original condition of
carbonate of calcium. It is a curious fact, but to the majority of the
occupiers of soil, lime in any condition is lime ; in other words, they
accept it and use it for their purpose whatever that purpose may be,
whether it is in its fresh, newly-burnt condition, when it is highly
caustic and capable of rapidly decomposing vegetable matter, or in
its last condition when it is little if any better than chalk. For all
practical purposes lime is of far gi-eater value when it is perfectly
fresh, and in this condition it is mixed with soil in a very well-known
form and distributed upon the land. To allow it to remain exposed
to rain and air if it is required for land dressing is to pay for it at the
Ume-burner's price instead of at the price charged by the owner of a
chalk pit. Lime is a food for plants. It is present in all plant life,
and vegetation is practically impossible without it. Its alkaline
action is of great value on sour soils, which are sweetened in each
case. Plants of the better class are encouraged to gi'ow, while those
which flourish best in an acid medium are discouraged and die ofif.
It has powerful influence in attracting moisture, and may for this
reason be used on diy soils with advantage. Its influence upon the
organic matter of soil is well known. By its powerful decomposing
influence it liberates the ammonia, which is at once available to the
growing plant. A mixture of partially decomposed short manure
with quicklime will immediately have the effect of liberating
ammonia, which is palpable to the senses of the person making the
experiment. It is extraordinary how small the quantity of lime is
in some fertile soils, where it is present to the extent of no more than
from 1 to 3 per cent. It materially assists in improving the physical
composition of clays and sands, and for this reason it may always be
used with advantage if it can be obtained at a moderate cost. It is
a strange fact that although limestone may be present below the
subsoil yet the surface soil may of itself be poor or deficient in lime.
In many soils it is extremely abundant, and the same remark
applies to plants which, like those of the leguminous order, are
unusually rich in this mineral constituent.
HUMUS.
Humus, says Wolff, is a product, not an essential soil condition.
Practically it is decayed vegetable matter. The scientist already
named declares that humus cannot now be considered as an essential
and indispensable nutritive food for the majority of plants, especially
of those which are usually cultivated. He shows that this fact is
405
SOIL — AND WHAT IT WILL GROW.
proved by the possibility of obtaining normal and complete develop-
ment in a medium entirely deprived of humus, and he brings nature
forward to support his argument, for it is no uncommon thing to see
plants of a lower order growing upon hard stone, flowers upon brick
walls, and trees upon rocks. Humus is gradually accumulated in
most soils, and in spite of the continual crops which are raised these
soils go on progressing in richness in this property. Beneath an old
turf there is often an accumulation of humus so rich in fertilising
properties that, broken up, the soil would produce successions of
crops almost equal to the virgin land of our colonies. In old
English gardens, too, which have been liberally manured year by
year, and especially where leaf mould has been added for the
benefit of special crop, the humus is present to such a large extent
that, as Sir John Lawes has shown, the soil would provide nitrogen for
plant growth for a very considerable period. As the humus of a soil
gradually decomposes, it liberates nitric acid and annnonia, together
with other constituents for the annual consumption of plants. As
these materials are among the most valuable and most necessary of
all soil constituents, the presence of humus, where decomposition is
regular and consistent, is of the greatest value, for the food supply it
affords is regular and consistent. The decomposition of the humus
of a soil may be hastened or retarded by skilled management,
bearing in mind that heat, air, and water have the effect of hasten-
ing it, especially when assisted by the influence of lime. Wolff says
that the most marked advantage resulting from the use of humus
resides in the extremely favourable influence which it exercises upon
the physical properties of soil. In convenient proportion it indicates
a physical constitution which assures the success of crops in the
highest degree, the best utilisation of manure, and makes generally
possible a profitable and active cultivation. Humus diminishes the
tenacity of clays, rendering them permeable to heat, air, and water.
Humus also prevents the damage communicated to superficial soils
by heat; it assists the penetration of superabundant water in the
subsoil, and the ascension from the subsoil of moisture during
periods of drought, accelerating the disaggregation of the elements
of the soil, in other words the dissolution of matter providing plant
food. By increasing the proportion of humus, sandy and chalky
soils acquire greater consistence, they are dried less easily and
preserve for a greater length of time that condition which is so
favourable to the absorption of the nutritive elements of the air, and
of all feeding matters in general, by the plant in full growth.
When humus is in excess it destroys the physical condition of a soil,
which becomes cold, wet, and spongy. If the water present is
stagnant an acid is formed, which is unfavourable to the prosperity
of cultivated plants, but which favours the growth or development
406
SOIL — AND WHAT IT WILL GROW.
of weeds or plants of a lower order, such as are commonly seen in
wet, marshy, or boggy districts. An inspection of a peat farm such
as that in North Lincolnshire where peatmoss is dug for sale is
instructive from this point of view. To a considerable depth living
peatmoss is found, but under no condition would it be possible to
convert soil of this kind, which is a mass of vegetable life, into a
fertile soil. Like the sand of a desert, it is practically composed of
one material. There are peat soils, however, which are cultivated,
but, although undecomposed, the organic matter may be in excess.
There is also present sand and decomposed matter which gives them
the character of a soil. The surface may produce vegetation, even
grass of a low order, but nothing can be done to improve it and to
enable it to grow more luxuriant crops without the assistance of
liberal cultivation, lime, and manure. Under no condition is
cultivation possible where water is present. Draining is the first
necessity of all wet soils. Humus contains a large proportion of
carbon and combined nitrogen, but the nitrogen, the most valued of
all fertilising constituents of soil, is useless until by decom-
position and nitrification it has been liberated. We may take it for
granted that in peaty soils a large amount of fertility is locked up.
We have already referred to what may be termed the physical
constituents of the soil, constituents which may be again subdivided
into the elements of which they are composed. Evidence has been
adduced in the Eothamsted experiments showing the actual weight of
these physical constituents in a given acre of land, taking the first nine
inches of the soil as representative of their respective proportions.
The field in which the experiment was made had been down to grass
for nearly thirty years.
Roots, Stoxes, Fike Soil, and Water in Grass Land.
Tons. Per ent.
Roots 4-6 -3
Stones 403-7 269
Dry, fine soil 852-2 56 7
Water 242-5 .... 16 1
1503-0 1000
It is true that in this fi6ld the stones were present in a higher
proportion than in any of the ploughed fields on the Eothamsted
property ; nevertheless the proportion of stones in rich pasture land,
as shown by these figures, is extremely large, much larger than
would be supposed by a cursory examination of the soil. It will be
remembered that the value of stones to plants is extremely small if
regarded from the point of view of their food supply. Undoubtedly
they are subjected to the same action of air, rain, and frost as the
primitive rocks, in addition to which they must be upon all
407
SOLL — AND WHAT IT WILL GBOW.
arable soils in some degree affected by the constant system of
tillage employed. If stones were gi'ound to powder some of
the constituents of which they are composed would be much
more easily utihsed by plants. As it is, stones, like the rocks
beneath them, may enclose mineral fertilising properties which are
not available, necessitating the purchase and distribution of artificial
fertilisers, brought perhaps from a foreign country. The quantity of
food in a soil is said by Wolff to determine its fertility when
regarded from the point of view of its solubility and the relative
proportion in which it can be assimilated by plants in a given time.
Its dissolution in a natural soil and its passage into the plant
is in the first place the result of disaggregation, in other words, of
the permanent influence that moistiu'e and the elements of the air,
especially oxygen and of carbonic acid, exercise upon the soil itself.
MINEBAL CONSTITUENTS OF SOILS.
Six mineral substances are found in all plants. These are hme,
potash, magnesia, iron, sulphuric acid, and phosphoric acid. If
either of these materials is absent from a soil it cannot be termed
fertile. In addition to these, however, nitrogen is also essential,
and this is present in e%'ery soil containing organic or vegetable
matter. To some extent it can be said that it is present in all soils,
for a small proportion is conveyed to them by rain. In addition to the
constituents we have ah-eady named, others are usually found in the
ash of plants, although some chemists have expressed the opinion
that they are not absolutely essential to their growth. These are
silica, soda, alumina, and chlorine. It is a curious fact that of the
essential constituents there are four which are usually found in all
systematically cultivated soils in sufficient abundance. These are
hme, iron, magnesia, and sulphuric acid. As we have seen, lime is
not always present to the extent that it ought to be. The soils
deficient in lime are few in number, but it is a material so easily
and cheaply obtained that it does not often occasion the agi'iculturist
any serious trouble. We have seen that the nitrogen of soil has
been originally obtained from the atmosphere. On the other hand,
the mineral constituents are derived from the primitive rocks, and
under almost all conditions where soils are subjected to tillage their
proportion is being increased or developed by the action of water and
air, for the disintegration of all exposed rocks, though it may be
shght, is regular, and perhaps we may add systematic. Soils of a sandy
nature usually contain the smallest quantity of mineral food consti-
tuents, as of organic matter, providing nitrogen ; on the other hand,
peats, so largely composed of organic matter, contain a large propor-
tion of nitrogen, even though it be in an almost unobtainable form.
Clays are usually provided with an abundance of potash and
408
SOIL — AND WHAT IT WILL GBOW.
phosphoric acid, although when it conies to figures, this abundance,
relative as regards plant life, is seen to be extremely small. The
fact that soil contain such small quantities of these important con-
stituents indicates that it is as much a storehouse of food as it is a
vehicle for the growth of plants, through which their roots ramif^'^ in
all directions in search of the materials they require. It is the
oxygen of the air which plays the important part of transforming or
decomposing rocks, just as it assists in the germination of seed
and in the growth of ] lants which absorb it. We must not forget,
however, in dealing with the soil, that plants do not depend for food
upon soil alone. They are built up to a very large extent by the aid
of the carbonic acid of the atmosphere, which is absorbed by all
green-leaved plants. If a given weight of dried plants — grass, for
example — be burnt and the ash weighed, it wiU be found that by
far the largest portion has returned to the atmosphere. Thus the
mineral constituents of wheat amount to only from 1-2 to 2 per cent
in the grain, and of barley from 2-3 to 3-8 per cent. Similarly in the
straw of cereals, the mineral constituents of the soil are present to
the extent of from 4 to 18 per cent. In roots the dried bulb of the
turnip contains from 6"8 per cent, while in the dried leaves there
are only 14 to 20 per cent ; whereas in the bulb in its natural undried
form the percentage of mineral matter is only from -6 to 8 per cent,
and in the leaves 1-5 to 2-9 per cent. Even in wood there are few
instances, as regards our common timber trees, in which 1 per cent
of mineral matter is present, although considerably more is found in
the leaves and the seed. The two most important constituents of
plants, then — nitrogen and carbon — are taken from the air, and in
dealing with a fertile soil, therefore, we have to remember that it
must contain the essential mineral elements required by plants and
organic matter for the provision of nitrogen ; that its physical nature
should be consistent with the necessary tillage and with the develop-
ment and utilisation of its food constituents ; that it should be
drained either naturally or artificially ; sufficiently irrigated by rain,
and warmed by the sun, which is not the case in soils on northern
sides of mountains in particular. Johnston, in speaking of the
discovery of the existence of the mineral matter of plants, says it
" establishes a clear relation between the kind and quality of the crop
and the nature and chemical composition of the soil in which it
grows. It demonstrates what soils ought to contain, and therefore
how they are to be improved ; it explains the effect of some manures
in permanently fertilising, and of some crops in permanently
impoverishing the soil ; it illustrates the action of minei'al substances
upon the plant, and shows how it may be and really is in a certain
measure fed by the dead earth. Over nearly all the operations of
agriculture, indeed, it throws a new and unexpected light." It does
409
SOIL — AND WHAT IT WILL GROW.
not follow that soil of the same quality will or can yield the same
results under dissimilar conditions. A warm, rich loam in Scotland
might be compai'ed with a soil of identical composition in the South
of Italy, but it could not be expected that the produce of these two
soils would be the same. The superior tillage of the Scotch farmer
might extract from it a superior crop to that obtained by the Italian
farmer upon his less advanced system. Much, however, depends upon
climate. In one country temperature might possibly be 10° to 15°
Fahr. higher during the growing season of summer, and in the other
the rainfall might be much more considerable. In one case
heat might be deficient, and in the other rain. Crops, how-
ever, are afi"ected by light as well as by climate. We have seen
farms upon the hillside in Derbyshire which have been laid down to
pasture in consequence of the continued failure of grain crops, owing,
as we believe, to the deficiency of sunlight. On the southern side
of deep valleys the sunlight is very deficient, and as the absorption
of carbonic acid and consequently the growth of plants depends
entirely upon the influence of the sun, it follows that where its rays
do not penetrate, or penetrate only for a fraction of a day, the result
cannot possibly be satisfactory. We have referred to the constituents
of soils which are essential to the growth of plants, and to those
which are generally found in plants by the analyst. Let us take a
few examples from Dr. Wolff, and give the leading constituents of
a few representative materials produced or used on the soil, per
1,000 parts. — [See table, page 410.)
It will be seen that in the products of the soil the leading soil
constituents are present in every instance, that in animal products
produced from plant growth upon the soil the most important
mineral constituents of soils are also present, and that in manure
produced by cattle every constituent is present. Therefore when
such manure is returned to the soil it replaces what has been
removed from it. Artificial manures, unless specially mixed, do
not contain all necessary constituents, more particularly those
which are most economical in use. Thus we have shown that
phosphoric acid and lime are present in a phosphate, that nitrogen
and soda are abundant in nitrate of soda, and potash, magnesia,
and sulphuric acid in kainit, which is a material obtained from the
earth itself, and used as an artificial manure.
It has frequently been observed by persons who have not taken
the trouble to ascertain facts that the continual sale of milk by
a fanner results in the depreciation of the soil he crops. The
figures we have given will enable anyone who desires to take the
trouble to calculate for himself the actual average quantity of each
important soil constituent, together with the nitrogen which is re-
moved in the milk of a cow or per ton of milk per annum ; and if these
{Continued on page 411. )
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411
SOIL — AND WHAT IT WILL GROW.
Acid.
Potash
lbs.
lbs.
1-58 . .
1-0
17-85 . .
215
1-84 . .
5-67
4-50 . .
2-55
materials are priced at their market value, an almost accurate idea
can be obtained as to the money value of the fertilising matter
which has been removed from the farm. It is a curious fact
that the same reference has not been made to the removal of
cattle, sheep, pigs, or crops, although in each case there is a
similar loss, sometimes to a much greater extent, of valuable
properties. The following figures, based upon another and lower
analysis, show the quantity of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and
potash, the three most important constituents of plant food, which
are removed in a ton of each kind of dairy produce : —
Phosphoric
Nitrogen,
lbs.
Butter 2-7
Cheese 112-0
Whey 2-72
Milk 12-02
No calculation is necessary to show that by the purchase of an
extremely small quantity of artificial manure, or of cake or corn
which is intended for the consumption of the cows, much more
fertilising matter coming under these three heads will be returned
to the soil than has been extracted from it.
Phosphoric acid which, next to nitrogen, is, commercially speaking,
of the highest value, is found in some varieties of guano, in all bone,
coprolite, shell, and mineral phosphate manures. Although, as we
have seen in the above table, it is present in every kind of plant,
some plants respond much more readily to it than others, and for
this i-eason it is given as a profuse dressing to root crops, turnips,
and swedes in particular. The fertility of a poor soil is especially
improved by the employment of phosphatic manures in the growth
of roots, which are afterwards consumed by sheep folded upon them,
the animals at the same time consuming a purchased food such as
cake or pulse, which is rich in nitrogen. Thus the soil is enriched
for the use of the succeeding grain crop by both phosphate and
nitrogen, both of which are thereby enabled to perform a double
duty, the phosphates first feeding the I'oots and then the cereal,
and the nitrogen first feeding the sheep through the medium of the
albuminous matter of the cake, and next the grain crop. When we
are dealing with the capacity of a soil it is essential to remember
not only what its primitive nature may be, if it is primitive in
character, but what it has been converted into by artificial means
such as those to which reference has been made. Crop production
is impossible without phosphates, but fortunately they are present
in sufficient abundance in many of the heavier classes of soil,
although high cultivation is necessary on the part of the occupier
of the soil to liberate them for the use of the plant.
412
SOIL — AND WHAT IT WILL GROW.
Potash is the third important material which is supplied to the
soil by artificial means. Like phosphoi-ic acid, it is present in the
heavier soils in considerable quantities, and as it is abundant in all
farmyard manure and in all vegetable matter ploughed into the soil,
it is seldom that there is a marked deficiency. It sometimes forms
one-half of the ash of plants ; thus it forms more than one-half of
the ash of parsnip roots, nearly one-half of the ash of peas, it is
abundant in straw, in the leaves of bulbs, in all leguminous plants,
and curiously in the nettle.
Magnesia usually accompanies lime in a soil. It forms a large
percentage of the mineral constituents of marl, and in some rocks it
is present to the extent of from 10 per cent to 20 per cent. In rye
bran there are 11 "4 parts per thousand of magnesia, in cotton cake
10 parts, and in the Stassfurt salts, largely used on account of their
richness in potash, it forms a very considerable proportion.
Oxide of iron may be recognised as the red rust which forms upon
iron which has been exposed to the atmosphere for some length of
time. It is the soil constituent which has so much infl.uence in
giving a red tint to the arable land of many of our midland county
farms. It is also recognised as a constituent which assists in
retaining the potash, phosphoric acid, and ammonia in a soil.
Humus and clay have the same valuable properties as regards the
potash and ammonia.
Soda is essential to some plants, those of a marine character in
particular; but it is not essential to others. Soda passes to a much
more considerable extent into some plants than others, and it is
present in some parts of plants to a larger extent, and in others to
a smaller extent. Thus it forms 6-9 parts per thousand of vetch
straw, and only 2-1 per thousand of vetch grain. In clover in
flower it is present to a large extent, but only to a small extent in
clover in bud.
Sulphuric acid is present in all soils in the form of sulphate of
lime. It will be recognised as vitriol when in a free and liquid
form. It is necessary to all plants.
Silica was at one time believed to have considerable influence upon
the rigidity of the stems of plants, as, for example, of the straw of
cereal crops. It is now admitted that it is not really indispensable
to many plants, although it is believed to affect their ripening.
It may be supposed — the chemist having by his elaborate system
of analysis performed so great a service to agriculture, as we may
have learned from the foregoing i*emarks— that analysis of soil is
essential for the purpose of showing the grower of crops what con-
stituents are absolutely deficient or requisite; but, as a matter of
fact, although the chemist can do a great deal, it is not possible for
him to show with anv degree of clearness whether a soil is fertile or
413
SOIL — AND WHAT IT WILL GROW.
not in the sense that it will produce crops. Fertilising matter
essential to plants may be present in suflBcient abmidance, but it
may not be available for one or more of the reasons which have
already been advanced. Nor if the chemist could overcome this
difficulty would analysis always prove satisfactory ; on the contrary,
it might prove extremely misleading. Neither one nor many
samples of soil from a particular farm, or even from a particular
field, always represents the average character of that field, which
may vary both in depth and quality. A soil is understood better by
those who take the trouble to master what has been discovered and
explained by chemical science, and by the application of plain
common sense to scientific teaching, than by an absolute reliance
upon analysis to the exclusion of the results of practice.
The absorbent property of a soil is in proportion to its richness in
clay and humus, and their composition at the time. Liquid manure
may be filtered through a porous soil of a particular character, when
the liquid will come ovit clear and without smell. This points to the
fact that the chief solid constituents of the liquid are retained, although
a portion of the magnesia may pass away, and perhaps a still larger
portion of the lime. It has been shown by Sir John Lawes and
others that a porous soil is deprived of a large proportion of its
fertility in some cases, as when it is laid up by ploughing, and when
it is exposed to heavy rain. Under such conditions, more readily
than at any other time, the soluble properties which are valuable
may be lost.
FERTILITY.
Soils both acquire or accumulate and lose fertility under certain
conditions. Fertility is accumulated, for example, by good tillage,
constant manuring, and constant cropping. It is a curious fact that
where farming is good, persistent cropping results rather in the
accumulation of fertility than in its dissipation or exhaustion. The
tiller recognises that the larger the quantity of manure he uses, and
the more often he cultivates, the better wiH be the crop he obtains,
and the better the crop the larger the quantity of root, which
itself contains fertilising matter, and of food for consumption
on the land. Direct manuring with solid or liquid manure,
sheep feeding upon roots or grass, and at the same time being
fattened with the assistance of cake or grain, and cattle fed upon
the land for the butcher — all these assist soil in acquiring fertility.
The same remark applies to the ploughing in of green crops, often
grown in the autumn or winter season with the object of retaining
the soluble properties of the soil, which under other conditions
would be lost in the drainage water. The growth of leguminous
crops has also, it has now been discovered, a very marked influence
414
SOIL — AND WHAT IT WILL GROW.
upon the acquisition of fertility, for in addition to the property of
absorbing carbonic acid, which all green plants possess, the
leguminosae are able to obtain free nitrogen to such an extent that
after the removal of a crop of clover, for example, a field may be
richer in nitrogen than it was before the clover was grown, and this
in consequence of the presence of their roots in the soil. When,
therefore, we deal with the capacity of soils to grow particular
crops, we must remember that they are very much what man has
made them, and that they can be adapted under certain conditions
to gi'ow diverse varieties of plants which, without the application of
science to practice, they could not do.
The fertility of soil is exhausted by bad management and
by carelessness with the manure which is to be returned to
it. Manure, like soil, contains properties which may be removed
by rain; thus, if the liquid produced by cattle is carried by
drainage into a yard and there washed away by the rain it is
entirely lost. On the other hand, if it is conveyed to a cistern in
which it is allowed to ferment there may be a considerable loss
of nitrogen. If the solid manure, instead of being packed in a
heap under cover, is exposed, it also may be damaged so materially
that by the time it reaches the land no more than one-half of its
original fertilising properties remain. The losses on the farm are
often gi-eater in wet than in dry seasons from these causes. In
spite of the fact that nature supplies through the rain and the
atmosphere a portion of the fei'tilising matter of the soil, there is
nevertheless a loss when, in addition to what we have already
mentioned, the chief crops of the farm are sold, and where no stock is
kept to consume what is unsaleable. If leguminous cropping, as we
have observed, results in the increase of nitrogen even though the
crop may be carried away, it follows that if that crop is consumed
the increase is still more considerable. Fertility is exhausted then
by bad farming, by the careless management of manure, and by the
absence of stock. In spme districts like those surrounding the
popular towns of Lancashire where the farms are small, the
covenants in the leases or agreements severe, and the stock kept
considerable, there is a consistent increase of fertility which is
almost entirely to the advantage of the owners of the land. We
have inspected many of these farms, where the sale of the one great
crop — hay — is prohibited, where in fact nothing can be sold but
milk and the cattle themselves when they are of " no further value
for milk production. For the purpose of increasing the yield of
milk and of fattening cattle these farmers are in the habit of
purchasing enormous quantities of provender, the manure from
which is distributed upon the soil, producing the splendid crops of
grass which enable the owners to obtain such high rent. Some
415
SOIL — AND WHAT IT WILL GROW.
years ago we had the advantage of inspecting a farm in the South-
West of France, the property of a distinguished scientific agriculturist.
The land of which the farm was composed was originally sand with
a subsoil of clay. It grew an abundance of those uncultivated
plants which are seen upon land in its unimproved or natural
condition. Knowledge of the capacity of a soil composed of a
mixture of sand and clay, and of good management suggested to the
present owner that its acquisition might be of considerable benefit
to himself. It was purchased at an extremely low price for those
days, and although unfit at the time to produce any cultivated
plant, it now carries enormous crops of all kinds, the bulk of which
are consumed by a very large head of valuable stock. Here it is
one perpetual system of accumulating fertility. Crops are grown in
succession with a twofold object — the feeding of stock and the
production of milk, and the further improvement of the soil through
the manure returned. Heavy and extensive cropping enables the
owner to keep a large head of cattle, to feed them well, and to
obtain a maximum percentage of produce from them. The heavy
feeding in its turn results in a heavy yield of manure, and in this
way (artificial manure being added) the practically barren sand of
fifteen years ago has been transformed into a thriving, nay, a luxurious
property. If anyone had been asked at the time, assuming that
they were competent to advise, to recommend a crop suitable to the
soil, there might have been a serious shake of the head and advice
intimating that it had better be left alone. There are in every
country tens of thousands of acres of soil, almost infertile, which
might be converted into fertile properties by the aid of present
scientific knowledge. In Germany sands and peats of almost a
barren character are now under profitable cultivation, and in some
cases details have been published showing how this work has been
accomplished. Lime has been employed in the decomposition of
peat. To this phosphoric acid, and if necessary potash, has been
added, and crops have been grown and consumed upon the soil,
thereby adding a form of organic matter which was advantageous
at the outset, and returning the fertilising properties which had
assisted in their growth. On sands leguminous crops, gi'own by the
aid of phosphatic manures and potash, have obtained free nitrogen
and have been either consumed upon the soil or ploughed in to its
immense advantage. A crop of two tons of clover hay removes in
the form of mineral matter 831bs. of potash, 901bs. of lime, and
241bs. of phosphoric acid, in addition to 1021bs. of nitrogen. Now,
assuming that a soil, such as an almost barren sand, is enabled by the
means we have indicated to produce such a crop, it is in its first
year enriched with this large quantity of nitrogen plus an almost
equal amount per acre present in the roots. This is actually more
416
SOIL — AND WHAT IT WILL GEOW.
than three times sufi&cient to provide the nitrogen required to
produce a thirty-bushel crop of wheat, which is the average yield of
this country, or a forty-bushel crop of barley. The phosphoric acid
and potash, too, assuming that they are almost entirely returned to
the soil if fed off by sheep, or entirely returned if ploughed in, would
also be sufficient to produce either of these grain crops leaving a
balance, and in the case of potash a considerable balance for the use
of future crops. There is no end to the improvements which may
be effected in soils by a thorough knowledge of their management
and the system to be adopted in their cultivation.
THE INFLUENCE OF WATER AND HEAT.
It has been stated, we believe by Schiibler, that cultivated plants,
whether grown in the tropics or the temperate zone, obtain an equal
amount of heat between sowing and harvest in spite of the great
difference in the period of growth. In tropical climates the number
of rainy days is small but the rain which falls is considerable,
whereas in temperate climates like that of Great Britain, although
the number of days upon which rain falls is much larger, the rainfall
itself is much smaller in quantity ; in other words, while the rain
decreases the further we get from the equator the number of rainy
days increases. The rainfall in this country depends very largely
upon the district. It is greater upon the western than upon the
eastern coasts. It is much greater in mountainous districts than
upon the plains. In the West of England the rainfall averages from
30 to 45 inches per annum ; whereas in the eastern counties it varies
from 20 to 38 inches. In mountainous districts it often exceeds 100
and has been known to reach even 150 inches. The amount of
rainfall in the western part of our country depends upon the
influence of the Atlantic Ocean, over which the passing winds are
charged with a large excess of humidity as compared with the winds
in the opposite quarter. In a statement made by the Eegistrar
General many years ago, it was remarked that an inch deep of rain
on an acre yielded 226,2251bs., or nearly 101 tons; thus for every
hundredth of an inch of rainfall one ton of water falls upon every
acre. We have personally tested this fact in estimating the quantity
of rain which fell in a particular manure yard in one year. It
amounted to 900 tons, a quantity so enormous that we were almost
disposed to wonder whether any fertilising property remained in the
manure, much of which was more or less exposed to this deluge.
Liebig has shown that under certain conditions a piece of ground
little more than half an acre in extent annually receives through the
medium of rain upwards of 801bs. of ammonia, equivalent to 651bs.
of nitrogen, which is a larger quantity than is found in a ton of hay,
the produce of an average acre of land, so that we must look upon
417
SOIL — AND WHAT IT WILL GROW.
the rainfall not only as a great and valuable medium for the
conveyance of the soluble matters of the soil to the plant, but as itself
furnishing a most important increment of the most valuable of all
fertilising matters.
Valuable as rain is upon a well-drained soil, or upon a soil which
is sufficiently porous to allow it to pass through, wet land in which
water remains stagnant is an extremely bad property. It will not
under any conditions grow useful plants, although it may be covered
with vegetation of an inferior and almost valueless nature. It is
extremely bad for live animals, some of which acquire disorders
through the consumption of living organisms which thrive upon
the plants growing upon such soils, or serious disease of the
feet, which is equally disastrous where thrift is essential. Not
only is wet land uneconomical from its inability to grow crops and
feed stock, but where it forms part of an occupation it entails a
certain amount of labour which, if not thrown away entirely, adds
considerably to the expense of cultivation. In normal soils rain
only passes through under certain conditions, but nature has
provided that when no rain appears the surface soil shall be watered
from the stock of moisture beneath. This is accomplished by what
is known as capillary action, and as fast as this action takes place
evaporation goes on during the day, although moisture may be
absorbed during the night. Bad as stagnant water is upon
undrained soils, it is nevertheless the custom to irrigate land either
by a system of drainage or by actually flooding it with water. The
water, however, used under this system, unlike rain water, is not
charged with ammonia or nitric acid, but it may be and usually is
charged with a certain amount of organic matter which has some
value to plant life. Professor Church has laid it down that irrigation
is practised to make up for the irregular seasonal distribution of
rain, or for a local deficiency of rainfall. Sometimes, he says, a
particular crop is irrigated because the plant is of an aquatic or
semi-aquatic nature, or to encourage early and rapid growth by
the warmth of the water, or by the dissolved plant food which it
contains; and he remarks that land may be enriched and its level
raised by means of the deposit from the water. This last remark
applies with great force to the warped lands of North Lincolnshire,
where after several floodings from the water of the Humber a deposit
is left, sometimes equal to a foot in thickness. This one fact
suggests again how the character of a soil may be altered by a
physical act. In this district, for example, we have seen soil which
had practically little or no agricultural value, but which was so
immensely improved that its yearly value was increased by more
than 100 per cent in consequence of its ability to grow almost any
kind of crop.
28
418
SOIL — AND WHAT IT WILL GROW.
The writer we have referred to attributes the usefulness of
irrigation of water meadows to —
1. " The temperature of the water being rarely less than 10° Fahr.
above freezing, the severity of frost in winter is thus obviated, and
the growth, especially of the roots of grasses, is encouraged.
2. " Nourishment or plant food is actually brought on to the soil,
by which it is absorbed and retained, both for the immediate and
future use of vegetation.
3. " Solution and redistribution of the plant food, already present
in the soil, occurs mainly thi'ough the solvent action of the carbonic
acid gas present in a dissolved state in the irrigation water.
4. " Oxidation of any excess of organic matter in the soil,
with consequent production of useful carbonic acid and nitrogen
compounds, takes place through the dissolved oxygen in the water,
sent on through the soil where the drainage is good ; and
5. " Improvement of the grasses, and especially of the mis-
cellaneous herbage of the meadows is promoted through the
encouragement of some, at least, of the better species, and the
extinction or reduction of mosses and of innutritions weeds."
On the plains of Lombardy irrigation is practised with ex-
traordinary results. In some of our Australian Colonies land
containing abundance of fertilising matter remains almost useless
for want of water, and although a system of irrigation has been
inaugurated upon a large scale, yet as compared with the size of the
country requiring irrigation it is but a very small affair. In parts
of Central North America, both in the United States and Canada,
there are millions of acres of land which will without doubt
eventually carry abundant crops, but which are now either quite
idle or growing natm^al grasses without cultivation in consequence
of insufficient rain. It is next to impossible to deal with the
soil from the point of view of what crops it will grow without
reference to climate and other physical conditions. If fertility
depends upon the presence of plant foods in an available form, the
power of the soil to grow crops depends upon the rainfall and the
temperature. As we have shown by reference to the valleys of
Derbyshire, the influence of the sun is all-important. It is
recognised by those who have not made a study of science that land
situated on a southern slope is in the most advantageous position.
It may be remarked that under such conditions land is daily in a
perpendicular line with the sun during a great part of the year, just
as the land upon a plain would be with the sun overhead, and it is
because it obtains the whole advantage which the rays of the sun
afford that its position is so useful. Schiibler has remarked with
truth that a soil dark in colour and with small water-containing
power is heated by the sun more quickly and more powerfully than
419
SOIL — AND WHAT IT WILL GROW.
a lighter soil with greater power of retaining water; a soil, too,
which can hold much water can absorb the most moisture when it is
dry, whereas when it is moist it can absorb the most oxygen. The
stiffer it is the more slowly it dries ; the heavier the soil, too, the
more heat it can retain. Stiff soils which contain much water are
the coldest and the most difficult to manage. Here, then, further
considerations enter into the question of the crop-growing power of
the soil. According to the same writer the following soils have the
capacity for containing water to saturation in the quantities given : —
Per cub. ft. i Per cub. ft.
lbs
Silicious sand 27*3
Sandy clay 38-
lbs.
Pure grey clay 48 3
Garden mould 48-4
Lime clay 41 4 j Arable soil 408
Brick clay 45-4 ] Humus 50'1
We have remarked upon Boussingault's statement that the dura-
tion of vegetation appears to be in the inverse ratio of the mean
temperature, so that, he says, if we multiply the number of days
during which a given plant grows in different climates by the mean
temperature of each climate we obtain numbers that are nearly equal.
Doubtless this fact has some bearing upon the curious difference
between the climate of England and of parts of the United States
such as Dakota, and of Canada such as Manitoba — both great wheat-
growing states — which are infinitely more severe than the climate of
Great Bi-itain, although parts of Great Britain are much further
distant from the equator. In both of these districts the winter
season is of six to seven months' duration, the temperature falling
on some occasions as low as 50' below zero. On the other hand,
during the very short summer, with its light and intermittent frosts,
the heat is intense, while the period devoted to the growth of wheat
instead of being some ten months, as with us, is reduced to about
four months. A fact like this has infinitely more bearing upon the
capacity of soil to grow crops than the composition of the soil itself,
which in' the cases in question is altogether in favour of the American
side. The colour of soil is usually owing to the presence of some
important constituent. Oxide of iron influences the colour of red
and yellow soils, chalk and light-coloured sand of the whiter soils,
vegetable mould of the black soils, oxide of iron and abundant
vegetable matter influences the brown soils ; and as colour has a
bearing upon heat the composition from this point of view is there-
fore a matter of some importance.
WHERE CROPS GROW.
There is, perhaps, no variety of cultivated soil in Great Britain
which does not grow every variety of crop known to British
agriculture. It is probably true that, given a suitable climate, any
420
SOIL — AND WHAT IT WILL GROW.
crop can be adapted to any fertile local soil. Grain crops have their
favourite districts, but it is the climate as well as the soil which
renders these districts suitable. If we read the reports of the skilled
men who have examined the various districts of some of our colonies
we invariably find, as we subsequently find in the practice of the
settlers, that it is climate which exerts its influence in adapting a
soil to cultivation. The tropical sun which pours its rays on South
Africa and parts of Australia is robbed of much of his undesirable
heat when we approach the higher lands or the maritime districts,
where so many kinds of crops are grown with success. At home we
naturally look to the rich lowlands of the west where the rainfall is
the heaviest for gi-ass, and the eastern counties which are so much
di'ier for grain crops. Nevertheless, both grass and grain are grown
successfully in both districts. The mangel is universally grown in
the south and the midlands, in soils of all classes, but it is not
attempted upon the higher hills on account of the diminished
temperature or the want of depth in the soil or from both reasons.
Similarly it is seldom found in the northern part of the country,
although it can be successfully grown in most years. Where,
however, there is risk the farmer adopts some other plant instead,
because he cannot afford to lose a crop. It is, however, not the soil
but the climate which is responsible for the risk. The soil of Great
Britain is suitable in almost all districts for the cultivation of maize,
but our climate is too severe and our summers too short to ripen the
crop, although maize may be grown as a green crop five years out of
six with perfect success. We cannot produce tropical plants in spite
of the suitability of our soils; and it would be folly to attempt to
grow tobacco or wine, tea or cofiee, sugarcane or rice, because
circumstances do not combine to enable us to do so with success.
We must remember, then, that as regards plant life in general
climate is the factor which it is necessary to discuss. We can make
almost any soil suitable to almost any crop we need, but we cannot
alter climatic conditions unless it be upon a small scale and under
glass, or locally by di'ainage under certain recognised principles.
There are some crops which, fortunately for man, grow successfully
through a very wide range of temperatures, succeeding alike in the
northern districts of Scandinavia and America and as far south as
the Persian Gulf and the Eed Sea, but the results are not equal
to those obtained in temperate climates like our own. The black
vegetable soils of Eussia and Dakota are rich enough to produce
abundant crops of almost any desirable kind of plant without the
addition of manure, but we cannot alter the severity of the climates
in which they are situated, consequently the occupiers are limited to
a small number of plants, few of which can be grown without risk.
British soils are of almost every kind, but cultivated crops are
421
SOIL — AND WHAT IT WILL GROW.
practically limited to the lowlands and the slopes of the lower hills,
because of the unsuitability of the climate in the higher ranges. The
plough has entered the soil of the Cotswolds, parts of the South-
downs, and the wolds of the East Eiding, but there are huge areas
on the millstone grit, the mountain limestones and the Cambrian hills,
of Derbyshire, Yorkshire, Cornwall, Cumberland, and Wales in
pai'ticular, where cultivation in the form of tillage is impossible. Yet
on almost all the higher ranges of our mountain systems there is
sufficient plant life in the form of herbage to feed sheep, which seem
to be the national production of the uncultivated surface of these
regions. It often happens that the nature of the soil can be
recognised when the formation upon which it rests is known, but it
may happen that land upon the most desirable formations, such as
the red sandstone, is inferior from persistent bad farming. Geological
formation, however, is not always responsible for the soil of a given
field, or even farm or district, which may be composed of glacial
drift or alluvial deposit.
Having referred to the influence of climate into which light, and
consequently the length of the day, enters, we may refer in detail to
those crops which are necessary to the people.
Wheat will not ripen in our climate when it is sown at elevations
of over a thousand feet. In North America, where, as in Dakota,
Manitoba, and Assiniboia, the winters are long, six to seven months,
and extremely severe, wheat is sown in spring, and often has no
more than 100 to 120 days in which to ripen. In " Stephens's Book
of the Farm " remarkable figures are quoted, in which it is shown that
in Venezuela the same crop ripens in half the time necessary near
Edinburgh, thus —
Period of Ave age
Growth. Temnerature.
Venezuela 92 x 75-6° = 6955°
Pruxillo 100 X 72-1° = 7210°
Alsace 137 x 59-0° = 8083°
Paris . 160 x 56-0° = 8960°
Edinburgh 182 x 47-4° = 8625°
Thus, as we have remarked earlier, the degi-ees of heat necessary
to ripen a crop are closely identical in countries of such different
climates. It is quite possible that the actual difi"erence shown
may be in a measure owing to the existence of longer days, for
growth is more rapid during sunlight, and maturity is consequently
attained earlier. Extremes of heat and cold influence the yield of
wheat, which is greatest in a mild chmate, and yet quahty is
better in wheats grown in hotter chmates than our own. Thus
Cahfornian wheats and the No. 1 hard grain of the States and
Canada which ripens rapidly in great heat realise superior prices to
the average samples of Great Britain. The straw of wheat is more
432
considerable in quantity in temperate than in tropical climates.
Wheat is said to relish stiff soils, and unquestionably the heaviest
ci'ops are grown upon such soils, yet we have seen heavy crops
grown upon sands which blow away when carelessly managed, but
great skill was necessarily developed in their cultivation. It may
be fairly said, therefore, that wherever a deep tilth can be obtained
and manure provided, ordinary conditions being present, a wheat
crop can be produced.
Oats. — Like wheat, the oat is successfully cultivated in India,
where frost is unknown, and in the North- West of Canada, where we
have seen standing crops estimated at 100 bushels an acre. The oat
thus grows over a very wide range of temperature, and it will flourish
upon almost any cultivated soil. It is probably correct to say that
oats are more productive in the colder than in the warmer climates,
some varieties standing severe winters, others coming to maturity
within the region of the midnight sun, where the season of daylight
is short. In Great Britain, Scotland produces finer crops than
England in spite of the greater severity of its climate. Taking
Europe as an example, we find that the oat is more favoured in the
colder countries ; hardly recognised as a farm crop in the Peninsula,
it is raised in Russia, Norway, and Sweden, as far north as 65".
We have seen the crop harvested in Norway so late that it was
drj'ing upon poles in the short day sun when the succeeding crop
was being sown beside it. Oats prefer such soils as alluvial deposit,
which are so often situated in a moist climate, a condition
congenial to their growth. This moisture they obtain in the
mountain districts of Scotland on soils otherwise unsuitable to their
cultivation. They are often grown where in consequence of excessive
moisture they cannot be successfully harvested, but fortunately oat
hay is a food admirably adapted to stock. The thin dry soils of the
south — sand, gravel, chalk, and detritus — especially those of the
home and eastern counties, are least suitable to this crop; but to
them may be added the stronger London, Oxford, and Kimmeridge
clays of the south-western counties, where grass is the chief produce.
W^heat comes to us from almost all the agricultural countries of the
world, but the limits of profitable oat cultivation are exhibited by
the countries which export to us, Russia, Sweden, Germany, and
North America, the two former countries sending over four-fifths
of what we import.
Barley was grown by the ancient Jews, Greeks, and Romans,
and it is to-day a plant which is grown for export in hot countries
much moi-e extensively than in cold countries. Nevertheless, as we
import from twenty-two countries tropical and sub-arctic, it is
clear that barley is also very tolerant in its climatic range. Barley
grows with greater success in Lapland and Siberian Russia than
423
SOIL — AND WHAT IT WILL GROW.
wheat, a fact which is perfectly comprehensible when we rememter
that it grows and ripens much more rapidly. In England we have
reaped crops which have had but little more than twelve weeks in
which to grow, a period quite consistent with the short summers of
the northern countries. The rapidity of growth of the barley crop
accounts for the fact that in some climates two crops may be taken
in a year, while in others it grows at a very great altitude, as in the
Alps and the Andes. This fact also reminds us that the vine,
which cannot be made productive in the open fields of Great Britain,
thrives within sight of the Swiss glaciers and at an altitude far
higher than many mountains in this country. Here, again, climate
plays its part. Barley prefers soil of a lighter character than wheat
and oats. For this reason it is used as a descriptive term as applied
to certain soils which are known as " barley soils." Strong loams
and clays are not adapted for this crop, the lias, Oxford, and London
clays are therefore unsuitable, but from thin chalks and gravels to
the medium loams all soils are suitable, including drifts, green sands,
and oolites, excepting the clays referred to. Barley is a crop which
may be grown for quantity in the heavier class of soils, or for
quality in the lighter.
Bye is the crop of Northern Europe, indeed it provides for the
bread of the people in those parts of the continent where the soil is
dry and of an inferior quality. Moreover, it ripens so much earlier
than other cereals that its cultivation from this point of view alone
is of high importance in some countries. Eye is rightly regarded
as one of the most valuable of all the crops of the soil, for on the
poor sands of Germany and parts of Scandinavia it is the only
cereal upon which reliance can be placed, while it is said to be also
grown within the Polar regions as high as 67° N. lat. Eye grows with
success upon almost all soils, if we except clays. In this country,
where it is little grown, it might advantageously replace wheat on
the lighter gravels and sands, and considering the value of its straw
this change might result in a pecuniary gain to the farmer. On
loams it is not likely to be sown, because its yield and value is not
so great as that of the other cereals.
Beans are very largely imported into this country, but they are also
largely grown upon the stiffer kinds of soil, which, like wheat, they
prefer. It is an advantage to the grower occupying heavy land that
he can grow three saleable corn crops in a rotation, and that, too,
without excessively impoverishing the soil. The bean likes a
tenacious soil, but although unlike most other plants it gi'ows well
upon such heavy land as the London and the lias clays, it thrives
best upon the clay loams which, while providing tenacity are
sufficiently porous to prevent water covering the plant, and rich to
provide it with its necessary food. Beans are often grown on the
424
SOIL — AND WHAT IT WILL GROW.
lighter soils — gravels, for example — and even the rich vegetable soils
so valuable for potatoes and many other crops, but the crop is
always either risky or troublesome, failing altogether, or, if a
successful plant, growing to haulm instead of seed.
The Pea, although belonging to the same order as the bean, has
quite a different habit, but although the latter requires lime it is
not so greedy as the pea, which revels on deep calcareous soil. A
soil for peas must be dry, drained if it is not sufficiently porous, and it
must contain a good supply of lime. The new red sandstone where
lime is present provides an admirable soil, and the loams of medium
texture are also most suitable. Clays and peats are avoided, but
successful crops are often grown upon calcareous soils even though
they possess a thin staple, and we have known them do well upon
gravels. We may, however, take it that the medium rich calcareous
loams are best adapted to the crop.
Buckwheat is a plant which is not grown in this country so much
as it might be. There are plenty of southern farms comprising soils
of a most inferior character, which do not produce successful crops
once in five years, which would grow admirable crops of buckwheat.
In Eastern and in many European and American countries this grain
is grown as a bread-stuff, indeed across the English Channel the
inhabitants of many parts of the North of France grow it for that
purpose to-day. Buckwheat is one of the few plants which will grow
and prosper on soils which will grow nothing else, and for this reason
it should receive more attention. The worn-out, impoverished gravel
will respond to it, and equally upon poor sands may it be grown
with confidence. Dry soils may also be included in its programme.
On the other hand, wet soils, whatever their character, cannot be
utihsed with success. Buckwheat does not like clays, but thrives
upon all the lighter and medium soils if they are properly tilled.
Flax is an important plant, although from reasons which ought
not to exist it is not largely grown in this country. It likes a dry,
porous, and deep soil, and these conditions obtained it prefers the
clean loams of the lighter or sandy class. Flax, however, grows
upon almost any kind of soil. We have grown it over chalk with
success, and in Ireland it is often grown upon peats (where, by-the-
by, wild flax may often be found), gravels, and clays, and even
moorland if well cultivated will respond to this plant. Wilson has
given partial analyses of several of the best flax soils of Ireland and
Belgium, and in every case silica was present in large quantities,
while alumina, ranging from of to 8"9 per cent in the Irish, was
present only to the extent of from I'l to 1-5 per cent in the Belgian
soils. Again, the Irish soils, as might be expected, contained more
moisture as well as more organic matter. For flax growing the soil
should be rich and in fine condition.
425
Hemp, although adapted to our soil and cUmate, is not grown in
this country to any extent worthy of mention. It prefers alluvial
or rich vegetable soils which contain plenty of moisture, although it
objects to actually wet land. Eich loams, the black soils of the
fens and marshes, the warped lands of the East, are all adapted to
the requirements of this plant, but it will not thrive upon the lighter
thin, dry soils.
'Ihe Potato grows in almost all soils and climates, but it has its
preferences. The sandy loams and alluvial deposits are those which
it prefers and which enable gi-owers to produce the best samples.
What the growers occupying soils of a less suitable character lose in
quality, however they often gain in quantity. It is hardly possible to
name a soil which can be tilled for potato cultivation which will not
successfully grow the popular tuber. It demands a free, rich soil,
thoroughly porous, and yet sufficiently retentive to supply it with
abundant moisture. What nature has denied to many growers in
the condition of the soil they have managed to provide by cultivation
and manure. The warped lands of North Lincolnshire, the sandy
loams of the Vale of York, the rich lighter loams of Scotland, and
the better class of peats which are well dressed with lime, all
produce good crops. On wet or heavy soils the crops are smaller
and more liable to disease. The heavy clays, the thin gravels, and
chalks are all unsuitable; but even on these the workman grows
the ubiquitous plant, which responds to the attention of man in the
tropics and even in hail of the arctic circle.
Tlie Mangel is one of the most valuable of agricultural plants, but
its success depends so much upon climate that it is but little
cultivated in the northern half of these islands. The mangel of the
farm is closely allied to the sugar beet, and the value of the latter is
a fair indication of the value of the former as a food for stock.
Eemembering that the mangel is a summer plant, thriving best in a
mild climate, we have to remark that although it is grown over a
wide range of soils it has a very marked preference for the lighter
clay loams and for the medium soils, as opposed to the extreme
light thin soils on the one hand and the heavy clays on the other.
So gi'oss a feeder as the mangel needs an enormous quantity of
food, and a soil capable of supplying it in a suitable condition.
Turnips grow on a variety of soils, and they, too, have their
preferences ; but these preferences are rather of a physical than of a
mechanical character. A dry, friable, porous soil of deep staple is
essential, for the turnip objects to wet soils, and yet it needs a
climate providing plenty of moisture. Turnips, while thriving best
upon the fine loams easily pulverised by good cultivation, are grown
upon thin gravels, chalks, and even sands with success; but this
success depends upon both climatic help and good manuring. The
426
SOIL — AND WHAT IT WILL GROW.
turnip, in a word, is one of those plants which can be grown on
almost any soil where skill and manure are applied in its
cultivation.
The following minute analysis of a Scotch soil, included by
Mr. James Macdonald in his edition of " Stephens's Book of the
Farm," and made by Dr. Anderson, will be found extremely
valuable. It is described as "a good arable sandy loam, well
fitted for the growth of turnips in Dumbartonshire": —
. , Organic matter
5-53
o Peroxide of iron
-37
c8 Lime
-36
Magnesia
-49
•2 J Potash
1-25
.2 Chloride of sodium
2-91
"% Phosphoric acid
o Sulphuric acid
-72
4-43
^ ^ Silicic acid
8 02
Peroxide of iron
24-08
427-02
Alumina
260-15
Lime
33-77
Magnesia . . -
27-71
Potash
221-05
Soda
3-48
Chloride of sodium
20-66
Phosphoric acid
37-77
Sulphuric acid
Silicic acid
594
52-68
Organic matter
576-61
Insoluble silicate
7,988-62
Moisture
323-46
9,978-92
HojJS are confined to districts, and in this country Kent is the
most favoured. Among the most favoured soils are those which
have been formed from the upper green sand and the deep rich,
porous loams. In the investigation, details of which were published
in the journal of the Eoyal Agricultural Society, the following
analysis of a good hop soil was given : —
Insoluble siliceous matter (sand) 19-64
Soluble silica 6-45
Phosphoric acid 1'82
Carbonic acid 28-98
Lime 37-71
Magnesia '68
Oxide of iron and alumina 3-04
98-32
427
SOIL — AND WHAT IT WILL GEOW.
This was described as a grey marl lying directly upon a green
stratum. This sti-atum, which is said to have yielded many fossils,
gave after their removal : —
Insoluble siliceous matter 32"81
Soluble silica 29-14
Phosphoric acid 6-61
Carbonic acid 2-30
Lime 9-53
Magnesia 1-97
Oxide of iron and alumina 11-46
Potash 3-10
96-92
Here two most important soil constituents — phosphoric acid and
potash — were present in great abundance, needing only organic
matter to make it of much greater value ; but this it acquired as it
came under the influence of the farmer. In one of the best Kentish
soils a high percentage of the same two mineral soil constituents
was found. In other districts hops are grown upon the red sand-
stone formations with great success, but much again depends upon
the climate.
Grass. — So large a portion of the cultivated area of an agricultural
country is devoted to gi'ass that a few words are necessary with
reference to the soils on which it thrives best. Grass pastures and
meadows are chiefly composed of a mixture of various kinds of
plant which include the grasses proper, members of the order
Graminece, and clovers belonging to the Leguminosce. Wild herbs
are also found in greater or lesser variety in accordance with the
nature of the soil. Thus we find in clays, loams, and marls, rye grass,
cocksfoot, foxtail, meadow fescue, hard fescue, tall fescue, timothy
or catstail, white clover, perennial red clover, alsike clover, trefoil.
On the higher soils of this character sheep's fescue and dogstail
are added, and in the loams, marls, and limestones smooth-stalked
meadow grass. On alluvial deposits soft brome is often found in
abundance, with sheep's parsley on loams and brashes, yarrow on
loams and sands. On the clays the poas, fescues, agrostis, and butter-
cup may be recognised as natural products. On peat, ling, heath,
and such other weeds as the thistle and spotted orchis On wet or
marshy vegetable soils, rushes, flags, sedges, and cotton grass
diminish the grass area, which contains fewer of the better grasses
and more of the worthless varieties. On gi-avels, hair gi-ass, sheep's
sorrel, bent grass, and soft bromes are found. The clovers are
characteristic of rich soils, especially those of the heavier classes,
while the gi-eat oxeye is found on very poor soils. Temporary grass
crops become intermixed with thistles, docks, sorrel, and knot
grass upon gi-avels, and with wild camomile, corn cockle, and butter-
428
SOIL AND WHAT IT WILL GROW.
cup on cultivated clays. Weeds are everywhere indicative of the
nature or condition of the soil, and the poorer it is the more readily
is it covered with weeds to the exclusion of cultivated grasses. The
heavier soils are most adapted to grass and clover, because of their
retentive nature. All these small plants thrive best on a firm
tenacious soil, and fail most often upon light soils. They also prefer
the moist climates of the west to the dryer climate of the eastern
counties. In the experimental work conducted by the Bath and
"West of England Society, analyses of soils upon which the cows
which produced the milk used in the investigations were fed, were
made by the Society's chemist, Dr. Voelcker, with the following
results : —
Composition op Pastube
Soils near Fbome.
No. 1.
No. 2.
No 3
No. 4.
No 6.
•Organic matter and water of com-
bination
1712
3-83
6-46
10-.32
-77
-77
•16
-29
23
-13
6-60
54-33
15-13
5-61
7 28
2-07
-56
•55
•16 •
24
-14
trace.
•60
67 67
1
12^95
1^56
10-31
•96
•37
•65
•30
•32
•24
•002
•23
7211
13-87
188
14-69
4-66
-36
•65
79
•27
•13
01
214
60^75
14-43
Oxide of iron
6-64
Alumina
8-41
Lime
2 26
Magnesia
•72
Potash
Soda
Phosphoric acid
Sulphuric acid
Chlorine
Carbonic acid
•65
•20
•26
•13
trace.
96
Insoluble silicate and sand
6587
'Containing nitrogen
100 00
•77
100 00
•54
10000
•51
10000
51
10000
•64
These soils were described as rich brown heavy loams, approach-
ing in No. 1 a marl, containing discernible pieces of lime in Nos. 1, 2,
and 4. They were said to be extremely rich, their richness being
owing to the nitrogen in the organic matter, which Dr. Voelcker said
was larger in quantity than would be found in any arable soil, or in
any soil which had not been down in pasture a very long time.
There was abundance of lime in every case, with large propoi'tions
of iron and alumina, while they were in each case unusually rich in
potash, phosphoric acid, and magnesia, the sample containing the
smallest quantity of phosphoric acid showing quite double what is
met with in good arable soils. These soils were in a word excep-
tionally fine, and yet the cow parsnip, the buttercup, the large
plaintain, the daisy, the oxeye, and the dandelion were found
among the grasses.
429
SOIL — AND WHAT IT WILL GROW.
Grasses are so numerous and so varied that it is impossible to refer
to their preferences in any but a Umited sense. In the northern part
of the Continent most of the varieties cultivated in Great Britain
are recognised, but even in France there are some grasses, which are
regai'ded as weeds in this countiy, which are gi'own systematically,
such as holcus lanatus, or Yorkshire fog. As we approach the Alpine
regions and the grassy plains of Italy and the South, however, we
find varieties which are not cultivated in Great Britain at all, and
the remark applies in a more extended sense to America and many
other countries.
Cabbage in its various varieties is one of the most important crops
of all temperate countries. It has the faculty of growing to an
enormous size, and the tiller of the soil is able to extract an
enormous amount of food from an acre devoted to this plant.
Cabbage will gi'ow on almost any soil with a staple, if it is well fed
with manure, but it prefers the stiffer soils to those which are of a
lighter character. Thus the heavier loams produce a much heavier
crop than the sands, gravels, and chalks ; at the same time, soils of
each of these kinds with sufficient depth will produce an enormous
weight of cabbage when really well tilled. The cabbage must have
plenty of moisture, and for this I'eason the better class of peaty soils,
alluvials, and heavy loams are all suitable, whereas many other
soils which might be utilised ai"e unable to carry a crop on account
of their dryness and altitude.
Carrots and Parsnips demand deep soils, the former thriving best
in the sandy loams, alluvial deposits, and rich vegetable moulds
prevalent in favoured districts. The parsnip will grow successfully
in heavier soils than the carrot, but both like an open porous
texture, and plenty of depth.
Lucertie, one of the most favoured forage plants known in the
woi-ld, is not gi'own in this country so generally as it might be. It is
a plant requiring a soil which is rich in lime, which is not light in
character or too heavy, and which has gi-eat depth. No cultivated
plant with which we are acquainted sends its roots to such a depth.
We have seen them 19 feet below the surface, and instances have
been quoted in which they have reached 30 feet.
Sainfoin, if not so valuable as lucerne, is nevertheless a most
economic plant adapted to the chalk hills of sheep districts. It with-
stands drought but not so well as lucerne, providas a very rich fodder
relished by all classes of cattle, and is one of those prolific plants
which are utilised in the manufacture of mutton. Neither of these
two favourite leguminous crops are sufficiently hardy for cultivation
in severe climates, but while both succeed in soils rich in lime
provided they are dry, sainfoin has a distinct preference for the
lighter soils as compared with the hea\ner.
430
SOIL — AND WHAT IT WILL GROW.
The Vetch, or Tare, belonging to the same order as the two
preceding plants, is one of the most valuable we possess in Great
Britain, providing with little trouble an abundant crop of fodder
suited to the requirements of domestic animals of all kinds kept on
the farm. This plant, growing almost anywhere, does not demand
either so much depth or quality as many plants. It is hardy in all
parts of England, grows well on clays, loams, gravels, and chalks of
the better class, thriving best of all on those soils which are in
high condition. The soil, however, must be drained naturally or
artificially, at the same time the vetch likes plenty of moisture.
We have thus far dealt with the cultivated plants of Great Britain,
so many of which are grown in other countries for export to us. It
is a curious fact that even where climate permits of the cultivation
of many of these crops their character is changed to a large extent
by its influence. We have already referred to wheat. We may
also remark that in parts of Canada and New Zealand, as in
Scotland, oats of very high quality are produced which compare
most advantageously with the oats sent us from Eussia and Sweden.
Few countries, however, can produce the kind mellow barleys which
are grown in Great Britain ; again it is not the soil alone which
accounts for this, but soil and climate. British beans and peas are
perhaps the best in the world for similar reasons. Forage crops
and roots are more abundant with us because we are assisted by
the suitability of our moist and mild atmosphere. Our grasses are
unexcelled in the northern hemisphere, and in a word there is
scarcely a British-grown cultivated plant which is not grown to
greater perfection by our people than by those of any other country.
Nor is this owing alone to skill or soil but to both, assisted by
climate.
TROPICAL PLANTS.
In the article which appeared in the " Annual " a year ago, we
showed that it was possible for the people living under the British
flag to grow every crop, every food required by the population of the
Empire. Tea and cofifee, tobacco and sugar, rice and maize, wine and
cotton can alike be produced where the climatic conditions exist. If
we examine the tobacco soils of America, the wine soils of France and
Germany, and the rice soils of India, we find that they differ in no
essential degree from many similar soils at home or in our colonies,
but the temperature is quite another thing. We refer to a few of
these plants that it may be seen how partial is the influence of the
soil, and how possible it would be to grow almost every crop in
Great Britain if our climate were suitable. Climate is often local.
A country which is near the equator, and which on a level with the
sea is extremely hot, may include mountains with every degree of
431
temperature between zero and the temperature of the plains. In
such a case vegetation may, where the hand of man directs it, range
between the tropical plants and those of the temperate zone.
Similarly in our own country climate is influenced by the proximity
of woods, marshes, and mountains, which either intercept the rays
of the sun or which affect the temperature of the surrounding soil
in consequence of the coolness of the vapours which are prevalent.
In a minor degree the soil influences the temperature, the dry sands
of one district causing a greater amount of heat to prevail than the
wet clays of another. Johnston has pointed out how temperature
influences vegetation. Thus —
Latitude. Mean. temp.
Equatarwl Zone.-Palms and bananas . . j Equator^to max temp^.^to
Tropical Zone.— Trees, ferns, figs 15° to 25° 78° to 73°
Sub-Tropical Zone.— Myrtles and laurels. 25° „ 34° ... 73° „ 62°
Warm Temperate Zone— Evergreens 34° „ 45° 62° „ 53°
Cold Temperate Zo?ie.— European trees . . 45° „ 58° 53° „ 42°
. Sub-Arctic Zone.— Fines 58° „ 67° 42° „ 39°
Arctic Zone.— Rhododendrons 67° „ 72° 32° „ 28°
Polar Zone.— Alpine plants 72° „ 90° 16° „ 1°
The above references are only indications of a wider range of
plants which gi'ow in each zone, many of which will occur to every
reader who has the most elementary acquaintance with European
plants and the produce of the tropics.
Tobacco is a plant which is rich in mineral matter, especially
potash and lime, hence a soil containing abundance of these materials
together with plenty of humus or organic matter in a condition to
be gradually utilised by the roots is necessary. Some of the best
tobacco-growing soil in the world is a moderately light sandy loam,
which is at the same time porous and rich. All the lighter loams
and the alluvial soils are suitable for tobacco, and we have seen it
gi'owing on the richest class of moulds largely composed of vegetable
matter. A great deal of tobacco is grown in America upon soil
which has not long been in cultivation, and which was previously
prairie land, containing an enormous quantity of humus. Fairly
hardy as the plant is, although it has been experimentally grown in
this country and is now grown in some of the northern countries of
Europe, high quality is not produced. It is a native of the tropics,
and is influenced perhaps more by climate than by soil.
Tea. — Experienced growers describe a typical tea soil as a light
loam, or a loam in which clay, humus, and sand are present in fairly
large quantities. A tea soil must be dry and deep, with a stiffish
subsoil, but here again we are met with the curious fact that tea, like
many of our own British plants, can be grown with success upon soils
432
SOIL— AND WHAT IT WILL GBOW.
of great variety so long as they possess plent}' of humus, which may
be provided artificially if it is not present as the accumulation of
ages. Climate again comes in, however, for the tea plant requires
abundant moisture and warmth.
Coffee is said to grow in almost any soil between the two extremes
of heavy clay and poor dry sand. Loam, however, is preferred so
long as it has plenty of staple to provide food for the long root of the
coffee tree. It is said that coffee often produces an abundant crop on
dry soils.
Cacao. — Like the coffee and the tea plants, the cacao also has a
long root, necessitating a deep staple. This plant thrives in alluvial
deposit and the richer soils produced from rocks of volcanic origin. It
objects to the heavier clays, but thrives on loams of the richer class.
Sugar Cane. — All planters of experience declare that the sugar
cane will grow in soils of almost every class. There are seasons
when some species, such as the Chinese sorghum cane, will reach
considerable growth in this country, and in one the writer grew an
extraordinary crop which was very rich in sugar. In those countries
where sugar is produced the cane is grown upon soils of almost all
kinds, but it produces the most satisfactory results on alluvial soils
and the richer loams and loamy clays. Lime is an essential
ingredient of a soil intended for the production of this crop. But
for climate the sugar cane might be grown in this country, inasmuch
as there are many soils suitable for its production, but, like many
other tropical plants, it prefers the very warm, humid atmosphere
which is found in many of our own colonies. It also thrives better
on the sheltered lowlands than on the more exposed soils of
the hills.
The Orange. — An experienced Florida grower recently pointed out
to the writer that the most productive soil in his State was of a rich
black vegetable character ; nevertheless,' the orange tree is produc-
tive in soils of almost all classes provided always that they are dry
and deep, for the roots penetrate into the earth to a very consider-
able depth. It is an undoubted fact that a soil suitable for this plant
to grow at its best must be well provided with humus.
Gbiger reaches its greatest perfection upon moist rich soils of a
medium character, more especially loams containing abundance of
humus. It objects to extremely dry, thin, heavy, or sandy soils.
T}ie Nutmeg prefers the lighter loams and alluvial deposits. It is
also found on loams rich in humus, but objects to both wet and
excessively drj' soils.
Pepper has a vei^y wide range of soils, but they must be well
drained and of medium character, neither a heavy clay nor a hot
thin sand. The rich alluvial soils which are often found in tropical
climates are excellent for the purposes of its growth.
433
SOIL — AND WHAT IT WILL GROW.
Bice prefers a clayey sand or a sand in which a moderate propor-
tion of clay is present. It delights in moisture and in great heat, at
the same time that it prefers a soil of free texture which the sand
provides, the clay giving the necessary retentive power. Rice is
largely grown on irrigated soils.
Tapioca is the product of the cassava plant, which grows on rich
loams of the lighter class if well drained under heavy manuring.
Greedy of food, cassava needs high cultivation, but it demands a dry,
warm climate, which is not provided in this country.
Arroicroot also delights in light sandy loams which are free from
stagnant water and have a porous subsoil.
The plants we have referred to under this heading are sufficient
for our purpose. The soils upon which they grow practically show
that climate alone prevents their being produced in Great Britain.
We have in these islands, as a matter of fact, soils adapted to every
known economical plant, but, as we have pointed out already, climate
alone prevents the cultivation of those crops which demand heat and
other conditions found only in tropical and sub-tropical climates.
It has been mentioned by an able writer in " The Book of the
Farm," in connection with the subject of the indication of soils by
the weeds growing upon them, that ragweed denotes a deep vegetable
soil, wild thyme a thin vegetable soil, clover and wild vetches good
vegetable soils ; the dry soils are indicated by the mouse-eared
hawkweed, purge flax, and autumn hawkbit, and very dry soils by
the yellow bedstraw ; that the presence of moisture below a soil is
indicated by the yellow iris, the cuckoo flower or ladies' smock, the
ragged robin, the purple dead nettle, and the smooth naked horse
tail ; that a favourable subsoil, often contrary to expectation, is
denoted by furze or gorse, and an unfavourable one by the broom
plant ; that a soil rich in condition is recognised by the common
chick weed and the common fumitory, and a poor soil by the gi'eat
oxeye ; and the presence of peat by the spotted bearded orchis. The
first volume of this work may be referred to by readers who desire to
pursue this matter further, numerous lists of plants being given which
indicate not only the classes of soil but their particular condition.
SOILS IN SOME BRITISH COUNTIES.
A FEW references to the soils of different counties will be sufficient
to show how diverse is the crop- growing character even in this
comparatively small country, and yet how similar in many respects
is the range of plants under cultivation. Growers upon different
soils in different climates manage to achieve the same, or nearly
the same, results by the exercise of skill and good management.
Mr. A. T. Matthews says that in Surrey large tracts of heath run
from east to west along the ridges of the chalk hills, those in the
29
434
SOIL AND WHAT IT WILL GROW.
west expanding and becoming irreclaimable moorlands. In the
Weald there is a cold retentive clay stretching along the southern
border. This, however, is not a uniform soil, some being of really
high quality and growing excellent crops of wheat, hops, and clover,
and can-ying good pastures ; much, however, is extremely poor and
costly to cultivate, for which reason it has been laid down to grass.
The best land in the county is the deep sandy loam resting upon
sandstone. Upon this soil first-rate barley, turnips, clover, and
wheat, and almost every agricultural crop is grown. In another
part of the county is a large tract of clay streaked with sandy loam.
From the northern borders of this clay up to the Thames the soil is
chiefly sand, intermixed on the banks of the Mole, the Wey, and the
Wandle with loam and clay, enabling the market gardener of the
district to conduct an excellent business. In this district lavender,
pepperaiint, wormwood, and camomile are all extensively cultivated.
In the sister county of Kent, the Weald, as it is termed, chiefly
consists of strong, poor clay, upon which wheat, oats, beans, and
hops are grown in accordance with the system of cultivation
adopted and the improvement which has been effected in the soil.
Near the Medway are low-lying, deep loams, with a staple from four
to nine feet in thickness. Here hops, fruit, roots, and grain crops
are grown in abundance, more especially during showery seasons.
A third class of soil famous in Kent is a mixture of clay and sand,
the former predominating, which binds seriously in wet weather
during which it must not be touched. There is also a soil which is
excessively hungry, and which has a gravel subsoil. With heavy
manuring this will grow grain, roots, and hops well, but in dry
seasons it is not productive.
Dorset, a leading southern agricultural county, contains a great
deal of excellent land, much of which is a gravelly loam on a chalk
subsoil. This, and a reddish loam of deep texture, is the best the
county can produce where it is dry and healthy. Some Dorset
gravels, however, although providing excellent food for cattle and
sheep, burn during hot weather when they are not productive. The
best lands run to some 25,000 acres in extent. With a wide
diversity of soils between good and bad Dorset is able to produce
grain, roots, sheep, and milk in abundant quantities.
In Derbyshire the best soils are those of the valleys of the Dove
and Trent, the former extending from Tissington by Sudbury and
up to the junction of the Dove with the Trent. The land in the
valley of the Derwent is also of excellent quality. It varies from a
light to a strong loam, the light loams being in the Trent valley and
the stronger loams in the Dove valley. Most of this land is pasture
and meadow, but small quantities of wheat, together with oats,
barley, and roots, are grown in some instances.
435
SOIL AND WHAT IT WILL GROW.
In Gloucestershire, which in some respects resembles Derbyshire,
a cattle and milk producing county, the best soils are the clays and
alluvial deposits near the river Severn. Grass is the principal
product, and beans and grain are grown, although roots are liable
to mildew in the lower soils. Here the influence of climate is felt,
and this rules the agricultural system of the county.
In the counties of Berkshire and Oxon, some of the best soils are
of a deep loam on gravel subsoil and green sand. These are chiefly
found in the Thames valley. On one class of soils barley and oats
are chiefly grown and sheep fed, while on the other some of the
finest wheat and beans in the country are produced.
Leicestershire includes a typical cheese-making district, but here
again the soils are extremely varied. The best permanent pasture
(and it is of a very high quality) is in what is known as the
Harborough district, where oxen are easily fed on grass alone. In
another part of the county, embracing some 20,000 acres, soils are
deep and contain a very large proportion of humus on a clay subsoil.
Again, in another district a free loam with plenty of staple covers
some 16,000 acres. This is good pasture but does not possess the
rich feeding properties of the grass in the first-named district.
Between Leicester and Loughborough excellent grain, roots, potato,
and clover crops are grown on an extremely rich soil. Curiously
the land on which Stilton cheese is produced is mainly of second-
rate quality and generally heavy. In the north-eastern part of the
county a great deal of soil rests upon ironstone, while in the
Charnwood Forest district to the north-west the land is thin and
weak. In the south and south-west mixed farming is conducted
and flat cheese made. Here the grass is of second-rate quality.
Crossing to Lincolnshire, which includes some of the best land in
Great Britain, we find that in the Kirton district is a very fertile,
deep rich dark loam, which grows some of the best potatoes sent
to the London market. In the northern part of the county the
same crop is grown upon the red soil, which produces similar
quantities of a better quality of potatoes, second only to those which
are grown in the fine potato soils near Dunbar. The Lincolnshire
Wolds are more suited for barley and turnips ; good wheat is also
grown. The subsoil is chalk, with the result that the land is
maintained both moist and cool, whereas on the oolite formation the
soil burns in hot summers. Among the finest laud in the county is
that known as the Heath. This, although very thin, is especially
adapted for the growth of barley, and as much as 50s. a quarter has
been paid for the fine qualities grown here by the chief Burton brewers.
In the warped district, which includes some of the very richest land
known and lying on the banks of the Trent, are some 20,000 acres
in what is known as the Isle of Axholme. This soil reaches into
\
436
SOIL — AND WHAT IT WILL GROW.
Yorkshire on the Ouse, and produces fabulous crops in most years.
There is also a smaller district in the east of the county in which
are very fine pastures, which have been known to feed an eighty-
stone bullock and a sheep to the acre.
The Yorkshire district includes almost all classes of soil, as it also
includes every class of farming known in Great Britain. In the
Holderness district in the south-east of the county about 370
square miles is included, alluvial and boulder clay growing wheat,
beans, clover, and potatoes. North of this district are the Wolds,
some 376 square miles. Here the soil is light on a chalk subsoil,
growing barley, turnips, seeds, and wheat. In another district on
the oolite formation, about 1,000 miles square, the soil is extremely
diversified, and the crops are various in consequence, hill and dale,
occasional alluvial deposit, with medium soils of several classes.
In the Vale of York is the finest land in the county, on the new
red sandstone, about 1,150 miles square, producing every variety of
crop in the highest quality. The best land in the north of the
county is in the Yale of the Tees and in the Thirsk district. In this
district is some of the finest farming in Great Britain. The highest
type of cattle, sheep, and horses, and some of the finest crops of
roots and grain are grown. From the south of the county a narrow
strip of magnesium limestone runs nearly as far as Bedale. This is
about 270 miles square, producing varied crops. About a third of
Yorkshire is mountain limestone and silurian, and is chiefly covered
with grass, sheep being fed on the higher portions and cattle in the
vales.
One type of a Southern hill county must suffice. The South-
downs comprise a large portion of the county of Sussex, and
these are chiefly chalk, and grow the well-known Southdown
sheep. The best arable lands in the county are (1) south of the
Southdowns between Lancing and Chichester ; (2) the arable soils
adjoining the rivers and in the valleys through which these rivers
run, such as the Ouse, the Cuckmere, the Arun, and the Adur;
(3) the arable soils north of the Southdowns and running from a
quarter to three-quarters of a mile away The best soils of the
county are chiefly of a strong loam or alluvial chai-acter, but among
the last named, north of the Southdowns is a good stretch of
black vegetable soil lying on chalk, but it is expensive to till. The
chief crops grown on these soils are wheat, beans, and roots.
Each count}' so far named is famous for some specialite, but that
specialite is practically owing to the system followed on particular
parts of the county, i.e., on particular soils. Thus the Southdowns
of Sussex are really the produce of the Downs themselves. The
fruit and hops of Kent are the produce of particular districts, the
437
SOIL AND WHAT IT WILL CUtOW.
larger portion of the county being ill-adapted to either crop, and
remarks of this kind in a modified form are applicable to every other
county in the country.
One of the chief milk-selling counties of England is Bucks, in
which is the famous rich Vale of x\ylesbury, where the soil is a rich
dark loam upon a clay subsoil. There are also tine loams on gravel,
but in dry years they are said to burn. The best arable soils are at
the foot of the Chiltern Hills, and they are capable of growing every
description of grain crop with success. This soil is a dark or some-
times gi-ey loam upon clay, while others are upon gravel Much
of this soil is said to have been brought by the rains from the
adjoining hills. This soil penetrates several miles into Herts, Oxon,
and Berks. The hill land is of poor quality, yellow clay on chalk.
We are able to trace the influence of soil and climate in our cattle
and sheep. The cattle of Wales, the West Highlands, and Kerry
are adapted to the mountain pastures on which they live. Perhaps
it would be correct to say that they have been made what they are
by these mountain pastures and the particular climate. We have
noticed that the fine cattle of the Swiss valleys deteriorate in size
and form when confined to the mountains, and our Shorthorns and
Herefords, accustomed to lowland pastures, would probably do the
same. The sheep of the Scotch Highlands, the Welsh Hills, the
mountain districts of Cumberland, Westmorland, Yorkshire, and
Dartmoor, are all characteristic of a rough life, short poor grass, and
cold or wet climate. The small ponies of Exmoor and the New
Forest are the products of inferior food grown upon land of wretched
quality, and generally deficient in lime. The shire horse is brought
to the highest perfection on the richer soils of Lancashire, Lincoln-
shire, and Derbyshire.
These remarks must conclude with a short reference to Ireland.
Clare is largely composed of mixed lime and brownstone, as an
expert correspondent describes it. Much of the soil is cold clay,
wet, and badly cultivated. Limerick is largely composed of lime-
stone, and possesses abundance of rich feeding and dairy soil. It is
said that in the Golden Vein a bullock and a sheep can be fed off by
July 1, and another by November. There is little tillage, potatoes
excepted, in this county. Waterford includes a great deal of waste
mountain land, but there is some useful soil on each side of the rail-
way from Limerick to Waterford. The soil of Tipperary is excellent,
including both limestone and sandstone. Here milk is largely
produced and sheep are grown. In the East Riding of Cork the soils
produce milk, barley, roots, and grass. In the West Riding the soil
is cold, wet, and inferior. Milk production is nevertheless followed.
The best soils in the county are calcareous loams overlying the
mountain limestone at its junction with the old red sandstone. They
438
SOIL — AND WHAT IT WILL GROW.
are found in the lower valley of the Lea and the valley of the Black-
water and its tributaries, and extend over an area of nearly 500 square
miles. On these soils almost all crops succeed, although grass fails
in very dry weather, when roots are uncertain. In Kerry the greater
part of the soil is very inferior, on the mountains the herbage is
either very deficient or absent altogether. Here grain crops are
almost unknown.
The following analysis of a heavy soil in the Carse of Gowrie,
which is taken from the "Highland Society's Transactions," shows
the comparative composition of the soil and the subsoil : —
Soil.
Potash 2-800
Soda 1-439
Lime 830
Magnesia 1020
Peroxide of iron 4-870
Sulpliuric acid -091
Phosphoric acid "240
Carbonic acid -050
Chlorine -009
Alumina 14-040
Silica 63-195
Organic matter 8-550
Water 2-700
Subsoil.
2-176
1-045
1275
1-393
6-2.30
-039
•268
-020
14-247
61-635
6 827
4 575
489
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABROAD.
BY J. HIB8T HOLLOWELL.
TT ^E are now hearing almost more about technical education
\\l than about education in general. The adjective is, of course,
* * not greater than its noun, but the latter is perhaps in some
danger of being depreciated or misunderstood. The right
education of a people will draw out its whole capacity. Education
cannot be complete if it has no reference to sciences, arts, and
industries. It must train men for action, as well as for language and
enumeration. It must seek to fit men for life as they will actually
live it, whether in home or study, or in the widest range of their
contact with nature, society, and duty.
We are so accustomed to think of all that happened in educational
affairs previous to 1870 as necessarily faulty, that we are in danger
of forgetting some favourable features prior to that date. We
showed in a former article on "The Education of the People,'"''
that free education was introduced into the numerous schools
started at the beginning of the eighteenth century. It is of equal
interest to remember that manual instruction also entered into that
well-intentioned but inadequate scheme of school reform. Correct
educational ideas have never been wholly wanting. What have
been lacking have been the public spirit and the financial resources
to give effect to such ideas.
If we turn to the Minutes of the Committee of Council on Educa-
tion issued under Sir Robert Peel's Government in 1846, we find
that the educational statesmen of that day were nmch in advance of
their time in regard to manual and technical education. The most
remarkable part of the Minutes was the offer of
GRANTS FOB GARDEN, WORKSHOP, AND HOUSEWIFERY INSTRUCTION.
Here was the promise — we cannot say the dawn — of the technical
instruction of fifty years later. The wish of the framers of the
Minutes was in part to get rid of the idea — so much more prevalent
in England than in Scotland — that the cultivation of the mind is
inconsistent with manual labour. In part also it was desired that
school gardens might be worked as allotments by the scholars, so as
to augment the income of the labom*er's family. Then, again, it was
hoped that workshops, as forming part of the school system, would
• See pp. 319-344, "The Co-operative Wholesale Societies' Annual for 1892."
440
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABBOAD.
impart useful handicrafts to children in the crowded cities.
Many of these children were growing up without means of honest or
certain livelihood. Costermongering, errand -running, street duties
of the most casual kind, vagrancy, tricks of cunning and theft were
the employments amongst which thousands had to make their
choice. For such children it was intended to make going to school
the means of learning not only reading, writing, and arithmetic, but
some calling like that of carpenter, smith, or cooper. Their lord-
ships offered to assist the erection of buildings and the purchase of
tools, and they even went so far as to promise gi'atuities to master
workmen for every boy who should come to learn and practise a
craft. They also offered assistance towards the domestic training of
girls. Money would be given for a wash-house and kitchen, in order
that household management might be taught in such branches as
cookery, laundry-work, and family needlework. Mistresses who
succeeded in giving this instruction were to be rewarded by
gratuities. The idea was good, thoughtful, and even daring, but it
bore little fruit. The difficulty then, as now, was to impart extra
instruction in schools where the ordinary work is poorly done, where
the staff is inferior, and where financial resources are slender.
Even in our own day, as we shall have occasion to see, technical
instruction is impeded by defective elementary training of
our young people. But what could be hoped for in the days
that followed Mr. Slaney's Committee of the House of Commons
in 1838? The state of education was deplorable. Sir James
Kay- Shuttle worth remarks" that the day school was " little more
than a less efficient edition of the Sunday school. . . . The
religious formularies, and the Bible itself, suffered therefore a
painful desecration as the hornbooks of ignorant scholars, in charge
of almost as ignorant teachers, who w^ere for the most part under
twelve or thirteen years of age." It was found, as the result of
careful researches by the Manchester Statistical Society,! that the
following was the educational condition of Liverpool, Manchester,
Salford, Bury, and York : —
Population of the five towns. . . . 533,000.
Children, ages 3 to 13, after deducting one-third 80,050
Children in tolerably good schools 21,967
Children in wortliless dame and common day schools . . 29,259
Children in no school at all 28,834
So that out of 80,050 children, no fewer than 58,093 were either
quite untaught or were in schools of next to no value.
But we need not go so far back as 1843 to see that minutes may
propose forms of superior instruction which schools are unable or
* " Public Education," p. 58.
t " Keport of Statistical Society of ^Manchester. 1837."
441
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABROAD.
will refuse to touch. The Technical Instruction Act, 1889, is being
applied in thousands of neighbourhoods to forms of elementary
instruction, technical in only the vaguest sense, which might long
since have been imparted under the Code in the day schools of the
country. Take the Code in force only nine years ago (1885).
Possibilities of Higher or Technical Instruction in 1885.
There were then 18,761 schools inspected ; 4,337,000 scholars
were on the school registers. The Treasury spent £2,867,653 in
grants to the schools, or 17s. per head for every scholar in average
attendance, and the total cost of " school maintenance " was
£6,630,623.* What did this immense sum procure of science or
technical results in the agricultural counties ? What advantage was
taken of the special grants offered for such subjects as elementary
science and geography. Besides these subjects, the Education
Department offered a grant of 4s. per scholar for every senior
scholar who passed in a specific subject. These subjects were,
even in 1885, of industrial, commercial, and technical value.
Many of them are the very subjects which, as we shall see,
the County Councils are now endeavouring to teach in the rural
districts. Great cost is being incurred, and the machinery of our
educational system is made highly complicated by this new develop-
ment. But it ought to be known that years before the Technical
Instruction Act was heard of the following subjects might have been
taught in the day schools if the latter had been under proper
management and in a position to command suitable buildings,
appliances, and staff", viz. : —
Euclid and Mensuration. — To Book II. and the elements of mensuration.
Mechanics. — Descriptively and experimentally taught.
Animal Physiology, with diagrams and models.
Botany. Organs, structure, food, functions, fruits, germination.
Principles of Agriculture.— Plant food, tillage, manures, growth and variation
of crops.
Chemistry. — Compounds, decomposition, the gases, pure air, carbon, metallic
and non-metallic bodies, symbols and formulae.
Sound, Light, and Heat.
^Magnetism and Electricity.
Domestic Economy (girls).
Cookery.
Here we have subjects of what is now called " technical educa-
tion," every one of which was then offered to the country as part
of day school education for children in the upper standards. But
such were the organisation and resources of the great mass of day
schools that they let these interesting lines of teaching alone. The
Minutes of 1846 hardly fell more flat. And simply because the Code
• P. xlii.. Blue Book, 1885-6.
442
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABROAD.
was drawn up by a responsible Government, while the neglect or
application of its optional articles rested for the most part with
private and irresponsible managers.
Let us take a few typical counties. Of course London, Birmingham,
Leeds, Nottingham, Leicester, and Scotland generally, began to
carry out parts of Schedule IV. of the Code, that is to teach subjects
bearing upon our industrial and commercial interests, and
fitted to develop the mind and aptitude of scholars. In 1886
Scotland made one pass in these subjects for every four of her older
scholars. The School Board of Nottingham alone, as far back as
the year 1884, made 1,114 passes in specific subjects. In
Euclid 23 Domestic Economy 222
Algebra 267
Animal Physiology .... 275
French 56
Cookery 227
Agriculture 14
&c., &c.
The following year its passes were 2,019, of which 444 were in
mechanics. The best school boards would show somewhat similar
figures. But not a few counties, in which public resources were not
yet available for education, revealed a lamentable state of things.
Lincolnshire, with 595 schools, sent only 394 scholars to be examined in
specifics.
Berkshire, with 236 schools, sent only 121 scholars.
Buckinghamshire, with 248 schools, sent only three scholars.
Dorsetshire, with 267 schools, sent only 18 scholars.
Herefordshire, with 192 schools, sent only 79 scholars.
Oxfordshire, with 253 schools, sent onlj' 189 scholars.
Somerset, with 553 schools sent only 233 scholars.
Wilts, with 352 schools, sent only 205 scholars.
And even as late as 1892 (Table C, Eeport) —
Berkshire taught the more scientific and technical subjects to only
361 scholars out of 42,165.
Cheshire to 1,485 scholars out of 124,203.
Dorsetshire to 21 scholars out of 32,867.
Suffolk to 115 scholars out of 64,628.
Shropshire to 141 out of 40,140 (1 in 280).
Yorkshire has done better, viz , 1 in 50.
Lancashire, also I in 50.
Notts, better still, 1 in 28.
London, best of all, 1 in 21.
Such figures proved the utter incapacity of existing systems of
management and support in the rural districts to carry education
through its scientific and technical phases.
A ROYAL COMMISSION ON TECHNICAL EDUCATION WAS ISSUED BY
HER MAJESTY IN 1881.
The Commissioners appointed were Bernhard Samuelson, F.E.S.;
Henry Enfield Eoscoe, LL.D., F.E.S.; Philip Magnus, B.A., B.Sc;
John Slagg, Swire Smith, and William Woodall. Their very
443
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABROAD.
valuable report was published in 1884. They visited France,
Switzerland, Germany, Austria, Belgium, Holland, and Italy, calling
at some sixty or seventy towns. At home, they visited educational
establishments in over twenty English and Scotch towns. Ireland
also was visited, and the interesting features of technical education
there were noted. The secretary of the Eoyal Agricultural Society
of Great Britain, Mr. H. M. Jenkins, was made a sub-commissioner
with instructions to report on the teaching of agriculture in France,
Germany, Denmai'k, Holland, and the United Kingdom. Mr. Wm.
Mather, M.P., the well-known mechanical engineer of Salford, visited
the United States and Canada and furnished information of great
value on the general and technical education and industries of the
former, and on primary education in the latter.
We shall hereafter pass in review some of the systems and
institutions of technical education in various countries of the world.
But it will be obvious that a voluminous report following on so
competent an inquiry could not fail to exercise a marked effect upon
public opinion and legislation. Accordingly, five years later,
Parliament had the whole subject before it, and there was passed —
THE TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION ACT, 1889 (AuG. 30).
This measure was not passed without prolonged discussion and
important amendment. It was left to the very end of the session,
and as originally drawn was not quite acceptable to an earnest
section of politicians. It was alleged that it would further endow
with public money the ordinary schools of the country, without
introducing public control in any effective form. This view was
repeatedly urged in Parliament and in the press. The vice-president
of the Council, Sir W. Hart-Dyke, listened carefully to what was
advanced by Mr. Channing and Mr. Picton on the one hand, and by
technical experts like Mr. Mather and Mr. Woodall on the other,
with the result that a compromise was agreed to, limiting the
operation of the Act to scholars outside the standards of elementary
schools. The following is an
ANALYSIS OF THE ACT OF 1889.
Section 1 (1) enables a local authority to supply or aid the supply
of technical or manual instruction out of the local rate. But (a)
not to scholars in the elementary standards. Nor (b) may scholars
in schools so aided be required to attend any religious institution,
service, or observance. (c) Denominational catechisms and for-
mularies are not to be taught in aided schools to scholars attending
only for technical instruction under the Act. (d) School boards and
other managers aided from the Department of Science and Art may
request aid from the rates for technical instraction given in their
444
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABROAD.
schools, and the local authority may grant it 'subject to the
restrictions of the section. The local authority shall (e) be repre-
sented on the governing body in proportion to the aid given from
the rates. Questions arising shall (/) be referred to the Department
of Science and Art, but no aid shall be given to schools carried on
for private profit. Nor (g) can the rate raised for any year exceed
one penny in the pound. (2) Delegation of the powers of the local
authority may be made to a committee consisting wholly or partly
of members of the local authority, saving the power of raising a
rate, &c. (3) The existing powers of school boards to give technical
or manual instruction shall not be interfered with by this Act.
Section 4 (I) defines "local authority" as the council of any
county or borough and any urban sanitary authority (Public Health
Acts); (2) defines the term "local rate;" (3) allows parts of
counties to be charged with expenses under the Act ; (4) sets forth
the manner in which county and borough councils and urban
sanitary authorities may borrow money for the purposes of technical
education.
Section 5 provides that managers shall render an account to the
local authority, subject to audit, and that misapplied moneys be
refunded.
Sections 6 and 7 give definitions of minor importance as to audit
of accounts of urban sanitary authorities, and the application of the
Act to Ireland.
Section 8 is of importance; it defines "technical instruction"
in these terms : —
Instruction in the principles of science and art applicable to industries, and in
the application of special branches of science and art to specific industries or
employments. It shall not include teaching the practice of any trade or industry
or employment, but, save as aforesaid, shall include instruction in the branches
of science and art with respect to which grants are for the time being, made by
the Department of Science and Art, and any other form of instruction (including
modem languages and comimercial and agricultural subjects) which may, for the
time being, be sanctioned by that department by a minute laid before Parliament,
and made on the representation of a local authority that such a form of
instruction is required by the circumstances of its district. The expression
'•manual instruction " shall mean instruction in the use of tools, processes of
agriculture, and modelling in clay, wood, or other material.
The Act does not extend to Scotland (Section 9).
Examination of the above digest of the Act will show its great
importance, and also its leading defects. It is of great value as
taking up the dropped thread of the Minutes of 1846 and both
lengthening and strengthening it. It is an acknowledgment by the
State that the curriculum of education, in the country districts
especially, is thin and abstract, forming no sufficient preparation for
the practical life of citizenship, industry, commerce, and art. It
445
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABBOAD.
also proves to demonstration that the widespread neglect of higher
and technical subjects has been due to the absence of local
educational authorities with control of public funds.
But the defects of the Act are glaring. 1. It left unhelped most of
the children in the standards of elementary schools — that is to say, left
them at the mercy of private and irresponsible management, intent
on economical or other interests rather than on giving the child a
generous all-round equipment for life. Thus in 1892 (p. 41, report
for 1892-3), out of 2,179 boys, girls, or mixed schools in Lancashire,
only 67 taught elementally science, and only 197 taught any specific
subject. If this was so in Lancashire, what could we expect of
counties like Wilts, Somerset, and Suffolk, where
Wilts
Boys' and Girls'
Schools numbered : —
383
Schools
Elementarj
Teaching
Science : —
18
Somerset ....
592
16
Suffolk
465
26
Lincoln ....
649
7
Oxford
284
10
Herts
247
3
Dorset
296
2
Salop
Northants .
338
4
332
3
3,586 89
2. The Technical Instruction Act of course left the management of
elementary schools untouched. 3. It gave no authority to the
councils to deal with elementary school buildings, or to appoint a
better qualified school staff. 4. It created one more set of school
authorities instead of consolidating those now existing. 5. It made
an artificial distinction between the education called elementary
and that called technical, for, as we have seen, the subjects sanctioned
under Section 8 of the Act of 1889 are similar to those set out in
Schedule IV. for elementary schools. 6. The Act as it stood was
optional, and depended for its operation upon the ratepayer, who is
by no means in all cases an enthusiast for education. 7. Further,
its limit of one penny in the pound did not promise well. But
an unexpected opportunity soon occurred of supplying its financial
defects. Lord Salisbury's Government essayed to deal with the
licensing question in 1890, and proposed to compensate publicans
for the loss of their licenses. The Local Government Bill created a
fund for this purpose by imposing new excise and customs duties on
intoxicating liquors ; but when the country had had time to consider
compensation it was strongly condemned, and the Government
hastened to withdraw it. At the same time, the scheme for raising
4M
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABBOAD.
the money had received the sanction of the House of Commons and
was now the law of the land. What was to be done? One man in
Parliament did not hesitate. Mr. Arthur Acland, now (to the
advantage of national education) vice-president of the Council,
stepped into the breach and carried a motion that the moneys raised
from the new customs and excise duties should be available for
technical instruction. This decision shortly afterwards received
effect in
THE LOCAL TAXATION (CUSTOMS AND EXCISE) ACT., 1890.
This important measure is now in operation, and will prove the first
step in great changes affecting our school system. Practically it
brought some part of education in thousands of parishes under the
control of local government for the first time. It did not do this in the
most systematic, effective, or economical way, but it recognised
principles which are bound to have progressive application. It at least
took technical education out of the groove of a penny rate and placed
at its service some three-quarters of a million sterling per annum.
This made a great diffei'ence. Education rates would have come up
slowly in the counties. Out of 128 local authorities which came
under the Technical Instruction Act of 1889, only 62 have yet agi-eed
to raise a rate, and the proceeds of this rating for 1892-3 were only
£26,000 -''~ In the county of Lancashire Blackburn, Clitheroe,
Heywood, Manchester, Nelson, Eochdale,Southport, and Stalybridge
resolved to levy a rate, but Preston, Liverpool, Bury, Oldham,
Ashton, Accrington, Bolton, Wigan, and other places, made no sign.
ANALYSIS OP LOCAL TAXATION ACT, 1890.
Section 1 (1) provides for police superannuation out of part
(£300,000) of the new duties, and the distribution of the residue
between county and borough funds. (2) Councils may vote such
residue, or part thereof, to technical education over and above any
amount raised by rate. (3) A county council may vote the money
for technical education to town councils or other urban sanitary
authority for this purpose. (4) The council for any county coming
under the Welsh Intermediate Education Act, 1889, may apply
towards intermediate and technical education, under that Act, both
moneys received under the Local Taxation Act, 1890, and moneys
raised under the Welsh Act before-mentioned.
Section 2 provides (1) that £40,000 of the Scotch share of the
local taxation duties shall be for police superannuation; (2) that
a sum of not more than £40,000 shall go towards free education
in the compulsory standards in Scotland; and (3) that the
residue, subject to the Pleuro-Pneumonia (Animals) Act, 1890, shall
* Report of National Association for Technical Education, 1892-93, p. 6.
447
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABROAD.
be distributed in aid of medical and sanitary supervision, or in relief
of rates, provided, however, that councils may apply such residue to
technical education within the meaning of the Technical Schools
(Scotland) Act, 1887, in addition to sums paid under that Act.
Section 3 (1) (i.) devotes £75,000 of the Irish share of the duties
to the Commissioners of Education in Ireland, to be distributed for
the benefit of national schools in non-contributory unions, and to the
guardians in contributory unions, subject to slight restrictions.
It is now our duty to consider two other important topics before
we pass to the technical and manual education of foreign countries.
First, we will try to answer the question — What is technical
instruction ? Secondly, we will endeavour to exhibit the extent
and chief forms of technical instruction in Great Britain and
Ireland.
THE NATURE AND ENDS OF TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION.
We should bear in mind that the word technical is not the only
name given to the kind of instruction covered by the expression.
^^ Manual instruction" and ''industrial education" are also used.
The first two names are used interchangeably in the Eeport of the
Royal Commissioners on Education for England and Wales, 1888
(chap, iii., part 4, final report). The report gives a definition of
technical education very similar to that of the 8th section of the
Technical Instruction Act, 1889. It is as follows : —
By technical instruction we understand instruction in those scientific or artistic
principles which underlie the industrial occupations of the people, including
especially handicrafts, manufactures, mining, and agricultural labour, as well as
the manual practice involved in the application of those principles. . . Instruc-
tion in drawing and elementary science is frequently and very properly regarded
as part of technical education.
The Act of Parliament excludes the "teaching the practice of any
trade, industry, or employment," but it will often be found impossible
to avoid this when the principles underlying handicrafts are taught.
It is certain that the leading object of many advocates of
technical education is to improve the methods and products of
industry, and thereby promote the growth of our connnerce and
wealth. That is a worthy and important end to keep in view. With
the majority, it may appear to be the only end. But on this subject,
as on others, there are conflicting schools of opinion. With some,
manual instruction is desired on educational gi'ounds alone. They
tell us that it awakens intelligence in a boy or girl to be taught to
work with the hands. They promote it, as they promote kinder-
garten, for its educative effect upon the child's mind and faculties.
Froebel, in his "Education of Man" ("Die Menschenerziehung"),
says : —
448
To learn a thing in life, and through doing, is much more developing,
cultivating, and strengthening than to learn it merely through the verbal com-
munication of ideas. Similarly, plastic material representation in life and
through doing, united with thought and speech, is by far more developing and
cultivating thaii the merely verbal communication of ideas. . . For the
purpose of teaching and instruction is to bring ever more out of a man rather
than to put more and more i?ito him.
Pestalozzi, born in 1746 (37 years before Froebel), taught similar
views of education, though he did not carry them to the same length
of application. Instruction, he taught, should never stop with ideas,
but the child should have corresponding impressions of the senses,
and be furnished with means of observation and experiment.
" What you can't do blindfold," he would say, "you can't do at all."'''
Some have objected to schoolroom and workshop being brought
close together as intellectually lowering to the former. But this was
due to misunderstanding, and hardly sur^dves among avowed
opinions. The educational as against the industrial argument for
technical education has been very ably urged both in America and
in Sweden. The view is taken in some of the best manual training
schools of the United States that instruction in carpentry, wood-
turning, patternmaking, iron, chipping and filing, forge work, brazing
and soldering, the use of machine shop tools, and other such instruc-
tion, is
INTENDED FOR MENTAL DISCIPLINE ONLY.
Work done in the shops is not for sale or profit, and is of value, as
a rule, only as exercises. This has been very finely expressed by
the director of the St. Louis Manual Training School, Mr. Wood-
ward,! as follows : —
In a factory, intellectual life and activity is not aimed at ; its sole object is the
production of articles for the market. In a manual training school, everything
is for the benefit of the boy ; he is the most importapt thing in the shop ; Jte is tlie
only article to be put upon the market. . . We abstract all the mechanical
processes and manual arts and typical tools of the trades and occupations of men,
and arrange a systematic course of instruction in the same. Thus, without
teaching any one trade, we teach the essential mechanical principles of all.
Generally, the object is to develop the mind, to start thought, and
to train the executive faculty for useful action.
This ground has often been taken by those who are not anxious
for technical schools to come into closer relation to handicrafts.
Lord Armstrong was at one time, and perhaps still is, rather
unfriendly to "technical education" in the latter sense. Head of
the Elswick Works, and employing 13,000 men, he was entitled to
an opinion on such a subject. That opinion was that "mobility,
precision, delicacy of hand, should be cultivated by use of simple
• " Leonard and Gertrude."
t Eeport of the Pennsylvania Commission on Technical Instruction, p. 173.
i
Plate 9. — Physical Depaetment of the Zurich Polytechkic.
1
449
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABROAD.
tools, and this would give advantage in any work afterwards under-
taken."''' " To attempt to teach children special trades and processes
of manufacture would, I conceive, be a mistake." f Lord Armstrong
desiderated ability rather than knowledge. He said that he should
have had around him a very different — "an incomparably less
efficient — staff" if he had not chosen men for ability rather than for
knowledge. He therefore looked to manual education as the means
whereby "the hand, the eye, and the ear should be trained so as to
make those organs more available as instruments of the mind."t
Doubtless an overwhelming case can be made out for manual and
technical education from this side.
But manual instruction can offer all sorts of pleas. It is important
as helping the young to I'ealise the dignity of manual labour, and to
respect the labouring man. More of our best youth should live by
mechanical industries. It is a common error to suppose that manual
labour is coarse, unintelligent, and unskilful.
It is, of course, not proposed that technical instruction shall stand
alone. It can easily be combined with literary and other studies.
It gives greater value to science and drawing by the light it throws on
forms, materials, and processes. The handling of real things helps
the appreciation of language. It conduces to clearness and simplicity
of statement. It engages the energies of young people to good
purpose, and keeps them from much misdirection. It lengthens the
school course. It gives boys chances of distinction who would not
excel in less objective studies. It prepares for the choice of a career.
It favours invention and improvement. It will cure society of its
contempt for the men of the workshops. It will raise the standard
of comfort and taste in domestic life.
All this is true of technical education on its educational side. But
that view is not the only, or the most prominent, conception of the
subject. We must also glance at the
VALUE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION TO NATIONAL TRADE.
(See plate 1.)
This is being anxiously considered by thousands of able men
concerned for the maintenance of our markets and commercial
supremacy, but not less concerned for the prosperity of the immense
industrial population of England as bound up with that supremacy.
Few, perhaps, will agree with Lord Armstrong that technical
education is likely to prove of value only to a small proportion of
the workers, and these chiefly experts and supei-\'isors. It is
reasonable to believe that the early training of ear, hand, and eye in
various occupations must re-act favourably upon the skill, taste, and
excellence of all kinds of workmanship. Why there should be any
• Nineteenth Centurij, July, 1888, p. 46. t lb.
30
450
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABROAD.
quarrel between the pedagogical and the economical schools
of technical education, the average man will probably find it
difiicult to explain. Trained faculty must lead to better workman-
ship. If it will develop the mind for a scholar to learn the difference
between a ripping and cross-cutting saw, and to make through
mortise and tenon, polished mortise and tenon, double mortise and
tenon, &c., it will surely equally help mental development for a
scholar to produce an article in paper, cotton, clay, wood, or iron,
not necessarily for sale, but such as would command sale if put on
the market. Abstract mechanical operations are involved in the
regular industries, and the latter will confer many of the benefits of
the former, with some advantage superadded. Sir Lyon Playfair
would teach specific trades and industries. But whichever policy is
acted on, educational value will attach to specific industries, and an
industrial value will attach to general practice with tools, such as
hammer, mallet, chisel, gimlet, centre-bit, brace, screwdriver,
compasses, square, marking-gauge, jack-plane, &c.
It must not be forgotten that a degree of industrial efficiency
which sufficed for one state of circumstances may not be adequate at
another time.
INDUSTRIAL SUPREMACY NOT NECESSARILY PERMANENT.
Conditions may favour a nation at one epoch which are more equally
shared with its neighbours at another. Some features of a country
abide and confer permanent advantages of climate, mineral wealth,
geographical position, seaboard, and other things; but the volume
of a country's trade is affected by things which are not laws of
nature. Political troubles may throw a nation behind in the race,
but peace may return and send it forward as a competitor with the
best. This has happened with some continental countries. While
they were the scene of the long Napoleonic wars, England tilled her
fields, took high prices, and developed her manufactures with scarcely
a rival. But peace, order, and the needs of gi-owing populations,
and, above all, superior education, have made them powerful
candidates for the commercial favours of the world.
We shall now endeavour to exhibit the forms and progress of
technical education in the chief countries of the world.
ENGLAND AND WALES.
The energy and inventiveness of the English people, have fitted
them for the leadership of the trade of the world. The great
accumulation of capital in their hands, and the long exemption of
the soil of England from the ravages of war, have also immensely
facilitated that supremacy. Foreign nations waited their time, and
when it came took the best means to improve their position.
The two chief forces that have contributed to their rapid advance
451
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABROAD,
have been thrift and education. Of course they have copied English
methods and improved upon them where they could. It is certain
that Bome countries have of late decades been going forward at a
more rapid rate than ourselves, and that we have lost some domestic
markets and are sustaining keen competition in markets far distant.
It is also evident that the best educated nations are precisely those
which are running us a close commercial race. Germany has
imported English machinery, engaged some of the best men from
English shops, and prosecuted the scientific and technical education
of her people to such an extent during the last thirty years that her
progress has been marvellous. Englishmen were made use of
in the founding and extension of engineering and machine shops
in Germany, but now it is a rare thing to find Englishmen at
the head of German workshops. That country is raising its own
managers and sending not a few men, scientifically well equipped, to
take leading positions in England. For all that, English mechanical
genius, natural advantages, and freedom from the incubus of a
military system such as Germany's, will stand her in good stead if
she looks well to the education of her people.
Technical education presupposes good general education as its
basis, and we have seen that this is lacking in many parts of England.
An illustration of this, as far as Lancashire is concerned, is furnished
in the Eeport of the Technical Education Committee presented to
the Lancashire County Council, on August 3rd, 1893. The Covmcil
had offered 100 exhibitions for proficiency in science during the past
year, together with 25 in art, and 25 in commercial subjects, but
much disappointment was caused by the small number of candidates
entering. For science, only 44 entered, and only 23 of the 100
exhibitions in that subject were awarded. There were more
numerous entries for art and commercial subjects. Mr. Alderman
Snape, M.P., remarked that —
He was compelled to conclude that the primary schools of Lancashire were
extremely defective in the science teaching which was given, and this idea was
confirmed by the most recent report of the Education Department. What w as
most wanted was a properly organised system of education in the day schools as
well as in the evening schools of the country.
KINDERGARTEN PREPARATION.
England has reason to be proud of many of her infant schools, and
it is agreed by educationists that ear, hand, and eye training should
be given in infant schools. The handling, counting, and grouping of
solid objects, and the distinguishing of colours and sounds, form an
easy preparation for the more difficult manual exercises of later educa-
tion. The Education Code offers for infant schools a variable grant
of 2s., 4s., and 6s., dependent on (1) suitable instruction in the
elementary subjects; (2) simple lessons on objects and on the
452
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABROAD.
phenomena of natui'e and of common life; and (3) appropriate and
varied occupations (Art. 98, C). The number of infant scholars on
the registers last year (1892) was 1,764,930, and there would be great
advantage in that number being taught the "appropriate and varied
occupations" of kindergarten. It would appear, however, that the
6s. grant was earned for but 556,104 infant scholars in average
attendance out of a total average attendance of 1,180,782 (Table
No. 1, B. Eeport for 1892-93), a fact which suggests that object
lessons and kindergarten are not yet well taught in many infant
schools. ]\[anual training and kindergarten are near akin in their
fundamental principles; both tend to develop a scholar's faculties
and aptitudes by cultivating the sense perceptions and imparting
correct ideas of form, and both test those perceptions and ideas by
calling for their embodiment in tangible material. Froebel, like
Mr. Herbert Spencer, urged that the teacher should proceed from
the individual to the general. To put it in the words of the former —
The teacher should make the individual and the particular general, the general
particular and individual, and elucidate both in life ; he should make the external
internal, and the internal external, and indicate the necessary unity of both.
Froebel sought to do this by his system of instruction called "gifts
and occupations." The Gifts, by which he sought to give the child
objects to perceive and arrange, were (1) bodies — balls, cylinders,
divisible cubes of several kinds; (2) surfaces — squares and triangles;
(3) lines — straight or circular; (4) points — seeds, pebbles, &c. ;
(5) x'econstruction — the construction of lines with points and so on
back. The Occupations, by which he sought to give play to a child's
powers of intelligent control and adjustment, were (1) solids — plastic
clay, cardboard work, wood-carving, etc. ; (2) surfaces — paper folding,
paper cutting, parquetry, painting, &c.; (3) lines — interlacing,
intertwining, weaving, thread games, embroidery, drawing, &c. ;
(4) points— stringing beads, buttons, &c., perforating, &c.
In the supplement to Schedule II. of the Code (1892) is an
excellent arrangement of thirty object lessons on nine subjects.
The subjects may appear formidable from their names, but the
lessons placed opposite them show admirable adaptation to the
standards. There are six schemes of lessons for the seven standards.
We subjoin two examples of the object lessons for standards i. and ii.
Course D. — Priticiples of Agriculture : Thirty object lessons, eg., the useful-
ness of the various animals kept on a farm and how they repaj' kindness and
care ; bees ; earthworms ; a grain of wheat ; hay ; work in a forge ; the work of
a farm in different seasons ; gardening ; garden tools.
Course F. — Sound, Light, mid Heat — e.g., bell trumpet; tuning fork;
sunlight; primary colours ; candle; afire; boiling water; red-hot poker.
These lessons would form the next stage to the kindergarten in
practical education if only the elementary schools were compelled to I
teach them on pain of losing Government grants. t
453
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABROAD.
Primary schools in England have opportunities of giving technical
education which they never had before.
Manual instruction, science, practical cookery, and laundry work
(for girls over standard iii.) are now recognised by Art. 12 (/), and
attendance at such instruction is an attendance for payment whether
or not it is given in the school premises or by the ordinary teachers
of the school. The pity, of course, is that these subjects may be
neglected at the discretion of the managers, or manager, without
affecting the claim of a school to be classed and paid as an efficient
school.
DRAWING.
Drawing, too, has been made compulsory for boys. Not quite,
however, for where the inspector " certifies that means for teaching
drawing cannot readily be procured," the rule of Art. 85 (b) falls to
the ground. Our codes are still framed to secure grants for schools
that are scantily taught. Out of 90,794 girls taught cookery, 66,532
were in board schools ; and out of 2,766 girls taught laundry work,
2,423 were in board schools. Last year a grant of Is. for drawing
was paid on an average attendance of 394,425 boys. Drawing may
fairly be classed as a form of manual or technical training, for it
lends delicacy to the fingers, makes perception more exact, and aids
the sense of elegance and beauty. Drawing is now examined by the
Science and Art Department.
The Commission on Technical Education recommended (1) that
drawing be incorporated with writing as a single subject, and
continued through all the standards ; (2) that no school receive
public money unless supplied with casts and models; (3) that
modelling should be made a subject on which grants could be earned;
(4) that art should be well taught in training colleges; and (5) that
the inspectors of the Education Department be made responsible for
instruction in di-awing in elementary schools.
* ITINERANT SCIENCE DEMONSTRATORS.
Liverpool, Manchester, Birmingham, Nottingham, and other places
have for years employed such special teachers, and their work is a
valuable preparation for technical education. They go from school
to school, giving science teaching in such subjects as magnetism and
electricity, physiology, mathematics, hygiene, machine construc-
tion, or chemistry. Models, apparatus, and experiments ai'e freely
employed, and the interest of the scholars is kept at the highest point.
Each school for older scholars receives a weekly or fortnightly lesson.
The regular teachers of the schools enter heartily into the work of
the peripatetic instructor, being present at the time, and going over
the subject of the last lesson with their scholars in the intervals of
454
his visits. The apparatus is kept at a central laboratory, and
wheeled to and from the schools in a light handcart by the
demonstrator's porter. In some towns non-board schools partake
of the instruction on contributing their proportion of cost. Organised
science schools are sometimes opened at certain schools as centres,
and placed under the charge of the science demonstrator. The
Nottingham School Board employed in 1892 no fewer than five of
these peripatetic teachers, with five porters, and four woodwork
instructors. As the result, this excellent board obtained in 1892-93
no fewer than 6,192 passes in specific subjects (including cookery
and laundry work) ; 1,500 attendances were made at its woodwork-
ing classes (including seven deaf mutes and 40 teachers) ; there were,
out of 1,248 papers worked, 387 science passes in the first class, and
768 in the second ; 44 first results in art, and 109 seconds ; and
7,592 scholars were under the instruction of the science demonstra-
tors. Particulars of other boards might be given did space permit.
HIGHER GRADE SCHOOLS.
Secondary Education is one of the maturing subjects of our day.
The Education Department is already to some extent associated
with it. Its approval is required before any scheme for an endowed
school can take efiect after having been framed by the Charity
Commissioners, and its action is a needful preliminary to the
distribution of the grant of £15,000 annually made to the university
colleges. Mr. Acland has appointed a departmental commission
representing the three Government departments concerned with
secondary schools, viz., the Charity Commission, the Science and Art
Department, and the Education Department, and the sittings of this
body since 1st December, 1892, ought to bear fruit in some measure
for bringing higher or secondary schools within reach of the popula-
tion. It is admitted (Eeport of Education Department, 1892-93,
p. 6) that higher education can be given by school boards, and is in
some cases already being given. We have just glanced at one
example out of several in the Midlands. London, Manchester,
Birmingham, and Leicester are doing what Nottingham has done,
and every great school board is, or could be, working on the same
lines. The smaller school boards are only disabled by the optional
character of the code curricula, and by the fact that the country
districts and Lancashire are practically, with some noteworthy
exceptions, not under school boards at all. What can be done for
secondary and technical education under the code may be seen in the
LEEDS HIGHER GRADE SCHOOL.
(See plate 2.)
Nowhere on the Continent could a finer municipal school be
found. It is secondary, but it is in close touch with the elementarj''
455
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT ROME AND ABROAD.
schools. Lads have matriculated at London from its classes. It
accommodates from two to three thousand scholars. By examina-
tion and merit scholars may have free education in it, but for a
shilling a week parents may obtain an education such as many
are trying in vain to get by sending their children scores of miles
from home at a cost of £40 to £100 per annum. The laboi*atory, the
music class room, the gymnasium for each sex, the workshop, the
science master, the dressmaking class, the art school, the drill
ground, may all be found there at the service of several thousand
scholars, who are as bright and promising as could be found anyv^'here
in Europe. Friends of secondary education who want to see the high
school grow out of the primary school could not do better than ask Mr.
Packer, the clerk of the Leeds Board, to show them over the school
or post them some particulars of its organisation. Secondary
schools and technical education will do little for England unless
they can be brought close to the people, and made an organic part of
a public system.
The Central Board School at Sheffield is another splendid example.
Here ordinary and special subjects have been taken together, and
cookery, drawing, German, school workshops for wood and iron,
and models and apparatus for the experimental illustration of
mechanical principles, have done much to meet the demand for
higher education at moderate cost in that great town, where
technical aptitudes are as important as in any town in the world.
It could never be said that a lad who had gone through such
schools was unfitted to profit by special technical teaching under the
Act of 1889. Mr. Snape's remarks in the Lancashire County Council
are called for by the lack of day schools of this class in most parts of
England, and by the early age at which the mass of children leave
school even in the neighbourhoods where day and evening classes
might prepare them for county exhibitions and scholarships in
technical education.
The provision of secondary schools ought certainly to be entrusted
to school boards. These bodies have applied the Education Code
with great ability and libei'ality to higher grade education, and to
set up another authority charged with this duty would be bad policy.
Bodies that can supervise such higher gi-ade schools as we find
under boards in England and Scotland ought not to be superseded.
At an important conference of friends of secondary education and
representatives of school boards held in Manchester, March 21,
1893, the Secondary Education Bill for England (introduced by Mr.
Arthur Acland, Sir Henry Roscoe, and Mr. Henry Hobhouse) was
sharply criticised because it devolved the whole duty of supplying or
aiding the supply of secondary schools upon councils of counties and
county boroughs. The conference demanded that there should be
456
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABBOAD.
one local authority in each district, having the management of
elementary, secondary, and technical education, so far as aided from
local rates, that this authority should be elected solely for educational
work, and that school boards should be universally established for
this purpose,
THE SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT CLASSES
HAVE done more than ajiy other agency, until very recent years, to
teach science to artisans, and thus to raise the intelligence of labour.
The Eoyal Commission on Technical Education recommended
various improvements in the policy of the department, some of
which have already come about by legislation or code changes.
They were —
(1) That local authorities should be allowed to conduct classes for young
persons and adult artisans under the department. (2) That science teaching
should be more practical and better paid for in the • advanced " and " honours "
stages. (3) The sub-dividing of metallurgy and mining. (4) Better inspection
of teaching and apparatus. (6) Larger building grants for schools of science and
art than £500.
In England day technical schools are not much known. The
convenience of the workmen calls for evening classes. Numerous
evening classes for science and technological study have been carried
on for years past, and credit is due to them as forming a foundation
upon which the larger work of county technical education is being
reared.
THE CITY AND GUILDS OF LONDON INSTITUTE
FRAMED a scheme of technical teaching not unlike that of the Science
and Art Department, and gave aid to localities by organising classes
and making capitation grants. It required teachers of these classes
to be qualified in theory and practice, to hold a certificate of honours
granted by the Science and Art Department or by the Institute, and
to have filled some place of responsibility in the industry that was
the subject of instruction.
THE CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES OF GREAT BRITAIN
HAVE from their foundation been earnest promoters of education in
the sciences and in technology. In 1890, the amount of their
profits devoted to education was no less than £27,587, a sum nearly
twice that of the Government grant to university colleges at the
present time. Before the county councils began their educational
work under the Technical Instruction Act, 1889, the co-operators of
the North of England — beginning at Eochdale, the cradle of the
co-operative movement, where a municipal technical school (see
plate 3) is now in successful operation — were doing a modest but
substantial work in their evening -classes. In Lancashire, where the
457
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABROAD.
co-operative movement has attained so remarkable an extension,
there are many evidences of this activity. The Accrington and
Church Co-operative Society has spent £400 a year on education,
and has taught building construction, machine construction, practical
geometry, and inorganic chemistry (theoretical and practical). In
1891-92 there were 292 students in science, art, and technical
subjects. A grant of £120 was made by the County Council in 1892.
At Darwen, 99 students attended the co-operative society's
classes in building construction, machine construction, geometry,
botany, and art, in 1891-92.
At Eccles, the co-operative classes were held in carpentry and
joinery, shorthand, cotton spinning, cotton weaving and designing,
steam, applied mechanics, dressmaking, bi-ickwork and masonry,
in addition to the subjects named above. The number of students
entered was 682.
The Failsworth Society has for over ten years held classes in
science and technical subjects, and the County Council Committee
voted £100 in 1891-92 towards the cost of new subjects of instruction
and apparatus ; 297 students attended, in addition to 84 at the
sick nursing class.
In Heywood the science and art classes of the co-operative
society were the only classes of the kind in 1890, and the society
has expressed its willingness to merge its classes in a proposed new
technical school for the borough. In almost every case these
societies have offered to place their work, apparatus, and educational
funds at the service of the county committees.
The Eadcliffe and Pilkington co-operative classes studied organic
chemistry, machine construction and drawing, brickwork and
masonry, carpentry and joinery, cotton weaving, and other subjects,
for fifteen years. Four hundred students have passed through the
classes, and £300 has been spent.
In the fifteen county boroughs of Lancashire, viz. : —
Liverpool,
Blackburn,
Rochdale,
Wigan.
^lanchester.
Bolton,
St. Helens,
Barrow-in-Furness,
Salford.
Preston,
Stockport,
Bootle,
Oldham,
Burnley,
Bury,
the co-operative movement has been very fertile in educational
organisation. Some of the societies are making arrangements to
merge their work in the technical schools of the corporations, while
others are modifying their plans to meet the new conditions.
At Rochdale, the Equitable Pioneers, the founders of the movement,
have availed themselves of the Migratory Dairy School of the
Lancashire County Council to conduct classes in that subject, and
in other ways are maintaining the reputation of their society for
interest in mental and social improvement. It is not likely that the
458
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABBOAD.
education grant of the co-operative societies will come to an end
because the county councils have got hold of the lucky windfall of
three-quarters of a million from the local taxation accounts.
HIGHER TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION.
We have looked at English technical education so far chiefly in
connection with elementary schools, or as it is seen in the evening
classes organised previous to the Act of 1889; but it is manifest
that provision of a more elaborate kind is needed, either in special
schools or in the secondary schools. The day will come when all
the celebrated schools to which English youths go to be prepared for
universities, for the learned professions, for public life, and for
literary pursuits, must also prepare for superior technical work.
It is of importance to the country that the children of the "middle
class" should have this education. Higher technical instruction is
also required for first-class workmen, managers of departments,
heads of businesses, merchants, and distributors. The schools in
question should admit pupils at about thirteen years, for perhaps a
three years' technical course. A specimen of what is wanted will be
found in the Ecole Professionelle Mimicipale of Eheims, the plant in
which cost £20,000. ' ^
The Technical Department of Firth College, Sheffield, or of
University College, Nottingham, are cases in point. Every large
town in England ought to have a school of this kind, and there is
now a good prospect of it.
Some of these seats of higher technical instruction would be
general in scope, preparing pupils for manufactures, mechanics,
commerce, or agriculture (at least in the later part of the course)
according to their aptitudes. Others would prepai-e for one industry
only, like the Building Trades School at Stuttgart, which admits at
fourteen years. (See plate 4.j We have as yet nothing like it,
not even in such centres as Manchester. The projected
MUNICIPAL SCHOOL FOR MANCHESTER
(See plate 5.)
WILL be a credit to that city. It is to be erected on a site of
5,800 square yards, all but 773 of which is the gift of the Whitworth
legatees. Provision will be made for mechanical, electrical, civil,
and sanitary engineering, the chemical industries, spinning and
weaving, building trades, letterpress and lithographic printing,
industrial art and design, commercial and domestic economy subjects.
The total available floor space will be 150,000 square feet, exclusive
of continuous corridors of fine construction that are to be utilised
for illustrative exhibits of all kinds of great value to the students.
An industrial museum, a gymnasium, a public lecture hall, a chemical
459
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABROAD.
laboratory for eighty students, will be in addition to many class,
drawing, designing, and lecturers' rooms and workshops. In the
basement will be placed the electrical engineering workshops and
testing tables, djTiamo house, electro-chemical and technical testing
laboratories, secondary battery room, rooms for optical, photometric,
magneto-metric, and spectroscopic operations, the mechanical
engineering workshops and testing laboratory with its experimental
steam engine and large and small testing machines, the spinning and
weaving rooms for cotton, silk, and other fibres, bleaching, dyeing,
printing, and finishing rooms, plumbers', bricklayers', and masons'
workshops, shops for repairs and construction of new appliances,
woodworking machinery. The building will be lighted by 2,000
incandescent electric lamps. Its cost, including all fittings and
machinery, will be £125,000, towards which the committee of the
City Council subscribe £50,000 available from gift, profit, and property,
and the rest will be borrowed for a period of thirty years on the security
of the penny rate authorised by the Technical Instruction Act, 1889.
The governin'g body will be a committee of thirty-six members,
twenty-four from the City Council and twelve chosen from the
outside public. Such a school will be one of the finest and earliest
of the fruits of the legislation of 1889 and 1890.'''
The splendid technical schools connected with some few private
firms in this country deserve a tribute of admiration. It would
be hard to estimate the benefits to our national industries which
have flowed from such great work-schools as those of Lord
Armstrong at Elswick, the L. and N. W. Eailway at Crewe, Mather
and Piatt at Manchester, and BuUough's at Accrington. Mr.
Mather has given his opinion that the school has been of incalculable
advantage to the works.
The Oldham School of Science and Art deserves recognition
as a capital example of what schools for apprentices might be made
by good teaching, good laboratories, and a great evening technical
school, with large scientific and mechanical scope.
WEAVING SCHOOLS.
In all the countries visited by the commissioners, attention was
given to this branch of technology. It may be said that a factory is
the best place in which to learn weaving, &c., but the factory, as a
rule, offers a range of operations much narrower than the school.
A factory may teach a man only a small part of an industry. For
heads and managers, picked men and foremen especially, a wide
acquaintance with an industry is better than expertness in one of
the operations into which the great industries are divided.
J. H. Reynolds, p. 90, " The Record " (Technical), November, 1892.
460
The cotton industry of Lancashire is broken up beyond comparison.
Yorkshire is intent on wool, and gives few thoughts to cotton.
Bradford thinks of worsted, Leeds of woollens. The commissioners
point out that a mill in Bradford may be for wool-combing and
nothing else ; another may spin two or three counts of yarn ; a third
weave one class of goods only. An apprentice may learn all that is
to be learned in one of these factories, and yet may know little of
the worsted manufacture. A general knowledge of textiles can be
obtained in no factory, hardly in any one town.'''
The men who direct an industry and the men who ply a trade
ought to have some idea of what the world wants, and ability to
meet the world's wants and tastes is as valuable as low price and
weai'ing quality. A large acquaintance with the bases of an industry
and power of adaptation are more likely to be gained from school and
factory combined than from the latter alone. Design is particularly
important; it helps to sell cloth as it does to sell pottery and
porcelain, glass, furniture, and metal work. The wool-comber, the
spinner, the weaver may do his part well, but without satisfactory
and pleasing design they are like a railway train that carries
unattractive and tasteless fruit to market. High speed and safe
delivery will not assure ready sale.
IN BRADFORD AND LEEDS
WE have the Technical College and the Yorkshire College, and these
are entitled to rank with the weaving schools of Germany. The
Bradford College has a syllabus of which that great town may
be proud. It has —
I. A Day ScJwol Department, which prepares youths for industrial, manu-
facturing, and professional pursuits.
II. An Evening Science School, which adds electrical engineering, steam,
book-keeping, and shorthand, and includes London matriculation classes.
III. Art Department. — The usual four subjects. Light and shade (painting
flowers and objects of art), the human form (antique and life), drawing and
design class, architectural class, wood carving.
IV. Cheviistry and Dyeing Department. — A two years' course, including
chemistry, technology of textile fibres and mordants, practical qualitative
analysis, chemical physics, organic chemistry, the natural colouring matters,
experimental dyeing, the coal tar colours, mechanics and machinery applicable
to dyeing and printing, &c.
V. Textile Department. — The loom : Elementary principles of weaving, simple
patterns upon design paper, drafting, the healds ; practical weaving, more
elaborate patterns, combination and rearrangement, calculations for yams and
fabrics, designs for fancy goods, dobbies and wytches ; the Jacquard machine,
and simple figures formed by weft, by warp, or both ; double cloths, figured double
cloths, triple or multiple cloths ; designing for elaborate fancy goods, gauze
fabrics, figured gauze, velvet and pile fabrics generally. Classes are held for the
study of cloth structure and analysis, and of colour.
VI Engineering Department.
• Second Report of Commissioners on Technical Instruction, vol. i., pp. 119-122.
461
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABROAD.
This is fitted with every requisite for a three years' course,
followed, if need be, by a special course. Drawing offices, lecture
rooms, and workshop are provided, the last furnished with the most
modern type of machine tools and appliances, such as a 12-inch
treble-geared break lathe with bed 32 feet long, planing machines,
slotting, milling, cutter-grinding, wheel-grinding, and other machines,
with smith's hearth, pneumatic power hammer, circular saw, &c.
High-class work is turned out in steam engines and tools. Certificates
of proficiency and prizes are granted annually, and the college
diploma in mechanical, civil, or electrical engineering and in
architecture is granted to students passing in the complete course.
The Durham College of Science is another noble institution, and
under its distinguished principal, Prof. W. Garnett, it is offering to
the northern counties rare and varied opportunities for technical
education.
Our special technical schools are not equal to those of more
general character, but improvements are flowing in. We need the
best, not makeshift schools, but have been slow to grasp the real
dimensions of the work. It would be highly injurious to have a
number of ill-organised and ill-supported voluntary institutions.
Schools with a large staff, each member of which is expert in
his own province and is well paid for his sub-division of the
work, are what England needs for the great centres and neighbour-
hoods.
The City and Guilds Institute undertook some few years ago to
provide London with intermediate technical schools, and it has not
forgot its word.
TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN LONDON
IS of immense importance, the metropolis being the greatest manu-
facturing as well as the largest inhabited town in the world. When
we reflect that the men and boys in its various trades are as
follows,* (see page 462) and when, further, we give due weight
to the fact that in certain highly -skilled ai'ts and handicrafts
alone there are engaged in London 54,551 men and 5,764
women (of course included in following total), we shall better
realise the urgency of the question before us. How to help
this unparalleled aggregate of busy workers to reach a higher level
of taste and manipulative skill in their callings is no mean part of
the national problem — how to keep England employed and in the
forefront of the world's industry. Towards this end the City and
• Census figures quoted by Mr. Llewellyn Smith in his admirable Beport to the
London County Council on Technical Education, p. 88.
462
TBCHNICAIi EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABROAD.
Building trades 135,805
Engineering and metal trades 53,134
Wood and furniture trades 60,209
Fancy trades 31,656
Paper, &c., trades 5,124
Textile trades 7,981
Chemical, glass, and pottery trades 18,028
Printing trades 46,099
Clothing trades 77,712
Food, drink, and tobacco trades 98,308
Shopkeepers and dealers 30,201
Commercial (including 80,699 clerks) 100,573
Labourers for road, rail, and conveyance 277,969
Navigation 18,095
Public administration 47,081
Professional 54,093
Domestic and extra service (excluding females) 47,436
Total 1,109,499
Same trades :
Boys (under 20 years old) 178,088
Women and girls 591,932
Girls (under 20) 148,888
. • Grand total 1,819,007
Guilds of London Institute have done more than any other body.
Their work began after an inquiry conducted by such eminent names
as Armstrong, Galton, Donnelly, Huxley, and others.
There is a Central Institution, Exhibition Road, where teaching
of the highest kind is given in applied physics, mechanics, and
chemistry, suitable for directors and managers of industry. In
1891-92 there were 314 students in the wood-carving school. £90,000
has been spent on the building, and it costs £12,000 a year to carry
it on. Each student costs about £60, but the fees are only £25.
The institute maintains a sort of university rank, and requires no aid
from the London County Council. The Physical Department is
under the direction of Pi'of. W. E. Ayrton, F.R.S., the well-known
authority in electrical technology, who was President of the
Institution of Electrical Engineers in 1892. The Mechanical,
Engineering, and Chemical Departments are admirable. Prof.
Ayrton's Department is, however, specially noteworthy for its three
electrical research laboratories, dynamo-room, testing laboratory,
and the heat, optical, magnetic, and acoustics laboratories, mainly
for junior students.
There is an Intermediate Technical College at Finsbuiy for
systematic teaching of boys from 14 to 18. The day school has
185 students — 48 in the mechanical department, 99 in the electrical,
and 38 in the chemical. The three professors are all Fellows of the
Eoyal Society. Ten of the students have come from elementary
463
TECHNICAIi EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABROAD.
schools. This is the only purely technical intermediate school in
London. The evening classes had over a thousand students, 334 of
whom were apprentices (in 1891) admitted at half fee. The school
of electrical engineering at Finsbui*y is of wide renown, and in the
evening classes there are 400 electrical engineers or their employes
and apprentices.
University College has departments of engineering, chemistry, and
electrical technology. New electrical and engineering laboratories
are being built, in addition to a new physical laboratory. The Slade
School of Art is associated with the college.
King's College is sectarian, its regular students and all its officers
and professors (those of modern and oriental languages alone
excepted) being required by the charter to belong to the Church of
England. But its technical and scientific work is extensive. There
were some 800 to 900 students enrolled in the various classes in
1892. The evening classes are numerous, fourteen being technical.
Lady Siemens gave an electrical laboi-atory, accommodating ten
students at work, and costing £6,000.
Thei-e is a proposal for endowing with £10,000 the technical work
in a teaching university for London.
THE LEATHER TRADES SCHOOL,
IN Bethnal Green, situated in the East London colony of shoe-
makers, teaches hand and machine made work in all branches.
POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTES
ARE springing up in London. They are not like the polytechnics
abroad — science universities — but places of evening recreation and
instruction for persons at work during the day. No fewer than
twenty schemes for these institutes have been passed or framed, and
there is a central governing body, as well as a body of governors for
each institution.
The Regent Street Polytechnic is the oldest, and has been carried
on for many years at the expense of Mr. Quintin Hogg. The annual
expenditure is £16,000, of which £9,000 is raised from fees. An
enormous number of students are enrolled. Nearly 600 entries are
recorded in art, over 1,000 in science and nearly 2,000 in technology.
The fees are in most subjects 5s. per session. All kinds of technical
work are taught, as follows : —
Plumbing 211 students.
Builders' quantities 95 ,,
Tailors' cutting 185 „
Printing and paper 212 „
Engineering trades 757 „
464
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABROAD.
The Goldsmiths* Institute, for technology and recreation, has been
erected at New Cross, at the cost of the Goldsmiths' Company, and
was opened for work October, 1891. Its cost was £80,000, and it is
endowed with £5,000 per annum. There are 51 heads of depart-
ments in the institute, and considerably over 9,000 entries for study
in all classes, 7,378 quarterly and 2,143 sessional.
The People's Palace Schools are kept up by the Drapers' Com-
pany, and besides art and science, the technology of building,
bricklaying, carpentiy, plumbing, steam boiler design, machine
construction, surveying, tailors' cutting, typography, &c., has been
taught to hundreds of students. Besides these there are the
Battersea Institute, the Borough Road Institute, the Chelsea Insti-
tute, the North-West London Institute, the North London Institute,
and the City Polytechnic. London is not wanting in the number of
institT; lions giving part of their time to technical work. There are —
The Bow and Bromley Institute.
The Guild and School of Handicraft.
Whitechapel Craft School.
North Loudon and Borough of Hackney School of Science and Art.
Highbury Institute. .
Working Men's College.
Westbourne Park Institute.
Onslow College, Chelsea.
Westminster School of Art.
Woolwich Polytechnic.
Lambeth School of Art.
Morley Memorial College.
Telegraphists' School of Science.
St. Thomas's Ciiarterhouse School of Science and Art.
British Horological Institute.
Birkbeck Institution (branch of City Polytechnic).
SCIENCE SCHOOLS IN LONDON.
There were in 1892 no fewer than 200 science schools aided by the
Science and Art Department, including day and evening schools and
schools of science attached to elementary day schools.*
ART SCHOOLS IN LONDON.
There are some 5,000 students in the district schools of art in
London. The importance of art as a technical subject is self-
evident. Drawing and painting are not the whole of art, for it
concerns industries and handicrafts, and the materials in which they
are carried on. It is necessary, therefore, to join art education to
technical education as parts of one whole.
* Heport to London County Council, p. 175.
465
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABROAD.
There are the " special " schools of art, such as the Eoyal Academy,
the Slade School, and others. Then there are some twenty " Govern-
ment schools of art," some of them departments of the large
technical institutes at which we have glanced.
The Westminster Architectural Museum School has over 400
students, 366 of whom are studying from the life. This stands
first, its students in many cases being already draughtsmen, black
and white designers, modellers, and architects or architects' pupils.
The Polytechnic School of Art has 800 pupils, but its work is not so
superior. At the Bow and Bromley Institute art classes in drawing,
44 pupils were teachers out of a total of 87. In the painting (stiU
life, &c.) classes of sixteen schools, out of 901 pupils 230 were teachers,
352 "of no occupation," and 101 pictorial artists. Only 250 students
were learning design, London being .far behind the provinces in
this respect. Chromo-lithography is taught at the Royal Female
School of Art, Bloomsbury; and tapestry painting, fresco and
sgraffito work, furniture making, and repousse metal work are taught
at the Finsbury College. Wood-carving has its chief seat at the
Institute of British Wood-carvers, supported by the Carpenters'
Company, but drawing and design are not associated as closely as
they might be either with this or any other form of handicraft
teaching. The School of Art Wood-carving at South Kensington, a
carving class at King's College, and some classes held by the Home
Arts and Industries Association, are also operating with effect. But
handicraft and art work should always be combined.
There are 110 art classes connected wdth the Science and Art
Department, viz., 36 under the school board, 10 in secondary schools,
12 in voluntary elementary schools, 14 in pupil teachers' centres,
and the remainder independently conducted by committees. Seven
hundred children are receiving art teaching from special instructors
in board day schools north of the Thames. Every London board
school now built includes a specially constructed "art" room.
It is proposed to make generous grants for art teaching from the
educational funds of the London County Council.
The Commissioners on Technical Education pointed out that
English drawing is accurate, but wanting in originality and boldness.
They held that the Royal Academy and the Livery Companies should
directly encourage design. They quoted from Sir Edward Baines
and Mr. W. Morris the opinion that while in appreciation of beauty
and love for beautiful lines and colours the English equal the French,
the "discipline of the creative faculty is far inferior" in England.
They record an interesting story of an English firm that took a Paris
Exhibition prize in 1878 for a cabinet designed by a Frenchman,
for which a German had cut the marqueterie and a German
assisted by a Dane had done the work of a cabinet-maker. The
31
466
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABROAD.
Commissioners recommended the establishment of schools and
galleries of industrial art, and especially museums of textile fabrics ;
the removal of the limit of expenditure under the Free Libraries
Acts ; and other useful changes.
THE NEW DEPARTURE IN COUNTIES AND COUNTY BOROUGHS.
We must now briefly exhibit the operation of the Technical Instruc-
tion Act, 1889, as supplemented by the Local Taxation (Customs
and Excise) Act, 1890. This legislation has put a new face on the
prospects of practical education in the country, although it is
essentially incomplete, and must be followed sooner or later by con-
solidation of the over-lapping school authorities of the country.
i See plate 6. ,
The County Councils and County Boroughs of England and Wales
all at once found themselves possessed of an income of some
£750,000 a year, and enabled to raise a race besides, for technical
instruction. They soon made up their minds what to do with
nearly all of the money. It was in their power to apply it to relief
of local rates, if they preferred, but they have done otherwise.
appmcation of locail taxation besidue to science, art, manual,
or technical education.
England.
49 Counties. — 49 counties have sent returns,* and of these 42 devote all the
residue to education ; 7 devote part to education ; none have raised a
rate, but some local authorities in certain counties have done so.
61 County Boroughs. — 58 county boroughs have made retvirns, and of these 47
devote all the residue to education ; 10 devote a part (1 not decided) ;
Portsmouth, West Bromwich, and Ipswich, no return ; 8 have raised or
made grants from rates.
Wales, including Monmouth,
to which the Welsh Intermediate Education Act, 1889, applies.
13 Counties. 13 counties have made returns, and of these 12 devote the whole
residue chiefly under the above-named Act, 1889 ; 1 applies part under
the above-named Act, 1889 ; 6 levy or use rate under Technical Instruc-
tion Act, 1889 ; 13 levy a rate under Welsh Intermediate Education Act.
3 County Boroughs. —3 returned, of which 3 apply all to technical education ;
1 levies or uses a rate under the Technical Instruction Act ; 3 levy a rate
under the Welsh Act.
Scotland.
33 Counties. — 32 furnish returns (Ross and Cromarty omits), and of these 20
apply the whole residue to technical education ; 4 are considering the
question of applying the whole ; 2 apply the whole residue to relief of
rates ; while 6 give no sign of action.
• Retvirn C, 7,112, of 1893.
467
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABROAD.
82 Burghs. — 80 furnish returns (Annan and Whithorn omit), and of these 7 are
giving the whole residue to technical education ; 21 are giving part to
technical education ; 1 is considering which to do ; 51 are applying all
the residue to relief of rates.
105 Police Burghs. — 102 have made returns, and of these 9 are giving the whole
for technical education ; 18 are giving part for technical education ; 9 are
considering the question ; 66 are applying the residue to relief of rates.
Some of the English County Councils (Cheshire, Stafford, &.c.)
have made grants to urban sanitary authorities on condition that the
latter levy a rate, or contribute from rates, under the Technical
Instruction Act, 1889, or provide funds otherwise.
Many County Borough Councils have decided to put the technical
instruction paid for by them under their own control, in buildings
erected or acquired by themselves.
It is evident that few local authorities are inclined to raise or use
rates while money can so easily be obtained through the local
taxation accoimts. Out of 128 authorities that have come under the
Technical Instruction Act, only 62 have contributed from rates, and
that to no greater amount than £26,000 for 1892-93.
Wales is evincing greater public spirit in this matter than the rest
of the country. The County Council of Glamorgan, in particular,
not only devotes the whole of the residue to technical education, but
it levies a rate of ^d. in the pound under the Welsh Act, and also
raises a rate of Id. in the pound under the Technical Instruction
Act, 1889, the latter producing £9,500 per annum. Monmouth,
again, gives one-half of the residue and the proceeds of the ^d. rate
to technical education, and the other half of the residue to inter-
mediate and technical education, while it intends to levy the Id.
rate under the Technical Instruction Act.
Technical instruction moves more slowly in Scotland, but one
explanation probably is that some part of the teaching now being
given in England under the new legislation has long since been
imparted in the day schools of Scotland, where a much larger
curriculum has been followed than in the day schools of England.
THE WORK DONE IN SELECTED COUNTIES
WILL give some idea of the diffuse and piecemeal way in which
expenditures are now being made pending the arrival of a better
system of organisation, grading, and management for our schools.
Bedfordshire CmtnUj Council (1891-92) raised £4,785 ; voted £850 to town
councils and minor local authorities, spent £2,175 directly on technical education,
voted £400 to grammar schools for apparatus, £100 to science classes, £1,431 to
"other schools," £259 for scholarships and exhibitions, and £495 in expenses of
organisation.
468
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABROAD.
Here is an interesting but highly diversified account. There is
need of higher teaching in the county, for the Blue Book for 1892
returned only four departments of boys, girls, and mixed schools
taking elementarj^ science out of 161 departments, and only eight
departments taking specific subjects, or 405 scholars out of 25,783
at inspection.
Among the subjects aided it is interesting to see design and
modelling in connection with straw plaiting, and the chemistry of
straw dyeing. Horticulture, fruit culture, dairying, farriery, plough-
ing, thatching, sheepshearing, cookery, wood carving are severally
taught, but straw plaiting we naturally associate with Bedfordshire.
But even here there is something to be learned from Europe. A writer
in the Technical World (Sept. 2, 1893, p. 242) has well pointed out
how much of taste and skill is being thrown into straw plait abroad.
At Wohlen, in Switzerland, new patterns are constantly being
produced in the season. Great varieties of patterns are worked
from, and M. Bruggisser said that an average plaiter earns from
six to eight francs a week if she gives her whole time to it.
Too often in Bedfordshire the workers are all working at one
pattern, and there is not the same artistic sense and manipulative
skill. A nimble, middle-aged woman, near Leighton, could only
earn 4d. a day when she had made a score of "brilliant," and she
had to pay for material, and work on speculation. The Swiss worker
works to order, and her earnings are net. Such a school for basket-
making and wicker-work as that at Fribourg, Switzerland, proves
that in associating drawing, art, and design with that kind of work
Luton may learn something.
Take another agricultural county, viz. —
Berkshire received £5,691. Handed £1,300 to local authorities. Spent £2,000
in lectures to elementar)' school teachers, and in the villages, on agricultural and
kindred subjects ; £1,455 in gi-ants to dairy schools, cookery, bee-keeping, cottage
nursing, and bent ironwork ; £250 in agricultural scholarships ; and £300 for
organising secretary.
Reading County Borough has spent £4,127, chiefly in altering one building
and restoring another, for a collection of antiquities and for a school of science.
Here it will be observed that a considerable sum is being spent in
educating teachers. It is well known that subjects go untaught in
the elementary schools for lack of qualified teachers, but it seems
hardly fair that the nation's money should be spent to do what
ought to be done before teachers have the mental fortunes of the
children entrusted to their care. Our system of supplying teachers
to rural schools is radically wrong. Managers who cannot guarantee
competent instruction should forfeit their right to control any grant-
aided school.
We append a list of the counties showing the amounts at their
disposal for technical, manual, and intermediate instruction.
469
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABROAD.
THE COUNCILS AND THEIR FUNDS FOR TECHNICAL EDUCATION.
The amounts are for the latest year returned, unless it is otherwise
stated. The figures are totals for counties, including the boroughs
within them.
£ s. d.
Bedford 4,785 9 8
Berks 5,691 0 6
Reading (two years) 4,127 6 9
Buckingham 5,896 18 8
Cambridge 3,572 12 9
Chester 23,294 10 8
Cornwall (from beginning) 6,000 0 0
Cumberland (from beginning) 7,231 0 0
Derby 10,700 0 0
Devon (from beginning) 85,210 15 2
Dorset 6,000 0 0
Durham 15,565 17 1
Ely, Isle of (county) 2,294 9 9
Essex 16,469 8 10
Gloucester 12,752 11 0
Hereford 2,000 0 0
Hertford 7,056 17 4
Hunts 1,960 0 0
Kent 34,582 7 1
Lancaster 100,235 10 0
Leicestershire 8,355 2 7
Lincoln 21,993 13 11
London 57,000 0 0
Middlesex 4 500 0 0
Monmouth (residue and two rates) 8,465 6 4
Norfolk 12.012 1 3
Northampton (two to three years) 17,252 17 4
Northumberland 12,043 14 1
Nottingham 9,927 6 3
Oxford 6,267 19 8
Rutland 250 0 0
Salop 7,182 12 11
Somerset 17,274 5 10
Southampton 10,464 1 2
Stafford 24,786 12 2
Suffolk, East 4,072 6 9
Suffolk. West 2,351 4 10
Surrey 19 374 0 0
Sussex, East 9,892 13 8
Sussex, West 3,792 2 2
Warwick 36,910 7 6
Westmorland (three years) 2,724 11 7
Wight, Isle of 2,186 11 10
Wilts 10,156 9 11
Worcester 10,537 12 0
York, East Riding 10,534 18 2
York, North Riding 19,236 9 2
York, West Riding 63,764 17 5
470
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABROAD.
. Wales.
Anglesey 1,098 0 0
Brecon 1,866 0 0
Cardigan 1,864 0 0
Carmarthen 3,997 0 0
Carnarvon 3,491 0 0
Denbigh 4,868 0 0
Flint 2,917 0 0
Glamorgan 29,027 0 0
Merioneth 1.755 0 0
Montgomery 2,913 0 0
Pembroke 2,500 0 0
Kadnor 1,150 0 0
Scotland— Counties.
Aberdeen devoted £1,966. 16s. 4d. outof residue. Itinerant instructors at
work. Teachers sent to Universitj' of Aberdeen for training. Fisheries
and veterinary science included in subjects.
Argj'll devoted £923. 14s. ; £573 of it spent through nine school boards.
Ayr. —Amount, £1,815. 10s. 4d. Mining, navigation, fishery, agriculture, &c.
Banff. — Amount, £398. 12s. 8d ; £68 to school boards for scientific appa-
ratus. Marine zoology, dairying, navigation, &c
Berwick. — Amount, £600 Teachers helped to Edinburgh University.
School boards aided. Ambulance and sick nursing, as well as subjects
named above.
Bute.— Amount, £121. 4s. 8d. ; £80 to butter making.
Caithness. — Amount, £286. 17s. lid. Apparatus to school boards and
formation of dairy classes.
Clackmannan. — Amount, £118. 4s. ; £60 in relief of rates. Lectures on
dairying.
Dumfries. — Amount, £983. 19s. 2d. Lectures to farmers on agricultural
science, including food and manures, grasses, diseases of plants, veteri-
nary science and practice, &c.
Dumbarton. — No retiu'n.
Edinburgh. — Amount, £1,531. 19s. 6d., allocated among the four county
disti-icts. Grants to technical colleges and institutes, mining, wood
carving, ironwork, dairj'work, and usual subjects taught.
Elgin. — No return.
Fife. — Amount, £1,649. 10s. 6d. Chemistry classes for teachers established
at St. Andi'ews, science and art subjects, farriery.
Forfar. — Amount. £1,224. 10s. ; gi-ant of £1 for passes in machine con-
stniction and di'awing and mathematics in science and art classes,
grants to dairy school.
Haddington. — No return.
Inverness. —Amount, £300. Cookery, navigation, agriculture. Grants for
science and art successes in various schools.
Kincardineshire.— Amount, £500. Dairy work. Voted remainder to
school boards.
Kinross. - ^lonej- used in relief of rates.
Kirkcudbright.— Amount, £718. 16s. 9d. Agriculture and agricultural
chemistiy, popular lectures, butter and cheese making.
Lanark.— Sum not returned. Upper Ward: Amount, £175, for agri-
cultural and chemistrj- classes, butter, cheese, cookery, veterinary, &c.
Middle Ward : ]\Ioney apportioned to school boards Lower Ward :
Relief of rates.
471
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABROAD.
Linlithgow. — Amount, £174. lis. 5d. Grants to school boards which pro-
vide technical instruction.
Nairn. — No return.
Orkney. — Amount, £100. Dair}'Work and scientific apparatus.
Peebles.— Amount, £261. 2s. 3d. To Peebles School Board for board
school lectures on dairying, &c.
Perth. — Amount, £2,002 15s. Secondary- schools, £350; school boards,
£1,202 ; teachers' travelling expenses.
Renfrew.— Amount, £948. 9s. 4d. Agricultural Society for lectures, grant
for improvement of cookery on board ship, school boards, and science
classes.
Ross and Cromarty. — No return.
Roxburgh. - Amount, £300. No scheme as yet returned.
Selkirk. — Amount, £141. Dairj-work, &c.
Shetland. — Rates.
Stirling. — No return.
Sutherland. — Cookery.
Wigtown. — Amount, £478. 15s. Cookery, fishing, sanitation, &c.
Burghs.
A total of about £12,000 is being spent by the Scotch burghs in science, art,
and technical instruction.
The greatest benefit must result from action and expenditure by
so many local authorities in all parts of the kingdom. The Technical
Instruction Acts are no doubt tentative. But until something better
is agreed upon, the county grants must be regarded as an invaluable
instrument for the elevation of the people. Take (see plate 7 1
LANCASHIRE,
WITH its population of 3,957,954, its 693,494 scholars on the
registers, and the vast number of children who quit its 1,780
elementary schools every year. The whole county has had only 46
school boards (the same number as Bedfordshire with 160,000
population), while Devonshire has had 151 for a population of 631,000,
and Yorkshire has had 243 school boards for a population of
3,208,000. Local representative oversight of education is what
Lancashire has needed, and the duties which have devolved upon its
local authorities since 1889 will stimulate interest in education and
bring its higher forms within reach of thousands who left the day
schools far too soon.
The county has resolved to apply nearly all its receipts under the
Acts to technical instruction, and these have exceeded £40,000 per
annum. Since the Act of 1890 came into operation £101,400 has
been allocated for this purpose. True, the rating powers of the
county have been largely in abeyance, for only £3,300 was raised in
rates and subscriptions (the subscriptions towards buildings not
included) in the whole area, urban and rural, during 1891-92. But
the necessity has not as yet been felt.
472
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABBOAD.
It will be interesting to see among what institutions and for what
subjects this grant was distributed for 1892-93. Of course these
particulars are for the administrative county only, the fifteen county
boroughs having their own budget and programme.
The urban districts received £21,500
The rural districts received 6,000
Cookery (riiral districts i 1,000
Special grants for apparatus 3,308
Special grant to University College, Liverpool 400
Special grant to Owens College, Manchester 400
For some minor deficiencies 15
Harris Institute, Preston, for agricultural classes 650
Migratory dairj' school 1,500
Navigation 200
Fishery 250
Saturday classes and exhibitions for teachers in elemen-
tary schools 3,000
University extension lectures 700
Fixed cheese schools 1,500
Examination expenses 400
Horology (at Prescot) 250
Instruction in practical agriculture 500
Mining 500
Wigan Mining School. 500
Plumbing and sanitary science 500
Furnishing premises 300
Silk industry 500
Union of Lancashire and Cheshire Institutes 100
Horticulture and bee-keeping 800
Training teachers in cookery 200
£44,973
Since 1891 the Council have offered : —
(a) 56 scholarships of £60 a year for three years — 30 for science, 10 for
art, 16 for commercial subjects, tenable at Oxford. Cambridge, London,
Paris, Trinity College, Dublin, the Owens College, Manchester, and
University College, Liverpool.
(b) 306 exhibitions — 56 value £15, 250 value £10, tenable in the county.
ic) 18 agricultural scholarships of £20 a year for three years.
(d) 24 agricultural exhibitions of £15 each for three years.
(e) 40 exhibitions of £10 each and 40 of £8 each, for teachers, on results
of examinations at the Saturday classes.
i
During 1893-94 the sum available for scholarships and exhibitions
exceeds £7,500. In the whole county, apart from the county
boroughs, the technical classes yield the following figures : —
Grants from County Council £26,758 5 2
Subscriptions and donations 1,026 14 10
Fees 4,166 7 11
Government grants 3,141 14 3
Rates levied 1,115 19 9
473
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABROAD.
It is obvious that under a proper system of local educational
authorities for dealing with elementary and secondary education the
rates would not stop at so trifling a figure. The resources of the
county may be guessed from the following table : — '■'
Population.
Liverpool 517,951
Manchester 505 343
Salford 198,136
Oldham 131,463
Blackburn 120,064
Bolton 115,002
Preston 107,573
Burnley 87,058
Rochdale 71,468
St. Helens 71,288
Stockport (part of town is in Cheshire) 70,253
Bury 57,206
Wigan 55,013
Barrow-in-Furness 51,712
Bootle 49,217
Ratable value.
£3,333,302
2,999,372
781,854
539,610
468,574
457,022
379,332
316,028
291,850
301,866
69,164
258,794
179,220
243,494
449,532
Total 2,208,737 £11,069,514
Having surveyed in some detail, the nature, need, and distribu-
tion of technical education in England, Scotland, and Wales, we
must briefly notice the state of things in Ireland, and then in other
parts of the world.
IRELAND AND ITS AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION.
For some years agricultural instruction has been obligatory for
boys in rural schools in Ireland. Ireland long held a lead in the
place she gave to industrial education. A recent rule requires girls,
after passing through the stages of the fifth class, to devote the rest
of their school life to industrial training. The curriculum of Irish
schools has embraced book-keeping, needlework, agriculture, draw-
ing, geometry, mensuration, trigonometry, handicraft, sewing
machine, domestic economy, cogjcery, dairying, management of
poultry, hygiene, the physical sciences, navigation, languages, and
instrumental music. A results grant of 5s. is allowed for every
pupil who has passed in agriculture. Poverty and a constantly
waning population — not any narrow policy of the Board of Com-
missioners— must account for the backwardness of Irish peasant
education in the face of such an excellent plan of technical and
manual subjects. Nor has that plan failed to yield some splendid
results. Some capital special schools for agriculture and dairying
are in operation. Seven or eight hundred dairymaids have within
P. 559, Report of Lancashire County Council, 1891-92.
474
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABROAD.
the last few years been thus trained in their calling. Nearly
100,000 boys are regularly instructed in agriculture from text
books of the subject.
The Local Taxation (Customs and Excise) Act, 1890, does not
run in Ireland. But in 1892 the Science and Art Department issued
a memorandum in which imperial grants were, on given conditions,
offered for technical instruction in Ireland. The Technical Instruc-
tion Act, 1889, does apply to Ireland, and, where local authorities
adopt it and raise money for technical instruction, the Science
and Art Depai'tment meet that outlay with grants of equal
amount for subjects outside the directory of that department.
The Corporation of Dublin has raised the full rate of Id. in the
pound. The Belfast Corporation has voted £750 a year to Belfast
technical schools. Cork has levied a rate of ^d. in the pound for
science classes at the Municipal School of Art. The Pembroke
Township Commissioners are maintaining the Technical and Fishery
School at Eingsend. A Technical Association is to be formed for
Ireland, and Government is to be asked to make grants which shall
be the equivalent of the local taxation receipts in England and
Scotland. The National Schools Board has a model farm at
Glasnevin, near Dublin, where teachers are practically instructed in
agi-iculture. Many of the schools under the National Schools Board
have school gardens and small farms, where the lads are accustomed
to agricultural work. Ireland teaches us how to popularise
agi'icultural instruction. We have of course fine Agricultural
Colleges at Cirencester and Downton, with high fees. There is
an experimental farm at Eothamstead, and with it a splendid
laboratory of agricultural research, founded by Sir John Lawes.
But a few noble institutions of that class do not reach the
gi'eat farming class, and still less the labourers. Agriculture should
be made a compulsory subject in England, as in Ireland, in rural
schools. Each school should have its garden. A knowledge of
plants and animals should be imparted in the early standards, and
lads in the older standards should be taught something about the
putting together of an agricultural machine, and the use and
meaning of the lever, the pulley, the wheel and axle, the spirit level,
the barometer, and the thermometer. Farm schools are needed for
those who can go higher, where agricultural apprentices could learn
chemistry, land surveying, book-keeping, and the principles of
agriculture, as in France. When secondary education is placed
under local authorities many middle-class schools could have a
farming depai'tment of 100 acres. Mr. Jenkins, secretary to the
Royal Agricultural Society of England, pleads for forestry as a
branch of advanced agricultural education. Desolate lands in Great
Britain and Ireland are waiting for the planter. The destruction of
475
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABBOAD.
colonial forests has had many disadvantages. India and Cyprus
are taking measures to preserve and manage forests, and the better
continental nations have one or more schools of forestry.
TECHNICAL AND MANUAL INSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES.
Education is dealt with in the States on a colossal scale. A country
which in 1889 could spend some £30,000,000 on its public schools, is
not likely to fail in the energy and practical aptitudes of its school
system. There were at that date — for up-to-date reports of its
education cannot be had even in America, owing to geographical and
political conditions —
12,931,259 scholars in the elementary grade schools, or 94-2 per cent.
668,461 scholars in the secondary schools, or 4-9 per cent.
126,854 scholars in the superior schools, or 0 9 per cent.
The expenditure per scholar in 1889 was on the average £3. Is. In
the Western States it was £6.''
Manual training in the United States, as I have already ti'ied to
show, has been pursued for intellectual and moral ends as well as for
the sake of national industry. It is now in full swing. Manual train-
ing is being incorporated into the regular public school work. The
Keadfield Wesleyan Seminary (Maine) seems to have been the first
school of the literary and manual labour kind, and that goes back to
near the beginning of the century. Other schools grew up. But an
epoch was made in 1862 by the passing of the famous Act of Congress
for establishing colleges of agriculture and the mechanic arts. It reads :
" The leading object shall be to teach such branches of learning as are
related to agriculture and the mechanic arts in such manner as
the legislatures of the States may respectively prescribe, in order
to promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial
classes in the several pursuits and professions of life." That Act
put at the service of these objects some of the vast resources of
that country in land and wealth. Foreign observers like M.
Buisson had noted a danger. The young people were too
averse to manual labour, and were apt to think dignity did not
lie in that direction. But manual exercises, " trade schools," "business
colleges," and splendid technical institutes are helping to form right
sentiment on the subject. There are 12 business colleges in Illinois,
16 in Iowa, 16 in Massachusetts, 28 in New Jersey, 16 in Ohio,
19 in Pennsylvania. The business college teaches how business is
transacted in large cities in banking, real estate, insurance, and
connnercial houses. The students have to keep and work a bank
in all details. So with other callings prepared for.
In 1867 Massachusetts citizens petitioned the Legislature to
introduce schools for drawing free to all men, women, and children
United States Report, 1889, p. 26.
476
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABBOAD.
in all towns of the commonwealth of more than 5,000 inhabitants.
American schools now offer manual exercises in variety, from the
pretty fabrications of the kindergarten to the construction of
the steam engine. Professor le Conte, of the State University of
California, said :'•'" Book work in science is a sham. . . Observing
and doing must co-operate with thinking. There are three great
departments expressly adapted for this co-operation — natural
history, drawing, and hand-work." The co-operation is now
going on over the whole field.
The New Haven (Connecticiitl schools go through a course in
"manual arts." Each boy first learns the names of the different
parts of the tool, how to hold and use it, how to sharpen it on the
oilstone, and how to keep it in order. The course includes thirty-
one lessons, some of them as follow : —
1. Hammer, chisel, and try square. 11. Glue joint.
2. Chisel to line, halving, half dove- 12. Blind, or mitre mortise,
tail. ■ 13. Mitreing, completing and dove-
3. End mortise and tenon, and j tail.
boring. 14. Dovetail, completed.
4 Sawing square, through dove- ' 15. Framing and wedging,
tail. 16. Planing to width.
5. Jack plane, cross-cut saw. j 17. Dovetail.
6. Grooving, ripping saw. 18 Smoothing and sand-papering.
7. Framing and halving. 19. Nailing, moulding.
8. Gauging — bevelling and cham- ' 20. Finish up the box, with mould-
fering. 1 ings, according to individual
9. Draw-knife and planing to line, i fancy.
10. Mortising. !
The cookery school first appeared in 1874 in New York City.
The institution has lived down the laughing objection that it has no
obvious connection with mental development. Properly taught it is
a good object lesson in chemistry, while care, patience, and fore-
thought are cultivated. A splendid course of cookery lessons
has been taught in the Washington schools (D.C.) It is entertaining
reading to begin with : —
Give directions for making a fire, and make one.
Boil salt water and fresh water ; note times taken.
Break an egg into boiling water, and another into cold water ; note the
results ; boil the cold water with the egg ; draw inferences.
Experiment with salted and smoked meats.
Boil rice, potatoes, and mash ; boil beets, onions, and squash ; boil oat-
meal (cracked), wheat, cerealine.
Stewing : Experiment with tough meat and vegetable acids ; show where
in the animal tough pieces of meat are found ; explain why they contain
so much nutriment, &c. ; make an Irish stew without dumplings ; make
" bubble and squeak."
Broiling : Names and positions of best steaks ; lard and oleomargarine,
from what and how made.
• Paper read before Teachers of California, December, 1887.
477
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABBOAD.
And so on through the mysteries of baking and frying for seventh
and eighth grade scholars, to those high school elaborations of fancy
and invalid cookery which leave griddle cakes, fritters, apple oyster,
clam, doughnuts, and cruellers far behind.
An excellent manual training course is in use for the eight grades
of the primary and the eight grades of the grammar schools of New
York. Several of the best of the manual training institutions owe
their origin to Professor Kunkle's visit to the Imperial Technical
School of Moscow, and were formed on the " Eussian system." The
Massachusetts Institute of Technology ^see ])late 8j, the St. Louis
Manual Training School, the Chicago Manual Training School, and the
Baltimore Manual Training School deserve prominent mention.
But these first-rank schools are only a small part of the national
machinery. Everywhere the attempt is being made to train the
mind and the hand together. The American youth is told that
he can only keep abreast of the world's methods of production by
leaving school a hand- worker and acquainted with science and art.
The rush of machine invention is revolutionising some trades and
abolishing others. As was stated by Mr. Powderly, at the State
Teachers' Association of Pennsylvania : " Were a shoemaker, dead
thirty years ago, to enter a shoe manufactory of the present day, he
would turn away sick ; he would be unable to understand the
machine stitcher, heeler, welter, laster, pegger, waxer, and buttoner."
An important Commission was appointed in 1887 by the Legisla-
ture of Pennsylvania to inquire into *' industrial education " as
given in America and elsewhere, and its report, published in 1889,
contains the fullest account of the manual and technical systems of
the States. The Land Act of 1862 required each State adopting it
to have at least one college where the " leading object " should
be "to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture
and the mechanic arts, without excluding other scientific and
classical studies." It granted 30,000 acres of public land for each
senator and representative in Congress. This splendid scheme
has brought into existence a large number of strong and progressive
institutions. Some of them are organically graded with the State
day schools, and thus round off the system of education in a way not
yet known in England.
The Commission reported in favour of manual training for all
public schools and of State handicraft schools for vagrant children.
Particularly it recommended that no diploma be given by a
normal school to any pupil who has not had a course of manual
training.
As early as 1872 Massachusetts authorised by Act of its Legislature
the teaching of agriculture in all public schools, the establishment of
industrial schools, and the teaching of navigation. New Jersey
478
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABROAD.
moved in 1881. New York State passed in 1888 an Act authorising
the industrial manual arts in the public and normal schools. Penn-
sylvania followed in 1883.
Some normal schools allowed females to learn the use of tools.
Whitewater and Milwaukie, in Wisconsin, have many female
students, and they learn to handle hammer, saw, square, auger, bit,
plane, chisel, forge, lathe, &c. Twenty-four of the States of the Union
give free tuition to student teachers in the training colleges. The
thorough training of teachers in manual arts is being realised, and
is all the more imperative from the great growth of population and
the " influx of an uneducated foreign element that appears to have
but little interest in the proper rearing of their young, and have pro-
duced a long list of uneducated voters in our commonwealth.'"''
State of Alahama. — (1) The Alabama Polytechnic Institute at
Auburn gives a course of carpentry, patternmaking, moulding and
casting in iron and brass, foi'ge work in iron and steel, chipping and
filing, and machine work, with a drawing course, the whole covering
three years. (2) The Tuskegee Normal School enrols 294 students,
and requires all to work. The school farm is of 600 acres, 475 acres
in woods. Its brickyard turned out 150,000 bricks in one year.
There is a carpenter's shop and printing office. All the buildings
on the school grounds have been erected by students' labour.
District of Columhia. — The public schools give manual training
from first to last — from the kindergarten of the J'oung children to
the bench and lathe work, the moulding and forging, in the seventh
and eighth grades and the high school.
Connecticut. — The New Haven public schools send selected boys
to a central workshop. Ten classes of 24 boys each from each
grammar school receive two hours' instruction per week. The course
of instruction has already been given.
INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION OF THE COLOURED RACE,
The John F. Slater Fund distributes 45,000 dollars annually among
negro schools in the South expressly to foster hand training. Forty-
four institutions received this aid in 1888, two of them for medical
students. Industrial education is a very large, some say a too
large, part of the school work of the negroes. This was felt to be
necessary if the negro was to become a skilled workman at all. The
principal of the Tuskegee State Normal School, Alabama, is a
coloured man, and he has pointed out that the industrial work of
the best coloured students enables them to pay nearly one-half of
their board bills. In Shaw University, Ealeigh (N.C.), there were
90 boys in the carpentry department, working forty hours per
* Pennsylvania Commission Report, p. 49.
479
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABBOAD.
month, and 80 young women in the dressmaking department. The
students are paid an average of ten cents an hour for work. The
following is a synoptic view of the school provision for the coloured
race : —
No of
Class of Institutions. Schools
Public Schools —
Normal Schools 30
Secondary Schools 15
Colleges 16
Schools of Science 2
Schools of Theology 13
Schools of Law 1
Schools of Medicine 2
79
No. of
Teachers.
... 18,219 ....
229 ..
106 ....
178 ....
18 ....
64 ....
18 '.'.'.'.
18,832
No. of
Pupils.
1,140,405
5,439
3,705
5,066
434
725
160
110
1,156,044
Georgia. — (1) The Atalanta University (unsectarian) has 17 pro-
fessors and 518 students and graduates, and a mechanical course of
three years in wood, iron, and steel work. The boys of the
college, preparatory, and grammar school course take this instruc-
tion, together with the principles of farming and gardening. The
mechanical department is housed in a building 100 feet by 44 feet and
three storeys high, with rooms for 30 cabinet benches, one for 12
wood- turning lathes run by steam power, one for 12 forges and
anvils, and a large room for mechanical drawing. (2) Georgia School of
Technology at Atalanta. This was founded by Act of the Legislature,
and is free to all students resident in Georgia. Outsiders pay fees
not exceeding 150 dollars per annum.
Illinois. — (1) The Beardstown Public Schools have an excellent
manual course, including primary work in splints, paper, clay, sand,
relief maps, industrial drawing, and shop work. (2) The Chicago
Manual Training School was founded in 1882, and its graduates are
admitted free to various polytechnics and universities. (3) The
Public Schools of Peru (111.) teach use of tools, and wood carving is
done in connection with drawing lessons. (4) The Illinois State
University was originated to promote the higher education of the
industrial classes. Under the Act of 1862, 480,000 acres of land
were granted to Illinois for such institutions. The tuition is free to
candidates 18 years of age who pass an entrance examination which
includes algebra through quadratics, physiology, natural philosophy,
plane and solid geometry, and botany. The school of mechanical
engineering is well equipped. Mechanical art and design, shop work,
pneumatics and principles of mechanism and prime movers are
carefully pursued.
Luliana teaches drawing and construction work in all primary
schools. The State possesses a great treasure in the Purdue
480
TECHNICAL EDUGATIOK AT HOME AND ABROAD.
University. John Purdue gave for its use £44,000, and its permanent
endowment fund amounts to £66,000, besides property worth over
£60,000. In 1888 it had 368 students :—
11 taking field and garden work. 307 taking laboratory instruction.
37 taking surveying. 167 taking industrial art.
105 taking shop work. ! 52 taking household industry.
One hundred and twelve of its students were females. The value of
its scientific apjjaratus was £10,000. There are six special schools,
besides a preparatory department : — (1) Agriculture, horticulture,
and veterinary science. (2) Mechanical engineering. (3) Civil
engineering. (4) Science, (a) biology, [b) chemistry, (c) applied
electricity, [d) literature and history. (5) Industrial art.
(6) Pharmacy. Applicants who have successfully completed the
high school course of the State are admitted to the freshman class
without examination at 16 years of age.
The Bose Polytechnic Institute, founded by the late Chauncey Eose,
of Terre Haute, is another of the great institutions for technical
instruction of which our American cousins have reason to be proud.
It had 109 students in 1888. Its gi-ounds and buildings are worth
£30,000, and its scientific apparatus £5,000. Its endowment funds
are £90,000. It offers practice and laboratory work in (1) mechanical
engineering, (2) civil engineering, (3) chemistry, (4) physics,
(5) drawing, and its programme of subjects and classes is a
surprising one.
The mind of the reader would be wearied by particulars of all the
manual and technical work being done in the Republic in the
primary, secondary, and university stages. We can only urge those
interested to seek for themselves the information which may be
obtained from the proper authorities as to the work being done
in the following and other institutions and localities : —
loiva. — The State Agricultural College. Six courses of study, all
scientific and technical. Fi-ee to all Iowa students.
Maine. — The Maine State College of Agriculture and the
Mechanic Arts.
Maryland. — Baltimore Manual Training School, with 601 pupils ;
provision for 250 in carpentering and 75 in patternmaking, for 150
in machine shop, and 70 each in moulding, forging, and sheet metal.
Massachusetts. — The public schools of Boston have been active in
manual instruction. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology:
720 students — 130 taking surveying, 192 shop work, 692 laboratory.*
Springfield Manual Training School : 139 pupils in drawing, joinery,
wood turning, wood carving.
* For an account of this remarkable institution see Report published by Alfred
Mudge and Son, Boston, 1893.
481
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABROAD.
Worcester Polytechnic Institute. — 383 pupils have graduated ; 168
resident in 1889. Endowment, £112,000.
Minnesota. — The pubhc schools of Minneapolis. The University
of Minnesota, with a college of mechanic arts. St. Paul's Public
Schools. Six branches of woodwork.
Missouri. — The St. Louis Manual Training School — a department
of Washington University.
New Jersey. — Public schools at Elizabeth, Montclair, Orange,
Vineland, &c. Stevens Institute of Technology, at Hoboken : an
elaborate curriculum and technical course. Newark Technical
School : 175 students.
New York. — Albany High School. Pratt Institute, Brooklyn.
Cornell University, Ithaca : 1,135 students and graduates ; value of
scientific apparatus, £84,000; funds, £950,000; mechanical engineer-
ing; mechanic arts ; industrial art. Public schools. College of City
of New York: Students, 1,277; Hbrary, 23,869 volumes. The
public schools.
Ohio. — Technical School of Cincinnati. Case School of Applied
Science. Cleveland Manual Training School. The Toledo Manual
Training School.
Pennsylvania. — Carlisle Indian School, for Indian youth : 300 at
farming, 150 at various crafts. Haverford College. Gii-ard College.
Philadelphia Manual Training School : 325 pupils. Pennsylvania
Museum and School of Industrial Art, Philadelphia : Department of
weaving and textile design, chemistry and dyeing, tapestry painting,
wood carving. Lehigh University. Pennsylvania State College :
Elaborate technical courses. Swarthmore College. Tidionte Public
Schools : Flower gardens kept by scholars in practical botany.
Virginia. — Virginia Agricultural and Mechanical College. The
•' Miller" Manual Labour School.
Wisconsin. — The University of Wisconsin. Public schools. White-
water Normal School.
Kentucky has some schools of science ; 1,176 students in business
colleges; State Agricultural College, of large scope and £88,000
of funds.
Louisiana. — State University and Agricultural and Mechanical
College at Baton Rouge.
These and other institutions, crowning a graded system of common
school education that is the admiration of the world and the despair
of some older countries whose education and religion seem to have
got into each other's way, prove how rich is the supply of manual
and technical instruction, especially in higher schools, in the United
States.
32
482
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABROAD.
GERMANY.
From the time when the Prussian king in 1717 ordered all parents
to send their children to school, down to our own, Germany has been
a school-loving country. We might go further back, to the great
religious upheaval of 1517, and date the movement from that time.
There are three groups of schools : —
A. The Lower Schools, or People's Schools, which are purely elementary,
and for both sexes.
B. The Middle Schools — (a) Citizens' Schools for boys, (6) Girls' Academies,
which are of larger scope.
C. High Schools — divided into (a) the Realschule, (6) the Gymnasium,
(c) the Real-Gymnasium.
The Eealschule was estabUshed 140 years ago. It teaches modem
languages, natural science, mathematics, industrial training, and
prepares youths who wish to become engineers, surveyors, artists,
civil officers, &c. The Gymnasium is the oldest kind of school, and
is the Latin school of the Middle Ages. It is the classical school
for boys. The Real- Gymnasium combines some of the features of
the two others.
There were 418 gymnasia (or classical schools) in Germany in
1889. Prussia had 266 ; Bavaria, 35 ; Saxony, 17 ; Wiirtemberg,
Baden, 14 ; Alsace-Lorraine, 16, ifcc. There were also 54 pro-
gymnasia, i.e., gymnasia with a six years' course instead of an eight
years' course. There were 154 realschules and higher citizens'
schools in 1889. The number of real-pro-gymnasia was 106. All
told, Germany had 976 secondary schools at that time, with nearly
400,000 pupils. At the present time the country has 1,000 high
schools, and they are so in fact, not merely in name. These schools
prepare for the universities and polytechnics.
It has been said that German scholars are remarkabl)^ free from
disorder. They only require to be taught and interested, and the
teacher has no physical resistance to cope with. The Anglo-Saxon
branch of the Teutonic family must modestly waive any claim to this
form of juvenile excellence. They are rich in will power, however, if
not in intellectual docility.
All teachers in Germany must be qualified. They must either
possess a diploma from a " Wissenschaf tliche Priifungs-Commission,"
or one from a seminary or normal school.
Forthildungs-scimden, i.e., the continuation schools, are held in the
evenings or on Sunday mornings. In many states, though not in
all, attendance at these schools is compulsory. There are few half-
timers, and no pupil teachers. The head teacher's duty is mainly
supervision, and women teachers are few. Prussia, for instance,
has 106 normal schools for men, but only eight for women. But
483
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABROAD.
INDUSTRIAL HANDICRAFT FOR WOMEN
IS largely taught in the country, no fewer than 34,270 female
instructors having taken part in this work in 1887, many of them
being wives of country teachers. There were 4,874,347 scholars
enrolled in the people's schools in 34,016 schoolhouses. A most
remarkable fact is that 23,152 of these schools were under one
teacher, and there were only 28,561 classes in these schools.
SCIENCE AND ART TRAINING
ARE everywhere provided. Workshops are not connected with the
primary schools, but drawing is universal, and apprenticeship schools
are easily available. The girls' academies in Prussia give 14 hours
per week to industrial teaching. Almost everywhere in Germany
attendance is compulsory until 14. As has been said by an able
friend of English education, who is also an unflinching advocate of a
lengthened school-life for our children : " It is hardly too much to
say that the two years' additional training the German child
receives in the elementary school doubles its chance in life as
compared with the English child." And if this is so, what must it
not do to increase the nation's chance of success in the hand and
brain rivalries of the world ? The fact that
RAGGED AND BEGGING CHILDREN
ARE rarely seen in Germany is due to the anterior fact that the
education of children has for three generations been the earnest care
of the German people. They are applying technical science to every
department of industry in a way of which we have as yet little idea,
and their polytechnics and practical technical schools are in advance
of anything we have until lately possessed in England. Of some of
these institutions we must now speak, but before we do so we must
point out the wonderful
SOLIDARITY OF GERMAN EDUCATION.
All classes and kinds of schools in a city stand in close and
sympathetic relation to those higher institutions which are the crown
of an educational system, such as art academies, museums, the
astronomical observatory, the library, the ^yainastic societies, and
universities.
TECHNICAL UNIVERSITIES IN GERMANY AND SWITZERLAND.
(See plate 9.)
Germany and Switzerland were quick to see the need for skilled
assistants. Scientific high schools sprang up for the training of
men who might compete with English engineers trained in the
484
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABROAD.
workshop. The universities of fifty years ago did not meet the
case, and consequently each state did its best to create technical
institutions that would do so. Magnificent polytechnics arose like
The Federal Polj-technic School at Zurich.
The Polytechnic School at Munich.
The Polytechnic School at Vienna.
The Polytechnic School at Stuttgart.
The Polytechnic School at Dresden.
The Polytechnic School at Hanover.
The Polytechnic School at Aachen.
The Technical High School of Berlin, now the Charlottenburg Polytechnic.
The Polytechnic School, Delft.
The Polytechnic School, Moscow.
These schools cost £3,000,000 for building and fittings, and their
maintenance costs £200,000 annually.
Tlw Zurich Polytechnic was established by the Swiss Confedera-
tion in 1854. It is one of the finest in the world, and comprises
seven special schools : —
1. Architecture, with a three years' course.
2. Civil engineering, three and a half years' course.
3. Mechanical engineering, three years' course.
4. Chemical technology, including pharmacy, three years' course.
5. Agriculture and forestry, two and a half years' course.
6. Normal school for training special science teachers.
7. Philosophical and political science.
Further, a preliminary course is provided in mathematics for those
not yet prepared to enter one of these schools. There are 200
courses of lectures, 45 professors, and 13 assistant-professors, besides
tutors, curators, &c. The institution spends over £20,000 a year. A
few years ago the Federal Council voted to it £50,000 for the exten-
sion of the chemical laboratories. The cost to a student is £4 the
half-year and £2 for laboratory practice, or about £12 per annum
in the chemical department for the full use of these great
opportunities.
Of the seven sessions the first three are given to theoretical
subjects, such as pure mathematics, descriptive geometry, with
drawing, mechanics, and physics treated mathematically. The work
is considered almost too exhaustive for engineering students. The
fourth session takes ff^^raphical statics, so important for bridge-
designing. The sixth and seventh sessions deal with tunnels, stone
and iron bridges, railways, canals, roads, geodesy, and other branches
of engineering, besides the drawing and designing these call for.
Diplomas are given for passing special examinations. The non-
Swiss engineering students are 70 per cent of the whole, a fact
which witnesses to the wide reputation of the school. Students
come even from North and South America.
485
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABROAD.
The Zurich Apparatus. — The Zurich School Law of 1832 contains
these noble words: "The children of all classes of society shall be
educated according to the well-known principles of pedagogy, to be
intellectually active, civilly useful, and morally good men and
women." The instruments of education gathered in the polytechnic
of that city prove that that law has been no empty formula. There
are twenty-two collections, museums, kc. : —
1. Three libraries — of the school, of the canton, and of the city.
2. Engineering and architectural collections.
3. Plaster casts.
4. Specimens of construction and materials.
5. Antique vases.
6. 24,000 engravings.
7. Geometrical instruments.
8. Models of machinery.
9. Tools and models for applied mechanical technology.
10. Models and products for chemical technology.
11. Mathematical and geometrical models.
12. Specimens and tools of forestry.
13. Agricultural collection.
14. Science specimens, as of natural history, zoology, botany, geology,
palaeontology, &c.
15. Archaeological collection.
16. Workshop for moulding and casting in clay and plaster.
17. Workshop for metal work.
18. Laboratory for chemistry.
19. Laboratory for agricultural chemistry.
20. Cabinet of physical apparatus and a physical laboratory
21. Institute of vegetable physiology, including microscopic and physio-
logical departments, botanical collections, and hothouses.
22. Botanical garden.
The Zurich Polytechnic gives purely scientific instx'uction, it does
not teach industries. But of course it directs the best thought and
research of its aliunni towards industrial development. Both in
Germany and in Switzerland men trained at Zurich are holding
important positions in industrial establishments.
In Prussia, foremen and workmen are not so well provided for as
masters and managers in respect of technical education. Head men
in engineering, chemistry, and architecture are extremely well
served in such high schools as Berlin, Hanover, and Aachen. Civil
Service engineers must attend one or other of these schools, and
must present a leaving certificate from a gynmasium, real-
gymnasium, or an upper real-school.
There are technical schools of a lower type called "real" and
"trade" schools. The course in some is nine years, and these are
caUed "upper real-schools;" in others six or seven years, and these
are called "burgher" schools.
Prussia has building schools in Berlin, Nienburg, Eikernforde,
Breslau, Hoxtar, and Idstein. There is a school for machine
486
construction at Eimbeck; four weaving schools at Crefeld, Mulheim,
and Eimbeck ; a trade school for pottery at Hohr ; trade metal
schools at Iserlohn and Remsheid. There are trade continuation
schools for apprentices and artisans under 18, who can be compelled
to attend, as their masters are to gi-ant them time to do so. In that
case the State paj^s half the cost. Agricultural schools, &c., are also
in operation.
The polytechnics and universities between them have diffused
scientific knowledge throughout Germany and given an adequate
supply of men who can superintend industrial works and act as
teachers in technical schools. It is here that England still fails. A
list of some of the universities may be of interest, especially if we
remember that their cost is as small as their equipment is elaborate : —
Universities. No. of students. Teaching staff.
n r (4,995 o^.
^^^••^ ,3.900 2*^
T ■ • (3.166 i„i
Leipsic 13 111 '^
■sjr ■ V t2!049 1-1
Munich 9 01 7*
Breslau 1,682 123
Halle . . . . 1,414 —
Tubingen 1,414 —
Bonn 1,102 110
Gottingen 1,096 119
Wurzburg 1,091 —
Lemberg 1,011 —
There are at least twenty-four universities in the German Empire,
five in Switzerland, and nine in Austria, and from 30,000 to 40,000
students are being trained in them.
Apprenticeship) Schools in Germany. — These train workmen in pure
and applied art and in practical work in the shop. They have spread
over Southern Germany and Austria, and are now in Prussia. The
manufacturers demanded better workers. Three years is the course,
in which the pupils are trained as designers, modellers, wood carvers,
moulders, founders, turners and pressors, chasers, engravers, gilders,
and etchers. The number of artisans attending the schools is
increasing.
The Fortbildung or night schools of Bavaria help the apprentices'
schools. The former are free, and are attended by middle-aged men
as well as by young men. In old days the workshop was a school,
and the handicraftsman was also an artist. But the apprentice
does not now learn an entire trade at his work. Labour is
divided into small operations, and every youth is called off in his
turn to military life. It is therefore needful that the school should
do its part by linking taste with strength, and so securing cheapness
and attractiveness in products.
* Auditors.
487
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABROAD.
Chemical Colour Industry. — The coal tar colour works of Germany
and Switzerland, such as those of Messrs. Bindschedler and Busch,
at Basle, Messrs. Meister, Lucius, and Briining, at Hochst, and the
Baden Aniline and Soda Works, at Ludwigshafen, possess trained
scientific chemists in evexy department. At the first of these houses
there are ten laboratories, apart from woi'kshops, where the colour
chemist and the workman chemist meet together. The head chemists
have been through Zurich Polytechnic. A scientific library is provided
to assist the under chemists in their preparations. Laboratory
experiments at Messrs. Bindschedler and Busch's resulted in the
manufacture of the colouring matter now known as malachite green.
These improvements brought down the price of the colour from £2
to £1. 4s. per kilo.
Calico Printing — Alsace. — The heads of the firms are very able
men. A great proportion of them speak English. Tx'ained chemists
are engaged. An art gallery and museum for the study of fine art
and design has been created at Mulhausen, at a cost of £20,000, and
there is an unrivalled trade museum of designs, patterns, and choice
examples of weaving and printing. The poorest boys of ability in
the elementary schools are encouraged to attend the drawing school
and afterwards the engraving school, where they are gratuitously
trained in the processes of engraving for the calico printer.
At Chemnitz, Saxony, there is a remarkable higher trade institute,
which cost for site and buildings £82,000. It has four schools — a
technical school for chemists, &c., a foremen's school, a building
school, and a drawing school. The town is also distinguished for its
weaving and weaving school. A technical knowledge of dyeing is
required for the exquisite work here produced. The manufactures
of the district owe their excellence largely to the Chemnitz Weaving
School, the classes of which are attended by the sons, assistants, and
overseers of all fancy manufacturers of the town. We can only
append a brief notice of other establishments.
The Building Trade School at Stuttgart. — A fine building, cost
£60,000. Two preparatory courses and three scientific building
courses.
The Metallurgical School of Bochuvi, Westphalia. — Established by
iron and steel manufacturers. Open only to workmen employed
four years in iron or engineering.
Crefeld Weaving School. — The Royal Commissioners said that
" German building schools and mining schools were not dangerous
to us, but their weaving schools were more so." Crefeld is a great
school, and popular with manufacturei'S. It teaches drawing and
the loom ; painting from models, natural plants and flowers for
printing and other branches ; machine drawing ; fabrics decomposed ;
original design ; unmounting and rebuilding power-looms, and forge
488
TECHNICAL EDUCATIOl* AT HOME AND ABROAD.
work. It has a museum of textile fabrics, and the Krauth collection
of historical patterns. The dyeing and finishing departments of the
school are complete. The silk industry of Crefeld is largely due to
the school.
The Indiistrial Art Schools of Gerynany apply art to manufactures
more than those of France. The Dresden School has revived old and
established new industries. It is without workshops, but sells its
designs to manufacturers. It has departments of designing,
architecture, decorative painting, ornament, figure drawing, art
modelling, decorative painting from the figure. It has 16,000
mounted patterns, 11,000 examples of embroidery and lace, and a
school museum containing 140,000 patterns of textile fabrics of all
kinds and ages. The director is a professional designer in metal
work, porcelain, furniture, wall-papers, a)iLd textiles.
The Industrial Art School of Vienna practises cai-ving, metal-
chasing, and working in brass and bronze. In wood-carving it far
surpasses England. Many students work certain hours, and then
sell the product of their labour. These succeed best, f See lilate 10.)
The Eoyal School of Art Embroidery, Vienna, is wholly technical.
Girls from the primary schools are carried forward to every kind of
fancy needlework and designing. There are no fees save for
foreigners. The Commissioners thought the instruction given here
was the highest they knew in any school of the same class. Schools
on a somewhat larger plan are needed in all large towns. Art ■
schools are not enough, and are over-crowded. What is wanted is
to open up new pursuits for women, in which art can be combined
with domestic life.
TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE.
France has centralised her system of public education beyond what
is permitted in English-speaking countries. France is divided
for educational purposes into 17 academies (educational districts),
87 departments, 36,121 communes, 362 arrondissements (sub-
divisions of departments), and 2,865 cantons (sub-divisions of
arrondissements). There is a municipal council for each commune.
In 1889 the following was the enrolment of scholars in all classes
of schools and institutions : —
Infant Schools 500,000- 8%
Primary „ 5,500,000 = 88%
Secondary,, 170,000=3%
Normal „ 9.000
Universities 18,000
France has for a considerable time taken pains to prepare her
artisans for skilled, tasteful, and finished work. The application of
the fine arts to industry has brought untold wealth to the nation.
489
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABBOAD.
As has been said: "France has schooled her workmen in classic
models until hereditary descent of aptitudes for tasteful ornament
and beautiful finish is to be counted on among her people." *
The industries of each locality are considered in each commune,
and drawing is everywhere taught. Schools of industrial apprentice-
ship are provided, either as part of the primary schools or separately.
Manual training was made an integral part of the curriculum by the
law of 1886; both boys and girls are provided for in this respect.
The ordinary schools of France excel the English as a preparation
for the technical school, f
Technical Education in Paris Primary Schools. — Paris has some
600 public elementary schools, besides some 126 kindergarten schools
for younger children. Ten per cent of the expenditure of Paris is for
education. Soup is given to infants at 11 o'clock, and they eat food
brought with them. In 90 of the 285 elementary schools for boys in
Paris there are workshops for iron and wood work under a superin-
tendent. A good specimen of this arrangement is the
Primary School, 109, Avenue Parmentier. — It has a wood shop
with twelve carpenter benches, and four lathes against the wall.
One boy turns for a quarter of an hour, two others watching him,
and each takes work and watch in turn. Joining and dovetailing
are done at the bench, but at the lathe they can turn a long plain
stick into seventy-six different ornamental pieces, made either to
stand separately or to tit into others and produce a finished object
when combined. If ten pieces are made well, the effort is rewarded
by permission to make something for themselves and take it home.
The iron workshop contains twelve vices arranged along the walls, a
boring machine, anvil, and forge, t
Superior Primary Schools i (fecoles Primaires Superieures) or
high schools, also free, give a four years' course in which manual
training in drawing, wood and iron work takes a prominent place.
One of these, in the Kue de Jouy, is for girls, where they are trained
for higher employments, as book-keepers and correspondents, and for
taking charge of industrial establishments for women.
There were in 1887 no fewer than 66,000 schools in France, of
which 57,611 were State-managed, secular, and free schools. 9,000
belonged to the Church.
There were many secondary schools — 98 lycees and 256 colleges,
some few years ago. But between these and the primary schools
are the manual apprenticeship schools.
* Eeport of United States Commissioner of Education, 1889, p. xxxii.
t Mr. Matthew Arnold's Report.
{ See Report of Mr. Schoenhof to American Secretary of State, 1888.
§"TheTurgot," "Colbert," "Lavoisier." "J. B. Say," and "Arago," &c.
490
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABROAD.
The Polytechnic Association was founded in 1830 by the graduates
of the Polytechnic School for the purpose of conducting preparatory
courses of industi'ial and technical training for both sexes. Training
is given in the cutting and fitting of garments, decorative painting,
making of artificial flowers, and commei-cial courses to young girls.
The Municipality of Paris has been to the forefront in supplying
technical education for girls. It has undex'taken to fit every girl for
domestic or business life who applies at its schools, and without cost
to the pupil. Its ecoles professionelles menageres number six,
besides its "commercial school." On these schools alone £30,000 is
spent annually. The school, 14, Rue Bosquet, has 300 pupils. Girls
must be 12 and not over 15 years of age, and must have a certificate
from the primary school. The course is three years, but that of
painting and drawing can be extended to four.
EXPENDITURE ON DRAWING IN FRANCE.
Paris £42,420 per annum.
National Budget for Art 45,240
Municipal contributions in Provinces... . 47,395
£135,055
SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN FRANCE,
School of Telegraphy, for Government employes.
Schools of Manual Apprenticeshii?. These supplement the primary
school, and are for pupils born French or naturalised.
Higher Schools of Commercial Studies. Foreigners admitted. Pupils
prepared for merchants, bankers, adminstrators, &c.
National School of the Industrial Arts at Roubaix. for practical and
theoretical study of the local manufacture of cloth, which is highly
valued. Foreigners are admitted by letter from their ambassador
or consul. (See plate 11.)
The Ecole des Beaux-Arts at Paris is free. Annual Government
grant, £14,.320.
The Academie de France at Bome, for successful artists. Government
allows them £140 a year for four years at Rome, and sends them also.
The Ecole des Beaux-Arts at Lyons is a national school, but chiefly
supported from Lyons. It has a scholarship of £48 for three years,
with £24 added by the town. It is relied on as a source of refine-
ment rather than immediate profit.
The Ecole Nationale des Arts Decoratifs at Paris has 800 pupils. State
subsidy, £4,000 annually.
National Professional School at Vierzon, opened by M. Jules Ferry.
Ecole Professionelle Muuicipale of Rheims, to instruct youth in manu-
factures and commerce. Four courses are given, according to the
aptitudes of .scholars after the second year : (1) manufactures, (2)
mechanics, (3) commerce, (4) agriculture. The plant cost £20,000.
The pupil is taught to weave and spin. He spins and weaves the
wool which he has washed, carded, dj'ed, and prepared, with
plant like that of the factory.
491
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABROAD.
The Polytechnic School at Paris fits for military, naval, and hydro-
graphic engineers, and those of the military bridge corps, superin-
tendents of State manufactories, telegraph lines, &c., and other
careers demanding advanced mathematics, physics, and chemistry.
High School of Mines, Paris. Foreigners admitted, but receive no
diplomas.
The National School of Design for Young Women, Paris.
The Limoges School of Decorative Art. 1,250 students in 1883.
Schools attached to the National Factories of Gobelins, Sevres, and
Beauvais.
School of Pine Arts at Toulouse. Painters' and sculptors' classes.
Meet 6 to 8 on winter evenings, and 6 to 8 on summer mornings
School of Master Workmen of Mines, Calais. Pupil must have worked
18 months in mines.
School of Horticulture at Versailles.
Central School of Arts and Manufactures in Paris.
Agricultural Schools. An Institute of Agronomy fits pupils to be
teachers in the schools of agriculture, to be scientific proprietors
and managers of farms, and experts in vine culture; 227.000 francs
was voted to the Institute in 1885, 1.145,000 francs to the Veterinary
School, 806,000 francs to the Agricultural Schools, 649,000 francs to
the Practical Farm Schools, and 91,000 francs to the Horticultural
Schools
There are also schools of arts and manufactures at Aix, Angers,
and Chalons. Two schools of watch and clock making. Weaving
schools also at Nimes, Amiens, and St. Etienne. Several lace-
making schools. A free school of political science, with a remarkable
and exhaustive progi-amme of constitutional, legal, financial, and
diplomatic studies.
French Agriculture. — Half of the inhabitants of France are in
the agricultural class. There are 7,000,000 owners, farmers, and
labourers, cultivating 125,000,000 acres. France is the greatest
wheat-growing country in Europe. By elementary teaching,
itinerant lectures, experimental plots and fields ("stations agro-
nomiques"), farm schools, agricultural colleges, and the Institut
National Agronomique at Paris, France is endeavouring to perfect
existing modes of agricultural practice. In 1891-92 France spent
£170,000 of imperial funds in this work, besides local expenditure.
Butter and cheese making are receiving great attention. Voluntary
.agricultural schools are active, and there are 12 State schools, viz. :
Agriculture, 3 ; horticulture, 1 ; dairying, 1 ; veterinary, 3 ; forestry,
2; and shepherds' schools and bergeries, 2.
DENMARK AND SWEDEN.
These countries have distinguished themselves in dairy produce, and
Sweden especially by the Sloyd system of woodwork in schools.
Dairy Farming. — From a special report of the Board of Agriculture
for 1892, we learn how successful Denmark and Sweden have been
in dairy production. Ten years ago Denmark sent us 304,722 cwt.
492
TECHNICAIi EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABROAD.
of butter; last year she sent us 876,211 cwt. Sweden sent us only
67,821 cwt. at the former date, but we now import 234,987 cwt.
This has come about from well-known causes. Government has
helped the farmers to reach markets, for one thing. For another,
the people have not clung to old methods when better ones have been
brought to their knowledge. They have made butter in winter as
well as summer, as the Holstein settlers who came to Denmark fifty
years ago taught them to do. With the thermometer and scales
soon came practical instruction in dairy management. Centrifugal
separators have replaced the old processes of cream-raising, steam
power being used in large workings. Souring is managed so that
uniform quality results. Butter is not washed in the churn, lest
the fine aroma should be lost ; or if so washed, cooling and other
precautions are taken. But most interesting of all has been the
policy of
Co-operation in Danish Dairying. — Farmers have combined their
knowledge and resources, and there are now one thousand
co-operative dairies in the country. The New South Wales farmers
have formed similar co-operative dairies, the shareholders being the
farmers themselves. Danish dairying is carried on in the same
way with success. Many dairies pay for milk by the "fat test."
Since 1880 the middleman, or local butter dealer, has not been
much heard of, and the producers sell to the export merchants.
The latter move rapidly, shipping orders of butter on Friday morning
in response to telegrams from England received on Thursday (the
weekly market day). Consulting experts and advisers are at the
call of the dairying companies for a small fee.
Sweden has long winters and little pasture, but the farmers have
become first-rate dairymen. Co-operative dairying is here also in
the ascendant, as against the " buying-up-dairy " system. Butter-
making ceases in spring on account of low prices, and whole-milk
cheese is turned out instead. Dairy farm stations are registered by
the Eoyal Board of xVgri culture, Sweden, and are aided from
Government. They receive pupils for two years to be trained as
"skilful dairymaids."
Germany largely uses the "Laval" separator for cream. The
cream is allowed to "turn," and butter is not usually washed with
water. The middleman is discouraged, such large holders as the
"East Holstein Associated Dairies" employing their own agents
rather than brokers. Germany has 1,020 co-operative daii^ies. The
Government aid by subventions the education of dairymen and
dairymaids. In the Kingdom of Saxony there are three dairy
schools, and in the Grand Duchy of Oldenburg there is a dairy
school and institute combined. Wiirtemberg has seven schools of
domestic economy ; Baden, two. There is a school of farmhouse
493
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABROAD.
economy in the Grand Duchy of Hesse. But these do not include
special dairy schools and exclusively private schools. The farm-
house schools (like that at Nebra, in Brandenburg) live a fainily life,
teachers and scholars having eveiy opportunity of putting into
practice what is learnt. Not only is the handling of milk and
the making of butter and cheese taught, but gardening, rearing of
poultry, smoking and salting of meat, household book-keeping, and
treatment of the sick.
SWjd '•' (m Sweden). — Sweden has solved better than other
countries the problem of combining a varied manual training with
ordinary school work. There are over 700 schools in Sweden in
which Slojd is taught. The normal school for this instruction is at
Naas, where a considerable number of teachers of the system are
trained. The principles laid down are: (1) voluntary attendance
at Slojd; (2) Slojd work must be useful; (3) not fatiguing in tool
exercises ; (4) varied ; (5) such as can be done by pupils themselves ;
(6) real work, not play; (7) not articles of luxury; (8) the work
becomes the property of the pupil ; (9) the pupil must be able to do
it; (10) done with exactness; (11) neat and clean; (12) thoughtful,
not merely mechanical; (13) strengthening to the body ; (14) develop
sense of form; (15) rich in manipulative detail. Again, the teacher
of it should be the ordinary teacher, and he should superintend the
work but not handle it. It should begin at the eleventh year.
Slojd includes carpentry, turning, and wood-carving. Slojd
carpentry and trade carpentry differ. The former is small work ; tools
are different, and there is no division of labour. There are about
one hundred models. The sheet-anchor, however, is the knife,
which has a blade two-and-a-half inches long, strongly fixed in the
handle and sharply pointed at the end. In addition, each worker
has a square, a saw, an awl, perhaps a pair of dividers, and hammer
and nails; benches of Swedish pattern, and sets of bits, chisels,
gouges, and planes are used. The following articles are made : —
Pointer Kuler Footstool
Flower-stick Knife handle Comer bracket
Penholder Pen tray Nail box
Bird's perch First spoon Sugar scoop
Square flower-stick Hammer handle Boot-jack
Key label Second spoon Shoe-brush box
Slate pencil holder Bracket Stool
Dibbler Stocking-stretcher Knife box
Forked clothes-pins Trencher Salt box
Paper knife Flower stand Teapot stand
Flower cross Butter beater Match box.
• Slojd has the same meaning as " sleight " in England, viz., dexterous feat
or practice, only it is used of workmanship.
494
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABROAD.
SWITZERLAND.
We have already glanced at some of the forms of technical education
in this remarkable country. Elementary and secondary education
is free, and compulsory attendance is required up to fourteen years
of age ; 97o per cent of the children of all classes attend the
public primary schools. The school on the 'Lindescher Platz, in
Zurich, is an elementary school, but it cost £43,000, or £66 per
head. Chemistry and physics are taught in the higher classes.
There is a fine museum (as is usual in Zurich schools), which
includes geographical relief maps of the Alps and their glaciers,
botanical models, a complete herbarium, &c. There are in the
canton of Zurich the gymnasium high schools, preparing scholars
for the university or the polytechnic, and the trade school
(industrieschule), which prepares for the polytechnic, or for direct
entrance into trade. Pupils enter the gymnasium at twelve, and
leave at eighteen or nineteen, and if they gain the leaving certificate
they are admitted to any university or polytechnic without an
entrance examination. The industrieschule is entered at fourteen,
and has a three-and-a-half years' course. From the second class
onwards the school separates into two divisions, (a) a technical
section and (b) a commercial section. The girls' high schools are
attended by young people between twelve and sixteen of all classes,
no regard being had to social position. Except needlework and
English, all the subjects are taught by male teachers. A study of
the programmes of education in the Zurich Cantonal school would
benefit those persons in England who still try to beggar
education, to keep schools on a class footing and close their
doors and windows to the free air of public management. The
canton spends on education 32 per cent of its whole expenditure,
besides the outlay of communes for the primary schools.
The supply of youths of superior and scientific education in
Switzerland is greater than the demand, and many remain workmen
or go to some other country. The head men of establishments have
nearly all been through the polytechnic or a technical school. There
is a great desire among the young men to travel to England and see
the large undertakings of the North of England. The youths of
Switzerland have advantages second to those of no country in the
world. By means of the chemical knowledge imparted in the
laboratories of the polytechnic, Switzerland has supplied men for
works at home and abroad who, as the Royal Commissioners assert,
have repaid ten times over in the dyeing industry alone the whole cost
of the polytechnic. The colour manufactures of Switzerland are due
to the polytechnic. Swiss coal tar manufactures were valued at
£300,000 at that time, while those of France were only of the same
495
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABROAD.
value, and those of England £500,000. Nearly all the raw and semi-
raw materials for this manufacture had been imported, many of them
from England. It has been shown that the laboratories of Switzer-
land have brought millions of capital into the country.
Stviss Dairying, dc. — Cheese and butter making are taught at a
daily station at Perolles (Fribourg), the dairy school de la Butti
(Berne), and at a dairy school at Sornthal (St. Gall). Here the
centrifugal separators are driven by hydraulic power. There is a
chemical laboratory, and an exhibition of dairy utensils on sale.
Subjects of theoretical instruction are the shed, feeding, improvement
of cattle, swine, cheese factories, milk, butter and cheese, manage-
ment. Practice follows theory, and the use of the densometer,
lactometer, lacto-fermentator, lacto-coagulator, &c., is taught.
ITALY.
This country has no Factory Acts, or compulsory education.
There are, however, good technical schools at Como and other
places. The population in 1888 was 30,565,253. In 1886 the
number of scholars enrolled in secondary schools was 184,096, of
whom the scuole tecniche enrolled 27,131, and the instituti tecnici
enrolled 7,381. The first prepare for industrial and commercial
pursuits, and the second for the professions of civil engineering,
surveying, &c. There are special schools for agriculture and
mining, &c. The institute for the perfecting of higher studies in
Florence, the normal school at Pisa, the scientific and literary
academy and the higher technical school of Milan, and others, are
of great value. But, speaking generally, Italy is educationally and
industrially in the rear. Even in 1881 the illiterates of the
population were returned as 62 per cent of the whole, and in 1889
as 48 per cent.
KUSSIA AND FINLAND.
There is no national system of elementary education in Eussia.
"Serfdom" excluded the working classes from all such rights
up to 1860. They were the creatures of the proprietors.
But the Government, like the great Napoleon in his day, have
made liberal provision for professional and official education.
The sons of merchants have had chiefly to seek education in
Finland, the Baltic Provinces, and Poland, which, though within
the Eussian Empire, retain in part their own social institutions.
The population is chiefly rural and migratory, and though powers
of local government exist, the people are too poor or apathetic
to use them to educational effect. There are only about four
hundred textile establishments in the country, and the mechanical
arts are not cultivated with great success. But better times may
496
be coming. A Labour Law has been passed forbidding employment
under ten years, and limiting hours of work up to fourteen. The
Government have also established two great imperial technical
schools, which deserve to be considered as in the front rank of such
institutions in Europe. (1) The Imperial Technical School of
Moscow. This school seeks to train civil engineers, mechanical
engineers, draughtsmen, foremen, and chemists. Teaching and
practice are fuUy provided for in classrooms and workshops.
Machines are constructed in the foundry, smithy, machine-tool and
fitting department, and joiners' shop. Eight tons of metal a week
can be turned out in castings. The course of study is six years,
students entering at eighteen to twenty. There are about six
hundred students, of whom one-half are boarders. The endowment
of the school is £400,000, and the income about £34,000. The
Technological Institute is another remarkable institution, with
technical laboratories for the bleaching, dyeing, and printing of
textile fabrics, for paper-making, and sugar-making. There are
about one thousand students, and five elaborate courses are followed,
as fully set out in Mr. W. Mather's sketch in Vol. III. of the
Eoyal Commissioners' Report on Technical Education. About
seventy to one hundred students graduate each year. The Handi-
craft and Industrial School is also a large one, and cost £45,000.
It trains boys of poor parents, but others are admitted on payment.
In 1885 the population of Russia exceeded 100,000,000, but the
percentage at school was only 1-24. In Finland, however, a very
different state of things prevails. Uno Cygnoeus was the organiser
of the Finnish school system, and he made manual training an
integral part of the elementary school. He was sent out to Alaska
to teach the natives, and it was there his plan was formed.
Afterwards appointed Inspector Genex-al of the people's schools
of Finland, he established a remarkable system of combined
literary, scientific, and industrial education. The enrolment of
scholars has now advanced to 17 per cent in a population of
2,225,000. The illiterates are less than 5,000 in that number.
One-seventh of the scholars are in secondary schools, one-half of
the number being girls. Over 150,000 scholars were in ambulatory
schools. The Agricultural Institute has fifteen agricultural schools
under it, and a strong staff of specialists. It aids agriculture,
encourages the use of agricultural machines and the cultivation
of foreign plants, and devises plans for the reclamation of waste
lands. Its staff includes one agricultural engineer, one government
agronomist, eight provincial agronomists, ten assistant agi'onomists,
eleven women dairy teachers, four other teachers of dairy farming,
six teachers of horticulture, three instructors in ploughing, one
expert in flax culture, two mastei"s of forestry', one teacher of
497
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABROAD.
arboriculture, two controllers of grain and seed, &c. The
Polytekuiska Institutet also prepares students to become architects,
builders, mechanical engineers, or "kemisk teknolog," ?'.e., experts
in the chemistry of building materials. It has thirty-one professors.
Besides these there are seven navigation schools, thirty-one Sunday
schools for apprentices, sixteen dairy schools, twelve trade schools,
and commercial schools with a splendid course, including Swedish,
Finnish, German, and English languages (Eussian and French
optional), book-keeping, correspondence, mathematics, physics and
chemistry, national economy, penmanship, and gymnastics.
CONCLUSION.
The view with w^hich this article has been written could not be
more nobly stated than in a remarkable address delivered by M.
Jules Ferry, a man to whom France owes so much of her present
admirable system of education, at the laying of the corner-stone of
the National School of Primary and Professional Instruction, at
Vierzon, in 1883.
M. JULES FERRY ON TECHNICAL EDUCATION.
Engineers, managers of works, designers, superintendents ; these are the cadres
of French labour and industry. It is not witli these that we here preoccupy
ourselves; it is with the great working mass itself. . . Ah! gentlemen, I know
the old doctrine — the aristocratic doctrine — which said : It is imprudent to give
education to the people. It is imprudent to teach the workman anything beyond
what is necessary for his daily task. He will take a dislike to his trade if he once
looks beyond its lowly horizon. That, gentlemen, is an aristocratic conception,
and a false conception. The democratic conception, which is ours, is precisely
antipodal. We judge, in fact, that the more the workman shall be familiarised
with the natural laws, of which he is too often the ignorant auxiliary, the better
he will understand his daily labour, the more he will honour and love his trade.
There is a fine saying of Channing, one of the men who have best loved the people
and best known modern democracy. Channing has made the remark, that
industrial labour — the labour of the shops — sets in operation incessantly all the
discoveries of science and all scientific notions, the oldest as well as the newest,
and he recommends statesmen to spread abroad in the shops these scientific
knowledges, these positive conquests of humanity; for, says he, 'there is no
more certain means of ennobling a manual profession than by showing the
intimate relation which connects it with the natural laws of the world." To
ennoble manual labour, gentlemen, is our wish also. . . And in order that
33
498
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT HOME AND ABBOAD.
the nobility of manual labouir may be recognised, the surest and only practical
means have been taken — manual labour has been placed in the school itself. Be
well assured that when the plane and the file shall have taken the same place —
a place of honour — by the side of the compass, the chart, and the book of history,
and shall be the object of an intelligent and systematic instruction, many
prejudices will disappear; many antagonisms will vanish ; social peace will begin
on the benches of the primary school, and concord, with its radiant light, will
illuminate the future of French society.
This noble language is fortunately not the vapouring of a theorist.
It indicates a policy which the speaker did much, and his country-
men are doing more, to make a practical success in France. Nine-
tenths of the people of the nations are at work, and can only live by
work. It is manifest, therefore, that public education should have
some reference to work, should fit men for it, teach them to love it,
and help the nation to win the desired reward. No evil could be
greater than for children to begin life with a dread of work and a
desire to substitute for it social accomplishments and idle pleasures.
The technical education of the world cannot be exhaustively
surveyed in these pages. Enough, however, has been said to show
that the movement in favour of adapted and specialised instruction
is now in full course in almost every civilised nation. The old
delusion that education and work are antithetical, that educated
persons do not work, and that persons who work ought not to be
educated, has been smitten, and is dying, with few to mourn over it.
We cannot afford to have in our midst either the refined idler or the
ignorant workman. "Work is duty, not servitude, and enlighten-
ment is the rightful inheritance of every child born into the world.
499
CO-OPEEATIVE SOCIETIES IN THE UNITED KINGDOM.
STATISTICS SHOWING THE POSITION AND PROGRESS OF THE
CO-OPERATIVE MOVEMENT FROM 1862 TO 1891.
WE again place before our readers a synopsis of the Trade
of Co-operative Societies in the United Kingdom. The
tables have been brought up to date on the basis of
the Annual Eeturns by Societies to the Eegistrar of Friendly
Societies, and corrected by the more recent returns to the
Co-operative Union.
The tables refer to the United Kingdom, England and Wales,
Scotland, and Ireland, and give the comparison between the
figures of 1891, and those of ten years ago. We have also inserted
below the figures relating to profits devoted to Education.
Co-operation in the United Kingdom during 1881 and 1891.
Increase
IS««1. IMOl. PKB CBNT.
Societies (making returns). .No. 1,240 1,684 35
Members No. 643,617 1,207,511 87
Capital (share and loan) ....£ 8,423,756 17,241,099 104
Sales £24,945,063 49,024,171 96
Profits £ 1,981,109 4,718.532 138
Profits devoted to Education..£ 13,825 30,087 117
Co-operation in England and Wales during 1881 and 1891.
laCREASB
IHSl. ISOl. PER CENT.
Societies (making returns). .No. 971 1,313 -35
Members No. 552,-353 1,008,448 82
Capital (share and loan) ....£ 7,636,698 14,514,113 90
Sales £21,276,850 .39,617,-376 86
Profits £ 1,657,564 -3,781,254 128
Profits devoted to Education..£ 13,314 27,196 104
Co-operation in Scotland during 1881 and 1891.
IMCRIASE
ISSI- 180I. I-ER CENT.
Societies (making returns).. No. 259 -343 32
Members No. 90,430 196,796 117
Capital (share and loan) . . . .£ 784,169 2,708,121 245
Sales £ 3,649,155 9,304,-321 154
Profits £ -322,012 93-3,044 189
Profits devoted to Education.. £ 508 2,891 469
Co-operation in Ireland during 1881 and 1891.
■SSI. isei.
Societies No. 10 28
Members No. 834 2,267
Capital (share and loan) £ 2,889 18,865
Sales £ 19,068 102,474
Profits £ 1,583 4,234
500
CO-OPEEATIVE SOCIETIES,
TABLE (1). — General Summary of Eeturns
(Compiled from Official
No. OP Societies
Capital
OF "Y
AT End
KAfi.
.S
&o
1
Number of
Net
tJC 0=
j
.52 ®
Members.
Share.
Loau.
Sales.
Profit.
£
£
£
£
1862
o454
ges
332
90,341
428,376
54,499
2,333,523
165.562
1863 ,
51
IB
381
111,163 1
579,902
76,738
2,673,778
216,005
1864 '
146
110
394
6129,429
684,182
89,122
2,836,606
224,460
1865 '
101
182
403
6124,659
819,367
107,263
3,-373,847
279,226
1866
163
240
441
6144,072
1,046,310
118,023
4,462 676
372,307
1867
137
192
577
171,897
1,475,199
136,734
6 001,153
398,578
1868
190
93
673
211,781
1,711,643
177,706
7.122,360
424,420
1869
65
133
754
229,861
1,816,672
179,054
7,353 363
438,101
1870
67
153
748
248,108
2,035,626
197,029
8,201,685
553,435
1871
56
235
746
262,188
2,305,951
215,453
9,463,771
666,399
1872
141
113
935
330 550
2,969,573
371.541
13,012,120
936,715
1873
226
138
983
387,765
3,581,405
496,830
15.639,714
1,110,658
1874
130
232
1,031
412,733
3,905,093
587,342
16,374,053
1,228,038
1875
117
285
1,170
480,076
4,403,547
849,990
18,499,901
1,429,090
1876
82
177
1,167
508,067
5,141,390
919,772
19,921,054
1,743,980
1877
67
246
1,148
529,081
5,445,449
1,073,275
21.390,447
1,924,551
1878
52
121
1,185
560,993
5,647,443
1,145,717
21,402,219
1,837,660
1879
52
146
1,151
572,621
5,755,522
1,496,343
20,382,772
1,857,790
1880
69
100
1,183
604,063
6,232,093
1,341,290
23,248,314
cl,868,599
1881
66
1,240
643,617
6,940 173
1,483,583
24,945,063
1,981,109
1882
67
115
1,288
687.158
7,591,241
1,622,431
27,541,212
2,155,398
1883
55
170
1,291
729,957
7,921,356
1,577,086
29,336,028
2,434,996
1884
78
63
1,400
797,950
8,646,188
1,830,836
30,424,101
2,723,794
1885
84
50
1,441
850,659
9,211,259
1,945,834
31,305,910
2,988,690
1886
83
65
1,486
894,488
9,747,452
2,160,090
32,730,745
3,070,111
1887
87
145
1,516
967,828
10,344,216
2,253,576
34,483,771
3,190,309
1888
100
140
1,592
1,011.258
10,946,219
2,452,887
37,793,903
3,454,974
1889
193
123
1,621
1,071.089
11,687,912
2,923,711
40,674,673
3,734,546
1890
122
159
1,647
1.140,573
12,783,629
3,169,155
43,731,669
, 4,275,617
1891
117
122
1,684
1,207,511
13,847,705
3,393,394
49,024,171
1 4,718,532
Totals . .
£605,684,602
; £52,403,650
a The Total Nmnber Registered to the end of 1862. 6 Reduced by 18,278 for 1864, '
by the Wholesale Society, and which were included in the returns from the Retail
Board for 1881. d Includes Joint-stock Companies. eThe return states this sum to be
Corn Mills, Joint-stock Companies, Building Departments, Banks, Mortgages, Loans, &c.
501
UNITED KINGDOM.
for each Year, from 1862 to 1891 inclusive.
Sources, and Corrected.)
Capital Invested in
Profit
Amount
Industrial
Trade
Trade
and Provdnt.
Joint-stock
Companies.
Devoted
of
<
Expenses.
Stock.
Societies, and
to
Reserve
other than
Education.
Fund.
Trade.
£
£
£
£
£
£
127,749
1862
167,620
1863
163,147
1864
181,766
1865
219,746
....
1866
255,923
58.3,539
fZ494,429
3,203
32,629
1867
294,451
671,165
1.37,397
166,398
3,636
33,109
1868
280,116
784,847
117,586
178,367
3,814
38,630
1869
311,910
912,102
126,736
204,876
4,275
52,990
1870
346,415
1,029,446
145,004
262,594
5,097
66,631
1871
479,130
1,383,063
318,477
382,846
6,696
93,601
1872
556,540
1,627,402
370,402
449,039
7,107
102,722
1873
694,455
1,781,053
418,301
522,081
7,949
116,829
1874 ;
686,178
2,095,675
667,825
553,454
10,879
241,930
1875 1
1,279,856
2,664,042
....
1876
1,381,961
2,648,282
• • • .
1877
1,494,607
2,609,729
....
....
1878
1,537,138
2,857,214
1879
1,429,160
2,880,076
3,053,333
63,447,347
13,910
13,825
1880
1881
1,690,107
3,452,942
e4,281,264
14,778
1882
1,826,804
3.709,555
c4,497,718
16,788
18a3
1,936,485
3,575,836
c4,550,890
....
19,164
1884
2,082,539
3,729,492
e5.4.33,120
20,712
1885
1,800,347
4,072,765
e3,858,940
19,878
1886
1,960,374
4,360.8.36
c4,491,483
21, .380
1887
2,045,-391
4,556.593
<?5,233,859
24,245
1888
2,182,775
4,795,132
c5,833,278
25,455
1889
2,361,319
5,141,750
c6,958,787
27,587
1890
2,621,091
5,838,370
e6,394,867
30,087
1891
23,927 for 1865, and .30,921 for 1866, being the number of "Individual Members" returned
Societies, c Estimated on the basis of the returns made to the Central Co-operative
" Investments other than in Trade," which may mean investments in the Wholesale,
g Estimated.
502
CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES,
TABLE ('^j.— General Summary of Returns
(Compiled from Official
No. OP Societies
Capital at End
OF Year.
b:
n3 M
li
00 t^
Nmnber
<
1^
•HS
of
Net
>^
.2 «
^.2
S5
(D
•^1
Members.
Share.
Loan.
Sales.
Profit.
£
£
£
£
1862
a454
968
332
90,341
428,376
54,499
2,833,523
165,562
1863
51
73
381
111,163
579,902
76,738
2,673,778
216,005
1864
146
110
394
6129,429
684,182
89,122
2,836,606
224,460
1865
101
182
403
6124,659
■ 819,367
107,263
3,873,847
279,226
1866
168
240
441
6144,072
i 1,046,310
118,028
4,462,676
372,307
1867
137
192
577
171,897
1 1,475,199
136,734
6,001,158
398,578
1868
190
93
673
211,781
1,711,643
177,706
7,122,860
424,420
1869
65
133
754
229,861
1,816,672
179,054
7,358,868
438,101 i
1870
67
153
748
248,108
2,035,626
197,029
8,201,685
558,485 t
1871
56
235
746
262,188
2,305,951
215,453
9,463,771
666,399
1872
138
104
927
339,986
2,968,758
871,581
12,992,845
935,551
1873
225
135
978
387,301
3,579,962
496,740
15,623,553
1,109,795
1874
128
227
1,026
412,252
3,903,608
586,972
16,358,278
1,227,226 I
1875
116
283
1,163
479,284
4,793,909
844,620
18,484,882
1,427,365 I
1876
82
170
1,165
507,857
5,140,219
919,762
19,909,699
1,742,501
1877
66
240
1,144
528,576
5,437,959
1,078,265
21,374,018
1,922,361 i
1878
52
119
1,181
560,703
. 5,645,883
1,145,707
21,885,646
1,836,371 ,
1879
51
146
1,145
573,084
5,747,907
1.496,143
20,365,602
1,856,308 1
1880
67
100
1,177
603,541
i 6,224,271
1,841,190
28,281,677
cl,866,839
1881
62
1,230
642,783
, 6,937,284
1,483,583
24,926 005
1,979,576
1882
66
113
1,276
685,981
' 7,581,739 1 1,622,253
27,509,055
2,153,699
1883
55
165
1,282
728,905
\ 7,912,216
1,576,845
29,303,441
2,432,621
1884
76
57
1,391
896,845
' 8,636,960
1,830,624
30,392,112
2,722,103
1885
84
47
1,431
849,616
i 9,202,188
1,945,508
31,273,156
2,986,155
1886
82
62
1,474
893,153
9,738,278
2,159,746
32,684,244
3,067,486
1887
84
140
1,504
966,403
10,.333,069
2,252,672
84,437,879
3,187,902
1888
100
130
1,579
1,009,773
10,985,031
2,452,158
87,742,429
8,451,577
1889
89
118
1,608
1,069,396
11,677,286
2,928,506
40,618,060
3,781,966 >
1890
110
151
1,631
1,138,780
12,776,738
3,168,788
48,667,.363
4,273,010 ,
1891
95
108
1,656
1,205 244
13,882,158
3,390,076
48,921,697
4,714 298 ;
Totals , .
£605,023,398
£52,363,153
a Tlie Total Number Registered to the end of 1862. 6 Reduced by 18,278 for 1864,
by the Wholesale Society, and which were included in the returns from the Retail
Board for 1881. d Includes Joint-stock Companies, e The return states this sum to be
Corn ^lills. Joint-stock Companies, Building Departments, Banks, Mortgages, Loans, &c.
503
GEE AT BKITAIN.
for each Year, from 1862 to 1891 inclusive.
Sources, and Corrected.)
Capital Invested in
Profit
Amount
P5
Industrial
Trade
Trade
and Provdnt.
Joint-stock
Devoted
of
<
Expenses.
Stock.
Societies, and
other than
Trade.
Companies.
to
Education.
Reserve
Fund.
£
£
£
£
£
£
127,749
1862 1
167.620
....
1863 ,
163,147
....
1864 '
181,766
....
....
1865
219,746
1866
255,923
583,539
d494,429
' 3,203
32,629
1867
294,451
671,165
137,397
166,398
3,636
33,109
1868
280,116
784,847
117,586
178,367
3,814
38,630
1869
311,910
912,102
126,736
204,876
4,275
52,990
1870
846,415
1,029,446
145,004
262,594
5,097
66,631
1871
477,846
1,383,063
318,477
382,846
6,696
93,601
1872
655,766
1,627,402
370,402
449,039
7,107
102,722
1873
593,548
1,781,053
418,301
522,081
7,949
116,829
1874
685,118
2,094,325
667,825
553,454
10,879
241,930
1875 '
1,279,392
2,664,042
....
....
1876
1,381,285
2,647,309
....
1877
1,493,842
2,609,729
....
1878
1,536,282
2,857,214
1879
1,428,303
2,878,832
3,051,665
e3,429,935
17,407
13,910
13,822
1880
1881
1,689,823
3,450,481
e4,281,243
14,778
1882
1,818,880
3,706,978
e4,490,477
16,788
1883
1,933,297
3,572,226
e4,543,388
19,154
1884
2,080,427
3,726,756
e5,425,319
....
20,712
1885
1,797,696
4,068,831
e3,858,451
....
19,878
1886
1,957,873
4,354,857
e4,490,674
21,380
1887
2,041,566
4,550,743
e5,233,349
24,238
....
1888
2,178,961
4,789,170
e5,832,435
25,455
1889
2,357,647
5,136.580
e6,958,131
27,587
1890
2,617,200
5,832,573
c6,390,827
30,087
1891
23,927 for 1865, and 30,921 for 1866, being the number of "Individual Members" returned
Societies, c Estimated on the basis of the returns made to the Central Co-opsrative
" Investments other than in Trade," which maj- mean investments in the Wholesale,
g Estimated.
504
CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES,
TABLE (S). — General Summary of Returns
(Compiled from Official
No. OP Societies
Capital
AT End
K
'si
aking
rns.
bo "^
Number
OF X t^AH.
<
S-i J"
.2 a
of
Net
Regist
in the
Not Ml
Retui
1^
Members.
Share.
Loan.
Sales.
Profit.
£
£
£
£
1862
454
68
332
90,341
428,376
54,499
2,333,523
166,662
1863
51
73
381
111,163
579,902
76,738
2,673,778
216,006
1864
146
110
394
129.429
684,182
89,122
2,836,606
224,460
1865
101
182
403
124,659
819,367
107.263
3,373,847
279,226
1866
163
240
441
144,072
1,046,310
118,023
4,462,676
372,307
1867
137
192
577
171,897
1,475,199
136,734
6,001,153
398,578
1868
190
93
673
211,781
1,711,643
177,706
7,122,360
424,420
1869
65
133
754
229361
1,816,672
179,054
7,353,363
438,101
1870
67
153
748
248.108
2,035,626
197,029
8,201,685
553,435
1871
56
235
746
262,188
2,305,951
215,453
9,463,771
666,399
1872
113
66
749
301,157
2,786,965
344,509
11,397.225
809,237
1873
186
69
790
340,930
3,.344,104
431,808
13,651,127
959,493
1874
113
177
810
357,821
3,653,582
498,052
14,295,762
1,072,139
1875
98
237
926
420,024
4,470,857
742,073
16,206,570
1,260,670
1876
72
113
937
' 444,547
4,825,642
774,809
17,619,247
1,541,384
1877
58
186
896
461,666
5,092,958
' 916,965
18,697.788
1.680,370
1878
48
65
963
490,584
5,264,855
965,499
18,719,081
1,583,925
1879
40
106
937
504,117
5,374,179
1 1,324.970
17,816,037
1.598,166
1880
53
62
953
526,686
5,806,545
1 1,124,795
20,129,217
1,600,000
1881
50
971
552,353
6,431,553
' 1,205,145
21,276 850
1,657,564
1882
51
"82
1,012
593,262
7,058,025
1,293,596
23,607,809
1,814,375
1883
42
158
990
622,871
7,281,448
1,203,764
24,776,980
2,036,826
1884
64
48
1,079
672,780
7,879,686
1,359,007
25,600,250
2,237,210
1885
73
47
1,114
717,019
8,364,367
1,408,941
25,858,065
2,419,616
1886
67
61
1,141
751,117
8,793,068
1,561,989
26,747,174
2,476,661
1887
73
139
1,170
813,537
9,269,422
, 1,698,420
28,221,988
2.542,884
1888
94
125
1,244
850,020
9,793,852
1,743,890
30,350,048
2,766,131 i
1889
81
112
1,268
897,841
10,424,169
2,098,100
33,016,341
2,981,543
1890
103
149
1,290
955,-393
11,.380,210
2,196,364
35,367,102
3,393,991
1891
88
108
1,313
1,008,448
12,253,427
2,260,686
Totals . .
39,617,376
3,781,254
£616,794,799
£43,941,811
I
505
ENGLAND AND WALES.
for each Year, from 1862 to 1891 inclusive.
Sources, and Corrected.)
Capital Invested in
Profit
Amount
i
Industrial
Trade
Trade
and Provdnt.
Joint-stock
Devoted
of
Expenses.
Stock.
Societies, and
other than
Trade.
Companies.
to
Education.
Reserve
Fund.
9
£
£
£
£
£
£
127,749
1862
167,620
1863
163.147
1864
181,766
1866
219,746
1866
255,923
583,539
494,429
3,203
32,629
1867
294,451
671,165
137,397
166,398
3,636
.33.109
1868
280,116
784.847
117,586
178,.367
3,814
38,630
1869
311,910
912,102
126,736
204,876
4,275
52,990
1870
346,415
1,029,446
145,004
262,594
5,097
66,631
1871
419,567
1,219,092
300,712
380,043
6,461
79,292
1872
488,464
1,4.39,137
337,811
443,724
6,864
83,149
1873
517,445
1,572,264
386,640
510,057
7,486
98,732
1874
598,080
1,852,437
636,400
5.38,140
10,454
220,011
1875
1,137,053
2,377,380
1876
1,222,664
2.310,041
1877
1,315,364
2,286,795
1878
1,353,832
2,486,704
• . . .
1879
1,285,875
2,512,039
2,586,443
13,226,370
13,262
13,314
1880
1881
1,499,633
2,969,957
13,919,455
. . .
14,070
1882
1,606,424
3,160,569
t4,11.3,995
15,903
....
1888
1,684,070
2,932,817
14,118,751
18,062
1884
1,825,717
3,044,534
+4,811,819
19,374
1885
1,525,194
3,323,450
13,475,319
18 440
1886
1,670,290
3,512,626
+4,112,807
19,707
1887
1,743.838
3,687,394
+4,868,141
22,391
1888
1,849,811
3,856,498
+5,386,444
23,388
1889
1,996,438
4,121,400
+6,407,701
24,919
1890
2,207,143
4.691,801
+5,749,811
27,196
1891
+ " Investments at end of year" — the class not stated.
506
CO-OPEEATIVE
TABLE (4). — General Summary of Returns
(Compiled from Official
Year.
Number of Societies
1872
1873
1874
1875
1876
1877
1878
1879
1880
1881
1882
1883
1884
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
25
39
15
18
10
8
4
11
14
12
15
13
12
11
15
11
5
8
7
7
&o «
-«.S g
^ GO -*^
38
66
50
46
57
54
54
*40
38
9
31
7
9
1
1
5
6
2
178
188
216
237
228
248
218
208
224
259
264
292
312
317
333
334
335
340
341
343
Number
of
Members.
38,829
46,371
54,431
59,260
63,310
66,910
70,119
68,967
76,855
90,430
92,719
106,034
124,065
132,597
142,086
152,866
159,753
171,555
183,387
196,796
Capital at End
OF Year.
Share.
Loan.
&
181,793
235,858
250,026
323,052
314,577
346,001
381,028
373,728
417,726
505,731
523,714
630,768
757,274
837,771
945,210
1,063,647
1,141,179
1,253,117
1,396,523
1,578,731
£
27,022
64,932
88,920
102.547
144,953
156,310
180,208
171,173
216,395
278,438
328,658
373 081
471,617
536,567
607,757
654,252
708,268
825,406
972,424
1,129,390
Totals.. £
Not stated, but estimated at about 40.
507
SOCIETIES, SCOTLAND.
for each Year, from 1872 to 1891 inclusive.
Sources, and Corrected.)
Sales.
Net
Profit.
Trade
Expenses.
Trade
Stock.
Capital
Invested in
Profit Devoted
to Education.
T3
O 3
Yeab.
Indastrial and
Provident
Societies, and
other than
Trade.
Joint-stock
Companies
£
1,595,120
£
126,314
£
58 279
£
163,971
£
17,765
£
2,803
£
235
£
14,309
..1872
1,972,426
150,302
67,302
188,265
32,591
5,315
243
19,573
..1873
2,062,516
155,087
76,103
208,789
31,661
12,024
463
18,097
..1874
2,277,812
176,795
87,038
241,888
31,425
15,314
425
21,919
..1875
2,290,452
201,117
142 339
286,662
••
.•
• •
• •
..1876
2,676,225
241,991
158,621
337,268
••
••
• •
..1877
2,666,565
252,446
178,478
322,934
■•
••
..1878
2,549,565
258,152
182,450
370,510
• •
..
..1879
3,102,460
266,839
142.428
366,793
203,565
17,407
648
..1880
3,649,155
322,012
• •
466,222
• •
608
..1881
3,901,246
339,324
190,190
480,524
t361,788
• •
708
..1882
4,526,461
395,795
212,456
546,409
t376,482
..
885
..1883
4,791,862
484,893
249,227
639,409
t424,637
1,092
••
..1884
5,415,091
566,540
254,710
682,222
t613 500
1,338
..1886
6,937,070
590,785
272,502
745,381
t383,132
• •
1,438
••
..1886
6,215,891
645,018
287,583
842,231
t377,867
1,673
••
..1887
7,392,381
685,446
297,728
863,349
t365,208
••
1,847
••
..1888
7,601,719
750,423
329,150
932,672
t445,991
••
2,067
••
..1889
8,300,261
879,019
361,209
1,015,180
1550,430
••
2,668
••
..189U
9,304,321
933,044
410,057
1,140,772
t641,016
••
2,891
..1891
88,228,599
8,421,342
t " Investments at end of year ; " the class of investment is not stated.
508
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509
CO-OPEEATIYE SOCIETIES IN ENGLAND AND WALES
WITH AN ANNUAL TRADE OF OYER £200,000.
(See Table 6, pages 510-11.)
T^HE number of societies under this head is thirtj-, of which thirteen are in
Lancashire, nine in Yorkshire, four in Durham, and one each in Cheshire,
Derbyshire, Devonshire, and Northumberland.
The combined sales of these thirty societies amount to £18,509,139, being
46 per cent of the entire sales of societies in England and Wales. The Wholesale
Society comes first with a business of £9,300,904, followed by Leeds Society and
Corn Mill, with sales amounting to £861,959 ; next come Sowerby Bridge Corn
Mill, Barnsley British, Bolton, Newcastle-on-Tyne, Oldham Industrial, Gates-
head, Bishop Auckland, Bochdale Pioneers, and Huddersfield Societies, all of
whose sales considerably exceed £300,000. The sales of the remaining nineteen
societies are under that sum.
CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES IN ENGLAND AND WALES WITH AN
ANNUAL TRADE OF BETWEEN £100,000 AND £200,000.
(See Table 7, pages 512-13.)
Three fresh societies make their appearance in table 7 this year, viz., Nelson,
with a trade of £104,776 ; Brightside and Carbrook, £100,873 ; and Doncaster,
£103,464.
Of the thirty-six societies coming under this head for 1892, Lancashire
furnishes ten, Yorkshire ten, Durham five, Cumberland two, and Cheshire,
Leicestershire, Derbyshire, Lincolnshire, Essex, Gloucestershire, Glamorgan
shire, Kent, and Northumberland one each. Then- total sales are £4,808,983, or
nearly 13 per cent of the total sales of societies in England and Wales.
510
CO-OPEBATIVE SOCIETIES,
Bibd's-eye View
TABLE (6), showing the Sales of all Societies which,
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Names of Societies.
Rochdale Equitable Pioneers. .
Rochdale Co-op. Corn Mill ....
Co-operative Wholesale Society
Sowerby Bridge Corn Mill ....
Halifax Industrial
Leeds Industrial and Com Mill
Oldham Industrial
Bury District
Rochdale Cotton Manufact'ring
HaUfax Corn Mill
Oldham Star Corn Mill
Manchester Equitable
Bolton
Gateshead
Barnsley British
Oldham Equitable
Huddersfield
COUNTIEfe.
Lancashire
Lancashire
Lancashire
Yorkshire . .
Yorkshire . .
Yorkshire . .
Lancashire
Lancashire
Lancashire
Yorkshire . .
Lancashire
Lancashire
Lancashire ,
Durham . .
Yorkshire . .
Lancashire
Yorkshire . .
1873
£
287,212
240,836
1,636,950
286,964
264,1.37
312,.308
213,600
209,382
1874 _
£
298,889
244,864
1,964,829
338,246
273,186
386,536
237,845
223,622
209,654
1875
£
305,657
202,988
2,247,395
338,-364
270,499
390,645
253,488
212,814
Totals 3,451,-389 4,177,671 4,221,800
Names of Societies.
1 : Rochdale Equitable Pioneers
2 Rochdale Co-op. Com Mill . .
3 Co-operative Wholesale Society
4 Sowerby Bridge Corn Mill ....
5 Halifax Industrial
6 Leeds Industrial and Com Mill
7 Oldham Industrial
8 Bury District
9 Rochdale Cotton Manufact'ring
10 Halifax Com Mill
11 Oldham Star Corn Mill
12 Manchester Equitable
13 Bolton
14 Gateshead
15 Barnsley British
16 Oldham Equitable
17 Huddersfield
18 Nevycastle-upon-Tyne
19 Accrington and Church ....
20 Bishop Auckland
21 Brighouse
22 Bradford
23 Pendleton
24 Burnley
25 Crook
26 Plymouth
27 Derby
28 Chester-le-Street
29 Dewsbury
30 Crewe Friendly
31 Leigh
Totals
Counties.
Lancashire .
Lancashire .
Lancashire .
Yorkshire . .
Yorkshire . .
Yorkshire . .
Lancashire .
Lancashire .
Lancashire .
Yorkshire . .
Lancashire .
Lancashire .
Lancashire .
Durham . .
Yorkshire . .
Lancashire .
Yorkshire . .
Nrthmbrlnd
Lancashire.
Durham . .
Yorkshire . .
Yorkshire . .
Lancashire .
Lancashire .
Durham . .
Devonshire .
Derbyshire..
Durham . .
Yorkshire . .
Cheshire . .
Lancashire.
1883
1884
1885
£
276,457
259,-396
4,546,891
499,260
206,058
486,784
3-35,672
250,123
258,935
295,4-37
248,-364
253,512
2-35,678
208,710
2-39,877
£
262.270
209,912
4,675,371
-395,502
224,780
490,332
344,647
249,978
240,363
240*241
326,201
248,295
266,616
239,364
286,686
200,608
£
252,072
4,793,161
343,723
226,176
495,297
330,038
256,545
203,877
232,998
324,467
268,720
260,112
227,873
312,719
208,307
.18,601,154 1 8,901,166
8,736,074
511
ENGLAND AND WALES.
OF Saxes.
during the years 1873 to 1892, exceeded £200,000 a year.
1876
1877
1878
1879
1880
1881
1882
£
£
£
£
£
£
£
305,191
311,715
299,039
270,070
283,655
272,141
274,627
1
252,045
285,920
270.337
301,836
299,672
286,966
2
,2,697,366
2,827,052
2,705,625
2,645,331
3,339,681
3,574,095
4.038,238
3
406,017
460,013
468,001
447,301 1
565,194 :
589,929
594,664
4
237,754
237,447
209,571
207.539
....
5
365,639
374.166 1
358,865
360,017
412,225
432.811
438,478
6
: 284,977
316,903
279,999
261,813
303,012
310,387
320,336
7
1 231,692
251,057
241,886
217,282
231,918
225,689
240,227
8
9
10
207,648
244,262 1
224,018
...'.
'.'.'.'.
219,664 ,
....
....
.... 11
....
....
208,513
242,966 1
....
242,535
219,657
200,261
254,124 12
254.414 , 13
225 202 14
215,421 15
210,581 1 16
....
201,718
17
4,736,284
5,494,324
5,072,924
4,680,664
5,888,026
6,367,177
7,564,996
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
£
£
£
£
£
£
£
246,031
256,736
267,727
270,675
270,583
296,025
302,454
1
....
201,159
235,274
315,596
254,062
2
5,223,179
5,713.235
6,200,074
7,028,944
7,429,073
8,766,430
9,300,904
3
333 655
357,886
406,185
430,703
472,668
525,734
457,673
4
: 224,870
224,259
223,217
231,256
241,262
256,326
272,967
5
' 480,204
526,002
558.771
639,223
692,435
802,936
861,959
6
312,230
322,090
337,368
350,698
345,335
378,008
380.861
7
j 240,239
236,042
241,033
246,112
262,624
288,821
293,317
8
206,549
206,549
206,490
....
220,348
221,310
9
....
222,008
....
216,516
280,226
274,576
10
11
12
229,886
233,181
249,340
267,960
282,957
298.154
290.960
335,877
327,288
357,001
.392,458
428,529
496,011
516,906
13
269,585
266.005
272,877
282,186
301.347
334,053
344,797
14
283,903
293,876
292,635
327,704
395,433
498,489
531964
15
228,946
228,523
233,454
242,959
254,074
271,883
267,446
16
209,426
252,682
269 865
287 844
294,357
312,865
307 116
17
838,030
328,848
327,911
338,339
380,895
432,338
445,004
18
i 209.291
211,226
214,728
209,776
206,140
207 945
19
1 200,931
209,969
212,471
229,224
266,886
266,886
308,426
20
1 ....
204,127
\ 209,948
219,917
225,464
241008
232,648
21
j
....
202,930
224,911
223,265
256,500
290,930
22
■ ■ • •
204.501
225,488
240,827
279,942
290,710
23
....
213,219
2.38,824
256,530
221,269
212,113
....
281,727
240,675
206,315
213,846
200,255
213.703
298,019
203,953
240,570
! 213,889
202,596
237 147
i 226566
24
,25
1 26
1 27
' 28
29
I 30
1
1 ....
....
i
j 231,464 j 31 1
9,366,283
10,620,532
11.701,804
13.092.860
114.149.716
17,381.240
118.509.1.39
1 1
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34
514
SALES OF CIVIL SEEVICE SUPPLY STOKES.
1871
1872
1873
1874
1875
1876
1877
1878
1879
1880
1881
1882
1883
1884
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Civil Service
Supply.
625,305
712,399
819,428
896,094
925,332
983,545
946,780
1,384,042
1,474,923
1,420,619
1,488,507
1,603,670
1,682,655
1,691,455
1,758,648
1,743,306
1,732,483
1,763,814
1,775,500
1,789,397
1,817,779
1,749,884
Civil Service
(Haymarket).
514,399
520,155
497,650
329,805
481,560
468,992
465,096
469,456
473,817
481,120
481,352
475,066
471,133
New
Civil Service.
139,367
149,478
148,975
150,948
150,383
155,000
158,028
158,317
164,160
178,761
168,582
Above we give the Sales of the Civil Service Supply Stores as distinct from
the ordinary distributive societies appearing in the previous tables.
515
PUBLIC ACTS OF PAELIAMENT PASSED DURING
THE SESSION 1892-93.
*,* The figure before each Act denotes tJie CJiapter.
56 and 57 of Victoria.
1. An Act to make further provision for the expenses of the Coinage Act 1891.
2. An Act to exempt from Income Tax the invested funds of trade unions
applied in payment of provident benefits.
3. An Act to apply certain sums out of the Consolidated Fund to the service of
the years ending March, 31, 1891-92-93-94.
4. An Act to provide during twelve months for the discipline and regulation of
the Army.
5. An Act to consolidate and amend the law relating to the payment of regi-
mental debts and the disposal of the effects of officers and soldiers in case of
death, insanity, and other causes.
6. An Act to remove disabilities of policemen with regard to their votes in
Municipal, School Board, and other elections.
7. An Act to grant certain duties of Customs and Inland Revenue, to repeal
and alter other duties, and to amend the law relating to revenue.
8. An Act to amend the Local Authorities Loans (Scotland) Act 1891.
9. An Act to amend the Municipal Corporations Act.
10. An Act to amend the Police Acts.
11. An Act to amend the Public Libraries Act 1892.
12. An Act to make provision for the establisliment of day industrial schools
in Scotland, and to amend the Acts 1872 to 1883.
13. An Act to enable sanitary authorities in Ireland to take possession of lanu
for the erection of temporary cholera hospitals.
14. An Act for further promoting the revision of the Statute Law by repealing
Enactments which have ceased to be in force or become unnecessary.
516
PUBLIC ACTS OF PARLIAMENT PASSED DURING THE SESSION 1892-93.
15. An Act to amend the Acts relating to Reformatory Schools in Scotland.
16. An Act to apply a sum out of the Consolidated Fund to the service of the
year ending March 81, 1894.
17. An Act to caiTy into effect an International Convention respecting the
liquor traffic in the North Sea.
18. An Act to reduce the limit of the balance of the Treasury Fund.
19. An Act to amend the law relating to weights and measures,
20. An Act to extend the provisions of the Duchy of Cornwall Management Act
1863, relating to the powers of sale and enfranchisement, and for other purposes.
21. An Act to amend the law relating to the avoidance of voluntary conveyances.
22. An Act to amend the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876 so far as regards
appeals in forma pauperis.
23. An Act to provide the prohibiting the catching of seals at certain periods in
the Behring Sea and other parts of the Pacific Ocean adjacent to the Behring Sea
24. An Act to grant money for the purpose of certain local loans.
25. An Act to amend the Burgh Police (Scotland) Act 1892.
26. An Act to explain and amend certain provisions of the Prison Act 1877 with
respect to the superannuation of prison officers.
27. Aji Act to appoint additional Commissioners for executing the Acts for
granting a Land Tax and other rates and taxes.
28. An Act to apply a sum out of the Consolidated Fund to the service of the
year ending March 31, 1894.
29. An Act to amend the law with respect to the hours of labour of railway
servants.
30. An Act to amend the Friendly Societies Act 1875.
31 An Act to explain the Rivers Pollution Prevention Act 1876.
32. An Act to prevent the use of barbed wire for fences in roads, streets, lanes,
and other thoroughfares
33. An Act to remove certain doubts as to the application of Part III. of the
Housing of the Working Classes Act 1890, to certain authorities in Ireland.
34. An Act to extend the operation of the Improvement of Land Act 1864 so
far as regards Scotland.
35. An Act to amend the power of Congested Districts Board of Ireland so far
as respects the purchase and holding of property.
517
PUBLIC ACTS OF PARLIAMENT PASSED DUBING THE SESSION 1892-93.
36. An Act to amend the Law of Distress and Small Debts (Ireland) Act 1888.
37. An Act to better define the jurisdiction and to improve the procedure of the
Court of Passage in the city of Liverpool, and tor other purposes connected
therewith.
38. An Act to make further provision for the conveyance of Her Majesty's mails.
39. An Act to consolidate and amend the laws relating to industrial and provi-
dent societies.
40. An Act to make provision for certain purposes relating to local loans.
41. An Act to amend the Irish Education Act 1892.
42. An Act to make better provision for the elementary education of blind and
deaf children in England and Wales.
43. An Act to confer further powers under the Contagious Diseases (Animals)
Acts 1878 to 1892 with respect to swine fever.
44. An Act to make provision in regard to the consignation of money in the
Sheriffs Courts, Scotland.
45. An Act to make further provision for the completion and equipment of
ships under the Naval Defence Act 1889, and to amend that Act.
46. An Act to apply a sum out of the Consolidated Fund to the service of the
year ending March 31, 1894.
47. An Act to amend the Public Health (London) Act 1891 with respect to the
removal of refuse.
48. An Act to amend the law relating to reformatory schools.
49. An Act to amend the law relating to the appointment of county surveyors
in Ireland.
50. An Act to amend the provisions as to payment for light railways in Ireland .
51. An Act to amend the Elementary Education Acts with respect to the age
for attendance at school.
52. An Act to amend the Burghs Gas Supply (Scotland) Act 1876.
53. An Act relating to the Trustees Act.
54. An Act relating to Statute Law Revision (No. 2) Act.
55. An Act relating to the Metropolis Management (Plumstead and Hackney).
56. An Act relating to Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs.
57. An Act relating to the Law of Commons Amendment Act.
58. An Act relating to the Companies (Winding-up).
59. An Act relating to the Expiring Laws Continuance Act.
60. An Act relating to the Appropriation Act.
518
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543
IMPOET DUTIES IN THE UNITED KINGDOM.
TABLE showing the several Abticles subject to Import Duties
in the United Kingdom, and the Eate of Duty levied upon
each Article, according to the Tariff in operation during
the year 1892-93.
Articles.
Cocoa
Husks and Shells
Cocoa or Chocolate, ground, prepared, or in any way
manufactured
Do. in the manufacture of which Spirit has been used >
Coffee
Kiln-dried, roasted, or ground.
Chicory : —
Raw or kiln-dried
Roasted or ground
Chicory (or other vegetable substances) and Coffee,
roasted and ground ; niixed
Fruit — Dried : —
Currants
Figs and Fig Cake, Plums, Prunes, and Raisins.
Tea.
Tobacco— Manufactured : —
Cigars
Cavendish or Negro-head
Cavendish or Negro-head Manufactured in Bond
Other Manufactured Tobacco
Snuff containing more than 1.31bs. of moisture in every
lOOlbs. weight thereof
Snuff not containing more than 131bs. of moisture in
every lOOlbs. weight thereof I „
Tobacco — Unmanufactured : — !
Containing lOlbs. or more of moisture in every lOOlbs.
weight thereof „
Containing less than lOlbs. of moisture in every lOOlbs.
weight thereof „
Wine : —
Not exceeding 30° of Proof Spirit iper gallon.
Exceeding 30° but not exceeding 42° of Proof Spirit . . „
And for every degree or part of a degree beyond thej
highest above charged, an additional duty | „
The word "degree" does not include fractions ofi
the next higher degree.
Wine includes Lees of Wine.
per lb.
per cwt.
per lb. I
addit'nal ) {
per lb, I
per cwt. I
per lb.
per cwt.
per lb.
per cwt.
per lb.
Bates
of Duty.
£ s. d.
0 0 1
0 2 0
0 0 2
0 0 OJ
0 14 0
0 0 2
0 13 3
0 0 2
0 0 2
0 2 0
0 7 0
0 0 4
0 3 9
0 4 6
0 3 2
0 8 6
0 10
0 2 6
0 0 3
544
IMPORT DUTIES IN THE UNITED EINODOM.
Abticles.
WiKE — Sparkling Wine imported in Bottles : —
If proved not to exceed 15s. a gallon market value (to
11th April, 1892)
If exceeding 15s. a gallon market value (to 11th April,
1892)
For all values (on and after 12th April, 1892)
The Duties on Sparkling Wines are in addition to the
Ikities in respect of alcoholic strength.
Beeb of the descriptions called Mum, Spruce, or Black
Beer, and Berlin White Beer, and other preparations,
whether fermented or not fermented, of a character
similar to Mum, Spruee, or Black Beer, where the worts
thereof were, before fermentation, of a specific gravity —
Not exceeding 1,215° -
Exceeding 1,215°
Beer of any other description where the worts thereof
were, before fermentation, of a special gravity of
1.055°
And so on in proportion for any difference in gravity.
Spirits or Strong Waters : —
For every gallon, computed at hydrometer proof, \
of Spirits of any description (except Perfumed [
Spirits), including Naphtha or Methylic Alcohol, -
purified so as to be potable, and mixtures and |
preparations containing Spirits j
For every gallon of Perfumed Spirits i
Rates
of Datjr.
£ S. d.
per gallon. 0 10
per every)
36 galls. J"
per
proof
gallon.
per I
gallon. 1
Liqueurs, Cordials, or other preparations containing \
Spirits, in Bottle, entered in such a manner as to
indicate that the strength is not to be tested ....
And so on in proportion for any less quantity.
Chloroform i per lb.
Chloral Hydrate ' ,,
Collodion jper gallon.
Confectionery, in the manufacture of which Spirit has
been used (the Duty being in- addition to any other
existing Duty to which such Confectionery is at!
present liable) j per lb.
Ether, Acetic
Ether, Butyric per gallon.
Ether, Sulphuric
Ethyl, Iodide of
And so in proportion for any less quantity.
Soap, Transparent, in the manufacture of which Spirit
has been used
Cards, Playing.
per lb.
per doz. )
packs. /
6
10
0 6 6
0 10 4
and 6d.
addi-
tional.
0 16 6
and 9d.
addi-
tional.
0 14 0
and 8d.
addi-
tional.
0 3 1
0 13
16 0
0 0 OJ
0 1 10
0 15 8
16 2
0 13 7
0 0 3
0 3 9
545
INCOME TAX BATES
FEOM ITS FIRST IMPOSITION
IN
1842 TO THE PEESENT TIME.
From and to
April 5th.
Income
free
under.
On £100
to
£150.
On £100
and
upw'ds.
Chancellor of the i>_..^{„_
Exchequer. Premier.
1842 to 1846
£
150
Rate in the £
Henry Goulburn. Sir Robert Peel.
—
7d.
1846 „ 1852
Do.
—
7d.
Sir Charles Wood. 1 Lord John Bussell.
1852 „ 1853
Do.
—
7d.
Benjamin Disraeli. Earl of Derby.
1853 „ 1854
100
5d.
7d.
William E. Gladstone. Earl of Aberdeen.
1854 „ 1855
Do.
lOd.
Is. 2d.
Do.
Do.
1855 „ 1857
Do.
lUd.
Is. 4d.
Sir G. Cornewall Lewis
Viscount Palmerston.
1857 „ 1858
Do.
5a.
7d.
Do.
Do.
1858 „ 1859
Do.
5d.
5d.
Do.
Do.
1859 „ 1860
Do.
6Jd.
9d.
Benjamin Disraeli. Earl of Derby.
1860 „ 1861
Do.
7d.
lOd.
William E. Gladstone. Viscount Palmerston.
1861 „ 1863
•100
6d.
9d.
Do.
Do.
1863 „ 1864
Do.
7d.
Do.
Do.
1864 „ 1865
Do.
6d.
Do.
Do.
1865 „ 1866
Do.
4d.
Do. Do.
1866 „ 1867
Do.
4d.
Do. Earl Russell.
1867 „ 1868
Do.
5d.
Benjamin Disraeli.
Earl of Derby.
1868 „ 1869
Do.
6d.
George Ward Hunt.
Benjamin Disraeli.
1869 „ 1870
Do.
5d.
Robert Lowe.
William E. Gladstone.
1870 „ 1871
Do.
4d.
Do.
Do.
1871 „ 1872
Do.
6d.
Do.
Do.
1872 „ 1873
Do.
4d.
Do.
Do.
1873 „ 1874
Do.
3d.
Do.
Do.
1874 „ 1876
Do.
2d.
Sir Stafford Northcote.
Benjamin Disraeli.
1876 „ 1878
tl50
3d.
Do.
Earl of Beaconsfield.
1878 „ 1880
Do.
5d.
Do.
Do.
1880 „ 1881
Do.
6d.
William E. Gladstone.
William E. Gladstone.
1881 „ 1882
Do.
5d.
Do
Do.
1882 „ 1883
Do.
6W.
Do.
Do.
1883 „ 1884
Do.
M.
Hugh C. E. Childers.
Do.
1884 „ 1885
Do.
6d.
Do.
Do
1885 „ 1886
Do.
8d.
Sir M. Hicks-Beach.
Marquis of Salisbury.
1886 „K„f,„
1886 „P^®^
(Do.
JDo.
8d.
Sir William Harcourt.
William E. Gladstone.
8d.
Ld.Randlph Churchill.
Marquis of Salisbury.
1887 „ 1888
Do.
7d.
G. J. Goschen.
Do.
1888 „ 1889
Do.
6d.
Do.
Do.
1889 „ 1890
Do.
6d.
Do.
Do.
1890 „ 1891
Do.
6d.
Do.
Do.
1891 „ 1892
Do.
6d.
Do.
Do.
1892 „ 1893
Do.
6d.
Sir W. Harcourt.
William E. Gladstone.
1893 „ 1894
Do.
7d.
Do.
Do.
* Diflferential rate up
on scale of inco
aea abolished. Incomes uudei £100 are exempt; and
num have an abatement from the assessment of £60:—
incomes of £100 and un
der £199 per ai
thus, £100 pays oa £40;
£160 upon £100
£li»9 upon £189; but £200 pays on £200.
f Under £150 exempt
if under £400 tl
le tax is not chargeable upon the first £120.
36
546
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548
DEALINGS WITH LAND.
SCALE OF LAW COSTS ON THE SALE, PURCHASE, OR MORTGAGE OF
REAL PROPERTY, HOUSES, OR LAND.
Vendor's solicitor for negotiating a sale
of property by private contract
For the
l8t £1,000.
Per £100.
£ s. d.
10 0
Do., do., for conducting a sale of pro-
perty by public auction, including the
conditions of sale —
When the projierty is sold 1 0 0
When the propert}- is not sold, then:
on the reserve pricef i 0 10 0
Do., do., for deducing title to freehold,
copyhold, or leasehold property, and
perusing and completing conveyance
(including prepai-ation of contract, ori
conditions of sale, if any) j 1 10 0
Purchaser's solicitor for negotiating a pur-j
chase of property by private contract . . ' 1 0 0
Do., do., for investigating title to free-
hold, copyhold, or leasehold property,
and preparing and completing con-
veyance (including perusal and com-
pletion of contract, if any)
Mortgagor's solicitor for deducing title to
freehold,copyhold,or leasehold property,
perusing mortgage, and completing
Mortgagee's solicitor for negotiating loan.
Do., do., for investigating title to freehold,
copyhold, or leasehold property ; and
preparing and completing mortgage. . .
1 10 0
1 10 0
10 0
1 10 0
For the
2nd and
8rd £1,000.
Per £100.
£ s. d.
10 0
0 10 0
0 5 0
10 0
10 0
10 0
10 0
10 0
10 0
Forthe4tb For each
and each snbseq'ent
subsequent £1,000
£1,0U0 np to! up to
£10,000. ! £100,000.»
Per £100.
£ 8. d.
0 10 0
0 5 0
0 2 6
0 10 0
0 10 0
0 10 0
0 10 0
0 5 0
0 10 0
Per £100.
£ 8. d.
0 5 0
0 2 6
0 13
0 5 0
0 5 0
0 5 0
0 5 0
0 2 6
0 5 0
Vendor's or mortgagor's solicitor for procuring execution and acknowledgment
of deed by a married woman, £2. 10s. extra.
Where the prescribed remuneration would amount to less than £5 the prescribed
remuneration is £5, except on transactions under £100, in which case the remuner-
ation of the solicitor for the vendor, purchaser, mortgagor, or mortgagee, is £3.
* Every transaction exceeding £100,000 to be charged for as if it were for £100,000.
t A minimum charge of £5 to be made whether a sale is effected or not.
549
DEALINGS WITH LAND.
Scale of Law Costs as to Leases, w Agreements for Leases, at Hack Rent (other
than a Mining Lease, or a Lease for Building Purjjoses, or Agreement for the
same).
lessok's solicitob for pbeparing, settling, and completing
lease and counterpart.
Where the rent does not exceed £100, £7. 10s. per cent on the rental, but not
less in any case than £5.
Where the rent exceeds £100, and does not exceed £500, £7. 10s. in respect of
the first £100 of rent, and £2. 10s. in respect of each subsequent £100 of rent.
Where the rent exceeds £500, £7. 10s. in respect of the first £100 of rent,
£2. 10s. in respect of each £100 of rent up to £500, and £1 in respect of every
subsequent £100.
Lessee's solicitor for perusing draft and completing — one-half of the amount
payable to the lessor's solicitor.
Scale of Law Costs as to Conveyances in Fee, or for any otJier Freehold Estate
reserving rent, or Building Leases reserving! rent, or other Long Leases not at
Rack Rent (except Mining Leases), or Agreements for the same respectively.
vendor's or lessor's SOLICITOR FOR PREPARING, SETTLING, AND COM-
PLETING CONVEYANCE AND DUPLICATE, OR LEASE AND COUNTERPART.
Amoont of Annnal Rent.
Amount of Remuneration.
Where it does not exceed £5 . .
Where it exceeds £5, and does
not exceed £50
£5.
The same payment as on a rent of £5, and also
20 per cent on the excess beyond £5.
The same payment as on a rent of £50, and
10 per cent on the excess beyond £50.
The same payment as on a rent of £150, and
5 per cent on the excess beyond £150.
Where it exceeds £50, but does
not exceed £150
Where it exceeds £150
Where a varying rent is payable the amount of annual rent is to mean the
largest amount of annual rent.
Purchaser's or lessee's solicitor for perusing draft and completing — one-half of
the amount payable to the vendor's or lessor's solicitor.
550
THE DEATH DUTIES.
PROBATE AND ACCOUNT DUTY.
This duty is now regulated by 44 Vict., cap. 12 (1881), and 52 Vict., cap. 7, and
is payable on personal estate on the Affidavits for Probate and Letters of
Administration ; and also on the accounts which have to be rendered in special
cases of benefits accruing to anyone by reason of the death of another person.
The rates of duty are as follow : —
Under £100 no duty.
Where value exceeds £100 and not £500, £1 for each £50, or fraction of £50.
£500 „ £1,000, £1. 5s.
£1,000, £3 for each £100, or fraction of £100.
Where the gi-oss value of an estate does not exceed £300, a fixed duty of 30s.
only is payable to cover all duties.
In the case of persons dpng domiciled in the United Kingdom, debts and
funeral expenses are deducted before calculating the dutj' except where the value
of the whole personal estate does not exceed £300.
ESTATE DUTY.
This duty was created and is regulated bj- 52 Vict., cap. 7, and is payable in
respect of personal and real estate.
With regard to personal estate, the duty is payable where on application for
probate or administration granted on or after 1st June, 1889, the value of the
estate and effects in respect whereof probate duty is charged exceeds £10,000, or
where the value of personal or movable property included in an account delivered
on or after 1st June, 1889, exceeds £10,000.
With regard to real estate, the duty is payable where the value of any
succession upon the death of anj' person dying on or after 1st June, 1889, exceeds
£10,000, and where the value of any succession to real property under the will or
intestacy of an}- person so dying does not exceed £10,000, but such value together
with the value of any other benefit taken by the successor under such will or
intestacy exceeds £10,000.
Tlie rate of dutj- payable is £1 for each £100 or a fraction of £100 of value of
the estate and effects, or of the personal or movable property, or of the succession,
as the case may be.
551
THE DEATH DUTIES.
LEGACY DUTY.
This duty is regulated by 55 Geo. iii., cap. 184, and 51 Vict., cap. 8, and is
payable in respect of personal estate.
The rates of duty are as foUows : —
DEacRiPTioN OF Legatee.
Children of the deceased and their\
descendants, or the father or mother
or any lineal ancestor of the deceased, i-
or the husbands or wives of any such
persons j
Brothers and sisters of the deceased and \
their descendants, or the husbands '.
or wives of any such persons j
Brothers and sisters of the father or \
mother of the deceased and their [
descendants, or the husbands or"
wives of any such persons )
Brothers and sisters of a grandfather or^
grandmother of the deceased and I
their descendants, or the husbands (
or wives of any such persons )
Any person in any other degree of j
collateral consanguinity, or strangers Y
in blood to the deceased )
If payable out of
Real Estate, and the
deceased died before
1st Jaly, 1888, or out
of Personal Estate
whenever deceased
died.
£1 per cent.
£3
£5
£6
£10
If payable oot of
Real Estate, and the
deceased died on or
after Ist July, 1888.
£1. lOs. per cent.
£4, 10s.
£6. 10s.
£7. 10s.
£11. 10s.
SUCCESSION DUTY.
This duty is regulated by 16 and 17 Vict., cap. 51, and 51 Vict., cap. 8, and is
payable in respect of real estate, including leaseholds.
The rates of duty are as follows : —
Obsobiption of Succebsob.
Lineal issue or lineal ancestor of the^
predecessor, or the husband or wife 1-
of any such person )
Brothers and sisters of the predecessor \
and their descendants, or the hus- 1
bands or wives of anj' such persons . . j
Brothers and sisters of the father or
mother of the predecessor and their
descendants, or the husbands or wives
of any such persons
Brothers and sisters of a grandfather or |
grandmother of the predecessor and I
their descendants, or the husbands
or wives of any such persons >
Persons of more remote consanguinity, 1
or strangers in blood )
Where the deceased
died before the Ist
July, 1888.
£1 per cent.
£3
£5
£6
£10
Where the deceased
died on or after the
l8t July, 1888.
£1. 10s. per cent.
£4. 10s.
£6. lOs.
£7. 10s.
£11. 10s.
552
THE DEATH DUTIES.
The husband or wife of deceased is exempt from legacy or succession duty.
Legacy duty is payable on the capital value.
Succession duty is paid on the value of an annuity equal to the net income
of the property, which annuity would continue during the life of the successor.
Where the whole personal estate does not exceed £300 no legacy duty is payable.
All pecuniary legacies, residues, or share of residue, although not of the amount
of £20, are subject to duty.
In case of persons dying leaving issue, the probate duty covers all legacy duty
which would formerly have been paid by such issue.
Where the principal value of the whole succession or successions does not
exceed £100 no succession duty is payable.
Persons domiciled in the United Kingdom pay legacy duty on all movable
property wherever situate.
Persons domiciled abroad are altogether exempt from legacy duty on movable
property.
By the Customs and Inland Bevenue Act, 1885 (48 and 49 Vict., c. 51), a
yearly duty of 5 per cent is to be levied upon the net annual value, income or
profits, of the real and personal property of any body, corporate or incorporate.
But there are a number of exemptions, the most important of which are : —
Property belonging to the counties and certain other public bodies, charities,
friendly societies, savings banks, and trading concerns.
•1 THE INTESTATES' ESTATES ACT, 1890,
Provides that when a man dies after the first of September, 1 890, leaving a
widow but no issue, if the net value of his real and personal estate does not
exceed £500 all shall belong to the widow. If the estate exceeds £500 the widow
is to have a charge on it for that amount, with interest at 4 per cent until pay-
ment. This Act does not apply to Scotland.
553
RULES BY WHICH THE PERSONAL ESTATES OF PERSONS
DYING INTESTATE ARE DISTRIBUTED.
If the Intettate die, leaving His representatives take in the proportion
following : —
Wife and child, or children One-third to yrite, rest to cliild or children ; and
if children are dead, then to the representa-
tives (that is, their lineal descendants;, except
sach child or children, not heirs-at-law, who
had estate by settlement of intestate, or were
advanced by him in his lifetime, eqnal to
other shares.
IT Wife only, no relations Half to wife, re«t to Crown.
«I Wife, no near relations Half to wife, rest to next-of-kin in eqnal degree
to intestate, or their legal representatives.
No wife or child Alltonest-of-kinandtlielr legal representatives
No wife, bnt child, children, or representatives
of them, whether snch child or children by
one or more wives All to him, her, or them.
Children by two wives Equally to all.
If no child, children, or representatives of them All to next-of-kin in eqnal degree to intestate.
Child, and grandchild by deceased child Half to child, half to grandchild, who takes by
representation.
Husband Whole to liim.
Father, and brother or sister Whole to father.
Mother, and brother or sister Whole to them equally.
•I Wife, mother, brothers, sisters, and nieces Half to wife, residue to mother, brothers, sie-
(daughters of deceased brother or sister) ters, and nieces.
«1 Wife, and father Half to wife, and half to father.
^ Wife, brothers or sisters, and mother Half towife,half tobrothersor sisters,andniotlier
Mother, bnt no wife, child, father, brother,
sister, nephew, or niece The whole to mother.
H Wife, and mother Half to wife, half to mother.
Brother or sister of whole blood, and brother
or sister of half blood Equally to both.
Posthumous brother or sister, and motlier Equally to both.
Posthumous brother or sister, and brother or
sister born in lifetime of father Equally to both.
Father's father, and mother's mother Equally to both.
Uncle or aunt's children, and brother's or
sister's grandchildren Equally to all.
Grandmother, uncle, or aunt All to grandmother.
Two aunts, nepliew, and niece Equally to all.
Uncle, and deceased uncle's child All to uncle.
Uncle by mother's side, and deceased nncle or
aunt's child All to uncle.
Nephew by brother, and nephew by half-sister Equally per capita.*
Nephew by deceased brother, and nephews and
nieces by deceased sister Each in equal shares per capita, and not per
stirpeg.
Brother and grandfather Whole to brother.
Brother's grandson, and brother or sister's
daughter All to brother or sister's daughter.
Brother and two aunts All to brother.
•5 Brother, and wife Half to brother, half to wife.
•t TiT-t _ ii J i-iij _ « . J A ( Half to wife, a fourth to mother, and a fourth
5IWe, mother, and children of a deceased per *tirp« to deceased brother's or sister-e
brother (or sister) \ Children.
0! \mt u ii_ -J. A vsi J < I Half to wife, one-fourth to brother or sister,
U Wife, brother, or sistCT, and children of a .' one-fourth to deceased brother's orslster-.
deceased brother or sister ( children Kr»<irp^*.
Brother or sister, and children of a deceased J Half to brother or sister, half to children of
brother or siste- ( deceased brother or sister per «({rpc«.
Grandfather, no near*>- reUtinn All to grandfath«»r.
• That is, taking individually, and not by representation. Thn«. if A die. leavinR three brother* or si«ters. they
each take an equal part of his effects in his or lier own rifiht. But if either of them die, leaving ebildren, his
children would take his share pir nlirpet, that is through him, and not in their own ri({htii.
By the .Act 19 & 20 Vict., cap. 94, all special local cuslom» relating to the estate* uf intesute* are aboUalMdM
far as they affect perional property.
H See Intestates Estates Act, ISiW, on previoni page.
654
RULES OF DIVISION, ACCORDING TO THE LAW OF SCOTLAND,
OF THE MOVABLE ESTATE OF A PERSON WHO
HAS DIED INTESTATE.
If a person die, leavmg His movable estate is divided in the
following jyrojxyrtions : —
-vrife, other half to deceased's next-
Wife i ^^^^ *"
^"^ 1 of-kin.
Wife and child, or children i ^''t*^*'"'' *° ^^^^' , remaiuing two-thirds to
' t child, or among children equally.
f One-third to wife, one-third to children equally,
o!!h *.^^ remaining third bet*ee . the children
and the issue of the predeceasing children —
the children taking per capita, the latter per
stir lies.*
Wife and grandchildren • ( Half to wife, and half to grandchildren equally
" [ among them.
Wife, and his children by former marriages .... I 0°^-^^{[^ t° ^^^^' two-thirds to children
Wife.andherchildrenby.a.ta„dpriormarriages|0./;,™^^^^^
Children Whole to children.
Children, and issue of predeceasing children . . | ''^.^^I'^tJ^^f^ ^.^S"'"'
Grandchildren Equally to all.
Children by two or more marriages Equally to all.
Father Whole to father.
.„_., f One-third to mother, other two-thirds to next-
Motlier J ^j.j^jjj
Father and mother Whole to father.
_, ,, J 11. J 1, ii J • 1 f Half to father, half to brothers and sisters
Father and mother, and brothers and sisters . . i eauallv
„ ., J 1 iv. J . i ( One-third to mother, remaining two-thirds to
Mother, and brothers and sisters \ brothers and sisters.
Father, mother, brothers, or sisters, and issue ( Half to father, half to brothers and sisters per
of deceased brothers or sisters \ capita, and issue per stirpes.
Mother, brothers, or sisters, and issue of deceased ( One-third to mother, remaining two-thirds as
brothers or sisters t in last example.
t;^ iT, J i.v J lu • J 1.11 J ( Half to father, other half to grandchildren
Father and mother, and their grandchildren -j eauallv
„ ., , , 1 1 -ij ( One-third to mother, other two-thirds to
Mother, and her grandchildren | grandchildren equally.
Father, mother, children, and grandchildren of f Half to father, other half between children
deceased brothers or sisters I pec capita, and grandchildren per stirpes.
„ ,, , ... , J , .,j ,, ,/ One-third to mother, other two-thirds among
Mother, children, and grandchildren of deceased] ehildren per capita, and grandchildren per
brothers or sisters ....• \ ^^^^^^
Brothers or sisters Equally among them.
_ ^, . , , , . f Brothers or sisters per capita, nephews or
Brothers or sisters, and nephews or nieces ....| nieces per stirpes.
Nephews and nieces Equally.
Grandnephews or nieces Equally.
555
RULES OP DIVISION, ACCORDING TO THE LAW OF SCOTLAND,
OP THE MOVABLE ESTATE OP A PERSON WHO
HAS DIED INTESTATE.— Con.
If a person die, leaving His movable estate is divided in the
following proportions : —
Brothers or sisters of full blood, and brothers or ) „n, 1 it.Lt. ^ • j. .,,.t, ,
sisters of half-blood [ WTiole to brothers and sisters of full blood.
Brothers or sisters consanguinean (that is, by\
same father but not 8aui« mother), and ' rin. i i i. a.. ^ » ^
brothers or sisters uterine (that is, by same ' ^^°'® *° °™*"^'"^ *°^ ^*^*®'* *'<'°*»"8*»'»®*'> •
mother but not by same father) )
Brothers or sisters consanguinean, and ancles ) ■nn , i u i... , . x
or aunts ) " ""'^ 'O brothers and sisters.
Brothers and sisters uterine, and uncles or aunts j^*" f° brothers and sisters, other half to
I uncles and aunts.
Father, mother, and ancles and aunts Whole to father.
Father, and cousins of full blood Whole to father.
Mother, and uncles or aunts . I One-third to mother, two thirds to uncles and
1 aunts.
Mother, and cousins of fulJ blood (One-third to mother, two-thirds to cousins
\ equally.
Grandfather, and uncles and aunts \\'hole to uncles and aunts.
Grandfather, grandmother, and mother One-third to mother, two-thirds to grandfather.
Where a wife dies, survived by Her tnovable estate is divided in tlie
following proportions : —
Husband Half to husband, other half to next-of-kin.
Husband and children One-third to husband, rest to children.
Children only Whole to children.
ChUdren, and issue of deceased chKdren | H"" *° children, other half among oblldran
I per capita, and issue per stirpes.
Children by two or more marriages Equally to all.
Illegitimate children do not succeed to their father and mother, when the latter leave no
will in their favour. When an illegitimate child dies without a will, and leaves neither wife nor
children, his estate falls to the Crown.
* Per capita. {.«., by the bead ; per stirpes (by descent), f .<>., throuKh their parent and not hi tboir own right.
Where property divides per capita, it is divided into aa many shares as there are children : where per stirpes, tbt
share which would have fallen to the predeceasing parent it alive is divided equally among hia children.
556
Ex
EXPECTATION OF LIFE.
iBter
PECTATION OF LiFB TABLES Were
constructed by the late Dr. Farr, of the General Reg
Office, and were calculated on the death-rates of 1838-54 ; but since that time very important |
changes have occurred in the death-rates at different ages ;
and consequently new tables have
been constructed by Dr. W. Ogle, who succeeded Dr. Farr
OD the basis of the death-rates of
1871-80. The following table gives the results both of the older and the later calculations ;
the
first two columns in the male and female parts, respectively giving the snrvivorsat each year of |
life out of a million born of the corresponding sex, by the older and the newer calculation ;
and
the two other columns siving similarly the expectation of life at each year.
MALES. 1
FEMALES.
Of 1,0C0,000 Bork,
Mean !
Of 1,000,000 Born, !
Mean
AGE
THE Number SrRviviso
After-lifetime
THE NCMBEF
SORVIVINO
After-lifetimz
AOE
AT THE END OF EACH
(Expectation
AT THE END OF EACH
(Expectation
Year of Life.
OF Life).
Year of Life. |
OF Life).
18S8-U.
1671-80.
ie8«-54.
1871-80.
1888-54.
1871-80.
1888-54. 1 1871-80.
Cornm
1
2
3
4
S
6
7 1 8
Col'mn
0
1,000,000
1,000,000
39-91
41-35
1,000,000
1,000,000
41-85 44-62
0
I
836,405
841,417
46-65
48-05
865,288
871,266
47-31 5014
1
2
782,626
790,201
48-83
50-14
811,711
820,480
49-40 52-22
2
3
754,849
763,737
49-61
50-86
782,990
793,359
50-20 52 99
S
4
736,845
746,587
149-81
51-01
764,060
775,427
50-43 53-20
4
5
723,716
734,068
49-71
50 87
750,550
762,622
50-33 53-08
5
6
713,881
726,815
49-39
50-38
740,.'>84
755,713
5000 52-56
6
7
706,156
721,108
48-92
49-77
732,771
750,-276
49-53 51-94
7
8
699,688
716,309
48 37
49-10
726,116
745.631
48-98 51-26
8
9
694,346
712,837
4774
48-37
720,537
741,727
48-35 50-53
9
10
689,857
708,990
47-05
47-60
71B,7fi9
738,382
47-67 1 49-76
10
11
681,982
706,146
46 31
46-79
1 711,581
735,405
46-95
48 96
11
12
682,512
703,595
45 54
45-96
707,770
732,697
46-20
4813
12
13
679,256
701,»00 ,
44-76
45-11
704,155
730,122
45-44
47 30
18
14
676,057
698,840
43-97
44 26
700,581
727,571
44-66
46-47
14
15
672,776
696,419
43-18
43-41
69B,917
724,956
43-90 1 45-63
15
16
669,396
693,695
42-40
42-58
693,050
722,084
43-14
44-81
16
17
665,529
690,746
41-64
41-76
688,894
718,993
42-40
44 00
17
18
661,402
687,507
40 90
40-96
684,378
715,622
41-67 48-21
18
19
656,e68
688,941
40-17
40-17
1 679,463
711,946
40-97
42 43
19
20
651,903 680,033
89-48
39-40
1 674,119
707,949
40-29
41-66
20
21
646,502 1 675,769
88-80
38 64
668,345
703,616
39-63
40-92
21
22
641028 ; 671,344
38-13
37-89
, 662,474
699,141
38 98
40-18
22
23
635,486 ! 666,754
87-46
37-15
«»6,509
694,521
38-33
39-44
23
24
629,882
661,997 1
36-79
8612
36-41
35-68
1 650,463
689,759
37-68
88-71
24
25
624,221
657,077
' 644,342
684,858
37-04
37-98
25
26
618,503
651,998
35-44
34-96
1 638,148
679,822
36-39
37-26
26
27
612,731
646,757
34-77
34-24
1 631,891
674,661
35-75
36-54
27
28
606,906
641,853
34-10
33-52
625,575
669,372
35-10
35-83
28
29
601,026
635,778
33-43
32-81
619,201
663,959
34-46
35-11
29
SO
695,089 ! 630,038
82-76
32-10
612,774
658,418
33-81
84-41
30
31
589,094
624,124
32-09
31-40
606,296
652,747
33-17
3870
31
82
583,036
618,(56
31-42
30-71
599,769
646,957
32-53
33 00
32
33
576,912
611.827
30 74
8001
593,196
641,(145
31-88
32-30
83 1
34
570,716
606,430
30-07
29-33
586,575
579,908
635,003
31-23
31-60
34 '
j
85
564,441
598,860
29-40
28-64
628,842
30-59
30-90
35 1
36
558,083
692,107
28-73
27-96
1 573,192
622,554
29-94
30 21
36 1
37
551,634
585,167
28-06
27-29
566,431
616,144
29-29
29-52
37 '
38
645,084
578,019
27-39
26-62
559,619
609,599
28-64
28-83
88
S3
40
538,428
570,656
26-72
25-96
552,758
602,924
27-99
2B-15
39
581,657
563,077
2606
25-30
' 545,844
596,113
27-»4
27-46
40
41
524,761
555,-i54
25-39
24-65
538,876
589,167
26-69
26-78
41
42
617,784
647,288
24-73
24-00
531,849
582,104
26-03 2610
42
43
510,567
539,161
2407
23 35
524,765
574,919
25-38 25-42
43
44
503.247 ' 530,a=i8
23-41
22-71
• 517,617
.';67,612
24-72 ' 24-74
44
557
EXPECTATION OF LIFE.
MALES. 1
FEHAT^S. 1
0» 1,000,000 Bobs, |
Hear
Of i.ono.ooo BoBN,
MXAX
AOB.
THE Number
SDRVIvrNO
After- LIFETIME
THE NCMBER SUBVIVIKO
APTBR-LIFETnCB
AT THS XNI
OF BACH
(Expectation
at the end of each
(Expbctatiok
Year of
Life.
OF Life).
Year or Life.
OF Life).
1838-54.
I871-S0.
1638-54.
1871-90.
1838-64. i
1871-80.
1888-S4.
1871-80.
Col'mn
1
2 I
3
4
5 {
6
7
8
Col-mn
45
495,770
522,374
22-76
22-07
510,408
560,174
2406
24-06
46
46
488,126
513,702
22-11
21-44
508,122
552,602
28-40
23 88
46
47
480,308
504,836
21-46
20-80
495,768 ;
644,892
22-74
22-71
47
48
472,306
495,761
20-82
2018
488,339
687,043
22-08
22-08
48
49
464,114
486,479
20-17 1
19-55
480,833 '
529,048
21-42
21-86
49
50
455,727 j
476980
19-54
18-93
473,245
620,901
20-75
20-68
60
51
447,139
467,254
1890
18-31
465,572 1
512,607
20-09
20-01
61
52
438,099
457,022
18--28
17-71
457,814 i
604,188
19-42
19-84
62
58
428,801
446,510
17-67
17-12
449,966 1
495.646
1875
18-66
58
54
419,256
435,729
1706 '
16-53
442,027 '
486,978
1808
1798
64
55
409,460
424,677
16-45
15-95
433,831
477,440
17-48
1738
55
56
899,4l!8
413,3.il
15-86
15-37
424,239
467,44<
16-79
16-69
66
57
889,088
401,740
15-26
14-80
414,761
456,992
16-17
16 06
67
58
378,481
889,827
14-6-*
14-24
404,895
446,079
15-55
15-45
68
59
867,570
877,591
14-10
18-68
394,636
434,695
14-94
14-84
59
60
356,330
365,011
13-53
18-14
383,974
422,835
14-H4
14-24
60
61
344.744
352,071
12-96
12-60
872,895
410 477
13-75
13 66
61
62
332 789
338,820
12-41
12-07
361,887
897,644
13-17
13-08
62
63
320,451
325 256
11-87
11-56
349,436
884,319
12-60
12-51
6:i
64
307,720
311,368 t
11-34
1105
837.031
324,165
870,496
12-05
11-96
64
65
294.5H8
297,156
10-82
10-55
856,166
11-61
11-42
65
66
281,064
282,638
10 32
10-07
810.883
841,326
10-98
10-90
66
67
267,160
267,-29
9-83
9-60
297 048
325,988
10-47
10 39
67
68
252,901
252,763 ,
9-36
914
282,819
810,170
9-97
9-89
68
69
238,328
237,487
8-90
8-70
268,177
293,899
9-48
9-41
69
70
223,490
222,056
8-45
8-27
258,161
277,225
9-02
8-95
70
71
208,453
206,539
8-03
7-85
237,82-2
260,207
1 8-57
8-50
71
72
193,297
190,971
7-62
7-45
222,280
242,934
8-13
8-07
72
73
178,114
175,449
7-22
7-07
206,464
225,497
7-71
7-66
73
74
163,003
160,074
6-85
6-70
190,620
208,003
7-31
7-25
74
75
148,076
144,960
6-49
6-34
174,800
190,566
6-93
6-87
75
76
138,453
130,227
6-15
6-00
159,126
17'<,816
6-.56
6-51
76
77
119,251
115.9B6
5-82
5-68
1 148,722
156,892
6-21
616
77
78
105,592
102,359
5-51
5-37
128,711
189,927
! 5-88
5-82
78
79
92,587
89,449
77,354
5-21
5-07
114,229
124,065
1 5-56
6-60
79
80
80 348
4 93
4-79
100,894
108,935
5-26
6-20
80
8)
68.946
66,153
4-66
4-51
87,328
94,662
4-98
4-90
81
82
68,471
55,842
4-41
4-26
75,119
81,805
4-71
4-68
82
88
48,970
46 489
4-17
401
68.862
68,966
4-45
4-87
83
84
40,471
88,132
3-95
3-58
68,615
~ 44 419
67,728
47,681
4-21
4-12
84
85
82,979
30,785
3-73
3-56
3-98
8-88
85
86
26,476
24,436
8-53
3-86
86,284
88,710
8-76
8-66
•■6
87
20,926
19,054
384
8-17
29,202
80,958
8-66
8-46
87
88
16 268
14,576
3-16
2-99
28,185
24,888
886
8-36
88
89
12,428
10,926
8-00
2-82
18,027
18.788
8-18
8-oe
80
90
9,821
8,015
2-84
2-66
18,802
14,226
8-01
2-90
90
91
6,859
5,748
2-69
2-51
10,376
10,668
2-86
374
91
92
4.946
4.025
2-65
2-87
7,660
7,668
2-70
3-68
93
98
8,492
2,749
2-41
2-24
5,626
6,429
2-56
3-44
9S
94
2,411
1,828
2-29
2-12
8.908
8,766
3,688
3-42
3-80
94
95
1,628
1,188
217
2-01
2,704
2-29
317
95
96
1,071
742
2-06
1-90
1,827
1,661
3-17
3-11
96
97
688
462
1-95
1-81
1,204
1,067
206
3-08
97
98
430
266
1-85
1-72
774
658
1-96
1-88
98
99
262
151
' 1-76
1-65
483
889
1 1-86
1-78
99
100
154
82
1-68
1-61
296
225
1-76
1-63
100
558
THE QUEEN AND EOYAL FAMILY,
rriHE QUEEN. — Victoria, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
J- Ireland, &c.. Queen, Defender of the Faith. Her Majesty was born at
Kensington Palace, May 24, 1819 ; succeeded to the throne, June 20, 1837, on the
death of her uncle, King William IV. ; was crowned June 28, 1838 ; and married,
February 10, 1840, to his Royal Highness Prince Albert. Her Majesty is the
only child of his late Royal Highness Edward, Duke of Kent, son of King
George III. The children of Her Majesty are : —
1. Her Royal Highness Victoria Adelaide Mary Louisa, Pbincess Royal of
England and Prussia, bom November 21, 1840, and married to his Royal
Highness Frederick Wilhelm, the Crown Prince of Germany, January 25, 1858,
afterwards the Emperor of Germany, died June 15, 1888, and has issue, living,
two sons and four daughters.
2. His Royal Highness Albert Edward, Prince op Wales, born November 9,
1841, married, March 10, 1863, Alexandra of Denmark (Princess of Wales), bom
December 1, 1844, and has issue. Prince Albert Victor, bom January 8, 1864,
died January 14, 1892 ; George Frederick Ernest Albert, born June 3, 1865 ;
Louisa Victoria Alexandra Dagmar, born February 20, 1867, married, July 27,
1889, Alexander William George. Duke of Fife ; Victoria Alexandra Olga Mary,
born July 6, 1868; Maud Charlotte Mary Victoria, born November 26, 1869;
and Alexander John Charles Albert, born April 6, 1871, died April 7, 1871.
3. Her Royal Highness Alice Maud Mary, born April 25, 1843 ; died December 14,
1878 ; married his Royal Highness Prince Frederick Louis of Hesse, July 1, 1862 ;
had issue five daughters and two sons ; the second son died by an accident. May,
1873 ; the youngest daughter died November 15, 1878.
4. His Royal Highness Alfred Ernest Albert, Duke of Edinburgh, bom August 6,
1844 ; married the Grand Duchess Marie of Russia, January 23, 1874 ; and has
had issue a son, born October 15, 1874, and four daughters, born October 29,
1875, November 25, 1876, September 1, 1878, and March, 1884.
5. Her Royal Highness Helena Augusta Victoria, born May 25, 1846 ; married
to his Royal Highness Prince Frederick Christian Charles Augustus of Schleswig-
Holstein Sonderburg-Augustenburg, July 5, 1866 ; and has issue living one son
and two daughters.
6. Her Royal Highness Louise Caroline Alberta, born March 18, 1848 ; married
to the Marquis of Lome, eldest son of the Duke of Argyll, March 21, 1871.
7. His Royal Highness Arthur William Patrick Albert, Duke of Connaught,
born May 1, 1850 ; married Princess Louise Margaret of Prussia, March 13, 1879;
issue, a daughter, born January 15, 1882; a son, born January 13, 1883; and a
daughter, born IMa'rch 17, 1886.
8. His Royal Highness Leopold George Duncan Albert, Duke of Albany, bom
April 7, 1853 ; married, April 27, 1882, Princess Helen of Waldeck ; died March 28,
1884 ; issue, a daughter, born February 26, 1883, and a son, born July 19, 1884.
9. Her Royal Highness Beatrice Mary Victoria Feodora, bom April 14, 1857 ;
married, July 23, 1885, to Prince Henry of Battenberg ; issue, three sons
and a daughter.
559
THE GLADSTONE MINISTEY, 1892.
Prime Minister, First Lord of the I t.^. u- «r -r. /-.
Treasury, and Lord Privy SeaL . . . / ^^- H°"- W- E. Gladstone.
Lord Chancellor Lord Herschell.
Secretary for India and Lord President ) mx. t-. r tt
of the Council | T^« ^^^^ o^ Kimberley.
Chancellor of the Exchequer Rt. Hon. Sir William Haecocrt.
Home Secretary Rt. Hon. H. H. Asquith, Q.C.
Secretary for Foreign Affairs The Eahl of Rosebery.
Secretary for the Colonies The Marquis of Ripon,
Secretary for War Rt. Hon. H. Campbell-Bannebman.
Secretary for Scotland Sir George Trevelyan.
First Lord of the Admiralty Earl Spencer.
Chief Secretary for Ireland Rt. Hon. John Mobley.
Postmaster-General Rt. Hon. Arnold Morley.
President of the Board of Trade Rt. Hon. A. J. Mundella.
Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster . .Rt. Hon. James Bryce.
President of the Local Government) t,. tt xi tt t:i
ggg^j.^ - Rt. Hon. Henry H. Fowler.
Vice-President of the Council Rt. Hon. Arthur H. D. Aclajid.
First Commissioner of Works Rt. Hon. G. Shaw-Lefevre.
The above form tlie Cabhiet.
Lord Lieutenant of Ireland Lord Houghton.
Lord Chancellor of Ireland Samuel Walker, Q.C.
I William A. Mc. Arthur.
R. K. Causton.
Thomas E. Ellis.
Financial Secretary to the Treasury . . . .Rt. Hon. John T. Hibbert.
Patronage Secretary to the Treasury Rt. Hon. E. Marjobibanks.
Under Secretary for the Home Depart- ) ^ jj^^ Herbert Gladstone.
ment . j
Under Secretary for Foreign Affairs Sir Edward Grey.
Under Secretary for the Colonies Sidney C. Buxton.
Under Secretary for India G. W. E. Russell.
Parliamentary Secretary of the Board of ) rri„Q„ . „ Btjrt
Trade |
Parliamentary Secretary of the Local Uir Walter Foster.
Government Board j
President of the Board of Agriculture Rt. Hon. Herbert C. Gardner.
560
THE GLADSTONE MINISTRY, 1892— Contimied.
Attorney-General Sir Charles Russell, Q.C.
Solicitor-General J. C. Rigby, Q,C.
Lord Advocate J. B. Balfour, Q.C.
Solicitor-General for .Scotland A. Asher, Q.C.
Attorney-General for Ireland The Macdermot, Q.C.
Solicitor-General for Ireland . Serjeant Hemphill.
Vice-Chamberlain of the Household The Hon. C. R. Spexcer.
Comptroller of the Household The Hon. G. Leveson-Gower.
Secretary to the Admiralty Sir U. Kay-Shuttleworth.
Under Secretary for the War Office .... Lord Sandhurst.
Financial Secretary to the War Office . . William Woodall.
Lord Chamberlain Lord Carrington.
PRIME MINISTERS SINCE 1834.
Sir Robert Peel December 15, 1834
Viscount Melbourne April 18, 1835
Sir Robert Peel August 31, 1841
Lord John Russell July 6, 1846
Earl of Derby July 8, 1866
Mr. Disraeli.. March to December, 1868
Mr. Gladstone December 9, 1868
Earl Beaconsfield . .February 21, 1874
Earl of Derby February 27, 1852 ' Mr. Gladstone April 29, 1880
Earl of Aberdeen . . December 28, 1852 ■ and Ch. of Ex. to April, 1883.
Viscount Palmerstou. February 26, 1855 Marquis of Salisbury . . . .June 24, 1885
Earl of Derby February 26, 1858 Mr. Gladstone February 2, 1886
Viscount Palmerston . . . .June 18, 1859 I Marquis of Salisbury . .August 3, 1886
Earl Russell October 28, 1865 | Mr. Gladstone August 15, 1892
Nineteen changes of Governments have taken place since the beginning of 1834,
but in that time only nine men have been Premiers, and of these Mr. Gladstone
and the Marquis of Salisbury are the sole survivors. I\Ir. Gladstone has been
Premier longer than any other statesman since the Earl of Liverpool, who held
office nearly fifteen years in succession.
In 1885 the number of members of the Lower House was finally fixed at 670,
as against 658 in previous years ; England returning 465, Wales 30, Scotland 72,
and Ireland 103 members. The previous distribution had been — England 469,
Wales 30, Scotland 60, and Ireland 103 seats. There are now 377 county
members, as against 283 ; 284 borough members, as against 360 ; and 9 University
members, as against 9.
561
THE
HOUSE OF COMMONS AS ELECTED JULY, 1892.
With Corbeotions to December, 1893.
Constitaencies.
Members.
PoUtics.
?f
t'l
>
o
O
1
a
o
•^
S
3
2
BEDFORD (3).
County Divisions {2).
Biggleswade, or N. . . .
Luton, or S
Borough (1).
Bedford
G. W. E. Russell
H. Whitebread
1 ..
1 ..
••
••
64,457
68,249
S. Whitbread
2 ..
1 ..
••
••
132,706
28,023
BERKS. (5).
County Divisions (3).
Abingdon, or N
Newbury, or S
Wokingham, or E
Boroughs (2).
Reading
P. Wroughton
W. G. Mount
Sir George Russell
G. W. Palmer
3
••
••
160,729
••
1
1
1
• •
••
••
49.077
55,846
59,104
1
ll ..
3
1
••
• •
••
164.027
55.752
12.327 i
Windsor (New)
BUCKS. (3).
County Divisions (3).
Aylesbury, or M
Buckingham, or N. . .
Wycombe, or S
CAMBRIDGE (4).
County Divisions (3).
Chesterton, or W
Newmai'ket, or E
Wisbeach, or N
Borough (1).
Cambridge
F T Barry
Baron F. de Rothschild . .
H S Leon
1
..
4
••
••
••
232,106
i'
1
••
i'
1
••
58,510
57.389
66.792
Viscount Curzon
Hugh E. Hoare
.. 1
1
•-
• •
182.691
1
1
1
8
8
. .
...
...
• •
46.041
48.878
49.556
Hon. A. G. Brand
R. U. P. Fitzgerald
• •
1
*•<•
••
••
144.475
44,887
1
..1
••
••
• •
188,862
37
562
HOUSE OF COMMONS.
Constitnencies.
Members.
Politiog.
3
h3
>
IS
a
5
1
a
1
2
i
a
&
CHESTER (13).
County Divisions {8).
Altrincham
C. R. Disraeli
W. S. B. McLaren
H. J. ToUemache
J. W. Sidebotham
Hon. A. de T. Egerton
Brorriley Davenport
J. T. Brunner
Colonel Cotton-Jodrell ....
Viscount Bury
R. A. Yerburgh
T. H. Sidebottom
G. Whiteley ..
J. Leigh
i'
i
2
1
~
1
i
1
1
1
i'
6
1
1
1
1
••
--
63,390
64,434
55,249
67,468
55,073
53,147
69,893
73,725
Crewe
Eddisbury
Hyde
Knutsford
JIacclesfield
Northwich
Wirrall
Borotighs (5).
Birkenhead
492,379
99,249
42,296
44,135
I 70,253
J
Chester
Staly bridge
Stockport (2) 1
CORNWALL (7).
County Divisions (6).
Bodmin, or S.E
Camborne, or N.W. . .
Launceston, or N.E . .
St. Austell, or M
St. Ives, or W
Truro
Rt. Hon. L. H. Courtney. .
3
10
••
• •
748,311
••
1
i
1
••
• •
52,386
54,192
48,086
49,517
50,160
50,715
C. A. V. Conybeare
T. Owen
1
1
1
3
3
••
W. A. Mc.Arthur
T. B. Bolitho
J.C.Williams
W. G. C. Bentinck
Sir Wilfrid Lawson
D. Ainsworth
Borough (1).
Penryn and Falmouth
CUMBERLAND (6).
County Divisions (4).
Cockermouth
Egremont, or W
Eskdale, or N
Penrith, or M
Boroughs (2).
Carlisle
— -
1
1
a
••
••
305,066
17,533
3
••
• •
322,589
1
1
1
8
1
1
5
••
i
1
1
-*-
••
••
63,592
63,629
45,300
45,636
R. A. Allison
J. W. Lowther
W. C. Gully, Q.C
••
••
208,157
39,176
19,217
Whitehaven
T. Shepherd Little
••
••
266,560
563
HOUSE OP COMMONS.
Constituencies.
Members.
Politics.
If
IP
¥
13
HI
^15
i3
"a
1
2
.2
g
DERBY (9).
1 Cotmty Divisions {7).
Chesterfield
i High Peak
T. Bayley
1
i*
1
1
1
5
1
1
i
1
i
1
■•
61,294
60,740
69,192
59,716
61,995
63,816
56,987
433,740
1 94,146
Captain Sidebottom
Sir W. B. Foster
J. A. Jacoby
T. D. Bolton
H. E. Broad
Mid
North-Eastern
i Southern
Western
V. C. Cavendish
Rt. Hon. Sir W. Harcourt
T Roe
Boroughs {2).
Derbv (2) -
DEVON (13).
County Divisions {8).
Ashburton, or M. . .
Barnstaple, or N.W. . .
Honiton, or E
South Molton, or N. . .
Tavistock, or W
Tiverton, or N.E.
C. Seal Hayne
7
1
1
1
1
••
1
i'
i
1
1
i'
••
••
527,886
••
I
53,005
61,349
52,025
46,718
50,715
52,762
57,463
49,615
A Billson
Sir J. Kennaway
G. Lambert
H. C. F. Luttrell
Sir W. Walrond
R Mallock
Totnes, or S
Boi-oughs (5).
Devonport (2) |
F. B. Mildmay
Hudson Kearley
4
1
1
••
3
i"
1
1
1
••
••
423,652
I 70,238
50,570
1 87,307
E J C Morton
Hon. Sir H. S. Northcote. .
Plymouth (2) -|
; DORSET (4).
County Ditcisions {4).
\ Eastern
Sir E. Clarke
Sir W. Pearce
Hon. H. Sturt
J. K. Wingfield Digby ....
W. E. Brymer
H. Farquharson
6
••
••
6
1
1
1
1
1
••
••
631,767
57,202
46,740
49,897
41,648
Northern
Southern
Western
••
••
4
••
••
194,487
564
HOUSE OF COMMONS.
Coiutitiieiicies.
DURHAM (16).
County Divisions (8).
Barnard Castle
Bishop Auckland
Chester-le-Street . . . .
Houghton-le-Spring . .
Jarrow
Mid
North-Western
South-Eastern
Boroughs {8).
Darlington
Durham
Theodore Fry .
M. A. Fowler .
Gateshead ' William Allan .
Members.
Sir J. W. Peace
J. M. Paulton
J. Joicey
Captain H. T. Fenwick
Sir C. M. Palmer
J. Wilson
Atherley Jones
J. Richardson
Hartlepool . . . .
South Shields . .
Stockton
Sunderland (2)
ESSEX (11).
County Divisions (8)
Chalmsford, or M
Epping, or W
Harwich, or N.E
Maldon, or E
Romford, or S
Saffron Walden, or N
South-Eastern
Walthamstow, or S.W
Borotighs (5).
Colchester
West Ham, North . . . .
South....
GLOUCESTER (11).
County Divisions (5).
Cirencester, or E
Forest of Dean
Stroud, or M
Tewkesbury, or N
Thombury, or S
C. Fumess ....
J. C. Stevenson
T. Wrightson . .
S. Storey
Colonel Gourley
T. Usborne
Colonel Lockwood . ,
J. Round
Cyril Dodd, Q.C. . .
J. Theobald
H. C. Gardner . . . ,
IMajor Rasch ,
E. W. Byrne, Q.C,
Captain Naylor-Leyland
Archibald Grove
J. Keir Hardie
H. W. Lawson
Rt. Hon. Sir C. Dilke
D. B. Jones ,
Sir J. E. Dorington . ,
C. E. H. A. Colston . ,
PoUtics.
I ^„-
« I .S
69,459
61,8.33
70,206
69,235
80,582
67,686
65,987
63,830
538,717
88,030
15,287
85,712
64,9U
78,431
68,895
■ 142.097
14
1032,083
58,313
55,41(3
55,612
54,572
103,543
47,422 j
69,824 i
101,286
645,938
34.559
92,304
112,5981
785,-399
53,364
52,791
56,488
50,325 i
63,587
276,555
565
HOUSE OF COMMONS.
Constituencies.
Politics.
Members,
GLOUCESTER.— Con
Boroughs (6).
Bristol, East
North
,, South
West
Cheltenham
Gloucester
HANTS (12).
County Divisions (6)
Andover, or W
Basingstoke, or N. . .
Fareham, or S
Isle of Wight
New Forest
Petersfield, or E
Boroicghs (6).
Christchurch ....
Portsmouth (2) .
Southampton (2)
Winchester
HEREFORD (3).
County Divisions (2)
Leominster, or N
Ross, or S
Borough (J).
Hereford
HERTFORD (4).
Countrj Divisions (4)
Hertford, or E
Hitchin, or N
St. Albans, or M
Watford, or W
Sir J. D. Weston . .
Charles Townsend . .
Sir Edward Hill....
Sir M. Hicks-Beach
J. T. Agg-Gardner . .
T. Robinson
W. W. B. Beach
A. F. Jeifreys
Lt.-Gen. Sir F. Fitzwygram
Sir R. Webster
Hon. J. W. Ed. Montague,
W. Wickham
Abel H. Smith . ,
John Baker
W. 0. Clough . . . ,
T. Chamberlayne
F. H. Evans . . . ,
W. H. Myers . . . ,
J. Rankin .
M. Biddulph
R. Cooke
A. Smith
G. B. Hudson
Vicary Gibbs
T. F. Halsey
ll.
70,685
77,172
72,273
66,481
49,775
39,444
651,385
61,225
70,497
65,987
78,718
51,300
47,165
364,892
53,270
j- 159.255
)
i
;- 93,696
19,073
690,086
46,830
49,889
96,719
20,267
116,986
64,671
48,487
63,289
63,878
220,126
566
HOUSE OF COMMONS.
Constitaeacies.
HUNTINGDON (2).
County Divisions (2)
Huntingdon, or S
Ramsey, or N
KENT (19).
County Divisions (8).
Ashford, or S
Dartford, or N.W
Faversham, or N.E...
Isle of Thanet
Medway, or M
Sevenoaks, or W. . . .
St. Augustine's, or E. .
Tunbridge, or S.W. . .
Boroughs (11).
Canterbury
Chatham
Deptford
Dover
Gravesend
Greenwich
Hythe
Lewisham
Jilaidstone
Rochester
Woolwich
LANCASTER (57).
Cminty Divisions {23).
Northern Part (4).
Blackpool
Chorley
Lancaster
North Lonsdale
N.-Eastern Part (4).
Accrington
Clitheroe
Darwen
Rossendale
S. -Eastern Part (8).
Eccles
Gorton
Heywood
Middleton
Prestwich
Radcliffe-c'm-Farnwth
Stretford j
Westhoughton j
Members.
A. H. Smith-Barry
Hon. A. E. Fellowes
L. Hardy
Rt. Hon. Sir W. Hart-Dyke
H. T. Knatchbull-Hugessen
Rt. Hon. J. Lowther .
Major C. E. Warde . . .
H. W. Forster
Rt. Hon. A. Akers-Douglas
A. Grifl&th-Boscawen - .
J. Henniker-Heaton
Colonel Lloyd
C. J. Darling
G. Wyndham
D. Palmer . .
T. W. Boord
Sir Edward Watkin
J. Penn ,
F. S. W. Cornwallis
Viscount Cranborne
Colonel Hughes . . . ,
Sir M.W. Ridley ....
General R. J. Fielden
J. Williamson
W. Smith
J. F. Leese, Q.C
SirU. Kay-Shuttleworth.
C. P. Huntingdon
J. H. Maden ,
H. J. Roby
W. Mather
T. Snape
C. H. Hopwood, Q.C.
R. G. C. IMowbray . .
R. Leake
J. W. Maclure
E. G. V. Stanley , . ,
Politics.
1o
S
a
j5
0
•a
^
ce
^;
e^i
25,422
29,558
54,980
67,946
79,850
69,343
61,617
64,178
80,062
68,011
72,596
568,603!
22,607
59,389 1
101,826
88,8131
35,492 j
78,181 1
85,540!
88,643 1
32,145!
26,170!
98,976
1.175.335
70,356
67,854;
64,279!
51,181
75,712
89,331
70,475
70,567
I
78,183 1
77,690
56,794
68,540
79,497
72,940
67,004
83,063
567
HOUSE OF COMMONS.
Constituencies.
LANCASTER.— Con.
S.- Western Part (7)
Bootle . .
Ince
Leigh
Newton
Ormskirk
Southport
Widnes
Boroughs (34).
Ashton-under-Lyne
Barrow-in-Fumess
Blackburn (2)
Bolton (2)
Burnley
Bury
Members.
Liverpool. Abercromby
East Toxteth
Everton .
Exchange
Kirkdale .
Scotland .
Walton .
West Derby..
West Toxteth
Manchester, East . . .
North..,
N'th-East
N'th-West
South
S'th-West
Oldham (2) -|
Preston (2) -!
Bochdale
Salford, North
„ South
West
St. Helens .
Warrington
Wigan
Colonel Sandys
Samuel Woods
C. Wright
T. W. Leigh
Rt. Hon. A. B. Porwood
Hon. G. N. Curzon . . .
J. S. Gilleat
J. E. W. Addison, Q.C...
C. W. Cayzer ,
W. H. Hornby . .
W. Coddington
H. Shepherd Cross
Hon. Colonel Bridgeman ,
Rt. Hon. H. Stanhope . . ,
Rt. Hon. Sir H. James . .
W. P. Lawrence. ...
Baron H. de Worms
J. A. Willox
R. Neville. Q.C
Sir G. Baden-Powell
T. P. O'Connor
J. H Stock
Walter Long
R. P. Houston
Rt. Hon. A. J. Balfour
C. E. Schwann
Rt. Hon. Sir J. Fergusson
Sir W. H. Houldsworth . .
Sir Henry Roscoe
Jacob Bright
J. M. Cheetham
Sir J. T. Hibbert
R. W. Hanbury
W. E. M. Tomlinson
T.B.Potter
W H. Holland . . .
Sir H. H. Howarth
Lees Knowles
H. Seton-Karr
R. Pierpoint . .
Sir F. S. Powell
PoUtics.
12
1
1
1
1
10
1
1
1
1
1
1
21
1
1
1
1
1
33
S I S
H5j
.lis
sS-'
97,552
67,021
65,155
63,296
64,096
76,581
64,507
1,641.624
47,322
51,712
120.064
118,730
86,163
55,491
55,564
63,926
78,639
47,704
77,018
'53,723
66,465
76,971
64,461
85,407
76,629
72,794
67,633
80,051
71,968
188,871
111,696
71,458
61.520
68,879
67,740
71.288
55,349
55,013
3,906,878
568
HOUSE OF COMMONS.
Constitaenvies.
Politics.
ll.
ill
V
Members.
"3
3
9>
>■
1
a
6
-3
1
1
"S
55
s
1
LEICESTER (6).
County Divisions (4).
Bosworth, or W
Harborough, or S
Loughborough, or M. .
Melton or E
C. B. McLaren
1
1
1
3
1
1
5
—
i'
1
—
57,240
59,368
55,164
69,852
J. W. Logan
J. E. Johnson-Ferguson . .
Marquis of Granby
J. A. Picton
Boroughs (2).
Leicester (2) -
LINCOLN (11).
County Divisions (7).
Brigg. or N. Lindsey. .
Gainsboro', or W. L'sey
Homcastle. or S. L'sey
Louth, or E. Lindsey.
Sleaford, or N. Kestevn
Spalding, or Holland. .
Stamford, or S. Kest'vn
Boroughs (4).
Boston
231,624
1 142,051
Sir J. Whitehead
S. D. Waddy, Q.C
1
• •
373,675
1
1
i'
1
i*
i
i
••
49,151
49,595
46,079
46,868
45,474
49,279
47,647
J. Bennett
Rt. Hon. E. Stanhope
R. W. Perks
Rt. Hon. H. Chaplin
Halley Stewart
H. J. Cust
W. J. Ingram
4
1
i
::
3
i
i
••
334,093
18,927
17,170
58,603
43,985
Grantham
H. H. Lopes
Rt. Hon. E. Heneage
W. Crosfield
Great Grimsby
Lincoln
MIDDLESEX (47).
County Divisions (7).
Brentford
J. Bigwood
6
4
1
i
472,778
.. ..
69,792
70,756
84,388
96,720
78,043
97,166
67,754
Ealing
Rt. Hon. Lord G. Hamilton
Captain H. F. Bowles . . . .
W. Ambrose
Enfield
Harrow
H. C. Stephens
Joseph Howard
F. D. Dixon Hartland
George Howell
Tottenham
••
Uxbridge
Boroughs (40).
Bethnal Green, N.E . .
„ S.W..
Chelsea
1
1
i'
7
1
••
••
564,619
66,804
62,330
96,272
I 37,694
65,885
E. H. Pickersgill
C. A. Whitmore
Sir R. Hanson
A. G. H. Gibbs
D. Naoroji
City of London (2) . . |
Pinsbury, Central
..1 1
..ji
. .
569
HOUSE OF COMMONS.
Constitnencies.
PoUUcs.
111
Members.
-3
1
1 1 1 '1
1
e
£
MIDDLESEX.— Con.
Finsbury, East
,, Hoi born . .
Fulham
J. Rowlands
1
i
••
45,306
70,918
91,640
64,760
77,170
87,601
97,287
68,425
83,883
90,272
71,910
73,368
82,656
83,665
66,673
76.708
64,671
58,167
56,356
67,653
78,862
60,844
69,126
53,767
60,700
64,674
88,646
55,232
48,850
78,052
47,913
68,715
74,420
66,760
Sir Charles Hall, Q.C
W. H. Fisher
Sir A. Scoble, Q.C
W. R. Bousfield, Q.C
Sir Charles Russell, Q.C. . .
General Goldsworthy ....
E. Broadie-Hoare
B. L. Cohen
•• ••
Hackney, Central
North
South
Hammersmith
Hampstead
Islington, East
North
South
West
G. C. T. Bartley
Sir Albert Rollitt
T. Lough
i
1
Kensington. North . .
South ..
Marylebone, East
West
Paddington, North . .
South ..
Shoreditch, Haggerstn
,, Hoxton . .
St. George's, Hn'vr-sq.
St. Pancras, East
„ North . .
F. C. Frye
Sir Algernon Borthwick . .
E. Boulnois
1 '
1 ' ..
1 j v.
F. Seager Hunt
Rt. Hon. Lord R. Churchill
W. R. Cremer
i'
1
i
1
1
i
1
i
Alderman James Stuart . .
Rt. Hon. G. J. Goschen . .
R. G. Webster
T H. Bolton
i
i
South ..
West....
Strand
Tower Hamlets :
Bow and Bromley
Sir Julian Goldsmid
H. R. Graham
Hon. W. F. D. Smith . . . .
J. M. McDonald
J. S. Wallace
Mile End
Spencer Charrington
Poplar
St. George
Stepney
Whitechapel
Westminster
J W Benn
F. W. Isaacson
Samuel Montagu
W. Burdett-Coutts
MONMOUTH (4).
County DivisUms (3).
Northern
Southern
Western
Borough (i).
Monmouth Group
Captain T. P. Price
Hon. F. C. Morgan
C. M. Warmington
15
30 : 2
3,251,703
1
i
2
1
8
••
"
62,690
66,183
64,696
— -
. .
••
••
-
198,518
66.742
. 1
1
• •
262,260
570
HOUSE OF COMMONS.
Constitaencies.
Members.
Politics.
1
3
1
1
0
1
3
'A
i
a
1
NOEFOLK (10).
County Divisions (6).
Eastern
R. J. Price
1
1
1
i'
i
••
••
40,693
49,604
61,072
61,278
49,730
47,133
Midland
C. Higgins, Q.C
Northern
H. Cozens-Hardy, Q.C
North-Westem
F. Taylor
South- Western
Boroughs (4).
Great Yarmouth ....
King's Lynn
Norwich (2) |
NORTHAMPTON (7).
County Divisions (4).
Eastern
T L Hare
1
J. M. Moorson, Q.C
T. Gibson Bowles
8
1
1
1
i
1
1
••
••
289,510
49,318
18,265
} 100,970
J. J. Colman
1 1 ..
F. A. Channing
6
1
3 1
458,063
1
••
••
66,499
48,790
46,723
46,628
Mid
Hon. C. R. Spencer
Lord Burghley
D C. Guthrie
1 j ..
i'j :;
i
Southern
Boroughs (3).
Northampton (2) . . j
Peterborough
N'RTH'MB'RL'ND (8).
County Divisions (4).
Berwick-on-Tweed . .
Hexham
H. Labouchere
3 ..
1 ..
1 ..
I 1 ..
1
••
, ,
••
207,640
[ 70,872
26,464
M. P. ]\Ianfield
A. C. Morton
Sir Edward Grey
Itliles Mc.Innes
1
6 ..
l!..|..
304,976
1
1
1
1
••
..1 '..
••
62,442
61,687
69,642
59,701
Tyneside
J. A. Peace
C. Fenwick
Boroughs (4).
Morpeth
Thomas Burt
3
1
1
i
i"
••
::
233,372
40,133
1 186,324
46.2671
Newcastle-on-T'n (2) -j
Tynemouth
Alderman C. F. Hamond . .
Rt. Hon. John Morley ....
R. S. Donkin
i
NOTTINGHAM (7).
County Divisions (4).
Bassetlaw
■'! " '
1
Sir F. Milner
J. C. Williams
4
i'
i
2
2
1
i
—
—
506,096
61,462
66,790
50,035
66,617
Mansfield
Newark
Viscount Newark
J E. Ellis
Rushcliffe
2
2i.. ..
i
••
233,894
571
HOUSE OF COMMONS.
Constituencies.
Members.
Politics.
.?§
a
a
1
•J
CO
§
1
1
2
s
s
.Hi
NOTTINGHAM.-CoN.
Boroughs (3).
Nottiugham, East
South .,
West . .
OXFORD (4).
County Divisions (3).
Banbury, or N
Henley, or S
Arnold Morley
1
••
i'
i'
••
. . 69,181
. . 60,487
..i 82,037
H. Smith Wright
Colonel Seely
Sir B. Samuelson
Hon. F. Parker
3
••
3
1
••
446,599
1
i'
2
i"
■ •
••
••
43,861
48,145
50,464
Woodstock, or M
Borough (1).
Oxford
Sir George Chesney
G. H. Finch
R. J. More
1
1
142,470
45,741
RUTLAND (1).
County Division (I).
Rutland
2
— -
2
• •
••
••
188,211
1
20.669
SALOP (5).
County Divisions (4).
1
i"
••
..1 55,920
.. 53,035
54,178
46,224
Newport, or N
Oswestry, or W
Wellington, or M
Borotigh (1).
Shrewsbury
Colonel Kenyon Slaney
Stanley Leighton
A. H. Brown
H. D. Greene, Q.C
E. J. Stanley
H. Hobhouse
J. E. Barlow
..
••
1
1
••
i
1
1
3
— -
2
1
3
2
2
..: 209,357
. . ' 26,967
SOMERSET (10).
County Divisions (7).
Bridgwater
Eastern
236,324
1
i"
1
3
1
i*
i*
1
i'
48,226
50,152
63,552
Northern
T. Courtenay Warner
Edward Strachey
Sir A. Acland-Hood
Sir R. Paget
Colonel Wyndham Murray.
E. R. Wodehouse
A. P. AUsopp
.. 53,418
51,300
. . 48,122
. . 65,569
Southern
Wellington, or W
Wells
Boroughs (3).
Bath (2) 1
Taunton
860,339
j. 64,660
18,026
8
••
5
2
••
••
482,916
572
HOUSE OF COMMONS.
Con^titnenciee.
Members.
Politics.
STAFFORD (17).
County Divisions (7)
Burton
Handsworth
Kingsvvinford
Leek ,
Lichfield
North-Western ,
Western ,
Boroughs (10).
Hanley ,
Newcastle-und'r-Ljmae
Stafford
Stoke-on-Trent ....
Walsall
Wednesbury
West Bromwich
Wolverhampton, E.
S.
W.
SUFFOLK (8).
County Divisions (5).
Eye, or N.E
Lowestoft, or N
Stowmarket, or N.W. .
Sudbury, or S
Woodbridge, or S.E. . .
Sidney Evershed
Sir H. Meysey Thompson.
A. Staveley Hill
Charles Bill
Major L. Darwin
James Heath
Hamar A. Bass
Boroughs (3).
Bury St. Edmunds
Ipswich (2)
SURREY (2ii).
County Divisions (6)
Chertsey, or N.W
Epsom, or M ,
Guildford, or S.W
Kingston
Reigate, or S.E J H. Cubitt
Wimbledon, or N.E. . . Cosmo Bon.sor
W. Woodall
W. Allen
C. E. Shaw
Hon. G. Leveson-Gower
Arthur Hayter
W. Lloyd
Ernest Spencer
Rt. Hon. H. H. Fowler..
Rt. Hon. C. P. Villiers . .
Sir A. Hickman
3 I 3
F. Stephenson . ,
H. S. Foster . . .
S. J. Stern
Cuthbert Quilter
R. L. Everett . . .
Viscount Chelsea
Sir C. Dalrymple
Lord Elcho
C. H. Coombe
T. T. Bucknill
Hon. St. John Brodrick
Sir R. Temple
6 4
68,640
84,782
47,665
56,711
52,006
63,166
56,546
419,516
86,845
54,184
20,270
75,852
71,791
69,083
59,489
54,511
57,096
62,718
1,030,855
54,825
61,654
55,099
55,655
56,589
283,772
16,630
■ 57,360
357,762
61,968
70,103
67,722
85,367
64,453
69,236
418,849
573
HOUSE OF COMMONS.
Constituencie?.
Members.
SURREY.— Con.
Boi'otighs (16). |
Battersea
Camberwell, Dulwich..
North ..
,, Peckham.
Clapham
Croydon
Lambeth, Brixton ....
,, Kennington
North
„ Norwood . .
Newington, Walworth.
West
Southwark, Berm'ndsy
„ Rotherhithe
West
Wandsworth
Politics.
John Burns
J. Blundell Maple I . ,
E. H. Bavley 1 1
F. G. Banburj' I . ,
P. M. Thornton . ,
Hon. Sidney Herbert I . ,
Marquis of Carmarthen . . j . ,
Mark H. Beaufoy 1
Alderman Coldwells 1
C. E. Tritton : .,
W. Saunders | 1
Captain Cecil Norton .... I 1
R. V. Barrow ! 1
J. C. Macdona ,
R. K. Causton ,
H. Kimber
SUSSEX (9).
County Divisions (6).
Chichester, or S.W. . . ; Lord W. G. Lennox
Eastbourne, or S [ Vice-Admiral E. Field . . .
East Grinstead, or N..' Hon. A. Gathorue-Hardy.
Horsham, or N.W. . . J. H. Johnstone
Lewes, or M ! Sir H. Fletcher
Rye, or E.
Boroughs (3).
Brighton (2) . . .
Hastings
A. M. Brookfield.
G. W. E. Loder . .
Bruce Weutworth
Wilson Noble
WARWICK (14).
County Divisions (4).
Nuneaton, or N.E. . . F. A. Newdigate.
Rugby, or S.E i H. P. Cobb
Stratf'd-on-A., or S.W. A. B. Freeman Mitford. . ,
Tamworth, or N P. A. Muntz
U
t_-
97,204
88,2721
88,9321
83,482J
96,952,
102,6971
70,3561
73,919
62,6161
68,4U:
59,040
56,623
82,8981
73,662;
66,7701
113,233
1,698.816
54,357
66,468
52,525!
52,977
64,026
57,090
8 202,984
847,448
■ 142,121
'60,878
550,442
68,280
49,180
46,440
54,184
574
HOUSE OF COMMONS.
Constitaeiicies.
Members.
PoUtics.
lis
1-
a
:3
1
1
1
1
1
WARWICK.— Con.
Boroughs {10).
Aston Manor
Birm'gham, Bordesley
,, Central..
East
„ Edgbaston
North ..
„ South ..
West....
Coventry
Captain Grice-Hutchinson.
Jesse CoUings
J. A. Bright
1
1
1
i'
1
1
1
i'
68,639
82,863
59,099
65,683
67,682
62,948
70,334
69,508
54,743
39,102
Rt. Hon. H. Matthews ....
G. Dixon
1
Alderman Kenrick
J. Powell Williams
Rt. Hon. J. Chamberlain . .
W. H. W. Ballantine ....
Rt. Hon. A. W. Peel
Sir Joseph Savory
Captain J. F. Bagot
Sir J. D. Poynder
John Husband
• •
1
••
Warwick & Leamingtn
WESTMORLAND (2).
County Divisions (2).
Appleby, or N
Kendal, or S
2
••
5
7
••
843,585
••
••
1
1
••
••
••
31,176
34,922
WILTS (6).
County Divisions (5).
Chippenham, or N.W.
Cricklade, or N
Devizes, or E
Westbury, or W
Wilton, or S
••
••
2
••
66,098
i'
1
1
••
1
i
••
••
••
44,356
59,414
48,267
52,669
42,901
C. E. Hobhouse
G. P. Fuller
Viscount Folkestone
E. H. Hulse
A. Baldwin
Borough (2).
3
••
2
1
••
••
••
247,607
17,362
WORCESTER (8).
County Divisions (5).
Bewdley, or W
Droitwich, or M
Eastern
Evesham, or S
Northern
3
••
3
••
••
••
264,969
1
i'
i
1
••
••
52,018
48,281
59,357
49,538
58,437
R. B. Martin
J. A. Chamberlain
Sir E. Lechmere
B. Hingley
i'
• •
Boroughs (3).
Dudley
Brooke Robinson
A. F. Godson, Q.C
Hon. G. H. Allsopp
1
••
2
1
1
1
2
••
••
267,631
90,223
26,905
42,899
Kidderminster
Worcester
1
••
6
2
I..
••
427,668
575
HOUSE OF COMMONS
Members.
PoUtics. 1
li.
all
V
Constituencies.
g
1
1
B
1
3
"a
JO
s
3
e
YORKSHIRE (52).
County Divisions (26).
East Riding :
Buckrose
A. Holden
••
2
i'
1
i
I
1
1
i'
7
1
i'
1
i'
"
60,676
41,479
49,627
66,917
64,460
67,191
64,781
48,470
78,844
69,344
73,157
64,632
73,254
66,160
63,263
66,219
72,013
66,779
61,746
49,252
64,926
78,678
62,166
68,213
63,192
67,402
Holderness
Commander Bethell
Captain W. H. Wilson-Todd
H. F. Pease
Howdenshire
North Riding :
Cleveland
Richmond
G. W. Elliot
J. G. Lawson
E.W. Beckett
Colonel Gunter
Earl Compton
Thirsk and Malton . .
Whitby
West Riding :
Barkeston Ash
Bamsley
Coins Valley
Sir J. Xitson
C. J. Fleming
Elland
Alderman T. Wayman ....
Sir F. Mappin
Holmfirth
H. J. Wilson
A. E. Hutton
B Pickard
Otley
J Barran
Briggs Priestley
Ripon
J. L. Wharton
A H. D. Acland
W P Byles
Skipton
C S. Roundell
17
Sowerby
Rt. Hon. J. W. Mellor, Q.C.
T P Whittaker
Spen Valley
Borotighs (26).
East Riding :
Hull, Central
,, East
H S King
••
••
1.879,730
66,566
66,492
78,603
98.899
33,776
1 66,984
66,847
79.645
70,969
72,983
I 82,863
96,495
Clarence Smith
I
, West
C. H. Wilson
North Riding :
Middlesbrough
Scarborough
York (2) 1
West Riding :
Bradford, Central
East
West
J. H. Wilson
Sir G. Sitwell
J. G. Butcher
F Lockwood Q.C
Rt. Hon. G. Shaw-Lefevre.
W S Caine
Mark Oldroyd
Halifax (2) |
Huddersfield
Rt. Hon. J. Stansfield
Sir J. Crossland
576
HOUSE OP COMMONS.
ConstitaeDCies.
Members.
Politics.
li.
'IP
-3
1
i
.a
3
og
a
6
-a
1
3
a
o
"S
2
5
a
£
YORKSHIRE.— Con.
West Riding :
Leeds, Central
,, East
„ North
South
„ West
Pontefract
G. W.Balfour
J. Lawrence-Gane, Q.C. . .
Rt. Hon. W. L. Jackson . .
J. L. Walton, Q.C
••
I
1
i'
1
1
1
••
"
69,136
64,609
81,547
70,018
82,197
16,407
72,462
67,083
66,461
63,302
54,935
37,269
Herbert Gladstone
— Nussey
Sheffield, AtterclifEe . .
„ Brightside..
,, Central ....
„ Ecclesall . .
,, Hallam ....
Wakefield
Hon. B. Coleridge, Q.C
Rt. Hon. A. J. Mundella . .
Colonel Howard Vincent . .
E. Ashmead-Bartlett
C. B. Stuart- Wortley
A. H. Charlesworth
Professor R. C. Jebb
Rt. Hon- Sir J. E. Gorst . .
Rt. Hon. Sir J. Mowbray..
J. G. Talbot
UNIVERSITIES (5).
Cambridge (2) -j
Oxford (2) -j
London
31
3
18
3.193.176
1
1
1
1
i '..
::
Rt. Hon. Sir John Lubbock
ANGLESEY (1).
County Division (1).
Anglesey
••
••
4
1}..
••
....
1
1
•■
1
i
1
1
WALES.
T. P. Lewis
50,079
BRECON (1).
County Division (1).
Brecon
William Fuller Maitland . .
W. Bowen Rowlands, Q.C
Abel Thomas
"i
54,550
CARDIGAN (1).
County Division (i).
Cardigan
1
1
1
—
..1 ..
. . 1
—
62,596
CARMARTHEN (3).
County Divisions (3).
Eastern
49,185
46,926
Western-
J. Lloyd Morgan
Major Jones
Borough (J).
Carmarthen Group . .
2
1
••
.. ..
••
96,061
34,513
3
'•
• •i
130,745
577
HOUSE OF COMMONS.
Constituencies.
Members.
Politics.
Parliam'ntar;
Population,
1891.
1
3
1
5
i
u
1
s
o
CARNARVON (3).
County Divisio7is (2).
Arfon, or N
W. Rathbone
1
1
2
1
—
—
— -
45.822
J. B. Roberts
. . 42'.826l
D. Lloyd George
Bormigh (1).
Carnarvon Group ...J
• •
88,648
29,577
DENBIGH (3).
County Divisions {2).
Eastern
Rt. Hon. G. 0 Morgan . .
J H. Roberts
3
118,225
1
1
47,317
46.417
Borough (1).
Denbigh Group
FLINT (2).
County Division (J).
Flint
Hon. G. T. Kenyon
Samuel Smith
■ 1
2
2
—
l'
I
—
93,734
24,216
117,950
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
5
1
1
1
1
1
10
1
— -
—
I
53,034
23,251
76,285
Borough (1).
Flint Group
GLAMORGAN (10).
County Divisions (5).
Eastern
Gk)wer, or W
Mid
72,465
55,261
D D Randall
S. T. Evans
. . 60,968
. . 68,720
. , 7a,»87
W Abraham
Southern
A J. Williams
Boroughs (5).
Cardiff Group
Merthyr Tydvil j
Swansea District
,, Town
MERIONETH (1).
County Division (i)
Sir E J Reed
••
.. 332,751
i
..[ 132,163
••|]- 104,008
63,140
57,666
D A Thomas
W. Pritchard Morgan . . . .
W Williams
R. D. Burnie
T E. Ellis
. . 689,628
.. 49,204
1 1
38
678
HOUSE OF COMMONS.
ConstitnencieB.
Members.
PoUtica.
U
a '^
i
a
1
§
p
1
S
z
5
MONTGOMERY (2).
County Division (1).
Montgomery
Borough (1).
Montgomery Group . .
PEMBROKE (2).
County Division (J).
Pembroke
Stuart Rendel
1
••
1
40,214
17,789
Sir Pryce Pryce Jones ....
W. R. Davies
1
• •
1
• •
••
58,008
1
1
2
•■
••
••
••
•'
53,921
36,204
Borough (J).
Pembroke Group ....
RADNOR (1).
County Division (1).
Radnor
G. F. E. Allen
F. Edwards
1
• •
• •
• •
••
__
89,125
21,791
1
ABERDEEN (4).
County Divisions {2).
Eastern
1
1
2
1
1
••
••
^
—
79,926
65,210
SCOTLAND.
T. R. Buchanan
Western
Dr. R. Farquharson
W. A. Hunter
Boroughs (2).
Aberdeen, North ....
South ....
ARGYLL (1).
County Division (J).
Arevll
145,136
59,992
61,631
Professor J. Bryce
D. H. Macfarlane
Hon. T. H. Cochrane
E. Wason
4
• •
• •
.., ..
266,759
1
61,183
AYR (4).
County Divisions {2).
Northern
i"
••
••
1
••
75,801
88,786
Southern
Boroughs (2).
Ayr Group
W. Birkmyre
1
1
1
••
1
••
—
164,586
46,200
79,828
290,614
Kilmarnock Group . .
S. Williamson
3
1
••
I
579
1
HOUSE OF COMMONS.
Constituencies.
Members.
PoUtics.
i
1
d
1
a
o
O
1
3
1
i
a
1
BANFF (1).
County Division (I).
Banff
Sir W. Wedderburn
Rt. Hon. E. Marjoribanks..
A. G. Smith, Q.C
Dr. G. B. Clark
1
52,663
BERWICK (1).
County Division (1).
Berwick
1
32.368
BUTE (1).
County Division (J).
Bute
.. - .-- ,
1
18,217
CAITHNESS (2).
County Division (i).
1
1
I
1
28,587
18,103
46,690
Borough {1).
Wick Group
CLACKMANNAN and
KINROSS (1).
County Division (1).
Clackm'nan & Kinross
DUMBARTON (I).
County Division (i).
Dumbarton
Sir J. Pender
Rt. Hon. J. B. Balfour
Captain J. Sinclair
W. J. Maxwell
R T Reid Q.C
1
44,309
1
77,440
DUMFRIES (2).
County Division (1).
Dumfries
1
1
1
1
1
1
i'
••
1
■•
66,290
26,183
Borough (J).
Dumfries Group
EDINBURGH (6).
County Division (1).
Midlothian
Rt. Hon. W. E. Gladstone.
W Mc Ewan
1
• •
••
81,473
••
••
i
• *
••
86,839
63,392
61,931
82,337
53,565
84,770
Boroughs (5).
Edinburgh, Central . .
„ East
South
„ West ....
Leith Group
TJ.nViprf. Wallace
Herbert W. Paul
Viscount Wolmer
Munro Ferguson
5
••
1
••
••
432,884
580
HOUSE OF COMMONS.
Constitnencibs. '
' Members.
!
Politics.
"So
*
3
i
1
§
1
z
e
<2
ELGIN & NAIRN (2).
County Division (1).
Elgin and Nairn
Borough (1).
Elgin Group
1 i
FIFE (4). '
County Divisions] (2).
Eastern i . . .
Western . . ^ . . .
J. 'Seymour Keay
1
1
••
••
••
87,613
33,292
A. Asher, Q.C
1
H. H. Asquith, Q.C
A. Birrell
2
70,905
1
1
••
50,996
58,458
Boroughs {2).
Kirkcaldy Group ....
St. Andrews Group . .
J H. Dalziel
2
1
i
109,454
36.901
H. T. Anstruther
. . 1 18,941
j
3
1
1
1
1
1
165,296
FORFAR (4).
County Division (i).
Forfar
Sir J. C. Rigby, Q.C
John Leng
••
67,515
1 153,051
58,055
Boroughs (3).
Dundee (2) ......
Llontrose Group, ....
i
1 ' . i
HADDINGTON (1).
County Division (J).
Haddington
INVERNESS (2). i
County Division (i)i
Inverness , , . ,
E . Robertson
J. S. Will, Q.C
R. B. Haldane, Q.C
Dr. D. Macgregor
Gilbert Beith
4
••
• •
..! 278,621
1
. . 37,429
1
1
••
. . 69,829
1
. . 28.071
Borough (J).
Inverness Group ....
i
KINCARDINE (1).
County Division (1).
Kincardine . . .'
KIRKC'DBRIGHT (1).
Cojcnty Division (1).
Kirkcudbright
J. W. Crombie
'
2
••
••
97,900
1
34,438
M. J. Stewart
1
• •
••
32,670
581
HOUSE OF COMMONS.
Constitnencies.
Members.
Politics.
Parliam'ntar>
Population,
1891.
3
0
<a
a
a
•a
3
in
5
LANAKK (13).
County Divisions (6).
John Wilson
1 1
1
1
i
••
78,612
71,258
85,035
75,019
77,136
52,032
mid
J. Wynford Philipps
Donald Crawford
Graeme Whitelaw
J Parker Smith
J. H. C. Hozier
A. D. Provand
1
1
••
North-Eastern
North-Western
Boroughs (7).
Glasgow, Blackfriars&
Hutcheson-
town
,, Bridge ton . .
„ Camlachie . .
„ Central ....
„ College
St. Rollox . .
,, Tradeston . .
LINLITHGOW (1).
County Division (1).
Linlithgow
ORKNEY AND SHET-
L.\ND (1).
County Division (1).
Orkney and Shetland..
PEEBLES AND SEL-
KIRK (1).
County Division (I).
Peebles and Selkirk . .
PERTH (3).
County Divisions (2)
3
1
1
i"
1
2
i'
1
i"
i'
438,992
73,784
81,396
71,157
75,379
98,047
94,569
70,649
Rt. Hon. Sir G. Trevelyan.
Alexander Cross
J. G. A. Baird
Dr. Charles Cameron ....
Sir James Carmichael
A. C. Corbett
Captain Hope
L Lyell
7
3
3
1.003 973
1
46,955
1
1
54,807
W. Thorbum
Sir J. Kinloch
I
19,074
1
1
43,645
47,916
Western
Sir D. Currie
W. Whitelaw
.. 1
Borough (1).
Perth
1
1
••
••
91,561
29.899
1
1
1
T."
121,460
582
HOUSE OF COMMONS.
Constituencies. Members.
PoUUcii.
Is
ill
"1 CL
1
1
■J
1
§
t3
13
O
1
s
1
RENFREW (4).
County Divisions [2)
Eastern
I
H. Shaw-Stewart
C. B. Reushaw
Sir T. Sutherland
W. Dunn
i
1
••
1
1
2
i
—
66,137
56,622
Western
Boroughs (2).
Greenock
'•
122,759
63,096
66,418
Paisley
ROSS & CR'M'RTY (1).
County Division {!).
Ross and Cromarty . .
J. G. Weir
2
1
252,273
1
71,432
ROXBURGH (2).
County Division (1).
Roxburgh
Borough (I).
Hawick Group
STIRLING (3).
County Division (1).
Stirling
Boroughs (2).
Falkirk Group
Stirling Group
SUTHERLAND (1).
County Division (J).
Sutherland
Hon; M. Napier
1
1
••
••
••
••
34,537
42,244
Thomas Shaw
W. Jacks
2
1
1
—
••
76,781
••
••
..
••
86,293
65,346
39,987
H. Smith
H. CampbeU-Bannerman . .
A. Sutherland
1 ..
.. .
3
1
••
.. ..
. . 191,626
J..
..; .. 21.267
WIGTOWN (1).
County Division (I).
Wigtown
Sir H. E. Maxwell
Sir G. Pearson
J. A. Campbell
__ :
••|
1
1 ..
35,989
UNIVERSITIES (2).
Edinbro' & St. Andr'ws
Glasgow and Aberdeen
—
••
I
1
2
—
--
••
....
583
HOUSE OF COMMONS.
Constituf^ncies.
Members.
Politics. 1
ll.
i
a
.0
3
i
1
s
0
0
1
3
ee
1
"S
I
ANTRIM (8).
Coicnty Divisions (4).
Eastern
lEELAND.
Captain J. Mc.Cahnont
The Hon. R. Torrens O'Neill
C. C. Connor
W. G. E. Macartney
G. W. WolfE
..
1
1
1
1
••
••
52,032
50.027
51,090
51,887
Mid
Northern
Southern
Boroughs (4).
Belfast, East
„ North
South
„ West
ARMAGH (8).
County Divisions (5).
Mid
Northern
Southern
4
1
1
I
7
i'
1
"
205,036
85,661
67,585
58,508
61,360
Sir Edward Harland
W. Johnston
Arnold Forster
D Plunket Barton, Q.C. . .
478,150
1
1
2
••
i
1
••
45.264
49,157
43,219
Colonel Saunderson
E. M'Hugh
—
CARLO W (1).
County Division (i).
137,640
r
1
1 1 ..
40,936
CAVAN (2).
County Divisions (2).
S Young
1
1
1 ..
1 ..
64,402
67,616
E F V, Knox
CLARE (2).
County Divisions (2)
W Redmond
.. ..
••
• •
2 , ..
111,917
1
1
61,196
63,287
Western
•
■••
~
.. 2
1
124,483
584
HOUSE OF COMMONS.
Constitnencies.
Members.
Politics.
.14
O
1
>
e
o
o
e
3
n
"S
CORK (9).
County Divisions (7).
Eastern
Captain Donnilan
Doctor C. Tanner
J. C. Flynn
Dr. Commins
1
"
49,7' 0
49,462
49,248
49,873
47.215
47,030
48,623
Mid
.. 1
.. 1
Northern
North-Eastern
. .| - -
..1 ..
1
1
Edward Barry
W. Abraham
••
••
South-Eastern
Western
1
1
J. Gilhooly
Boroughs (2). '
Cork (2) 1
DONEGAL (4).
County Divisions (4).
Eastern
William O'Brien
Maurice Healy
Arthur O'Connor
J. Main's
••
• •
7
1
1
" "
341,151
j- 97,281
9
• •
438,432
..
, ,
..
1
1
1
1
..
45,417
46,248
46,624
47,346
Northern
Southern
J. G. S. MacNeill . .
T. .D. Sullivan
••
••
DOWN (5).
County Divisions (4).
Eastern
Northern
J. A. Rentoul
Colonel Waring
M. M'Cartan
Rt. Hon. Lord Arthur Hill.
P. G. Carvill
••
1
1
i
3
••
4
185,635
i
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
52,274
54,179
51,662
50,890
208,995
13,691
222,686
Southern
Western
Borough (J).
Newry
DUBLIN (6).
County Divisions (2).
Northern
J. J Clancy
••
3
••
76,009
74,491
Southern
Hon. Horace Plunkett i
—
1
1
••
—
Boroughs (4).
Dublin, College Green.
,, Dublin Harbour
„ St. Patrick's . .
„ St.Stphn'sGr'n
Dr J. E. Kenny
•
149,500
67,923
71,630
64,611
66,652
T. Harrington
William Field
W. Kenny, Q.C
1
1
••
1
1
••
••
4
419,216
585
HOUSE OF COMMONS.
Constitaencies.
Mpmbers.
Politica.
IS.
1
i3
•4
■■g
1
2
1
"S
•A
5
e
FERMANAGH. (2)
County Divisions (2).
Northern
Southern
Richard M. Dane
J. Magittigan
, ,
1
i'
37,799
36,371
••
1
1
• •
74,170
GALWAY (5).
County Divisions (4).
Connemara
P. J. Foley
1 '
1
1
1
50,508
Eastern
J. Roche
..| ..
Northern
Colonel Nolan
i ' 51,*924
. . : 46,243
Southern
Borough (1).
Galway
KERRY (4).
County Divisions {4).
Eastern
Northern
Southern
Western
KILDARE (2).
County Divisions (2).
Northern
Southern
J. D. Sheehy
::- :;i ::
1
J. Pinkerton
.j .J .,
3
1
1 197,753
. . i 16,959
J. D. Sheehan
—
.. ..
4
1
214,712
..i ..i ..i ..
1
1
44,437
43 417
T. Sexton
D Kilbride
1 ..' 4i>'.^ftftl
Sir G. T. Esmonde
P. J. Kennedy
M. J Minch
I ' 1
1
.. 45,694
..; .. ..! ..
4
..1 179,136
j
..
1
1
32,925
37,281
KILKENNY (3).
County Divisions (2).
Northern
Southern
Borough (J).
Kilkenny
P. M'Dermott
..'
2
••
70,206
1
1
35,645
37,894
P. A Chance
T. B. Curran
2
1
••
73,589
13,722
KING'S COUNTY (2)
County Divisions (2).
Birr
B. C. MoUoy
1
..1 ..
8
••
87,261
i
1
1
••
83.992
81,571
Tullamore
Dr. J. F. Fox
..i ..
..1 ..
1
.. ..
2
••
65,568
586
HOUSE OF COMMONS.
Constitaeocies.
Members.
PoUUon.
1
5
2'^
1 L-
LEITRIM (2).
County Divisions {2).
North
P. A. M'Hugh
1
1
1 i ..
1 i ..
39.235
39,383
South
J Tully
LIMERICK (3).
County Divisions (2).
Eastern
J. Finucane
..
• •
1
2
••
78,618
'
1
55,912
56,865
Western
W. Austm
1 ..
Borough (1).
liimerick
F. A. O'Keefe
i
2
1
••
112,777
46,135
LONDONDERRY (3).
County Divisions (2).
Northern
H. L. Mulholland
Sir T. Lea
1
1
"1 "
3
158,912
1
I
59.824
58,985
Southern
1
"i
Borough (i).
Londonderry
LONGFORD (2).
County Divisions (2).
Northern
John Ross, Q.C
Justin McCarthy
Hon. E. Blake
Timothy Healy
..i ..
1
1
1
i
118,809
33,200
2
1
.. .. 152,009
••
••
!
1 ..
1
26,735
25.912
Southern
LOUTH (2).
County Divisions {2).
; Northern ...
Southern
|MAYO (4).
1 County Divisions {4).
Eastern
1 Northern
2
1
. . 52,647
1
1
••
37,571
33,467
D. Ambrose
. . 1 . .
John Dillon
• •
. . 1 . .
2 ..
71,038
!
i
1
1
1
1
1
••
52,454
53,662
55,987
56,931
D Crilly
..I ..
' Southern
J. F. X. O'Brien
Dr. Robert Ambrose
••
••
••
' Western
1
••
••
4
219,034
587
HOUSE OP COMMONS.
CoDBtituencies.
Members.
Politic*. 1
1 =
as?
i
3
1
:3
s
>
1
q
a
C3
i
1
1
MEATH (2).
Cozmty Divisions (2).
Mr. Gibney
1
1
88,854
88,133
MONAGHAN (2).
County Divisions (2).
Charles Diamond
F O'Driscoll
—
—
••
••
2
••
76 987
, ,
, ,
1
1
43,536
42,670
QUEEN'S CO'NTY (2).
County Divisions (2).
M. A. MacDonell
E Crean
• •
2
••
86 206
..
, ,
1
1
32,060
32,823
ROSCOMMON (2).
County Divisions (2).
M Bodkin
• •
• •
••
2
64,883
1
i'
56,706
57,691
L P Hayden
SLIGO (2).
County Divisions (2).
B Collery
• •
••
1
1
114,397
1
1
48,686
49.327
TIPPER ARY (4).
County Divisions (4).
Eastern
Mid
T T Hnnflnn
••
• •
2
98,013
1
1
1
1
44,738
43,900
43,42-5
Mr. Hogan
P J O'Brien
F Mandeville
,,
..' 41,125
TYRONE (4).
County Divisions (4).
Eastern
W. J. Reynolds
M J. Kenny
• •
••
••
• •
4
••
178,188
••
••
• •
1
1
••
44,760
43,104
42.403
40,834
Mid
Northern
Lord F. Hamilton
T. W. RusseU
• •
..
1
i'
• •
••
1
1
2
. . 171,401
588
HOUSE OF COMMONS.
CoDstitoenoies. Members.
Politics.
Its
2
1
•J
1
g
2
XI
1
S
1
WATERFORD (3).
County Divisions (2).
Eastern
P. J. Power
1
1
33,347
37,191
Western
Alfred Webb
Borough (i).
Waterford
WESTMEATH (2).
County Divisions (2).
Northern
Southern
J. E. Redmond .
2
i
70,538
27,713
— ■
—
2
1
98,251
J. Tuite
D. Sullivan
33,735
31,374
WEXFORD (2)
—
—
65,109
County Divisions (2).
Northern Thomas Healv
I
i
55,357
56,421
Southern
Peter Ffrench . . .
',
—
—
WICKLOW (2).
County Divisions (2).
Fiastem . . . ,
•T- Swp.etman
111,778
!
31,382
30,754
Western James O'Connor . . - -
UNIVERSITIES.
Dublin University (2) ■
Rt. Hon. D. R. Plnnkett , .
E. Carson, Q.C
2
62,136
1
1
••
2
. The General Election of 1892, with cc
Liberal gain was 52, or equal to 104 on a c
of 38, as shown below : —
At Dissolution, June, 1892.
Conservatives 302) oaa-Mi^i^t^^^^Mct^
Lib. Unionists 66 J = ^^ Mmistenalists.
rrections to Deceml
[ivision, giving Mr. G
General El
With Corrections t
Liberals
Irish Nat.ionaliRtR
er, sho
ladston
ECTION,
o Dece
ws that the
B a majority
1892,
mber, 1893.
273)
72 I - 3.54
Liberals 216 )
Nationalists . . 86 j"
Ministerialist Majority
302 Opposition.
66
Pamelli
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690
THE GENEEAL
Return of Charges made to Candidates at the General
[both exclusive and inclusive of Returning Officers' Charges) in
GRAND
Number of
Polling
Districts and
Stations.
England
and Wales.
Scotland
Ireland . . . .
Total
Districts.
7,177
711
748
8,636
Number
of
Polling
Booths
I held in
I School-
Stations, rooms.
9,872
1,303
1,479
7,889
1,049
385
12,654 9,323
Returning Officers' Charges.
Cost of
Polling Booths.
4.
£ 8. d.
30,248 6 7i
2,001 1 0
4,725 7 1
Cost of Dies,
Ballot Papers,
Boxes, Advertising,
Placards,
Stationery, &c.
£ s. d.
25,136 18 7i
2,690 14 3i
5,607 16 1
36,974 14 8J 33,435 9 0
England
& Wales
Scotland
Ireland
Total .
Total Expenses of Candidates, exclusive op Returning
Officers' Charges.
Agents.
11.
I Clerks
and
I Messengers.
i 12.
£ s. d.i £ s. d
152,331 17 2;86,216 4 2J
32,637 16 4|l0,986 19 7J
7,883 9 1| 1,774 6 5
192,853 2 798,977 10 3
Printing,
Advertising,
Stationery,
Postage,
and
Telegrams.
13.
£ s. d.
269,445 19 8
32,120 19 4
8,790 16 7J
310,357 15 7i
Public
Meetings.
14.
£ s. d
16,644 1 5
2,769 9 11
192 14 8
19,606 6 0
Committee
Rooms.
15.
£ s. d.
26,526 15 8^
2,534 19 3
626 11 10
29,688 6 9^
Number of Electors
on Register :
England and Wales 4,809,237
Scotland 604,898
Ireland 743,888
Maximum Scale allowed by Corrupt
Practices Act, 1883 :
England and Wales £864,190
Scotland 129,460
Ireland 135,780
Total 6,158,023
Total £1,129,430
'Note.— The Averages in Column 21 have been calculated from the Totals of
591
ELECTION, 1892.
Election, in 1892, specifying the Total Expenses of Candidates
England and Wales, Scotland, and Ireland.
SUMMARY.
Returning Officers' Charges.
Cost of Presiding
Officers,
Clerks, Counting
Clerks, &c.
£ s. d.
66,402 7 2
10,629 1 5
9,686 6 4
86,717 14 11
Fee charged by
Returning
Officer or his
Official.
£ s. d.
19,256 9 2
1,306 14 7
2,610 13 0
23,173 16 9
All other
Charges of
the Returning
Officer.
£ s. d.
14,131 2 llj
1228 4 8i
3,818 17 10
Total.
Total
Returning
Officers'
Charges as
Paid, whether
reduced by
Taxation
or otherwise.
10.
£ 8.
155,175 4
17,856 16
28,260 1
d.!
0
154,165 14 7i
17,855 16 0
5 I 25,520 12 0
19,178 5 6 201,291 1 llj 197,542 2 7^
Total Expenses of Candidates, exclusive
OF Returning Officers' Charges.
Miscellaneous
Matters.
16
£ s. d.
50,981 9 OJ
6,761 19 3J
2,818 16 ^
Personal Total
Expenses. Expenses.
17.
18.
£ s. d. : £ 8. d.
40,326 5 7J I 642,422 12 10
6,093 2 5^ ' 93,905 6 2J
2,995 11 11 j 24,730 2 Oi
60,012 3 7J 49,415 0 OJ j 761,058 1 1 958,582 0 IJ 4,605,442 |*4 1
Total Expense , Number
of Candidates, of
inclusive of Votes
Returning
Officers' Charges
Paid.
19.
£ 8. d.
796,688 7 5^
111,761 2 2}
50,182 10 5i
Polled by
Candidates
20.
8,725,856
476,180
404,457
00 .S
Co
21.
s. d.
>4 2
•4 8
•2 8}
Members :
England and Wales 495
Scotland 72
Ireland 103
Grand Total 670
Candidates :
England and Wales 958
Scotland 161
Ireland 198
Grand Total 1,307
Columns 19 and 20, exclusive oi expenses incurred in uncontested coustilucncies.
592
PARLIAMENTS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM.
Assembled, i Dissolved.
Duration.
William IV.
Jftn. 29, 1833
Feb. 19, 1835
Victoria.
Nov. 15, 1837
Aug. 19,1841
Nov. 18, 1847
Nov. 4, 1852
April 30, 1857
May 31, 1859
Feb. 1, 1866
Dec. 10, 1863
Mar. 5, 1874
April 29, 1880
Jan. 12, 1886
Auk. 5, 1886
Aug. 4, 1892
lYrs.m. d.
Dec. 80, 1834 | 1 11 1
July 17, 1837 I 2 4 28
June 23,
July 23
July 1,
Mar. 21,
April 23,
July 6,
Nov. 11,
Jan. 26,
Mar. 25,
Nov. 18,
June 25,
June 28,
1841
1847
185ii
1857
1859
1865
1868
1874
1880
lfc85
1886
1892
7 8
11 4
7 13
4 17
11 23
1 6
9 10
1 16
0 20
6 211
5 6
10 21
* Parliament first met after the Union with Ireland, Jan. 22, 1801.
LIST OF ADMINISTRATIONS IN THE PRESENT CENTURY.
Prime Minister. Dnration. Ch mcellor. Excheqaer. I Home Secretary. Foreign Sec
Dec. 23,
Mar. 17
May 15
Feb. 11
Mar. 31
Dec. 2,
June 9,
Apr. 24,
Sept. 5,
Jan. 25
Nov. 22.
July 18,
Dec. 26,
Apr. 18,
Sept. 6,
July 6,
Feb. 27
Dec. 28
Feb. 10,
Feb. 25
Junel8,
Nov. 6
July 6
Feb. 27
Dec. 9
Feb. 21
Apr. 28
June24,
Feb. 7
July 24,
Aug. 15
1783
1801
18*^
1806
1807
1809
1812
1827
1827
1828
1830
1834
1834
183c
1841
1846
1852
1852
1855
1858
1859
1865
1866
186H
1868
1874
1880
18H5
1886
1886
1892
William Pitt ....
Hy. Addington . .
William Pitt
Lord Grenville. .
Duke of Portland
Silencer Perceval
Earl of Liverjiool
George Canning.
Visct. Goderich..
D. of Wellington.
Earl Grey
Yrs
17.
•84
3 59
Visct. Me bourne
Sir Robert Peel .
Visct. Melbourne
Sir Robert Peel..
Ld. John Russell
Earl of Derby . .
Earl of Aberdeen
Lord Palmeraton
Earl of Derby
Lord Palmerston
Bar] Russell .
Enrl of Derby
Benjmn. Disra li
W. E. Gladstone.
Benjamin Dierieli )
Earl BeaC'jnsfleld. /
W. E. Gladstone.
Mrq. of Salisbur>
W. E. Giadst ne.
Mrq. of Salisbury
W. E. Gladstone.
272
48
246
190
319
134
142
301
238
161
113
141
803
236
3i.'5
44
15
113
141
242
236
28)
74
67
57
227
139
17
(Tlurlow. .
1 1.outihboro'
Eldon
Eldon.
Erskiue.. .
Eldon
Eldon
Eldon
Lyndhurst
Lyndhurst
Lyndliurst .
Brougham .
Brougham .
Lyiioliurst .
I lu Comm. . .
) Cottfnli im .
Lyu'lhurst .
( Cotteiiham .
t Truro
St.Leonards
Cranworth .
Cranworth .
Chelmsford.
( Campbell
I Wes'burv .
Cranworth .
' ihelmsford.
C<imi
( Hathetley .
tSelbirne ..
Cairns
Selborne . .
Halsbury . .
Herschel ..
Halsbury . .
Herschel . .
WilUam Pitt.
H. Addington.
Willi ,m Pitt.
Lord H. Petty
S. Perceval . .
S. Perceval . .
/N.Vans ttart..
{ F. J. Robinson
i. Canning . .
J. C. Herries..
H. Goulburn..
Althorp j
Althorp
Sir R. Peel . . ,
r. 8. Kice
F. T. Lairing . .
H. Goulburn..!
Sir C.Wood..'
B. Disraeli . .
W. Gladstone.
( W. Gladstope. .
t Sir Q. C. Lewis
B. Disraeli . . '
W. Gladstone.
W. Gladstone.
B.Disraeli ..
G. W. Hunt . .
( Kobert Lowe.,
t W.Gladstone..
S. Nortncote. .
(W. Glaistone..
tH.C.E.ChUders
Hicks-Beach .
W. Harcourt. .;
(Lrd. Churchill.'
( G. J. Goschen
W. Harcourt.
Portland
Portland, Pelham.
C. Yorke.
Hawkesbury . .
Spencer
Hawkesbury . .
R. Rvder
Grenville.
Hawkesbury.
fHarrnwby.
I Mnlgrave.
/ Cha les J. Fox.
IVisct. Howick.
G. Canning.
f Bathuret.
I Wellesley.
Robert Peel G. Canning.
/ Sturges Bourne .. rv ^ J
(Laosdowne ....i*^"''^®''
Lansdowne
RobeitPeel
Melbourne ....
Duncannon ....
H. Goulburn . .
Lord J. RusdcU.. )
Normariby /
Sir J. Graham. .
Sir George Grey
S. H. Walpole . .
Palmerston
Sir George Grey
S. H. Walpole . .
f Sir G. C. Lewis. .
\ Sir George Grey.
Sir Geiirge Grey
(8 H. Walpole ..
t Gathorns Hardy.
G Hardy
(H. A. Brace ....
1 Robert Lowe....
R. A. Cross ....
Sir W. Harcourt
R. A. Cross ....
H.C.E.Childers
H. Matthews . .
!H. H. Asquith..
Dudley.
I Dudley.
1 Aberdeen.
Palmerston.
Palmerston.
WelliuBton.
Palmerston.
Aberdeen.
(Palmerston.
I Granville.
Malme«bory.
/Lord J. Rnssell.
( Clarendon.
Clarendon,
Malmesbury.
Russell.
Clarendon,
Stanley.
Stanley.
I 'larendon.
1 Granville,
r Derbv.
t Salisbury.
Granville.
Salisbury.
Rosebery.
riddesieigti.
(Salisbury.
Rosebery.
593
PEESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES OF
AMEEICA.
TKAB.
Declaration of Independe'>ice 4th July, 1776
General Washington first President 1789 and 1793
John Adams I797
Thomas Jefferson 1801 and 1805
James Madison 1809 and 1813
James Monroe 1817 and 1821
John Quincy Adams 1825
Gen. Andrew Jackson 1829 and 1833
Martin Van Buren 1837
Gen. William Henry Harrison (died 4th April) 1841
John Tyler (previously Vice-President) 1841
James Knox Polk 1845
General Zachary Taylor (died 9th July, 1850) 1849
Millard Fillmore (previously Vice-President) 1850
General Franklin Pierce 1853
James Buchanan 1857
Abraham Lincoln (assassinated 14th April, 1865) 1861 and 1865
Andrew Johnson (previously Vice-President) 1865
General Ulysses S. Grant 1869 and 1873
Rutherford Richard Hayes, after long contest with Tilden 1877
General Garfield (shot July 2 ; died September 19) 1881
Chester A. Arthur, Vice-President, succeeded September 20 1881
Grover Cleveland 1885
General Benjamin Harrison 1889
Grover Cleveland 1893
The United States of America form a Federal Republic, consisting of 38
partially independent States, divisible as follows : — 6 Eastern, or New England,
4 Middle, 10 Southern, 18 Western ; and 1 Federal district, and 8 organised
Territories, the centre of North America.
The area in English square miles is estimated at 6,034,469, or 1,942,053,760
acres, exclusive of the vast district of Alaska, comprising 369,629,600 acres.
One-fourth only is civilised.
The estimated population of the whole of the Territories, including the States,
according to the Census of 1890, was 62.622,250, every country under Heaven
being represented. The increase in the ten years 1880-1890 was 12,466,467.
yy
594
O^ CD
08
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596
THE INDIAN
AREA AND
POPULATION OF BRITISH TERRITORY, REVENUE 1
Note
. — The figures are approximate, and
in all the columns except the first '
(From Official Sotirces.)
F(yi- explanation
Years.
Area in Square
Miles, a
Population, b
Revenue.
Land '
Revenue, c
O
09
Public
Works, e
Total.
J
1846-7....
' 694,000
14-53
3-68
5-75
—
1-30
25-26 '
1847-8....
699,000
15-00
2-73
5-75
—
1-19
24-67
1848-9....
771,000
14-83
3-91
5-31
—
1-18
25-23
1849-50 ..
772,000
15-79
4-50
5-85
—
1-27
27-41
1850-1....
1851-2....
1 776,000
154-79
16-27
16-24
3-79
4-26
5-72
5-77
—
1-77
1-56
27-55
27-83
1852-3....
802 000
16-19
509
5-82
—
1-51
28-61
1853-4....
828,000
16-07
4-78
5-75
—
1-53
28-13
1854-5....
832,000
16-51
4-71
6 42
—
1-49
2918
1855-6....
17-11
5-20
6-81
—
1-70
30-82
1856-7fe ..
17-91
5-01
6-86
-92
2-68
3338
1857-8....
15-32
6-86
6-19
-48
2-86
81-71 1
1858-9....
18-12
6-15
7 79
-65
3-35
8606
1
1859-60 ..
1 856,000
18-76
5-89
9-62
■72
4-72
89-71 '
1860-1 ....
179-13
18-51
6-68
12-66
-85
420
42 90
1861-2....
19-69
6-36
13 43
•59
3-76
43-83
1862-3....
19-67
8-06
13-55
-44
3-52
45-14
1863-4.,..
20-61C
6-83
12-70
-46
4-01
44-61
1864-5....
20-44
7-36
13-30
•59
3-96
45-65
1865-6....
20-84
8-52
12-56
-92
610
48-94 1
1866-7i ..
19-45
6-80
11-32
-54
401
4212
1867-8....
20-32
8-92
13-38
-56
5-35
48-53
1868-9....
20-34
8-45
13-38
•55
6-54
49-26 i
1869-70 ..
21-56
7-95
14-06
96
6 37
50-90
1870-1 ....
190-56
21-08
8-04
15-67
-92
570
51-41
1871-2....
21-02
9-26
14-21
-83
4 79
5011
1872-3....
860,000
21-37
8-69
16-25
3-90
6-34
56-55 i
1873-4....
21-06
8-32
15-65
4-76
6-62
56-41
1874-5....
21-33
8-56
15-91
5 32
6-89
68-01 1
1875-6....
21-54
8-47
16-26
5-64
7-05
58-96 1
597
CENSUS, 1891-2.
AND EXPENDITURE, and SURPLUS or DEFICIT, for 46 YEARS.
are given in millions and decimals of millions. The values are in Tens of Rupees.
of references see foot of pages 598 and 599.
EXPEN
DITURE.
CO '
'S
G
° a
S.2
Civil Admin-
istration, g
1
s
a
I— I
>>
<
Public
Works, h
Famine.
Mis-
cellaneous, i
-«!
H
O
EH
5-65
5-45
2-75
11-98
-26 —
•00
26-09
—
•83
6-20
5-87
2-89
11-19
-36! -
—
26-51
—
1-84
606
5-72
3-04
11-27
•40 —
•11
26-60
_ i
1-37
606
6-00
3-04
11-.39
-35 i —
•01
26-86
•66
—
6-22
6-18
3-24
10-83
-46 —
•00
26-93
•62 1
—
6-.36
6-19
3-13
10-81
•61 —
—
27-10
•73
—
6-56
6-48
3-30
1109
•55 —
—
27-98
•63
—
6-72
6-90
3-47
12-10
•90
—
—
30-09
—
1^96
7-39
7-08
2-92
11-62
1-94
—
—
:30-95
—
1^82
7-20
7-21
3-07
11-95
2-43
—
—
31-86
—
1-04
6-87
5-88
2-94
12-78
4-34
—
1^04
33-85
-47
6-38
8-76
2-98
18-40
305
—
—
39-57
7-86
6-50
9-91
3-78
25-16
4-29
-
—
49-64
-
13-58
6-68
10-09
4-61
23-50
5-17
—
•43
50-48
—
10-77
7-63
9-89
4-99
18-57
5-37
—
•47
46-92
—
4-02
8-11
7-10
5-19
16-19
6-17
—
1^12
43-88
—
•05
, 8-49
7-39
5-47
14-89
5-97
—
1-11
43.32
1^82
—
8-97
7-72
5-10
14-55
7-05
—
1-14
44-53
•08
—
8-98
7-81
5-11
15-77
6-72
—
1-45
45-84
—
-19
8-45
8-67
5-21
16-76
5-13
—
1^95
46-17
2-77
—
7-64
8-35
4-89
15-82
6-13
—
1-81
44-64
—
2-62
8-95
9-22
5-74
! 16-10
7-42
—
2-11
49-54
—
101
9-25
9-99
5-65
16-27
8-28
—
2-59
52-03
1 —
2-77
9-23
10-31
5-61
16-33
; 6-89
—
2-41
50-78
! -12
—
9-27
9-86
5-84
16-07
1 6^05
£•84
49-93
1^48
—
8-52
10-12
5-97
15-68
4-31
1
—
2.39
46-99
312
—
7-34
9-57
5-86
16-50
! 10-33
—
6-18
54-78
1^77
—
7-50
9-78
5-.38
15-23
11-25
3^86
622
58-22
—
1-81
7-81
10-05
4-84
15-38
11-53
1 2^24
i 6^84
i 67-69
•32
—
7 87
10-32
j 4-83
15-70
12*57 -60
548
1 57-37
1-69
—
598
THE INDIAN
AREA AND POPULATION op BRITISH TERRITORY, REVENUE
Note. — The figures are approximate, and in all the columns except the first
i
<
Population, b
Revenue.
Land
Revenue, c
&
i
^
Years.
Public
Works, e
Other
Receipts. /
1876-7....
19-89
9-12
16-09
6 61
6 94
58-65
1877-8....
20-04
9-18
16-89
8-66
7-20 :
61-97
1878-9....
22-32
9-40
18-54
7 66
7-27 '
65-19
1879-80 ..
21-86
0-32
19-15
9-37
7 73 ,
68-43
1880-1....
198-79
21-11
10-48
1938
11-60
1172 i
7429
1881-2....
21-94
19-36
19-98
12-95
11-45 •
75-68
1882-3....
21-87
9-50
17-66
1305
8-19 1
70-27
1883-4....
868,256
22-36
9 56
17 73
14-12
8 07 '
71-84
1884-5....
21-83
8 82
18-45
14 19
7-40 ;
70 69
1885-6....
■ 22-59
8 94
18-72
15 88
8-33 1
74-46
1886-7 . . . .
947,887
23-06
8-^4
20-38
16-86
8-10 ,
77-34
1887-8....
23-19
8-51
20-90
16 84
9 32
78-76
1888-9....
23-02
8-56
22-22
1802
9-88 j
81-70
1889-90 ..
23-91
8-58
23-68
18 24
10-67 1
85-08
1890-1 . . . .
24-04
7-88
24-39
20-05
9-38
85-74
1891-2....
for 46 yea
221,173
rs
23-96
8-01
24-87
22-84
9-36
89-14
Total
914-37
336-99
632-73
257-54
254-33
2,398 06
a Excluding Berar and Mysore.
b The first census of all British India was taken in 1871. For the population
figures of 1861 and 1851 an approximate figure, on the basis of the 1871 census, has
been entered, to attain which deduction has been made for the population of recently
acquired territory and for an annual increment to the population.
c Including for the years previous to 1864-5, the receipts from recently acquired
territory not separately classified ; after 1862-3 Forest Receipts are also included.
From 1877-8 the portion of Land Revenue due to Irrigation is excluded from this
head and shown under Public Works.
d Excise, Assessed, Provincial Rates, Customs, Salt, and Stamps. Local Funds
were incorporated in the General Accounts in 1878-9 and caused an addition of
over £2,000,000 to this head, the amount being balanced by sums entered under
various heads on the expenditure side.
e Including from 1876-7 Guaranteed Railway Traffic Receipts, and from 1877-8
the portion of Land Revenue due to Irrigation.
599
CENSUS, 1891-2.
AND EXPENDITURE, and SURPLUS or DEFICIT, for 46 YEARS.-co»i.
are given in millions and decimals of millions. The values are in Tens of Rupees.
Expenditure.
^«8
a 5h
1
1-
•^
^^
1
Charges o
Collection
1
Civil Admi
istration.
a;
2
S
a
<
Public
Works, h
Mis-
cellaneous.
00
S
S
02
4^
'S
1
8-40
10-61
5-05
16-46
12-86
2-14
6-72
61-24
'
2-59
8-32
10-46
5-15
17-30
13-50
5-34
617
66-24
—
4-27
7-47
10-46
5-40
17-94
14-67
-31
6-81
6306
2-13
7-86
10-46
5-39
22-58
16-62
-10
6-75
69-66
—
1-23
8-05
10-67
4-63
28-93
19-19
-03
6-42
77-92
—
3-63
8-22
11-13
4-85
19-69
18-78
1-57
7-84
72-08
3-60 —
8-49
11-04
4-77
18-36
20-31
1-50
6-13
69-60
•67 —
8-49
11-36
4-52
18-12
20-06
1-62
5-89
. 69-96
1-88
9-56
11-74
4-62
16-96
20-47
1-55
6-18
71-08
—
0-89
9 80
12-24
4-33
20-10
21-84
1-50
7-46
77-27
—
2-81
9-75
12-70
4-31
19-52
23-36
-31
7-21
77-16
•18
—
9 44
12-91
5-44
20-42
24-65
-09
7-84
80-79
—
2-03
9-74
13-01
4-71
20-30
25-71
-08
8-11
81-66
•04
—
8-91
13-23
4-24
20-68
26-53
-60
8-28
82-47
2-61
—
9-58
13-38
4-19
20-69
2C-39
-60
7-47
82-25
8-49
—
9-55
13-85
4-31
22-28
30-13
1-27
7-28
88-67
•47
—
366-44
1
433-12
206-75
769-21
481-26
25-21
156-26
2,438-24
30-68
70-86
Net deficit 40- 18
/ Forest, Registration, Tributes, Interest, Post Office
Telegraph
, Mint, Receipts
by Civil and Military Departments, and Miscellaneous.
g Including INIinor Departments. Law and Justice, ]
Police, Ma
•ine Education,
&c. From 1870-1 to 1875-6 Allotments to Provincial F
>ervices arc
! included. '
h Previous to 1876-7 the figures include Guaranteed P
railway lut
erest less Traffic
Receipts; from 1876-7 tbe gross payments for Guan
mteed Rai
Iwav Interest is
included.
i Including Post Office, Telegraph, Mint, Miscellau<
30US Civil (
Charges, Special
Defence Works, and Provincial Adjustments.
k A change in the mode of preparing the account
s having I
>eeu effected in
1856-7, the figures are given in the corrected form.
I The period of the financial year having been alterec
I, the figur
Bs for 188&-7 are
for eleven months only.
600
Q
55
O
(H
H
. *
CO CO
^ %
Q S
<1 "
<3
a
§ I
HH 00
S5 9
< ^
Q ^
<
QQ
«
OB O
o
«
fin
o
o
DC ^
5g
g « o
li-2
IS
£^
•>B«Oi«0»-l05C~i-IU5aDOCC»-i-l3SU5t»t--^(
« N 00 i> o t> o « ■<i>_^oo CO .-H 00 » «a OS eo efl_(
oaooo--'*aoo»o*>'-<i<"o5(3re<5oc<rooco(
oii-HiMeoopcooco — ccoC5i>»«D»aco-*ta(
c^Tjt'^QO-^05«050ooooo»0'-'e«90it~«oo5-
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00 C- U5
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us ">• o> —
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C *3
,H->*(US-*USOUSOU5f~O>-IOOOC0tCQ0Q0
— COCSUSUSCSlMOCSCCtOeOOlOOt^-^tOOO
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oust^co-^oTusc'odoorH co-«»t"oo CO-^C(S"uS
•^t-OOOseQCOOC tOCO-^OS— Q0C-C00Cj-«1<5OC0
t>^50ao-^usofc<fe<r.«irc,5'.^cJ"«5co5<;u^tr^u5^
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a
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■si 2
s « s
B«2
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t. £ -
a e g
S5^o
CO«C5-*COC<>-^t^eOC>»-<j<tOiO00-^«OtOUS-- SS
i-H — t- to C- O O OD O to to CO rH CO o: i-H OS t^ O bq
to CO CO to .— to OS OS 00 to Qo -^ to us us o -^ 00 to ;g H
! H
■^UStOt-QOOSOi-HCJCO-^uStOC-OOOSO'^IM
t-c-c^r-t-t-oooooDooaoaoaoooooooososos
oooDooooooaDaoooooooacooooooaoaoooooao
601
STAMPS, TAXES, EXCISE DUTIES, &c.
STAMP DUTIES.
£ s. d.
Affidavit, or Statutory Declaration, except declaration forming part of
an application for a patent .... q 2 6
Agreement, or Memorandum of Agreement, underhand only, not other-
wise charged 0 0 6
Appraisement, or Valuation of any estate or effects where the amount
of the appraisement shall not exceed £5 0 0 3
Not exceeding £10 0 0 6 Not exceeding £50 0 2 6
20 0 1 0 ^^ 100 0 6 0
» 30 0 16 „ 200 0 10 0
40 0 2 0 ,, 500 0 15 0
Exceeding £500 1 Q Q
Apprenticeship Indentures — On each instrument 0 2 6
[By the Customs and Inland Revenue Act, 1890, there is no longer
an ad valorem stamp duty upon an instrument of apprenticeship
where there is a premium or consideration.]
Armorial Bearings 1 1 Q
If used on any carriage .. 2 2 0
Bankers' Notes payable on demand and re-issuable — Not above £1 . . 0 0 5
Not above £2 0 0 10
Not exceeding £100 0 8 6
Bills of Exchange and Promissory Notes, of any kind whatsoever
except bank notes — Not exceeding £5 0 0 1
Exceeding £5 and not exceeding £10 0 0 2
10 „ 25 0 0 3
25 „ 50 0 0 6
50 „ 75 0 0 9
75 „ 100 0 10
Every £100, and also for any fractional part of £100, of such amount 0 10
By Stamp Act of 1850 (33 and 84 Vict., c. 97), the distinction between
inland and foreign bills of exchange was abolished.
Bill of Lading 0 0 6
Certificate — Of goods, Ac, being duly entered inwards 0 4 0
Of birth, marriage, or death (certified copy of) 0 1 0
Draft, or Order, or Letter of Credit, for payment of any sum to bearer
or order, on demand 0 0 1
Charter Party 0 0 6
Passport 0 0 6
602
STAMPS, TAXES, EXCISE DUTIES, ETC.
TRANSFERS.
Where the amount or value of the consideration for the sale does not £ s.
exceed £5 0 0
Exceeds £5
10
15
20
25
60
75
100
and does not £ s. d.
exceed £10 0 I 0
15 0 1 6
20 0 2 0
25 0 2 6
50 0 5 0
75 0 7 6
100 0 10 0
125 0 12 6
and does not
Exceeds £125 exceed£150 0 15 0
„ 175 0 17 6
150
175
200
225
250
275
300
200
225
250
275
300
0 0
2 6
0
6
1
1
1 5
1 7
1 10 0
For every £50, and also for any fractional part of £50, of such amount
or value 0 5 0
Conveyance or Transfer of any kind not described as above 0 10 0
Mabriage License, special, England and Ireland 5 0 0
,, not special 0 10 0
Medicine Vendors, Great Britain 0 5 0
[A separate license is required for each place where sold.]
PATENT LAWS OF GREAT BRITAIN.
PATENTS, DESIGNS, AND TRADE MARKS ACT, 1883.
(46 and 47 Vict., Ch. 57.)
Any person, whether a British subject or not, may make application for a
Patent. Two or more persons may make a joint application, and a Patent may
be granted to them jointly.
GOVERNMENT FEES.
Fees on instruments for obtaining Patents and Kenewals : —
(a) Up to Sealing —
On application for provisional protection £1 0 0
On filing complete specification 3 0 0£4 0 0
On filing complete specification with first application £4 0 0
(b) Further before end of four years from the date of Patent —
On certificate of renewal (optional) 50 0 0
(c) Further before end of seven years, or in the case of Patents
granted after the commencement of this Act, before the end
of eight years from date of Patent —
On certificate of renewal (optional) 50 0 0
Or in lieu of the two fees of £50 each, the following annual fees : -
Before the expiration of —
4th year from date of Patent 5
5th
6th
7th
8th
9th
lOth
11th
12th
13th
5
0
0
6
0
0
7
0
0
8
0
0
9
0
0
10
0
0
11
0
0
12
0
0
13
0
0
14
0
0
603
STAMPS, TAXES, EXCISE DUTIES, ETC.
HOUSE DUTY.
On inhabited houses hitherto paying at the rate of 6d. for every 20s. of
the anmial value : —
If annual rent does not exceed £40 the rate is reduced to 0
If annual rent is £40 to £60 0
On inhabited houses hithe7-to paying at the rate of 9d. : —
If annual rent does not exceed £40 ... 0
If annual rent is £40 to £60 0
INCOME TAX.
Incomes of £150 per annum (Schedules A C D and E) and upwards are
taxed at the rate of 7d. in the £. Farmers in England (Schedule B),
3d. in the £ ; in Scotland and Ireland, 2Jd. in the £.
Exemption and Abatement. — Incomes less than £150 a year are exempt.
On incomes amounting to £150 a year and less than £400 a year there
is an abatement upon £120 of assessed income.
AWARDS.
Where the amount or value of the matter in dispute shall not
exceed £5
Not exceeding £10 0
20
30
4)
50
100
200
500
0
2
0
4
0
8
0
6
0 0
3
0 0
6
0 1
0
0 1
6
0 2
0
0 2
6
0 6
0
0 10
0
0 15
0
SERVANTS.
For every male servant, without distinction of age 0 15 0
VARIOUS LICENSES AND DUTIES.
0 7 6
Dogs of any kind (penalty £5)
Game Licenses, if taken out after 31st July and before Ist November,
to expire on the 31st July following 3 0 0
After 31st July, expire 31st October
After 31st October, expire 31st July
Gamekeepers
Game Dealer's License ^ ^ "
Gun (License to carry) ^ '" "
2 0 0
2 0 0
2 0 0
604
POSTAL REGULATIONS, SAVINGS BANKS, ETC.
£ s. d.
Hawkers and Pedlars, per year 2 0 0
House Agents, letting furnished houses above £25 a year 2 0 0
Passenger Vessels, on board which liquors and tobacco are sold, yearly 5 0 0
Pawnbrokers 7 10 0
Plate Dealers selling 2ozs. gold and 3ozs. silver, and upwards 5 15 0
,, ,, under that weight 2 6 0
Retailers of Sweets * i 5 0
Retailers of Wine, England and Ireland 2 10 0
„ (Grocers) Scotland 2 4 1
Tobacco and Snuff, dealers in 0 5 3
[A separate license is required for each place where sold.]
Vinegar Makers 5 5 0
POSTAL EEGULATIONS, SAVINGS BANKS, &c.
BATES OF POSTAGE.
To and from all parts of the United Kingdom, for prepaid letters : —
Not exceeding loz Id.
Exceeding loz., not exceeding 2ozs. 1^.
„ 2 „ „ 4 „ 2d.
4 „ „ 6 „2Jd.
Exceeding 6ozs. , not exceeding 8oz8. 3d.
8 „ „ 10 „ 3id.
„ 10 „ „ 12 „ 4d.
„ 12 „ „ 14 „ 4id.
and so on at the rate of Jd. for every additional 2ozs.
A letter posted unpaid is chargeable on delivery with double postage, and a
letter posted insufficiently paid is chargeable with double the deficiency.
No letter is to exceed one foot six inches in length, nine inches in width, and
six inches in depth, unless it be se-nt to or from a Government Office.
A penny stamp is now issued which can be used either as a postage or receipt
stamp.
INLAND BOOK AND CIRCULAR POST.
The Book Post rate is one halfpenny for every 2ozs. or fraction of 2ozs. Every
Book Packet must be posted either without a cover or in a cover entirely open at
the ends. No Book Packet may exceed 51bs. in weight, or one foot six inches in
length, nine inches in width, and six inches in depth, unless it be sent to or from
a Government Office.
Any Book Packet which is found to contain a letter, or communication of the
nature of a letter (not being a circular letter), or not wholly printed, or any
enclosure sealed or in any way closed against inspection, or any other enclosure
not allowed by the regulations of the Book Post, will be treated as a letter, and
charged double the deficiency of the letter postage.
605
POSTAL REGULATIONS, SAVINGS BANKS, ETC.
Circular Letters posted in covers entirely open at both ends, the whole or
greater part of which are printed, engraved, lithographed, or type written, and
which, according to the internal evidence, are being sent to several persons in
identical terms, may be sent at book rate.
EXPRESS DELIVERY SERVICES.
Letters and Parcels are now accepted for Express Delivery at a large nmnber
of post-offices. For fees and conditions, see the " Postal Guide."
POSTAGE ON INLAND REGISTERED NEWSPAPERS.
Prepaid Rate. — On each Registered Newspaper, whether posted singly or in a
packet, the postage when prepaid is one halfpenny ; but a packet containing two
or more Registered Newspapers is not chargeable with a higher rate of postage
than would be chargeable on a Book Packet of the same weight — viz., one
halfpenny for every 2ozs. or fraction of 2ozs.
POST CARDS.
Inland Post Cards are sold at the following prices : — Stout Cards, five for 3d. ;
ten for 6d. Thin Cards, ten for 5^d.
Reply Stout Cards are sold at ten for a shilling. Reply Thin Cards at ten for
lid. Smaller numbers in proportion.
Foreign Post Cards are sold at the rates of Id., l^d., and 2d. each.
Foreign Reply Post Cards are sold at 2d., 3d., and 4d. each.
POST-OFFICE TELEGRAMS'.
The charge for Telegrams throughout the United Kingdom is 6d. for the first
twelve words, which must include addresses of sender and receiver. It is not,
however, necessary to telegraph sender's address ; and by this omission an
average of seven words may be sent for 6d.
Free addresses are abolished ; numbers in addresses are counted as one word.
After the first twelve words the charge is one halfpenny a word.
For the rates charged for Foreign Telegrams, see the " Post-office Guide,
published quarterly.
MONEY ORDERS FOR THE UNITED KINGDOM.
Money Orders are granted in the United Kingdom at the following rates :—
For a sum not exceeding £1 2d.
For a sum exceeding £1 and not exceeding £2 3d.
£2 „ „ £4 4d.
" ,', £4 „ „ £7 5d.
£7 „ „ £10 6d.
606
POSTAL REGULATIONS, SAVINGS BANKS, ETC.
TELEGBAPHIC MONEY OKDERS.
Sums not exceeding £1 4d.
£2 6d.
£4 8d.
„ £7 lOd.
„ £10 Is.
In addition to the above, the person at whose request the Telegraphic Money
Order is issued will be required to pay the ordinary telegraphic rates.
POSTAL ORDERS.
Postal Orders are issued at the following rates : — On those for 1/- and 1/6 the
charge is ^d. ; for 2/-, 2/6, 3/-, 3/6, 4/-, 4/6, 5/-, 7/6, 10/-, 10/6, the charge is Id. ;
for 15/- and 20/-, l^d.
INLAND PARCEL POST. POSTING OF PARCELS.
be dropped
accordance
Parcels must be handed in at a post-office counter, and must not
into a letterbox. If a parcel marked " Parcel Post " is not posted in
with this regulation it will be charged on delivery with a fine of Id.
All Parcels must be prepaid by stamps affixed by the senders, and the rates of
postage are as follows : —
For a
For a
Parcel not exceeding lib. in weight
Parcel exceeding lib. in weight and not exceeding 21bs.
21bs. „ ,, „ Bibs.
0
31bs.
41bs.
51bs.
61bs.
71bs.
81bs.
91bs..
lOlbs.
41bs.
51bs.
61bs.
Tibs.
81bs.
91bs.
lOlbs.
lUbs.
0 ^
0 6
0 n
0 9
0 10^
1 0
1 H
1 3
1 4i
1 6
LIMITATION OF WEIGHT.
No Parcel exceeding lllbs. in weight can be received for transmission.
LIMITATION OF SIZE.
No Parcel may exceed 3ft. 6in. in length, or 6ft. in length and girth combined.
Thus, a Parcel 3ft. 6in. in length may not measure more than 2ft. 6in. in girth at
its widest part; but a Parcel of shorter length, say 3ft., or 2ft. Bin., may measure
respectively 3ft. or 3ft. 4in. in its widest girth.
607
POSTAL REGULATIONS, SAVINGS BANKS, ETC.
INLAND PATTERN AND SAMPLE POST.
Trade Patterns and Samples of Merchandise may be sent between places in the
United Kingdom at the following rates of postage : —
For a Packet not exceeding 2ozs id.
„ „ ), 4oz8 Id.
„ „ more than 4ozs. but not exceding 6oz8 1^.
,, ,, „ 6ozs. ,, „ 8ozs 2d.
No Packet to exceed 8ozs. in weight. Limits of dimension are — 12ft. by 8ft. 4in.
If either of these conditions be infringed the Packet will not be forv\'arded, but
returned to the sender; similar conditions as to insufficiently paid postage obtain
in connection with the above.
INLAND REGISTRATION AND COMPENSATION.
The Postmaster-General will (not in consequence of any legal liability, but
voluntarily, and as an act of grace), subject to the rules hereinafter mentioned,
give compensation up to a maximum limit of £50 for the loss and damage of
Inland Registered Postal Packets of all kinds upon prepaj-ment of a fee in
addition to the postage. This fee either consists of or includes in each case the
ordinary registration fee of 2d. ; and the scale of fees and the respective limits
of compensation are as follows : — Fee, 2d., Limit of Compensation, £5 ; 3d., £10 ;
4d., £15; 5d., £20; 6d., £25; 7d., £.30; 8d., £35; 9d., £40; lOd., £45; lid., £50.
POST-OFFICE SAVINGS BANKS.
No deposit of less than a shilling is received, nor any pence, and not more than
£30 in one year. No further deposit is allowed when the amount standing in
depositor's name exceeds £200, exclusive of interest. Interest is allowed at the rate
of 2J per cent (or sixpence in the pound) per annum — that is at the rate of one
halfpenny per pound per month. When the principal and interest reach to £200,
no further interest is paid until the sum at the depositor's credit is reduced below
that amount.
At every post-office in the United Kingdom forms for making small deposits are
now issued gratuitously. Each form has twelve divisions, in each of which a penny
postage stamp can be placed ; when the twelve are filled in it is received at any
Post-office Savings Bank as a shilling.
GOVERNMENT STOCK INVESTMENTS.
Through the Post Office Savings Bank, depositors may invest only in 2^ per
Cent Stock, 2J per Cent Stock. 2| (1905) Stock, and Local 3 per Cent Loans.
Investment to £300 a year only is allowed through the Post Office. The buying
and selling price may be taken from the daily newspapers. Commission is about
one-eighth— 2s. 6d per cent— and all applications respecting Stock investments
should be addressed to the Comptroller, Savings Bank Department, General Post
Office, London, E.G.
608
BANK HOLIDAYS. LAW SITTINGS. ECLIPSES.
REGISTERS OF BIRTHS, MARRIAGES, AND DEATHS.
These are now kept at Somerset House, and may be searched on pajinent of the
fee of one shilling. If a certified copy of any entry be required, the charge for
that, in addition to the shilling for the search, is two shillings and sevenpence,
which includes a penny for stamp duty. The registers contain an entry of births,
deaths, and marriages since 1st July, 1837.
BANK HOLIDAYS, 1894.
ENGLAND.
Easter Monday March 26
Whit Monday May 14
First Monday in August August 6
Boxing Day (Wednesday) December 26
SCOTLAND.
New Year's Day January 1
Good Friday March 23
First Monday in May May 7
First Monday in August August 6
Christmas Day December 25
LAW SITTINGS, 1894.
Begin. End.
Hilary Sittings January 11 March 21.
Easter ,, April 3 May 11.
Trinity „ May 22 Aug. 12.
Michael. ,, • October 24 - Dec. 21.
ECLIPSES, 1894.
In this year there will be two Eclipses of the Sun and two of the Moon, and a
Transit of Mercury across the Sun's disc : —
1. — A partial Eclipse of the Moon, March 21st, invisible at Greenwich.
2. — An annular Eclipse of the Sun, April 6th, invisible at Greenwich.
3. — A partial Eclipse of the Moon, Sept. 15th, partly visible at Greenwich.
4. — A total Eclipse of the Sun, Sept. 29th, invisible at Greenwich.
5. — A Transit of Mercury across the Sun's disc, November 10th, partly
visible at Greenwich.
609
MEMOEANDA as to Acts of Parliament restraining
EXPORTATION OF TOOLS &C. USED IN COTTON LiNEN WoOLLEN
AND Silk Manufactures.
D Y Act of 14 Geo. III. c. 75 being " An Act to prevent the
Exportation to Foreign Parts of Utensils made use of in the
Cotton Linen Woollen and Silk Manufactures of this Kingdom "
persons were prohibited from exporting " Tools or Utensils " used
in the Cotton Linen Woollen and Silk Manufactures of the Kingdom.
By Act of 21 Geo. III. c. 37 being an Act to explain and amend
the last-mentioned Act it was enacted —
That if at any time after the 24th day of June 1781 any person or
persons in Great Britain or Ireland shall upon any pretence whatsoever
load or put on board or pack or cause or procure to be loaden put on
board or packed in order to be loaded or put on board of any ship or
vessel which shall not be bound directly to some port or place in Great
Britain or Ireland or shall lade or cause or procure to be laden on board
any boat or other vessel or shall bring or cause to be brought to any
quay wharf or other place in order to be so laden or put on board any
such ship or vessel any machine engine tool press paper utensil or
implement whatsoever which now is or at any time or times hereafter
shall or may be used in or proper for the preparing working pressing
finishing or completing of the Woollen Cotton Linen or Silk Manufactures
of this Kingdom or any or either of them or any other goods wherein
Wool Cotton Linen or Silk or any or either of them are or is used or
any part or parts of such machine engine tool press paper utensil or
implement by what name or names soever the same shall be called or
known ; or any model or plan w models or plans of any such machine
engine tool press paper utensil or implement or any part or parts
thereof.
Any Justice might grant a warrant to seize the machines &c. and
on conviction the person offending should forfeit the machines &c.
and a sum of £200 and be imprisoned for twelve months without
bail and until the forfeiture should be paid.
Penalties were also imposed on the Masters of Ships and Custom
House Ofl&cers conniving at any offence and on persons making
machines &c.
40
610
Table Showing Sums Payable in
Foreign Currencies on
Money Orders
Issued in
United Kingdom.
VALUE
OF ENGLISH MONEY IN
English
Money.
Belginm,
France,
and
Algeria,
Italy and
Switzer-
land.
Germany
and
Helipo-
land.
i
Holland \
and
Dutch
Eh St
Indies.
Denmark,
Iceland,
Norway,
and
Danish
West
Indies.
Sweden.
Portugal,
Azores,
and
Madeira.
Egypt.
Pnit^d
States,
Canada,
and
Hawaii.
£ B. d.
i 1
DQ
•§ 1
e M
i .
II
St £
M O
1
i ■
fiH a.
0 0 1
0 10
0 8
0 5
0 7
0 7
10
0 16
0 2
0 0 2
0 20
0 17
0 10
0 15
0 15
30
0 rt2
0 4
0 0 3
0 30
0 25
0 15
0 22
0 22
50
1 8
0 6
0 0 4
0 40
0 34
0 20
0 30
0 30
70
1 25
0 8
0 0 5
0 50
0 42
0 20
0 37
0 37
90
2 1
0 10
0 0 6
0 60
0 51
0 25
0 45
0 45
110
2 17
0 12
0 0 7
0 70
0 69
0 30
0 52
0 62
130
2 33
0 14
0 0 8
0 80
0 68
0 35
0 60
0 60
150
3 lo
0 16
0 0 9
0 90
0 76
0 40
0 68
0 68
170
3 26
0 18
0 0 10
1 0
0 85
0 45
0 75
0 75
190
4 2
0 20
0 0 11
1 10
0 93
0 50
0 83
0 83
200
4 18
0 22
0 10
1 20
1 2
0 55
0 90
0 90
220
4 35
0 24
0 2 0
2 50
2 4
1 15
1 81
1 81
450
9 3(t
0 48
0 3 0
3 70
3 6
1 75
2 72
2 72
680
14 25
0 73
0 4 0
5 0
4 8
2 35
3 63
3 62
910
19 20
0 97
0 5 0
6 30
5 10
2 95
4 53
4 53
1,140
24 15
1 21
0 6 0
7 50
6 12
3 55
5 44
5 43
1,37<'
29 10
1 46
0 7 0
8 80
7 14
4 15
6 35
6 34
1,690
34 5
1 7'
0 8 0
10 0
8 16
4 75
7 26
7 24
1,820
39 0
1 94
0 9 0
11 30
9 18
5 35
8 16
8 15
2,050
43 35
2 19
0 10 0
12 60
10 20
5 95
9 7
9 6
2,280
48 ?-0
2 43
0 11 0
13 80
11 22
6 55
9 98
9 96
2,510
53 25
2 67
0 12 0
15 10
12 24
7 15
10 89
10 87
2,740
58 20
2 9:^
0 13 0
16 30
13 26
7 75
11 79
11 78
2,970
63 15
3 16
0 14 0
17 60
14 28
8 35
12 70
12 68
3,190
68 10
3 4"'
0 15 0
18 90
15 30
8 96
13 61
13 60
3.420
73 5
3 65
0 i6 0
20 10
16 32
9 55
14 52
14 5(t
3.65(1
78 0
3 8M
0 17 0
21 40
17 34
10 15
15 42
15 40
3,880
82 35
4 12
0 18 0
22 60
18 36
10 75
16 33
16 31
4,110
87 30
4 38
0 19 0
23 90
19 38
11 35
17 24
17 21
4.340
92 25
4 «2
10 0
25 20
20 40
11 95
18 15
18 12
4,570
97 20
4 87
2 0 0
50 40
40 80
23 90
36 30
36 24
9,140
195 0
9 74
3 0 0
75 60
61 20
35 85
64 45
54 36
13.710
292 20
14 61
4 0 0
100 80
81 60
47 80
72 60
72 48
18,2m0
390 0
19 48
5 0 0
126 0
102 0
59 75
90 75
9(» 60
22,850
487 2<
24 35
« 0 0
151 20
122 40
71 70
108 90
108 72
27.42fi
585 0
29 22
7 0 0
176 40
142 80
83 65
127 5
126 84
31,990
682 20
34 9
8 0 0
201 60
163 20
95 60
145 20
144 9«
36,560
780 0
38 96
9 0 0
2v6 80
183 60
107 55
163 35
163 8
41,130
877 20
43 8;i
10 0 0
252 0
204 0
119 50
181 50
181 20
45,7' 0
975 0
48 7"
INDIA.
Ar>nas, an
Bnpee is s
are issnec
arrival of
— Amoaots
a Pies ; the
abject to c(
in Sterlin
the Advice
>f vioney O
Rnoee bei
)nstant var
?, and the
List from 1
rders, issue
ig the stan
iation, not
equivalent
jondon.
d in the Un
dard of val
abl>-s of coi
in Rupees
ited Kiugd(
ae in Innia
iversion cai
is settled 1
>mon Indij
A", howe
1 be given.
ay the Post
i, are pa d i
ver, the va
All Orders
-officb at B(
> Rupees,
U'- of the
• m lii'iia
imbay on
611
Table Showing Sums
Payable in English 1\Ioney on
ilONEY
Orders Issoeg
IN FOBEIGN
COUNTKIES, &C.
—
Denmark,
Belginm
and
Switzer-
land
Prance,
Algeria,
and
Italy.
Germany
and
Heligo-
land.
HoUand
and
Dutch
East
Indies.
Iceland,
Norway,
and
Danish
West
Sweden.
Portagal,
Azores,
and
Madeira.
Egypt
United
SUtes,
Canada,
and
Hawaii.
English
Money.
Indies.
X
IS
w
u
fc!
i .
Il
'i 2
i|
QQ
1 §
•n 5
o a
a .
o «
O 93
.S
1 H
1 fs^ O
& 6
a S
W O
W O
iS (2
« 6 £ B.
d.
0 11
0 11
0 9
0 6
0 8
0 8
20
0 16
0 3 0 0
1
0 22
0 21
0 18
0 11
0 16
0 16
40
0 32
0 5 0 i»
2
0 32
0 32
0 26
0 16
0 23
0 23
60
1 8
0 7 0 0
»
0 43
0 42
0 35
0 21
0 31
0 31
80
1 25
0 9 0 0
4
0 63
0 53
0 43
0 26
0 38
0 38
100
2 1
0 11 0 0
5
0 64
0 63
0 62
0 31
0 46
0 46
120
2 17
0 13 0 0
6
0 74
0 74
0 60
0 36
0 54
0 54
140
2 33
0 15
0 0
7
0 85
0 84
0 69
0 41
0 61
0 61
160
3 10
0 17
0 0
8
0 95
0 95
0 77
0 46
0 69
0 69
180
3 26
0 19
0 0
9
1 6
1 5
0 86
0 51
0 76
0 76
200
4 2
0 21 i 0 0
10
1 16
1 16
0 94
0 56
0 84
0 84
210
4 18
0 23 1 0 0
11
1 27
1 26
1 3
0 61
0 91
0 91
231
4 35
0 25
0 1
0
2 53
2 52
2 5
1 22
1 82
1 82
460
9 30
0 49
0 2
0
3 80
3 78
3 8
1 83
2 73
2 72
69)
14 25
0 74
0 3
0
5 6
5 4
4 10
2 44
3 64
3 63
920
19 20
0 98
0 4
0
6 33
6 30
5 13
3 4
4 55
4 53
1,150
24 15
1 22
0 5
0
7 59
7 56
6 15
3 65
5 46
5 44
1,380
29 10
1 47 i 0 6
0
8 86
8 82
7 18
4 26
6 37
6 35
1,600
34 5
I 71 It 7
0
10 12
1(» 8
8 20
4 87
7 28
7 25
1,830
39 0
1 '.>5 1 0 8
0
11 39
11 34
9 23
5 48
6 19
8 16
2,060
43 35
2 20 0 9
0
12 65
12 60
10 25
6 8
9 10
9 6
2,290
48 30
2 44 0 10
0
13 92
13 86
11 28
6 69
10 1
9 97
2,520
53 25
2 68 0 11
0
15 18
15 12
12 30
7 30
10 92
10 88
2,75'»
58 20
2 93 0 12
0
16 45
16 38
13 33
7 91
11 83
11 78
2,980
63 15
3 17 0 13
0
17 71
17 64
14 35
8 52
12 74
12 69
3,200
68 10
3 41 0 14
0
18 98
18 9i)
15 38
9 12
13 65
13 59
3,430
76 5
3 66 0 15
0
20 24
20 16
16 40
9 73
14 56
14 60
3,660
7« 0
3 JK) : 0 16
0
21 51
21 42
17 43
10 34
15 47
15 41
3,890
82 35
4 14
0 17
0
•22 77
22 68
18 45
10 95
16 38
16 31
4,120
87 ao
4 .S9
0 18
0
24 4
23 94
19 48
11 56
17 29
17 21
4,350
92 25
4 Ca
0 19
0
25 30
25 20
20 50
12 16
18 2 •
18 12
4,570
97 20
4 87
1 0
0
oO 60
50 40
41 0
24 32
36 40
36 24
9,140
195 0
9 74
2 0
0
75 90
75 60
61 50
36 48
54 60
54 36
13,710
292 20
14 61
3 0
0
ini 20
100 80
8i 0
48 64
72 80
72 48
18,280
390 0
19 48
4 0
0
12b 50
126 0
102 50
60 80
91 0
90 60
22,850
487 20
24 35
6 0
0
151 80
151 20
123 0
72 96
109 20
108 72
27,420
585 0
29 22
6 0
0
177 10
176 4"
143 50
85 12
127 40
126 84
81,990
682 20
34 9
7 0
0
20-2 40
201 60
164 0
97 28
145 60
144 96
36,560
780 0
38 96
8 0
0
VJ27 70
226 80
184 60
109 44
163 80
163 8
41,130
87' 20
48 83
9 0
0
253 0
NorE.-
252 0
205 0
121 60
182 90
181 20
45,700
975 0
48 70
10 0
0
-In calcola
ting amoa
ats payable
> in the Ui
lited Kingil
om, it rontt oe nnderx
tooJ that the Poraigii
*^ffices oi
Exchange
reserve to
themselves
the power
of dealing
with fractions »{ a uei
my a* they may daMB
most con
veniei't. I
"or exampl
n, an Ordt
r insaed in
Denmark 1
or 1 Krone
r mty be cr
e<Ut«d to this country
either as
l8. Id. or le
.2d. AnC
•rder issuec
; in Switzei
land for S3
Francs ma
y be crediti
1.1 either aa /a. Is. 1
Od.
or £2 Is.
111.
612
THE TIME ALL OVEE THE WOELD.
When the clock at Greeuwich points to Noon, the time at the various places
below is as follows : —
H. M.
Boston, U.S 7 18 a.m.
Dublin 11 35 a.m.
Edinburgh 11 47 a.m.
Glasgow 11 43 a.m.
Lisbon 11 43 a.m.
Madrid 11 45 a.m.
New York, U.S 7 14 a.m.
Penzance 11 38 a.m.
Philadelphia, U.S 6 59 a.m.
Quebec 7 15 a.m.
Adelaide, Australia 9 11 p.m.
Amsterdam 12 19 p.m.
Athens 1 35 p.m.
Berlin 12 54 p.m.
Berne 12 30 p.m.
Bombay 4 52 p.m.
Brussels 12 17 p.m.
Calcutta 5 54 p.m.
Capetown 1 14 p.m.
Constantinople 1 56 p.m. (
Hence, bj' a little calculation, the time for those places at any hour of our day
may be ascertained. At places east of London the apparent time is later, and
west of London, earlier ; for uniformity sake, however, Greenwich time is kept
at all railways in Great Britain and Ireland.
Copenhagen 12 60 p.m.
Florence 12 45 p.m.
Jerusalem 2 21 p.m.
Madras 5 21 p.m.
Malta 12 58 p.m.
Melbourne, Australia. ... 9 40 p.m.
Moscow 2 30 p.m.
Munich 12 46 p.m.
Paris 12 9 p.m.
Pekin 7 46 p.m.
Prague 12 58 p.m.
Rome 12 50 p.m.
Rotterdam 12 18 p.m.
St. Petersburg 2 1 p.m.
Suez 2 10 p.m.
Sydne}', Australia 10 5 p.m.
Stockholm 1 12 p.m.
Stuttgardt 0 37 p.m.
Vienna 1 6 p.m.
TOTAL ANNUAL VALUE OF PEOPEETY AND INCOME
ASSESSED, 1875-92.
613
BAEOMETEK INSTRUCTIONS.
COMPILED BY THE LATE ADMIRAL FITZROY, F.B.8.
The barometer should be set regularly by a duly-authorised person about sunrise,
Doon, and sunset.
The words on scales of barometers should not be so much regarded for weather
indications as the rising or falling of the mercury ; for if it stand at change-
able (29-50) and then rise towards fair (3000) it presages a change of wind
or weather, though not so great as if the mercury had risen higher ; and, on the
contrary, if the mercury stand above fair and then fall it presages a change,
though not to so great a degree as if it had stood lower ; beside which, the direction
and force of wind are not in any way noticed.
It is not from the point at which the mercury may stand that we are alone to
form a judgment of the state of the weather, but fi'om its rising or falling ;
and from the movements of immediately preceding days as well as hours,
keeping in mind effects of change of direction, and dryness or moisture, as well
as alteration of force or strength of wind.
It should always be remembered that the state of the air foretells coming
weather rather than shows the weather that is present— (an invaluable fact too
often overlooked) — that the longer the time between the signs and the change
foretold by them the longer such altered weather will last ; and, on the contrary,
the less the time between a warning and a change the shorter will be the
continuance of such foretold weather.
If the barometer has been about its ordinary height, say near 30 inches at the
sea-level, and is steady on rising, while the thermometer falls and dampness
becomes less, north-westerly, northerly, north-easterly wind, or less wind, less
rain or snow may be expected.
On the contrary, if a fall takes place with a rising thermometer and increased
dampness, wind and rain may be expected from the south-eastward, southward,
or south-westward. A fall with low thermometer foretells snow.
When the barometer is rather below its ordinary height, say down to near 29^
inches (at sea-level), a rise foretells less wind, or a change in its direction towards
the northward, or less wet ; but when it has been very low, about 29 inches,
the first rising usually precedes or indicates strong wind — at times heavy squalls
— from the north-westward, northward, or north-eastward, after which violence
a gradually rising glass foretells improving weather ; if the thennometer falls,
but if the warmth continues, probably the wind will back (shift against the sun's
course), and more southerly or south-westerly wind will follow, especially if the
barometer rise is sudden.
The most dangerous shifts of wind, or the heaviest northerly gales, happen
soon after the barometer first rises from a very low point ; or if the wind veers
GRADUALLY, at some time afterwards.
614
BABOMETEE INSTKUCTIONS.
Indications of approaching change of weather and the direction and force of
winds are shown less by the iieight of the barometer than by its falling or rising.
Nevertheless, a height of more than 30 (30-00) inches (at the level of the sea) is
indicative of fine weather and moderate winds, except from east to north,
OCCASIONALLY.
A rapid rise of the bai'ometer indicates unsettled weather, a slow movement
the contrary ; as likewise a steady barometer, when continued and with
dryness, foretells very fine weather.
A rapid and considerable fall is a sign of stormj- weather, and rain or snow.
Alternate rising and sinking indicates unsettled or threatening weather.
The greatest depressions of the barometer are with gales from S.E., S., or S.W. ;
the greatest deviations, with wind from N.W., N., or N.E., or with calm.
A sudden fall of the barometer, with a westerly wind, is sometimes followed by
a violent storm from N.W., N., or N.E.
If a gale sets in fi-om the E. or S.E., and the wind veers by the south, the
barometer will continue falling until the wind is near a marked change, when a
lull MAY occur ; after which the gale will soon be renewed, perhaps suddenly and
violently, and the veering of the wind towards the N.W., N., or N.E. will be
indicated by a rising of the barometer, with a fall of the thermometer.
After very warm and calm weather a storm or squall, with rain, maj' follow ;
likewise at any time when the atmosphere is heated much above the usual
temperature of the season.
To know the state of the air not only the barometer and thermometer, but
appearances of the sky should be vigilantly watched.
SIGNS OF WEATHEE.
Whether clear or cloud}% a rosy slcy at sunset presages fine weather ; a red sky
in the morning, bad weather, or much wiud, perhaps rain ; a grey sky in the
morning, fine weather ; a high dawn, wind ; a low dawn, fair weather.*
Soft-looking or delicate clouds foretell fine weather, with moderate or light
breezes ; hard-edged, oily-looking clouds, vnnd. A dark, gloomy blue sky is
windy, but a light, bright blue sky indicates fine weather. Generally, the softer
the clouds look, the less wind (but perhaps more rain) may be expected ; and the
harder, more " greasj'," rolled, tufted, or ragged, the stronger the coming wind
will prove. Also a bright yellow sky at sunset presages wind ; a pale yellow,
wet ; and thus, by the prevalence of red, yellow, or grey tints, the coming weather
may be foretold very nearly — indeed, if aided by instruments, almost exactly.
* A high dawn is when the first indications of daylight are seen above a bank of clouds. A
low dawn is when the day breaks on or near the horizon, the first streaks of light being very low
down.
615
BAROMETER INSTRUCTIONS.
Small inky-looking clouds foretell rain ; light scud clouds driving across heavy
masses show wind and rain, but if alone may indicate wind only.
High upper clouds crossing the sun, moon, or stars in a direction different
from that of the lower clouds, or the wind then felt below, foretell a change of
wind.
After fine, clear weather, the first signs in the sky of a coming change are
usually light streaks, curls, wisps or mottled patches of white distant clouds,
which increase, and are followed by an overcasting of murky vajwur that grows
into cloudiness. This appearance, more or less oily or watery as wind or rain
will prevail, is an infallible sign.
Light, delicate, quiet tints or colours, with soft, undefined forms of clouds,
indicate and accompany fine weather ; but gaudy or unusual hues, with hard,
definitely-outlined clouds, foretell rain, and probably strong wind.
• When sea-birds fly out early and far to seaward, moderate wind and fair weather
may be expected. When they hang about the land, or over it, sometimes flying
inland, expect a strong wind, with stormy weather. As many creatures beside
birds are affected by the approach of rain or wind, such indications should not
be slighted by an observer who wishes to foresee weather.
Remarkable clearness of atmosphere near the horizon, distant objects such as
hills unusually visible, or raised (by refraction),! and what is called a "good
HEARING day," may be mentioned among signs of wet, if not wind, to be expected.
More than usual twinkling of the stars, indistinctness or apparent multiplica-
tion of the moon's horns, haloes, " wind-dogs " (fragments or pieces of rainbows,
sometimes called "wind-galls") seen on detached clouds, and the rainbow, are
more or less significant of increasing wind, if not approaching rain with or
without wind.
Lastly, the dryness or dampness of the air, and its temperature (for the season),
should ALWAYS be considered with othee indications of change or continuance
of wind and weather.
On barometer scales the following contractions may be useful :—
RISE
FALL
FOR
FOR
N.E.LY
S.W.LY
When the wind shifts against the sun,
(n.w.-n.-e.)
(S.E.-S.-W.)
Trust it not, for back it will rub.
DRY
WET
OR
OR
First rise after very low
LESS
MORE
Indicates a stronger blow.
WIND.
WIND.
Long foretold - long last ;
EXCEPT
EXCEPT
Short notice - soon past.
WET FROM
WET FROM
N.Ed.
N.Ed.
\ Much refraction is
i 8igu of easterly wind.
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620
REMARKS ON THE WEATHER.
(From Official Sources.)
October, 1892. — In this month the weather was very cold till towards the end.
when there were three or four warm days, with frequent rain throughout the
month. The temperature of the air was constantly below the average to the
27th, the amount exceeding 10° on some days. On every day excepting the 11th,
12th, and 17th to 20th days the atmospheric pressure was below the average. The
rainfall was above the average ; the fall was especially heavy on the 13th, 14th,
15th, and 16th in Yorkshire, where there were great floods, causing farmers con-
siderable loss, and in many of the towns hundreds of houses were flooded.
November. — The weather was mild and damp, with very little sunshine.
Excepting from the 18th to the 25th the temperature of the air was generally
above the average. Till the 6th the atmospheric pressure was below its average,
and from the 12th to the 16th, and above on other days. Small quantities of
rain fell frequently.
December. — This month was dry, cold, and foggy. The temperature of the air
was mild, and from the 15th to the 21st was above the average ; it was below the
average till the 14th, and from the 4th to the 10th particularly so. Frost set in
with severity on the 22nd, continuing to the end of the month for these ten days
the average deficiency of temperature being 9°-l. On the 27th and 28th the
lowest temperature in the month occurred. Prom the 3rd to the 13th, and from
the 29th to the 31st the atmospheric pressure was generally below the average,
and on all other days generally above. The rainfall was below the average, and
during the latter half of the month very little rain fell.
January. 1893. — During the first week the weather was very cold, and till the
18th, with snow and rain frequent, but from the 19th was warm, with fogs. Till
the 18th the temperature of the air was constantly below its average, and on the
3rd, 4th, and 5th days particularly so. The mean temperature on the 2nd, 3rd,
4th, and 5th at Blackheath were as much as 13°1, 12°-2, 15°-5, and 16°-8 below
their averages, and to the 18th the mean daily deficiency of temperature was as
much as 6f ° ; and for the twenty-eight days beginning December 22nd and end-
ing January 18th was 7^°. Occasionally the atmospheric pressure was a little
below the average, but was generally above. At some few places the fall of rain
was a little above the average, but at most places a little below.
February. - The weather was unsettled and warm, and on two days out of
three rain fell at nearly all the stations. From the 1st to the 3rd and from the
7th to the 21st the temperature of the air was above its average, and below it on
the other days. Till the 7th the atmospheric pressure was generally above its
621
REMARKS ON THE WEATHER.
average, and below from the 8tli, aud from the 20th to the 27th particularly so,
when the departures below tlie average mean daily pressures were 0-44 in.[
1-29 in., 0-98 in., 0 55 in., 070 in., 0 73 in., 0-99 in , aud 0-68 in. in succession!
The mean pressure for the month was lower than in any February back to 1879
and the fall of rain was above the average.
March.— In this month the weather was exceptionally fine, warm, aud dry,
and with the exception of the short period from the 17th to the 2l8t was above
the average, and to the 16th the average mean daily excess was 5^°, and from the
22nd to the end of the mouth was 3°. The mean temperature of the montli was
46°-2, and we must go back to the year 1859 for a March so warm, there being
but four other instances back to 1771. With the exception of the Ist aud 2nd,
and from the 12th to the 17th, the atmospheric pressure was above the average.
The mean pressure for the mouth was higher tlian in any March back to 1874.
The rainfall was remarkably small, 04 in. only at Blackheath, and not since
1854 have we had a March with so small a rainfall.
April.- This month was remarkable for its small rainfall, an unusual amount
of sunshine, and fineness generally. On every day excepting the 9th, 11th, 12th,
13th, 14th, 17th, and 80th the temperature of the air was above its average, and
the temperature after the middle of the month was that of summer. On nearly
every day the atmospheric pressure was above its average, and the mean pressure
was higher than in April since 1861. At Blackheath the fall of rain was only
0-09 in., and for so small a fall of rain we must go back to 1855, namely 0*1 in.
In 1840 and 1817 the fall was also 01 in. In March aud April together the fall
of rain was 0 49 in., and we have to go back to 1840, March and April, for so
small a fall, when the amount was 0-4 in. In the southern aud midland counties
particularly the consequent drought became very serious.
May. — Remarkably fine and dry weather prevailed, the exceptional weather of
the two preceding months continuing. On every day till the 29th, witli the
exception of the 7th and 8th, the temperature of the air was above its average.
On every day till the 14th, and from the 25th, the atmospheric pressure was
above its average The fall of rain was small, none falling at Blackheath till the
16th, then a little fell daily to the 23rd and on the 29th. The fall was 0-52 in. in
the month, and in the three months, March, April, and May, it was 1 in., giving
a daily average of only about a hundredth of an inch. The drougiit was general,
but was most severely experienced at the southern stations, where tiie falls were
less than half of those at the northern, the intervals without rain being about
twice as long.
June. — During this month the weather was very fine and dry. The tempers-
ture of the air was generally above its average, but for two or three days together
was occasionally below. About the middle of the month it was verj* warm. It
was 90° or near 90° at southern and midland stations on the 19th, and about 86'
622
BEMARKS ON THE WEATHER.
at northern stations. From the 4th to the 12th and on the 16th, 17th, 18th, and
30th days the atmospheric pressure was above its average, and below on all other
days. At Blackheath the fall of rain was small ; on the 7th and 20th a little fell,
amounting to 0*17 in., then from the 23rd to the 28th rain fell daily. On March
5th the drought began, and continued to June 22nd. In the four months,
March, April, May, and June, the fall of rain was 1'90 in., being just the half of
that which fell in the same four months in the year 1837. Hay crops were
deficient everywhere, but in the north better than in the south, where they were
very light. In some places the crop quite failed.
July.- In the early part of this month the weather was very warm, and
throughout was generally fine and warm. Till the 11th, and from the 20th to the
25th, the temperature of the air was above its average, and from the 12th to the
19th and from the 26th below the average. With the exception of the first three
days, and three days towards the end of the month, the atmospheric pressure
was below the average. The rainfall was generally small, but it slightly exceeded
the average at a few stations. The want of water was severely felt on the whole,
and fully a month earlier than usual harvest work began generally.
August.— Weather was very warm, fine, and dry, with a remarkably hot period
extending from the 8th to the. 18th. Till the 7th, and from the 23rd to the 29th,
the temperature of the air was a^little below the average, and above on all other
days. From the 6th to the 17th, and from the 24th, the atmospheric pressure
was above its average ; below till the 5th, and from the 18th to the 23rd. Want
of water was experienced in many places, the fall of rain being below the average,
and the grass fields were much dried up.
Septembeb.— During the first half of the month particularly the weather was
very fine and dry. Till the 8th the temperature of the air was below th
average ; from the 9th to the 13th below ; again above from the 14th to the 20th !
below from the 21st to the 26th, with slight frost at night ; and slightly above to
the end of the month. Till the 5th, and from the 11th to the 15th, the atmos-
pheric pressure was generally higher than the average, and on the other days of
the month mostly lower. The fall of rain was very variable, at most of the
stations being below the average, and fully up to it at a few. At some stations it
fell on eight to ten days only ; it fell on twenty-three days at Llandudno, and on
twenty days at Guernsey and Stonyhurst. The want of water was severely felt
at many places, ponds and wells being dried up.
623
WEATHEE FOEECASTS.
Below we give five tables taken from the report of the Meteorological Office for
the year ending March 31st, 1893. The weather forecasts are prepared three
times a day — at 11 a.m., 8-30 p.m., and 8-30 p.m. — the forecasts prepared at 11
a.m. on information derived from the 8 a.m. reports, refer to the probable
weather between noon on the day of issue and noon of the following day.
The 8-30 p.m. forecasts are employed for storm warnings only, excepting in the
hay harvest season for which see page 624. The 8-80 p.m. forecasts are specially
prepared for the morning papers, but all forecasts are available for the information
of any one applying at the office, 63, Victoria Street, London. The second,
fourth, and fifth tables show the success that has attended the forecasting of the
weather of the British Isles.
TABLE 1.
Summary of Eesults of 8-30 p.m. Forecasts, 1892-93.
Districts.
Scotland, N
E
England, N.E. . . .
E
Midland Counties .
England, S
Scotland, W
England, N.W....
S.W....
Ireland, N
.. S
Summary.
Percentages.
Complete
Success.
Partial*
Success.
45
47
49
47
47
48
41
43
49
46
41
46
36
31
32
34
31
35
82
34
81
82
84
Partial*
Failure.
Total
Failure.
Total per-
centage of
Success.
38
13
16
15
16
16
14
17
14
12
13
15
14
6
6
4
4
6
3
10
9
8
9
10
81
78
81
81
78
83
73
77
80
78
75
79
* Note, " partial " implies " more than half."
624
TABLE 2.
T]ie folloiinng table shores for each year from 1883 to 1892,
inclusive, the percentages of complete and j^f^fUf^l success of the
Forecasts issued at 8-30 p.m. for the whole year.
Percentages of Eesults of Forecasts for the whole of the
British Isles.
Year.
Complete
Success.
Partial, i.e.,
more than
Half Success.
Total
Success.
1883
1884
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Average
48
50
50
49
52
51
49
50
50
46
33
31
34
31
82
31
32
32
30
33
81
81
84
80
84
82
81
82
80
79
49
32
81
TABLE 3.
Summary of Eesults. — Hay Harvest Forecasts 1892.
Districts.
Scotland, N
E
England, N.E. . .
E
Midland Counties ,
England, S
Scotland, W. .
England, N.W.
S.W.
Ireland, N. . . .
„ S. ...
Names of Stations.
Munlochy and Golspie
Aberfeldy, Glamis, and Rothiemay . .
Chatton and Ulceby
Rotliamstead and Thorpe
Cirencester and East Retford
Reading, Maidstone, Downton, and
Horsham
Stranraer, Islay, and Dumbarton ....
Leyburn and Prescot
Tortworth, Clifton, and Glastonbury..
Moynalty and Edgeworthstown
Tralee, Kilkenny, and Parsonstown . .
Mean for all districts
Percentages
o
66
28
20
35
32
38
30
29
35
33
30
38
32
10
H H
89
78
81
82
82
91
92
96
93
88
94
Hiese figures shoiv that the results for the forecasts for 1892
leached a total percentage of success of 88, being one lower than
ivas recorded in the three preceding years.
625
TABLE 4.
Eetubn of the Eesult of the Comparison between the Warnings
issued and the Weather experienced in 1892.
Coasts.
Scotland, N.E. ...
1- o
® • r^
ot
o >-
.13
o a
i\
c X jj I a X .
2 o
P 3
S^
S a
60 2^
! «■ 03 _
? « 2
? J= 9.
cup (n
.S 5) O
Storms for which no
Warning was
issued.
46
E .30
N.W 49
W 43
Ireland, S.W 45
„ N.W 1 49
Irish Sea i 39
St. George's Chan'el! 30
Bristol Channel . . t 32
England, S.W | 32
S ! 23
S.E 23
E 23
N.E 24
30
7
29
24
26
36
31
13
20
22
12
11
11
18
Totals 488 290
Percentages . . ;
59-4
14
17
14
15
15
10
6
14
9
8
10
8
8
4
152
.31-2
33
Jan. 29-30; March
16; Apr.22; Oct.7.
Feb. 1.
Oct. 7.
March 16; Oct.7.
Peb.15; Aug.14-15.
Aug. 30; Oct. 29.
Jan. 7.
Dec. 9.
Jan. 29-30; Feb.l;
Oct. 23; Dec. 17.
6-8
10 1-6
TABLE 5.
Comparative Statement of the Storm Warnings and their
Eesults in 1892, and in the ten preceding years.
Years.
Total No. of
Warnings
issued.
Warnings
justified by
subsequent
Gales.
Warnings |
justified by \
Total
, . Warnings
subsequent justified.
strong Winds.
1883
1884
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
610
461
591
542
472
539
373
525
522
488
p.c.
56-2
664
55-3
55-3
55-5
55-3
47-7
610
62-3
59-4
p.c.
21-6
200
240
26-9
261
28-6
33-5
25-5
24 5
31-2
p.c.
77-8
86-4
79-3
82-2
81-6
83-9
81-2
86-5
86-8
'906
Warnings not
justified
by subsequent
Weather.
p.c.
20-8
121
19-5
15-9
16-4
14-3
16-9
9-3
7-5
6-8
• Note. — It will be seen that the total percentage of warnings justified in 1892
41 is 90-6, being the highest on record.
626
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632
THE USE OF OIL ON EOUGH SEAS.
FOR the use of oil on rough seas the following methods will be of
great service : —
1. On free waves, that is, waves in deep water the effect is greatest.
2. In a surf, or waves breaking on a bar, where a mass of liquid is in actual
motion in shallow water, the effect of the oil is uncertain, as nothing can prevent
the larger waves, under such circumstances, from breaking ; but it is of some
service even here.
3. The thickest and heaviest oils are most effectual. Kerosene refined is of
little use. When nothing else is obtainable, crude petroleum is ser\'iceable ;
but all vegetable and animal oils, such as waste oil from the engines, have
great effect.
4. If applied in such a manner as to spread to windward, a small quantity of
oil is sufficient.
5. Both when lying or running to. or in wearing, it is useful in a ship or boat.
6. When hoisting a boat up in a seaway at sea, it is highly probable that much
time and injury to the boat would be saved by its application.
7. The oil, in cold water, not bsing able to spread freely, and being thickened
by the lower temperature, will have its effect much reduced, varying according to
the description of oil used.
8. Small canvas bags, capable of holding from one to two gallons of oil, hanging
over the side in such manner as to be in the water, the bags being punctured
with a sail needle, so as to expedite the leakage, appears to be the best method
of application in a ship at sea. Circumstances should vary the position of
these bags. They should be hung on either bow when running before the
wind — for example, from the cathead — and should be allowed to tow in the
water. The effect seems to be less with the wind on the quarter than in any
other position, the waves coming up on the quarter, while the oil goes astern.
The weather bow and another position further aft seem the best positions to hang
the bags when lying to, and a sufficient length of line to allow them to draw
windward as the ship drifts.
9. Oil poured overboard and allowed to float in ahead of the boat, with a bag
towing astern, appears to be the best plan when crossing a bar with a flood tide.
The effect, however, cannot be so much trusted. For the purpose of entering on
a bar with the ebb tide, it appears to be useless to try oil.
10. It is recommended to pour oil overboard to windward before going alongside
for boarding a wreck. In this case the effect must depend upon the set of the
current and the circvmistances of the depth of water.
11. It is recommended for a boat riding in bad weather from a sea anchor to
fasten the bag to an endless line rove through a block on the sea anchor, the oil
becoraing diffused well ahead of the boat, and, if necessary, the bag can be
readily hauled on board for refilling.
633
Table Showing the Number of Days from any Day of one Month to
THE same Day of any other Month.
NUMBER OF DAYS FROM DAY TO DAY.
Peom to
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
APRIL
May.
June.
July.
Ado.
212
Sbpt.
Oct.
Nov.
Dsc.
January
365
31
59
90
120
151
181
243
273
242
804
278
334
303
February. .
334
306
365
28
59 89
120
150
122
91
61
30
181
212
March
337
365
31
365
61
92
153
184
214
245
214
275
April
May
275
245
214
184
153
306
334
30
61
81
365
122
92
153
123
183
244
214
276 3C4
245 273
215 243
335
804
274
243
365
334
304
273
163
184
June
July
61
92
122
163
188
153
122
335 365
1
31 i 62
1
92
61
123
92
August
lb4
212
304
834
303
366
334
31
365
Septbmbur
122
92
153
181
212
242
273
30
61
91
61
October . .
123
151
182
212
181
243 273
1
304
836
365
334
304
81
November..
61
92
120
90
161
121
212 242 273
304
274
865
80
1
December .
31
62
151
1
182 212 243
1
836
866
Example of Use of Table:— "To find the number of days fivm 16th AnifnBt 1o 97th Pabrour-
Find August in the side column and February »i the top; the number »t the intprsectimi, tU.,
184, is the number of days from 16th August to 16th Fcbiunry; a<t«l 11 (tlif iliffoifiue between
5th February is 184 leas 11, or 178.
634
a 'O o -Q
o a 3
S s r^ CO
2 S
« 'c ^ tc
g — tc -s 2
O 'B o -r - •
-A 8
S J
o 2
O ^ 00
S*® -13
«3-f §
-=> ® «
. CO a>
» a "
- - «8
SE CO
-« <c S C
§&§»
• - « o
^ ^ Q ^
.*a '^ © cfl
« a
- <B H tK
a P.
tao
o § S «
aa ■
<s
^ "&
• o «^
DO Ph aj ^
635
TERMS AND ABBREVIATIONS COMMONLY USED
IN BUSINESS.
A/c Account.
C Currency.
$ A dollar.
E. E Errors excepted.
E. & O. E Errors and omissions
excepted.
F. O. B Freeonboard(delivered
on deck without expense to the
ship).
F. P. A Free of particular
average.
Inst Present month.
Prox Next month.
Ult Last month.
D/D Days after date.
M/D Months after date.
D/S Days after sight.
% Per cent.
@ ^ lb At per pound.
B/L Bill of lading.
Ad valorem . . According to value.
Affidavit .... Statement on oath.
Affirmation. . Statement without an
oath.
Agio The premium borne
by a better sort of money above
an inferior.
Assets A term for property
in contradistinction to liabilities.
Banco A continental term for
bank money at Hamburg and
other places.
Dead Freight. — The damage payable by one who engages to load a ship fully,
and fails to do so.
Deviation, in marine insurance, is that divergence from the voyage insiired
which releases the underwriter from his risk.
Discount. — An allowance made for payment of money before due.
Policy. — The document containing the contract of insurance. A Valtud Policy
is when the interest insured is valued. An Open Policy is one in which the i
amount is left for subsequent proof. In an open policy where the value
shipped does not equal the value insured, the difference is termed over
insurance ; and the proportionable amount of premium returnable to the
insurer is called a return for sliort interest.
Primage. — A small allowance for the shipmaster's care of goods, now generally
included in the freight.
Pro rata. — Payment in proportion to the various interests concerned.
Quid pro quo. — Giving one thing for another.
Respondentia. — A contract of loan by which goods in a ship are hypotliecated
to the lender, as in bottomry.
Ullage. — The quantity a cask wants of being fiiU.
636
A CALENDAR
Fob Ascertaining Any Day of the Week fob any Given Time within
THE Present Century.
Years 1801 to 1900.
1801; 1807 1818
1802 1813 1819
18P3!l814 1825
1805 j 1811 1822
1806 1 1817 1823
1809 1 1815 1826
1829 1886 1846
1880 1841 j 1847
1831 1842; 1853
laSS 1889 j 1850
1834 1845 1851
1837 1843:1854
1867
1858
1859
1861
1862
1868 1874 1885 1 1891
1869 1875 1886 1 1897
1870 1881 1887 1 1898
1807 1 1878 1889 j 1896
1873 1879 1890 i ..
1865 11871 1882 1893:1899
S t^ "^
CO 03 ' so
7 3
2 6
II
6 \ 2
1 I 8
8 5
6 1
7 2
4 6
5 7
1810 1821 1827 1838 1849 j 1855 186611877 18&S 1 1894 1900
Note. — To ascertain any day of
tlie week in any year of the present
century, first look in the table of
years for the year required, and
under the months are fiuures which
refer to the corresponding figures
at the head of the columns of days
below. For example : To know what
day of the week May 4 was on
in the year 1876. in the table of
years looR for 1876. Hnd in a parallel
line, under May, is figure 1, which
directs to column 1, in which it
will be seen that May 4 fell on
Thursday.
LEAP YEARS.
1804 1832 1860
1808 1836 1864
1812 1840 1868
1876
j 1824 j 1852 '. 1880
1 1828 1 1856 ■ 1884
1892
4 I 7
2 j 5
7 j 3
5 I 1
6 I 7
6 1
3 5
1 8
3 6 1
1 I 4
6 i 2
6 1
4 6
2 4
7 I 2
7 I 8
4 6
2 4
7 2
5 118
5 7
8 6
1 , 8
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Monday
1
Tuesday
1
Wednesday 1
1 horeday
1 Friday
1 Saturday
1
Sunday 1
Tuesday
2
Wednesday 2
Thursday
2
Friday
2 Saturday
2 Sunday
2
Monday 2
Wednesday 3
Tlmrsdoy
3
Hriday
3
SHtnrday
3 Sunday
3 Monday
3
Tuesday 3
Thursday
4
Friday
4 Satui day
4
Sunday
4 Monday
4 Tuesday
4
Wednesday 4
Friday
5
Saturday
5
Sunday
5
Monday
5 Tuesday
5 Wednesday 5
Thursday 5
Saturday
6
Sunday
6
Monday
6
Tuesday
6 Wednesday 6 Thursday
6
Friday 6
Sunday
7
Monday
7
• uesday
7
Wednesday 7 Thursday
7 Friday
7
Saturday 7
Monday
8
Tuesday
8 j Wednesday 8
Thursday
8 Friday
8 Saturday
8
Sunday 8
•t uesday
9
Wednesday 9] Thursday
y
H'riday
9 Saturday
9 Sunday
9
Monday 9
Wednes.
10
Thursday
101 Friday
10
Saturday
10 Sunday
10 Monday
.10
Tuesday 10
Thursday
11
Friday
11
Saturday
11
SUNDAY
11 Monday
11 Tuesday
11
Wednes. 11
Friday
12
Saturday
12
Sunday
12
Monday
12 Tuesday
12 Wednes.
12
Thursday 12
Saturday
13
Sunday
13
Mondav
13
Tuesday
13 Wednes.
13 Thursday
13
Friday 13
Sunday
14
Monday
14
Tuesttay
14
Wednes.
14 Thursday
14 Friday
14
Saturday 14
Monday
15
Tuesday
15
Wednes.
15
Thursday
15 Friday
15 Saturday
15
Sunday 16
Tuesday
16
Wednes.
16 1 Thursday
16
Friday
16 Saturday
16 Sunday
16
Monday 16
Wednes.
17
Thursday
17 1 Friday
17
Siturday
17 Sunday
17 Mondav
17
Tuesday 17
Thursday
18
Friday
18 Saturday
18
Sunday
18 Monday
18 Tuesday
18
Wednes. 18
Friday
19
Saturday
19
Sunday
19
Monday
19 Tuesday
19 Wednes.
19
Thursday 19
Saturday
20
Sunday
20
Monday
20
Tuesday
20 Wednes.
20 Thursday
20
Friday 2U
SUNDAY
21
Monday
21
Tuesday
21
Wednes.
21 Thursday
21 Friday
21
Saturday 21
Monday
22
Tuesday
22
Wednes.
22
Thursday
22 Friday
22 Saturday
22
Sunday 22
Tuesday
23
Wednes.
23
Thursday
23
Friday
23 Saturday
28 Sunday
23
Monday 23
Wednes.
24
Thursday
24
Friday
24
Saturday
24 Sunday
24 Monday
24
Tuesday 24
Thursday
25
Friday
25
Saturday
25
Sunday
25 Monday
25 Tuesday
25
Wednes. 25
Friday
26
Saturday
26
Sunday
26
M onday
26 Tuesday
26 Wednes.
26
Thursday 26
Saturday
27
Sundav
27
Monday
27
Tuesday
27 Wednes
27 Thursday
2/
Friday 27
Sun HAY
:!8
Monday
28
Tuesday
28
Wednes.
28 Thur-day
28 Friday
28
Saturday 28
Monday
29
Tuesday
29
Wednes.
29
'• hursday
29 Friday
29 Saturday
29
Sunday 29
Tuesday
30
Wednes.
30
Thursday
30
Fi iday
30 Saturday
30 Sunday
30
Monday 30
Wednes.
31
Thursday
31
Friday
31
Saturday
31
Sunday
81 Monday
31
Tuesday 31
637
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
Troy Weight.
Penny^-ts. Grains, gr.
Ounces. 1 = 24 dirt.
Pound. 1 = 20 = 480 oz.
1 = 12 = 240 = 5760 lb.
A carat = 4 ({rains. 100 Troy ouuces = 190f
Ounces Avoirdup Aa.
AvoiBDCPOis Weight.
dr.Ty.gr.
oz.
l=27t
lb
1 =
16 = 437*
8t.
1 =
16 =
256=700(
1 =
14 =
224 =
3.584
2=
28=
448=
7168
qr.
cvrt. 1 =
Ton. 1= 4= 8= 112= 1792= 28672
1 = 20=80=160=2240=35840=578440
Ton. ewt. qr. st. lb. oz. dr. gr.
A Cental = 100 pounds. 100 Ounces Avoirdu-
pois = 91j'g Ounces Troy.
Tlie Apotliecaries' Weight it now the same as the
Avoirdupois.
Lineal Measore, or Measure or
Length.
ft.
iu.
yds.
1 =
12
Pl
1 =
8 =
36
ch.
1
= 5i=
16 J =
198
fur.
1 =
4
= 22 =
66 =
792
Mile. 1 =
10 =
40
= 220 =
660 =
7920
1=8 =
80 =
320
= 1760 =
5280 =63360
A league
= 3 miles.
A hand =
4 inches
. A
fathom = 6 feet.
Gf-ographical degree = 60 geographical or
nautical miles = 69121 iiuper. miles.
Geographical mile = 1150 imperial miles.
A military pace = 2^ feet.
Solid or Cubic Measure.
Cubic feet. Cubic inches.
Cubic yard. 1 = 1728
1 = 27 = 46656
1 Ton of Shipping = 40 cubic feet.
1 Barrel Bulk =5 cubic feet.
Liquid Measure of Capacity.
Gallon.
1
Quarts.
1
4
Pints.
1
2
Gills.
4
8
82
Square or Land Measure.
^q feet. Sq.ln.
Sq. yards. 1 >> 144
Sq. poles. 1 = 9 = 1'2B6
Sq. roods. 1 = 80J= 373*-= 89904
Sq.acre. 1 = 40 = 1210 = 10690 = 1568160
1 = 4 = 160 = 4840 = 43S60 = 6379610
1 square mile =640 acres: 36 square jrards^^l
rood of building: 100 sq. feet = 1 8<iaar« of
flooiing: 272i sq. feet= 1 rood of bricklayer's
work. Th>i chain with which land is measured
is 22 yards long, and 1 i>q chain = 10,000 sq.
link-i. Contains 22x22=484 sq. yards: 10 sq.
chains = 1 acre.
Table of Time.
Minutes.
Hours. 1
1 = 60
24 = 1440
168 = 10080
Seconds.
60
= 8600
= 86400
= 604800
A ho^rshead (hhd.) contains 63 gallons. A.
pipe is 2 hogsheads, and 2 pipes f rm a tun.
All liquids are measuroil by this table.
Grain Measure, &c., or Dry Measure
OF Capacity.
Pecks. Gallons.
Bushels. 1 = 2
Quarter. 1 = * ~ .^
1 = 8 = 82 = 64
1 Boll of Wheat = 4 bushels nearly.
1 Boll of Brtriey = 6 „
5 Bushels are m sack.
5 Quarters make a load.
Days.
Week. 1 =
1=7 =
1 Common Year = 865 days, or 52 weeks 1 day.
1 Leap Year = 866 dayr, or 52 weeks 2 days.
1 Solar Year — 865 days 5 hours 48 minutes
49 seconds.
Geographical or Nautical Measure.
1 Geographical mile = { ^'^ ""eWL""" "'
3 „ miles . . = 1 league
60 „ miles . . = ] ^ degree, marked d*p.
860 ,, degs. or about _ ( Circumfer. nee of
24,855} imp. miles I the earth.
Bread Weight.
Ih. oz.
A Peck Loaf weighs 17 6}
A Half Heck Loaf 8 U
A Quartern Loaf 4 5
A Peck or Stone of Flour 14 0
A Bushel of Flour 66 6
A Sack of Flour, or 5 Bushels ... 280 0
Useful Weights.
The following Table vt-ill be found useful
when it is de»ired to ascertain the weight of a
letter or other article, aud aultaUle weight*
are not at hand. The weight given is that of
coins fairly worn ; allowance must i-e made if
I those used' he new or verj- old.
Joz Halfpenny and threepenny piece.
' I ...One penny piece.
...Florin and sixpence.
...Three pennies.
...4 half-crowns and one aliilUng.
, . .4 florins, 4 half-crowns, 'i\ penaiM.
Books.
P<ge«.
FoUo Books 4
Quarto, or 4t.i 8
Octavo, 8vo 16
Duodecimo, or 12ino . . 34
Octodecimo, or 18mo . . 86
24ino, 82mo, 48ino, 72mo, *«..
Leave*. Sheet*,
or 3
.. 4
., 8
.. IS
.. 18
, Ac.
638
A
READY RECKONER.
No.
Jd.
id.
id.
Id. j 2d.
3d.
4d.
5d. ' 6d.
Id.
8d. 9d.
lOd.
lid. No.
I
0 01
0 Oi
0 Of
0 2I
0102
0 3
0
4
0 5 0
6
0 7
0 8 0
9
0 10
0 11 I
2
0 0
0 1
0 2 0 4
0 6
0
8
0 10 1
0
1 2
1 4
1
6
1 8
1 10 2
3
0 0
0 li
0 3 0 6
0 9
1
0
13 1
6
1 9
2 0
2
3
2 6
293
4
0 1,0 2"
0 8
0 4,08
1 0
1
4
1 8
2
0
2 4
2 8
8
0
3 4
884
5
0 u! 0 24
0 81
0 5 I 0 10
1 3
1
8
2 1
2
6
2 11
3 4
3
9
4 2
4 7
i
6
0 1
0 3
0 4
0 6 i 1 0
1 6
2
0
2 6
3
0
3 6
4 0
4
6
5 0
5 6
i
0 l!
0 SA
0 5
0 7 12
1 9
2
4
2 11 8
6
4 1
4 8 16
8
5 10
6 5
I
0 2 0 4'
0 6
0 8 I 1 4
2 0
2
8
8 4 4
0
4 8
5 4 6
0
6 8
7 4
9
0 2i 0 U
0 6;
0 7,
0 9
1 6
2 3
8
0
3 9 4
6
5 8
6 0 6
9
7 6
« 3
9
10
0 2i 0 5"
0 10
1 8
2 6
3
4
4 2 5
0
5 10
6 8 7
6
8 4
9 2
9 2
10
XI
0 2|
0 5i
0 8i
0 11
1 10
2 9
3
8
4 7
5
6
6 5
7 4 8
8
10 1
II
13
0 8
0 6
0 9
1 0
2 0
3 0
4
0
5 0
6
C
7 0
8 0 9
0 !10 0
11 0
12
13
0 Si
0 6i
0 93
1 1
2 2
8 3
4
4
5 5
6
6
7 7
8 8,9
9 !10 10
11 11
13
J4
0 3
0 3
0 7
0 10
1 2
2 4
8 6
4
8
5 10
7
0
8 2
9 4 llO
6
11 8
12 10
14
15
0 7J
0 11
1 3
2 6
3 9
5
0
6 3
7
6
8 9
10 0 11
3
12 6 jl3 9
15
16
0 4
0 8
1 0
1 4
2 8
4 0
5
4
6 8
8
0
9 4
10 8 12
0
13 4 14 8
16
\l
Sit
0 8J
1 Of
1 5
2 10
4 3
5
8
7 1
8
6
9 11
11 4 12
9
14 2 15 7
17
0 9
1 1
1 6
8 0
4 6
6
0
7 6
9
0
10 6
12 0 13
6
15 0 116 6
18
19
0 41
0 9J
1 2
1 7
3 2
4 9
6
4
7 11 9
6
11 1
12 8 14
3
15 10 17 5
19
30
31
0 5
0 10
1 3
1 8
3 4
5 0
6
8
8 4 [10
0
11 8
13 4 15
0
16 8 18 4
30
31
0 54
0 m
1 8f
1 9
3 6
5 3
7
0
8 9 10
6
12 3
14 0 15
9
17 6 19 3
33
0 5|
Oil
1 4*
1 10
3 8
5 6
7
4
9 2 11
0
12 10
14 8 16
0
18 4 20 2
32
33
0 51
0 llj
1 5i
1 11
3 10
5 9
7
8
9 7
11
6
13 5
15 4 17
8
19 2 21 1
23
34
0 6
1 0
1 6
2 0
4 0
6 0
8
0
10 0
12
0
14 0
16 0 18
0
20 0 22 0
24
^
0 62
1 Oi
1 61
2 1
4 2
6 3
8
4
10 5
12
6
14 7
16 8 18
9 '20 10 22 11
25
0 6
1 1
1 7*
2 2
4 4
6 6
8
8
10 10
13
0 15 2
17 4 19
6 21 8 23 10
26
27
0 6| 1 li
1 8|
2 3
4 6
6 9
9
0 ill 3
13
6 115 9
18 0 20
3 22 6 24 9
27
28
0 7 12
1 9
2 4
4 8
7 0
9
4 11 8
14
0 lie 4
18 8 21
0 23 4 25 8
28
39
0 7i 1 2J
1 9|
1 io|
2 5
4 10
7 3
9
8
12 1
14
6 !16 11
19 4 21
9 24 2 26 7
29
30
0 74 1 3
2 6
5 0
7 6
10
0
12 6
15
0 }17 6
20 0 22
6 25 0 27 6
30
33
0 8J! 1 4i
2 0|
2 9
5 6
8 3
11
0
18 9
16
6 119 3
22 0 24
9 27 6 30 8
33
36
0 9 16
a 3
3 0
6 0
9 0
12
0
15 0 118
0 21 0
24 0 27
0 |30 0 33 0
36
40
0 10 1 1 8
2 6
3 4
6 8
10 0
13
4
16 8 20
0 23 4
26 8 30
0 33 4 i36 8
40
42
0 lOi 1 9
2 7i
3 6 7 0
10 6
14
0
17 6 21
0 24 6
28 0 31
6 ;35 0 '38 6
42
45
0 Hi 1 lOJ
2 91
3 9 7 6
11 8
15
0
18 9 22
6 ,26 3
30 0 33
9 87 6 41 3 45
48
10 2 0
3 0
4 0 8 0
12 0
16
0
20 0 24
0 28 0
32 0 36
0 !40 0 i44 0 48
50
1 OA 2 1
3 U
4 2 8 4
12 6
16
8
20 10 ;25
0 29 2
33 4 37
6 |41 8 45 10 50
51
1 Of 2 IJ
3 2i
4 3 8 6
12 9
17
0
21 3 25
6 29 9
34 0 88
3
42 6 ,46 9
5«
! 52
1 1 i 2 2
3 3
4 4 8 8
13 0
17
4
21 8 26
0 30 4
34 8 39
0
43 4 47 8
52
53
1 IJ; 2 2J
3 3?
4 5
« 10
13 3
17
8
22 1 26
6
30 11
35 4 39
9
44 2 48 7
53
1 li 2 3
3 4|
4 6
9 0
13 6
18
0 22 6 27
0
31 6
36 0 40
6
45 0
49 6
1 2 ! 2 4
3 6
4 8
9 4
14 0
18
8 123 4 28
0
32 8
37 4 42
0
46 8
51 4
60
1 3 1 2 6
3 9
5 0
10 0
15 0
20
0 '25 0 '80
0 35 0
40 0 45
0
50 0
56 0
60
WAGES TABLE.
Per ' Per
r
er
Per i
Per
Per
Per
Per
per
Per
Per
Per
Year. Month.
W(
jek.
Day. 1
Year.
Mont
h.
Week.
Day.
Year.
£ s.
Momh.
Week.
Day.
iE B. 1 8. d.
8.
d.
8. d
£ B.
£ 8.
a.
8. d.
8. d.
£ 8. d.
£ 8. d.
£ 8. d.
0 10 ! 0 10
0
2i
0 0}
0 0;
8 0
0 13
4
3 1
0 5i
18 0
1 10 0
0 6 11
0 0 Hi
10 18
0
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639
CIVIL LIST PENSIONS.
LIST OF ALL Pensions granted during the Year ended 20th Jcne, 1893,
AND charged upon THE CiVIL LiST.
(From Official Sources.)
Name.
I>ate of Grant. ^^^^ Amount
1°"2' ' of Pension.
August 15 Mr. William Smyth Eockstko £100
In consideration of his services to musical literature,
and of his inadequate means of support.
August 15 Mrs. Cashel Hoey 50
In consideration of her literary merits, and of her
inadequate means of support.
November 29... Mrs. Emilie Dittm.ar 75
In consideration of the services to chemical science
rendered by her late husband, Professor William
Dittmar, F.R.S.
November 29. . .Miss Lucy M.4by Jane Garnett 100
In recognition of her literary merits, and to enable her
to prosecute her researches in oriental folk lore.
November 29. ..Mr. Egbert Brown, jun 100
In consideration of his merits as a student of archaeology.
November 29... Dr. Samuel Davidson 100
In recognition of the value of his works on theology
and biblical criticism.
1893.
February
24.
.Eev. EicHARD Morris 150
In recognition of his merits as a student of early
English literature and philology.
February 24... Miss Margaret Stokes 100
In consideration of her researches into early Christian
art and archaeology in Ireland.
.Mr. John Gwenogvryn Ev.a.ns 200
To enable him to continue his researches in Welsh
literature.
.Mrs. Cornelia Minto .* 75
In consideration of the literary merits of her husband,
the late Professor Minto, and of her inadequate
means of support.
.Mrs. Annie S. C. Eggers 50
In recognition of the merits of her husband, the late
Professor Thorold Rogers, as a writer upon political
economy.
.Mrs. Therese Wolstenholme 50
In consideration of the merits of her husband, the late
Rev. Joseph Wolstenholme, as a mathematician,
and of her straitened circumstances.
.Mrs. Frances E. Trollope 50
In consideration of the literary merits of her husband,
the late Mr. Thomas .4dolphu8 Trollope, and of her
narrow means.
June 19.
June 19.
June 19.
June 19.
June 19.
Total £1,200
640
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co-*o;ot- 00 050--cNco-*>o
641
CONTEIBUTIONS WHICH HAVE APPEARED IN "THE
CO-OPERATIVE WHOLESALE SOCIETIES'
ANNUAL" FROM 1885 TO 1894.
ANNUAL, 1885. pages.
The Growth and Manufacture of Articles Consumed by
Co-operators 146 to 187
Co-operative Agriculture. — By Bolton King ..... 187 to 194
Co-operative Agriculture applied to Market Gardening
and Fruit Culture. — By the Editor of The Agri-
cultural Economist 194 to 197
I. Sketch of the Rise and Progress of Merchant Shipping
(five parts) 198 to 238
II. Effects of the Introduction of Steam
III. Statistics of the Principal Ports of the World.
IV. British Laws Affecting Merchant Shipping.
V. Causes of the Decay of some Mercantile Marines, and
of the Pre-eminence of that of Great Britain.
The Merchant Shipping Bill 239 to 242
Our Colonial Empire and Emigration 243-4
The Advantages of Emigration (two parts).— By George
Jacob Holyoake 245 to 253
I. To those who go Out. II. To those who are left at Home.
Rugby, Tennessee.— By Thomas Hughes, Q.C 254 to 258
Colonies Adapted for Permanent Homes. Canada-
General (seven parts) 259 to 286
I Prince Edward Island.
II. Nova Scotia.
III. New Brunswick.
IV. Quebec.
V. Ontario.
VI. Manitoba and the North- West Territories.
VII. British Columbia.
Australia.— General (five parts) 286 to 321
I. Victoria.
II. New South Wales.
III. Queensland
IV. South Australia. _ . xt *. i
V Western Australia. New Zealand. Tasmania. Natal.
Cape Colony.
Colonies Adapted for Temporary Residence only (two ^ ^^^
parts) ;: :
I. The West Indies and Adjacent American Possessions.
II. East Indies, Ceylon, Mauritius, and West Coast ol
Africa.
42
642
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE "ANNUAL" FBOM 1885 TO 1894.
ANNUAL, 1886 — Continued. pages.
A Century-and-a-half of English Labour. — By Professor
Eogers, M.P 327 to 351
Trade Unions: Their Origin, Eise, Progress, and
Work.— By George Howell, F.S.S 352 to 359
Statistics of Trade Unions 360 to 373
Registered Trade Unions in England and Wales, 1871
to 1872.
Registered Trade Unions, 1883 and 1884.
Trade Union Congresses from 1868 to 1884, inclusive.
Unregistered Trade Unions in 1884.
Trade Unions and the Working Classes. — By T.
Burt, M.P 374 to 378
Theories and Facts about Wages.— By Alfred Marshall 379 to 393
Primary Education in England. — By Dr. John Watts . . . 393 to 404
London School Board. — By the Hon. E. Lyulph
Stanley, M.P 404-5
Manchester School Board. — By Henry Slatter 405-6
Eochdale School Board 407-8
Sheffield School Board.— By Thomas Swann 409 to 411
Twelve Years of School Work in Ipswich. — By George
Hines 411-12
Technical Instruction.— By John Slagg, M.P 413 to 420
The Education of Co-operators and Citizens. — By
A. H. D. Acland 420 to 424
Culture.— By E. D. Eoberts 424 to 426
J' Secondary Education. — By A. H. D. Acland 426 to 437
y' Higher Education.— By F. Storr 437 to 442
X Statistics of Expenditure of Public Money on Education 443 to 460
The Enclosure of Common Lands 461 to 470
ANNUAL, 1886.
The Progress of Society 77 to 80
Popular Discontent 80 to 85
Early Co-operative Efforts 86 to 115
Robert Owen. Labour Exchange.
Home Colonies. Relation of the Worker to his Work.
Social Experiments in the United States. — By Laurence
Gronlund (Author of The Co-operative Common-
wealth) 116 to 138
French and German Socialism. — By Laurence Gronlund 138 to 150
r
643
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE "ANNUAL" FROM 1885 TO 1894.
ANNUAL, 188&— Continued. paoes.
Ideal Communities.— By W. C. J 151 to 184
Plato's Republic.
More's Utopia.
Bacon's New Atlantis.
The Adventures of Siguier Gaudentio Di Lucca.
Retail and Wholesale Stores 185 to 188
First Step. A Difficulty.
Second Step. Why ao?
Co-operative Production. — By Henry Slatter, J.P 188 to 194
One Outcome of Distributive Co-operation 194 to 202
Housing of the Working Classes 203 to 218
The Commissioners' Report. Sanitary Condition.
The Picture The Middleman.
Bureau of Labour Statistics 218 to 232
The Pullman Labour City. The Buildings.
Labour Bureau. Remarks on Pullman City.
The Ballot 232 to 237
Popular Power— A People's Party 238 to 250
The Birth of Popular Freedom in England.— By W. C. J. 250 to 257
I. Sketch of the General Tendencies of the Fourteenth
Century.
II. Condition of the Peasantry. Revolt of the Peasantry.
Trade-unionism in its Permanent Effect on the Condition
of the Worker 267 to 279
Trade-unionism as an Agency for the Promotion of
Co-operation.
The Working Classes and Political Economy 279 to 284
Industrial Conflicts and British Trade 285 to 298
ANNUAL, 1887.
Money. — By Professor J. Shield Nicholson (nine parts).. 137 to 184
I. Difficulties in the Study and Practical Importance
of the Subject.
II. Functions of Money.
III. Material Money and Requisites of Gold Coinage.
IV. Gresham's Law and Token Coins.
V. The Quantity of Money and General Prices.
VI. Effects of Creditor " Representative Money" on Prices.
VII. Influence on the General Level of Prices in any one
Country of the General Level of Prices in other
Countries.
VIII. Effects of General Prices of the Use of both Gold and
Silver as Standard Money.
IX. International Bi-metallism.
644
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE " ANNUAL " FROM 1885 TO 1894.
ANNUAL, 1887— Continued. pages.
The Land and the People. — By Mr. Arthur Arnold,
President of the Free Land League 184 to 210
What is Land ? Land Nationalisation further Examined.
National Property in Land. Other Methods of Reform.
The only Absolute Owner. Mr. Henry George's Method.
A Few Authorities. The Law of Primogeniture.
Private Property in Laud. Evils of Copyhold Tenure.
Density of Population means Death. Settlement of Land.
The Town Side of the Question. Conveyance by Registration of Title.
Large and Small Properties. Hundreds of Insolvent Proprietors.
The Divorce from the Soil. Common and Waste Lands.
The Debts of Landed Proprietors. Enfranchisement of Leaseholds.
Some Plans of Reform. Agricultural Tenants' Improvements.
Minerals in Land. Taxation of Land.
Co-operation in its Application to Agriculture. — By
George Hines 210 to 232
What some Co-operators have Said. How we should go about Farming.
What some Societies are Doing. The Interest of the Labourer.
What some Practical Agriculturists Say. Farming by Distributive Co-operative
Some Examples of Skilful Farming. Societies.
What Profits may be Expected.
Eminent Men on Co-operation 233 to 247
What GUI' old friends used to say twenty-five years ago.
What our friends say from 1880 to 1886.
Civil Service Stores 247 to 269
Enghshmen in the World of Labour.— By J. L. B. ... 270 to 303
1. How the Labourer is regarded. 6 Production and Exchange.
2. The Aim of Life. 7. Supply and Demand.
3. Property. 8. Division of the Produce.
4. The Social Sieve. 9. Consumption of the Produce.
5. Income and Capital. 10. Intelligent Freedom.
History of Milling. — By R. Witherington, Milling
Engineer to Messrs. Thomas Robinson and Son
Limited, of Rochdale 304 to 313
Old System of Milling.
New Sj'stem of ^Milling.
A Sketch of the British Cotton Industry — Past, Present,
and Prospective.— By J. C. Fielden 313 to 344
I. The Past.
II. The Present.
III. Prospective.
The Legislation Relating to Industrial and Provident
Societies.— By E. Vansittart Neale 344 to 374
645
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE "ANNUAL" FROM 1885 TO 1894.
ANNUAL, 1888. pages.
Co-operation : Its Spread and its Power.— By T. Swann. 125 to 126
Inland Navigation.— By James W. Harvey 127 to 181
I. Early Origin of Inland Navigation.
II. The Inland Navigation System of England and Wales
III. The Waterways of Scotland
IV. Internal Navigation in Ireland.
V. Inland Navigation in France.
VI. The Great Water Highways of the Dominion of Canada.
VII. Navigable Waterways of the United States.
VIII. Inland Navigation in Russia.
IX. Inland Navigation in Sweden.
X. Inland Navigation in Italy.
XI. Inland Navigation in Spain
XII. Inland Navigation in Holland and Belgium.
XIII. Inland Navigation in Germany and Austria.
XIV. Inland Navigation in India.
XV. The Suez Canal.
XVI. The Panama Canal.
The Economic Aspect of Sanitation 182 to 194
Melbourne and its District.— By William Nuttall 194 to 236
The Position of the World's Grain. — ^By George T.
Turner, Editor of the Mark Lane Express 237 to 263
Insurance, and what is worth knowing about it. — By
Thomas Eigbye Glover 264 to 277
Dairy Farming in Sweden 277 to 285
Co-operation versus Socialism. — By Patrick Geddes 285 to 308
Chapter I. Co-operator and Socialist versus Capitalist.
„ II. Economic Theory - Past and Present.
„ III. Actual Economic Progress as a Source of Economic
Theory.
„ IV. Co- operation versus Socialism in Practice.
Co-operation and Education. — By Rev. T. G. Davies ... 308 to 314
National Expenditure Accounts and Audit. — By W. E.
Snell 315 to 332
Wheat Flour .332 to 336
Valuable Opinions on Co-operation not quoted in previous
Issues of the " Annual " 337 to 346
Breeding and Feeding of Horses and Cattle. — By David
Johnson, late Manager of Radbourne Manor and
Upton Hill Farms 347 to 364
ANNUAL, 1889.
Land Tenure in England. — By Professor J. E. Thorold
Rogers 167 to 190
646
OONTBIBUTION8 TO THE "ANNUAL" FROM 1885 TO 1894.
ANNUAL, 1889— Contimied. pages.
Commercial Geography. — By Rev. L. C Casartelli,
Ph.D., M.A., St. Bede's College 191 to 203
I. The Prospects of Commercial Education.
II. The Proviuce of Commercial Geography.
III. Mutual Reactiou of Geography and Trade.
IV. The Teaching of Commercial Geography, Abroad and
at Home.
Electricity : Light and Power. — By M. Holroyd Smith,
M.I.M.E.,M.S.T.E. andE., etc 204 to 227
The National Debt : Its Origin, Growth, and the Methods
which have been Adopted from time to time for its
Reduction.— By W. A. S. Hewins 227 to 265
Part I. The Origin and Growth of the National Debt.
Part II. Additions to the National Debt since 1815.
Part III. The Reduction of the Debt.
Great Strikes : Their Origin, Cost, and Results. — By
George Howell, F.S.S., M.P 266 to 311
Rating 312 to 321
Leather. — By Sparke Evans, J. P., Avonside Tannery,
Bristol 322 to 328
Boot and Shoe Making : As it Was and as it Is. — By
"An Old Craft" 328 to 333
y The Royal Commission on Education. — By Henry
Slatter, J.P 334 to 343
^ The System of Credit as Practised by Co-operative
Societies.— By J. C. Gray 344 to 365
Our Fruit-Growing Industry.— By George T. Turner ... 366 to 376
The Advantages and Necessity of a Co-operative Whole-
sale Centre of Supply, as Established in the
Organisation of the English and Scottish Wholesale
Societies.— By H. R. Bailey 377 to 389
An Account of the Origin and Development of the
Manchester Ship Canal 389 to 405
Initiation of the First Navigable Waterway between
, Manchester and the Estuary of the Mei-sey,
Provision of a Second Navigable Waterway between
Manchester and the Estuary of the Mex-sey.
Establishment of a Competitive Means of Communica-
tion.
ANNUAL, 1890.
• Land Nationalisation. — By A. J. Ogilvy, Vice-President
of the Land Nationalisation Society 131 to 160
Fluctuations in Commerce and Trade. — By George
^ Howell, F.S.S., M.P 161 to 186
647
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE " ANNUAL " FROM 1885 TO 1894.
ANNUAL, 1890— Ccmtinued. pages.
Pauperism : Its Nature and Extent ; its Causes, and
Eemedies. A Review of Poor Law Administration. —
By George Howell, F.S.S., M.P 187 to 208
Rings, Trusts, and Syndicates.— By W. E. Snell 209 to 235
Spelling Reform and Phonography. — By Henry Pitman. 236 to 272
A Short Outline of the Growth of English Industry up
to the Beginning of the Present Century. — By H. De
B. Gibbins, B.A., sometime Scholar of Wadham
College, Oxford 273 to 307
Part I. The Anglo-Saxon Period.
II From the Norman Conquest to Henry III.
III. From the Reign of Henry III. to that of Henry VIII.
IV. From Elizabeth to the Beginning of the Nineteenth
Century.
Development of Our Eastern Markets for British Cotton
Manufactures. —By Holt S. Hallett 308 to 370
The Relations of Art to Labour.— By William Morris ... 371 to 382
Shoe Machinery : Its Effect on Wages and Cost of
Production.— By "An Old Craft." 383 to 387
ANNUAL, 1891.
The English Constitution : Its Origin and Growth.— By
Henrv Dunckley, M.A., LL.D 129 to 162
Industrial" London.— By George Howell, F.S.S., M.P. ... 163 to 198
I Boot and Shoe Trades.
II. The Tailoring Trades.
Ill The Cabinet-making Trades.
IV. Artificial Flower ISIaking.
Sweating in Indian Factories and Workshops. — By Holt
S. Hallett 199 to 268
History of Factory Legislation in India.
Condition of Indian Factories in 1888.
Mining Royalties.— By Professor J. E. C Mum-o 269 to 287
I England. V. Germany.
II. France. VI. Austria.
III. Belgium. VII. Italy.
IV Spain. VIII. Sweden and Norway.
IX. United States.
Soap.-By J. E. Green, F.I.C., F.C.S 288 to 307
The Recent History of Industrial Progi-ess.— By Robert
Spence Watson 308 to 346
The Rise and Progi'ess of the Industries of Glasgow.—
Bv
kobert Leggat 347 to 379
-'oo
648
CONTBIBUTION8 TO THE "ANNUAL" FROM 1885 TO 1894.
ANNUAL, 1691— Continued.
The Sources of our Meat Supply. — By James Long, late
Professor of Dairy Farming at the Eoyal Agricultural
"'-'fe'^
The United States
Germany.
Spain and Portugal.
Australia.
Holland.
Russia.
Queensland.
Denmark.
Argentine Republic.
Victoria.
Sweden.
Venezuela.
New South "Wales.
Norway.
Channel Islands.
South Australia.
Belgium.
Our International Trade
New Zealand.
France.
Canada.
Italy.
ANNUAL, 1892.
/
The Influence of Modern Industry on Social and
Economic Conditions. — By Henry Dyer, C.E., M.A.,
D.Sc 145 to 190
I. Introductory' and Historical.
II. Social Conditions.
III. Modifying Forces.
IV. Economic Results.
The Eich Richer, and the Poor Poorer : An Essay on the
Distribution of Wealth. — By George Howell, F.S.S.,
M.P 191 to 242
I. The Social Condition of the XL
People. XII.
II. Pauperism : Its Extent and Cost. XIII.
III. Famine and Plagues. XIV.
IV. Food of the People. XV.
V. Clothing of the People. XVI.
VI. Dwellings of the People. XVII.
VII. Homes of the People. XVIII.
VIII. Expenditure upon Intoxicating XIX.
Drinks. XX.
IX. Amusements of the People. XXI.
XXIL
X. Education and Culture.
The Standard of Living.
Wants and Needs.
Average Duration of Life.
Savings Banks.
Co-operation.
Friendly Societies.
Building Societies.
Trade Unions.
Industrial Assurance.
Wages of Labour.
Hours of Labour.
Protective Law.
XXIII.
XXIV.
Part II.
♦• The Rich Richer.
Conclusions.
The South Sea Bubble.— By Henry Dunckley, M.A.,
LL.D 243 to 278
The First National Debts.
The South Sea Company.
The South Sea Scheme.
The Scheme as Finally Adopted.
The Scheme becomes a Bubble.
The Bubble Collapsing.
A Parliamentary Inquiry.
Discoveries.
Retribution.
Causes and Lessons.
649
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE "ANNUAL" FROM 1885 TO 1894.
ANNUAL, 1892— Continued.
PAGES.
V Sketches from Commercial and Industrial History. — By
H. De Gibbins, M.A 279 to 318
Introduction.
I. History Generally.
II. The True Historian— The
Greeks.
III. Various Kinds of History-
Economic.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
XIII.
XIV.
XV.
XXVI.
XXVII.
XXVIII.
XXIX.
XXX.
XXXI.
XXXII.
XLI.
XLII.
XLIII,
XLIV,
XLV.
XLVI,
XLvn.
I. Perkin Warbeck.
English and Flemish Trade. XVI.
Methods of Trade— Fairs —
Winchester. XVII.
Fairs and Household Life. XVIII.
Early History of Warbeck.
Mediaeval Flanders. XIX.
Wealth of the Flemish.
Flemish Cities XX.
Margaret of Burgundy and
Henry VII. XXI.
Warbeck's First Attempts. XXII.
His Reception by the XXIII.
Duchess.
Warbeck's Party in England. XXIV.
Henry VII.'s Masterstroke. XXV.
II. The Hansa.
XXXIII.
The Power of the Hansa.
Its Organisation and Con-
gresses.
The Seal of Lubeck and its
Meaning.
The Hansa Factories — Lon-
don.
The Steelyard in the Olden XXXVIII.
Times. XXXIX.
Political Influence of the XL.
Hansa.
Decay of the League.
XXXIV.
XXXV.
XXXVI.
XXXVII.
Further Attempts by War-
beck.
Warbeck in Scotland.
How Perkin was Ruined by
Commercial Causes.
How Warbeck came to his
End.
The Merchant Companies
and Gilds
The Development of Gilds.
The Glovers' Gild at Perth.
The Merchant Adventurers
and the Hansa
Origin of the Hansa — Piracy.
Complaints about Pirates.
Wullenweber, Lubeck, and
Protestantism.
Wullenweber's Great Scheme
How Henry VIII. of England
Helped it.
Opposition.
War by Sea and I^and.
Defeat and Disunion.
Wullenweber's Martyrdom.
Co-operation and Self-seek-
ing— a Moral.
III. The Peasant's Wab.
Distant Influences — Old
Trade Routes.
Venice, Genoa, and the
Rhine Towns.
The Feudal Lords and Trade.
A Jovial Robber.
How the Discovery of the
Cape of Good Hope affected
German Trade.
How the Turks took Egypt.
The German Serf and how
he Lived.
XL VIII. How he was made to Suffer
for the Decay of Trade.
XLIX. The First Mutterings of a
Storm
L. The Nobles' League a^aisst
the "Common Man."
LI. Further Oppressions.
LII. The Worms Turn at Last.
LIII. What the Peasants asked for.
LIV. How their Prayers were
Answered
LV. A Lesson for our own Day.
650
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE "ANNUAL" FROM 1885 TO 1894.
ANNUAL, 1Q92—C(mtimied. pages.
The Education of the People.— By J. Hirst Hollowell... 319 to 344
The Past State of English Education. The Distribution of the Population
The Act of 1870 and the Present State under School Boards and School
of Education. Attendance Committees.
Results of Twenty Years of Educa- Free Education and School Fees.
tional Legislation. The Elementarj' Education (Free
Efficiency. Grant} Act, 1891.
Exemption from School Attendance. Ireland
Half-timei-s. The United States.
The Extra Subjects. Conclusion.
Payment of Members of Parliament. — By Sir Edward
Grey, M.P 345 to 359
Our Trade in Dairy Produce. — By James Long 360 to 429
Butter. Italy.
Cheese. Switzerland.
ilargarine. Belgium.
Condensed Milk. Russia and Other Countries.
The United States. Australasia.
France. New South Wales.
Denmark. Victoria.
Sweden. South Australia.
Norway New Zealand.
Holland. Imports and Exports.
Germany. Conclusion.
The Productive Departments of the Co-operative Whole-
sale Society Limited 430 to 473
The Crumpsall Works. Livingstone Mill, Batley; and Leeds.
Leicester Boot and Shoe Works. London Tea, Coffee, Cocoa, and Choco-
Heckmondwike late Departments.
Durham Soap Works.
ANNUAL, 1893.
Stock Exchanges : Their Origin and History. — By Henry
Dunckley, M.A., LL.D 171 to 209
The First English Exchange. Dealing in Futures.
Origin of Stock " Kings" of the Stock Exchange.
The East India Company. Foreign Investments.
Speculation and Stockjobbing. Panic of 1825.
The National Debt The Railway Era.
The Bank of England. The Railway King.
Brokers and Stockjobbers. Joint-stock Enterprises.
'Change Alley and Capel Court. Quotation on the Stock Exchange.
Stockjobbing Operations. Aggregate Investments of the World.
Conclusion.
651
CONTBIBUTIONS TO THE "ANNUAL" FROM 1885 TO 1894.
ANNUAL, 1893— Continued. paobb.
J. The Course ofBritishTrade.-By Geo. Howell, F.S.S.,M.P. 210 to 284
I. The Aggi-egate Trade of the United Kingdom.
II. British Trade with Foreign Countries.
A. Industrial Competitive Foreign Countries.
The United States. 5. Belgium. 9. Italy.
France. 6. Russia. 10. Denmark.
Germany. 7. Sweden and Norway. 11. Portugal.
4. Holland.
8. Spain.
13. Switzerland
12. Austro-Hungary.
B. Non-Competitive Foreign Countries.
14. Turkey. 16. China. 18. Roumania.
15. Egypt. 17. Japan. 19. Greece.
Central and South American Group of States.
20. Argentine Republic. 25. Central America. 30. Hayti and St. Do-
2G. Uruguay. mingo.
27. Columbia. 31. Morocco.
28. Venezuela. 32 W. Coast of Africa.
29. Ecuador. 33. Other Countries.
21. Brazil
22. Chili.
23. Mexico
24. Peru.
III. British Colonies and Possessions.
1. India.
2. Australasia.
3. British N. America.
4. South African Colo-
nies.
5. West India Islands
and British Guiana.
6. Straits Settlements.
7. Hong Kong.
8. Ceylon.
9. West Africa (Gambia
and Sierre Leone
10. The Gold Coast and
Lagos.
11. Mauritius.
12. Britisli Honduras.
13 The Channel Islands.
14. Malta and Gozo.
15 Gibraltar.
Review.
Conclusions.
The Origin and Grow^th of the Art of Printing. — By
Henry Slatter, J.P 285 to 300
The Possibilities of Machinery and Industry, and some
of their Probable Eesults on Social and Economic
Conditions 301 to 338
Introduction.
Professions of the Future.
Civil Engineering
Mechanical Engineering.
Electrical Engineering.
Naval Architecture.
Chemistry, Mining, and Metallurgy.
War.
Factories and Workshops.
Public Automatic Appliances.
Food, Clothing, and Shelter.
Appliances for the Preservation of
Health.
Economics.
Education.
Transition Period.
Further Evolution of Industry.
The Sphere of Government.
Demands of Labour.
Special Problem in Britain.
Labour in the Future.
Trade and Commerce.
Sanitary Conditions and Health.
Domestic Arrangements.
State of Society
Science, Literature, and Art.
Conclusion.
Tea, Coffee, and Cocoa. — By John R. Jackson, A.L.S.,
&c. (Illustrated by John Allen) 339 to 370
652
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE "ANNUAL" FROM 1885 TO 1894.
ANNUAL, 1893— Contimied. pages.
Foreign Competition in the East. — By Holt S. Hallett... 371 to 426
Competition of the United States in Southern and Central America.
Increased Production of Coal and Pig Iron in Competing Countries.
Export of Iron and Steel Manufactures.
Condition of Textile Industries in the United Kingdom.,
Export and Import of Textile Yarns and Manufactures from Competing
Countries in 1890, and for the United Kingdom in 1875 and 1891.
Importance of our Eastern Markets.
The Fall in the Gold Value of Silver.
Domestic Exports from the United Kingdom to the East.
European Competition in Eastern ^larkets.
Competition in Australasia.
Development of the Trade and Trade Competition of Japan.
Hours and Wages in Japanese Cotton Mills.
Continental Competition in the Cotton Trade of the East.
United States Competition in the Cotton Trade of the East.
Development of Corean Trade.
Development of Manufacture by European Processes in China.
Manufacture of Steel and Iron for Railway Purposes at Hanko\y.
Woollen Mills in Kansuh.
Cotton Consumption and Manufacture.
Cotton Mills at Hankow.
Cotton Mills in Shanghai.
Cotton Spinning Mill in Tonquin.
Development of Cotton Manufacture in India.
Competition of India in Cotton Manufacture.
Consumption of Cotton Goods in India.
Exports of Indian Textile Manufactures.
Growth of Indian Competition.
Sweating in Indian Factories.
The New Indian Factory Act.
Conclusion.
The Mihtary and Naval Forces of the World and their
Cost.— By Henry Dunckley, M.A., LL.D 427 to 463
The Anglo-Saxon Fyrd. France— Origin of Standing Armies.
The Feudal Armies. The Conscription
The Assize of Arms. The Prussian System.
The Militia. International Politics and Army
The Army and the Militia. Extension.
Yeomanry and Volunteers. The Situation To-day.
European Armaments.
Great Britain. Portugal. Asia — The Turkish Em-
France. Switzerland. pire.
Germany. Denmark. Persia.
Austria-Hungary. Sweden and Norway. Afghanistan.
Italy. Greece. Siam.
Russia. Roumania. China.
Belgium. Servia. Japan.
The Netherlands. Bulgaria. Africa.
Spain. Montenegro. America.
Summary. Conclusion.
653
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE "ANNUAL" FROM 1885 TO 1894.
ANNUAL, 189B— Continued. pages.
Old Age Pensions.— By E. L. Everett, M.P 464 to 478
I. There are the Purely Voluntary Plans.
II We have the State-aided Proposals.
III. Payment by the State out of the Taxes of a few shillings per
week to each Man and Woman over Sixty-five.
The Hosiery Trade. — By Anthony Mundella... 479 to 506
The World's Accumulation of Capital : Meaning of the
Figures.— By T. Lloyd 507 to 537
Kinds of Capital. Rank of Capitalist Company.
Wealth or Capital. Continental Coimtries.
Forms Savings have taken.
The Condition of the Working Classes in Great Britain
in 1842 and 1892.— By Sidney Webb 537 to 554
Wages. Hours of Labour.
Irregularity of Employment. The Housing of the People.
Conclusion.
A Historical Note as to Payment of Members of Parlia-
ment.— By A. H. Worthington 555 to 560
The Fishing Industries of the United Kingdom. — By
Charles E. Fryer 561 to 594
Fishery Statistics. The " Police " of the Seas.
Local Distribution of Fish. " Over-fishing."
The Rise of Great Grimsby. A Difficult Problem.
"Live Cod" "Undersized" Fish.
The Introduction of Steam. "Immature" Pish.
Values in England, Scotland, and Problems Awaiting Solution.
Ireland. Salmon and Inland Fisheries.
Shell-fish. The Capital and Labour Employed
The Price of Oysters. in the Fisheries.
Fishing Nets. Subsidiary Industries.
Line Fishing. The Hazards of Sea Fishing.
The Use of Bait. Co-operation in the Fishing Indus-
Instruments for Taking Shell-fish. tries.
Conflicting Interests. Seal and Whale Fisheries.
A Sketch of Fishery Legislation. Fish Oils and Guano.
Conclusion.
Can the Empire Feed its People. — By James Long 595 to 686
Wheat. Barley and Oats. Maize. Meat. Dairy Produce. Other Produce.
Canada, Austbalasia, New Sodth Wales, Victoria, Queensland,
South Australia, West Australia, Tasmania.
New Zealand.
Fruit. Sugar. Tea. Tobacco. Drinkables.
India, Ceylon, South Africa.
Summary.
654
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE "ANNUAL" PROM 1885 TO 1894.
ANNUAL, 1893 — Continued. pages.
Silk : Its History and its Industries. — By Arthur Edwin
Piggott, F.S.A.A 686 to 726
The Silkworm. Cocoon. Reeling. Throwing. Dyeing. Weighting.
Origin — Classical ; Introduction to Europe — Mediaeval ; the Silk Producing
and Manufacturing Districts of the World.
China. Central Asia. France.
Japan. The Levant. Switzerland.
India. Western Europe. America.
The British Silk Industry. The Scotch Silk Trade.
Technical Education in Silk
Scheme of the Silk Association of Great Britain and Ireland, &c.
Report :
Showing Provision and Outlay necessary for Practical Teaching of Silk
Manufacture, Smallware Manufacture, Silk Dyeing and Finishing, at
the New Technical School, ^Manchester, prepared by the Silk Associa-
tion of Great Britain and Ireland.
ANNUAL, 1894.
American Immigration Laws. — By Edward Porritt 171 to 197
A Century of Industrial and Social Legislation. — By
George Howell, F.S.S., M.P 198 to 230
Loan Societies— 1835 to 1893.
Industrial and Provident— 1850 to 1893.
Working Men's Clubs.
Savings Banks, Government Annuities, &c., 1797 to 1893.
The Pawnbrokers Acts, 1603 to 1893.
Patents, Registration of Designs, and Trade Marks, &c.
The Companies Acts, Partnerships, &c.
Trade Unions.
Arbitration and Conciliation in Trade Disputes.
Part II.
Protective Legislation.
1. The Factory and Workshops Acts— 1802 to 1893.
2. The Mines Regulation Acts— 1842 to 1893.
3. Coalwhippers and Ballast-heavers.
4. Chimney Sweepers 1789 to 1893.
5. Bakers and Bakehouses 1800 to 1893.
6. Earthenware Factories and Brickfields — 1864 to 1893.
7. Women and Children Employed in Agriculture — 1867 to 1893.
8. Employment of Children in Places of Public Amusement — ^1879 to 1893.
9. Merchant Seamen— 1729 to 1893.
10. Canal Boatmen— 1877 to 1893
11. The Passenger Acts— 1842 to 1893.
12. Accidents and Personal Injuries; Compensation for Injuries; and
Employers' Liability for Personal Injuries to Workmen.
13. The Truck Acts, Payment of Wages, &c.— 1464 to 1893.
14. Tickets of Work
15. Stoppages of Wages.
655
CONTEIBUTIONS TO THE "ANNUAL" PROM 1885 TO 1894.
ANNUAL, 189i— Continued. vaqks.
16. Attachment of Wages.
17. Preferential Payment of Wages.
18. Payment of Wages in Public Houses.
19. Housing the Working Classes— 1851 to 1893.
20. Cheap Transit by Rail and Tram— 1844 to 1893.
21. Baths and Washhouses— 1846 tc 1893.
22. Commons, Open Spaces, Public Parks, &c.— 1795 to 1893.
23. Weights and Measures Acts 1357 to 1893
24. Adulteration of Food, Drinks, Drugs, Seeds, &c.— 1267 to 1893
25. The Law of Distraint— 1267 to 1893.
26. Married Women's Protection and Property Acts— 1833 to 1893.
27. National Education : Agencies and Institutions.
Summary and Conclusion.
/ The History and Effects of the Privileged Classes in
Civilised Communities. — By Henry Dunckley,
M.A., LL.D 231 to 261
y The History of the Poor Law. — By Graham Wallas 262 to 285
y Educationin Citizenship.- By Hy. Dyer, C.E.,M.A.,D.SC. 286 to 313
Introductory.
What may be done in Educational Recreation.
Institutions. Social Morality.
Future of Trade Unions Philanthropy.
Use of Leisure. Demands of Labour.
Economics. Tendencies of the Age.
Education. Popular Representatives.
Sphere of Government.
Some Aspects of Industrial Mortahty. — By Vaughan Nash 314 to 348
Furniture Woods, with Suggestions for the Introduction
of New Kinds. — By John E. Jackson, A.L.S. (Illus-
trated by John Allen) 349 to 379
Indian Woods. Australian Woods.
Cape Woods. Trinidad Woods.
y^ The University and the People ; and the University of
^ the Future.— By Professor S. S. Laurie 380 to 396
Soil, and what it will Grow. — By James Long 397 to 438
Clay Soils. Fertility.
Sandy Soils. The Influence of Water and Heat.
Limestone. Where Crops Grow.
Humus. Tropical Plants.
Mineral Constituents of Soils. Soils in some British Counties.
666
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE "ANNUAL" FROM 1885 TO 1894.
ANNUAL, 1894:— Continued.
PAGES.
Technical Education at Home and Abroad. — ^By J. Hirst
Hollowell 439 to 498
Grants for Garden, Workshop, and Bradford and Leeds.
Housewifery Instruction.
The Technical Instruction Act
1889 (August 30).
Analysis of the Act of 1889.
The Local Taxation (Customs and
Excise) Act 1890.
Analysis of Local Taxation Act 1890.
The Nature and Ends of Technical
Instruction.
Intended for Mental Discipline only.
Valne of Technical Education to
National Trade.
Industrial Supremacy not neces-
sarily Permanent.
England and Wales.
Kindergarten Preparation.
Drawing.
Itinerant Science Demonstrators.
Higher Grade Schools.
Leeds Higher Grade School.
The Science and Art Depart-
ment Classes.
The City and Gilds of London
Institute.
The Co-operative Societies of .
Great Britain.
Higher Technical Instruction.
Municipal School for Manchester.
Weaving Schools.
Technical Education in London.
The Leather Trades School.
Polytechnic Institutes.
Science Schools in London.
Art Schools in London.
The New Departure in Counties and
County Boroughs.
The Work Done in Selected Counties.
The Councils and their Funds for
Technical Education.
Lancashire.
Ireland and its Agricultural Education.
Technical and Manual Instruction
in the United States.
Industrial Education of the Coloured
Race.
Germany.
Industrial Handicraft for Women.
Science and Art Training.
Ragged and Begging Children.
Solidarity of German Education.
Technical Universities in Germany
and Switzerland.
Technical Education in Prance.
Denmark and Sweden.
Switzerland.
Italy.
Russia and Finland.
Conclusion.
M. Jules Ferry on Technical Education.
657
THE ENGLISH MILE COMPARED WITH OTHER
EUROPEAN MEASURES.
English Statute Mile
English Geog. Mile . . , .
Kilometre
German G«og. Mile . . . .
Russian Verst
Austrian Mile
Dutch Ure
Norwegian Mile
Swedish Mile
Danish Mile
Swiss Stunde
English
statute Mile.
English
Geog. Mile.
Prench
Kilometre.
1-000
1-153
0-621
4-610
0-663
4-714
3-458
7-021
6-644
4-682
2-987
0-867
1-000
0-540
4-000
0-575
4-08'J
3-000
6-091
5-764
4-062
2-592
1-609
1-855
1-000
7-420
1-067
7-586
5-565
11-299
10-692
7-536
4-808
German
Geog. Mile.
0-217
0-250
0-135
1-000
0144
1-022
0-750
1-623
1-441
1-016
0648
Rnssian
Ventt.
1-508
1-738
0-987
6-953
1000
7112
5-215
10-589
10-019
7-078
4-506
Auetriaa
Mile.
Dutch
Ure.
Norwe-
gian Mile.
English Statute Mile .
English Geog. Mile .
Kilometre
German Geog. Mile . . . .
0-212
0-245
0-132
0-978
Russian Verst i 0141
Austrian Mile 1-000
Dutch Ure 0-734
Norwegian Mile 1-489
Swedish Mile 1-409
Danish Mile j 0994
Swiss Stunde ! 0-634
0-289
0-333
0-180
1-333
0-192
1-363
1-000
2-035
1-921
1-354
0-864
0-142
0-164
0-088
0-657
0-094
0-672
0-493
1000
0-948
0-667
0-426
Swedish
MUe.
0-161
0169
0094
0-694
0-100
0-710
0-620
1-067
1-000
0-706
0-449
Danish
Mile.
0-213
0-246
0133
0986
0142
1006
0-738
1-499
1-419
1-oeo
0-688
Swiss
Stunde.
0-336
0-386
0-206
1-643
0-222
1-578
1-157
2-860
2-224
1-667
KXW
43
658
PEINCIPAL AETICLES OF THE CALENDAE,
FOR THE YEAR 1894,
Golden Number xiv I Dominical Letter G
Epact 23 Roman Indiction 7
Solar Cycle 27 I Julian Period 6607
FIXED AND MOVABLE FESTIVALS, ANNIVERSARIES, ETC.
Epiphany Jan. 6
Septuagesima Sunday ,, 21
Quinquagesima Svmday Feb. 4
Ash Wednesday ,, 7
Quadragesima — 1 Sun. in Lent ,, 11
St. David Mar. 1
St. Patrick „ 17
Palm Sunday ,, 18
Good Friday „ 23
Lady Day ,, 25
Easter Sunday ,, 25
Low Sunday April 1
Ascension Day May 3
Pentecost — Whit Sunday May 18
Trinity Sunday 20
Queen Victoria bom (1819) . . „ 24
Corpus Christi ,, 24
Accession of Queen Vict. (1837). June 20
Proclamation ,, 21
St. John Baptist — Midsimi. Day ,, 24
St. Michael — Michaelmas Day. Sept, 29
Prince of Wales born (1841) . .Nov. 9
St. Andrew „ 30
St. Thomas Dec. 21
Christmas Day (Tuesday) .... ,, 25
The Year 5655 of the Jewish Era commences on October 1st, 1894.
Ramadan (Month of Abstinence observed by the Turks) commences on
March 8th, 1894.
The Year 1312 of the Mahommedan Era commences on July 5th, 1894.
659
(iatenbav for 1894.
gaituarj?.
^eBruarj?.
Mavc^.
s
.. 7 14 21
28
»
.. 4 11 18
25
»
4 11 18 25
M
1 8 15 22.
29 1
M
.. 5 12 19
26
M
.. 5 12 19 26
'Bt
2 9 16 23
30 ;
ft
.. 6 13 20
27
ft
.. 6 13 20 27
W
3 10 17 24
31
W
.. 7 14 21
28
W
7 14 21 28
ft
4 11 18 25
ft '
1 8 15 22
ft
1 8 15 22 29
F
5 12 19 26
.. !
^ ,
2 9 16 23
..
F
2 9 16 23 30
S
6 13 20 27
•• !
S 1
3 10 17 24
••
S
3 10 17 24 31
1
Jlprif.
^ai?.
^une.
S
1 8 15 22
29 ;
S .. 6 13 20
27
»
.. 3 10 17 24
M
2 9 16 23
30,
M .. 7 14 21
28
M
4 11 18 26
Tb
3 10 17 24
ft 1 8 15 22
29'
ft
.. 5 12 19 26
W
4 11 18 25
W 2 9 16 23
30
W
.. 6 13 20 27
ft
5 12 19 26
••
ft 3 10 17 24
31
ft
7 14 21 28
F
6 13 20 27
F 4 11 18 25
..
' F
1 8 15 22 29
S
7 14 21 28
S 6 12 19 26
S
2 9 16 23 30
1
^UQlt-M.
^epfemBer.
S
1 8 15 22
29
»
5 12 19
26
»
..2 9 16 23 30
M
2 9 16 23
30 '
M
.. 6 13 20
27
M
..3 10 17 24 ..
ft
^,10 17 24
31
ft
.. 7 14 21
28
ft
..4 11 18 25 ..
W
4 11 18 25
W
1 8 15 22
29
W
..5 12 19 26 ..
ft
5 12 19 26
, ,
ft
2 9 16 23
80
ft
..6 13 20 27 ..
P
6 13 20 27
F
3 10 17 24
31
P
..7 14 21 28 ..
s
7 14 21 28
• •
S
4 11 18 25
8
18 15 22 29 ..
^ctoBer.
"glopemBcr.
peccmBer.
S
.. 7 14 21
28
»
.. 4 11 18
25
»
,.. 2 9 16 28 30
M
1 8 15 22
29
M
.. 5 12 19
26
M
1
. . 3 10 17 24 81
ft
2 9 16 23
30
ft
.. 6 13 20
37
1 *
.. 4 11 18 26 ..
W
i 3 10 17 24
31
W
.. 7 14 21
28
! w
i.. 6 12 19 26 ..
ft
4 11 18 25
..
ft
1 8 15 22
29
: ft
.. 6 13 20 27 ..
F
5 12 19 26
, ,
F
2 9 16 23
30
F
: . 7 14 21 28 ..
S
6 13 20 27
, ,
S
3 10 17 24
..
8
1 1 8 16 22 29 ..
660
§anuaxx}.
SUNRISE AND SUNSET.
1st Rises at . .
8th „
8 8 Sets at
8 G
3 59 I 15th Rises at . . 8 2 Sets at . . 4 17
„ ..48! 22nd „ . . 7 55 „ . . 4 80
29th Rises at 7 46. Sets at 4 42.
Rising, Setting, and Changes of the Moon.
1st Rises.. 2 46 morn. Sets 0 11 aft. I 15th Rises 11 8 morn.
5th „ . . 9 32 „ „ 5 12 „ I 22nd „ 5 37 aft.
29th Rises 1 48 morn. Sets 10 32 morn.
Sets 0 50 morn.
„ 8 54 „
New Moon, 7th 3 7 morn.
First Quarter, 15th 0 9 ,,
Full Moon, 21st 3 11 aft.
Last Quarter, 28th 4 51 ,,
Day of Day of '
Month. Week. I
M
Tu
W
Th
F
S
8 i M
9 Tv
10 I W
11 I 1h
12 I F
13
14
1801
1868
1803
1863
1827
1840
1866
1887
1873
Remarkable Days, Festivals, Anniversabies, &c.
15
M
1877
16
11
1809
17
W
1706
18
Th
1890
19
F
1876
20
S
1779
21
S
22
M
1
23
Tu
1875 '
24
W
25
Th
1759
26
F
1878
27
S
28
&
29
M
1833
30
Tu
1880
31
W
1892
Union with Ireland
Decided to start Scottish Wholesale Society
Douglas Jerrold born
Working Men's College, London, opened
Duke of York died
Epiiihany
iFtrftt ^untfav after iajjipijanw
Cambridge Lent Term begins
Fire Insurance expires
Penny Post commenced
Wreck of the "London"
Lord Iddesleigh died
Cruvi2)sall Works imrchased
^pconO ^untiai) after iciitpljan^
Cork BrancJi established
Battle of Corunna. Sir John Moore killed
Benjamin Franklin born
James Hilton, director C. W. S., died
Albert Music Hall, Glasgow, burnt
David Garrick died
^e{)tuage0tma ^unOao
St. Vincent
Canon Kingsley died
Frederick the Great born
Eobert Burns born
Great Famine in China
Nomination Lists : Last day for receiving
Sexagestma Suntia^
First Keformed Parliament met
S.S. "Plover" sold
Rev. C. H. Spurgeon died
661
^eBruar^.
SUNRISE AND SUNSET.
1st Rises at. . 7 41 Sets at
8th „ ..7 30
, . 4 47 I 15th Rises at. . 7 17 Sett at
, . 5 0 22nd „ ..73
5 18
5 20
Rising, Setting, and Changes of the Moo».
1st Rises. . 5 24 morn. Sets 11 55 morn. I 15th Rises 11 1 mom. Sets 4 13 mom
8th „ 8 40 „ „ 8 2 „ I 22nd „ 8 49 aft. „ 7 58 .,
New Moon, 5th 9 45 aft. i Full Moon, 20th 2 16 mora.
First Quarter, 13th 10 43 morn. I Last Quarter, 27 th 0 28 aft.
Day of
Month.
Year. ] EeMARKABLE DaYS, FESTIVALS, ANNIVERSARIES, &C.
Th
F
S
&
M
Tu
W
8 I Th
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
F
S
s>
M
Tu
W
Th
F
S
s
M
Tu
W
Tk
F
S
&
M
Tu
W
1878
1874
1830
1881
1812
1880
1840
1814
1637
1876
1887
1861
1889
1860
1855
1879
1875
1732
1806
1878
1871
George Cruikshank died
Tralee Branch opened — Caiullemas Day
Marquis of Salisbury born
(Slutnquagedtma SunOav
Thomas Carlyle died
Shrove Tuesdaij
Charles Dickens born
Half Quarter Day
Wreck of the "Eurydice"
Queen Victoria married
Jfirst SunDap in Hent
Custom House (London) burnt
Turner, historian, died— Trial of Warren Hastings
Opening of Neivcastle Building, Waterloo Street
Ash Wednesday
Wreck of the " George Cromwell "
Duchess of Albany born
Enderby Extension opened
Sir W. Napier died
Joseph Hume died
''Pioneer" launched — New York Branch estab., 1876
Sir Charles Lyell died
George Washington born
James Barry died
Kilmarnock Branch, Scottish C.W.S., orENED
Treaty of Versailles
Voting Lists : Last day for receiving
Hare Hunting ends
662
^aarc^.
SUNRISE AND SUNSET.
1st Rises at .. 6 48 Sets at 5 38 | 15th Rises at 6 17 Sets at.. 6 2 I
8th „
. . 6 33 „ .... 5 50 1 22nd „ .... 6 1 „ . . 6 14 |
29th Rises at 5 5. Sets at 6 26.
RisiKG, Setting, and Changes of the Moon.
Ist Rises.
4 15 mom. Sets 10 35 morn. | 15th Rises 9 52 morn. Sets 3 17 mom
8th „
6 59 „
„ 7 5 „ 1 22nd „ 7 43 aft. „ 6 16 „
29th Rises 3 16 aft. Sets 6 12 morn.
New Moon, 7th . .
2 18 aft. Full Moon, 21st 2 11 aft.
First Quarter, 14th
6 28 „ Last Quarter, 29th 8 28 mom.
Day of
Month.
Day of
Week.
Year. | ReMARKABLE DaYS, FESTIVALS, ANNIVERSARIES, &C.
1
1
Th
1869 i
1, Balloon Street, Mancliester, Warehouse opened
2
F
1810
Pope Leo born [Quarterly Meetings
3
S
Neiccastle and London Branch and Divisional
4
s>
dFourtf) SnnOa? in iLent
5
M
1843 1
Thames Tunnel opened
6
Tu
1886
Richard Whittle, director C. W. S., died •
7
W
1883
Green, historian, died
8
Th
1844
Bernadotte died
9
F
1874 1
London Branch established
10
S
General Quarterly Meeting
11
&
JFtfti^ SunOas in Hent
12 : M
St. Gregoi'y
13 Td
1881
The Czar's Accession [commenced, 1887
14 W
1864
Wholesale Society commenced business — Batley Mill
15 1 Th
1860
Heckmondwike Co-operative Society commenced
16
F
1856
Prince Louis Napoleon born
17
S
St. Patrick
18
S
Palm SunOao
19 ! M
1876
General Chesney died
20 i Tu
1845
Sir Thomas Potter, Knight, died
21
w
1871
Princess Louise married
22
Th
1797
Emperor William I. of Germany died
23
F
1849
Battle of Novara
24
S
1879
Bouen Branch opened — C.W.S. Quarter Day
25
s>
isaster SunDag
26
M
1
Bank Holiday
27
Tu
Oxford and Cambridge Lent Term ends
28
W
1884
Duke of Albany died
29
Th
1879
Trial trip s.s. "Pioneer" — 7th Congress, London,
30
F
1707
Marshal Vauban died [1875. Prof. T. Rogers, Pres.
31
S
1883
S. C. W. S. stocktaking
663
^pviL
SUNRISE AND SUNSET.
1st Rises at . . 5 38 Sets at . . 6 31 l 15th Rises at. . 5 7 Sets at . . 6 64
8th „ . . 5 22 „ . . 6 43 1 22nd „ . . 4 52 „ ..76
29th Rises at 4 38. Sets at 7 17.
Rising, Setting, and Changes op the Moon.
1st Rises 4 28 morn. Sets 0 52 aft. 15th Rises 1 16 aft. Sets 3 44 morn.
8th „ 5 59 „ „ 10 20 „ 22nd „ 10 37 „ „ 5 19 „
29th Rises 2 49 morn. Sets 11 50 mom.
New ]Moon, 6th 4 0 morn. Full Moon, 26th 3 2 mom.
First Quarter, 13th 0 33 „ Last Quarter, 28th 3 20 „
Day of Day of
Month. Week.
Year. Eemarkable Days, FESTIVALS, Annivebsabies, Ac.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
SO
&
M
Tu
W
Tk
F
S
&
M
Tu
W
Tk
F
s
&
M
Tu
W
Th
F
S
Sb
M
Tu
W
Tk
F
S
&
M
1872 4th Congress, Bolton. T. Hughes, M.P., President
1877 i 9th Con., Leicester. Hon.A.HERBERT,Pres.-L';wo/
[De})dt com., 1875— B..A\\en,dn-ec. C.W.S.,d.,1877
1774 Oliver Goldsmith died
1811 Eobert Raikes died
1874 6th Congress, Halifax. T. Brassey, M.P., Pres.
1884 Hamburg Branch commenced
SecontI SUttUa© after lEaiSter [Insurance expires
1877 Leith Branch, Scottish Wholesale, opened— Fire
1871 3rd Congress, Birmingham. A.HERBERT,M.P.,Pre8.
1861 American Civil War commenced
1873 5th Congress, Newcastle. J. Cowen, jun., Pres.
1872 Samuel Bamford died
1873 Armagh Branch opened— IItk Congress, Glo'steb.
[Prof. J. Stuart, Pres., 18791
1746 Battle of Culloden '
1876 8th Congress, Glasgow. Prof. Hodgson, Pres.
1891 Dimston Corn Mill opened
1881 Lord Beaconsfield died
1868 Scottish Co-operative Wholesale S. enbolled
1873 Justus Liebig, chemist, died
(IOth Congress, Manchester. Marq.ofRiPON.Presi-
' 1 dent — Nottingham Saleroom opened, 1886
St. George
1866 Tipperary Branch opened
1844 Rochdale Pioneers' Society commencbd
1819 Duke of Cambridge born
1882 Prince Leopold married
Nomination Lists : Last day for receiving ,
iXogatton £unDay
1834 Sir John Lubbock born
i
664
l«aj?.
SUNRISE AND SUNSET.
Ist Rises at .. 4 34 Sets at . . 7 21 16th Rises at. . 4 11 Sets at . . 7 43
8th „ . . 4 22 „ . . 7 32 22nd „ ..41 „ . . 7 53
29th Rises at 3 53. Sets at 8 1.
Rising, Setting, and Changes of the Moon.
1st Rises 3 13 morn. Sets 2 21 aft. 15th Rises 3 8 aft. Sets 2 32 morn.
8th „ 5 37 „ „ morn. 22nd „ 11 28 „ „ 5 1 „
29th Rises 1 31 morn. Sets 1 14 aft.
■ New Moon, 5th 2 41 aft. 1 Full Moon, 19th 4 43 aft.
First Quarter, 12th 6 21 morn. | Last Quarter, 27th 8 4 „
Day of Day of
Mcnth. Week.
Year.
Eemarkable Days, Festivals, Anniversabies, &c.
1 Tv
1892
John Thirlaway, director C. W. S., died
2 \V
1868
Thames Embankment opened
3 Th
1845
Tom Hood died
4 F
1876
Strike at Constantinople
5 S
1892
Birmingham Saleroom opened
6 &
SunDap after ^srrnQtoit.
7 M
1812
Eobert Browning born
8 lb
1893
Broughton Cabinet Factory opened
9 ; W
1873
John Stuart Mill died — Half Quarter Day
10 'Ik
1816
Dr. Royle, Bishop of Liverpool, born
11 1 F
1812
Spencer Percival shot
12 ! S
1869
Co-op. Printing Society, Manchester, com. business
13 i &
WIBLW SunUag
14 M
1883
15th Con., Edinburgh. W. E. Baxter,M.P., Pres.
15 1 Tu
1847
Daniel O'Connell died
16 : w
1871
Vendome Column destroyed
17 'Ik
1880
12th Con., Newcastle. Bishop of Durham, Pres.
18 F
1891
23rd Con., Lincoln. A. H. D. Acland, M.P., Pres. —
19 S
[Samuel Lever, director C. W. S., died, 1888
20 &
S'ltnitg SunOap
21 M
1888
20th Congress, Dewsbury. E. V. Neale, Pres.
22 Tu
1893
25th Con., Bristol. Councillor G. Hawkins, Pres.
23 W
1812
Guilia Grisi born
24
Tk
1876
Purchase of s.s. "Plover" [son, direc.C.W.S., died, 1890
25
F
1885
17th Cong., Oldham. Lloyd Jones, Pres. — J. Atkin-
26
S
1890
22nd Congress, Glasgow. Earl of Rosebery, Pres.
27
S
iFirst ^unta» after ^rinitp
28
M
[Oxford. Ld. Reay, Pres., 1882
29
Tu
Voting Lists : Last day for receiving— 14th Congress,
30
W
1887
19th Congress, Carlisle. G. J. Holyoake, Pres.
31
Tk
1884
Leicester Works Second Extension opened
665
§une.
SUNEISE AND SUNSET.
Ist Rises at . . 3 51 Sets at . . 8 5 1 15th Rises at. . 3 44
8th „ . . 3 40 „ . . 8 11 I 22nd „ . . 3 45
29th Rises at 3 47. Sets at 8 18.
Sets at
8 16
8 18
Rising, Setting, and Changes of the Moon.
3 st Rises.. 2 6 morn. Sets 5 20 aft. i 15th Rises 6 8 aft..
8th „ 8 45 „ „ morn. | 22nd „ 11 14 aft.
29th Rises 0 25 morn. Sets 4 19 aft.
Sets 1 30 mom.
,. 7 19 „
New Moon, 3rd 10 56 aft.
First Quarter, 10th 1 14 „
Full Moon, 18th 7 6 mom,
Last Quarter, 26th 10 3 „
Day of
Month.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Day of
Week.
F
S
Z
M
Tu
W
Tk
F
S
Sb
M
Tu
W
Tk
F
S
&
M
Tu
W
Tk
F
S
s
M
Tu
W
Tk
F
S
1868
1884
1859
1723
1892
1832
1873
1889
1876
1889
1886
1875
1888
1876
1623
1837
1884
1815
j 1884
1830
i 1857
: 1838
j 1879
I 1879
Eemabeable Days, FestivaijS, Anniversarieb, Stc.
KihnaUock Branch opened
16th Con., Derby. Sed. Taylor, Pres. — NexocastU
[and Loud. Branchavd Divisional Quar. Meet.
Battle of Magenta
Adam Smith born
24th Con., Eochdale. J. T. W. Mitchell, Pres.
First Reform Bill passed
Alexandra Palace burnt
General Quarterly Meeting
2l8T Congress, Ipswich. Prof. A. Marshall, Pres.
St. Barnabas
Midland Federal Corn Mill, Laying Foundation Stones
Armagh Railway Disaster
18th Congress, Plymouth. Lord Morley, Pres.
Manchester Drapery Warehouse, Dantzic St., opened
Emp.Fred. Wm. of Germany died. Reigned 14 wks. —
.jFourti) SunUap after ^rinitv
W. Pare, First Sec. of Congress Board, died
Pascal born
Queen's Ascension
Jos. Smith, Assistant Sec. Congress Board, died
Napoleon abdicated
Co-operative Wiolesalc Society Quarter Day
iFiftt) SunUap after Exinixv
Newcastle Drapery Warehouse opened
George IV. died
Cawnpore taken
Coronation Day
Victoria University chartered
Goole Forwarding Depot opened— S. C. W. b. htodc-
[talcMg
666
§ntx?.
SUNRISE AND SUNSET.
Ist Rises at.. 3 51 Sets at.. 8 5 15th Rises at , . 4 2 Sets at . . 8 9
8th „ . . 3 46 „ . . 8 11 22nd „ . . 4 10 „ ..81
, 29th Rises at 4 20. Sets at 7 51.
Rising, Setting, and Changes of the Moon.
Ist Rises. . 1 16 morn. Sets 7 16 aft. 15th Rises 7 21 aft. Sets 0 68 mom.
8th „ 10 42 mom. „ 10 58 „ 22nd „ 9 55 „ „ 8 48 „
29th Rises mom. Sets 6 8 aft.
New Moon, 3rd 10 56 aft. 1 Full Moon, 18th 7 6 mom.
First Quarter, 10th 114 „ 1 Last Quarter, 26th 10 3 „
Day of 1 Day o(
Month. Week.
Year.
Bemabkable Days, Festivals, Anniversaries, &c.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
a
M
Tu
W
Th
F
1
M
Tu
W
Th
F
S
&
M
Tu
W
Th
F
S
M
Tu
W
Th
F
S
&
M
Tu
1872
1867
1881
1776
1849
1888
1509
1450
1869
1872
1873
1876
1845
1881
1870
1873
1887
1833
1851
1883
1869
1880
1868
1556
Mancliester Boot and SJwe Department comtnenced
Equitable Co-op. Building Society established
Dundee Branch of Scottish C.W.S. opened
Independence Day, U.S.A.
Lord Gifford born
Length of day, 16b. 24m.
Launch of ■s.s. " Equity "
Setoentl) SunQap after STrtnit?
Fire Insurance due
Jobn Calvin born
Jack Cade killed
Limerick Branch opened
Ballot kct in operation
Waterford Branch opened
(!^tgi)tf) SunUaw after ^Trmitp
Manchester Furnishing Department opened
Earl Grey died
Dean Stanley died
Lucien P. Paradol died
Lord Westbury died
Manchester New Furriishing Warelwuse opened — Pur-
[chase of s.s. " Marianne Briggs," 1883
Duke of Devonshire born
Window Tax repealed
Captain Webb drowned
Irish Church Bill passed
Purchase of s.s. " Cambrian"
Nomination Lists: Last day for receiving
STentt) SunUap after STrinitg
Thames Embankment opened
Ignatius de Loyola died >
667
Jlugusf.
SUNRISE AND SUNSET.
IstBisesat.. 4 25 Sets at.. 7 46 15th Rises at .. 4 46 Sete at . . 7 21
8th „ ..4 35 „ .. 7 34 22nd „ ..4 58 ,,..7 7
29th Rises at 5 9. Sets at 6 52.
Rising, Setting, and Changes of the Moon.
1st Rises 3 39 morn. Sets 8 18 aft. 15th Rises 7 29 aft. Sets 2 56 morn.
8th „ 9 57 „ „ 9 57 „ 22nd „ 8 52 „ „ 11 42 „
29th Rises 2 39 morn. Sets 6 40 aft.
New Moon, 1st 0 24 aft. Full Moon, 16th 1 17 aft.
First Quarter, 8th 10 5 morn. Tiast Quarter, 24th 5 40 mom.
Day of
Month.
Day of
Week?
Tear.
Eemarkable Days, Festivals, Annivbbsabibs, Ac.
1
w
1798
Battle of the Nile
2
Th 1870
Battle of Sedan
3
F 1732
Bank of England started
4
S 1873
Cheshire Branch opened d Leicester Works purchased
5
S> 1 1876
Leicester Works First Extension opened
6
M !
Bank and General Holiday
7
Tu ' 1821
Queen Caroline died
8
W 1827
George Canning died
9
Th 1631 •
Dryden born
10
F 1831
G. J. Goschen born
11
S ! 1863
Co-operative Wholesale Society enrolled
12
^ 1
S:toelftib SunDap after STrinitj
13
M 1
Old Lammas Day
14
Tu i 1880
Heckmondtvike Boot and Slice Works commenced
15
W 1771
Sir Walter Scott born
16- Tk 1873
C. W. S. Lisurance Fund establisJied
17 1 F ; 1786
Frederick the Great died
18
S 1870
Battle of Gravelotte
19
&
Ef)ixtttntf] SunOag after STrinitw
20
M 1868
Abergele Accident
21
Tu 1889
W. P. Hemm, director C. W. S., died
22
W .1800
Eev. Dr. Pusey born
23
Tk 1862
Corner Stone, Blackley Store, laid
24
F 1572
Massacre of St. Bartholomew
25
S
1886
Longton Crockery Depdt opened
26
&
iFourteentfj SunDas after STrinitj
27
M
1816
Algiers bombarded
28
Tu
Voting Lists : Last day for receiving
29
W
1887
Heckmondwike Currying Department comtnenced
30
Tk
1877
Battle of Plevna
31
F
1688
John Bunyan died
668
1st Rises at.
8th ..
5 13
5 26
§eptemS>cx.
SUNRISE AND SUNSET.
Sets at . . 6 45 I 15th Rises at. . 5 36
. . 6 30 I 22nd „ . . 5 47
29th Rises at 5 58. Sets at 5 41.
Sets at
6 13
5 57
Rising, Setting, and Changes of the Moon.
1st Rises 7 11 mom. Sets 7 21 aft I 15th Rises 6 23 aft.
8th „ 4 5 aft. „ 10 25 „ | 22nd „ 9 23 „
29th Rises 6 8 morn Sets 5 39 aft.
Sets 5 39 mom.
„ 2 52 aft.
First Quarter, 7th 1 3 morn.
Full Moon, 15th 4 21 „
Last Quarter, 22nd 0 32 aft.
New Moon, 29th 5 44 mom.
Day of
Month.
Day of
Week.
Tear.
1
S
2
s>
1871
3
M
1878
4
Tu
1870
5
W
1800
6
Tk
1870
7
F
1533
8
S
^ 9
s>
1891
10
M
1771
11 ' Tv
1882
12 1 W
1819
13
Th
1884
14
F
1852
15
S
1873
16
&
17
M
1863
18
Tv
1854
19
W
1881
20
Tk
1884
21 F
1832
22 S
23 &
24 M
1889
25 Tu
1870
26 ' W
1857
27 1 1h
1880
28 ! F
1870
29 S
1884
30
S>
Eemarkable Days, Festivals, Anniversaries, &c.
Newcastle and Loiulon Branch and Divisional
"Co-op. News" first issued [Quarterly Meetiiujs
SS. "Princess Alice" disaster
French Republic declared
Malta taken
H.M.S. "Captain" foundered
Queen Elizabeth born [com. business, 1868
General Quarterly Meeting — Scottish Wholesale
William Green, director C. W. S., died
Mungo Park born
Capture of Tel-el-Kebir
Bliicher died
Lifeboat "Co-operator No. 1" presented to R.N.L.I.
Duke of Wellington died
Leicester Works commenced
Sebentetttti) ^unDaw after STrmiiw
Paisley Manufacturing Society started
Battle of Alma
President Garfield died
21st Anniversary of C.W.S., Commemoration of
Sir Walter Scott died
Co-operative Wholesale Society Quarter Day
©tgtiteenti) Sunlia» after ^vinits
Eliza Cook (poetess) died
Siege of Paris commenced
Relief of Lucknow [Premises, Hooper Sqttare
London Drapery Department commenced in New
Strasbourg surrendered
Bristol Depot commenced - S. C. W. S. Stocktaking
i^tineteenttj ^untfaw after ^Trinitg
669
g)cfoder.
SUNRISE AND SUNSET.
1st Rises at . . 6 2 Sets at . . 5 37 I 15th Rises at. . 6 25
8th „ . . 6 13 „ ... 5 21 I 22nd „ . . 6 37
29th Rises at 6 50. Sets at 4 37.
Sets at
5 6
4 51
Rising, Setting, and Changes of the Moon.
1st Rises.. 8 56 morn. Sets 6 6 aft. I 15th Rises 5 6 aft. Sets
8th „ 3 41 „ „ 11 38 „ I 22nd „ 11 24 „
29th Rises 7 53 morn. Sets 4 27 aft.
7 12 mom.
2 48 aft.
First Quarter, 6th 7 1 aft.
Full Moon, 14th 6 41 „
Last Quarter, 21st 6 56 aft.
New Moon, 28th 5 57 „
Day of Day of
Month Week.
A
1-1
M
2
Tu
3
W
4
Tk
5
F
6
S
7
S
8
M
9
Tu
10
W
11
Tk
12
F
13
S
14
s>
15
M
16 I Tu
17 i W
18 Tk
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
F
S
M
Tu
W
Tk
F
S
29 M
30 I Tu
31 W
Eemakkable Days, Festivals, Anniversaries, &c.
1786
1888
1819 ;
1874 I
1884 j
1871 i
1759
1885
1492
1886 I
1822
1872
1834
1874
1826
1745
1823
1890
1869
1852
1415
1859
1841,
1882
Cavibridge Michaelmas Term begins
Admiral Keppel died
Burnham Beeches made public
F. Crispi born
Durham Sca2) Works corjimenced
Launch of s.s. "Progress"
STtoenttetft SunUa? after STrinitw
Great Fire at Chicago
Eddystone Lighthouse finished
"Hell Gate" dynamited
America discovered by Columbus
Launch of s.s. "Federation"
Canova died
C.W.S. Bank Departmeyit commeticed
Fire Insurance expires
Houses of Parliament burnt
First Hospital Saturday
Last English Lottery
Dean Swift died
Thomas Hughes born
a:tomti>*»cconO Sun»a» after STrinit?
Northamiiton Saleroom opened— Cardiff Saleroom
Earl of Derby died [opened, 1891
D. Webster died
Battle of Agincourt
" Royal Charter " lost
Nomination Lists : Last day for receiving
2:toent»*ti)irD SunDa» after S'rinitn
Hare Hunting begins
Great Fire at Tower of London
Leeds Saleroom opetied
670
^ovemdev.
SUNRISE AND SUNSET.
Ist Rises at ..6 55 Sets at .. 4 32 1 16th Rises at . . 7 20 Sets at ., 4 9 |
8th „ ..7
8 „ . . 4 20 1 22nd „ . . 7 32 „ .41
29th Rises at 7 43. Sets at 3 54.
Rising, Setting, and Changes op the Moon.
Ist Rises.. 11 42 morn. Sets 6 4 aft. | 15th Rises 5 9 aft. Sets 10 28 morn.
8th „ 2 40af
b. „ 1 2 mom. 1 22nd „ 1 29 morn. „ 1 53 aft.
29th Rises 10 26 morn. Sets 4 49 aft.
First Quarter, 5th
3 16 aft. Last Quarter, 20th 2 8 mom.
Full Moon, 13th .
7 49 mom. New Moon, 27th 8 54 „
Da; of
Month.
1
^/e2! ^^■
Eemarkable Days, Festivals, Anniversaries, &c.
Tk
1882
Tea and Coffee Department, London, commenced
2
F
1887
London Branch Neiu Warehouse opened — Manufac. of
3
S
1800
Battle of Hohenlinden [Cocoa and Chocolate com.
4
S
1891
Wheat Sheaf Works, Leicester, opened
6
M
1861
Halifax Industrial Society inaugurated
6
Tu
1860
Admiral Sir Charles Napier died
7
W
1801
E. D. Owen, reformer, born
8
Tk
1886
Trial trip s.s. "Federation"
9
F
1841
Prince of Wales born
10
S
1483
Martin Luther born [Depot new premises opened, 1889
11
s>
1887
Manchester Ship Canal, first sod cut — Long ton
12
M j 1849
Brunei (Thames Tunnel engineer) died
13
Tv 1851
Telegi-aph between England and France completed
14
W ^
1844
15
Tk
1871
Stanley discovered Livingstone
16
F
1891
Aarhus Branch opened
17
S
1858
Eobert Owen died
18
&
grtoentwssixri) SunOa? after STrmttg
19
M
1758
British Museum established
20
Tu
1869
Suez Canal opened
21
W
1835
The "Ettrick Shepherd" died
22
Th
1804
Eochdale Canal opened
23
F
1641
Irish Rebellion
24
S
1879
Sergeant Cox died
25
&
2rtoent»*»ebenti) SunOai) after STrinttg
26
M
1871
Opening of Neivcas tie-on- Tyne Branch
27-
Tu
Voting Lists : Last day for receiving
28
W
1814
Times printed by steam
29
Tk
1889
Martin F. Tupper died
30
F
St. Andrew's Day
671
^ecemdex.
SUNRISE AND SUNSET.
1st Rises at . . 7
46 Setsat..3 53 15th Rises at. . 8 2 Sets at .,349
8th „ ..7
55 „ . . 3 49 22nd „ ..87 „ . . 3 51
29th Rises at 8 6. Sets at 3 49.
Rising, Setting, and Changes of the Moon.
1st Rises. . 11 43 morn. Sets 7 5 aft. | 15th Rises 6 50 aft. Sets 10 53 mom.
8th „ 1 17af1
„ 2 23 morn. 1 22nd ,, 3 20 mom. „ 0 89 aft.
29th Rises 10 9 morn. Sets 6 4 aft.
First Quarter, 5th
0 15 aft. Last Quarter, 19th 11 16 mom.
Full Moon, 12th..
7 46 „ New Moon, 27th 2 20 „
Day of Day of
Uonth. Week.
Tear.
Eemakkable Days, Festivals, Annivebsabibs, Ac.
1
1
s 1
Newcastle and London Branch and Divisional
2
^
aUbenl SunUag [Quarterly Meetings
3
M 1821
Lord Coleridge born
4:
Tv 1795
Thomas Carlyle born
5
W ' 1870
Rome made Italian Capital
6
Th 1 1882
Trollope, novelist, died [from Eastham to M'chester
7
F ' 1893
Directors of Ship Canal sailed on s.s. "Snowdrop"
8
S
General Qtiarterly Meeting
9
&
SeconD :SunUa» in aubent
10
M I 1768
Royal Academy founded
11
Tu i 1869
Edward Hooson, director C.W.S., died
12
W : 1757
Cibber died
13
Th I 1884
Attempt to blow up London Bridge
14
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1861
Prince Consort died
15
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1891
Samuel Taylor, director C.W.S., died
16
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17
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Oxford Michaelmas Term ends
18
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1862
Slavery abolished in the United States
19
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1805
Lord Beaconsfield born
20
Th
1848
Napoleon elected President
21
F
1888
J. J. B. Beach, director C.W.S., died
22
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Co-operative Wholesale Society Quarter Day
23
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24
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1863
Thackeray died
25
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Cijrmtmad Da»— Oldham Indus. Socy. com., 1850
26
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Boxing Day— Bank Holiday
27
Th
1834
Charles Lamb died
28
F
1802
Earl Grey born „ , , •
29
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1809
Rt. Hon. W. E. Gladstone h.—S. C. W. S. Stocktaktruj
30
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1885
C.W.S. Fire, London Tea Department
31
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1882
Gambetta, statesman, died
MANCHESTER :
PRINTED AKD BOUND BY THE
AT THEIR CENTRAL WORKS,
NEW MOUNT STREET, ANGEL STREET.
NEWCASTLE WORKS:
40, HIGH BRIDGE, NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE
LONDON works:
6, SALISBURY COURT, FLEET STREET, E.C.
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