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I 


Al2 


ALL  Tm    WOIMMMB  OV 

THX  irxw  nuM  of  n» 

ANNUAL 

EEGISTER 

1863 

to  1915 

MJir 

B*   BAD 

Price  17s.  net  each. 

1916. 
1917. 


22«.  net, 
26s,  net. 


1918. 
1919. 


26s,  net, 
30s,  net. 


L0NQMAN8,  QREBN,  AND  00., 

LONDON,  NSW  TOBK,  BOMBAY,  OALOUTTA,  AND  1IADBA8. 


J 


THE 


ANNUAL    EEGISTEE 


REVIEW  OF  PUBLIC  EVENTS  AT  HOME 


AND  ABROAD 


FOB  THE  YEAB 


1920 


NEW  SERIES 


LONGMANS,    OBEEN,    AND    GO. 

89  PATERNOSTER  ROW,  LONDON 
NEW  YORK,  BOMBAY,  CALCUTTA ,  AND  MADRAS 

8IMPKIN,  MARSHALL,  HAMILTON.  KENT,  A  GO..  Ltd. 

JOHN  MUBBAY ;  J.  A  B.  BUMPUS.  Ltd. 

BICKUU9  A  SON ;  WHBLDON  *  WBSLEY,  Ltd.  ;  BDBNS,  OATES  h  WASHBOUBNB.  Ltd. 

1921 


r 


THE 

ANNUAL    EEGI8TBR 

VOL.  162— FOR  1920 


vi  CONTENTS. 

[62].  The  Home  Rule  Bill  in  Oommittee,  [58-54].  Grime  in  Ireland,  [551. 
Oatastrophe  at  Louth,  [56].  Award  of  the  National  (Railway)  Wages  Board, 
[56-57].  Relations  with  Russia,  [57].  The  Future  of  Mesopotamia,  [58].  The 
Agriculture  Bill,  [59].    Matrimonial  Oauses  Bill,  [60].    Rent  Restriction  Bill, 

g;i].  Provisions  of  the  Act,  [62].  Overseas  Trade  Bill,  [63%  Mining  Industry 
ill,  [64].  Home  Rule  Bill  m  Committee,  [65].  Disorder  in  Ireland,  [66]. 
Strike  of  Irish  Railwaymen,  [67].  Deputation  to  the  Prime  Minister,  [68]. 
Rioting  in  Londonderry,  [69].    Capture  of  Oeneral  Lucas  [70]. 


CHAPTER  in. 

THE  SUMMER  MONTHS. 

The  Excess  Profits  Duty,  [70].  Gk>yemment  Expenditure,  [71].  Mr.  Chamher- 
lain  on  the  position,  [72].  The  Finance  Bill,  [78].  Third  Reading,  [74]. 
British  Institute  of  Intranational  Affairs,  [75]^  The  Spa  Allied  Conference, 
[76].    Conference  of  the  Miners*  Federation,  [77].    Demands  of  the  Minen, 

S7].  Special  Trades  Union  Congress,  [78].  The  Slough  Motor  Depot,  [79]. 
le  Amritsar  Incident,  [80].  Ministry  of  Food  (Continuance)  Bill,  [81]. 
Increase  of  Railway  Rates,  [82].  Crime  in  Ireland,  [831.  Rioting  in  Belfast, 
[84].    Escape  of  General  Lucas,  [85].    Restoration  of  Order  in  Ireland  Bill, 

g8].  Committee  Stage,  [87].  Deputation  to  the  Prime  Minister,  [88]. 
ominion  Home  Rule,  [89].  Further  Riots  in  Belfast,  [90-92].  German 
Coal  Deliveries,  [92].  The  Situation  in  Poland,  [93].  The  Council  of  Action, 
ra4].  Adjournment  of  Parliament,  [95].  Ministry  of  Health  Bill,  [96].  The 
Future  of  Egypt,  [97].  Daily  Herald  Incident,  [97-98].  The  Mining  In- 
dustry Bill,  [98-99].  Meeting  of  the  Minen'  Federation,  [99].  Demands  of  the 
Minen,  [100].  Negotiations  with  the  Government,  [101].  Their  Suspension 
and  Resumption,  [102].    Some  Further  Progress,  [108].    A  Final  Breeldown, 

g04].    Trades  Union  Congress,  [104-105].    Enmneering    Crisis,    [105-106]. 
lie  Lord  Mayor  of  Cork,  [106-lOT]*    Grime  in  Ireland,  [107].    Attempt  on 
General  Strickland,  [108].  Reprisals,  [109].   Attitude  of  the  Government,  [110]. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

END  OF  THE  YEAR. 

Fresh  Ballot  of  the  Minen,  [111].  The  Strike  Begins,  ^121.  An  Agreement 
Reached,  [118].  Return  of  the  Prince  of  Wales,  [114].  Opening  of  Parlia- 
ment, [114].  Unemployment,  [1151.  The  Chureh  Congress,  [116].  Speeches 
by  Mr.  Llovd  George,  [117].  Speeches  by  Mr.  Asquith  and  Mr.  ChurchiU,  [118]. 
Death  of  the  Lord  Mayor  of  Cork,  [119].  Outrages  in  Ireland,  [120].  The 
Question  of  Reprisals,  [121].  Emeigency  Powen  Bill,  [122].  Aniculture 
BUI,  [128-4].  Foreign  AfEairs,  [124].  Anest  of  Colonel  Malone,  M.P.,  [125]. 
Anniversary  of  the  Armistice,  [125-6].  Relief  of  Unemploymeni  [127].  The 
Lord  Mayor*s  Banquet,  [128].  The  Government  of  Ireland,  [129].  Home 
Rule  BiU,  Third  Reading,  [180].  Second  Reading  in  the  Lords,  [181].  Irish 
Debate,  [182].  Tenorism  in  Ireland,  [188].  Murden  in  Dublin,  [184].  Dis- 
covery of  Sinn  Fein  Plots,  [185].  A  bisastrous  Ambush,  [186].  Mr.  Lloyd 
Georee  on  Industry,  [137].  Debate  on  National  Expenditure,  [188].  Mr. 
Lloyd  George  on  Ireland,  [189].  An  Effort  towards  Peace.  [140].  Irish  Policy 
of  the  Government,  [1411.  Incendiarism  in  Cork,  [142].  Further  Outrages, 
[148].  Passing  of  the  Home  Rule  BiU,  [144].  The  Agriculture  BiU,  [145]. 
Prorogation  of  ParUament,  [146].  The  Problem  of  Unemployment,  [147]. 
Finis,  [148]. 


CONTENTS.  vii 

FOREIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTORY. 

CHAPTER  I. 
TsB  JjEkQxn  ov  Natxohb page  [149 

CHAPTER  n. 

FB4HCB  AKD  ItALT [158 

CHAPTER  m. 
GnOCABT  ASB  AUBTBU [172 

CHAPTER  IV. 

RDB8IA  —  Poland  —  Lithuania  —  Ukraihia  —  Finland  —  Esshonia  — 
LmxiAND  —  Danzig  —  Czbcho-Sloyakia  —  Hungary  —  Ruhania  — 
Jugo-Slayia  —  TuBXBY  —  Gbsbob  —  Thb  Minor  States  ot  South- 
eastern EUBOFB [191 

CHAPTER  V. 

Lmbnb  Statbb  ot  Wbstbrn  and  Northbrn  Europb  :  Bblqium— Luxem- 
burg—Thb     KbTHBRLANDB — SWITZBRLAND— LiBCHTBNSTEIN — SPAIN — 

Portugal— Dbnmark  and  Iceland — Swedbn — ^Norway  .    [251 

CHAPTER  VL 
The  ICiddle  East  and  India [268 

CHAPTER  Vn. 
The  Fab  East:  China — Japan [276 

CHAPTER  Vin. 

Apbica:  The  Union  of  South  Africa— Rhodesia— Pobtugub8B  West 
Afbioa — Portuguese  East  Africa — British  East  Africa — Somali- 
land— Libya— Morocco— Egypt— Sudan     ....  .    [280 

CHAPTER  IX. 

America:  The  United  States  of  America  and  its  Dependencies  — 
Canada — ^Newfoundland  —  Mexico  —  Brazil — ^Argentina  —  Chuj — 
Peru — Bolivia- Other  American  Republics [287 

CHAPTER  X. 
Australasia:  Australia — ^New  Zealand [301 


vi  CONTENTS. 

[52].  The  Home  Rule  Bill  in  Committee,  [58-54].  Grime  in  Ireland,  [561. 
uatostrophe  at  Louth,  [56].  Award  of  the  National  (Railway)  Wagee  Board, 
[56-57].  Relations  with  Russia,  [57].  The  Future  of  Mesopotamia,  [58].  The 
Agriculture  Bill,  [59].  Matrimonial  Causes  Bill,  [60].  Rent  Restriction  Bill, 
[61].  Provisions  of  the  Act,  [62].  Qyerseas  Trade  Bill,  [68\  Mining  Industry 
Bill,  [64].  Home  Rule  Bill  in  Committee,  [65].  Disorder  in  Ireland,  [66]. 
Strike  of  Irish  Railwaymen,  [67].  Deputation  to  the  Prime  Minister,  [68]. 
Rioting  in  Londonderry,  [69].    Capture  of  Oeneral  Lucas  [70]. 


CHAPTER  UL 

THE  SUMMER  MONTHS. 

The  Excess  Profits  Duty,  [70].  Government  Expenditure,  [71].  Mr.  Chamher- 
lain  on  the  position,  [72].  The  Finance  Bill,  [78].  Third  Reading,  [74]. 
British  Institute  of  Intoenational  Affairs,  [75].    The  Spa  Allied  Conference, 


K 


[76].    Conference  of  %e  Miners'  Federation,  [77].    Demands  of  the  Miners, 

The  Slough  Motor  Depot,  [79]. 
e  Amritsar  Incident,  [80].  Mixiistxy  of  Food  (Continuance)  Bill,  [81]. 
Increase  of  Railway  Rates,  [82].  Crime  in  Ireland,  [83].  Rioting  in  Belfast, 
[84].    Escape  of  General  Lucas,  [85].    Restoration  of  Order  in  Ireland  Bill, 

g8].  Committee  Stage,  [87].  Deputation  to  the  Prime  Minister,  [88]. 
omhiion  Home  Rule,  [&].  Further  Riots  in  Belfast,  [90-92].  German 
Coal  Deliveries,  [92].  The  Situation  in  Poland,  [98].  The  Council  of  Action, 
^4].  Adjournment  of  Parliament,  [95].  Ministry  of  Health  Bill,  [96].  The 
Future  of  Egjnpt,  [97].  Daily  H&rald  Incident,  [97-98].  The  Mining  In- 
dustry Bill,  [98-99].  Meeting  of  the  Miners'  Federation,  [99].  Demands  of  the 
Miners,  [IQOj.  Negotiations  with  the  Government,  [101].  Their  Suspension 
and  Resumption,  [102].  Some  Further  Progress,  [lOS].  A  Final  Breakdown, 
04].  Trades  Union  Congress,  [104-106].  Engineering  Crisis,  [105-106]. 
e  Lord  Mayor  of  Cork,  [106- lOT].  Crime  in  Ireland,  [107].  Attempt  on 
General  Strickland,  [108].  Reprisals,  [109].   Attitude  of  the  Government,  [110]. 


e£ 


CHAPTER  IV. 

END  OF  THE  YEAR. 

Fresh  Ballot  of  the  Miners,  [111].  The  Strike  Begins,  ^121.  An  Agreement 
Reached,  [118].  Return  of  the  Prince  of  Wales,  Q14].  Opening  of  Parlia- 
ment, [114].  Unemployment,  [1151.  The  Church  Congress,  [116].  Speeches 
by  Mr.  Llovd  George,  [117].  Speeches  by  Mr.  Asquith  and  Mr.  ChurchiU,  [118]. 
Death  of  the  Lord  Mayor  of  Cork,  [119].  Outrages  in  Ireland,  [120].  The 
Question  of  Reprisals,  [121].  Emergency  Powers  Bill,  [122].  Aniculture 
Bill,  [123-4].  Foreign  Affairs,  [124].  Aneet  of  Colonel  Malone,  M.P.,  [125]. 
Anniversary  of  the  Armistice,  [126-6].  Relief  of  Unemployment,  [127].  The 
Lord  Mayor's  Banquet,  [128].  The  Government  of  Ireland,  [129].  Home 
Rule  BiU,  Third  Reading,  [180].  Second  Reading  m  the  Lords,  [181].  Irish 
Debate,  [182].  Tenorism  in  Ireland,  ^88].  Murders  in  Dublin,  [134].  Dis- 
covery of  Sinn  Fein  Plots,  [135].  A  Disastrous  Ambush,  [136].  Mr.  Lloyd 
Gkoroe  on  Industry,  [137].  Debate  on  National  Expenditure,  [138].  Mr. 
Lloyd  George  on  Ireland,  [139].  An  Effort  towards  Peace.  [140].  Irish  Policy 
of  the  Government,  [1411.  Incendiarism  in  Cork,  [142].  Further  Outrages, 
[143].  Passing  of  the  Home  Rule  Bill,  [144].  The  Agriculture  BiU,  [145]. 
Prorogation  of  Parliament,  [146].  The  Problem  of  Unemployment,  [147]. 
Finis,  [148]. 


CONTENTS.  vii 

FOREIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTOEY. 

CHAPTER  I. 
The  Lbaoxtb  of  Natiosb page  [149 

CHAPTER  n. 

F&AHCB  AND  ItALT [158 

CHAPTER  m. 
Gmbxant  ahd  Aubtbu [172 

CHAPTER  IV. 

RD88IA  —  Poland  —  Lxthuahia  —  Ukbainia  -—  Finulnd  —  Esthohia  — 
LsniiAND  —  Danzig  —  Czboho-Sloyakia  —  Hungaby  —  Rumania  — 

JlKSO-SliAVIA  —  TUBKBY  —  GbEBOB  —  ThX  MiNOB  StATBS  OT  SOUTH- 

Eabtbbh  Eubofb [191 

CHAPTER  V. 
Lbbsbb  Statbb  ov  Wbstbbn  and  Nobthxbn  Eubopb  :  Bbdoium— Luzbm- 

BCTO— ThB     NbTHBBLANDB — SWTFZBBLAND — LzBCHTBNSTEIN — SPAIN — 

Pobtuoaei— Dbnmabk  and  Iobi«and— Swbden— -Nobwat  .    [261 

CHAPTER  VI. 
Tmi  BfiDDLB  East  and  Indu [268 

CHAPTER  Vn. 
Thb  Fab  East:  China— Japan [276 

CHAPTER  Vin. 

Avbioa:  Thb  Union  of  South  Afbica — Rhodbsia — Pobtuoubsb  West 
AnuGA — Pobtuoubsb  East  Afbica — Bbttish  East  Afbioa — Somali- 
LAND— Libya— Mobocoo—Egtpt— Sudan     ....  .    [280 

CHAPTER  IX. 

Ambbica:  Thb  Unitbd  States  of  Amebioa  and  its  Dbfbndbncibs  — 
Canada — ^Newfoundland  —  Mezi  co — Bbazil — ^Abobntina  —  Chili— 
Pbbu — BouyiA— Othbb  Ambbioan  Republics [287 

CHAPTER  X. 
Austbalasia:  Austbalia— New  Zealand [801 


viii  CONTENTS. 


PART  II. 

CHBONIGLE  OF  EVENTS  IN  1920 page    1 

BETBOSPEOT  OF  UTEBATUBE,  SCIENCE,  AND  ABT  IN  1920  22 

Idteratare,  22— Science,  88— Art,  47— Druna,  50— Music,  54. 

FINANCE  AND  COMMERCE  IN  1920 68 

PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS 68 

Text  of  the  Agreement  between  France,  Bussia,  Great  Britain,  and 
Italy,  Signed  at  London  on  April  26,  1915,  on  the  Eve  of  the 
Entrance  of  Italy  into  the  War,  68— Tart  of  the  Declaration  ot  the 
Supreme  Council  of  the  Peace  Conference  on  the  Economic  Con- 
ditionfl  of  the  World,  71 — ^Textof  Draft  Trade  Agreement  between 
His  Britannic  Majesty's  QoTenunent  and  the  Russian  Soviet 
Government,  80 — ^Tezt  of  the  Memorandum  on  the  Future  of 
Egypt,  88 — Summary  of  the  Becommendations  of  the  Boval  Com- 
mission on  the  Income  Tax,  86— Official  Despatches  on  the  Battle 
of  Jutland,  97. 

OBITUABY  OF  EMINENT  PEBSONS  DECEASED  IN  1920      .  115 

INDEX 171 


PREFATORY  NOTE. 

The  Editor  of  the  Annual  Register  thinks  it  necessary 
to  state  that  in  no  case  does  he  claim  to  offer  original 
reports  of  speeches  in  Parliament  or  elsewhere.  He  has 
much  pleasure  in  acknowledging  his  indebtedness  to  The 
Times  and  to  Bosses  Parliamentary  Record  for  the 
special  permission  accorded  him  to  make  use  of  their 
Parliamentary  reports  and  other  matter ;  and  he  desires 
hereby  to  express  his  thanks  for  the  valuable  assistance 
which  he  has  derived  from  the  facilities  thus  extended 
to  him. 


lY 


THE  MINISTRY,  1920. 


Prifne  Minister 

Lord  Chancellor 

Lord  Privy  Seal  and  Leader  of 
the  House  of  Commons . 

Lord  President  of  Council 

minister  without  Portfolio 

Presidents : — 

Board  of  Trade 
Board  of  Education 
Board  of  Agriculture 

Secretaries  of  State : — 

Home        .... 
Foreign     .... 
Colonies    .... 
War  and  Air  Ministry 
India        .... 

T^recuury : — 
First  Lord 


Mr.  Lloyd  George.* 
Lord  Birkenhead.* 

Mr.  A.  Bonar  Law.* 

Mr.  A.  J.  Balfour.* 

Sir  L.  Worthington-Evans. 

Sir  B.  S.  Home.* 
Dr.  H.  A.  L.  Fisher.* 
Lord  Lee.* 

Mr.  B.  Shortt.* 
Earl  Ounson.* 
Viaoount  Milner.* 
Mr.  W.  8.  Churchill.* 
Mr.  E.  S.  Montagu.* 

The  Prime  Minister.* 


Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  Mr.  Austen  Chamberlain.^ 
Junior  Lords 


Sir  R.  A.  Sanders,  Mr.  JT.  Parker,  Rev.  T.  Jones, 

Sir  W.  Sutherland. 
Mr.  S.  Baldwin. 
Lord    Edmund    Talbot,  Captain    Hon.    F.    E. 

Guest. 
Parliamentary  Under-Secretaries: — 


Financial  Secretary 
Parliamentary  Secretaries 


Home 

Foreign 

CoiUmies 

India 

War  , 

War  Finance 

Food 

Health 

Labour 

Board  of  Trade 

Board  of  Agriculture 

Board  of  Education  . 
Postmaster-General . 
Assistant  Postmaster-Oeneral  . 
Chancellor  of  the   Duchy  of 

Lancaster .... 
First  Commissioner  of  Works  . 
Paymaster-Oeneral  . 
AdiniraUy : — 

First  Lord 

First  Sea  Lord  and  Chief 
of  Naval  Staff 

Second  Sea  Lord  and  Chief 
of  Naoal  Personnel. 

Th^rd  Sea  Lord 

Fourth  Sea  Lard 

Deputy  Chief  of  Staff 

Assistant  Chief  of  Staff    . 

Ciml  Lord 

Parliamentary  Secretary  . 


Major  J.  L.  Baird. 

Mr.  Ceoil  Harmsworth,  Mr.  F.  G.  Kellaway. 

Col.  L.  C.  M.  S.  Amery. 

Sir  W.  Duke,  Lord  Sinha,  The  Earl  of  Lytton. 

Viscount  Peel. 

Sir  A«  Williamson. 

Sir  W.  Mitchell-Thomson. 

Visoount  Astor. 

Sir  M.  Barlow. 

Mr.  W.  C.  Bridgeman. 

Col.  Sir  A.  Griffith  Bosoawen. 

Mr.  J.  H.  Lewis. 

Mr.  A.  Illingworth. 

Mr.  Pike  Pease. 

The  Earl  of  Crawford. 
Sir  A.  Mond. 
Sir  J.  T.  Walters. 

Mr.  W.  Long.* 

Admiral  Earl  Beatty. 

Vice- Admiral  Sir  M.  £.  Browning. 
Rear- Admiral  F.  L.  Field. 
Rear-Admiral  Hon.  A.  Boyle. 
Rear-Admiral  Sir  0.  de  Brock. 
Captain  Sir  A.  E.  Chatfield. 
The  Earl  of  Onslow. 
Col.  Sir  J.  Craig. 


Cabinet  mazked  thus :  *. 


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■J^HS  5C«r:=T3r.  !»• 


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Ak  Mjt"** 


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ANNUAL    KEGISTEK 

FOR  THE  YEAR 

1920. 

PART  I. 
ENGLISH   HISTORY. 

CHAPTER  I. 

THE  FIRST  QUARTER. 

The  end  of  the  year  1919  witnessed  a  state  of  comparative  peace 
in  the  labour  world.  Only  one  great  strike  was  in  progress, 
namely,  that  of  the  ironmoulders,  which  had  begun  on  Sep- 
tember 20.  Several  attempts  to  reach  a  settlement  had  been 
made,  and  although  at  the  end  of  the  year  prospects  seemed 
favourable,  the  stnke  was  destined  to  continue  for  very  nearly 
another  month.  The  position  at  the  beginning  of  January  was 
that  about  50,000  men  had  been  on  strike  since  September  20, 
and  100,000  workers  in  the  engineering  trades  had  been  rendered 
idle  owing  to  the  consequent  want  of  castings.  On  January  2 
it  appeared  that  a  settlement  of  the  dispute  would  be  reached. 
As  a  result  of  the  intervention  of  the  Minister  of  Labour  and 
the  Parliamentary  Committee  of  the  Trades  Union  Congress,  a 
meeting  was  held  at  which  an  agreement  was  signed  by  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Engineering  Employers'  Federation  and  of 
the  Unions  involved  in  the  strike.  The  employers  agreed  to 
pay  an  advance  of  5^.  a  week  to  male  workers,  and  future 
alterations  in  wages  were  to  be  dealt  with  in  accordance  with 
an  arrangement  to  be  mutually  agreed  upon.  Resumption  of 
work  was  to  take  place  by  January  19.  The  hopes  of  a  settle- 
ment were,  however,  rudely  shaken  by  the  result  of  a  ballot  in 
which  the  proposed  terms  were  submitted  to  the  rank  and  file 
of  the  ironmoulders.  The  result  was  announced  on  January  8, 
and  showed  a  majority  of  over  7,000  against  acceptance. 

A  few  days  later  representatives  of  the  Unions  and  of  the 

A 


Xll 


THE  MINISTRY,  1920. 


Army  Cowvcil : — 

Secretary  of  State  for  War 
Minister  of  Munitions 
Parliamentary    Seoretary 
to  Ministry  of  Munitions 
Chief  of  General  Staff 
Adjutant-Oeneral     . 
Quartermaster- General 
Mcuter-  General  of  the  Ord- 
nance    .... 
Parliamentary   Under- 
Secretary 
Air  Ministry  :— 
Chief  of  Staff    . 
Controller-General  of  Civil 

Amotion 
Director-General   of  Air- 
craft Production   . 
Minister  of  Health  . 
Minister  of  Labour  . 
Minister  of  Pensions 
Minister  of  Transport 
Food  Controller 
Shipping  Controller 
Parliamentary     Secretary     to 

Ministry  of  Shipping 
Attorney-General 
Solicitor-General 


Secretary  for  Scotland 
Lord-Advocate . 
Solicitor  General 


Lord-Lieutenant 
Chief  Secretary 
Lora  Chancellor 
Attorney-General 
Solicitor-General 


(as  above). 
Lord  Inverforth. 

Mr.  J.  F.  Hope. 

Sir  H.  Wilson. 

Lt.-Qen.  Sir  0.  M.  Macdonough. 

Lt.-Gen.  Sir  T.  B.  Clarke. 

Lt.-Gen.  Sir  J.  P.  Du  Gano. 

(as  above). 

Major-Qen.  Sir  H.  M.  Trenchard. 

Major-Gen.  Sir  F.  H.  Sy&es. 

Major-Gen.  E.  L.  Ellington. 

Dr.  Addison.* 

Dr.  Macnamara.  * 

Mr.  Ian  Macpherson. 

Sir  E.  Geddes.* 

Mr.  0.  A.  MoCurdy. 

Sir  J.  Maolay. 

CJol.  L.  Wilson. 
Sir  G.  Hewart. 
Sir  E.  Pollock. 

Scotland. 

Mr.  B.  Munro.* 
Mr.  T.  B.  Morison. 
Mr.  C.  D.  Murray. 

Ibbland. 

Lord  French.* 
Sir  H,  Greenwood.* 
Sir  J.  H.  Campbell. 
Mr.  Denis  Henry. 
Mr.  D.  M.  Wilson. 


Cabinet  marked  thus :  *. 


ANNUAL    EEGISTEE 

FOR  THE  YEAR 

1920. 

PART  I. 
ENGLISH   HISTORY. 

CHAPTER  I. 

THE  FIRST  QUARTER. 

The  end  of  the  year  1919  witnessed  a  state  of  comparative  peace 
in  the  labour  world.  Only  one  great  strike  was  in  progress, 
namely,  that  of  the  ironmoulders,  which  had  begun  on  Sep- 
tember 20.  Several  attempts  to  reach  a  settlement  had  been 
made,  and  although  at  the  end  of  the  year  prospects  seemed 
favourable,  the  strike  was  destined  to  continue  for  very  nearly 
another  month.  The  position  at  the  beginning  of  January  was 
that  about  50,000  men  had  been  on  strike  since  September  20, 
and  100,000  workers  in  the  engineering  trades  had  been  rendered 
idle  owing  to  the  consequent  want  of  castings.  On  January  2 
it  appeared  that  a  settlement  of  the  dispute  would  be  reached. 
As  a  result  of  the  intervention  of  the  Minister  of  Labour  and 
the  Parliamentary  Committee  of  the  Trades  Union  Congress,  a 
meeting  was  held  at  which  an  agreement  was  signed  by  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Engineering  Employers*  Federation  and  of 
the  Unions  involved  in  the  strike.  The  employers  agreed  to 
pay  an  advance  of  55.  a  week  to  male  workers,  and  future 
alterations  in  wages  were  to  be  dealt  with  in  accordance  with 
an  arrangement  to  be  mutually  agreed  upon.  Resumption  of 
work  was  to  take  place  by  January  19.  The  hopes  of  a  settle- 
ment were,  however,  rudely  shaken  by  the  result  of  a  ballot  in 
which  the  proposed  terms  were  submitted  to  the  rank  and  file 
of  the  ironmoulders.  The  result  was  announced  on  January  8, 
and  showed  a  majority  of  over  7,000  against  acceptance. 

A  few  days  later  representatives  of  the  Unions  and  of  the 

A 


2]  ENGLISH  HISTORY.  [jan. 

employers  met  at  York  in  a  fresh  effort  to  end  the  deadlock. 
At  this  conference  the  employers  again  offered  the  men  Ss,  a 
week  advance  in  wages,  and  they  added  to  this  offer  an  mider- 
taking  to  hold  a  conference  immediately  after  the  resmnption 
of  work  for  the  discussion  of  general  working  conditions  in  the 
foundries.  Mr.  Arthur  Henderson,  the  men's  leader,  pointed 
out  to  the  Unions  the  absolute  impossibility  of  obtaining  any 
greater  advance  of  wages  than  that  now  offered,  and  it  was 
decided  to  take  another  ballot  of  the  men  on  the  revised  offer. 
The  terms  submitted  to  the  men  were  the  same  as  in  the  former 
ballot  except  that  the  date  of  resumption  of  work  was  to  be 
January  26,  and  also  that  a  conference  was  to  be  held  between 
the  employers  and  the  Unions  in  the  week  commencing 
February  2  for  the  purpose  of  discussing  the  working  conditions 
in  foundries  and  other  matters  affecting  the  well-being  of  the 
men.  The  ballot  was  completed  on  January  21  and  the  result 
was  declared  the  following  day.  It  showed  a  majority  of  6,404 
in  favour  of  returning  to  work,  and  the  dispute  thus  at  length 
came  to  an  end.  The  men  received  only  5s,  increase  of  wages 
instead  of  15s.  which  they  hai^d  demanded.  On  the  26th  work 
was  restarted  in  many  districts,  and  though  here  and  there 
some  difficulties  were  raised,  the  men  soon  settled  down  and 
the  long  strike  was  at  an  end. 

The  question  of  railwaymen's  wages  was  also  under  dis- 
cussion during  January.  Since  the  strike  of  the  previous 
September  continuous  discussion  had  occurred  between  the 
Government  and  the  Railway  Unions.  The  chief  difficulty 
that  arose  was  that  of  fixing,  in  an  abnormal  period,  standard 
rates  of  pay  which  would  be  neither  too  low  during  the  present 
abnormal  time,  nor  too  high  when  a  more  normal  period  was 
reached.  To  get  over  this  difficulty  the  Government,  early  in 
January,  offered  to  standardise  wages  for  the  male  staff.  The 
offer  which  they  made  to  the  men  was  a  substantial  advance, 
in  two  respects,  on  the  terms  which  were  rejected  in  September, 
and  against  which  the  strike  was  directed.  In  the  first  place 
the  Government's  imdertaking  to  consider  anomalies  affecting 
particular  grades  of  railwaymen  had  been  carried  out  in  a 
rather  generous  spirit,  and  an  increase  of  100  per  cent,  above  the 
average  pre-war  rate  was  now  the  minimum  advance  offered  in 
permanent  wages.  In  the  second  place  the  Government  offered 
to  all  grades  of  railwaymen  an  immediate  flat  rate  advance  of 
5s.  a  week  on  the  present  war  wage  of  33s.  a  week.  There 
was  to  be  no  reduction  in  present  earnings,  including  the  newly 
conceded  5^.,  before  September,  1920.  Thereafter  there  was  to 
be  a  rise  or  fall  of  Is.  a  week  for  every  rise  or  fall  of  five  points 
in  the  cost  of  living  figures.  At  no  time  was  the  wage  to  fall 
below  the  new  figures  of  permanent  standard  rates. 

A  special  general  meetmg  of  the  National  Union  of  Railway- 
men  was  called  on  January  7  to  consider  the  new  offer  of  the 
Government.    After  three  days*  deliberation  they  decided  not 


iMO.]  Wages  of  Bailwaymen.  [8 

to  accept  the  terms  offered.  Mr.  J.  H.  Thomas  amioimced 
that  the  conference  had  sent  back  the  proposals  to  the  Govern- 
ment and  would  sit  in  session  imtil  there  was  an  answer.  Sir 
Eric  Geddes,  the  Minister  of  Transport,  replied  to  the  con- 
ference that,  since  the  proposals  had  been  laid  down  by  the 
Cabinet  and  the  issues  involved  were  of  national  importisince, 
it  would  be  necessary  for  him  to  bring  the  whole  matter  before 
his  colleagues.  He  promised  to  do  so  at  the  earhest  possible 
moment,  and  would  then  give  Mr.  Thomas  a  reply  which 
would  carry  with  it  the  full  authority  of  the  Government.  On 
the  11th  Sir  Eric  Geddes  and  Sir  Kobert  Home  left  London 
for  Paris  to  discuss  the  matter  with  Mr.  Lloyd  George,  who 
was  then  in  the  French  capital.  Some  delay  occurred  before 
the  reply  of  the  Government  was  definitely  presented  to  the 
men.  When  its  contents  were  divulged  it  was  found  that  the 
Government  had  stood  firm  on  principles,  but  had  agreed  to 
a  certain  measure  of  elasticity  in  the  detailed  application  of 
their  proposals.  The  men  had  objected  to  the  proposal  that 
the  ultimate  standard  wage  rates  should  be  based  on  the  average 
instead  of  on  the  highest  pre-war  rate  in  each  grade.  They 
had  also  objected  to  a  sliding  scale  based  on  the  cost  of  hving. 
To  both  these  objections  the  Government  returned  a  hostile 
answer,  though  expressing  their  willingness  to  deal  with  cases 
of  individual  hardship.  The  Government,  however,  agreed  to 
extend  the  5«.  advance  to  certain  grades  which  had  not  formerly 
been  included.  Further,  the  Government  agreed  to  extend  the 
principle  of  their  proposals  to  Irish  railways.  On  January  15 
Mr.  Thomas  announced  that  the  Bailwaymen*  s  Delegate  Con- 
ference had  decided,  by  a  very  narrow  majority,  to  accept  the 
settlement  on  the  basis  of  the  Government  offer.  He  said  that 
the  task  before  them  had  been  very  difficult,  and  that  there  had 
been  not  only  keen  diviedon  but  strong  feeling  among  the 
railwaymen.  He  hoped  and  believed  that  the  men  would 
accept  it  as  an  honourable  settlement.  In  this  hope  it  may  be 
observed  that  he  was  entirely  justified,  for  after  the  settlement 
there  was  a  greater  spirit  of  content  among  the  railwaymen 
than  had  been  the  case  for  a  long  time  past. 

The  shortage  of  household  coal  gave  great  anxiety  during 
January.  Early  in  the  year  many  depots  were  entirely  bare 
of  coal ;  at  the  remaining  depots  the  small  stocks  were  rapidly 
vanishing  owing  to  the  local  overseers  having  to  commandeer 
the  coal  to  keep  householders  and  the  poor  supplied.  It  was 
stated  that  the  reduction  of  10^.  in  the  price  of  domestic  coal 
had  practically  stopped  the  supply,  as  all  suitable  coal  had 
been  immediately  transferred  to  industrial  uses.  The  remedies 
suggested  by  the  trade  were  either  to  equalise  the  price  between 
household  and  industrial  coal,  or  to  make  the  price  of  household 
coal  higher  than  that  of  industrial  coal.  In  this  case  domestic 
users  would  reduce  their  consumption  as  much  as  possible.  De- 
control in  everything  except  pnce  was  strongly  urged  in  order 

a2 


4]  ENGLISH  HISTORY.  C^ah. 

that  the  buyer  and  seller  might  come  together  again.  Trans- 
port difficulties  were  also  blamed  as  a  contributory  cause  in  the 
situation.  Notwithstanding  the  shortage,  export  of  coal  still 
continued.  On  January  10  the  queues  at  some  of  the  yards 
were  almost  as  large  as  those  seen  in  1917  before  the  intro- 
duction of  coal  control  and  the  later  rationing  scheme. 

In  consequence  of  this  state  of  affairs  the  price  of  household 
coal  in  London  was  raised  on  January  15  by  Id.  per  cwt.  or  2«. 
per  ton.  In  other  parts  of  the  country  it  was  raised  from  6d, 
to  28,  per  ton  according  to  the  distance  of  the  locality  from  the 
coal  pits.  Some  extra  charge  was  in  any  case  necessitated  by 
the  increased  rates  for  the  cartage  of  coal  by  rail  which  were 
just  coming  into  operation.  On  January  16  Mr.  Frank  Hodges, 
Secretary  of  the  Miners'  Federation,  issued  a  statement  dealing 
with  the  financial  position  of  the  mining  industry  from  the  time 
of  the  6s.  increase  in  price  to  home  consumers  in  July,  1919, 
down  to  the  end  of  the  year.  The  statement  said  that  the  out- 
put of  coal  had  greatly  exceeded  the  estimate  of  Sir  Auckland 
Geddes,  and  argued  in  favour  of  a  reduction  in  the  price  of 
industrial  coal  by  9^.  4d.  per  ton  during  the  remainder  of  the 
year  ending  July,  1920. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  month  the  Executive  Committee  of 
the  Miners'  Federation  went  to  10  Downing  Street  to  discuss 
coal  profits,  prices,  and  supplies,  and  to  present  a  demand  for  a 
reduction  in  the  price  of  mdustrial  coal,  or  alternatively  an 
increase  in  the  miners'  wages.  The  Executive  laid  stress  on  the 
enormous  increase  which  had  taken  place  in  the  price  of  exported 
coal,  on  the  continued  high  price  of  industrial  coal  for  home 
consumers,  on  the  shortage  of  domestic  supplies  since  the 
reduction  of  price  by  lOs.  per  ton  which  had  taken  place  on 
December  1,  1919,  and  on  the  effect  of  the  continued  high  price 
of  coal  on  the  cost  of  living  of  the  people.  Mr.  Lloyd  George 
informed  the  Executive  that  the  investigation  of  the  Govern- 
ment into  the  financial  position  of  the  industry  was  not  yet 
completed,  and  he  suggested  that  a  further  discussion  should 
take  place  a  week  later.     This  suggestion  was  agreed  to. 

On  January  29  a  special  conference  of  miners'  delegates  was 
held  in  London  at  which  Mr.  Bobert  Smillie,  President  of  the 
Federation,  made  a  statement  about  the  objects  of  his  Executive 
in  going  to  Downing  Street.  Mr.  Smillie  denied  that  there 
was  any  selfishness  on  the  part  of  the  miners.  He  pointed  out 
that  the  cost  of  living  had  continued  to  go  up  in  spite  of  the 
optimistic  statements  of  the  Prime  Minister.  The  miners 
recognised  that  a  mere  increase  of  wages  would  not  meet  the 
evil  of  the  high  cost  of  living.  They  estimated  that  at  the 
present  prices  for  exported  coal  the  Government  would  have  a 
surplus  of  between  fifty  million  and  sixty  million  pounds.  Mr. 
Smillie  said  that  it  was  only  fair  to  give  the  Government  another 
week  to  consider  the  matter.  He  said  that  the  miners  had,  of 
course,  notified  the  Government  that  an  increase  in  wages  was 


1990.)  The  Demands  of  the  Miners,  [6 

the  alternative  to  a  decrease  in  prices.  The  main  object  of  the 
present  move,  however,  was  to  reduce  the  cost  of  living  in  the 
interests  of  the  nation.  Later  in  the  day,  at  a  private  sitting, 
the  conference  considered  a  proposal  for  an  increase  of  the 
weekly  contribution  of  members  of  the  Federation,  the  grounds 
for  such  increase  being  the  danger  of  a  national  strike  ensuing 
from  the  struggle  for  national  ownership  of  the  collieries  with 
joint  control  by  the  workers.  The  decision  on  this  point  was 
deferred,  however,  until  after  the  next  interview  between  the 
Executive  and  the  Prime  Minister.  The  results  of  that  inter- 
view will  be  recorded  later. 

The  increasing  antagonism  between  the  Government  and 
the  Labour  Party  was  manifested  by  the  announcement  on 
January  28  of  the  resignation  of  Mr.  George  Barnes,  the  sole 
Labour  Member  of  the  Cabinet.  Mr.  Barnes  informed  the 
Prime  Minister  that  he  had  joined  the  Coalition  in  order  to 
assist  in  getting  peace  signed  and  secured.  In  his  view  peace 
had  now  been  secured  and  the  time  for  his  withdrawal  had 
come.  The  Prime  Minister  urged  him  not  to  persist  in  his 
resie[nation,  but  Mr.  Barnes  decided  that  it  must  be  regarded  as 
final.  He  was  induced  to  attend  a  meeting  of  the  Cabinet  on 
the  28th,  but  he  insisted  that  it  was  only  for  the  purpose  of 
sajring  farewell  to  his  colleagues.  Mr.  Barnes  neither  resigned 
his  seat  for  the  Gorbals  Division  of  Glasgow,  nor  did  he  rejoin 
the  Labour  Party.  He  preferred  to  retire  to  the  back  benches 
rather  than  to  join  Mr.  Henderson  and  his  friends  on  the  Front 
Opposition  bench. 

The  shortage  of  houses  was  still  as  acute  as  it  had  ever  been. 
The  original  estimate  of  the  Ministry  of  Health  was  that  at 
least  500,000  houses  were  required,  but  Lord  Astor  announced 
early  in  the  year  that  this  estimate  had  now  gone  up  to  800,000. 
Sir  James  Carmichael,  Director-General  of  National  Housing, 
announced  that  20,000  houses  were  actually  in  course  of  con- 
struction. Plans  for  85,000  had  been  submitted,  65,000  were 
approved  of,  and  very  soon  contracts  for  the  building  of  100,000 
would  be  entered  into  by  local  authorities. 

On  January  15  Mr.  Chamberlain  announced  that  he  intended 
to  make  a  new  issue  of  Exchequer  Bonds  for  a  short  period 
to  meet  the  maturities  which  would  fall  due  in  the  next  two 
months.  The  terms  of  the  issue  were :  Five  year  bonds  at  par, 
bearing  5}  per  cent,  interest ;  there  was  an  option  each  Janu- 
ary to  obtain  repayment  a  year  later,  the  first  date  of  repay- 
ment being  February  1,  1922.  Subscriptions  were  to  be  opened 
on  January  20  and  to  close  on  or  before  February  28.  There 
was  to  be  both  a  Bank  of  England  and  a  Post  Office  issue. 
Mr.  Chamberlain  said  it  had  been  suggested  to  him  that  the 
War  Savings  Certificates  no  longer  fully  met  the  needs  of  the 
situation,  and  that  many  of  the  Associations  would  like  to  have 
some  other  form  of  Government  security  which  they  could  offer 
as  an  investment  to  their  members.    He  could  not  say  that 


6]  ENGLISH  HISTOBY.  t'A». 

there  was  any  prospect  that  he  could  extend  the  existing  limit 
with  its  privileges,  but  if  the  issue  of  a  suitable  Bond  would 
meet  the  real  demand  among  the  members  of  the  National 
Savings  Assembly,  it  would  be  his  duty  to  meet  their  wishes  if 
it  were  possible,  and  he  thought  it  would  be  possible. 

Interest  in  party  politics  was  revived  during  January  by  a 
bye-election  at  Paisley  in  which  Mr.  Asquith  was  invited  to 
become  the  Liberal  candidate.  The  bye-election  was  caused 
by  the  death  of  Sir  John  McCallum  who  had  won  the  seat  at 
the  General  Election  as  an  Independent  Liberal.  Since  the 
Coalition  Liberals  were  very  strong  in  the  constituency  it  was 
at  first  doubtful  whether  Mr.  Asquith  would,  be  invited  to  stand, 
but  the  growing  unpopularity  of  the  Coalition  determined  the 
matter,  and  on  January  21  the  Paisley  Liberal  Association 
unanimously  decided  to  approach  the  former  Prime  Minister. 
He  immediately  accepted  the  invitation,  and  great  interest  was 
taken  throughout  the  country  in  the  struggle  which  ensued. 
Mr.  Asquith  addressed  his  first  election  meeting  on  January  27. 
He  stated  his  intention  of  laying  down  the  main  principles  of 
Liberal  policy.  He  said  that  the  House  of  Commons  did  not 
represent  the  settled  mind  but  the  passing  mood  of  the  electors. 
It  had  shown  itself  incapable  of  checking  or  controlling  ad- 
ministrative folly  and  extravagance,  and  it  had  been  too  ready 
to  sanction  reactionary  legislation.  Mr.  Asquith  dwelt  on  the 
necessity  of  economies  in  finance,  urging  that  the  country  could 
not  go  on  borrowing  but  must  pay  its  way.  In  his  opinion  the 
reduction  of  the  debt  was  a  matter  of  primary  and  paramount 
importance  both  for  reducing  the  annual  burden  and  for  re- 
establishing the  credit  of  the  country.  Expenditure,  however, 
could  not  be  reduced  on  great  social  services  such  as  education 
and  housing.  The  first  step  to  be  taken  was  to  put  a  stop  to 
profligate  extravagance.  A  drastic  reduction  in  the  cost  of  the 
Army  should  be  made.  Beferring  to  Bussia,  he  condemned 
what  he  called  supplementary  adventures  which  would  involve 
the  despatch  of  British  troops  for  purposes  which  the  British 
people  did  not  approve,  and  which  m  the  present  condition  of 
finance  no  Parliament  ought  to  sanction.  He  did  not  believe 
that  the  country  was  in  any  sense  bankrupt,  nor  did  he  believe 
that  much  additional  revenue  could  be  raised  through  indirect 
taxation.  As  for  nationahsation,  it  was  a  red  herring.  On  the 
question  of  a  capital  levy  he  said  there  was  nothing  in  principle 
to  difiFerentiate  between  a  tax  upon  accumulated  wealth  and  a 
tax  upon  wealth  as  it  came  in.  He  strongly  urged  inquiry  into 
the  matter,  especially  with  reference  to  the  three  questions, 
whether  it  could  be  made  equitable  in  its  incidence,  whether  it 
could  be  arranged  so  as  not  to  discourage  savings,  and  whether 
it  could  be  brought  into  working  order  by  practical  machinery. 
If  these  three  questions  could  be  answered  affirmatively  he  knew 
of  no  Liberal  principle  which  would  be  infringed  by  a  capital 
levy. 


I9fl0.]  Bye-Election  at  Paisley.  [7 

Speaking  next  day,  Mr.  Asquith  insisted  that  now  the  war 
was  over  there  was  no  longer  any  reason  for  the  existence  of 
a  GoaUtion  Government.  The  Coalition,  he  said,  was  under 
sentence  of  death.  Liberalism  stood  for  disarmament,  for  the 
recognition  of  small  States  as  well  as  great,  and  for  the  principle 
of  self-determination.  Eeferring  to  the  House  of  Lords,  he 
agreed  that  its  present  constitution  could  not  be  justified.  He 
thought  that  a  much  smaller  Chamber  should  be  substituted  for 
it  in  which  nominations  might  be  given  to  distinguished  public 
servants  in  non-political  spheres.  He  thought,  however,  that 
to  the  extent  of  at  least  two-thirds  it  should  be  elected.  Mr. 
Asquith  defended  devolution  on  the  ground  that  it  provided  the 
only  solution  of  the  present  congestion  of  Parhament.  He 
welcomed  the  development  of  the  principle  of  calling  the 
Dominion  Prime  Ministers  into  conference,  but  he  was  not  in 
favour  of  the  scheme  for  the  creation  of  an  Imperial  Parliament 
in  which  the  Dominions  would  be  immediately  and  directly 
represented.  As  regards  the  Peace  Conference,  he  said  that  he 
was  sure  it  would  be  quite  impossible  to  carry  out  its  terms. 
During  the  fight  in  this  bye-election  Mr.  Asquith  continued  to 
lay  down  a  programme  of  Liberal  poUcy,  addressing  his  speeches 
as  much  to  the  country  as  a  whole  as  to  the  electors  of  Paisley. 
The  further  course  of  the  bye-election  will  be  referred  to  later. 

Among  other  political  speeches  during  January  was  one  by 
Mr.  Arthur  Balfour  at  a  banquet  given  by  the  City  of  London 
Conservative  and  Unionist  Association  on  January  22.     Refer- 
ring to  the  Peace  Treaty,  Mr.  Balfour  admitted  that  peace, 
while  it  had  brought  with  it  many  blessings,  had  not  yet  brought 
all  that  had  been  hoped  or  that  might  have  been  expected.     He 
did  not  think  that  was  the  fault  of  the  conference  at  Paris. 
The  unhappiness  of  the  world  was  not  dependent  upon  kings, 
ministers,   politicians,  and  writers,  but  upon  the  weaknesses, 
vanities,  and  prejudices  of  ordinary  men  and  women.     This 
could  not  be  cured  merely  by  a  readjustment  of  frontiers,  but 
only  by  producing  a  more  reasonable  frame  of  mind  in  the 
democracies  of  the  world.    Mr.  Balfour  defended  the  CoaUtion 
Government,  insisting  that  it  was  the  Government  which  the 
country  wanted  at  the  present  time.     He  agreed  that  a  Coalition 
Government  was  very  difficult  to  work  since  there  were  two 
organisations  in  one  party,  and  sometimes  friction  must  ensue. 
He  repudiated  the  suggestion  that  a  Coalition  Government 
meant  a  perpetual  sacrince  by  one  or  both  parties  of  the  prin- 
ciples for  which  they  existed.    In  all  the  Coalition  Governments 
to  which  he  had  belonged  the  differences  of  opinion   which 
naturally  arose  had  never  followed  party  cleavage.    What  was 
wanted  was  community  of  action  in  a  great  crisis.    If  Europe 
was  looked  at  as  a  whole  we  were  still  almost  crushed  by  the 
burden  of  war,  and  he  could  not  conceive  conditions  under 
which  it  was  more  necessary  for  all  men  of  moderation  to  act 
together  conscientiously  and  firmly. 


8]  ENGLISH  HISTORt.  t^Ai*. 

Mr.  Chamberlain  spoke  the  same  day  at  Birmingham  on 
questions  of  finance.  He  pointed  out  that  every  belligerent 
was  burdened  with  an  immense  load  of  debt,  and  that  there 
had  been  a  vast  inflation  of  credit  on  account  of  the  needs  of 
borrowing  Governments  in  a  struggle  for  national  life.  No  ex- 
pedients, he  said,  however  ingenious,  could  relieve  us  of  the 
necessity  for  a  long  course  of  careful  economy  in  national  and 
personal  expenditure.  Our  first  task  must  be,  therefore,  to  stop 
all  new  borrowing  on  Revenue  accoimt.  Our  national  debt  had 
reached  its  maximum ;  our  next  object  should  be  to  stop  the 
inflation  of  currency  by  stopping  the  creation  of  new  debt.  We 
should  then  have  to  consider  the  funding  of  our  large  floating 
debt,  thus  removing  the  cloud  of  uncertainty  which  at  present 
himg  over  commercial  and  financial  centres.  He  pointed  out 
that  trade  was  prosperous  and  that  the  adverse  balance  of  trade 
was  being  rapidly  reduced.  The  most  anxious  problem  was 
that  caused  by  our  external  debt.  Its  reduction  was  an  object 
of  first  importance,  to  achieve  which  the  export  trade  must  be 
increased  and  the  imports  restricted  to  the  narrowest  limits. 
With  increased  production  and  economical  consumption  he 
thought  that  in  a  few  years*  time  there  would  no  longer  be  any 
occasion  for  anxiety. 

At  the  end  of  the  month  Mr.  Churchill,  Secretary  of  State 
for  War,  outlined  the  scheme  of  the  Government  for  reorgan- 
ising the  Territorial  Force.  Speaking  at  the  London  County 
Council  Ofl&ces  in  Spring  Gardens,  he  said  that  the  Territorial 
Force  was  to  become  a  Territorial  Army.  The  war  establish- 
ment would  be  approximately  345,000,  of  whom  in  the  first 
instance  only  60  per  cent,  would  be  recruited.  As  a  result  of 
the  war  there  was  no  longer  any  danger  of  invasion,  and  a 
Territorial  Force  was  not  required  for  home  defence.  The 
Territorial  Army  was  wanted  for  service  overseas  in  great  and 
supreme  emergencies,  but  it  could  only  be  sent  overseas  by  the 
passing  of  a  special  Act  of  Parliament  authorising  its  despatch. 
The  Territorial  Army  would  go  to  the  aid  of  the  Regular  Army 
and  its  Reserves,  but  it  would  be  self-supporting  and  self-con- 
tained. It  would  not  supply  drafts  to  reinforce  the  Regular 
Army.  Its  fourteen  Infantry  Divisions  would  be  trained  as 
units  and  fight  as  units.  Recruiting  would  begin  on  February 
16,  the  terms  of  enlistment  being  three  years  for  trained  men 
and  four  years  for  all  others.  Men  would  be  accepted  who 
were  fit  for  general  service  and  between  the  ages  of  eighteen  and 
thirty-eight.  For  the  annual  fifteen  days*  training  in  camp  full 
army  rates  of  pay  and  separation  allowance  would  be  granted. 
There  would  be  an  annual  bounty  of  5^  to  trained  men  and  41. 
to  recruits  who  kept  fifty  drills  in  addition  to  firing  the  annual 
musketry  course  and  attending  camp  for  the  full  period.  Of 
the  existing  fifty-five  regiments  of  Yeomanry  Cavalry,  ten  or 
twelve  would  form  a  Cavalry  Division,  and  a  certain  number 
would  be  kept  with  the  same  liability  for  overseas  service  as 


ld20j  Crime  tn  Ireland,  {Q 

the  King  Edward's  Horse.  The  remainder  would  be  required 
for  Field  and  Mountain  Artillery  and  Motor  Machine-Gun 
Corps. 

Throughout  the  year  the  state  of  Ireland  was  completely  de- 
plorable and  caused  far  more  anxiety  than  had  ever  been  known 
before  in  the  history  of  that  unfortunate  country.  The  history 
of  Ireland  during  the  j^ear  is,  indeed,  mainly  the  recital  of  a 
succession  of  crimes  instigated  by  Sinn  Fein  for  the  purpose  of 
making  government  impossible.  At  the  beginning  of  the  year 
there  were  numerous  raids  by  armed  men  on  Post  Offices  with 
the  oBfecl  Of  securing  money.  On  January_l  a  daring  theft  of 
this  kmd  was  successfully  carried  out  at  the  Central  Post  Office 
of  Limerick.  '~k  consicferable  sum  of  money  was  stolen  by 
ariUcd  mon^  and  the  policT  were_  unable  tQ  trace  either  the 
robbers  or  their  booty.  T'wenty  inen  took  part  in  it,  and 
having  posted  sentries  at  the  Strors,  proceeded  to  hold  up  the 
officials  in  different  parts  of  the  Tbuilding.  It  was  estimated 
that  between  _2^000Z.  and  4t000i,-were  secured  by  the  raiders. 
On  January  3  an  attack  was  made  on  a  police  barracks  eight 
miles  from  the  City  of  Cork.  Three  hundred  armed  men  toolr--^ 
part  in  the  attack  and  fired  upon  the  barracks,  which  were 
defended  by  a  sergeant  and  five  constables.  Ultimately  the 
raiders  threw  a  bomb  and,  rushing  in  through  the  breach  so 
caused,  they  captured  and  handcuffed  the  defenders.  The  raiders 
then  made  off  with  all  the  arms,  ammunition,  and  accoutre-^ 
ments.  i 

Attacks  on  the  police  wfij:fi.ofifi.  of  jthe  main  principles  of 
Sinff'Fein  policy,  Ti)n  January  3  a  constable  of  lEe' Ebyal 
Irish  Constabulary  was  shot  at  and  wounded  in  County  Kerry, 
while  on  the  same  day  other  attacks  were  made  in  County 
Clare  in  whtelTtfee  police  defended  themselves  with  hand 
grenades.  Some  sensation  was  caused  on  January  7  by  the 
announcement  of  the  dismissal  of  Sir  Joseph  Byrne,  the  In- 
spector-General of  the  Eoyal  Irish  Constabulary.  It  was  on 
all  hands  admitte'd'tEat  he  had  been  a  very  efficient  head  of 
the  Constabulary,  and  his  sudden  dismissal  caused  general  sur- 
prise. At  meetings  of  sergeants  and  constables  of  the  Boyal 
Irish  Constabulary  resolutions  were  passed  regretting  the  re- 
linquishment by  Sir  Joseph  Byrne  of  the  post  of  Inspector- 
General,  and  viewing  with  alarm  the  removal  of  their  chief. 
Meanwhile. it.jeign.^  terror  gradu^ly  became  established  in 
IrelancT  Oa  January  9 .  Mr.,  Alexander  Sullivan,  one  of  the 
lesSers  of  the -Irish  Bar,  narrowly  escaped  assassination  at 
Tralee  in  Cpuntj  Kerry.  His  political  views  were  strongly 
Nationalist,  and  his  only  offence  appears  to  have  been  that  he 
denounced  political  crime  and  called  on  the  leaders  of  the  people 
to  discourage  and  repudiate  it.  His  would-be  assassins  called 
at  the  house  where  he  was  in  the  evening,  and  after  firing  five 
or  six  shots — ^none  of  which  struck  him — ran  out  of  the  house 
and  disappeared  in  the  darkness. 


10]  ENGLISH  HISTOEY.  t'li^. 

A   more   succesEdhil  crime  was   committed  in   Dublin  on 
January  21.     Mr.  W.  C.  F.  Bedmond,  Deputy  Assistant  Com- 
missioner of  the  Dublin  Metropolitan  Police,  was  walking  in 
Hertford  Street,  one  of  the  mam  streets  of  the  city,  between 
6  and  7  o'clock  when  two  shots  were  fired  at  him,  and  he  died 
a  few  minutes  later.    The  assailants,  as  usual,  escaped.    On  the 
20th  serious  disorders  took  place  at  Thurles,  in  which  soldiers 
and  policemen,  enraged  by  the  shooting  of  a  constable,  marched 
through  the  streets  firing  at  the  houses.     A  return,  issued  at 
this  time  from  the  Chief  Secretary's  ofi&ce  giving  figures  of 
outrages  attributed  to  Sinn  Fein  between  May  1,  1916,  and 
December  31,  1919,  showed  a  total  of  1,529  offences,  made  up 
of  18  murders,  77  armed  attacks,  numerous  assaults  on  police- 
men and  civilians,  20  raids  for  arms  and  ammunition,  70  in- 
cendiary fires,  and  210  threatening  letters.     On   the  25th  a 
proclamation  was  issued  from  Dublin  Castle  offering  a  reward 
of  10,000Z.  for  information  which  might  lead  to  the  conviction 
of  persons  guilty  of  the  murders  of  police  officers.     The  pro- 
clamation, however,  had  little  effect.    That  same  evening  Murroe 
police  barracks  were  atta<;ked  by  a  party  of  men  estimated  to 
number  about  forty.    The  poUce  defended  themselves  behind  the 
barrack  windows,  and  ultimately  a  relieving  force  arrived  and 
rescued  them.     Outrages  of  a  more  brutal  character  were  also 
perpetrated,  as,  for  instance,  in  County  Kerry,  where  a  party 
of  masked  men  forced  their  way  into  a  farmer's  house  and  cut 
off  his  ears  with  a  pair  of  shears.     Towards  the  end  of  January 
a  further  attack  was  made  on  Sergeant  SulUvan  when  he  was 
travelhng  by  train,  but  once  again  he  fortunately  escaped  injury. 
'    On  January  30  Mr.  Walter  Long  addressed  a  meeting  at 
Trowbridge  on  the  Irish  pohcy  of  the  Government.     He  replied 
in  particular  to  the  criticism  that  the  repressive  pohcy  of  the 
Government  was  the  cause  of  the   present  trouble  in   that 
country.     He  pointed  out  that  it  was  plain  to  every  one  that 
a  hideous  conspiracy  existed  in  Ireland  to  murder  men  who 
were  simply  doing  their  duty.     It  was  the  business  of  the  Irish 
Government  to  stamp  out  that  conspiracy  and  to  bring  the 
criminals  to  justice.    He  therefore  could  not  see  any  justification 
for  the  attacks  made  on  the  Irish  Government.     Their  policy 
was  to  put  an  end  to  the  conspiracy  of  murder,  and  to  call  for 
the  support  of  every  one  to  that  end.     The  Government  were 
about  to  place  before  Parliament  proposals  to  deal  with  the 
government  of  Ireland,  but  he  felt  that  whatever  proposals 
might  be  made  they  would  be  certain  to  be  condemned  in 
Ireland  for  totally  different  reasons,  and  the  Government  were 
therefore  under  no  delusions  as  to  the  reception  their  proposals 
would  be  likely  to  meet.     The  Government  scheme  was  so 
constructed  as  to  be  absolutely  consistent  with  a  federal  system. 
It  would  give  the  Irish  people  the  opportunity  to  come  together 
and  form  a  single  Parhament  or,  if  they  preferred,  two  Parlia- 
ments.    He  appealed  to  the  Irish  people  not  to  repudiate  the 


^c . 


19dO.]  Meeting  at  the  Albert  Halt.  [ll 

Bill  from  the  start,  but  to  make  up  their  minds  to  make  the  ( 
best  of  it  they  could.  In  that  case  it  might  be  possible  to  make^ 
it  a  success.  -^ 

fn  the  last  day  of  January  a  large  number  of  arrests  were 
made  among  Simr  IPeiners.  The  preparations  foriiiiR  move  on 
tBet"pai^.Qf^.the  Qovemment  were  kej^t  very  secret,  and  the 
arrests  were  carried  out  simultaneously  m  the  early  hours  of  the 
morning  by  soldiers  and  police.  In  all  about  fifty-eight  arrests 
were  made,  eight  of  which  were  i!&'DuT)lin.  Two  members  of 
Parliament  were  included,  namely,  H.  C.  Barton  and  Joseph 
Mc6lStB."~"0n  the  same  night  another  policeman  was  shot  in 
Limerick,  and  tEis  led  to  an  attack  by  a  crowd  of  civilians  on  a 
military  patrol,  with  the  result  that  the  soldiers  returned  the 
fire  and  one  man  was  killed  and  a  number  of  people  were 
injured. 

On  February  11  a  lar^e  meeting  was  held  at  the  Albert  Hall 
in  London  £^n*anged  byjne  Irish  Self -Determination  League  of 
Great  Britain   to  demand-  reeogmiion  of  the  Irish  ^Republic. 
Mr.  A.  0*Brien,  the  Chairman,  addressed  the  immense  audience 
as  fellow  exiles.    He  said  that  the  eventual  recognition  of 
the  Irish  Bepublic  was  a  certainty,  and  that  the  only  nation 
opposed  to  recognition  was  England.    A  resolution  was  sub- 
mitted   by  Mr.   P.   J.   Kelly  demanding    the  recognition  of  . 
the  Irish  Bepublic,  and  the  immediate  release  of  the  Irishmen  ^ 
who  had  recently  been  deported  and  imprisoned.     Mr.  Arthur    ^ . 
Griffith  declared  that  the  Irish  Bepublic  was  already  in  exist- 
ence and  was  sanctioned  by  80  per  cent,  of  the  Irish  people. 
He  said  that  the  English  Ajmy  of  Occupation  in  Ireland  used  / 
every  instrument  of  terror  against  the  expressed  will  of  the 
Irish  people.     The   Army  raided    the    houses  of    inoffensive 
citizens  by  night,  destroyed  their  property,  and  dragged  many 
to  gaol.     Ireland  would  always  be  hostile  to  England  so  long 
as  she  was  ruled  by  force,  and  if  England  wanted  to  get  rid  of     , 
an  enemy  on  her  flank  she  must  recognise  the  Irish  race  and    / 
leave  them   to  carry  on  their  own  government.     The  Albert 
Hall  was  so  crowded  on  this  occasion  that  an  overflow  meeting  ' 
had  to  be  held  outside.  / 

On  the  day  of  this  meeting  another  outrage  was  committed 
in  Dublin  of  a  more  daring  character  than  any  previously 
attempted.  An  Army  motor  lorry,  containing  several  soldiers, 
was  stopped  in  the  middle  of  the  day  in  Berkeley  Boad  and 
was  searched  by  a  party  of  armed  men.  It  was  believed  that 
the  raiders  expected  to  find  in  it  Mr.  B.  C.  Barton,  M.P.,  who 
had  been  tried  by  Court  Martial  during  the  morning.  In  this 
expectation,  however,  they  were  disappointed,  and  the  lorry 
was  then  permitted  to  drive  away.  Day  after  day  new  outrages 
continued  to  be_reported_  from  different  parts  of  Ireland.  On 
f*ebruary  13  it  was  announced  that  two  constables  of  the  Boyal 
Irish  Constabulary  had  been  attacked  in  the  main  street  of 
Bathdrum,  County  Wicklow,  by  a  number  of  men  who  fired 


12]  ENGLISH  HISTOEY.  t>«fl. 

shots.  One  of  them  was  wounded  and  the  police,  in  returning 
the  fire,  also  shot  dead  a  business  man  of  the  village.  On  that 
morning  further  raids  were  carried  out  on  the  houses  of  Sinn 
Feiners  in  J)ublin  and  eight  men  were  arrested.  At  the  same 
tune  mail  bags  sent  but  from  the  G.F.t>7,  Dublin,  containing 
Old  Age  Pension  money,  were  robbed  and  the  whole  of  the 
money  lost.  On  February  14  twenty  men  attacked  the  police 
barracks  at  Ballytrain,  County  Monaghan,  having  previously 
barricaded  the  roads  and  cut  the  telegraph  wires.  There  were 
in  the  station  two  sergeants  and  four  constables  who  put  up  a 
gallant  defence.  After  about  three  hours*  fighting  the  raiders 
blew  the  gable  out  of  the  station  with  bombs,  rushed  through 
the  breach,  overwhelmed  the  garrison,  and  carried  away  all  the 
arms  and  ammunition.  Several  of  the  poUce  were  injured. 
Beports  were  also  received  that  the  wife  of  a  farmer  in  County 
Wexford  had  been  shot  through  the  heart,  and  that  a  signal- 
man in  Dublin  had  been  shot  in  his  signal  box.  These  raids 
were,  however,  not  always  successful.  In  one  attack  on  a 
house  at  Cork  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  money  and  arms, 
the  intended  victim  shot  dead  the  leader  of  the  gang  and  put 
the  rest  to  flight.  An  attack  made  at  the  same  time  on  a  police 
barrack  in  County  Cork  was  driven  oflf  by  the  police,  who 
wounded  and  captured  one  of  the  raiders.  On  February  20 
a  constable  was  murdered  in  Grafton  Street,  Dublin.  The 
incident  was  but  one  of  several  that  occurred  within  a  few 
hours  in  which  armed  men  fired  upon  police  patrols.  Tn  thin 
case  seven  men  were  promptly  arrested,  and  a  fresh  order. was 
-issued  under  the  Defence  of  the  Healm  regulations  requiring 
every  person  within  the  DubKn  Metropolitan  Police  district  to 
remain  within  doors  between  the  hours  of  12  midnight  and 
5  A.M.  unless  provided  with  a  permit  in  writing  from  the 
competent  military  authority  or  some  person  duly  .authorised 
by  him.  This  order  Was  vigorously  attacked  in  the  Nationalist 
Press,  the  newspapers  pointing  out  that  it  would  inflict  much 
inconvenience  in  disorganising  many  entertainments.  Never- 
theless attacks  on  the  police  and  raids  on  property  had  become 
so  common  that  the  citizens  as  a  whole  seemed  to  regard  the 
order  as  necessary.  Mr.  iLC.  Bartor^  the  Sinn  Fein  M.P.  for 
West  Wicklow,  whose  arrest  we  have  already  referred  to,"^WBr 
tried  by  Court  Martial  in  Dublin  on  February  11  on  a  charge  of 
having  committed  acts  calculated  to  cause  sedition  among  the 
civil  population  by  inciting^  meetings  to  take  reprisals  on  the 
Lord  Lieutenant  if  a  certain  prisoner  should  die  in  gaol  or  be 
injured  in  his  health.  He  was  found  guilty  and  sentenced  to 
three  years'  penal  servitude. 

•^  The  bye-election  at  Paisley  was  the  chief  subject  of  political 
interest  during  the  first  half  of  February.  Mr.  Asquith,  in  his 
speeches,  continued  to  sketch  out  his  programme  of  Liberal 
policy.  He  expressed  the  view  that  now  that  the  Franchise 
had  been  conceded  to  women,  there  ought  to  be  a  complete 


1920.]  Jfr.  Asquith  on  Liberal  Policy,  [13 

opening  of  all  callings,  professions,  and  trades  (including  the 
Civil  Service)  to  women  on  the  same  terms  as  men.  On  the 
subject  of  peace  Mr.  Asquith,  in  his  election  address,  stated 
that  it  was  the  duty  of  Liberalism  to  ask  for  the  assertion  of 
the  authority  of  the  League  of  Nations,  so  that  it  might  secure 
at  once  progressive  disannament  and  effectually  remove  the 
causes  of  future  strife.  One  of  the  first  tasks  of  the  League,  he 
considered,  should  be  the  review  of  the  territorial  clauses  of  the 
Treaties  made  in  Paris,  and  he  expressed  the  opinion  that  the 
Governments  of  the  world  should,  without  delay,  summon  an 
International  Economic  Conference,  in  which  all  States  affected 
by  the  consequences  of  the  war — allied  neutrals  or  enemies — 
should  be  invited  to  take  part.  On  the  question  of  Ireland,  he 
laid  down  the  proposition  that  the  only  real  security  for  order 
and  contentment  was  to  be  found  in  the  immediate  grant  of 
self-government  in  the  fullest  sense.  He  added  that  the  Irish 
problem  was  only  one  aspect  of  a  wider  question.  The  Empire, 
as  a  whole,  suffered  from  the  fact  that  Parliament  was  congested 
with  local  business,  and  relief  could  only  be  found  in  devolution. 
He  favoured  a  national  minimum  both  as  regards  wages  and 
hours  of  labour,  and  while  resisting  nationalisation  of  the  mines, 
advocated  the  acquisition  of  mineral  rights  by  the  State. 

Mr.  Asquith' s  chief  opponent  was  Mr.  Biggar,  who  described 
himself  as  a  co-operative  candidate,  and  demanded  nationalis- 
ation of  the  mines,  nationalisation  of  transport,  including  the 
railways,  and  nationalisation  of  land.  Under  the  heading  of 
finance  he  advocated  a  Capital  Levy,  and  the  raising  of  national 
revenue  by  a  single  tax  on  income.  The  housing  policy,  he 
considered,  should  be  based  on  the  requirements  of  the  people 
rather  than  on  economic  rents,  on  the  grounds  that  each  family, 
irrespective  of  its  income,  should  have  a  healthy  and  comfort- 
able home.  His  programme  also  included  the  right  to  live, 
with  full  maintenance,  for  unemployed  men  and  women ;  Old 
Age  Pensions  of  12.  a  week  at  the  age  of  sixty-five ;  the  abolition 
of  conscription ;  complete  withdrawal  of  all  military  troops  from 
Russia,  and  the  stoppage  of  military  supplies  which  fostered 
civil  war  in  that  country. 

The  nominations  took  place  on  February  3.  In  addition  to 
Mr.  Asquith  and  Mr.  Biggar,  the  Labour  candidate,  Mr.  J.  A.  D. 
MacKean  was  nominated  as  a  Unionist  candidate  and  received 
a  letter  of  support  from  Mr.  Bonar  Law.  It  was  believed  that 
Mr.  Biggar  was  assured  of  the  Irish  support,  and  large  numbers 
of  demobilised  soldiers  who  had  been  absorbed  into  the  Army 
under  the  Military  Service  Acts  were  counted  upon  for  giving 
a  Labour  vote.  On  February  6  Mr.  Asquith  addressed  the 
largest  meeting  of  the  campaign  in  Paisley  Town  Hall.  He 
insisted  that  the  new  frontiers  drawn  by  the  Paris  Conference 
must  in  many  cases — and  particularly  in  Central  and  Eastern 
Europe — be  purely  provisional ;  that  the  new  States  which 
were  being  brought  into  existence  in  the  area  of  what  was  the 


14]  ENGLISH  HISTORY.  [feb. 

Austro-Hungarian  Empire,  ought  to  be  treated  for  fiscal  and 
commercial  purposes  as  a  single  economic  unit,  and  that  the 
future  of  Bussia  dominated  and  overshadowed  the  whole  of 
the  scene  from  the  Baltic  to  the  Black  Sea.  Dealing  with  the 
war  indemnity,  he  said  that  he  believed  that  after  making 
proper  allowance  for  what  was  needed  to  restart  German  in- 
dustrial life,  2,000,000,000i.  was  about  the  outside  that  could 
be  got  from  Germany. 

PolUng  took  place  on  February  12,  and  the  final  speeches 
of  the  three  candidates  on  the  previous  night  were  listened  to 
by  at  least  12,000  people.  In  all,  during  the  campaign,  the 
candidates  had  addressed  over  200  meetings,  and  the  greatest 
excitement  had  been  manifested  throughout.  The  result  was 
announced  on  February  25.  Mr.  Asquith  received  14,736  votes 
against  11,902  cast  for  Mr.  Biggar  and  3,795  for  Mr.  MacKean. 
Mr.  Asquith  was  therefore  elected  by  a  majority  of  2,834  over 
the  Labour  candidate  and  10,941  over  the  Coalition  Unionist. 
At  the  General  Election  in  December,  1918,  the  Liberal 
majority  had  only  been  106,  so  that  the  result  was  acclaimed 
as  a  great  triumph  for  the  Liberal  Party.  Paisley  was  the 
eighth  seat  lost  by  the  Coalition  during  the  fourteen  months 
which  had  passed  since  the  General  Election.  The  most  dramatic 
feature  of  the  election  was  the  crushing  defeat  of  Mr.  MacKean, 
the  Coalition  candidate.  As  he  did  not  secure  one-eighth  of  the 
total  votes  recorded  he  was  under  the  necessity  of  forfeiting  the 
150?.  deposited  by  him  on  nomination.  Throughout  the  country 
the  return  of  Mr.  Asquith  to  the  House  of  Commons  was  widely 
welcomed  by  men  of  all  views. 

The  resignation  of  Mr.  Barnes  from  the  Government  was 
quickly  followed  by  that  of  Mr.  George  Koberts,  the  Food  Con- 
troller, early  in  February.  This  resignation  virtually  terminated 
the  association  of  organised  labour  with  the  Coalition.  As  in 
the  case  of  Mr.  Barnes  there  was  no  specific  cause  of  disagree- 
ment between  Mr.  Boberts  and  his  colleagues,  and  the  Prime 
Minister  urged  him  to  remain  in  office  at  least  for  some  further 
period.  Mr.  Boberts,  however,  stood  firm  by  his  determination 
to  resign.  He  retained  his  seat  for  Norwich,  and  did  not  seek 
to  rejom  the  Labour  Party. 

On  February  5  the  Executive  of  the  Miners'  Federation 
waited  on  the  Prime  Minister  as  arranged  the  previous  week, 
and  although  the  proceedings  were  not  published,  it  was 
understood  that  Mr.  Lloyd  George  informed  the  deputation 
that  the  Government  was  not  prepared  to  adopt  the  majority 
report  of  the  Coal  Commission  on  nationalisation.  Thereupon 
the  Executive  summoned  a  special  Trades  Union  Congress  to 
consider  what  action  should  be  taken.  The  question  of  nation- 
alisation of  the  mines  was,  indeed,  one  of  the  first  questions  to 
be  discussed  on  the  opening  of  Parliament.  Mr.  Brac^  moved 
an  amendment  to  the  address  regretting  the  absence  from  the 
King's  speech  of  any  proposal  to  nationalise  the  coal  mines  of 


IMO.]  Coal  Mines  (Emergency)  Bill.  [15 

the  country  on  the  lines  recommended  by  the  Eoyal  Com- 
mission. Mr.  Lloyd  George  then  took  the  opportunity  of 
pointing  out  that  under  private  ownership  in  thirty  years  prior 
to  the  war  the  output  was  raised  from  128,000,000  tons  to 
288,000,000  tons,  and  declared  that  to  hand  over  the  control 
of  the  mines  to  the  Miners'  Federation,  leaving  the  industry 
without  any  of  the  restrictions  which  came  from  conflicting 
interests,  would  be  a  grave  disaster  to  the  national  well-being. 
The  amendment  was  ultimately  negatived  by  a  majority  of 
265.  Three  days  later  the  text  of  the  Coal  Mines  (Emergency) 
Bill  was  issued.  The  Bill  provided  for  the  continuance  of  the 
system  of  aggregating  the  profits  of  all  the  undertakings  and 
distributing  the  total  amount  among  them.  A  guarantee  was 
given  to  the  industry  that  the  sum  so  distributed  should  be  at 
least  equal  to  nine-tenths  of  the  pre-war  standard  of  profits.  If 
it  fell  short  of  the  nine-tenths  the  deficiency  would  be  made  up 
by  the  Coal  Controller,  in  so  far  as  the  falling  short  was  proved 
to  have  been  caused  by  any  regulation  of  the  Controller  or  the 
Board  of  Trade  issued  after  January  1,  1920.  If  the  total 
profits,  on  the  other  hand,  exceeded  the  pre-war  standard,  an 
amount  equal  to  the  pre-war  standard  was  to  be  distributed  plus 
one-tenth  of  the  excess.  The  extra  wages  paid  to  pit-head 
workers  since  January  9,  1919,  were  continued.  The  second 
reading  of  the  Bill  was  moved  by  Mr.  Bridgeman  on  February  17. 
He  explained  that  the  Bill  was  the  first  of  two,  and  was  intro- 
duced to  provide  a  method  of  dealing  with  finance  until  the 
close  of  the  financial  year  in  March,  and  until  August  31  next 
when  the  coal  control  agreement  would  come  to  an  end.  Its 
main  provisions  were :  to  continue  the  Sankey  wage  and  treat 
it  as  a  working  expense  of  the  industry ;  to  provide  for  the 
interest  on  increased  capital,  in  order  to  encourage  the  develop- 
ment of  the  mines ;  and  to  provide  a  better  plan  of  distributing 
the  profits.  Mr.  Adamson  pointed  out  that  it  only  arranged 
for  a  system  of  pooling  up  to  the  end  of  August,  and  that  it 
provided  for  a  very  substantial  increase  in  the  profits  of  coal 
owners.  Mr.  Hartshorn  declared  that  the  Bill  wiped  out  the 
only  existing  machinery  for  carrying  on  the  coal  industry 
without  supplying  a  definite  policy  for  the  future.  An  amend- 
ment for  the  rejection  of  the  Bill  was,  however,  rejected  by  a 
majority  of  218,  and  the  second  reading  was  then  carried. 
Discontent  among  the  miners  continued  to  be  widespread,  and 
on  February  21,  at  a  mass  meeting  of  Bhondda  Valley  miners, 
30,000  men  determined  to  cease  work  as  a  protest  against  cases 
of  alleged  victimisation. 

An  important  political  speech  was  made  by  Mr.  Winston 
Churchill  to  his  constituents  at  Dundee  on  February  14.  Deal- 
ing with  the  Bolshevist  menace  in  Europe  and  Asia,  he  said 
that  he  had  never  believed  in  sending  British  troops  to  Bussia, 
and  he  had  been  responsible  for. withdrawing  troops  who  were 
in  Bussia.     Short  of  sending  British  troops,  he  had  done  every- 


16]  ENGLISH  HISTORY.  [m. 

thing  in  his  power  to  help  the  loyal  anti-Bolshevist  forces.  He 
expressed  his  profound  conviction  that  the  great  allied  Powers 
would  learn  to  regret  the  fact  that  they  had  not  been  able  to 
take  a  more  decided  and  more  united  action  to  crush  the  Bol- 
shevist peril  at  its  heart  and  centre  before  it  had  grown  too 
strong.  Our  interest  had  been  to  try  and  secure  a  government 
in  Bussia  which  would  not  throw  itself  into  the  hands  of  Ger- 
many. It  was  also  in  our  interest  not  to  drive  Germany  into 
the  arms  of  Bussia.  What  surprised  him  was  that  the  Labour 
Party  should  still  be  in  love  with  these  Bolshevist  autocrats. 
The  simpletons  of  the  Socialist  Party,  he  said,  go  and  bow 
down  and  chant  hymns  and  bum  incense  before  the  Bussian 
idol.  Beferring  to  the  bye-election  at  Paisley,  Mr.  Churchill 
said  that  he  would  much  rather  see  Mr.  Asquith  returned  to  the 
House  of  Commons  than  his  Socialist  opponent.  He  did  not 
believe  that  there  was  room  for  an  effective  political  party  be- 
tween the  forces  now  forming  the  Coalition  and  those  gathered 
under  the  standards  of  Socialism.  If  Liberals  broke  up  the 
existing  Government  and  settled  down  to  fight  the  Unionists, 
the  Labour  or  Socialist  Party  would  come  into  power.  They 
would  come  into  power  at  a  period  when  they  were  quite  un- 
fitted to  discharge  the  responsibihties  of  government,  and  when 
through  their  incompetence  and  their  erroneous  doctrines  they 
would  shatter  the  reviving  prosperity  of  the  country,  and  cast 
away  the  Empire  which  British  genius  had  built  up. 

The  new  session  of  Parliament  was  opened  on  February  10 
by  the  King,  accompanied  by  the  Queen.  The  King's  speech 
began  with  reference  to  the  final  ratifications  of  the  Peace 
Treaty  with  Germany,  and  the  announcement  that  the  state  of 
war  having  been  now  concluded  a  representative  had  been  des- 
patched to  Berlin  to  act  as  Chargi  d'Affaires  in  that  capital. 
The  treaties  of  peace  which  had  been  signed  with  Austria  and 
Bulgaria  were  shortly  to  be  ratified,  and  it  was  hoped  that  peace 
would  be  concluded  with  Hungary  and  Turkey  at  an  early  date. 
Meetings  between  the  representatives  of  the  great  associated 
Powers  had  recently  taken  place  in  London  and  Paris,  and  had 
confirmed  the  excellent  relations  existing  with  all  our  Allies.  In 
order,  however,  to  assure  the  full  blessings  of  peace  and  pros- 
perity to  Europe  it  was  essential  that  not  only  peace,  but  normal 
conditions  of  economic  life,  should  be  restored  in  Eastern 
Europe  and  in  Bussia.  So  long  as  these  vast  regions  withheld 
their  full  contribution  to  the  stock  of  commodities  available  for 
general  consumption,  the  cost  of  living  could  hardly  be  reduced 
nor  general  prosperity  restored  to  the  world.  The  Bang  then 
referred  to  the  impending  visit  of  the  Prince  of  Wales  to 
Australia  and  New  Zealand.  Turning  to  home  alBfairs,  the 
King's  speech  remarked  on  the  unprecedented  difficulty  of  the 
problems  presented  by  the  transition  from  war  to  peace.  The 
price  of  food-stufifs  and  other  i^ecessary  commodities  was  causing 
anxiety  to  all  the  peoples  of  the  world,  but  prices  in  these 


1^20.]  Opening  of  Parliament  [17 

Islands  were  appreciably  lower  than  they  were  elsewhere.  If 
we  were  to  ensure  lasting  progress,  prosperity,  and  social  peace, 
all  classes  must  continue  to  throw  themselves  into  the  work  of 
reconstruction  with  goodwill  for  others,  with  energy  and  with 
patience,  and  legislation,  providing  for  large  and  far-reaching 
measures  of  reform,  must  be  passed  into  law.  The  first  Bill 
referred  to  in  the  King's  speech  was  the  Home  Bule  Bill  for 
Ireland,  the  condition  of  which  country  was  a  cause  of  grave 
concern.  A  Bill  for  the  promotion  of  Education  in  Ireland  was 
also  announced.  In  connexion  with  the  coal-mining  industry 
an  emergency  measure  was  to  be  proposed  to  adjust  the  financial 
.  ni  arrangements  of  the  collieries  to  meet  the  abnormal  economic 
X"^  conditions  prevailing  in  the  industry.  Proposals  were  also  to 
be  made  for  the  acquisition  of  coal  royalties  by  the  State,  for 
the  improvement  of  conditions  in  mining  areas,  and  for  the 
future  ordering  of  the  industry  in  the  best  interests  of  the  com- 
munity as  a  whole.  Another  Bill  announced  in  the  King's 
speech  was  one  for  developing  a  suitable  system  for  the  peace- 
tmie  regulation  of  the  sale  and  supply  of  alcoholic  liquor. 
Measures,  further,  were  to  be  taken  to  stimulate  and  develop 
the  production  of  essential  food-stuffs  within  the  United  King- 
dom, seeing  that  the  population  of  these  Islands  was  still 
dangerously  dependent  upon  supplies  of  food  from  overseas. 
A  BiU  was  also  to  be  introduced  to  encourage  and  develop  the 
fishing  industry.  Other  Bills  foreshadowed  in  the  speech  were 
one  for  the  organisation  of  the  Begular  and  Territonal  Armies ; 
one  for  insurance  against  unemployment;  the  regulation  of 
hours  of  employment ;  the  establishment  of  a  minimtun  rate  of 
wage,  and  the  amendment  of  the  Health  Insurance  Acts.  Bills 
were  also  to  be  introduced  providing  against  the  injury  to 
national  industries  from  dumping,  and  for  the  creation  of  an 
adequate  supply  of  cheap  electrical  and  water  power.  Finally, 
proposals  were  to  be  made  in  the  course  of  the  new  session  for 
effecting  the  reform  of  the  Second  Chamber,  and  the  hope  was 
expressed  that  there  would  be  sufficient  time  to  pass  these  pro- 
posals into  law. 

The  address  to  the  King  was  moved  by  Lieut. -Colonel  S. 
Peel  and  seconded  by  Mr.  Woolcock.  In  the  course  of  the 
debate  Mr.  Adamson  demanded  a  drastic  measure  to  deal  with 
profiteering,  and  Sir  Donald  Maclean  urged  the  necessity  for 
national  and  individual  economy.  Mr.  Lloyd  George  declared, 
on  the  subject  of  Ireland,  that  it  was  impossible  at  the  moment 
to  propose  anything  which  would  be  acceptable  to  the  majority 
of  the  Irish  people.  All  the  Government  could  do  was  to 
advance  proposals  which  seemed  right  and  just.  As  to  our 
Bussian  policy,  he  said,  we  had  failed  to  restore  Bussia  to  sanity 
by  force,  but  we  hoped  to  do  so  by  trade. 

On  February  12  an  amendment  to  the  address  was  moved 
by  Mr.  G.  Thome,  regretting  that  the  **  impracticability  of  the 
fulfilment  by  our  late  enemies  of  many  of  the  terms  of  the 

B 


18]  ENGLISH  HISTOKY.  [fib. 

Peace  Treaties**  had  not  been  recognised,  and  that  the  restora- 
tion of  settled  conditions  in  Europe  and  the  Near  East  was  still 
delayed.  Mr.  Balfour,  in  reply,  pointed  out  the  carefully 
devised  elasticity  of  the  terms  of  the  treaty  with  Germany  as 
regarded  her  payments  to  the  AUies,  and  stiEbted  that  our  list  of 
war  criminals  included  nobody  who  did  an  illegal  act  because 
he  was  ordered  to  do  it  and  did  not  go  beyond  his  orders.  The 
amendment  was  ultimately  negatived  by  a  majority  of  194. 

Next  day  another  amendment  was  moved  by  Sir  A.  Steel- 
Maitland  regretting  that  the  expenditure  of  the  Government 
had  been  allowed  to  continue  at  so  high  a  rate.  In  the  course 
of  the  debate  which  followed  Sir  Donald  Maclean  advocated  the 
reappointment  of  the  Committee  on  Estimates.  Sir  Edward 
Carson  declared  that  it  was  the  House  of  Commons  which 
compelled  the  Government  to  go  on  with  the  expenditure,  and 
Mr.  J.  H.  Thomas  deprecated  any  reduction  upon  education, 
housing,  and  pensions.  The  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  said 
that  if  the  general  sense  of  the  House  were  effectively  in  favour 
of  economy  it  would  greatly  strengthen  the  hands  of  the 
Government.  The  amendment  was  then  negatived  by  a 
majority  of  144,  and  after  the  closure  had  been  carried  the 
address  was  agreed  to. 

One  of  the  first  Bills  to  be  dealt  with  in  the  new  session 
was  the  War  Emergency  Laws  (Continuance)  BiU.  The  second 
reading  was  moved  by  the  Attorney-General  on  February  16. 
He  explained  that  there  had  been  many  omissions  from  the 
corresponding  Bill  of  the  previous  year  because  many  regula- 
tions had  now  ceased  to  be  necessary.  In  reply  to  Mr.  T.  P. 
O'Connor — who  declared  that  the  main  purpose  of  the  Bill  was 
to  continue  the  coercion  of  Ireland — it  was  pointed  out  that, 
although  the  Government  asked  that  the  regulations  should  be 
continued  in  Ireland  for  twelve  months,  they  also  took  power 
to  revoke  any  of  them  which  were  found  to  be  unnecessary.  A 
number  of  amendments  were  moved  and  rejected ;  one  was 
agreed  to,  however,  on  the  motion  of  Sir  E.  Home,  making  it 
clear  that  the  power  to  take  possession  of  land  and  buildings 
for  the  purpose  of  the  Pensions  Act  was  extended  to  the 
Ministry  of  Labour,  to  which  had  been  transferred  the  duties  of 
the  Ministry  of  Pensions  in  connexion  with  the  training  of 
disabled  soldiers.  The  Bill  was  read  a  third  time  and  passed 
on  March  4. 

The  shortage  of  houses  gave  rise  to  a  motion  by  Major 
Lloyd-Graeme,  on  February  17,  expressing  apprehension  at  the 
slow  rate  of  progress  in  the  building  of  houses  imder  the  Hous- 
ing and  Town  Planning  Acts.  Dr.  Addison  pointed  out  the 
difficulties  to  be  overcome  in  the  way  of  shortage  of  material, 
transport,  labour,  and  money.  The  Ministry  of  Health,  he  said, 
had  now  approved  plans  for  107,000  houses.  It  was  proposed 
to  take  off  one-third  of  the  rent  as  excess  war  costs,  and  a 
scheme  had  been  devised  for  amalgamating  areas  for  the  purpose 
of  local  Housing  Bonds. 


1990.1  Army  Expenditure,  [19 

An  important  debate  took  place  on  February  23  on  the 
future  of  the  Army,  when  Mr.  Churchill  moved  a  vote  on 
account  for  75,000,0002.,  representing  provision  for  between 
four  and  five  months'  expenditure  on  the  Army  in  the  period 
when  disbursements  woidd  be  heaviest.  In  the  course  of  his 
speech  Mr.  Churchill  announced  that  on  March  81  conscription 
would  come  to  an  end.  We  had  succeeded  in  raising  a  volunteer 
army  which  on  that  date  would  number  about  220,000  men, 
inclusive  of  those  serving  in  India.  Before  the  war  we  had  an 
Army  of  approximately  175,000  men,  and  the  present  increase 
in  numbers  was  due  to  temporary  responsibilities  on  the  Bhine, 
in  Egypt  and  Persia,  and  at  Constantinople,  and  to  permanent 
lesponsibiUties  in  Palestine  and  Mesopotamia.  The  35,000 
effectives  kept  in  Ireland  at  present  did  not  involve  extra 
expense.  The  expenditure  on  what  might  be  called  winding  up 
the  war  would  be  about  29,500,0002. ,  and  the  cost  of  the  Army 
itself  would  be  in  an  ordinary  year  63,000,0002.,  but  this  year 
would  only  be  about  55,000,0002.  because  there  were  large 
stocks  of  clothing,  equipment,  and  munitions  which  would 
probably  last  two  years.  In  pre-war  days  the  cost  of  the  Army 
had  been  very  much  less,  but  prices  had  increased  until  the 
military  12.  was  now  worth  Ss.  10(2.,  and  63,000,0002.  was  really 
less  than  the  28,000,0002.  of  1914.  It  was  proposed  to  increase 
the  Air  Force  at  the  expense  of  the  Navy  and  the  Army  as  it 
became  more  capable  of  discharging  the  day-to-day  duties  such 
as  were  now  discharged  by  the  Navy  and  Army,  and  in  pro- 
portion to  its  ability  to  give  us  the  assurance  that  in  an 
emergency  it  would  afford  us  the  solid  foundation  for  our  safety. 
A  sensible  economy  would  be  effected  in  this  way.  Tanks  were 
also  undergoing  gr^t  improvements. 

The  Home  Bule  Bill  was  introduced  on  February  25.  It 
tumechout  to  be  a  long  Eill,  running  to  seventy  clauses  and  six 
schedules.  It  provided  for  the  establishment  of  two  Irish  Parlia- 
ments, and  of  a  Council  of  Ireland  '*  with  a  view  to  bringing 
about  harmonious  action  between  the  Parliaments  and  Govern- 
ments of  Southern  Ireland  and  Northern  Ireland."  Northern 
Ireland,  for  the  purposes  of  the  Bill,  consisted  of  the  six  North- 
Eastem  Ulster  counties.  The  Council  of  Ireland  was  to  consist, 
in  the  first  instance,  of  a  President  appointed  by  the  King,  and 
of  delegations  of  twenty  members  of  each  of  the  two  Irish 
Parliaments.  It  was  provided  that  the  constitution  of  the 
Council  of  Ireland  might  afterwards  be  varied  by  the  two  Irish 
Parliaments  which  might  provide  for  its  being  elected  by  Parlia- 
mentary electors.  The  most  important  part  of  the  ^Bill  was 
Clause  3,  which  gave  the  two  Irish  Parliaments  power  to 
establish,  in  place  of  the  Council  of  Ireland,  a  Parliament  for 
the  whole  of  Ireland  consisting  of  one  or  two  Houses.  The 
two  Parliaments  were  each  to  consist  of  a  single  Chamber 
called  the  House  of  Commons.  Besides  certain  weU-understood 
limitations  of  legislative  powers  both  Parliaments  were  expressly 

b2 


/ 
( 

/ 


/ 


20]  ENGLISH  HI8T0EY.  [feu. 

/  prohibited  from  making  laws  interfering  with  religious  equality. 
/    The  executive  power  in  the  two  Irish  areas  was  to  continue 
vested  in  the  King,  who  might  delegate  his  authority  to  the 
j      Lord-Lieutenant.     It  was  provided  that  no  person  should  be  a 
I      Minister  of  either  area  unless  he  was  a  member  of  the  Irish 
I      Privy  Council.     Further,  no  person  was  to  hold  office  as  a 
!      Minister  for  a  longer  period  than  six  months  imless  he  was  a 
'      member  of  the  House  of  Commons  of  the  area  in  question. 
!      The  Ministers  were  to  be  called  the  Executive  Committee  of 
)'      Southern  Ireland  and  Northern  Ireland  respectively.     The  two 
/      Parliaments  might  delegate  to  the  Council  of  Ireland  any  of 
their  powers.     There  was  to  be  a  session  of  each  Parliament 
once  at  least  in  each  year.    The  House  of  Commons  of  Southern 
Ireland  was  to  consist  of  128  members,  and  that  of  Northern 
Ireland  of  52  members.     The  members  were  to  be  elected  by 
the  same  electors  as  members  returned  to  serve  in  the  Parlia- 
ment of  the  United  Kingdom,  and  General  Elections  would  be 
conducted   on   the   principle   of   proportional   representation. 
The  life  of  each  House  of  Commons  would  be  five  years,  and 
Peers  were  not  to  be  disqualified  from  being  members  of  either 
Parliament.     The  number  of  members  to  be  returned  by  Irish 
constituencies  to  serve  in  the  Parliament  of  the  United  Ejngdom 
was  to  be  42. 

The  financial  clauses  provided  that  56  per  cent,  of  the  Irish 
contribution  to  Imperial  expenditure  so  long  as  it  remained 
at  the  rate  of  18,000,0002.  a  year,  should  be  apportioned  to 
Southern  Ireland,  and  44  per  cent,  to  Northern  Ireland. 
Thereafter  a  Joint  Exchequer  Board  should  make  such  appor- 
tionment as  might  correspond  to  the  relative  taxable  capacities 
of  the  two  areas.  There  were  provisions  against  the  payment 
of  double  Stamp  and  Death  Duty  in  Great  Britain  and  m  either 
of  the  Irish  areas.  As  regards  the  Lord-Lieutenant,  the  office 
was  to  be  independent  of  religious  belief,  and  was  to  continue 
normally  for  six  years.  The  legal  clauses  provided  for  a  separate 
judiciary  in  each  area  with  a  Hi^h  Court  of  Appeal  for  the 
whole  of  Ireland.  Special  provision  was  made  to  secure  the 
existing  rights  of  the  University  of  Dublin,  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  and  of  the  Queen's  University  of  Belfast.  The  Act 
was  to  come  into  operation  eight  months  after  it  became  law, 
and  the  two  Parliaments  were  to  be  summoned  to  meet  not 
later  than  four  months  afterwards. 
^■"  The  reception  of  the  Home  Rule  Bill  by  Southern  and 
Western  Ireland  was  entirely  unfavourable.  The  Nationalist 
Press  made  no  serious  attempt  to  analyse  its  provisions,  but 
{  took  up  an  attitude  of  contemptuous  rejection  towards  the  Bill. 
The  Fre&maris  Journal  described  it  as  a  scheme  for  the 
"plunder  and  partition  of  Ireland,"  and  as  "a  betrayal  of 
every  principle  that  was  ever  professed  regarding  democracy 
and  nationality  by  its  author  [Mr.  Lloyd  George]."  The 
Southern  Unionist  Press  also  condemned  the  Bill,  taking  the 

-----  /> 


1990.]  Unemployment  Insurance  Bill.  [21 

view  that  it  would  fix  the  whole  country  in  a  state  of  arrested 
develi^nent  saddled  with  all  the  cumhrous  and  costly  machinery 
of  double  staffs  for  every  public  service  bfa' small  island;  The 
Bepubhcan  Party  was,  of  course,  wholly  hostile^  wliile  the 
Ulster  Unionists  for  the  time  being  reserved  their  judgment. 

On  February  25  the  Government  suffered  a  S&te^t  in  the 
House  of  Commons  on  an  unimportant  motion.  Sir  J.  Bemnant 
moved  to  increase  the  pensions  of  police  officers  and  men  to 
such  an  extent  as  would  meet  the  increased  cost  of  hving.  The 
motion  was  seconded  by  Captain  Loseby,  and  opposed  on  behalf 
of  the  Government  by  Mr.  Shortt,  who  pointed  out  that  the 
question  not  only  affected  the  police  but  all  kinds  of  public 
servants.  He  asked  the  House  to  think  also  of  the  addition  to 
the  rates  that  would  be  involved,  and  the  increasing  burden  of 
taxation  that  was  falling  upon  small  fixed  incomes.  He  did 
not  dispute  the  fact  of  hardship  in  the  case  of  pensioners,  but 
only  denied  that  their  case  was  any  harder  than  those  of  people 
with  small  fixed  incomes.  It  was  of  little  use  aiming  at  economy 
if  the  Government  were  forced  to  enter  into  new  expenditure 
on  all  sides.  When  the  division  was  taken  the  motion  was 
carried  by  123  votes  against  57,  the  majority  against  the 
Government  being  66.  The  sequel  to  this  incident  was  the 
appointment  of  a  Committee  to  consider  whether  any  steps 
could  be  taken  to  relieve  exceptional  cases  of  hardship  among 
public  pensioners. 

Among  the  Government  Bills  introduced  during  February 
was  the  Unemplojrment  Insurance  Bill,  the  second  reading  of 
which  was  moved  by  Sir  Eobert  Home  on  February  25.  He 
explained  that  the  object  of  the  Bill  was  to  extend  compulsory 
insurance  for  unemplojonent,  which  under  the  Act  of  1911  only 
embraced  three  industries,  to  include  all  trades.  This  would 
bring  the  number  of  working  people  insured  to  about  12,000,000. 
Agriculture  and  domestic  service  were  not  included,  and  the  Bill 
did  not  apply  to  Ireland,  except  that  those  already  insured  in 
Ireland  would  get  the  new  benefit  instead  of  the  old.  Workmen 
would  pay  3d.  per  week  instead  of  2^d,  as  under  the  original 
scheme;  women  2^(2. ;  boys  and  girls  would  pay  2d.  and  lid. 
each.  The  benefits  would  be  15^.  for  men ;  128.  for  women, 
and  so  on.  The  State  would  make  an  extra  contribution  imder 
the  present  scheme  of  2,500,000Z.  Workmen  would  be  entitled 
to  one  week's  benefit  for  every  six  contributions,  and  the  Trade 
Union  to  which  a  man  belonged  was  now  to  receive  from  the 
State  5  per  cent,  of  the  amount  of  benefit  paid  out  in  respect 
of  administration  expenses. 

Mr.  G.  Locker-Lampson  moved  that  the  House  should 
refuse  to  set  up  new  machinery  for  the  purposes  of  the  Bill 
entailing  heavy  expenditure,  and  that  the  work  should  be  done 
by  the  National  Health  Insurance  administration.  The  Bill 
was,  however,  read  a  second  time  and  referred  to  a  Standing 
Committee, 


22]  ENGLISH  HISTOEY.  [«b. 

On  February  27  the  second  reading  was  carried  of  a  new 
Franchise  Bill.  Mr.  Grundy,  who  introduced  it,  explained 
that  the  object  of  the  Bill  was  to  confer  the  franchise  on  women 
on  exactly  the  same  terms  as  men  by  reducing  the  age  of  thirty 
years  for  women  to  twenty-one  years ;  by  abolishing  the  occupa- 
tional qualification,  and  the  qualification  of  women  as  wives 
of  Local  Government  electors ;  and  to  place  the  whole  franchise 
for  both  sexes,  and  for  Parliamentary  and  Local  Government 
purposes,  on  the  single  basis  of  residence,  with  the  exception 
of  University  electors.  It  also  remedied  an  injustice  done  to 
naval  and  military  voters,  and  it  provided  that  a  voter  should 
only  have  one  vote. 

Dr.  Addison  said  that  the  Bill  would  increase  the  electorate 
by  5,000,000  persons,  and  would  mean  a  majority  of  perhaps 
500,000  women  voters  over  men.  In  allowing  only  a  resi- 
dential vote  it  would  remove  from  the  register  about  159,000 
persons  who  possessed  the  business  qualification,  and  would 
enormously  increase  the  Local  Government  electorate.  It 
would  also  add  between  300,000Z.  and  400,000/.  a  year  to  the 
cost  of  preparing  the  register  of  voters.  The  Cabinet  had 
already  decided  that  sailors  and  soldiers  under  twenty-one  should 
not  lose  their  vote  by  demobiUsation.  The  matter  was,  however, 
left  to  the  free  decision  of  the  House,  which  carried  the  second 
reading  by  a  majority  of  eighty-four. 

The  decision  arrived  at  by  the  Peace  Conference  with  respect 
to  Constantinople  gave  rise  to  a  motion  for  the  adjournment  of 
the  House  on  February  26,  when  Mr.  Lloyd  George  took  the 
opportunity  to  make  a  statement  on  the  matter.  He  said  that 
it  had  originally  been  settled  that  Bussia  should  have  Constanti- 
nople, but  the  Bussian  revolution  put  an  end  to  this  plan.  In 
January,  1918,  it  was  declared,  after  full  consultation  with  all 
parties,  that  we  did  not  intend  to  deprive  Turkey  of  her  capital, 
or  of  those  lands  in  Asia  Minor  which  were  predominantly 
Turkish  in  race,  but  that  the  passage  between  the  Mediterranean 
and  the  Black  Sea  would  be  internationalised  and  neutralised. 
This  statement  was  made  at  that  time  to  reassure  our  own 
people  as  to  what  we  were  fighting  for,  and  especially  the 
Mohammedan  population  of  India.  To  this  pledge,  he  said,  we 
should  keep.  Tiirkey  would  retain  Constantinople  but  be  de- 
prived of  more  than  half  her  Empire,  and  her  fortifications  on 
the  Straits  would  be  dismantled.  The  Allies  would  garrison  the 
Dardanelles  land,  if  necessary,  the  Bosporus  with  the  assist- 
ance of  the  Navy.  The  watch  thus  kept  on  Constantinople 
would  be  the  best  safeguard  for  the  Armenians  and  the  other 
Christian  minorities  imder  the  Turk.  The  debate  was  con- 
tinued by  a  number  of  members  and  had  not  concluded  when 
the  House  adjourned  at  11  o'clock. 

Much  interest  was  taken  during  February  in  an  attempted 
flight  by  aeroplane  from  Cairo  to  Cape  Town.  The  ffigbt  was 
or^nised  by  The  Times,  on  whose  behalf  Dr.  P.  Chalmers 


1920.]  Flights  from  Cairo  to  the  Cape,  [23 

Mitchell  was  sent  as  passenger  and  observer.  He  carried  with 
him  an  autograph  letter  from  the  King  to  the  Governor  of 
South  Africa,  and  was  to  make  scientific  observations  during 
the  course  of  his  journey.  The  Vickers-Vimy  aeroplane,  in 
which  the  flight  was  carried  out,  arrived  at  Cairo  on  February  3. 
A  few  days  later  another  aeroplane  set  forth  on  the  same 
attempt  under  the  command  of  Lieut. -Colonel  Van  Byneveld, 
a  South  African  Dutchman.  This  aeroplane,  which  had  been 
named  the  ''  Silver  Queen,"  carried  copies  of  The  Times  addressed 
to  various  leading  people  in  South  Africa. 

The  Times  aeroplane  left  Cairo  on  February  6.  Jebelein 
was  reached  on  February  10,  but  owing  to  engine  trouble  the 
airmen  were  unable  to  leave  until  the  14th.  A  longer  stay  was 
necessary  at  Mongalla  on  the  southern  border  of  the  Sudan, 
which  was  not  left  till  February  20.  Victoria  Nyanza  was 
reached  on  the  23rd,  and  the  Equator  crossed  the  following 
day.  On  the  26th  the  machine  arrived  at  Tabora,  and  here  an 
accident  befell  it  which  caused  the  attempt  to  be  abandoned. 
The  aeroplane  was  rising  to  continue  its  journey  from  Tabora 
when  it  fell  among  the  scrub  and  ant  hills  surrounding  the 
aerodrome  and  was  badly  damaged,  though  the  passengers  were 
little  hurt.  Throughout  the  journey  there  had  been  continuous 
trouble  with  the  engines,  and  this  appears  to  have  been  the 
main  cause  of  the  failure  of  the  attempt. 

The  flight  of  Colonel  Van  Byneveld  was  more  successful. 
The  "  Silver  Queen"  left  England  on  February  4,  arriving  in 
Cairo  on  the  9th.  On  the  11th  she  crashed  at  Wadi  Haifa  and 
the  machine  was  wrecked,  but  the  engines  salved  undamaged. 
The  pilots  then  returned  to  Cairo  and  a  new  start  was  made 
from  there  in  an  aeroplane  called  **  Silver  Queen  II "  fitted  with 
the  engines  of  "Silver  Queen  I".  The  flight  began  on 
February  22 ;  Khartoum  was  reached  on  the  23rd,  and  Victoria 
Nyanza  on  the  .26th.  No  further  incidents  of  importance 
occurred  until  March  6,  when  "Silver  Queen  H"  crashed  a 
mile  from  Buluwayo  when  starting  for  Pretoria.  Colonel  Van 
Byneveld  and  his  fellow-traveller.  Captain  •  Brand,  remained  at 
Buluwayo  pending  the  arrival  of  a  new  machine  from  the  Cape. 
In  this  machine  they  flew  to  Pretoria  on  March  17,  and  ulti- 
mately arrived  in  Cape  Town  on  the  20th.  Telegrams  of 
congratulation  were  received  by  Colonel  Van  Bjnieveld  from 
the  King,  the  Secretary  of  State  for  War,  the  Air  Council, 
etc. 

The  War  Emergency  Bill  passed  through  the  House  of 
Commons  early  in  March,  and  a  number  of  amendments  were 
moved  including  one  to  omit  the  regulations  giving  powers  to 
the  Food  Controller.  Mr.  McCurdy  indicated,  however,  the 
difficulties  of  a  complete  withdrawal  of  food  control  and  the 
amendment  was  negatived.  Other  amendments  aiming  at 
abolishing  a  number  of  the  regulations  met  with  a  similar  fate, 
and  the  third  reading  was  taken  on  March  3.    The  rejection 


24]  ENGLISH  HISTOBY.  [mabch 

of  the  Bill  was  then  moved  by  Captain  W.  Benn,  who  said  that 
it  violated  the  principles  of  the  Great  Charter  that  no  freeman 
should  be  imprisoned  or  deprived  of  his  liberties  except  by  law- 
ful judgment  of  his  Peers  or  by  the  law  of  the  land.  Various 
members  objected,  also,  to  any  form  of  coercion  for  Ireland,  but 
Mr.  Macpherson,  on  behalf  of  the  Government,  pointed  out 
that  Irekmd  was  in  rebellion,  an  armed  country,  and  that  law 
and  order  must  be  maintained  and  the  lives  of  peace-abiding 
citizens  protected.  The  third  reading  was  then  carried  by  a 
majority  of  239  and  the  royal  assent  was  given  on  March  31. 

On  March  5  Mr.  Holmes  moved  the  second  reading  of  the 
Land  Acquisition  Bill.  He  said  that  the  object  of  the  Bill  was 
to  fix  a  price  for  the  acquisition  of  land  by  public  authorities 
which  would  be  fair  to  the  owner  and  to  the  purchaser,  and  to 
simplify  the  method  of  valuation  so  that  purchase  could  be 
completed  without  undue  delay.  It  provided  that  the  value  of 
land  should  be  based  upoil  any  returns  and  assessments  for 
taxation  made  or  acquiesced  in  by  the  claimant  during  the 
preceding  three  years.  The  rejection  of  the  Bill  was  moved 
by  Sir  P.  Pilditch  on  the  ground  that  it  was  unjust  and  im- 
practicable. The  Attorney-General  declared  that  it  would  be 
impossible,  under  the  Bill,  to  arrive  at  equitable  prices  except 
by  accident,  and  the  second  reading  was  ultimately  lost  by  a 
majority  of  103. 

The  necessity  for  economy  caused  the  Government,  early  in 
March,  to  take  steps  towards  the  abolition  of  the  bread  subsidy. 
In  reply  to  a  question  in  the  House  of  Commons  from  Colonel 
Newman,  Mr.  Lloyd  George  announced  that  the  price  of  flour 
would  be  advanced  on  March  15  by  19s,  3d.  per  sack  of  280  lb. 
The  control  maximum  retail  price  of  bread  was  to  be  removed 
on  April  12.  The  effect  of  these  measures  would  be  to  reduce 
the  subsidy  by  approximately  46,000,000/.,  or  one-half  the 
estimated  cost  to  the  Exchequer  if  no  change  had  been  made. 
A  few  days  later  Mr.  Lloyd  George  further  stated  that  with 
regard  to  the  price  of  the  1920  wheat  crop,  the  Gx)vemment 
had  decided  that  the  control  price  of  home-grown  wheat  of 
sound  milling  quality  harvested  in  1920  should  be  the  monthly 
average  price  of  imported  wheat,  provided  that  such  price  did 
not  exceed  95«.  per  quarter  of  504  lb. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  year  the  Government  reached  the 
conclusion  that  the  time  had  come  for  drastic  amendments  to 
be  made  in  the  Acts  relating  to  National  Health  Insurance. 
These  changes  were  embodied  in  the  National  Health  Insurance 
Bill  which  was  introduced  by  Dr.  Addison  in  the  House  of 
Commons  on  the  first  day  of  March.  Hitherto  sickness  bene- 
fit had  been  10«.  a  week  for  men  and  7^.  6d.  for  women.  The 
Government  proposed,  in  their  BiU,  to  increase  it  to  155.  a  week 
for  men  and  12^.  for  women.  Maternity  benefit,  which  had 
hitherto  been  a  lump  sum  of  SOs,  on  confinement,  was  to  be 
increased  to  40^,      Disablement  benefit,   which   began  after 


1990.]  National  Health  Insurance  Bill,  [25 

twenty-six  weeks'  sickness  benefit  had  been  received,  was  in- 
creased from  58.  to  Is,  &d,  a  week.  Sanatorium  benefit  was 
taken  altogether  out  of  the  National  Health  Insurance  Acts. 
EUgher  rates  of  contribution  were  to  be  levied  to  provide  a  fund 
for  the  payment  of  these  increased  benefits.  The  existing  scale 
provided  for  a  contribution  of  Id,  for  men  and  6d,  for  women, 
3d.  of  which  was  paid  by  the  employer  and  the  remainder  by 
the  employed  person.  Under  the  new  Bill  the  Government 
proposed  that  the  employer's  contribution  should  be  5d,  a  week, 
the  contribution  of  a  male  employee  5d,,  and  of  a  female  em- 
ployee 4d.  The  State  contribution  was  to  remain  on  its  exist- 
^proportion  of  two-ninths  of  the  combined  contribution  of 
the  employer  and  the  employed  person  in  the  case  of  a  man, 
and  one-fourth  in  the  case  of  a  woman.  The  second  reading 
of  this  Bill  was  taken  on  March  22,  when  Dr.  Addison  explained 
its  objects.  He  said  that  the  reason  why  sanatorium  benefit 
was  to  be  taken  out  of  the  Insurance  Act  was  that  the  Govern- 
ment proposed  to  deal,  in  a  comprehensive  policy,  with  the 
whole  proolem  of  tuberculosis.  After  being  read  a  second  time 
the  Bill  was  referred  to  a  Standing  Committee. 

The  most  important  of  the  private  Bills  discussed  during 
March  was  the  Matrimonial  Causes  Bill,  the  second  reading  of 
which  was  moved  by  Lord  Buckmaster  in  the  House  of  Lords 
on  March  10.  In  the  course  of  his  speech  he  said  that  the  ob- 
ject of  the  Bill  was  to  secure  that  whatever  rights  a  man  pos- 
sessed enabling  him  to  divorce  his  wife  should  be  enjoyed  in 
absolute  equality  by  the  woman.  Grounds  for  divorce  would 
be  adultery,  desertion  for  three  years,  cruelty,  habitual  insanity 
after  five  years,  habitual  drunkenness  after  three  years,  and  im- 
prisonment after  a  commuted  death  sentence.  There  would  be 
new  grounds  for  obtaining  nullity  of  marriage,  and  there  would 
be  further  protection  provided  for  the  clergy  of  the  Church  of 
England. 

The  rejection  of  the  Bill  was  moved  by  Lord  Braye.  It  was 
also  opposed  by  the  Archbishop  of  York,  who  believed  that  its 
main  provisions  would  tend  to  weaken  the  stability  of  marriage 
and  lower  its  ideal.  Lord  Phillimore  also  protested  against  any 
loosening  of  the  marriage  tie.  The  debate  was  then  adjourned 
and  resumed  a  fortnight  later.  On  its  resumption  the  Lord 
Chancellor  declared  that  the  Church  lowered  the  ideal  of  mar- 
riage by  laying  too  much  stress  on  the  physical  side,  and  warmly 
upheld  the  provisions  of  the  Bill.  The  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury expressed  his  approval  of  cheaper  divorce,  equality  of  sex 
conditions,  and  of  increased  ground  of  nullity.  Lord  Coleridge 
agreed  that  there  should  be  equality  of  the  sexes,  and  criticised 
the  existing  conditions  in  regard  to  restitution  suits.  The  Bill 
was  opposed  by  Lord  Salisbury,  but  the  motion  for  its  rejection 
was  defeated  by  93  votes  to  45,  and  the  second  reading  was 
then  carried. 

Labour  problems  were  never  very  long  in  abeyance,  and  on 


26]  ENGLISH  HISTORY.  [mabch 

March  11  a  Special  Trades  Union  Congress  was  held  at  the 
Central  Hall,  Westminster,  to  decide  whether  the  Government 
should  be  compelled  to  agree  to  the  nationalisation  of  mines 
either  by  Trade  Union  action  in  the  form  of  a  general  strike,  or 
by  political  action  in  the  form  of  intensive  political  propaganda 
in  preparation  for  a  General  Election.  Two  important  sections 
of  the  Congress — the  miners  and  the  general  workers — met 
separately  on  the  previous  day  to  decide  for  which  of  these 
policies  their  votes  should  be  given.  The  miners  resolved  to 
support  Trade  Union  action  (direct  action),  the  district  vote 
showing  a  majority  of  178,000.  From  this  it  followed  that  the 
miners'  vote  of  between  800,000  and  900,000  would,  at  the 
Congress,  be  cast  solidly  under  the  block  system  for  a  general 
strike.  The  Conference  of  the  General  Workers*  Unions  de- 
cided, however,  almost  imanimously  against  Trade  Union  action, 
their  votes  numbering  between  1,000,000  and  1,500,000.  It 
was  further  announced  that  the  National  Union  of  Bailwaymen 
wielding  about  400,000  votes,  had  decided  in  favour  of  political 
rather  than  direct  action. 

When  the  Congress  met,  Mr.  J.  H.  Thomas  pointed  out 
that  the  right  to  strike  carried  great  responsibilities  and  should 
not  be  exercised  lightly  or  impulsively.  The  future  position  of 
our  political  and  Trade  Union  movements  depended,  he  said, 
on  the  decision  of  the  Congress.  Pohtical  action  had  not  failed ; 
it  had  never  yet  been  fully  tried.  The  one  sane  course  was  to 
use  intelligently  the  power  afforded  by  the  constitution — the 
most  democratic  in  the  world.  Mr.  Frank  Hodges,  Secretary 
of  the  Miners'  Federation,  followed  Mr.  Thomas  with  the  ad- 
mission that  from  the  point  of  view  of  workmen  the  balance 
was  on  the  side  of  political  action,  but  he  said  that  it  was  not 
an  abstraction  they  had  to  deal  with  but  a  matter  of  realities. 
The  miners  were  the  victims  of  a  gigantic  political  fraud  in 
regard  to  the  acceptance  of  the  Sankey  Beport.  The  Parlia- 
mentary Institution  stood  discredited ;  they  had  no  longer  any 
faith  in  it.  If  the  Labour  Movement  could  accompUsh  its  ends 
by  direct  action  was  there  any  reason  why  they  should  not  at- 
tempt it  ?  He  said  they  were  engaged  in  an  industry  which 
was  marching  towards  bankruptcy,  and  they  wanted  to  put  it 
on  a  sound  basis.  If  there  were  to  be  no  great  movement  for 
nationalisation  the  miners  would  be  brought  back  into  the 
vortex  of  wage  claims. 

Mr.  Tom  Shaw,  M.P.,  of  the  Textile  Workers,  spoke  on  the 
other  side.  He  said  that  even  in  the  miners'  ranks  there  was  a 
huge  minority  against  direct  action.  The  tide  was  not  flowing 
towards  Mr.  Hodges'  policy;  the  people  themselves  were 
against  it.  The  only  way  to  success  was  by  good,  hard, 
strenuous  work,  patient  and  insistent.  Direct  action  was  a 
hazardous  and  unmoral  precedent,  wrong  in  principle  and 
bound  to  fail  in  practice.  Mr.  J.  R.  Clynes,  M.P.,  also 
expressed  his  opposition  to  direct  action  on  the  ground  that  it 


1990.]  Special  Trades  Union  Congress,  [27 

was  wron^.  He  said  that  the  Prime  Minister  would  welcome 
direct  acnon;  he  was  embarrassed,  and  if  they  gave  V^im  a 
general  strike  he  would  have  a  General  Election  in  which  the 
country  would  support  him.  "Already/*  said  Mr.  Clynes, 
"  your  arguments  have  converted  some  and  your  threats  have 
disgusted  and  alienated  others."  Would  any  section  of  the 
conmiunity  which  thought  it  was  wronged  by  a  Labour  Govern- 
ment be  entitled  to  assail  that  Government  by  direct  action  ? 
If  they  appealed  to  reason  and  exercised  patience  success  would 
be  assured. 

Voting  then  took  place  on  each  of  the  alternative  policies 
before  the  Congress.  The  motion  for  Trade  Union  action,  i.e., 
a  general  strike,  was  defeated  by  a  majority  of  2,820,000,  and 
the  vote  for  political  action  was  carried  by  a  majority  of 
2,717,000.  The  minority  on  each  vote  was  composed  of  the 
miners,  the  engineers,  and  a  few  smaller  unions. 

Following  on  these  votes  of  the  Trades  Union  Congress, 
the  miners  lost  no  time  in  adopting  a  new  policy.  The 
National  Conference  of  delegates  from  all  the  coalfields  sat  in 
private  on  March  12,  and  discussed  the  recent  interview  with 
the  Prime  Minister  regarding  the  proposals  of  the  Miners' 
Federation  to  reduce  the  price  of  coal.  These  proposals  having 
been  refused  by  the  Prime  Minister,  the  Committee  advised  the 
Conference  to  make  application  at  once  for  an  advance  in  wages 
of  3s.  per  shift  for  all  members  of  the  Miners'  Federation  over 
16  years  of  age,  and  Is.  6d.  for  those  under  that  age.  By  an 
overwhelming  majority  the  Conference  accepted  the  recom- 
mendation and  agreed  to  put  forward  an  application  for  this 
advance  to  date  from  March  1.  The  Conference  was  then 
adjourned  until  the  24th.  Negotiations  on  this  new  claim  of 
the  miners  were  opened  between  the  Government  and  the 
Miners'  Federation  on  March  18.  The  Miners'  Executive  met 
the  Prime  Minister,  and  Mr.  Frank  Hodges  presented  their 
case.  The  Prime  Minister  suggested  that  the  demand  was  one 
which,  in  his  opinion,  should  be  examined — at  any  rate  in  the 
first  instance — by  the  Coal  Controller,  and  also  by  the  coal 
owners.  The  Federation  accordingly  agreed  to  meet  the  Coal 
Controller  two  days  later  to  investigate  the  claim.  The 
negotiations  came  to  nothing.  On  the  23rd  Mr.  Frank  Hodges 
reported  that  they  had  been  broken  off  and  that  the  situation 
was  extremely  critical.  The  Executive  did  not  propose  to 
make  any  definite  recommendation  to  the  Delegate  Conference 
on  the  course  of  action  to  be  taken.  They  would  merely 
report  the  progress  of  the  negotiations  and  the  fact  that  no  agree- 
ment had  been  reached.  Offers  made  by  the  Government,  but 
rejected  by  the  miners,  were  for  a  flat  rate  advance  of  Is.  6d.  a 
shift  for  men  and  6d.  for  boys,  or  an  increase  of  20  per  cent. 
on  the  gross  wages,  excluding  the  war  wage  and  the  Sankey 
wage. 

These  offers  were  rejected  by  the  National  Delegate  Confer- 


28]  ENGLISH  HISTOBY.  [maech 

ence  on  March  24  after  a  meeting  of  only  an  hour,  and  a 
message  was  sent  to  the  Coal  Controller  that  the  full  claim 
would  be  pressed  of  Ss.  per  shift  for  men  and  Is,  6d.  for  boys 
to  commence  from  March  1.  The  Executive  thereupon  again 
met  the  Prime  Minister,  who  made  a  fresh  offer.  The  new 
concession  of  the  Government  was  to  increase  the  boys'  rate 
from  an  advance  of  6d.  to  9d.  per  shift,  the  increase  of  Is.  6d. 
for  adults  remaining  the  same.  This,  however,  was  based  upon 
the  acceptance  of  the  percentage  principle  of  advance  in  wages 
— that  is  to  say,  that  the  Government's  offer  of  an  advance  of 
20  per  cent,  all  roimd  remained,  together  with  a  guarantee  that 
no  man  should  have  less  than  the  equivalent  of  Is.  6d,  per  day 
flat  rate  increase,  and  no  boy  should  have  less  than  the  equivalent 
of  9d.  per  day  flat  rate  increase.  The  effect  of  the  new  offer  of 
the  Government  was  to  increase  wages  by  more  than  the  130 
per  cent,  by  which  the  cost  of  living  had  risen  since  1914.  It 
would  cost  over  30,000,000Z.  a  year.  As  it  was  on  a  percentage 
basis  the  Government  hoped  that  it  would,  by  stimulating  out- 
put, enable  the  industry  to  bear  the  charge,  and  also  to  give  the 
pubUc  cheaper  coal.  After  more  negotiations  the  Government 
still  further  improved  their  offer,  not  in  regard  to  the  percent- 
age advance  which  they  had  proposed,  but  in  regard  to  the 
minimum  advance  which  they  were  willing  to  guarantee.  The 
final  offer  of  the  Government  thus  amounted  to  an  advance  of 
20  per  cent,  on  gross  earnings,  excluding  the  war  wage  and  the 
Sankey  wage,  with  a  guaranteed  minimum  of  2s,  for  adults. 
Is.  for  youths  between  16  and  18,  and  9d.  for  boys  imder 
16.  This  offer  represented  an  average  increase  of  something 
like  2d.  per  worker  over  the  preceding  offer.  On  this  pro- 
posal it  was  decided  to  take  a  ballot  of  the  rank  and  file  of 
the  Miners*  Federation  as  to  whether  they  were  prepared  to 
accept  it  or  to  strike  for  the  enforcement  of  the  original  wage 
demand  of  the  Federation.  The  result  of  the  voting  was  to  be 
announced  to  a  Delegate  Conference  in  London  on  April  15. 
We  shall  refer  to  it  later. 

The  estimates  for  the  Ministry  of  Agriculture  were  dealt 
with  on  March  9.  Sir  A.  Griffith-Boscawen  explained  that  the 
total  vote  was  for  809,800Z.  He  said  that  no  more  money  was 
wanted  but  only  the  authority  of  Parliament  to  spend  on  these 
services  certain  savings  that  had  been  effected.  In  land  settle- 
ment substantial  progress  had  been  made;  194,071  acres  had 
been  acquired  and  a  sum  of  774,790Z.  had  been  saved  by  the  sale 
of  surplus  stocks  of  machinery. 

On  the  following  day  the  supplementary  vote  for  the  Ministry 
of  Transport  occasioned  a  lon^  discussion.  Sir  Donald  Maclean 
moved  a  reduction  of  100^  m  respect  of  salaries,  wages,  and 
allowances,  declaring  that  the  number  of  sub-departments, 
officials,  and  staff  was  a  gross  extravagance  which  in  seven 
months  had  cost  180,000i.  The  motion  was  ultimately  rejected. 
On   the  supplementary  vote  for  the  Ministry  of   Shipping, 


1990.]  The  Navy  'Estimates,  [29 

Colonel  Wilson  explained  that  the  Ministry  wished  to  obtain 
the  authority  of  Parliament  to  appropriate  a  further  sum  of 
19,500,000/.  The  principal  cause  of  the  excess  of  expenditure 
was  the  cost  of  running  240  ships  surrendered  to  Great  Britain 
under  the  terms  of  the  Armistice,  but  this  expenditure  would 
be  repaid.  The  total  surplus  receipts  over  the  estimate  amounted 
to  61,000,000/.,  chiefly  due  to  the  high  prices  realised  by  the  sale 
of  shipping,  the  earnings  of  ships,  and  recoveries  from  Dominion 
loans. 

A  discussion  on  the  cause  of  high  prices  was  raised  on  the 

Civil  Service  vote  on  account  for  241,040,000/.    Mr.  McCurdy, 

Parliamentary  Secretary  to  the  Ministry  of  Food,  attributed 

the  principal  cause  of  high  prices  to  the  lack  of  supplies  to  meet 

the  demand.     Profiteering,  he  said,  was  another  cause.     The 

Ministry  of  Food  had  protected  the  public  to   some  extent 

against  the  profiteer  by  controlling  the  prices  of  food-stuffs,  and 

by  this  and  by  the  control  of  supplies  had  kept  prices  down. 

Mr.  Asquith  contributed  to  the  debate,  expressmg  the  opinion 

that  increase  of  output  and  production  was  the  pressing  necessity, 

and  also  reduction  of  expenses  in  order  to  lessen  our  floating  debt. 

The  Navy  estimates  were  brought  forward  by  Mr.  Long  on 

March  17.     He  said  that  in  1914-15  the  strength  of  the  Navy 

was  151,000.    At  the  time  of  the  Armistice  it  was  407,317,  and 

it  was  now  proposed  to  reduce  it  for  1920-21  to  136,000.     The 

Government,  however,  adhered  to  the  principle  that  our  Navy 

should  be  at  least  equal  in  strength  to  the  Navies  of  other 

Powers.    We  still  had  our  two  main  fleets  in  the  Atlantic  and 

the  Mediterranean  and  various  squadrons  stationed  all  over  the 

world.    We  also  found  that  it  helped  our  trade  to  send  our 

light  cruisers  into  other  waters.     Big  ships  would  still  form  a 

part  of  the  naval  building  programme.     The  naval  staff  had 

been  remodelled  on  a  much  wider  basis  and  was  peculiarly 

efficient.     The  naval  experiments  were  being  conducted  imder 

their  superintendence.     It  had  been  decided  that  in  the  interests 

of  economy  the  training  school  at  Osborne  must  be  given  up, 

and  it  would  be  amalgamated  vnth  Dartmouth  in  1921.    Changes 

were  in  contemplation  which  would  enable  a  man  who  entered 

the  Navy  by  the  Lower  Deck  to  rise  to  Flag  rank.     On  the 

following  day  Major-General  Seely  moved  a  hostile  amendment. 

He  spoke  of  the  impossibility  of  co-ordination  between  the 

three  Services,  and  asked  that  the  Committee  of  Defence  should 

be  revived  with  wider  powers.     Mr.  Long  opposed  any  idea 

of  an  Executive  Ministry  of  Defence,  and  m  this  view  he  was 

joined  by  Mr.  Asquith.    In  the  division  the  amendment  only 

found  eighteen  supporters. 

The  national  expenditure  for  1920-21  was  at  this  time 
estimated  to  be  nearly  1,200,000,0002.  Of  this  total  the  Armv 
accounted  for  125,000,000/.,  the  Navy  for  84,000,000/.,  the  Air 
Force  for  21,000,000/.,  the  Civil  Services  and  Bevenue  Depart- 
ments for  557,000,000/.,  the  interest  on  National  Debt,  etc.,  for 
400,000,000/. 


30]  ENGLISH  HISTOBY.  [uAium 

An  Army  debate  took  place  on  March  22,  on  the  motion  for 
the  estimates  for  1920-21.  Sir  S.  Scott  and  Major-General 
Sir  J.  Davidson  advocated  the  setting  up  of  a  joint  advisory 
body  for  both  general  imperial  defence  and  local  defence.  On 
the  vote  for  land  forces,  Major  Barnes  moved  a  reduction  of 
15,000  men.  Mr.  Churchill  then  stated  that  the  Government 
were  taking  steps  towards  spreading  education  in  the  Army, 
and  declared  that  the  gradual  training  of  officers  at  a  common 
staff  college  was  the  only  way  to  secure  a  really  satisfactory 
Committee  of  Imperial  Defence.  Meanwhile  the  Government 
intended  to  form  a  general  staff.  He  also  referred  to  the 
difficulties  of  the  situation  in  the  Middle  East,  where  the 
Turkish  Nationalists  under  Mustapha  Eemel,  certain  disturbed 
areas,  and  the  Bolshevist  influence  were  all  causes  of  anxiety. 
With  regard  to  Germany,  our  poHcy  must  be,  he  said,  to 
support  a  moderate  German  Government  so  that  the  productive 
energies  of  the  German  people  might  revive.  The  amendment 
of  Major  Barnes  was  then  negatived. 

The  report  of  the  Boyal  Commission  on  the  Income  Tax 
was  issued  as  a  Blue  Book  on  March  17.  The  Commission 
suggested  that  what  had  hitherto  been  called  unearned  income 
should  in  future  be  known  as  investment  income,  and  that 
earned  income  should  be  reduced  by  one-tenth  to  arrive  at  the 
assessable  income.  From  the  assessable  income  should  be  de- 
ducted the  allowances  for  the  taxpayer  himself,  his  wife,  children, 
dependents,  relatives,  etc.,  in  order  to  arrive  at  the  taxable 
income.  They  suggested  that  this  taxable  income,  where  it  did 
not  exceed  225Z.,  should  be  charged  at  half  the  standard  rate  of 
tax.  If  the  taxable  income  exceeded  2251,  the  first  225Z.  would 
be  charged  at  half  the  standard  rate,  and  the  excess  over  2252. 
at  the  full  rate.  Owing  to  the  deductions  made  for  earned 
income,  aoid  for  personal,  marital,  and  family  allowances  225Z. 
of  taxable  income  would  be  equivalent  to  4002.  of  earned  income 
in  the  case  of  a  bachelor,  to  5002.  of  earned  income  in  the  case 
of  a  married  couple  without  children,  and  to  6002.  of  earned 
income  in  the  case  of  a  married  couple  with  three  children.  No 
immediate  decision  was  reached  by  the  Government  as  to  the 
report  of  the  Commission ;  the  scheme  was,  however,  ultimately 
adopted  later  in  the  year. 

In  the  middle  of  March  a  movement  was  set  on  foot  for  the 
fusion  of  the  Liberal  and  Unionist  wings  of  the  Coalition  into 
a  new  party.  Mr.  Lloyd  George  held  a  conference  vdth  his 
Liberal  colleagues  in  the  Government  on  March  16,  and  placed 
before  them  the  position  of  the  Liberal  Party  in  general,  and 
of  the  Coalition  Liberals  in  particular,  as  he  saw  it.  Mr.  Lloyd 
George  invited  frank  discussion  on  the  future  of  the  Coalition, 
but  as  one  Minister  after  another  expressed  his  views,  it  soon 
became  clear  that  there  was  strong  opposition  to  the  merging 
of  the  Coalition  Liberals  into  a  new  party  of  a  predominantly 
Unionist  character.     Several  Ministers  spoke  strongly  against 


1990.]  Liberals  and  the  Coalition,  [31 

fusion,  and  particular  objection  was  taken  to  the  adoption  of 
any  name  from  which  **  Liberal "  was  excluded.  Mr.  Churchill 
warmly  urged  closer  co-operation  within  the  Coalition,  and  a 
definite  stsmd  against  the  Labour  Party.  In  the  face  of  this 
cleavage  of  opinion  the  Prime  Minister  agreed  that  fusion  was 
a  bad  word,  and  said  that  all  he  sought  was  a  closer  co-operation 
of  the  Coalition  forces  in  the  constituencies. 

Having  fortified  himself  with  the  opinions  of  his  colleagues, 
Mr.  Lloyd  George  addressed,  on  March  18,  a  meeting  of  Liberal 
members  of  Parliament  in  the  Grand  Committee  Boom  at 
Westminster  Hall.  He  said  that  the  Government  had  suffered 
because  those  who  generally  took  the  lead  in  combating  criticism 
had  been  absorbed  in  greater  tasks.  He  had  never  known  a 
Parliament  that  had  worked  so  hard,  and  he  believed  that  in 
three  or  four  years  the  country  would  be  restored  to  its  normal 
prosperity.  But  he  pointed  out  that  no  Government  could 
work,  especially  in  trying  times,  without  a  majority  and  an 
electorate  to  depend  on.  Such  an  electorate  must  be  well  in- 
formed, and  for  that  an  efficient  organisation  was  necessary. 
Those  who  said  the  Coalition  was  unnecessary  were  those 
who  opposed  it  during  the  war.  The  withdrawal  of  Liberal 
votes  horn  the  Coalition  would  probably  place  Socialism  in  the 
first  place.  If  the  Coalition  broke  up  there  must  be  a  General 
Election,  and  neither  Liberals  or  Unionists  could  count  on  being 
returned  in  sufficient  strength  to  govern  the  country  steadily. 
The  real  danger  was  that  in  the  conflict  between  Unionists  and 
Liberals  the  Socialists  would  snatch  a  temporary  majority.  It 
was  impossible  to  have  a  common  understanding  with  the 
Socialist  Party.  Liberals  believed  that  private  property  was  a 
most  potent  agent  for  the  wealth  and  well-being  of  the  com- 
munity. Independent  Liberals  by  attacking  the  Coalition  were 
weakening  the  common  front  to  the  advantage  of  Socialism. 
Civilisation,  continued  Mr.  Lloyd  George,  was  in  jeopardy  in 
ever^  land.  Without  closer  co-operation  the  forces  of  sub- 
version would  triumph.  Their  first  purpose  must  be  to  secure 
the  adhesion  of  all  classes  to  a  policy  which  would  restore  the 
country  after  the  devastation  of  war.  Peace  abroad  and  at 
home  was  necessary  as  the  basis  on  which  to  biiild.  The  wild 
gamble  of  Socialism,  if  tried  in  this  country,  would  fail.  The 
best  protection  for  the  present  system  was  to  improve  it,  and 
he  was  prepared  to  fight  autocracy,  whether  it  was  that  of  an 
aristocracy  or  of  a  Trade  Union  organisation.  Finally,  he  said 
that  the  war  had  taught  them  their  dependence  on  each  other. 
He  appealed  for  co-operation  between  parties  as  the  best  way 
of  reahsing  the  new  comradeship. 

Mr.  Asquith  replied  to  Mr.  Lloyd  George  in  a  speech  at 
the  National  Liberal  Club  on  March  24.  He  said  that  organ- 
ised Liberalism  was  taking  up  the  challenge  which  had  been 
thrown  down.  Fusion  had  for  the  moment  been  watered  down 
to  ''closer  co-operation."     But  the  intention  was  that  the 


32]  ENGLISH  HISTOEY.  [march 

co-operation  should  become  still  closer  until  at  last  it  developed 
into  absorption.  The  question  for  Liberals  to  decide,  he  said, 
was  whether  they  would  accept  the  Prime  Minister's  invitation 
to  link  themselves  with  the  Tory  organisation.  Why  should 
they  ?  If,  as  Mr.  Bonar  Law  said,  there  had  been  in  the  Coali- 
tion Cabinet  no  divisions  on  party  lines — which  meant  on  lines 
of  principle  and  conviction — there  ought  to  have  been.  Mr. 
Asquith  said  that  he  would  be  predisposed  to  look  indulgently 
on  any  honest  workable  attempt  to  settle  the  Irish  question, 
but  the  Government  had  put  forward  the  most  fantastic  and 
impracticable  scheme,  the  greatest  travesty  of  real  self-govern- 
ment ever  offered  to  a  nation.  He  did  not  think  there  could  be 
a  better  illustration  of  the  demoralising  effect  of  Coalition,  both 
on  the  principles  and  the  nerves  of  the  parties  to  it.  Liberals 
were  asked  to  consent  to  the  annihilation  of  their  separate 
existence  as  a  party  because  of  the  **  Bolshevist  menace."  This 
appeal  to  reform  party  organisation  on  the  basis  of  the  lines  of 
class  cleavage  was  mischievous  from  every  point  of  view,  and 
tended  not  to  close  but  to  open  the  road  to  revolution.  What- 
ever might  happen  in  the  present  non-representative  House  of 
Commons,  Mr.  Asquith  insisted  that  the  rank  and  file  of  the 
Liberal  Party  in  the  country  were  not  going  to  be  harnessed  to 
the  wheels  of  the  Tory  chariot  in  an  insensate  crusade  against 
an  imaginary  peril. 

Mr.  Asquith' s  speech  was  followed  next  day  by  a  unanimous 
resolution  of  the  Executive  Committee  of  the  National  Liberal 
Federation  declining  the  invitation  of  the  Prime  Minister  to 
enter  into  closer  co-operation  with  the  Conservative  Party.  Mr. 
Lloyd  George  was  not  slow  to  deliver  his  rejoinder  to  Mr. 
Asquith  in  a  speech  to  Liberal  supporters  of  the  Government 
on  March  26.  He  insisted  that  the  Socialist  attack  was  the 
more  important  because  it  represented  the  larger  following,  and 
was  the  only  real  alternative  to  the  Coalition.  The  Indepen- 
dent Liberals  could  not  form  a  Government  without  coalescing. 
They  could  not  obtain  an  independent  majority.  He  could  not 
find  in  Mr.  Asquith' s  speech  enough  material  to  justify  the  re- 
newal of  party  strife  at  this  supreme  moment.  He  denied  that 
either  Liberals  or  Unionists  had  abandoned  their  principles. 
Coalition  did  not  mean  that  one  of  the  parties  got  everything 
and  the  other  nothing.  He  pointed  to  America  as  an  example 
of  the  dangers  of  party  strife.  He  affirmed  that  it  was  only  by 
unity  among  the  great  parties  that  anything  could  be  carried 
through,  and  he  regretted  that  Mr.  Asquith  should  be  attempt- 
ing to  break  up  that  unity  on  the  question  of  Ireland.  With 
this  speech  the  main  controversy  came  to  an  end.  It  served  to 
clear  the  air  and  show  the  prevalent  opinion  among  Liberals, 
but  led  to  no  further  steps  in  a  practical  direction.  Mr.  Bonar 
Law  endorsed  Mr.  Lloyd  George's  plea  for  closer  co-operation 
in  the  constituencies,  but  the  general  feeling  among  Conser- 
yatives  as  well  as  Liberals  (especially  in  the  North)  was  opposed 


IMO.]  Future  of  British  Bailways,  [83 

to  the  splitting  up  of  the  country  into  labour  and  anti-labour 
camps.  While  this  controversy  was  in  progress  several  new 
ministerial  appointments  were  announced.  Dr.  Macnamara 
became  Minister  of  Labour ;  Sir  Kobert  Home,  President  of 
the  Board  of  Trade ;  Mr.  McCurdy,  Food  Controller ;  and  Mr. 
J.  Avon  Clyde,  Lord  President  of  the  Court  of  Session. 

On  March  12  the  second  reading  was  moved  by  Mr.  Tillett 
of  a  Bill  to  provide  for  the  establishment  and  equipment  of 
technical  schools  for  the  blind,  or  for  contributions  to  existing 
schools  and  institutions ;  for  the  establishment  of  workshops ; 
for  grants  to  augment  the  wages  earned  by  blind  persons  in  such 
workshops,  and  for  the  living  expenses  of  the  bUnd  during  their 
training ;  also  for  the  maintenance  of  blind  persons  incapacitated 
from  earning  their  Uvelihood.  Dr.  Addison,  who  expressed  the 
view  of  the  Government,  held  that  more  might  be  done  to  pre- 
vent blindness.  Proposals  for  the  registration  of  agencies  seek- 
ing voluntary  support  for  the  blind,  and  the  authorisation  of 
County  Councils  and  Borough  Councils  to  contribute  towards 
the  maintenance  of  the  blind,  would  have  the  support  of  the 
Government,  who  were  also  prepared  to  propose  that  blind  per- 
sons between  the  ages  of  50  and  70  should  receive  the  same 
benefits  and  weekly  allowance  as  the  Old  Age  Pensioners.  The 
second  reading  was  then  carried. 

A  few  days  later  the  second  reading  was  also  carried  of  a 
Shops  (Early  Closing)  Bill,  providing  that  shops  should  close  at 
8  o'clock  on  Saturdays  and  7  o'clock  on  ordinary  days. 

One  of  the  most  important  speeches  in  the  latter  half  of 
March  was  by  Sir  Eric  Geddes,  the  Minister  of  Transport, 
on  the  future  of  the  British  railways,  delivered  to  the  Institute 
of  Transport  at  Westminster.  Sir  Eric  Geddes  said  that  none  of 
the  transport  agencies  of  this  country  could  carry  on  on  the  basis 
of  their  pre-war  revenue.  This  was  true,  not  only  of  railways 
but  also  of  roads,  canals,  tramways,  and  docks.  The  maximum 
charges  which  could  be  imposed  by  statutory  undertakings 
were  no  longer  sufficient,  and  the  companies  must  be  enabled  to 
raise  more  money.  Power  must  be  given  to  the  State  to  reduce 
working  costs  in  every  possible  way,  and  to  harmonise  the 
operation  of  the  different  agencies  in  the  interests  of  the  com- 
munity. He  said  that  we  were  on  the  eve  of  great  extensions 
of  the  application  of  electricity  to  railway  traction.  A  revolu- 
tion was  taking  place  in  the  organisation  of  transport  in  this 
country. 

The  state  of  Ireland  continued  to  be  deplorable  during 
March.  On  the  3rd  Mr.  Frank  Shawe  Taylor,  a  well-known 
County  Galway  landowner,  was  shot  dead  when  on  his  way  to  / 
Gralway  Fair.  On  the  same  day  many  searches  and  arrests  f 
were  made  by  the  Authorities  in  Dublin.  Almost  daily  fresh 
murders  were  reported.  Policemen  were  killed  in  all  parts 
of  Ireland  and  mails  robbed,  while  the  perpetrators  usually 
succeeded  in  escaping.     On  the  17th  the  Insh  Government 

C       ^ 


^ 


ENGLISH  HISTOEY.  [mabch 

'  appointed  five  Divisional  Commissioners  in  connexion  with  the 
work  of  the  Irish  police  forces  throughout  the  country.  They 
/were  to  be  responsible  for  the  organisation  and  movements  of 
'^.  the  police  in  their  several  areas  under  the  authority  of  the 
/  Inspector-General  of  the  Eoyal  Irish  Constabulary.  On  March 
Jj9  two  particularly  atrocious  murd^s  were  committed  in  The 
Gityt)flJbrk.  First  a  policemari  was  killed  and  thenrarfofcible 
enliy  was  made  into  thB  house  of  the  recently  elected  Lord 
Mayor,  Thomas  MacCurtin,  who'^was^Ued  with  revolver  shots 
by  masked  men.  Mr.^  MacCurtin' "was"  a  well-known  Sinn 
P^mer^  and  the  report  was  immediately  put  about  thafrlTe  tad 
be^n  murdered  either  by  actual  agents  of  the  Government,  or 
at  leaist  by  its  friends.  On  March  22  an  affray  took  place  in 
DubUn  in  which  two  pwsons  were  killed.  It  appeared  that  an 
attiicTf  had  been  made  upon  soldiers  who  were  singing  the 
National  Anthem,  and  that  the  soldiers  had  retaliated  with  the 
above  result.  Another  murder  took .  place  on  March  24  in 
South  WiHiftm  Streef^lJublin,  when  a  young  man  was  fired  at 
and  killed  by  three  assailants  who  succeeded  in  escaping.  On 
the  26th  Mr.  Alan  Bell,  the  Eesident  Magistrate,  who  had  been 
engaged  ina  speciarinquiry  into  the  supposed  relations  between 
Sinn  Fein  and  some  of  the  Irish  Banks,  was  dragged  from  a 
tramway  car  in  a  Dublin  suburb .  shortly  before  IQ  o'clock  in 
the  morning  and  Jnurdered.  AlfnnRt  daily  crimes  of  this  nature 
continued  to  be  reported. 

In  this  terrible  state  of  affairs  the  Home  Eule  Bill  of  the 
Government  became  a  matter  of  the  greatest  importance  and 
urgency.  We  have  already  mentioned  that  the  first  reception 
of  it  in  Ireland  was  far  from  favourable,  and  further  considera- 
tion did  Uttle  to  diminish  the  hostility  displayed  towards  it.  On 
March  4  Sir  Horace  Plunkett  condemned -the  Bill,  describing 
the  proposed  national  Parliament  as  a  monstrosity.  _0n  the 
following  day  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Ulster  Unionist  Council 
tools  place  in  Belfast,  its  principal  business  being  to  consider 
the  new  proposals  for  Home  Eule.  A  non-committal  attitude 
was  at  first  taken  up,  and  the  conference  was  adjourned  to  enable 
the  delegates  to  discuss  the  position  with  their  friends  in  the 
various  electoral  areas.  It  met  again  on  March  10  when  Sir 
Edward  Carson  presided,  and  reviewed  the  position.  After 
jdiscussion,  lasting  several  hours,  it  was  decided  to  support  the 
measure  with  the  addition  of  such  amendments  as  the  Ulster 
representatives  might  be  able  to  secure  to  improve  the  position 
of  Unionists  in  the  South  and  West  of  Ireland.  The  decision 
of  the  Ulster  Unionist  Council  was  widely  deplored  throughout 
.  Ireland  on  the  ground  that  it  dealt  a  heavy  blow  at  the 
Government  hopes  of  settlement.  Such  hopes  were  largely 
based  upon  the  belief  that  the  partition  of  Ireland  would  be 
only  temporary,  but  the  decision  of  the  Ulster  Unionist  Coimcil 
was  interpreted  to  mean  an  intention  to  make  the  partition 
permanent. 


1990.]  Government  of  Ireland  Bill.  [85 

The  second  reading  of  the  Bill  came  up  in  the  House  of 
CoDGimons  on  March  29.  It  was  in  charge  of  Mr.  Macpherson, 
who  explained  that  it  gave  Ireland  two  Parliaments,  one  for  the 
South  and  the  other  for  the  six  North-Eastern  Ulster  counties, 
each  having  complete  local  autonomy  and  Unked  together  hy  a 
Council  to  which  these  Parliaments  might  at  any  time  transfer 
by  Act  the  administration  of  any  Irish  Services.  The  Council, 
which  would  also  have  the  power  to  legislate  with  respect  to 
railways,  and  to  pass  private  Bills  affecting  the  interests  of 
Southern  and  Northern  Ireland,  would  consist  of  a  president 
appointed  by  His  Majesty,  and  forty  members,  twenty  chosen 
by  each  House  of  Parliament  from  its  own  body.  The  Imperial 
Parliament  would  be  supreme,  and  certain  powers  were  to  be 
reserved  to  it,  such  as  peace  and  war,  foreign  affairs,  customs 
and  excise.  Navy  and  Army,  land,  agriculture,  trade  outside  Ire- 
land, and  the  machinery  for  maintaining  law  and  order.  The 
number  of  Irish  members  to  be  returned  to  serve  in  the  Imperial 
Parliament  would  be  forty- two.  The  Irish  contribution  to  the 
Imperial  expenditure  would  be  18,000,000Z.  per  annum  for  the 
first  two  years  after  the  passing  of  the  Act,  and  after  that  the 
amount  would  be  fixed  by  a  Joint  Exchequer  Board  at  quin- 
quennial periods.  Mr.  Clynes  moved  to  postpone  the  second 
reading  for  six  months  on  the  ground  that  the  Bill  provided  a 
form  of  partition  on  a  religious  basis.  Lord  Bobert  Cecil  and 
Mr.  T.  P.  O'Connor  declared  that  Irish  opinion  as  a  whole  was 
against  the  measure. 

On  the  second  day  of  the  debate  Mr.  Asquith  objected  to  the 
Bill  because  it  started  not  with  Irish  unity  subject  to  safeguards, 
but  with  Irish  dualism  with  a  shadowy  background  of  remote 
and  potential  unity.  Mr.  Bonar  Law  said  that  what  the 
Government  had  aimed  at  in  the  Bill  was  to  give  to  Ireland  the 
largest  measure  of  Home  Eule  compatible  with  national  security 
and  pledges  given.  Mr.  Devlin  suggested  that  the  proposed 
Council  should  be  called  a  Parliament  and  given  the  greatest 
powers  which  were  consistent  with  the  unity  of  the  Empire. 

The  debate  on  the  second  reading  was  carried  on  during 
three  days.  On  the  third  day  Sir  Edward  Carson,  while  re- 
affirming his  objection  to  the  whole  policy  of  Home  Rule  for 
Ireland,  and  asserting  that  there  was  no  alternative  to  the 
union  except  separation,  said  that  because  the  Act  of  1914  put 
Ulster  under  the  Parliament  in  Dublin,  and  the  present  Bill 
gave  her  a  Parliament  of  her  own,  though  she  preferred  to  re- 
main in  the  United  Kingdom,  he  would  do  nothing  to  prevent 
it  from  becoming  law.  Mr.  Lloyd  George  said  that  the  point 
of  the  present  Bill  was  that  no  powers,  saving  the  two  men- 
tioned, could  be  given  to  the  whole  of  Ireland  except  with  the 
consent  of  the  North  and  the  South.  Much  of  the  success  of 
the  plan  would  depend  upon  the  attitude  of  the  Sinn  Fein 
population  of  the  South.  The  closure  was  then  agreed  to  on 
the  motion  of  Mr.  Bonar  Law,  and  the  amendment  for  rejection 

c2 


. ♦- 


/ 


86J  ENGLISH  HISTORY.  [april 

was  negatived  by  a  majority  of  254.  The  Bill  was  then  read 
a  second  time  and  referred  to  a  Standing  Committee.  Some 
weeks  later  it  was  decided  that  the  Bill  should  be  considered  by 
a  Committee  of  the  whole  House  instead  of  a  Standing  Com- 
mittee. We  shall  describe  later  on  its  further  progress  through 
Committee  during  May  and  June.  On  March  31  the  House 
adjourned  for  Easter  till  Monday,  April  12. 

CHAPTEE  II. 

EVENTS  OF  THE  SPRING. 

/The  beginning  of  April  was  notable  for  a  number  of  Ministerial 
changes.  No  sooner  had  the  second  reading  of  the  Home  Bule 
Bill  been  carried  than  Mr.  Macpherson  resigned  his  office  of 
Chief  Secretary  for  Ireland.  The  continuous  strain  of  work 
which  he  had  undergone  in  connexion  with  the  Bill  had  affected 
his  health,  and  he  also  pointed  out  that  there  was  no  provision 
in  the  Bill  for  the  continuance  of  the  office  of  Chief  Secretary. 
Another  Chief  Secretary  was,  however,  immediately  appointed, 
the  choice  falling  upon  Lieut.-Colonel  Sir  Hamar  Greenwood, 
Bart.,  K.C.,  M.P.  Sir  L.  Worthington-Evans,  Bart.,  M.P., 
entered  the  Cabinet  as  Minister  without  portfolio  in  succession 
toMr.  Barnes,  whose  resignation  has  already  been  referred  to. 
Mr.  Macpherson  succeeded  Sir  L.  Worthington-Evans  at  the 
Ministry  of  Pensions.  Mr.  F.  G.  Kella way  .became  Parlia- 
mentary Secretary  to  the  Department  of  Qvef-Seas  Trade,  and 
additional  Under-Secretary  to  the  Foreiga  Office,  in  succession 
to  Sir  Hamar  Greenwood.  Mr.  Kellaway  had'  previously  filled 
the  office  of  Deputy  Minister  of  Munitions,  and  a  definite  step 
was  taken  towards  the  winding  up  of  that  Department  by  the 
decision  to  appoint  no  successor  to  him.  Other  Ministerial 
appointments  included  that  of  Colonel  Sir  James  Craig,  Bart., 
M.P.,  as  Financial  Secretary  to  the  Admiralty  in  succession  to 
Dr.  Macnamara.  Major  G.  C.  Tryon,  M.P.,  succeeded  Sir 
James  Craig  as  Under-Secretary  to  the  Ministry  of  Pensions, 
and  was  himself  succeeded  by  the  Marquis  of  Londonderry  as 
Under-Secretary  of  State  for  Air.  Sir  Montague  Barlow  became 
Under-Secretary  to  the  Ministry  of  Labour  in  succession  to  Mr. 
Wardle.  These  appointments  involved  only  one  bye-election, 
namely,  that  of  Sir  Hamar  Greenwood  for  Sunderland,  but  as 
his  majority  at  the  General  Election  had  been  18,000  the  seat 
was  considered  perfectly  safe. 

At  the  end  of  March  was  issued  the  report  of  the  first  Court 
of  Inquiry  held  under  the  Industrial  Courts  Act  of  1919.  It 
will  be  remembered  that  these  Courts  had  power  only  to  make 
recommendations  and  not  to  enforce  them.  It  was  unfortunate 
that  the  first  Court  of  Inquiry  failed  to  reach  a  unanimous 
decision.  Its  business  was  the  consideration  of  certain  demands 
put  forward  by  the  National  Transport  Workers'  Federation. 


1090.]  The  Industrial  Courts  Act.  [37 

The  Majority  Eeport  was  signed  by  Lord  Bhaw  of  Dunfermline, 
the  Chairman,  and  six  other  members  of  the  Court,  while  two 
members  issued  a  Minority  Beport  of  their  own.  The  main 
difficulty  was  with  reference  to  the  dockers,  and  on  this  subject 
the  findings  of  the  Court  were : — 

1.  That  with  a  view  to  establishing  a  national  minimum 
standard,  the  minimum  for  day  workers  and  piece  workers 
should  be  163.  per  day  on  the  basis  of  the  national  agreement  for 
a  44-hour  week. 

2.  That  a  system  of  registration  of  dock  labour  should  be 
introduced  into  all  the  ports,  docks,  and  harbours  of  the 
kingdom. 

3.  That  the  principle  of  maintenance  of  unemployed  casual 
labour  was  approved. 

4.  That  the  wages  of  dock  labour  should  be  paid  weekly,  and 
that  this  system  should  be  introduced  at  the  earliest  possible 
date. 

5.  That  the  constitution  of  a  National  Joint  Council  and  its 
correlative  and  local  bodies  should  be  undertaken  for  the  dock 
labour  industry  on  the  lines  of  the  report  of  the  Whitley  Com- 
mittee. 

6.  That  these  bodies  should,  failing  agreement  by  the  parties, 
be  charged  with  the  settlement  of  the  incidental  matters  men- 
tioned in  this  report  and  of  the  remaining  items  of  claim. 

The  report  was  accepted  by  the  National  Transport  Workers' 
Federation.  The  Provisional  Committee  of  the  National  Council 
of  Port  Labour  Employers  showed  themselves,  however,  very 
much  less  ready  to  accept  the  award.  A  meeting  was  held 
between  the  dockers  and  the  employers  on  April  16,  at  which 
the  employers  stated  that  they  were  not  prepared  at  once  to 
signify  their  unconditional  acceptance  of  the  report,  but  added 
that  they  would  go  so  far  as  to  negotiate  on  the  basis  of  the 
16s,  minimu^,  on  the  understanding  that  they  were  satisfied 
that  all  the  points  in  the  report  as  to  time-keeping,  output, 
etc.,  could  be  duly  safeguarded.  At  a  further  meeting  on 
April  19  the  Port  Employers  agreed  to  accept  the  report  of 
the  Dockers'  Li(juiry  as  a  whole,  and  a  Joint  Committee  was 
set  up  to  deal  with  important  questions  of  detail.  This  Joint 
Negotiating  Committee  decided  that  the  minimum  wage  should 
come  into  force  from  May  10,  and  thereafter  no  further  trouble 
was  experienced.  Thus  the  first  case  decided  under  the  In- 
dustrial Courts  Act  led  to  a  satisfactory  issue. 

A  temporary  respite  of  the  discontent  in  the  mining  industry 
also  occurred  during  April.  It  will  be  remembered  that  the 
Government  had  made  an  offer  to  the  miners  involving  an 
advance  of  20  per  cent,  on  gross  earnings  excluding  the  war 
wage  and  the  Sankey  wage,  with  a  guaranteed  minimum  ad- 
vance of  2s.  per  shift  for  adults,  Is.  for  youths,  and  9d.  for 
boys.  This  offer  was  referred  to  a  ballot  of  the  coal-fields,  and 
the  result  was  announced  to  a  Delegate  Conference  on  April  15. 


38]  ENGLISH  HISTOEY.  [april 

The  men  decided,  by  a  majority  of  65,136,  to  accept  the  offer 
of  the  Govermnent,  and  the  danger  of  a  strike  was  thus 
temporarily  averted.  An  analysis  of  the  voting  showed  that 
the  majority  of  the  districts  had  voted  for  acceptance,  while  in 
Lancashire,  South  Wales,  and  the  Forest  of  Dean,  there  had 
been  large  majorities  in  favour  of  a  strike.  It  was  estimated 
that  the  cost  of  the  Government  concession  exceeded  30,000,000Z. 
a  year,  and,  according  to  the  report  of  the  accountants  who  in- 
vestigated the  financial  position  of  the  coal  industry,  the  surplus 
available  to  meet  this  charge  was  only  7,000,000Z.  or  8,000,000Z. 
It  was  therefore  anticipated  that  the  Government  would  soon 
find  it  necessary  to  raise  the  price  of  coal.  An  increase  was  in 
fact  announced  about  three  weeks  later  as  will  be  subsequently 
mentioned. 

Meanwhile  fresh  demands  were  made  by  the  railwaymen, 
this  time  for  an  all-round  advance  of  11,  a  week  for  all  grades 
within  the  conciliation  scheme,  including  locomotive  men  but 
excluding  the  railway  shopmen.  The  claim  was  put  forward  in 
Ueu  of  the  claim  justified  by  the  sUding  scale  agreement  for  an 
increase  of  1$.  a  week  to  meet  the  advance  of  five  points  in  the 
cost  of  living  figure  since  last  January.  It  did  not  appear  that 
there  was  any  official  decision  to  take  a  firm  line  over  this  new 
proposal,  but  extremists  in  local  bodies  of  railwaymen  tried  to 
force  their  views  independently  in  a  manner  which  was  liable  to 
cause  public  inconvenience  but  had  no  chance  of  meeting  with 
success.  Their  scheme  was  that  the  men  should  work  strictly 
to  rule  in  running  the  railways,  and  since  it  appeared  that 
a  number  of  the  rules  were  in  existence  rather  for  special 
emergencies  than  for  ordinary  working,  it  was  anticipated  that 
an  exact  technical  observance  of  them  would  cause  considerable 
disorganisation  on  the  lines.  In  point  of  fact  the  movement 
came  to  very  Uttle ;  we  shall  refer  to  it  again  later. 

The  first  important  business  of  ParUament  on  its  resmnption 
after  the  Easter  recess  was  to  consider  the  second  reading  of 
the  Treaties  of  Peace  (Austria  and  Bulgaria)  Bill,  which  was 
moved  by  Mr.  Cecil  Harmsworth  on  April  14.  He  explained 
that  its  object  was  to  invest  His  Majesty  with  powers  necessary 
for  carrying  out  the  business  that  followed  the  ratification  of 
peace.  He  pointed  out  that  the  House  had  power  to  reject 
these  treaties,  but  not  to  amend  them  in  detail.  Mr.  Asquith 
expressed  the  hope  that  prompt  effect  would  be  given  to  the 
undertaking  to  give  Bulgaria  an  economic  outlet  on  the  ^gean 
Sea,  and  declared  that  free  commercial  intercourse  between  the 
dismembered  parts  of  Austria  should  be  facilitated,  and  that  the 
new  small  States  should  be  disarmed.  Colonel  Malone  moved 
the  rejection  of  the  Bill  on  the  ground  that  it  placed  unreason- 
able economic  burdens  on  Austria,  and  violated  the  principle  of 
self-determination  in  the  cases  of  both  Austria  and  Bulgaria. 
After  Lord  Bobert  Cecil  had  urged  that  a  reasonable  amount  of 
reparation  from  Austria  should  be  fixed  at  once,  Mr.  Bonar 


1920.]  Treaties  of  Peace  Bill.  [39 

Law  declared  that  the  evil  of  not  ratifying  the  Treaty  would 
be  greater  than  that  of  any  other  course  which  Parliament 
could  take.  It  had  been  found  quite  impossible,  he  said,  in  the 
present  economic  condition  of  Austria,  to  form  any  definite  idea 
of  what  she  might  ultimately  be  able  to  pay.  The  amendment 
for  the  rejection  was  then  negatived  by  a  majority  of  154,  and 
the  motion  for  the  second  reading  was  agreed  to.  The  Com- 
mittee stage  was  comparatively  peaceful.  An  amendment  was 
moved  by  Lieut. -Commander  Kenworthy,  providing  that  the 
appointments  of  representatives  to  serve  on  the  Council  and 
Assembly  of  the  League  of  Nations  should  come  before  Parlia- 
ment to  be  approved.  The  amendment  was  rejected  and  the 
third  reading  carried  by  a  majority  of  130.  The  royal  assent 
was  given  on  Aphl  27. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  in  1919  there  was  much  public 
discussion  about  the  Government  motor  depot  at  Cippenham, 
Slough,  and  that  a  Select  Committee  had  been  appointed  to 
inquire  into  the  policy  of  the  Government  in  instituting  this 
depot  and  their  management  of  it  after  it  had  been  instituted. 
The  report  of  the  Select  Committee  is  embodied  in  last  year's 
volume  of  the  Annual  Register.  On  April  9,  1920,  the 
Ministry  of  Munitions  announced  that  the  depot  had  been  sold 
for  3,350,000Z.  The  Ministry  stated  that  it  had  cost  the 
Government  2,500,0002.,  and  therefore  claimed  that  a  profit  had 
been  realised  for  the  nation  of  8d0,000Z.  It  was  stated  that  the 
depot  had  been  bought  by  a  wealthy  British  Syndicate 
experienced  in  the  motor  business.  The  success  of  this  deal 
was  referred  to  by  Mr.  J.  F.  Hope  in  moving  the  vote  for  the 
Ministry  of  Mimitions  on  April  15.  He  said  that  the  Slough 
Depot  had  been  run  at  a  profit  and  had  now  been  sold  at  a 
profit.  As  regards  the  expenditure  of  the  Ministry  of  Munitions 
it  had  amounted  in  the  previous  year  to  185,000,000/.,  and  the 
receipts  had  amounted  to  254,000,000Z.,  69,000,000/.  of  which 
had  been  handed  over  to  the  Exchequer  at  the  end  of  the  year. 
The  estimated  receipts  for  the  current  year  amounted  to 
200,000,000/.,  and  there  would  be  a  surplus  of  not  less  than 
172,000,000/.  at  the  end  of  the  year.  As  to  the  future  of  the 
Ministry,  the  War  Office  intended  to  take  over  the  arsenals  and 
all  Government  factories  under  the  Ministry  that  were  not 
for  disposal.  There  would  no  longer  be  two  Parliamentary 
Secretaries.  Sir  Donald  Maclean  moved  the  reduction  of  the 
vote  by  15,000,000/.  After  a  long  discussion  Mr.  Hope 
announced  that  the  Department  would  lay  a  revised  estimate 
before  the  House.  Sir  Donald  Maclean  then  withdrew  his 
amendment  and  the  vote  was  withdrawn. 

Discussions  on  the  Matrimonial  Causes  Bill  took  place  during 
April  in  both  Houses  of  Parliament.  In  the  House  of  Commons 
Mr.  Bendall  called  attention  to  the  Marriage  and  Divorce  Laws, 
and  moved  that  legislative  effect  should  be  given  without  delay 
to  the  reconmiendations  of  the  Boyal  Commission  on  Divorce. 


40]  ENGLISH  HISTOEY.  t^PBit 

Mr.  R.  McNeill  moved  to  amend  the  resolution  by  substituting 
words,  declaring  that  while  it  was  desirable  to  place  the  sexes 
on  a  footing  of  equality  in  regard  to  divorce,  any  change  im- 
pairing the  permanence  of  the  marriage  contract  would  be 
harmful.  Mr.  Munro  spoke  in  support  of  the  recommendation 
that  divorce  should  be  obtainable  for  desertion.  The  amend- 
ment was  then  agreed  to  by  a  majority  of  forty-three  and  the 
motion  was  carried. 

During  the  Committee  stage  in  the  House  of  Lords,  clause  1 
of  the  Bill  was  amended  on  the  motion  of  Earl  Russell,  by 
adding  "jactitation  of  marriage'*  to  the  causes  in  which  the 
High  Com:t  should  exercise  jurisdiction.  A  new  sub-section 
was  also  added,  providing  that  any  British  subject,  or  any 
woman  who  was  a  British  subject  domiciled  in  England  or 
Wales  before  her  marriage,  might  apply  to  the  High  Court  for 
a  declaration  as  to  whether  or  not  the  marriage  was  valid.  The 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury  expressed  the  view  that  adultery 
was  the  only  ground  justifiable  for  breaking  the  marriage  bond. 

A  week  later  the  Duke  of  Northumberland  moved  the 
omission  of  the  provision  by  which  incurable  insanity  was 
one  of  the  grounds  on  which  divorce  might  be  granted.  The 
amendment  was  opposed  by  Lord  Buckmaster  and  rejected  by 
a  majority  of  forty.  Another  amendment  by  Earl  Russell  was 
carried,  providing  that  in  such  cases  the  individual  must  have 
been  a  certified  lunatic  continuously  for  a  period  of  at  least  five 
years  immediately  preceding  the  application.  An  amendment 
by  Viscount  Cave  for  dropping  out  from  the  Bill  incurable 
drunkenness  as  a  groimd  for  divorce  was  negatived,  but  the 
House  deleted  the  sub-clause  which  gave  power  to  a  person  to 
seek  a  divorce  on  the  groimd  that  the  other  party  was  under- 
going imprisonment  under  a  commuted  death  sentence. 

The  Lish  Home  Rule  Bill  found  a  weak  echo  in  a  Scottish 
Home  Rule  Bill,  the  second  reading  of  which  was  moved  by 
Mr.  Johnstone  on  April  16.  He  explained  that  the  object  of 
the  Bill  was  to  create  a  Scottish  Legislature  and  a  Scottish 
Executive  responsible  to  it,  with  the  power  of  dealing  with 
those  peculiarly  Scottish  interests  which  were  at  present  regu- 
lated by  Scottish  law  administered  by  Scottish  officials  and 
provided  for  by  the  Scottish  estimates.  Mr.  Kidd  moved  the 
rejection  of  the  Bill  on  the  ground  that  it  was  inopportune, 
since  the  report  of  the  conference  on  devolution  had  not  yet 
been  received.  After  a  brief  discussion  the  debate  was  ad- 
journed and  the  Bill  was  ultimately  dropped. 

The  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  introduced  the  Budget  in 
the  House  of  Commons  on  April  19.  He  said  that  last  year's 
Exchequer  receipts  were  nearly  138,500,000i.  over  the  estimate. 
This  was  largely  due  to  the  increased  yield  of  the  taxes  on 
spirits,  beer,  tobacco,  and  tea.  The  entertainments  duty  had 
also  yielded  more  than  was  anticipated.  Turning  to  the  Inland 
Revenue,  he  said  that  the  Excess  Profits  Duty  was  the  only  one 


1M0.1  The  Budget.  [41 

which  fell  short  of  the  estimate.  Stamp  duties  and  miscellane- 
ous revenue  had  exceeded  the  estimate.  The  deadweight  of 
debt  of  March  31  was  7,835,000,000^.  During  the  year  the 
floating  debt  had  been  reduced  by  almost  exactly  100,000,0002., 
and  on  March  31  stood  at  1,312,205,0002.  This  year  it  was 
proposed  to  increase  the  revenue  by  raising  the  letter  post  to 
2d.  for  the  first  three  ounces  and  id,  for  each  additional  ounce  ; 
the  newspaper  post  to  Id.  for  six  ounces,  and  telegrams  to  Is. 
Later  on  postage  on  post  cards  would  be  raised  to  l^d.,  and 
telephone  charges  would  also  be  raised.  Increases  would  be 
made  in  Beceipt  and  Stamp  Duties.  The'  duty  per  proof  gallon 
of  spirits  would  be  increased  to  72$.  6d.  and  the  retail  price 
would  be  raised.  The  duty  on  beer  would  be  raised  by  30^. 
per  standard  barrel,  and  the  duty  on  wine  would  be  doubled, 
with  a  special  50  per  cent,  duty  on  imported  sparkUng  wines. 
The  duty  on  cigars  would  also  be  increased.  The  Excess  Profits 
Duty  would  be  raised  to  60  per  cent.  The  limit  of  exemption 
from  Super- tax  would  be  lowered  to  2,000Z.,  and  rates  payable 
under  the  graduated  scale  would  be  increased  up  to  6^.  in  the 
£.  on  an  income  above  30,0002.  The  Income  Tax  would  be 
readjusted ;  a  new  tax  would  be  imposed  of  1^.  in  the  £.  on 
Company  profits.  After  December  31  there  would  be  a  Licence 
Duty  on  motor  vehicles,  when  the  Petrol  Tax  would  be  abohshed. 
Finally,  he  said  that  the  Land  Values  Duties  were  to  be  re- 
pealed. 

The  estimated  revenue  and  expenditure  for  1920-21  were  as 
follows : — 

ESTIMATID  Rbvbnub,  1920-21. 

Compared  ttnth  the  Receipts  qf  1919-20. 

Estimate  for         Ezeheqner  Be- 
1920-21.  oeipta  1010-20. 

Cottonui £160,000,000  £149,860,000 

BzdM 198,650,000  188,608,000 

Motor  Vehicle  Duties 4,500  000  — 

Eitate,  eto.,  Daties 45,000,000  40.904.000 

Stampi 25,200,000  22,586,000 

Lftnd  Tax  and  House  Duty    -        .       .        .  2,500.000  2,640,000 

Ineoiue  Tax  (including  Super-tax)  -       -       -  885,800,000  859  099,000 

Bxoen  Prottts  Daty,  etc.        ....  220,000,0jO  290,045,000 

Oorporatiou  Frottts  Tax        ....  8,000,000  — 

Uud  Value  Dutiea 500,000  668,000 

Postal  Senrice 87,00  ),0U0  81,000,000 

Telegraph  Service 5,750,000  4.850,000 

Telephone  Seryioe 10,250,000  8,800,000 

Crown  Lands 650,000  680,000 

Baoeiptii  from  Sundry  Loans,  etc — 

Ordinary  ReceipU 744,000  1,004,000 

Spedal  ReceipU 8.756,000  13,948,000 

Minoellaneoua— 

Ordinary  Receipts 18,0(X),000  16,050  000 

Special  Receipts 802,000,000  264.779^000 

Total £1,418.800,000       £1,839,571.000 

BoROwings  to  meet  Expenditure  chargeable 

againrt  Capital £10,866,000  £4,828,000 


42]  ENGLISH  HI8T0EY. 

ESTDIATKD  EXFBNDITUBB,  1920-21. 

Ccmpared  vnth  the  lames  qf  1919-20. 

Estimate  for 

1920-21. 

Itiatioiial  Debt  Services  : — 

Inside  the  Fixed  Debt  Charge    •       -       -  £24,500,000 

Oataide  the  Fixed  Debt  Charge  -       -       -  820,500,000 

Road  Improvement  Fund      ....  6,650,000 

Payments  to  Local  Taxation  Accounts,  etc.    -  10,818,000 

Land  Settlement 12.000,000 

Other  Consolidated  Fund  Services  -       -  1,780,000 

Army 125,000,  )00 

Navy 84,872,000 

Air  Force 21,057,000 

Civil  Services 497,818,000 

Customs  and  Excise,  and  Inland  Revenue 

Deoartments 10,468,000 

Post  Office  Services 49,689,000 

Votes  of  Credit,  1918-19        ....  — 
Add,  Supplementary  Estimates  to  be  pre- 
sented       20,000.000 

£1,184,102,000 

Balance  available  for  Debt  Reduction       -         284,198,000 

Total £1,418,800,000 


tAPRiL 


Exchequer  Issue 
1919-20. 

£28,778,000 
308,261,000 

10,746,000 

3,477,000 

1,948,000 

395,000,000 

156,528,000 

52,500,000 

569,054,000 

9,422,000 
48,064,000 
87,000,000 


£1.665,778,000 


Expenditure  chargeable  against  Capital 


£10.866,000 


Final  Balangb  Shut,  1920-21. 
Aa  propoaed  by  the  OhaneeUcr  <^  the  Exchequer, 

Revenue. 

Customs £150,000.000 

Excise 198,650,000 

Motor  Vehicle  Duties 4.500,000 

Estate,  etc.,  Duties 45,000,000 

Stamps 25,200,000 

Land  Tax  and  House  Duty 2,500,000 

Income  Tax  (including  Super-tax) 885,800.000 

Excess  ProBts  Duty,  eta 220,000,003 

Corporation  Profits  Tax 8.000,000 

Land  Value  Duties 500,000 

Postal  Service 87.00U,000 

Telegraph  Service 5,750,000 

Telephone  Service 10.250,000 

Crown  Lands 650,000 

Receipts  from  Sundry  Loans,  etc. — 

Ordinary  Receipte 744,000 

Special  Receipts 8,766,000 

Miscellaneous — 

Ordinary  Receipts 18,000,0X 

Special  Receipts 802,000.000 

Total £1,418,800,000 

Borrowings  to  meet  Expenditure  chargeable  against  Capital  £10,866,000 

The  debate  on  the  Budg^et  was  carried  on  for  several  days 
up  to  nearly  the  end  of  April.  On  the  resolution  to  amend  the 
Customs  and  Excise  Duties,  Mr.  Asquith  urged  the  necessity  of 
cutting  down  public  expenditure.  Mr.  Clynes  feared  that  the 
proposed  taxation  would  intensify  the  efforts  of  the  workers 
to  make  wages  keep  pace  with  the  rise  in  prices.    Sir  Donald 


1990.]  Issue  of  Treasury  Btynds.  [48 

Maclean  declared  that  retrenchment  and  economy  were  the  best 
aids  towards  solving  the  financial  problem.  As  regards  the  Tea 
Tax,  Mr.  Chamberlain  pointed  out  that  it  affected  the  poor  more 
than  the  rich.  It  must,  however,  not  be  considered  by  itself 
but  in  conjunction  with  other  taxes  affecting  the  rich,  such 
as  Income  Tax  and  the  Super-tax.  Mr.  G.  Locker-Lampson 
moved  that  if  either  a  husband  or  a  wife  who  were  living  to- 
gether claimed  to  be  separately  assessed  for  Income  Tax,  neither 
should  pay  more  Income  Tax  than  if  they  were  unmarried. 
The  amendment  was  rejected,  however,  as  also  was  an  amend- 
ment moved  by  Sir  Frederick  Banbury  for  reducing  the  Excess 
Profits  Tax  from  60  per  cent,  to  40  per  cent. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  month  Mr.  Chamberlain  informed 
the  House  of  Commons  that  he  had  decided  to  offer  for  public 
subscription  a  new  form  of  Government  Bond,  the  entire  pro- 
ceeds of  which  would  be  available  for  reducing  the  floating  debt. 
The  sale  of  the  Bonds  was  to  be  open  to  the  public  on  and  after 
May  3.  They  were  fifteen-year  Treasury  Bonds  issued  at  par 
and  repayable  at  par  on  May  1,  1935,  but  both  Treasury  and 
holders  were  to  have  the  option  of  giving  one  year's  notice  in 
April,  1924,  or  in  any  subsequent  April  to  secure  repayment  at 
par  on  May  1,  1925,  or  on  any  subsequent  May  1.  The  Bonds 
were  to  carry  interest  at  the  minimnm  rate  of  5  per  cent.,  and 
wei%  also  to  carry  additional  interest  during  the  period  ending 
May  1,  1925,  according  to  a  scheme  dependent  on  the  average 
rate  of  discount  at  which  the  Treasury  fiills  were  issued  to  the 
public.  The  first  interest  payment  was  to  be  made  on  Novem- 
ber 1,  1920,  at  the  rate  of  3^  per  cent,  for  the  half  year,  and  it 
was  intended  that  Income  Tax  should  be  deducted  at  the  time 
of  payment. 

The  vote  for  the  Ministry  of  Agriculture  and  Fisheries  was 
moved  by  Sir  A.  Griffith-Boscawen  on  April  22.  He  pointed 
out  that  the  vote  asked  for  this  year  was  about  300,000Z.  less 
than  that  of  last  year,  and  would  have  been  still  less  if  the  duty 
on  Land  Settlement  had  not  been  put  upon  the  Ministry.  The 
vote  before  the  war  was  only  for  519,000/.,  but  had  now  risen 
to  4,528,8732.  On  research  alone,  where  in  1908-9  we  spent 
13,300/.,  in  1913-14  we  spent  73,750/.  Tobacco  growing,  cheese 
making,  and  sugar  beet  growing  were  all  being  pushed.  The 
training  scheme  for  ex-service  men  was  being  well  carried  out. 

On  April  29  Sir  B.  Home  moved  the  second  reading  of  the 
Profiteermg  (Amendment)  Bill,  the  object  of  which  was  to 
continue  the  operation  of  tJbe  Profiteering  Act  for  another  year. 
A  provision  was  inserted  in  the  new  Bill  with  a  view  to  obtain- 
ing the  help  of  trade  organisations  in  limiting  the  profits  to  be 
allowed  on  the  manufacture  and  distribution  of  particular 
classes  of  goods,  by  encouraging  them  to  submit  schemes  to  this 
end.  The  second  reading  was  carried  with  only  five  dis- 
sentients, and  the  Bill  was  then  referred  to  a  Standing  Com- 
mittee. 


44]  ENGLISH  HISTOEY.  tAmt 

Later  on  the  same  day  a  debate  ensued  on  the  San  Bemo 
Allied  Conference,  the  subject  being  raised  on  a  formal  motion 
for  the  adjournment  of  the  House.  Mr.  Lloyd  George  stated 
that  in  pursuance  of  a  decision  arrived  at  by  the  Allied  Confer- 
ence at  San  Bemo,  the  German  Government  had  been  informed 
that  as  soon  as  the  number  of  troops  in  the  £uhr  Valley  had 
been  reduced  to  the  proportions  permitted  by  the  Allies  by  the 
decision  of  August  8,  the  French  troops  would  be  withdrawn 
from  Frankfurt  and  Darmstadt.  It  had  been  made  clear  that 
we  proposed  to  act  with  the  other  Allies  in  the  enforcement  of 
the  conditions  of  the  treaty.  It  had  also  been  decided  to  hold 
a  conference  at  Spa  on  May  25,  at  which  German  Ministers 
would  be  invited  to  be  present,  to  discuss  the  question  of  dis- 
armament, reparation,  and  the  like.  They  would  be  expected 
to  come  prepared  with  definite  proposals  in  regard  to  the 
method  by  which  they  proposed  to  pay  and  the  annuity  which 
they  proposed  to  give.  The  mandate  for  Syria  had  been 
accorded  to  France;  that  for  Mesopotamia,  including  Mosul, 
and  that  for  Palestine  had  been  accorded  to  Great  Britain. 
We  were  to  guard  the  Straits,  France  would  protect  Cilicia,  and 
Italy  the  district  of  Adana.  America  had  been  asked  to  under- 
take the  mandate  for  Armenia,  or  if  they  did  not  see  their  way 
to  do  that  President  Wilson  was  asked  to  arbitrate  as  to  the 
boundaries  of  the  State.  The  decision  to  open  up  trade 
relations  with  Bussia  had  been  reaffirmed,  as  also  the  refusal  to 
receive  M.  Litvinoflf  in  this  country.  After  Mr.  Lloyd  George 
had  spoken,  Mr.  Asquith  expressed  alarm  at  the  extent  of  the 
mandates  which  we  had  undertaken,  and  Lord  Bobert  Cecil 
advocated  the  policy  of  assisting  to  set  up  an  Arab  Government 
in  Mesopotamia. 

The  need  for  regulating  Trade  Union  ballots  had,  for  some 
time  past,  become  evident,  and  on  April  22  the  second  reading 
of  a  Bill  for  this  purpose  was  moved  in  the  House  of  Commons 
by  Mr.  A.  Samuel,  who  explained  that  it  provided  that  on  any 
question  concerning  the  stoppage  of.  work  a  Trade  Union  might 
decide  to  take  a  ballot  vote  of  its  members,  conducted  with 
secrecy  under  rules  issued  by  a  Ballot  Begulation  Committee  to 
consist  of  seven  persons,  of  whom  four  would  be  Trade  Unionist 
leaders,  and  the  three  others  the  President  of  the  Board  of 
Trade,  the  Minister  of  Labour,  and  the  Begistrar  of  Friendly 
Societies  or  their  nominated  representatives.  The  expenses  of 
the  ballot  would  be  paid  out  of  the  vote  for  the  Ministry  of 
Labour.  After  a  number  of  Labour  members  had  spoken 
against  the  Bill,  Dr.  Macnamara  pointed  out  that  it  sought  to 
provide  machinery  by  which  the  free  and  unfettered  opinion  of 
the  men,  affected  by  any  proposed  strike,  could  be  obtained. 
An  amendment  for  the  rejection  was  defeated  by  a  majority  of 
6,  and  the  Bill  was  then  referred  to  a  Standing  Committee. 

The  state  of  affairs  in  Ireland  showed  no  improvement 
during  April.    At^fae  beginning  of  the  month  a  daring  robbery 


IWO.]  Outrages  in  Ireland.  [45 

was  reported  from  County  Limerick,  when  the  Paymaster's 
train  on  the  Great  Southern  and  Western  Bailway  was  held  up 
by  masked  and  armed  men  and  robbed  of  a  sum  exceeding 
2,0002.  The  train  consisted  of  a  small  engine  and  a  carriage 
fitted  up  as  a  Pay  Office.  It  left  Dublin  each  week  and 
travelled  over  the  entire  system,  paying  the  money  at  each 
station  en  route. 

April  5  was  the  fourth  anniversary  of  the  outbreak  of  the  ~ 
£aster  rebellion  of  1916,  and  the  anticipation  of  disturbances 
led  to  elaborate  preparations  by  the  military.     Dublin  became 
like  a  beleaguered  city  with  a  cordon  of  soldiers  drawn  all  round 
it,  while  through  the  streets  motor  lorries  were  seen  hunting 
to   and  fro  laden  with   troops  in  full  battle  equipment.     A 
system  of  toll-gates  was  established  in  the  outer  districts,  and^ 
all    traffic  was  stopped  by  soldiers — passengers  and  vehicles 
being  searched  for  arms.     In  some  places  even  barbed  wire 
entanglements  were  erected,  and  tanks  and  armoured  cars  were 
employed.     Numbers  of  private  houses  were  searched  by  police 
and  soldiers,  and  all  citizens  known  to  be  active  Sinn  Feiners 
found  it  necessary  to  sleep  each  night  in  different  places  to  avoid 
arrest  and  deportation  to  England.     On  April  4  a  number  of 
outrages  were  perpetrated   by   Sinn  Feiners  in  Belfast  and 
surrounding  counties.     An  attempt  was  made  to  set  on  fire  the 
Grand  Central  Hotel,  Belfast,  and  the  Income  Tax  offices  in  the 
Bank  of  Ireland  building.     The  Queen's  Bridge  Custom  House 
was  entered  and  documents  destroyed ;  wires  to  Dublin  and  the 
South  cut,   so    that  Belfast   was  isolated;    Dundalk   Inland 
Revenue  offices  set  on  fire,  and  a  considerable  number  of  police 
barracks  burned.     On  the  7th  an  attack  was  made  by  a  number 
of  men  on  a  police  barrack  in  County  Tipperary,  but  after  a 
fight  reinforcements  arrived  and  the  raiders  driven  off.     Day  by 
day  fresh  murders  of  poHce  were,  reported. ,  Meanwhile  the 
Government  were  further  embarrassed    by  a   hunger  strike 
which  took  place  among  the  Sinn  Fein  prisoners  in  Mountjoy 
Gaol.    Mr.  Bonar  Law  expressed  the  intention  of  the  Govern- 
ment of  resisting  the  strike  and  refusing  to  release  the  strikers,  as 
to  whose  fate  an  almost  fanatical  excitement  prevailed  through- 
out nationalist  Ireland.     So  great  was  the  excitement  that 
the  Government  ultimately  receded  from  their  attitude  and 
released  fifty-six  of  the  hunger  strikers  on  April  14  and  twenty- 
four  more  on  the  following  day.     It  was  stated  that  the  release 
was  not  to  be  unconditional^  but  that  certain  of  the  prisoners 
would  be  on  parole  for  specified  periods. 

The  inquest  which  was  held  upon  the  body  of  Mr.  MacCurtin 
was  concluded  on  April  18.  It  had  been  generally  anticipated 
that  the  coroner's  jury  at  Cork  would  find  a  verdict  of  wilful 
murder  against  the  police.  They  did  so  and  more  also,  for 
their  verdict  stated  that  the  late  Lord  Mayor  had  died  from 
shock  and  hsemorrhage  caused  by  bullet  wounds,  **  and  that  he 
was  wilfully  mmrdercKl  under  circumstances  of  the  most  callous 


^ 


/ 

/ 


46] 


ENGLISH  HISTOEY. 


[▲PBIL 


brutality,  and  that  the  murder  was  organised  and  carried  out 
V  by  the  Eoyal  Irish  Constabulary  officially  directed  by  the  British 
)  Government,  and  we  return,  a  verdict  of  wilful  murder  against 
y/^ David  Lloyd  George,  Prime  Minister  of  England,  Lord  French, 
/Lord-Lieutenant  of  Ireland,  Ian  Macpherson,  late  Chief  Secre- 
tary of  Ireland,"  and  a  number  of  officers  of  the  Koyal  Irish 
jConstabulary  mentioned  by  name. 

^^  On  April  20  the  Irish  Government  issued  a  statement  re- 
Tgarding  the  treatment  of  prisoners.  In  future  prisoners  arrested 
>nd  imprisoned  for  political  ofifences  were  to  be  tried  as  political 
"prisoners.  Their  places  of  confinement  and  treatment  would 
be  different  from  those  of  persons  imprisoned  for  ordinary 
criminal  ofifences.  Political  ofifences,  however,  were  not  to  in- 
clude homicide,  burglary,  riot,  unlawful  assembly,  etc.  The 
special  treatment  promised  was  to  be  conditional  on  an  orderly 
submission  to  the  rules  and  regulations  prescribed  for  such 
prisoners,  and  refusal  to  obey  them  might  mean  the  forfeiture 
of  the  amelioration  and  the  removal  to  a  dififerent  prison.  On 
the  26th,  and  again  on  the  28th,  the  adjournment  of  the 
House  of  Commons  was  moved  to  call  attention  to  the  state 
of  afifairs  in  Ireland.  On  the  26th  Lord  Bobert  Cecil  referred 
to  the  continuous  growth  of  crime  and  disorder  in  that,  un- 
fortunate country,  and  Colonel  W.  Guinness  declared  that 
unless  the  Government  secured  respect  for  the  law  in  Ireland 
the  Home  Bule  Bill,  if  passed,  would  be  a  dead  letter.  Mr. 
Bonar  Law  pointed  out  that  arrests  on  suspicion  were  absolutely 
necessary  in  the  present  position  of  afifairs  in  Ireland.  The 
conditions  prevailing  there  made  the  task  of  the  Government 
endeavouring  to  restore  law  and  order  a  very  difficult  one. 
On  the  28th  Mr.  T.  P.  O'Connor  drew  attention  to  the 
threatened  strike  of  Irish  workmen  at  the  Liverpool  Docks  and 
elsewhere  to  protest  against  the  treatment  of  Irish  political 
prisoners  at  Wormwood  Scrubs.  Mr.  Sexton  said  that  such 
a  strike  would  not  be  recognised  by  the  Trade  Union  to  which 
he  belonged,  and  Mr.  Shortt  explained  that  any  deported  man 
had  the  right  to  come  before  an  Advisory  Committee  in  this 
country,  but  he  added  that  the  Irish  prisoners  had  always 
refused  to  claim  this  right.  The  motion  for  the  adjournment 
was  then  defeated.  In  the  course  of  April  many  other  crimes 
were  perpetrated  in  addition  to  those  which  we  have  recorded. 
Murders  of  police,  robberies,  and  cattle-driving  went  on  con- 
tinuously. 

—  Labour  troubles  were  not  very  prominent  during  the  month 
of  April.  A  small  strike  occurred  towards  the  end  of  the  month 
among  the  shop  girls  and  male  assistants  of  Messrs.  John  Lewis 
&  Co.,  the  Oxford  Street  drapers.  It  appeared  that  the  Shop 
Assistants'  Union  had  claimed  for  these  employees  50  per  cent, 
advance  of  wages,  and  the  claim  had  been  rejected  by  the 
Industrial  Court  on  the  ^ound  that  Messrs.  Lewis  &  Co.  had 
agreed  to  adopt  the  mimmum  wage  scale  of  the  Union,  and 


\ 


19200  Strike  of  Drapers^  Assistants.  [47 

had  already  put  into  operation  the  terms  of  the  award  in  the 
case  of  the  Army  and  Navy  Stores  dispute.  Various  questions 
of  working  conditions  were,  however,  left  to  the  discretion  of 
the  firm,  who  openly  stated  their  determination  not  to  allow 
officials  of  the  Union  to  meddle  with  their  affairs.  Further, 
the  employers  were  accused  of  a  definite  breach  of  an  agreement 
made  in  February  and  signed  on  March  10.  The  Conciliation 
Department  of  the  Ministry  of  Labour  got  into  touch  with  the 
parties  in  dispute,  but  the  issues  were  too  serious  to  be  satis- 
factorily settled,  involving  as  they  did  questions  of  the  recog- 
nition of  a  Trade  Union  and  the  honoiiring  of  an  agreement. 
For  some  days  the  shop  was  closed,  but  the  strike  was  on  too 
small  a  scale  to  be  successful.  New  employees  were  soon 
engaged,  those  on  strike  were  definitely  dismissed,  and  the  dis- 
pute ended  in  a  complete  victory  for  the  employers. 

Far  more  serious  was  a  dispute  in  the  cotton  trade  which 
entered  upon  an  acute  stage  about  the  same  time.  It  was 
notorious  that  immense  profits  were  being  made  in  the  industry, 
and  large  claims  for  an  advance  of  wages  had  been  set  forward  on 
these  grounds.  The  weavers  demanded  60  per  cent,  advance 
on  current  wage  rates,  i.e.,  300  per  cent,  over  pre-war  rates.  The 
spinners  demanded  60  per  cent,  increase  on  present  earnings,  and 
the  card-room  operatives  75  per  cent.,  or,  in  other  words,  350  per 
cent,  over  pre-war  rates.  The  employers,  on  the  other  hand, 
offered  the  weavers  no  more  that  22-^  per  cent,  on  current  rates 
with  the  alternative  of  arbitration.  To  the  spinners  and  card- 
room  operatives  they  offered  only  arbitration  by  the  Govem- 
meiit.  The  result  of  a  ballot  taken  among  the  workers  on  the 
question  of  declaring  a  strike  was  announced  on  April  24. 
Overwhelming  majonties  were  recorded  for  a  strike  both  by 
the  spinners  and  card-room  workers.  The  Ministry  of  Labour, 
in  the  endeavour  to  end  the  dispute  peacefully,  arranged  a 
conference  between  the  Master  Spinners'  Federation  and  the 
operative  spinners  and  card-room  workers  on  April  29.  The 
parties  met  at  a  joint  meeting  under  the  presidency  of  Sir  David 
Shackleton,  but  after  a  discussion  lasting  two  days  the  negotia- 
tions came  to  an  abrupt  end.  There  seemed,  nevertheless,  to 
be  a  conciliatory  attitude  on  both  sides.  The  workers  amended 
their  claim  down  to  a  40  per  cent,  increase  for  spinners  and  a 
50  per  cent,  increase  for  card-room  workers.  The  employers 
made  a  counter-offer  which  was  calculated  to  be  equal  to  a 
12  per  cent,  addition  to  wages  and  a  4  per  cent,  bonus,  the 
bonus  to  cease  automatically  in  twelve  months.  The  workers, 
however,  objected  to  such  a  bonus,  and  then  asked  for  a  40  per 
cent,  increase  on  current  rates.  The  employers  replied  by 
merging  the  bonus  in  their  earlier  offer,  and  so  the  argument 
went  on  until  at  length  the  employers  were  offering  the  equiva- 
lent of  25  per  cent,  on  current  earnings,  and  the  employees 
were  claiming  35  per  cent.  In  view  of  these  large  concessions 
on  both  sides  it  W£^8  rei^lisod  that  it  ought  not  to  be  impossible 


48]  ENGLISH  HISTOET.  [may 

to  reach  an  ultimate  agreement.  Negotiations  were  quickly 
resumed  and  a  settlement  was  attained  on  May  7.  The  settle- 
ment gave  to  the  workers  an  addition  of  28-}  per  cent,  to  their 
current  earnings.  Certain  grades  of  workpeople  were  dealt  with 
separately  and  received  an  advance  of  only  22^  per  cent.,  but 
their  present  wages  were  so  much  higher  than  those  of  the 
weavers  that  the  smaller  percentage  represented  a  larger  actual 
increase.  The  increases  were  to  begin  at  once,  and  the  agree- 
ment was  to  remain  in  force  for  a  year. 

The  Central  (Eailway)  Wages  Board  met  at  St.  Pancras  on 
May  4  to  consider  the  appUcation  of  the  National  Union  of 
Bailwaymen  for  a  flat  rate  increase  of  1/.  a  week  for  all  men 
engaged  in  the  manipulation  of  traffic.  There  were  also  claims 
by  the  Associated  Society  of  Locomotive  Engineers  for  an 
increase  of  drivers'  wages  from  ISs.  6d.  to  11,  a  day ;  those  of 
firemen  from  ll^.  6d.  to  15^.,  and  of  cleaners  from  Is.  6d.  to  10s. 
The  Central  Wages  Board,  after  several  hours'  discussion,  failed 
to  reach  an  agreement,  and  decided  to  refer  the  question  to  the 
National  Wages  Board.  This  Board  met  on  May  17  under  the 
Chairmanship  of  Sir  William  Mackenzie,  the  Chairman  of  the 
Industrial  Court.  Two  points  were  then  clearly  brought 
out: — 

1.  That  women  and  boys  were  included  in  the  new  demand 
for  an  all-round  1/.  increase. 

2.  That  the  claim  was  based,  not  on  the  cost  of  living,  but 
on  the  right  of  railway  workers  to  an  improvement  in  their 
earnings  at  least  equal  to  that  secured  by  poUcemen,  dockers, 
miners,  and  for  other  sections  of  workpeople. 

It  was  estimated  that  if  the  demands  of  the  National  Union 
of  Bailwaymen  were  granted  in  full,  an  increase  of  at  least 
30,000,000Z.  would  be  involved  in  the  annual  wage  bill  of  the 
railways.  The  National  (Eailway)  Wages  Board  sat  for  several 
days  taking  evidence  on  the  subject.  Their  award  was  not 
announced  till  June,  when  we  shall  again  refer  to  it  (see  p.  56). 

Notwithstanding  the  schemes  adopted  by  the  Government, 
the  housing  difficulty  still  remained  as  acute  as  ever.  One  of 
the  chief  difficulties  to  be  contended  with  was  that  of  raising 
money  for  the  purpose  of  completing  houses  which  would  not 
pay  an  economic  rent.  On  May  3  an  important  meeting  was 
held  at  the  Guildhall  in  support  of  a  Housing  Bonds  scheme, 
inaugurated  in  the  endeavour  to  overcome  this  difficulty.  Mr. 
Lloyd  George,  who  was  to  have  been  the  chief  speaker,  was 
prevented  by  indisposition  from  attending,  but  he  wrote  a  letter 
to  the  Lord  Mayor  in  which  he  said  that  the  interests  of  public 
health  and  humanity  were  at  stake.  Adequate  housing  would 
ensure  happy  homes,  which  were  the  surest  guarantee  any 
country  could  provide  against  agitation  and  unrest.  Mr. 
Lloyd  George's  place  was  filled  by  Mr.  Bonar  Law,  who 
appealed  to  local  patriotism  to  make  the  scheme  a  success.  He 
said  that  if  every  effort  was  not  made  to  improve  the  condition 


1990.]  Housing  Bonds  Campaign.  [49 

of  the  people,  there  would  be  a  discontented,  sullen,  and, 
perhaps,  angry  nation,  and  that  this  would  be  fatal  to  trade, 
industry,  and  credit.  Schemefe  for  180,000  houses,  and  tenders 
for  over  100,000  had  been  finally  approved.  Work  was  in 
progress  on  30,000.  Progress,  however,  was  being  hindered  by 
want  of  financial  means,  and  he  appealed  to  local  authorities  to 
stimulate  local  patriotism  and  feeling.  The  clashing  of  interests 
between  the  demands  of  the  State  and  the  terms  for  local 
housing  was  more  apparent  than  real.  The  State  had  ceased 
to  borrow  money,  and  he  hoped  and  believed  that  in  his  lifetime 
at  least  the  State  would  never  be  a  borrower  again  for  State 
purposes.  The  issue  of  Bonds  for  funding  was  not  new  borrow- 
ing. He  would  prefer  a  fixed  rate  of  6  per  cent,  to  a  fluctuating 
interest  dependent  on  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  market.  A  Com- 
mittee had  been  set  up  to  prevent  localities  from  competing 
with  each  other.  Districts  unable  to  raise  all  the  money 
themselves  would  be  assisted  if  they  showed  that  they  had  done 
their  best.  Mr.  Bonar  Law  said  that  every  local  authority  with 
a  rateable  value  over  100,000Z.  should  issue  Housing  Bonds. 
He  was  not  afraid  of  revolutionaries,  but  there  was  nothing 
more  dangerous  than  continuance  without  effort  to  improve 
housing  conditions. 

Although  this  meeting  was  regarded  as  the  official  inaugura- 
tion of  the  campaign,  the  scheme  had  been  before  the  coimtry 
for  some  time,  and  local  authorities  in  many  parts  of  the 
kingdom  had  been  going  ahead  with  the  work.  The  Bonds 
were  issued  in  amounts  of  51,,  101. ,  201,,  501,,  1001, ,  and 
multiples  of  1001.  They  did  not  carry  more  than  6  per  cent, 
interest  and  were  repayable  at  par. 

The  subject  of  Imperial  Defence  was  raised  by  Lord 
Haldane  in  the  House  of  Lords  on  May  5.  He  called  attention 
to  the  subject  of  the  Committee  of  Imperial  Defence  and  its 
relation  to  the  war  staffs  of  the  Navy,  Army,  and  Air  Force,  and 
asked  for  information  as  to  general  policy.  Lord  Crewe 
expressed  opposition  to  the  creation  of  a  Ministry  of  Defence, 
and  of  a  common  staff  college.  Lord  Curzon,  on  behalf  of  the 
Government,  then  said  that  it  would  be  unwise  to  indicate  too 
definitely  a  formal  poUcy  with  regard  to  Imperial  Defence  until 
the  conference  on  the  future  relations  of  the  Mother  Country 
with  the  Dominions  had  taken  place. 

On  the  same  day  Mr.  Macpherson  moved  in  the  House  of 
Commons  the  second  reading  of  the  War  Pensions  Bill.  The 
object  of  this  Bill  was  to  hand  over  the  post-war  pensions  to 
the  Service  Departments.  The  Bill  defined  the  end  of  the  war 
as  July  31, 1920,  and  kept  alive  the  section  of  the  War  Pensions 
Act,  1919,  providing  for  advances  of  pensions  for  periods  not 
exceeding  six  months.  The  Bill  further  proposed  to  transfer 
to  the  Ministry  of  Pensions  wound-pensions  to  officers.  An 
amendment  for  the  rejection  of  the  Bill  was  negatived,  and  the 
second  reading  was  then  carried. 

D 


60]  ENGLISH  HISTOBY.  [hay 

Further  progress  was  made  by  the  House  of  Lords  with  the 
Matrimonial  Causes  Bill  during  May.  On  the  motion  of  Lord 
Sydenham  an  amendment  was  made  adding  to  the  grounds  for 
a  temporary  divorce  any  venereal  disease  in  a  communicable 
form.  Another  amendment  gave  power  to  the  Court  to  make 
a  maintenance  order  for  the  payment  to  the  applicant  of  a 
weekly  sum  without  any  limit  being  specified.  It  was  also 
agreed  that  any  unnatural  or  grossly  indecent  offence,  or  bigamy, 
should  be  treated  as  equivalent  to  adultery.  Lord  Askwith 
moved  an  amendment  giving  the  power  to  a  Court  of  Public 
Jurisdiction  to  try  cases  in  camera,  as  was  conferred  on  higher 
Courts,  and  this  was  agreed  to  after  some  discussion.  The 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury  then  moved  a  new  clause  providing 
that  the  marriage  of  a  person,  whose  previous  marriage  had 
been  dissolved  under  the  provisions  of  this  Act,  and  whose 
former  husband  or  wife  was  still  alive,  should  not  be  solem- 
nised in  any  church  or  chapel  of  the  Church  of  England.  The 
Bishop  of  Ely,  Lord  Selbome,  and  the  Archbishop  of  York 
supported  the  clause,  which,  however,  was  opposed  by  the  Lord 
Chancellor  and  Lord  Buckmaster,  and  was  negatived  by  a 
majority  of  1.  Lord  Phillimore  moved  an  amendment  which 
was  withdrawn  in  favour  of  another  amendment  moved  by  the 
Archbishop  of  York,  altering  the  words  of  the  clause  which  said 
that  a  minister  of  any  church  or  chapel  who  refused  to  act 
'*  shall"  permit  any  other  clergyman,  entitled  to  officiate  within 
the  diocese,  to  solemnise  the  marriage  in  the  church  or  chapel, 
to  ''may".  This  was  agreed  to,  as  also  was  a  new  clause 
giving  a  retrospective  effect  to  the  Act. 

The  vote  for  the  Ministry  of  Food  gave  Mr.  McCurdy  the 
opportunity  of  making  a  statement  on  the  general  position.  He 
stated  that  the  world's  supply  of  sugar  was  down  by  about 
3,500,000  tons,  and  that  the  price  in  America  was  more  than 
nine  times  the  pre-war  price.  During  the  next  twelve  months 
we  were  faced  with  reduced  world  crops  of  wheat;  in  India, 
however,  there  was  an  increase  of  something  like  1,500,000  tons, 
although  little  of  it  would  be  available  for  export.  Mr.  Clynes 
then  expressed  his  conviction  that  it  was  still  necessary  to 
maintain  a  fidly  equipped  Ministry  of  Food,  and  after  some 
further  discussion  the  vote  was  earned. 

The  discussions  following  the  Budget  announcement  turned 
very  largely  upon  the  Excess  Profits  Duty  and  the  alternative 
suggestions  of  a  levy  xifcn  war  wealth  or  a  flat  rate  tax  on 
profits.  Mr.  Chamberlain  had  estimated  that  a  flat  rate  tax 
on  profits  of  7«.  6(2.  in  the  £  would  be  needed  to  produce  the 
amount  that  would  be  obtained  from  the  60  per  cent.  Excess 
Profits  Duty.  Many  members  of  Parliament,  who  had  looked 
into  the  statistics,  however,  argued  that  the  case  could  be  met 
by  a  flat  rate  of  about  Ss.  in  the  £.  This  calculation  was  based 
on  the  Treasury  estimate  that  Excess  Profits  Duty  at  60  per 
cent,  would  produce  300,000,0001.  in  a  full  year,  and  the  Corpo- 


1920.]  The  Finafice  BiU.  [61 

ration  Tax  35,000,000Z.  On  May  6  the  Federation  of  British 
Industries  referred  the  question  to  their  Taxation  Committee, 
who  asked  for  further  time  to  consider  the  question.  They 
pressed  for  removal  of  the  worst  features  of  the  Excess  Profits 
Duty,  and  urged  the  need  of  Government  economy.  Mr. 
Chamberlain  subsequently  explained  that  whereas  7^.  &d,  was 
the  flat  rate  tax  which  would  be  required  if  it  were  confined  to 
businesses  now  paying  Excess  Profits  Duty,  it  would  be  only 
5s.  Get.  if  extended  to  all  the  other  businesses  included  within 
the  scope  of  the  Excess  Profits  Duty,  but  not  actually  pa3ring 
that  duty  because  they  were  not  malong  excess  profits. 

The  Finance  Bill,  which  was  introduced  shortly  afterwards, 
fixed  the  New  Corporation  Profits  Tax  at  5  per  cent,  on  profits 
arising  in  an  accounting  period  ending  after  December  31, 
1919.  No  tax  was  to  be  charged  on  the  first  5002.  of  profits 
where  the  accounting  period  was  a  year ;  where  it  was  less  than 
a  year  this  sum  was  proportionately  reduced.  The  amount  of 
tax  payable  was  in  no  case  to  exceed  10  per  cent,  of  the  balance 
of  the  profits  after  deducting  interest  or  dividends  paid  at  a 
fixed  rate  on  debentures,  debenture  stock,  or  preference  shares, 
or  permanent  loan  issued  before  April  20,  1920.  The  second 
reading  of  the  Finance  Bill  was  taken  on  May  11,  and  the 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  pointed  out  that  through  the 
Finance  Committee  the  expenditure  of  particular  Departments 
had  been  examined.  A  total  figure  had  been  given  to  the 
Navy,  Army,  and  Air  Force,  to  which  they  had  been  invited  to 
work.  These  inquiries  into  expenditure  were  continuing,  and 
a  revival  of  the  estimates  would  be  made  in  the  light  of  the 
present  conditions  of  national  finance.  The  debate  on  the 
second  reading  lasted  over  two  days.  Mr.  G.  Terrell  contended 
that  the  Excess  Profits  Duty  was  a  hindrance  to  the  develop- 
ment and  progress  of  British  industries.  Sir  J.  Butcher  argued 
that  the  Corporation  Tax  was  in  substance  a  kind  of  Income 
Tax  on  ordinary  shareholders.  At  the  end  of  the  discussion  a 
motion  by  Mr.  Bottomley  for  the  rejection  was  withdrawn,  and 
the  second  reading  was  agreed  to. 

Among  other  Bills  considered  by  the  House  of  Commons 
during  May  was  one  for  the  amendment  of  the  bastardy  laws, 
the  second  reading  of  which  was  moved  by  Mr.  N.  Chamberlain 
on  May  7.  He  explained  that  under  the  Bill  when  the  birth 
of  an  illegitimate  child  was  registered,  the  name  of  the  alleged 
father  must  be  filled  in  upon  a  form  to  be  sent  to  the  registrar. 
If  the  alleged  father  was  willing  to  make  provision  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  child  the  offer  would  go  before  two  Justices 
who  might  make  an  order  confirming  it.  If  a  man  denied 
paternity  the  collecting  officer  would  have  to  apply  for  an  order 
under  Section  4  of  the  1872  Bastardy  Amendment  Act.  The 
Bill  increased  the  limit  of  the  sum  contributed  by  the  father 
from  10$.  to  40«.  It  also  provided  that  the  person  having 
care  of  a  bastard  under  sixteen  years  of  age  should  send  his  full 

PS 


52]  ENGLISH  HISTOEY.  [mat 

name  and  postal  address  to  the  Clerk  of  the  Justices,  and  that 
all  bastards  under  sixteen  should  be  Wards  of  the  Juvenile  Courts. 
The  Bill  further  provided  for  legitimation  by  the  subsequent 
marriage  of  the  child's  parents. 

The  Bill  was  supported  by  the  Labour  Party,  but  opposed 
by  Mr.  Shortt  on  behalf  of  the  Government  on  the  ground  that 
it  did  practically  nothing  to  benefit  the  child,  and  that  many  of 
the  provisions  would  be  harmful  to  it ;  the  second  reading  was 
carried,  however,  by  a  large  majority,  and  the  Bill  then  referred 
to  a  Standing  Committee. 

The  anticipated  increase  in  the  price  of  coal  took  place  on 
May  12.  Sir  B.  Home  stated  in  the  House  of  Commons  that 
the  necessity  for  an  increase  would  have  arisen  apart  from  the 
recent  wage  advance  to  miners,  but  the  wage  advance  increased 
the  cost  of  production  by  about  2s,  lOd.  per  ton,  and  the 
increase  necessary  to  place  the  price  on  an  economic  basis  wais 
made  greater  by  that  amount.  The  Government,  he  stated, 
thought  it  essential  that  the  present  system  of  controlling 
inland  distribution  should  be  altered  as  soon  as  possible,  and 
this  could  only  be  done  if  the  artificial  differentiation  between 
the  prices  of  household  and  industrial  coal  were  removed.  The 
maximum  price  of  industrial  coal  was  raised  by  4s.  2d,  per  ton, 
and  that  of  household  coal  by  14^.  2d, 

The  increase  in  the  price  of  coal  was  the  subject  of  a  debate 
in  the  House  of  Commons  on  May  12,  when  Mr.  Brace  moved 
the  adjournment  to  call  attention  to  the  failure  of  the  Govern- 
ment to  differentiate  between  household  and  industrial  coal  in 
the  proposed  increase  in  price.  Mr.  Holmes  declared  that  the 
Government  were  only  contributing  to  the  chase  of  wages  after 
prices.  After  some  further  discussion  Sir  E.  Home  explained 
that  the  Government  aimed  at  getting  rid  of  the  control  of  the 
distribution  of  coal,  and  this  could  be  accomphshed  with  less 
damage  to  the  community  during  the  summer  than  during  the 
winter.  Upon  coal  supplied  to  domestic  consumers  during  the 
past  winter  there  had  been  a  deficit  of  lis.  4d,  To  that  must 
now  be  added  the  cost  of  the  advance  of  wages  which  had 
recently  been  made,  bringing  the  deficit  up  to  14«.  2d,  per 
ton. 

The  Profiteering  (Amendment)  Bill  passed  into  law  during 
May.  Jn  the  House  of  Commons  Sir  H.  Nield  moved  a  new 
clause  to  provide  that  particulars  of  any  secret  process  of 
preparation,  or  of  the  ingredients  used  in  proprietary  articles, 
should  not  be  required,  but  that  the  Board  of  Trade  might 
require  an  accountant's  certificate  of  the  cost  of  any  such 
article  exclusive  of  overhead  charges.  The  new  clause  was 
agreed  to  after  an  amendment  to  it  moved  by  Lieut.-Com- 
mander  Eenworthy  had  been  negatived,  and  words  had  been 
inserted  on  the  motion  of  Sir  B.  Home  to  provide  that  the 
accountant  should  be  approved  by  the  Board  of  Trade  and  his 
report  verified  by  statutory  declaration.     Sir  B.  Home  later 


19900  Profiteering  (Amendment)  Bill,  [53 

moved  the  addition  of  a  sub-section  giving  the  Board  of  Trade 
power  to  exempt  certain  classes  of  goods  from,  any  general 
investigation  under  sub-section  1  of  the  principal  Act.  The 
amendment  was  carried,  and  the  Bill  was  read  a  third  time 
and  passed.  Certain  amendments  introduced  by  the  House  of 
liords  were  afterwards  agreed  to,  and  the  royal  assent  was 
given  on  May  20. 

On  the  motion  for  the  Whitsuntide  adjournment,  Sir 
Donald  Maclean  urged  the  Government  to  give  a  much  more 
full  and  complete  statement  of  what  had  -happened  at  the 
recent  conference  at  Lympne  than  had  hitherto  appeared  in  the 
Press.  Mr.  Bonar  Law,  in  reply,  said  that  the  decisions  arrived 
at  were :  that  the  disarmament  of  Germany  should  be  pressed 
forward,  and  the  suffering  and  economic  ruin  resulting  from  the 
war  should  not  be  borne  by  the  nations  who  did  not  cause  it. 
Of  the  money  paid  by  Germany  France  would  receive  111.  for 
every  5Z.  received  by  this  country. 

The  text  of  the  new  Bent  Bestriction  Bill  was  issued 
towards  the  end  of  May.  It  provided  for  various  increases  in 
rent  dependent  upon  the  expenditure  incurred  by  the  landlord 
in  the  maintenance  or  improvement  of  the  dwelling  house,  and 
also  upon  the  increase  in  rates  which  he  was  called  upon  to  pay. 
The  Bill  further  permitted  an  increase  of  15  per  cent,  of  the 
net  rent  under  certain  circumstances.  It  provided  also  for  the 
abolition  of  the  payment  of  premiums  which  had  been  coming 
into  general  use  since  the  starting  of  the  original  Bent  Bestric- 
tion Act.  The  discussion  of  the  new  Bill  in  the  House  of 
Conamons  came  on  during  June. 

Jijittle  change-tQok-placfiJn-the  state  of  Ireland  during  May. 
The  Home  Eule  Bill  was  in  Committee  of  the  House  of 
Commoiis.ihlrougliout  themonfE/  The  .first  important  amend- 
ment to.be  maved.was  one. by  Mr.  Asquith,  having  for  its  object 
to  set  up  in  Ireland  a  single  Parliament  and  a  single  executive. 
'  At  the  same  time  itgave  ticriile  -separate  Counties  (if  they  were 
so  minded)  an  opportunity  of  withdrawing  themaehres  ior  the 
time  beiujg^irom.  the  jufisdiction.  of  that  Authority^  and  remain- 
ifig  represented  and  governed  hj  the  Imperial  Parliament.  Mr. 
Bonar  Law  declared  thf^t  the^gbjftct  of  this  country  was  to  give 
Ireland  the  largest,  measure  of  seTf-govefniH^gnt^which  could  be 

flyen  compatible  with  our  pledges  and  with  national  safety. 
ir  Edward  Carson  described  thfe  amendment  as  a' most 
impracticable  proposition,  since  it  involved  another  six  years 
passing  before  Ulster  would  know  where  they  stood.  The 
amendment  was  negatived  by  a  majority  of  204.  Lieut.- 
CDlonel  Guinness  "fKeii" .  moved"  another  amendment  to  provide 
thatinstead  of  the  proposed  Irish  Council  there  should  be  set 
upa  flingteSenate  ealled  the  Irish  Senate,  which  should  act  as 
a  Second  Chamber  1)0 th  for  the  Northern  and  Southern  Parlia- 
ments. Mr.  Long  said  that  the  Government  would  offer  no 
objection  to  "the  adoption  of  the  principle  of  a  Second  Chamber 


54]  ENGLISH  HISTORY.  [mi 

for  either  or  both  Parliaments,  and  the  amendment  waa  then 
negati^B*. 

On  May  17  Lieut. -Colonel  Sir  S.  Ho&re  moved  an  amend- 
ment providing  for  the  establishment  of  separate  Senates  for 
Northern  and  Southern  Parliaments  in  addition  to  their  re- 
spective Houses  of  Commons,     Mr,  I ^  '■' ■"--- 

ness  of  the  GovernmeQt  to  give  a  I 
Southern  and  Northern  Ireland,  and 
sion  the  amendment  was  withdrawn, 
moved  the  exclusion  of  Ulster  from  t 
was  supported  by  Sir  Edward  Carso] 
negatived  by  a  majority  of  124. 

On  May  19  Mr.  Marriott  moved 
withdrawn  in  favour  of  one  by  Sir  I 
provide  that  not  less  than  ten  of  tl 
Parliament  at  the  Council  should  be  i 
Parliaments.     This  amendment  was 

Mr.  Asquith,  speaking  at  Paislt 
criticised  the  Home  Rule  Bill.  He  s 
of  course,  be  restored  in  Ireland,  bi 
need  of  redeeming  and,  if  possible, 
crastination  of  the  last  two  years,  by  { 
legislation  to  the  very  sources  and  sp 
be  said,  should  be  placed,  to  all  int 
same  footing  as  the  great  Govemmen 
that  was  the  policy  of  a  far-sighted  ai 
proposal  which  had  now  been  ma 
paltering  compromise  unacceptable  e: 
minority.  If  ever  it  took  its  place  oi 
attempt  was  made  to  put  it  mto  pra 
block  the  avenue  to  Irish  unity.  Tl 
would  have  no  part  or  lot  in  offering 
their  just  demands. 

In  Ireland  it&elf  the  land  agitat 
make  rapid  headway.  At  the  beginr 
County  Clare,  bands  of  men"  enteri 
scattering  the  cattle  over  the  counti 
every  day  more  menacing,  and,  despi 
and-police,  cattle-driving  and  other  f 
constantly  occurring.  Grazing  lam 
stock,  fences  were  broken,  gates  and ' 
were  dug  on  the  land,  and  houses  wer 
On  May  3  one  policeman  was  mtird 
wounded  intraad""daylight  in  Coui 
policeman  in  Dublin  was  attacked 
^y  to  bifi  office  at  Dublin  Castle.  < 
made  upon  a  police  barrack  in  Coi 
making  use  of  rifle  fire  and  bombs, 
with  petrol  and  fired  it,  but  the  polii 
in,  when  they  retreated  to  the  yard  t 


54]  ENGLISH  HISTORY.  [mat 

for  either  or  both  Parliaments,  and  the  amendment  was  then 

On  May  17  Lieut. -Colonel  Sir  8.  Hoare  moved  an  amend- 
ment providing  for  the  establishment  of  separate  Senates  for 
Northern  and  Southern  Parliaments  in  addition  to  their  re- 
spective Houses  of  Commons.  Mr.  Long  expressed  the  willing- 
ness of  the  Government  to  give  a  Second  Chamber  to  both 
Southern  and  Northern  Ireland,  and  after  some  further  discus- 
sion the  amendment  was  withdrawn.  Lord  Bobert  Cecil  then 
moved  the  exclusion  of  Ulster  from  the  Bill.  The  amendment 
was  supported  by  Sir  Edward  Carson  and  Colonel  Ashley,  but 
negatived  by  a  majority  of  124. 

On  May  19  Mr.  Marriott  moved  an  amendment,  which  was 
withdrawn  in  favour  of  one  by  Sir  L.  Worthington -Evans,  to 
provide  that  not  less  than  ten  of  the  representatives  of  each 
Parliament  at  the  Council  should  be  members  of  their  respective 
Parliaments.     This  amendment  was  agreed  to. 

Mr.  Asquith,  speaking  at  Paisley  on  May  21,  vigorously 
criticised  the  Home  Bule  Bill.  He  said  that  social  order  must, 
of  course,  be  restored  in  Ireland,  but  not  less  urgent  was  the 
need  of  redeeming  and,  if  possible,  atoning  for  the  fatal  pro- 
/j  crastination  of  the  last  two  years,  by  going  down  in  our  proposed 
legislation  to  the  very  sources  and  springs  of  disorder.  Ireland, 
he  said,  should  be  placed,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  on  the 
same  footing  as  the  great  Government  Dominions  of  the  Crown ; 
that  was  the  policy  of  a  far-sighted  and  liberal  statesman.  The 
proposal  which  had  now  been  made  to  the  country  was  a 
paltering  compromise  unacceptable  either  to  the  majority  or  the 
minority.  If  ever  it  took  its  place  on  the  Statute  Book,  and  an 
attempt  was  made  to  put  it  into  practical  application,  it  would 
block  the  avenue  to  Irish  unity.  The  Liberal  Party,  he  said, 
would  have  no  part  or  lot  in  offering  to  Ireland  a  mockery  for 
their  just  demands. 

In  Ireland  itself  the  .land  agitation  in^tbsi  West  began  to 
make  rapid  headway.  At  the  beginning  of  May  it  broke  out  in 
.  County  Clare,  bands  of  men"  entering  the  grazing  farrds  and 
scattering  the  cattle  over  the  country.  The  agitati^uij^ecame 
every  day  more  menacing,  and,  despite  the  presence  of  miBtilry 
and^olice,  cattle-driving  and  other  forms  of  intimidation  were 
constantly  occurring.  Grazing  lands  were  stripped  of  their 
stock,  fences  were  broken,  gates  and  walls  were  smashed,  graves 
were  dug  on  the  land,  and  houses  were  fired  into  by  large  parties. 
On  May  3  one  policeman  was  murdered  juid  two  others  "were 
wounded  iri~teoad~'dayIight  in  County  JS^erry.  On  the  8th  a 
policeman  in  Dublin  was  attacked  and  wounded  while  on' his 
Way  to  his  office  at  Dublin  Castle.  On  the  same  day  a  raid  was 
made  upon  a  police  barrack  in  County  Armagh,  the  raiders 
making  use  of  rifle  fire  and  bombs.  They  sprayed  Ihe1)arrack8 
with  petrol  and  fired  it,  but  the  poUce  held  on  till  the  roof  fell 
in,  when  they  retreated  to  the  yard  and  continued  their  defence 


1920.]  Crime  in  Ireland.  [55 

until  the  attackers  gave  up  the  fight.  On  the  following  day 
Cloynfi  poUce  barracks  in  County  Cork  wereturnt  to  the  ground 
hyjk  crowJoTarmed  raiders;  the  mx  poiiceffienln_ charge  were 
obliged  to  surrender  after  one  of  their  numher  had  been  wounded. 
On  the  10th  news  was  received  of  the  murder  of  four  more  Irish 
policemen,  and  on  the  11th  tWO.pDlicemeji  were  killed  and  one 
was  wounded  at  Cork.  On  May  12jtn  organised  burning  of 
unoccupied  police15arracks  was  carried  out  in  County  Diublin 
artd--Bome^ther^rts  .of  Trpiland  Five  bairacMlS^eLAestr  oy  ed 
in  County  Dublm  alone*  During"  ffie-  second  week  of  May 
ninety  vacated  police  barracks  in  all  were  destroyed  by  fire  or 
explosive^  obviously  as  the  result  of  a  deliberate  policy  to  pre- 
ygnt"  thnir  rn  ofionrfttiop.  In  the  meanwhile  4he  Sifar-Fein 
movomont  wa&  «fa?»Qgthening  its  grasp  on  the  country.  .  Its 
Courts  had  ousted  the  King's  Writ  from  many  counties  in  the 
Sout;&iuid>W«st^MKllt8  tebunals  were  admimstexing  a  sort  of 
rough  justice.  It  arrested  persons  suspected  of  such  crimes  as 
house-breaking 'and  highway  robbery,  tried  them,  and  if  they 
were  found  guilty,  pimished  them  and  compelled  them  to  re- 
store the  stolen  property. 

On  May  15  a  murder  was  committed  in  broad  daylight  in 
the  streets  of  liimerick  euid  the  murderers  got  away.     This  time 
the  victim  was  a  well-known  Sinn  Feiner  of  the  town.     On  the 
same  day  fierce  rioting  occurred  m  Londonderry  which  lasted 
nearly  four  hours.    It^^an  with  an  oSroiy  hetween  small  parties 
of  Unionists  and  Sinn  Feiners,  revolver  shots  being  fired,  which 
w^  returned  by  the  police.     On  May  28  a  portion  of  the  rails 
on  the  Great  Southern  and  Western  Bailway  m  County  Limerick 
were  found  to  have  been  torn  up ;  the  telegraph  wires  had  been 
cut,  and  trees  thrown  across  several  roads.    Later  in  the  morn- 
ing it  was  reported  that  the  Kilmallock  police  barrack  had  been 
attacked  and  blown  up,  and  that  a  sergeant  and  a  constable  had 
been  killed.     On  the  same  day  an  engine  on  the  line  arriving  at 
Limerick  Junction  was  noticed  to  be  marked  with  blood,  and  a 
closer  examination  showed  that  what  appeared  to  be  a  human 
heart  had  been  impaled  on  the  iron  wheel-guard  in  front  of  the 
engine.    Many  other  murders  and  crimes  of  all  descriptions  oc- 
curred throughout  Ireland  during  May.  ^ 
Discussions  tgok  place  in  both  Houses  of  Parliament -on  the 
coaditi<in  of  that  xui£)rtunate.  country.    In  the  House  of  Lords 
the  subject  was  raised  by  Lord  Askwith,  and  Lord  MacDonnell 
stated  that  Ireland  was  now  in  a  worse  condition  than  it  had 
been  within  living  memory.    Lord  Midleton  declared  that  the 
police  had  not  sufficient  assistance  when  attacked,  and  that 
a  large  detachment  of  soldiers  should  be  at  hand  to  protect 
them.    Oa.May_19  the  Lord  Chancellor,  in  reply  to  aj[ues- 
tion,  said  that  it  was  the  policy  of  the  Govenuxient  to.  employ 
the  whole  available  forces  and^  the  whole  resources  of  these 
Islands  in  order,  in  the  first  place,  to. restore  law  i^id  €»:der 
in  Ireland,  and  secondly,  to  render  impossible  the  campaign 


56]  ENGLISH  HISTOEY.  [may 

with  the  object  of  secession  which  wfl.fl  at  present  in  progress  in 
Ireland. 

'  Tn  the  House  of  Commons  attention  was  called  to  the  con- 
dition of  Ireland  by  Colonel  Ashley  on  May  20.  Sir  Edward 
Carson  declared  that  the  only  way  now  to  relieve  the  situation 
was  by  preventive  methods.  Mr.  Denis  Henry  said  that  the 
great  difficulty  with  which  the  Government  were  confronted  in 
Ireland  was  to  arouse  an  enlightened  public  opinion  on  the 
side  of  the  law,  and  it  was  only  possible  to  meet  the  condition  of 
affairs  that  existed  there  by  increasing  the  forces  at  their  disposal. 
A  remarkable  catastrophe  occurred  on  May  29  when  a 
sudden  flood,  caused  by  a  cloudburst,  swept  through  the 
Lincolnshire  town  of  Louth  creating  havoc  in  its  path.  The 
torrent  took  the  course  of  the  small  stream  known  as  the  Kiver 
Lud  which  runs  through  the  town  and  which  rose  15  feet  in 
half  an  hour.  Several  hundred  houses  were  seriously  damaged, 
their  doors  and  windows  broken  through,  their  floors  floated 
away,  and  in  many  cases  the  structure  materially  damaged. 
Twenty-one  persons  were  drowned,  and  at  the  inquest  on  their 
bodies  it  was  stated  that  during  a  storm,  which  lasted  two  and  a 
half  hours,  a  rainfall  of  4'7  inches  had  fallen.  The  stream,  which 
was  normally  1  yard  wide  and  1  foot  deep,  swelled  up  to  a 
width  of  52  yards  and  a  height  of  50  feet,  and  it  was  reckoned 
that  7,500,000  tons  of  water  passed  through  the  town.  A  relief 
fund  was  immediately  opened  by  the  Daily  Mail  to  meet  the 
needs  of  1,250  people  who  had  been  suddenly  bereft  of  homes, 
clothes,  and  food.  By  June  9,  15,000Z.  had  been  subscribed 
and  the  fund  was  then  closed. 

We  have  already  referred  to  the  demands  of  the  railwaymen 
for  an  increase  of  wages,  and  to  the  fact  that  these  demands 
had  been  referred  to  the  National  (Railway)  Wages  Board. 
The  demands  of  the  men  were  for  IL  per  week  increase  for  all 
members  covered  by  the  national  settlement.  The  award  of 
the  National  Wages  Board  was  annoimced  on  June  4.  They 
granted  general  advances  ranging  for  the  conciliation  grades 
from  Is,  6(2.  to  is,  a  week  in  London  and  industrial  areas,  and 
from  35.  6d,  to  2s,  in  rural  districts,  over  the  rates  now  in  force. 
In  the  course  of  their  report  the  Board  reviewed  the  changes 
in  rates  and  conditions  which  had  taken  place  since  the  outbreak 
of  war.  They  showed  that  the  average  advances  ranged  from 
122  per  cent,  for  drivers  to  197  per  cent,  for  passenger  porters, 
and  pointed  out  that  the  new  claims  were  not,  and  should  not 
be,  put  forward  on  the  ground  of  the  increase  which  had  taken 
place  in  the  cost  of  living.  They  discussed  the  estimates  and 
the  effect  on  railway  finances  of  conceding  the  claims  in  full, 
and  stated  that  unless  additional  revenue  was  secured  the 
present  claims  could  not  be  met  wholly,  or  even  substantially, 
without  involving  the  Companies  in  an  actual  net  loss.  The 
present  rate  of  profit  on  the  capital  invested  in  railway  under- 
takings (3'64  per  cent.)  was  indeed  modest  when  regard  was 


1990.]  Award  of  the  {Railway)  Wages  Board.  [57 

had  either  to  the  diminished  purchasing  power  of  money,  or  the 
rate  of  interest  attaching  to  new  investments,  and  the  Board 
expressed  the  opinion  that  even  apart  from  a  further  increase 
in  wages,  an  increase  in  railway  rates  and  fares  was  inevitable. 
Mr.  Thomas,  speaking  a  few  days  later,  expressed  the  view  that 
the  increase  of  wages  awarded  by  the  Board  was  the  maximum 
amount,  not  only  that  could  be  obtained  now,  but  the  maximum 
obtainable  at  any  time.  The  London  Council  of  the  London 
Union  of  Bailwaymen  had  decided  to  reject  the  award,  but  the 
alternative,  said  Mr.  Thomas,  was  inevitably  a  national  railway 
strike  which  would  ruin  their  own  cause. 

The  Ministry  of  Transport  announced  in  the  middle  of  June 
that  the  Cabinet  had  accepted  the  report  of  the  National  Wages 
Board,  and  accordingly  the  Bailway  Companies  were  directed 
to  give  effect  to  the  mcreases  proposed  in  that  report.  One 
qualification  of  the  report  the  Cabinet  insisted  on,  namely,  that 
if  forthcoming  increases  of  railway  rates  and  charges,  consequent 
in  large  measure  on  the  increased  cost  of  labour,  did  not  produce 
additional  revenue  it  would  be  impossible  that  the  present  level 
of  wages  could  be  maintained.  The  Cabinet  decided  also  to 
extend  to  Lreland  in  principle  the  findings  of  the  Board,  and 
to  increase  the  wages  of  Lrish  railways  on  similar  percentages 
to  those  given  in  Great  Britain.  Ultimately  the  award  was 
unreservedly  accepted  by  the  men. 

At  the  beginnmg  of  June  the  House  of  Commons  was  more 
than  once  occupied  with  the  problem  of  Bussia.  On  the  3rd 
Mr.  Lloyd  George  stated,  in  reply  to  questions,  that  an  under- 
taking to  release  British  prisoners  was  an  indispensable  condition 
before  the  renewal  of  commercial  relations  with  Bussia.  The 
decision  to  permit  trade  with  Bussia,  he  said,  was  arrived  at  by 
the  meeting  of  the  Supreme  Council  held  in  Paris  on  January 
16,  and  was  reaffirmed  at  a  further  meeting  of  the  Supreme 
Council  held  in  London  on  February  24.  At  San  Bemo  on 
April  26  the  Supreme  Council  decided  to  authorise  repre- 
sentatives of  the  allied  Governments  to  meet  M.  Erassin  and 
the  Bussian  Trade  Delegation,  then  at  Copenhagen  (with  the 
exception  of  M.  Litvinoff),  in  London  at  the  earliest  date  with 
a  view  to  the  immediate  restarting  of  trade  relations.  M. 
Krassin  was  acting  in  the  name  of  and  xmder  the  authority  of 
the  Soviet  Government.  After  the  British  Government  had 
satisfactorily  settled  with  the  Delegation  the  question  relating 
to  British  prisoners,  and  had  received  a  guarantee  that  there 
would  be  no  tampering  with  British  interests  in  the  East,  the 
negotiations  would  be  conducted  by  representatives  of  the 
French  and  Italian  Governments  who  were  here,  and  were  pre- 
pared to  proceed  with  them. 

A  few  days  later  Colonel  Gretton  moved  the  adjournment  of 
the  House  in  order  to  call  attention  to  the  negotiations  be- 
tween the  British  Government  and  the  Soviet  Government  of 
Russia.    Mr,  J.  H.  Thomas  declared  that  the  Labour  Party  had 


58]  ENGLISH  HISTORY.  [jtjn« 

welcomed  the  negotiations  because  they  would  tend  to  bring  about 
immediate  peace.  Mr.  Lloyd  George  said  that  the  decision  to 
trade  with  Bussia  was  taken  by  all  the  Allies.  He  added  that 
before  the  war  Russia  produced  25  per  cent,  of  the  imported 
food  of  Europe.  There  was  plenty  of  grain,  timber,  and  flax 
there  now  for  export,  and  it  was  badly  needed  by  Europe. 

Parliament  was  again  occupied  with  foreign  affairs  on  June 
16,  when  the  Nauru  Island  Agreement  Bill  was  under  discussion. 
Colonel  Wilson,  who  moved  the  second  reading,  explained  that 
the  administration  of  Nauru  would  be  conducted  under  the  joint 
control  of  three  Governments,  namely,  the  British  Government 
in  London  and  the  Governments  of  Australia  and  New  Zealand. 
The  Pacific  Phosphate  Company  was  to  be  bought  out  for 
3,500,000Z.,  of  which  our  share  would  be  1,486,380Z.  Lord 
Robert  Cecil  and  Mr.  Asquith  declared  that  the  mandate  for  the 
Island  should  not  have  been  granted  by  the  alUed  and  associated 
Powers  but  by  the  League  of  Nations.  Mr.  Bonar  Law  replied 
that  the  passing  of  the  Bill  would  in  no  way  prevent  the  League 
of  Nations  from  confirming  or  objecting  to  the  mandate.  After 
the  second  reading  had  been  agreed  to  the  Bill  was  referred  to 
a  Standing  Committee.  It  ultimately  passed  into  law  and  re- 
ceived the  royal  assent  on  August  4. 

The  vote  on  account  for  Army  Services  on  June  23  was 
chiefly  utilised  for  a  debate  on  the  subject  of  Mesopotamia. 
Mr.  Asquith  advocated  concentration  of  our  forces  within  the 
vilayet  of  Basra,  and  he  moved  the  reduction  of  the  vote  by 
1,000,000Z.  Mr.  Ormsby-Gore  thought  that  the  only  way  to 
reduce  our  expenditure  on  Mesopotamia  was  by  establishing 
such  political  conditions  as  would  enable  the  country  to  become 
self-supporting  in  the  near  future.  After  some  other  speeches 
Mr.  Lloyd  George  pointed  out  that  under  the  Sykes-Picot 
Agreement  we  were  responsible  for  the  vilayet  of  Baghdad  as 
well  as  for  that  of  Basra.  The  whole  of  the  population  of 
Mosul  had  petitioned  the  British  Government  in  favour  of  the 
unity  of  Mosul  with  Baghdad  and  Basra.  The  civil  administra- 
tion out  there  was  paying  its  way.  As  for  the  large  force  we 
were  keeping  there  at  present,  it  would  gradually  be  decreased 
as  soon  as  we  had  set  up  the  Government.  The  reduction  of 
the  vote  was  then  negatived  by  a  majority  of  235.  A  few  days 
later  Mr.  Lloyd  George  stated,  in  reply  to  a  question  from  Mr. 
Kenyon,  that  the  ownership  of  the  oil  deposits  of  Mesopotamia 
would  be  secured  to  the  Arab  State  as  part  of  the  admimstrative 
arrangements  under  the  Treaty  and  Mandate. 

Interest  in  Mesopotamia  was  also  shown  in  the  House  of 
Lords,  where  Lord  Curzon,  in  reply  to  a  question  from  Lord 
Islington  on  June  25,  said  that  the  final  organic  law  to  be  set 
up  could  not  come  into  being  until  the  Treaty  of  Peace  with 
Turkey  had  been  signed.  The  number  of  officers  engaged  in 
the  civil  administration  was  424,  and  in  addition  there  was  an 
administrative  staff  composed  almost  entirely  of  natives  of  the 


IMOJ  The  Agriculture  Bid,  [59 

country.  There  were  at  present  stationed  in  Mesopotamia  and 
North-West  Persia  13,500  British  and  66,000  Indian  troops ; 
the  Boyal  Air  Force  and  personnel  there  consisted  of  1,023. 
The  provision  in  the  Army  estimates  was  23,500,0002.  It  was 
impossible,  added  Lord  Curzon,  to  quit  Mesopotamia  at  present. 
Lord  Sydenham  expressed  approval  of  the  Baghdad  proclama- 
tion, and  Lord  Goschen  insisted  that  Mosxd  could  not  be  treated 
separately  from  the  rest  of  the  country. 

On  the  vote  for  Diplomatic  and  Consular  Services  on  June 
17,  Mr.  Balfour  announced  that  a  Secretariat  at  present  settled 
in  London  had  been  appointed  for  the  League  of  Nations  by  the 
Secretary-General,  with  the  approval  of  the  Coxmcil  of  the 
League.  The  Secretary-General  himself  had  been  appointed 
at  the  general  Peace  Conference  in  Paris.  An  office  had  been 
established  for  the  registration  of  Treaties  so  that  they  might  be 
open  to  inspection  by  all  the  world.  Four  Advisory  Committees 
would  be  created,  and  one  of  these,  dealing  with  military,  naval, 
and  air  questions,  was  already  at  work.  The  other  three  Com- 
mittees would  deal  with  questions  of  health,  transit,  and  justice. 
The  League  had  already  appointed  Commissions  to  delimit  the 
boundary  of  the  Saar  Valley,  and  an  international  body  to  govern 
that  district.  It  had  also  framed  a  constitution  for  Danzig, 
and  had  taken  steps  with  regard  to  such  matters  as  the  combat- 
ing of  typhus,  the  repatriation  of  prisoners,  and  the  protection 
of  Armenia. 

During  the  summer  a  Bill  entitled  the  Agriculture  Bill  was 
brought  m  to  amend  the  Com  Production  Act,  1917.  The 
second  reading  was  moved  by  Sir  A.  Griffith-Boscawen,  who 
explained  that  its  object  was  to  give  security  to  the  farmer  by 
means  of  guaranteed  prices,  security  to  the  labourer  by  ensuring 
him  a  living  wage,  and  security  to  the  State  by  providing  that 
land  should  be  so  cultivated  as  to  produce  a  maximum  amount 
of  food  for  the  people.  The  policy  of  guaranteed  prices  for 
wheat  and  oats  was  made  permanent  by  the  Bill,  and  the  year 
1919  was  made  the  standard  ^ear.  The  Boyal  Commission  was 
to  sit  every  year  to  fix  the  fair  guaranteed  price.  Compensation 
would  be  given  to  a  tenant  in  case  of  unreasonable  disturbance. 

The  debate  on  this  Bill  was  continued  for  two  days.  Mr. 
Acland  suggested  that  periodical  reports  should  be  required  on 
the  way  in  which  the  dififerent  authorities  were  carrying  out 
their  work.  Captain  Fitzroy  thought  that  owners  and  labourers 
were  not  sufficiently  considered  in  the  Bill.  Mr.  W.  Smith 
pointed  out  that  there  was  no  mention  in  the  Bill  of  agricultural 
education,  research,  transport,  and  co-operation.  Mr.  Cautley 
considered  that  the  price  of  wheat  should  vary  with  the  average 
minimum  wage.  Ultimately  Sir  A.  Griffith-Boscawen  moved 
the  closure  which  was  agreed  to  by  a  majority  of  148,  and  the 
second  reading  was  then  carried. 

The  financial  resolution  in  connexion  with  the  Bill  was 
moved  by  Sir  A,  Griffith-Boscawen  on  June  15.    He  explained 


60]  ENGLISH  HISTORY.  [ju»e 

that  there  would  be  no  payments  whatever  made  in  the  current 
financial  year.  The  payment  of  the  Commissioners  would  cost 
about  2,000Z.  a  year.  The  Government  had  decided,  he  said, 
that  in  1921  the  control  price  of  IOO5.  a  quarter  of  home  grown 
wheat  should  be  taken  off,  leaving  the  farmer  free  to  sell  at  the 
price  (including  insurance  and  freight)  at  which  foreign  wheat 
could  be  sold  in  this  country. 

Further  discussion  took  place  during  June  in  the  House  of 
Lords  on  the  Matrimonial  Causes  Bill.  On  the  8th  an  amend- 
ment was  moved  by  Lord  Finlay,  which  would  have  resulted  in 
the  omission  of  the  paragraph  providing  that  where  a  wife  asks 
for  a  judicial  separation  the  husband  may  claim  a  divorce,  but 
after  some  discussion  the  amendment  was  negatived  by  a 
majority  of  10.  A  proviso  was  added,  however,  that  before 
granting  a  decree  nisi  for  divorce  the  applicant  could  have  his 
or  her  application  for  judicial  separation  dismissed.  The  third 
reading  was  moved  on  June  22,  and  was  opposed  by  Lord 
Braye.  Lord  Halifax  declared  that  a  law  which  came  to  them 
on  a  Christian  foundation  stood  on  a  much  higher  sanction  than 
any  law  which  was  merely  the  result  of  votes.  The  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  Lord  Selbome,  and  Lord  Finlay  spoke  against 
the  Bill.  The  Lord  Chancellor  replied,  and  the  motion  for 
rejection  was  negatived  by  a  majority  of  47.  The  third  reading 
was  then  carried. 

The  question  of  a  special  taxation  on  war  wealth  was  raised 
by  the  Labour  Party  on  June  7  and  8.  On  the  7th  the 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  announced,  in  reply  to  a 
question  from  Mr.  Clynes,  that  the  Government,  after  full  con- 
sideration of  the  report  of  the  Select  Committee  and  of  the 
advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  suggested  scheme  for  a 
levy  on  war  wealth,  had  decided  against  its  adoption. 

Next  day  Mr.  Clynes  moved  a  resolution  regretting  the 
decision  of  the  Government  not  to  impose  special  taxation 
**  upon  fortunes  made  as  a  result  of  the  national  emergency," 
and  declaring  that  further  measures  should  be  adopted  for  raising 
revenue  from  accumulated  wealth  to  meet  the  present  financial 
burden,  and  to  assist  in  liquefying  the  national  debt.  Mr. 
Chamberlain  said  that  the  Committee  had  dismissed  the  first 
scheme  laid  before  them  as  impracticable,  but  they  had  said 
that  a  second  scheme  for  raising  a  lesser  sum  was  workable  on 
a  number  of  conditions.  They  had  also  shown  that  it  would 
be  impossible  to  restrict  the  contemplated  tax  only  to  those 
who  had  made  money  directly  out  of  the  war,  and  that  as  an 
expedient  for  reducing  the  floating  debt  a  war  levy  was 
practically  of  no  use.  It  was  therefore  judged  better  to  con- 
tinue the  Excess  Profits  Tax  than  to  institute  a  War  Wealth 
Levy  in  its  place.  Mr.  S.  Walsh  considered  that  the  imposition 
of  a  tax  on  war  wealth  was  the  one  great  method  of  reducing 
our  burden  of  debt.  Sir  P.  Banbury  was  opposed  to  a  War 
Wealth  Tax,  while  Sir  Donald  Maclean  believed  that  the  only 


1920.2  Bent  Bestriction  Bill.  [61 

alternative  to  the  proposed  tax  was  a  large  increase  in  the 
Excess  Profits  Tax.  After  further  debate  the  motion  was 
negatived  by  a  majority  of  163. 

The  report  stage  of  the  Shops  (Early  Closing)  Bill  was  taken 
by  the  House  of  Commons  on  June  18.  Major  Baird  moved  a 
new  clause  to  exempt  from  the  provisions  of  the  Act  shops 
which  carried  on  a  post  office  business  in  regard  to  that 
business,  to  such  an  extent  as  the  Postmaster-General  might 
direct.  After  a  short  debate  the  clause  was  agreed  to,  as  also 
was  a  new  clause  to  bring  boot-repairing  businesses  under  the 
operation  of  the  Bill.  Sir  F.  Banbury  moved  that  the  closing 
hour  for  shops  should  be  9  instead  of  7,  but  the  amendment 
was  rejected  by  a  majority  of  182.  An  amendment  moved 
by  Mr.  Inskip  to  provide  that  no  shop  assistants  should  be 
employed  in  a  shop  for  more  than  forty-eight  hours  in  any 
week  was  agreed  to,  as  also  was  one  moved  by  Major  Hamilton 
to  allow  a  shopkeeper,  who  usually  employed  an  assistant,  to 
continue  to  serve  customers  after  regulation  hours  without  the 
aid  of  the  assistant.  On  the  motion  of  Sir  F.  Banbury,  refresh- 
ments sold  on  railway  premises  for  consumption  on  the  trains 
were  added  to  the  exceptions  to  the  Bill.  He  was  engaged  in 
moving  another  amendment  when  the  Bill  was  adjourned; 
ultimately  it  was  dropped  altogether. 

The  second  reading  of  the  Bent  Bestriction  Bill  was  moved 
by  Dr.  Addison  on  June  4.  He  explained  that  the  object  of 
the  Bill  was  to  extend  for  a  period  of  three  years,  with  certain 
qualifications,  the  security  of  tenure  to  tenants  of  dwelling 
houses  which  had  been  obtained  for  them  under  existing 
statutes ;  to  raise  the  limits  of  the  rent  of  the  dwelling  houses 
to  which  the  Bill  would  apply  from  70Z.  in  the  metropoUtan 
area,  602.  in  Scotland,  and  52Z.  elsewhere,  to  1052.,  902.,  and  782. 
respectively;  to  provide  for  an  increase  of  rent  to  meet  the 
increase  of  the  mortgage  interest,  and  to  impose  a  fine  where  a 
premium  or  key  money  were  exacted,  and  where  extortionate 
sums  were  charged  for  furnished  rooms.  The  Bill  would  not 
apply  to  business  premises,  but  a  Select  Committee  would  be 
appointed  to  report  on  this  subject  with  a  view  to  subsequent 
legislation.  After  a  debate,  in  which  a  number  of  members 
took  part,  the  closure  was  moved  by  Dr.  Addison  and  carried 
by  a  majority  of  116.  The  amendment  was  negatived  and  the 
Bill  read  a  second  time  and  referred  to  a  Standing  Committee. 

Various  amendments  were  added  during  the  report  stage  on 
June  21.  Mr.  Hood  moved  that  a  landlord  responsible  for  the 
repairs  of  a  house  mi^ht  raise  the  rent  by  an  amount  not 
exceeding  20  per  cent,  mstead  of  25  per  cent.,  but  the  amend- 
ment was  rejected,  as  also  was  one  moved  by  Major  Henderson 
to  entitle  to  compensation  a  tenant  who  voluntarily  made 
repairs  for  which  the  landlord  was  liable.  On  the  motion  of 
the  Lord  Advocate  an  amendment  was  agreed  to  which  would 
permit  a  landlord  to  transfer  liability  for  the  rates  to  the 


62]  ENGLISH  HISTORY.  ['"»« 

tenant,  who  would  pay  them  and  deduct  the  amount  from  the 
rent.  Dr.  Addison  then  moved  the  insertion  of  a  new  sub- 
section to  allow  recovery  of  possession  by  a  landlord  to  put  in 
an  occupant  who  was  working  on  an  agricultural  holding.  Mr. 
Turton  moved  that  a  certificate  of  the  County  Agricultural 
Committee  should  not  be  necessary  in  this  case.  Dr.  Addison's 
amendment,  however,  was  agreed  to,  and  after  some  other 
amendments  had  been  added  the  Bill  was  read  a  third  time  and 
passed. 

In  the  House  of  Lords  the  second  reading  was  moved  by 
Lord  Astor  and  carried  on  June  24.  In  Committee  Lord  Aster 
moved  an  amendment  to  provide  that  where  the  tenant  had 
been  in  the  employment  of  the  landlord,  and  had  ceased  to  be 
in  that  employment,  a  recovery  of  the  dwelling  should  not  take 
place  otherwise  than  in  consequence  of  a  strike  or  lockout. 
The  amendment  was  negatived  by  a  majority  of  21.  Lord 
Salisbury  moved  an  amendment  to  provide  that  instead  of  the 
15  per  cent,  increase  in  rent  authorised  by  the  Bill  in  the  case 
of  dwelling  houses,  the  increase  in  the  case  of  business  premises 
should  be  50  per  cent. ;  so  that,  when  added  to  the  increased 
charges  in  respect  of  repairs,  it  would  amount  to  75  per  cent. 
Lord  Astor  objected  to  the  amendment  which  was  thereupon 
withdrawn.  On  the  report  stage  an  amendment  was  added  on 
the  motion  of  Lord  Balfour  dealing  with  dwelling  houses  let 
by  a  Bailway  Company  to  persons  in  the  employment  of  the 
Company.  Another  amendment  was  agreed  to  on  the  motion 
of  Lord  Salisbury,  the  effect  of  which  was  to  allow  an  increase 
of  60  per  cent,  on  the  net  rent  and  40  per  cent,  on  the  standard 
rent.  Some  of  these  amendments  were  adopted  and  some 
rejected  by  the  House  of  Commons,  and  the  Bill  received  the 
royal  assent  on  July  2. 

The  Act  as  finally  amended  and  passed  was  a  somewhat 
complicated  measure,  its  chief  provisions  being  as  follows:  In 
the  case  of  a  dwelling  house  within  the  present  Umits  of  pro- 
tection, i.e.,  702.  rental  in  London,  601.  m  Scotland,  and  522. 
elsewhere,  the  landlord  was  entitled  to  an  increase  of  rent  (a) 
immediately  of  30  per  cent,  of  the  rent,  exclusive  of  rates,  at 
which  the  house  was  let  on  August  3,  1914,  equivalent  in  the 
average  case  to  about  22^  per  cent,  on  the  standard  rent  where 
the  landlord  pays  the  rates ;  (b)  at  the  end  of  twelve  months 
of  a  further  10  per  cent.,  making  40  per  cent,  in  all,  equivalent 
in  the  average  case  to  about  29  per  cent,  on  the  standard  rent 
where  the  landlord  pays  the  rates.  In  the  case  of  a  dwelling 
house  within  the  present  limits  of  protection,  a  mortgagee  would 
be  entitled  to  an  increase  of  mortgage  interest  of  i  per  cent, 
immediately  and  of  a  further  i  per  cent,  at  the  end  of  twelve 
months,  subject  to  a  maximum  rate  of  6^  per  cent.  In  the 
case  of  a  dwelling  house  between  702.  and  1052.  rental  in  London, 
602.  and  902.  in  Scotland,  and  522.  and  782.  elsewhere,  which 
was  now  brought  for  the  first  time  within  the  limits  of  protec- 


1920.]  Restriction  of  Bent  Act.  [63 

tion,  the  permitted  increase  of  rent  (40  per  cent.)  and  of 
mortgage  interest  (1  per  cent.)  would  take  effect  at  once  and 
not  in  two  stages.  The  permitted  increase  of  rent  was  to  be 
conditional  upon  the  execution  of  repairs  by  the  landlord,  and 
the  County  Court  would  have  power  to  suspend  payment  of 
the  increase  of  rent  if  the  repairs  were  not  executed  within  a 
limited  period. 

Within  the  extended  limits  of  protection  a  tenant  obtained 
security  against  ejectment,  subject  to  certain  qualifications, 
until  June  24,  1923,  at  which  date  the  Act  ceased  to  be 
operative.  Where  a  landlord  required  possession  of  a  house 
for  his  own  occupation  or  for  that  of  an  employee  or  tenant 
it  was  provided  that  he  should  find  alternative  accommodation 
for  the  tenant  reasonably  equivalent  as  regards  rent  and  suit- 
ability in  all  respects.  The  Act  imposed  for  the  first  time 
restrictions  on  the  increase  of  rent  of  business  premises,  the 
rent  limits  being  the  same  as  for  dwelling  houses,  but  the 
protection  limited  to  one  year.  It  was  made  a  statutory  offence 
for  a  person  to  require  any  payment  or  to  give  any  consideration 
as  a  condition  of  the  grant  for  renewal  or  continuance  of  a 
tenancy  to  any  dwelling  house  to  which  the  Act  applied.  As 
regards  furnished  houses,  the  Act  provided  that  if  it  was  proved 
to  the  satisfaction  of  the  Court  that  the  rent  being  charged 
was  yielding,  or  would  yield,  a  profit  of  more  than  25  per 
cent,  in  excess  of  the  sum  which  might  have  been  reasonably 
expected  from  a  similar  letting  in  1914,  the  Court  might  order 
that  such  excess  of  rent  should  be  irrecoverable,  and  that  any 
amount  which  might  have  been  paid  should  be  repaid  to  the 
lessee* 

The  vote  for  the  Ministry  of  Transport  was  taken  on  June 
24,  and  was  marked  by  an  announcement  from  Sir  Eric  Geddes 
that  the  State  did  not  intend  to  take  over  the  railways.  Mr. 
Asquith  complained  that  the  staff  of  the  Ministry  of  Transport 
were  more  highly  paid  than  the  rest  of  the  Civil  Service,  but 
Mr.  Bonar  Law  pointed  out  that  the  appointments  of  the 
staff  of  this  Ministry  were  in  most  cases  temporary  and  that 
they  received  no  pensions,  the  work  being  such  as  to  require 
expert  knowledge. 

At  the  end  of  the  month  Mr.  Bridgeman  moved  the  second 
reading  of  the  Overseas  Trade  Bill,  the  object  of  which,  as 
he  described  it,  was  to  give  to  the  shattered  countries  of  Europe 
a  credit  of  three  years,  by  the  end  of  which  time  they  mi^ht 
hope  to  find  the  Exchange  improved.  For  this  year  provision 
had  been  made  in  the  estimates  for  2,000,000Z.  out  of  the 
26,000,0002.  which  the  Government  were  prepared  to  advance. 
The  Bill  was  read  a  second  time  on  June  29  and  referred  to 
a  Standing  Committee.  It  passed  its  third  reading  on  July 
30  and  received  the  royal  assent  on  August  9. 

The  last  Bill  to  be  dealt  with  by  the  House  of  Commons 
in  June  was   the  Mining  Industry  Bill,  providing   for  the 


64]  ENGLISH  HISTOBY.  [tohb 

establishment  of  a  Ministry  of  Mines,  the  regulation  of  coal 
mines,  and  for  general  matters  such  as  the  establishment  of 
a  fund  for  the  improvement  of  the  social  conditions  of  colliery 
workers.  Clause  1  authorised  EEis  Majesty  to  appoint  a 
Minister  of  Mines  who,  by  virtue  of  his  office,  shoidd  be  an 
additional  ParUamentary  Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Trade. 
Clause  2  defined  the  duties  of  the  new  Minister.  Clause  3 
authorised  the  Minister  to  regulate  the  export  of  coal  and 
supply  of  coal  for  the  bunkering  of  vessels,  and  also  to  regulate 
the  pit-head  price  to  be  charged  for  coal  sold  for  consumption 
in  the  British  Isles  and  for  bunkers.  The  Minister  was  also 
empowered  to  regulate  the  wages  of  workers  in  coal  mines 
and  the  distribution  of  profits.  Clause  4  dealt  with  the 
appointment  of  Advisory  Committees.  The  salary  of  the 
Minister  of  Mines  was  to  be  2,000Z.  a  year. 

The  second  reading  of  the  Bill  was  moved  by  Sir  B.  Home 
on  June  30.  He  explained  that  as  the  necessity  for  controlling 
the  export  of  coal  still  continued,  and  as  the  Acts  under  which 
such  control  was  now  exercised  would  shortly  expire,  it  had 
been  necessary  to  bring  in  this  Bill  to  establish  a  Ministry 
of  Mines  with  power  to  regulate  pit-head  prices,  the  amount 
of  export,  the  rate  of  wages  and  other  matters  relating  to  the 
coal  industry.  The  only  additional  cost  involved  by  this 
Ministry  would  be  the  Minister's  salary  of  2,000Z.  a  year,  and 
that  of  the  immediate  headquarters'  staff  that  he  required.  A 
Committee  composed  of  representatives  of  both  employers  and 
workers,  of  representatives  of  other  trades  including  consumers, 
and  of  techmcal  experts,  would  advise  the  Minister,  and  pit 
and  district  committees  would  deal  with  matters  relating  to 
the  welfare  of  the  men,  while  Area  Boards  under  a  National 
Board  would  deal  with  matters  relating  to  wages. 

The  second  reading  was  opposed  by  Mr.  Brace,  and  also 
by  Sir  C.  Cory,  who  declared  that  under  the  Bill  the  coal 
owners  would  have  all  the  risks  while  the  control  was  taken 
out  of  their  hands.  Mr.  S.  Walsh  said  that  the  Bill  threw 
the  great  national  industry  of  coal  mining  back  into  the  hands 
of  private  owners.  Mr.  Hartshorn  asserted  that  it  would  add 
to  the  price  of  inland  coal  and  therefore  to  the  general  cost 
of  Uving.  A  majority  of  126  was,  however,  secured  for  the 
second  reading,  and  the  Bill  was  then  referred  to  a  Standing 
Committee. 

The  Irish  Home  Bule  Bill  was  debated  in  Committee  of 
the  House  of  Commons  throughout  June.  Amendments  were 
moved  to  give  the  two  Irish  Parliaments  control  of  the  Navy, 
Army,  and  Air  Force,  and  to  give  them  power  to  le^slate  wi^ 
respect  to  commercial  treaties  or  relations  with  foreign  States, 
but  these  were  negatived.  An  amendment  was  carried,  on  the 
motion  of  Sir  Edward  Carson,  fixing  the  seats  of  the  Govern- 
ment of  Southern  and  Nor&em  Ireland  at  Dublin  and  Belfast 
respectively,  or  at  such  places  as  the  two  Parliaments  might 

/ 


IMOJ  Oovernment  of  Ireland  Bill.  [66 

respectively  determine.    Another  amendment  was  moved  by 
Mr.  Stewart  with  the  object  of  preventing  the  transfer  of  the 
Boyal  Irish  Constabulary  and  Diiblin  Metropolitan  Police  from 
the  control  of  the  Imperial  Parliament  earlier  than  three  years 
after  the  "  appointed  day."     Sir  Edward  Carson  suggested  that 
at  the  appointed  day  under  the  Bill  the  constabulary  should  be 
disbanded  so  that  the  Irish  Parliaments  could  re-establish  them 
under   a  police  scheme  of   their  own  if   they  chose.      This 
suggestion  was  supported  by  Sir  Donald  Maclean,  Lord  Hugh 
Cecil,  and  Lord  Winterton.     Mr.  Long  then  said  that  the 
Gk)vemment  were  prepared  to  accept  the  amendment  of  Mr. 
Stewart  and  to  consider  the  suggestion  of  Sir  Edward  Carson ; 
the  amendment  was  accordingly  agreed  to.     A  long  debate 
ensued  on  another  amendment  moved  by  Sir  Edward  Carson 
to  omit  the  sub-section  which  gave  powers  to  the  Council  of 
Ireland  in  relation  to  railways.    Mr.  A.  Neal  explained  that 
this  sub-section  made  the  Council  the  legislative  authority  for 
mlways  in  Ireland,  subject  to  the  more  general  powers  reserved 
to  the  Impenal  Parliament.    Eventually  the  amendment  was 
defeated  Jby  a  majority  of  190.     On  the  motion'bfTTnTnnel  W. 
Guinnesfl  it-waa  next  agreed,  ihat  the  powerajsixex:  Jsheries  in 
Ireland  should  be  transferred  to  the  Council  of  Ix«land  instead 
of  to  the  Parliaments  of  the  Noxth.and.South.i:espectively.    It 
was  also  agreed  that  the  Council  should  have  power  to  make, 
laws  with  regard   to  fisheries.     Mr.    Long   then  moved  an    , 
amendment  to  provide  that  nothing  ihltee  Bill"8houl5^revent  / 
the  Parliament  of  Southern  Ireland  or  of  Northern  Ireland  ^ 
from  making  laws  authorising  the  construction  or  extension  of  \^ 
railways  when  the  works  to  be  constructed  would  be  situated 
wholly  in  one  of  the  two  areas.     This  was  agreed  to.    Another   . 
Government  amendment  was  carried  to  provide  that  the  transac- 
tions of  the  Council  during  the  period  when  there  would  be  two    J 
separate  Parliaments,  should  be  paid  for  out  of  the  consolidated  -^ 
fufi^s  flf-SouthfiCtL^?d^or^em  Ireland  respectively. 

On  June  22  Sir  S.  Hoare^moved  {hat  after  the  union  of  the 
two  Irish  Parliaments  Irish  representation  at  Westminster 
should  cease.  The  amendment,  however,  was  negatived  by  a 
majority  of  194.  On  the  motion  of  Colonel  Guinness  the 
number  of  Irish  members  in  the  House  of  Commons  was  fixed 
at  forty-six  instead  of  forty-two,  so  as  to  allow  of  four  representa- 
tives for  the  Irish  Universities.  On  June  28  Major  O'Neill 
moved  that  the  Irish  Insurance  Commissioners  should  have 
all  the  rights  as  to  pensions,  compensation,  etc.,  of  established 
Civil  Servants.  As  regards  Irish  Universities,  an  amendment 
moved  by  Sir  W.  Whitla  was  withdrawn  in  favour  of  one 
moved  by  Mr.  Fisher,  to  increase  the  annual  payment  to  the 
Queen's  University,  Belfast,  to  26,000Z.  The  amendment  was 
carried.  Captain  W.  Benn  then  moved  the  omission  of  the 
sub-section  which  repealed  the  Act  of  1914.  Mr.  Lloyd  George 
said  that  the  Irish  were  impossible  in  their  present  mood,  but 

E 


66]  ENGLISH  HISTOBY.  [ir«» 

he  did  not  despair  of  their  accepting  in  the  end  the  only  measure 
of  self-government  which  the  people  of  this  country  could  con- 
cede. Sir  Edward  Carson  opposed  the  amendment,  and  after 
further  debate  the  closure,  moved  by  Sir  L.  Worthington-Evans, 
was  agreed  to  by  a  majority  of  159^  and  the  amendment  was 
negatived  by  a  majority  of  160.  This  terminated  the  Com- 
mittee stage. 

The  state  of  Ireland  during  June  cootinuncl  m  before.  On 
the  1st  of  the  month  a~®nng^^[d  was  carried  out  by  armed 
men  in  the  city  of  Dublin  durine  the  af temoon^  The  Registry 
of  Deeds  office^jbt-the  E^ing^sinns  in  BfenneTiTa  Street  was 
seized  and  the  nine  soldiers  who  were  on'tttity  there  were 
overpowered  and  their  arms  taken ^ireifl'  them.  The  raiders 
numbered  -between  90  and  100 ;  60  of  them  came  down  Con- 
stitution Hill  in  open  formation,  and  30  others  came  up 
Henrietta  Street.  They  were  accompanied  by  two  motor  cars. 
One  party  cut  the  telephone  wires  and  prevented  the  alarm 
being  given  to  Dubhn  Castle ;  a  rapid  but  thorough  search 
was  then  made  of  the  premises,  including  the  upper  rooms; 
the  Guard  were  relieved  of  their  arms,  ammunition,  and  ac- 
coutrements, and  it  was  stated  that  the  raiders  secured  13 
rifles,  500  rounds  of  ammunition,  a  Lewis  gun,  15  bayonets, 
and  other  equipment.  The  ^rma  anH  a.Tp]7^jjpii:iQn  were  carried 
out  and  placed  in  the  motor  cars  which  then  drove  quietly 
away.  No  one  was  injured  in-the  raid,  whict  lasted  only^i  few 
minutes,  and  no  shot  was  firedT ' 

The  same  night  attempts  were  made  to  capture  three  police 
barrackrTnr  Ireland,  but  in  aU  eaises  #he' police  repelleT  the 
attacks.  Tvro  barracks  in  King^s  Count^IourMen_iaiIe£apart, 
were  subjected  to  heavy  rifle ^i&reTor  several  hours.  The  usual 
precautions  were  taken  by  tlie^raidBrs,"and  in  one  case  a  part 
of  the  railway  line  was  pidled  up.  Much  damage  was  done  by 
bombs,  but  no  casualties  were  inflicted  among  the  police. 
Early  on  the  following  morning  other  barracks  were  attacked 
and  a  number  of  desperate  fights  took  place  between  the  police 
and  the  raiders.  On  June  4  .a  pohce  barrack  in  County  Tip- 
perary  was  attacked,  Jaut  the  ramers  were  cut  off  by  a  party 
of  soldiers  and  police  as  they  were  retiring,  and  one  of  them 
was  captured.  The  attack  on  the  barracks  was  carried  on  by 
means  of  rifle  fire  and  bombs.  The  police  replied  vigorously 
with  their  rifles  and  hand  grenades,  and  the  battle  continued 
for  three  hours  before  the  assailants  retreated. 

Meanwhile  fresh  difficulties  had  been  caused  by  the  refusal 
of  Irish  railwaymen  to  handle  munitions  in  Ireland.  On  June  3 
a  deputation  of  the  National  Union  of  Bailwaymen  was  received 
by  the  Prime  Minister  in  connexion  with  the  matter.  Mr. 
J.  H.  Thomas,  who  headed  the  deputation,  said  that  some 
hundreds  of  members  of  the  National  Union  of  Bailwaymen  in 
Ireland,  without  the  knowledge  or  sanction  of  the  executive, 
had  refused  to  handle  munitions  because  they  felt  they  were 


1920.]  Strike  of  Irish  BaUwaymen.  [67 

called  on  to  do  sqmethipg  which  would  aid  a  war  against 
their  own  fellow-countrymen.'  TEe  executive  of  the  National 
Union  of  Railwaymen  felt  that  before  expressing  any  opinion 
it  was  wise  to  ascertain  from  the  Government  whether  there 
were  any  means  by  which  the  question  could  be  dealt  with. 
They  all  recognised  that  it  was  the  duty  of  the  Government 
to  protect  and  assist  those  who  were  called  on  to  discharge 
difficult  and  sometimes  very  unpleasant  duties.  There  was  a 
feeling,  however,  that  militarism  was  the  only  force  and  method 
that  was  now  employed  in  Ireland.  He  did  not  believe  that 
the  outrages  expressed  in  any  degree  the  feeling  of  the  great 
mass  of  Irishmen  towards  England.  The  Irish  railwaymen 
could  hardly  be  blamed  for  their  action.  Munitions  were  sent 
repeatedly  under  an  armed  guard,  and  the  railwaymen  had 
flouted  in  their  faces  every  day  one  method  and  policy  of 
dealing  with  the  Irish  problem.  Mr.  Thomas  expressed  his 
conviction  that  the  solution  of  the  Irish  problem  would  come 
from  the  industrial  rather  than  from  the  poUtical  arena. 

Mr.  Lloyd  George,  in  his  reply,  remarked  that  this  was  a 
case  in  which  Trade  Unionism  had  entered  an  entirely  new 
sphere,  which  he  regarded  as  a  serious  challenge  to  the  whole 
of  the  constitution  of  the  country.  It  sought  to  influence 
political  decisions,  not  by  the  ordinary  machinery  of  the  State, 
the  choosing  of  members  on  the  widest  franchise  we  had  ever 
had,  but  by  means  of  bringing  pressure  to  bear  through  a  threat 
of  disorganising  the  industries  of  the  country  to  effect  changes 
which,  up  to  the  present,  had  not  been  sanctioned  by  the 
electorate  of  the  country.  Mr.  Lloyd  George  pointed  out  that 
in  Ireland,  within  a  very  short  time,  there  had  been  48  murders 
of  police,  and  120  attempted  murders  had  failed.  The  men 
were  shot  down  in  the  street  leaving  wives  and  children  behind 
them,  although  they  were  simply  canning  out  their  elementary 
duty — the  preservation  of  order.  It  the  Government  sent 
across  revolvers  to  these  men  to  defend  their  lives,  a  Trade 
Union  said,  "We  will  stop  the  whole  traffic  of  Ireland  if 
necessary."  This  was  a  challenge  which  the  Government  was 
bound  to  take  up,  and  the  refusal  to  work  trains  carrying  troops 
had  put  a  very  serious  decision  on  to  the  Trade  Union.  He 
could  not  believe  that  the  National  Union  of  Bailwaymen 
would  embark  upon  a  very  serious  policy  of  that  kind  which 
the  Trade  Union  Congress  had  absolutely  refused  to  sanction. 

The  publication  of  this  statement  by  Mr.  Lloyd  George  led 
to  several  meetings  of  the  men  and  of  the  strike  committee,  in 
which  an  inclination  was  shown  to  recede  from  the  position 
which  they  had  taken  up.  On  June  8  the  Executive  of  the 
Irish  Labour  Party  and  Trades  Union  Congress  discussed  the 
matter,  and  expressed  readiness  to  meet  the  Parliamentary 
Committee  of  the  British  Trades  Union  Congress.  Neverthe- 
less the  strike  continued.  At  Waterford  on  June  14  railwaymen 
in  charge  of  a  train  for  Kilkenny  refused  to  make  the  journey 

19 


68]  ENGLISH  HISTOKY.  t«iK« 

because  some  thirty  soldiers  proposed  to  travel  by  the  train. 
It  was  explained  that  they  carried  no  ammunition,  and  that 
they  had  been  without  food  for  a  considerable  time.  Finally 
fourteen  soldiers  who  had  no  rifles  were  allowed  to  travel,  while 
sixteen  who  had  rifles  went  to  the  local  barracks.  Incidents  of 
this  kind  were  of  almost  daily  occurrence  during  the  middle  of 
June  and  very  seriously  embarrassed  the  actions  of  the  Govern- 
ment. 

On  June  16  and  17  a  conference  was  held  of  the  Executive  of 
the  National  Union  of  Bailwaymen  with  representatives  of  the 
Irish  branches  of  the  Union  on  the  situation  in  Ireland.  After 
some  discussion  a  Joint  Committee,  consisting  of  members  of 
the  Executive  and  delegates  from  the  North  as  well  as  the  South 
of  Ireland,  was  appointed  to  form  a  declaration  of  policy.  The 
Committee  produced  three  resolutions  which  were  submitted  to 
the  full  conference,  and  eventually  adopted  unanimously.  The 
first  resolution  endorsed  the  action  of  the  Executive  in  calling 
the  conference  in  order  that  labour  might  have  an  opportimity 
of  expressing  its  opinion,  and  if  possible  finding  a  solution  of 
the  whole  Irish  problem.  The  second  resolution  expressed  the 
conviction  that  the  present  murders  and  outrages  in  Ireland 
were  the  inevitable  result  of  the  failure  of  the  Government  to 
govern  Ireland  in  accordance  with  the  wishes  of  the  people.  It 
condemned  the  outrages  and  appealed  to  the  Irish  people  them- 
selves to  take  steps  to  protect  human  life  and  property,  and  it 
appealed  also  to  the  Government  to  prevent  provocation  by  the 
sending  of  munitions  to  Ireland.  The  third  resolution  recjuested 
Mr.  Thomas  to  arrange  an  interview  with  the  Prime  Minister, 
and  appoint  a  deputation  composed  of  North  and  South  Ireland 
delegates  to  explain  to  the  Government  the  serious  situation 
now  existing  in  Ireland,  and  if  possible  to  make  proposals 
which  would  enable  a  real  and  permanent  solution  to  be 
found. 

Mr.  Thomas,  with  members  of  the  Executive  of  the  National 
Union  of  Bailwaymen,  and  delegates  from  the  Irish  railways, 
accordingly  interviewed  the  Prime  Minister  on  the  following 
day.  They  proposed  that  the  Government  should  cease  to  send 
further  troops  and  munitions  to  Ireland,  in  return  for  which  the 
men  would  make  an  appeal  collectively  and  individually  to  the 
Irish  people  to  put  down  the  crimes  of  violence  and  outrage  of 
every  sort  and  kind,  and  that  in  the  interval  of  this  truce  the 
British  and  Irish  Trade  Union  Congresses  should  meet  to  con- 
sider the  position.  They  also  asked  that  the  Government  should 
meet  the  executive  of  the  Irish  Trade  Union  Congress  and  the 
Parliamentary  Committee  of  the  English  Congress,  and  discuss 
with  them  the  whole  future  of  Ireland,  with  a  view  to  finding  a 
permanent  solution  of  the  problem.  Mr,  Iiloyd  George  replied, 
however,  that  he  could  not  agree-^-discontinue  jthe  sending 
of  troops  or  munitions  to  Ireland^  though  ^-^^  Go^fi^^*^"^ 
were  prepared  to  do  everything  in  their  power  to  prevent 


i 


199a]  Bioting  m  Londonderry.  [69 

provocation.  He  declared  that  he  was  ready  to  meet  anybody 
representing  Irish  political  thought,  Including  representatives  of 
the  Sinn  Fein  organisation,  but  further  than  this  he  could  not 
go.  He  said  that"if  there  were  any  further  refusal  on  lire  part 
of  transport  workers  to  carry  troops  or  nnmitionB;  ft  was  the 
intentionof  &e  Govemment  to  close  the  Irish  railways. 

Notwithstanding  this  pronouncement  the  outlook  became  in- 
creasingly grave^  _EaiIwaymen  still  refused  fo  handle  TOtcaildOns 
orianihtatft  the  movement  ot  troops  or  police,  and'it  be'^an  to 
appear  ^€bt  -e^  genial  «kdke  iir  lock-Dut. would  be  inevitable. 

Mr.  -J H.  Thomas,  >apeaking  at  Scarborou^  on  June  20, 

dcaBcrlbfld  the  aituation  as  very  dangerous,  ^e  said  that  the 
Insh  railwaymen  were  determined  not  to  give  way  whatsoever, 
might  be  the  consequences,  and  urged  that  if  the  English  and 
Irish    Trade  Union  movement    could    bring  a  solution,   the\ 
Government  ought  to  hold  their  hand  and  give  them  a  chancy 
to  see  what  they,  could  do. 

At  this  moment  feeling  in  Ulster  was  still  further  embittered 
by  a  renewal  of  serious  rioting  in  Londonderiy  where  six  men 
were  killed  and  many  injured  in  street  fighting  on  June  19. 
Apparently  a  band  of  Nationalists  had  besieged  a  Club  and 
demanded  the  surrender  of  a  Unionist  inside ;  when  this  was 
refused  the  shooting  began.  The  crowd  soon  got  out  of  hand 
and  began  firing  through  windows  and  smashing  in  shop  fronts, 
not  hesitating  even  at  arson.  The  rioting  continued  through- 
out the  night  and  only  subsided  with  the  exhaustion  of  the 
rioters  in  the  morning.  There  was  a  recrudescence  on  June 
21  when  firing  again  occurred  in  the  morning,  and  minor^ 
encounters  took_pl9.c^  m  various  parts  of  the  town. 

^^iiother~desperate  attempt  on  the  life  of  a  high  official  was 
made  in  the  streets  of  Dublin  on  the  morning  of  June  22.  The 
victim  was  Assistant  Inspector-General  Roberts  of  the  Boyal 
Irish  Constabulary  who,  though"  wounded,  had  with  his  escort 
of  poHce  a-wonderfuT"  escscpe  from  the  l&ullets  and  bombs  of 
a  Targe  party  of  assailants.  Mr.  Roberts  was  in  a  motor  with 
several  policemen  when  a  party  of  men  suddenly  appeared  and 
opened  fire  upon  him  with  their  revolvers.  The  occupants  of 
the  car  immediately  returned  the  fire,  and  the  shooting  was 
continuous  as  long  as  the  car  remained  in  view.  Mr.  Roberts 
was  shot  in  the  head  in  the  first  volley  and  he  fell  against  the 
chauffeur,  who,  although  shot  through  both  legs,  maintained 
his  position  at  the  wheel  and  kept  the  car  moving.  Two  bombs 
were  thrown  at  the  same  time  but  apparently  did  no  damage.    - 

As-a.  result. p£.ihe  rioting  in  Londonderry,  a  proclamation 
was  issued  requiring  all  citizens  to  remain  indoors  between 
II  o*dgek-AL  night-jind '5"in  the,  morning,  unless  provided 
inlET  a  permit.  A  considerable  force,  of  troops  was  -%eni  to 
tfift  r*if,y  wif.>i  4k.4dew.to  preventing  further  disturba.nce.  Ac- 
cording to  an  official  police  statement  the  total  number  of 
deaths  was  seventeen,  while  twenty-seven  persons  were  woupded 


( 


/  ai 


70]  ENGLISH  HISTOBT.  [Jin« 

and  at  least  nine  others  were  known  to  be  hurt.  It  was  believed, 
however,  that  many  of  the  casualties  were  concealed,  and  the 
actual  list  of  killed  and  wounded  was  alleged  to  be  larger  than 
ythat  stated.  Notwithstanding  the  reassurances  of  the  military 
(authorities  normal  business  was  not  restored  in  Londonderry 
for  some  days,  and  occasional  sniping  shots  and  warning  volleys 
/were  heard  at  night. 

As  regards  the  railways,  the  situation  gradually  became 
w^rse.  Men  who  refused  to  work  the  trains  were  dismissed, 
with  the  result  that  the  number  of  trains  run  became  fewer 
and  fewer.  One  town  after  another  became  isolated,  but  the 
\men  remained  in  their  determination  not  to  work  trains  canying 
munitions,   police,  or  soldiers.     Whenever  soldiers  or  police 

y  attempted  to  travel  by  train  the  train  remained  in  the  station, 

'  and  no  threats  of  dismissal  could  induce  the  men  to  start  it. 
By  the  end  of  June  a  strike  existed  in  everything  but  name. 
There  was  an  accumulation  of  individual  and  scattered  stop- 
pages which  amounted  to  a  paralysis  of  the  whole  railway 
system. 

An  outrage  of    extraordinary  daring  was    committed    at 

^"^Castletownroche,  County  Cork,  during  the  night  of  June  26- 
27.  Brigadier-General  Lucas  and  Colonels  Danford  and  Tyrrell 
of  the  Clonmel  military  area,  had  rented  a  fishing  on  the 
Blackwater,  and  occupied  a  tent  near  the  river  about  4  miles 

/  from  Fermoy.  Suddenly  a  band  of  armed  and  disguised  men 
surrounded  the  tent,  and  rushing  m  placed  revolvers  to  the 
heads  of  the  officers  who,  being  unarmed  and  taken  by  surprise, 
were  arrested  in  the  name  of  the  Irish  Eepublic.  The  raiders, 
who  had  arrived  in  two  motor  cars,  took  possession  of  General 
Lucas's  car  and  set  off  with  their  prisoners  in  the  direction  of 
Cork.  Soon  afterwards  Colonel  Danford  attempted  to  escape. 
He  jumped  out  of  the  car  but  was  fired  upon  by  the  Bepublicans 

.  and  fell  prostrate  with  serious  wounds  in  the  head  and  shoulder. 

'   The  raiders  then  liberated  Colonel  Tyrrell  so  that  he  could  attend 

■.  to  his  wounded  fellow-officer,  and  leaving  them  on  the  roadside 
drove  away  with  General  Lucas  to  an  unknown  destination. 
This  coup  caused  great  jubilation  among  the  Sinn  Feiners,  and 
from  every  point  of  view  it  will  be  seen  that  the  position  in 

<  Ireland  at  the  end  of  June  was  worse  than  it  had  been  at  any 
previous  time,  and  showed  signs  of  further  deterioration  rather 
than  of  improvement. 

CHAPTEB  III. 

THE  SUMMER  MONTHS. 

In  dealing  with  the  Budget  we  mentioned  that  the  proposal 
most  criticised  was  that  for  increasing  the  Excess  Profits  Duty 
from  40  per  cent,  to  60  per  cent.  The  unpopularity  of  this 
measure  in  no  wise  abated  as  time  went  on.    On  July  1  a 


I9fl0.]  The  Excess  Profits  Duty.  [71 

deputation  of  the  Federation  of  British  Industries  waited  on 
Mr.  Austen  Chamberlain  in  order  to  press  upon  him  certain 
concessions.     The  deputation  affirmed  that  the  industries  of 
the  country  were  unanimous  in  their  opposition  to  the  con- 
tinuance of  the  Excess  Profits  Duty  in  any  form  whatever, 
but  more  particularly  at  the  increased  rate  of  60  per  cent.     In 
view  of  the  fact  that  the  continuance  of  the  duty  had  been 
unanimously  determined  upon  by  the  Cabinet,  the  deputation 
did  not  go  farther  than  press  for  concessions  which,  in  their 
opinion,  would  help  to  mmimise  the  grave  danger  of  inflicting 
irreparable  harm  on  the   industries  of  the  coimtry.     While 
pressing  for  these  concessions,  the  deputation  insisted  that  they 
were  strongly  opposed  to  the  whole  duty  itself,  and  that  they 
could  not  accept  the  concessions  as  a  compromise  to  the  with- 
drawal of  it     Mr.  Chamberlain,  in  reply,  expressed  the  view 
that  there  was  too  great  a  tendency  m  the  modem  business 
world  to  attribute  all  evils  in  business  to  the  financial  policy 
of  the  Government.      He  admitted   that  circumstances  had 
changed  considerably  since  he  had  introduced  his  Budget,  but 
he  assured  the  deputation  that  he  was  watching  the  position 
from  day  to  day  with  anxious  care.    He  claimed  that  the  efforts 
of  the  Government  to  grapple  with  the  debt  and  to  deal  with 
inflation  of  credit  had  been  very  beneficial.     He  urged  on  the 
deputation  that  only  by  great  sacrifices  and  great  prudence  on 
the  part  of  those  responsible  for  industry  and  for  the  finance 
of  the  country  could  we  ^o  through  the  difficulties  facing  us, 
and  save  ourselves  from  cnses  such  as  the  business  communities 
had  suffered  from  in  America  and  Japan.    He  pointed  out,  among 
the  difficulties  of  his  position,  that  he  could  not  touch  the 
floating  debt  imtil  he  had  met  160,000,000Z.   of  indebtedness 
which  matured  yearly,  and  said  that  for  this,  among  other 
reasons,  it  was  impossible  for  him  to  accede  to  the  request  of 
the  deputation  that  Excess  Profits  Duty  should  be  payable  in 
War  Loan.     He  could  not  add  to  his  difficulties  by  agreeing 
to  such  a  thing.      With  regard  to   the  request  for  delay  in 
payment,  he  considered  it  the  bounden  duty  of  firms  to  pay 
their  Excess  Profits  Duty  when  due,  as  otherwise  the  whole 
body  of  taxpayers  would  have  to  suffer. 

A  day  or  two  later  Mr.  Chamberlain  issued  a  "  Memorandimi 
of  Present  and  Pre- War  Expenditure."  This  memorandum 
showed  that  Government  expenditure  was  more  than  six  times 
what  it  had  been  in  the  year  before  the  war.  A  gross  expendi- 
ture of  207,817,437/.  for  1913-14  had  swollen,  according  to  the 
Budget  estimates,  to  1,282,274,000/.  for  1920-21.  The  National 
Debt,  which  in  1913-14  cost  24,500,000/.,  was  estimated  for 
1920-21  to  cost  346,000,000/.  The  fighting  Services  had  risen 
from  86,027,992/.  to  269,170,000/.  The  Civil  Services  had  risen 
from  55,005,722/.  to  555,626,000/.  The  Revenue  Departments 
had  also  increased  from  29,460,754/.  to  61,280,000/.  Thus, 
while  the  expenditure  on  the  fighting  Services  had  been  trebled, 


72]  ENGLISH  HI8T0RT.  [july 

that  on  the  Civil  Services  had  actually  been  increased  tenfold. 
It  is  true  that  War  Pensions  amounted  to  123,236,000Z.,  but 
even  after  the  deduction  of  this  figure  the  Budget  estimates  for 
the  second  year  of  peace  showed  an  expenditure  nearly  eight 
times  greater  than  it  had  been  in  the  last  year  before  the  war. 
More  than  half  the  estimated  expenditure  on  the  Civil  Services 
was  entirely  new.  It  included  items  for  railway  agreements, 
canals  and  coastwise  transport  subsidies,  the  bread  subsidy 
(amounting  to  45,000,000/.),  housing  subsidies,  coal  mines'  de- 
ficiency, export  credits,  and  other  advances. 

The  publication  of  this  memorandum  occasioned  a  debate 
in  the  House  of  Lords  on  July  7,  when  Lord  Midleton  called 
attention  to  the  great  increase  in  the  estimated  normal  expendi- 
ture of  the  country,  and  moved  for  the  appointment  of  Commis- 
sioners to  wind  up  war  departments,  and  to  reduce  other  inflated 
establishments  to  a  normal  level.  Lord  Buckmaster  insisted 
that  the  Government  should  obtain  a  return  as  to  the  exact 
amount  of  taxation  this  country  could  bear  without  injuring  its 
industries,  and  compel  the  departments  to  keep  within  their 
allotted  share  of  that  amoimt.  The  Lord  Chancellor  gave  de- 
tails of  the  estimates,  pointing  out  that  the  administration  was 
not  extravagant,  but  the  motion  was  carried  against  the  Govern- 
ment by  a  majority  of  72. 

The  financial  prospect  was  painted  in  somewhat  more  favour- 
able colours  by  Mr.  Chamberlain  at  a  dinner  at  the  Mansion 
House  on  July  15.  He  then  expressed  the  view  that  after  the 
great  cataclysm  that  had  shaken  the  world  it  could  not  be  ex- 
pected that  the  ravages  of  war  could  be  immediately  repaired. 
New  problems  had  arisen  during  the  war  in  commerce,  politics, 
and  finance,  and  it  was  not  surprising  if,  in  these  circumstances, 
there  was  room  for  criticism,  and  if  the  efforts  of  those  who 
were  responsible  for  dealing  with  the  problems  had  not  given 
unmixed  satisfaction.  Much  had  been  done,  he  said,  but  much 
remained  to  be  done.  The  Government  had  already  made 
gigantic  reductions  in  expenditure,  and  he  would  be  keenly 
disappointed  and  greatly  surprised  if  they  were  not  able  to  make 
further  large  reductions  when  they  framed  the  estimates  for 
next  year.  Nevertheless,  expenditure  must  continue  at  a  high 
figure.  The  National  Debt  added  to  the  nation's  charges  a  sum 
for  interest  alone  which  was  greater  than  our  whole  expenditure 
before  the  war.  During  the  first  six  months  of  the  present  year 
he  said  that  we  had  made  successful  progress.  We  had  passed 
the  peak  of  our  national  difficulties,  and  had  begun  the  down- 
ward path  from  the  high  level  to  which  we  had  been  forced  to 
climb.  The  legal  tender  currency  had  begun  to  decrease.  The 
National  Debt  had  been  reduced  by  200,000,000/. ;  the  Floating 
Debt  had  been  reduced  by  60,000,000/. ;  our  exports  had  steadily 
extended,  and  he  thought  it  true  to  say  that  they  had  exceeded 
our  imports  and  been  sufficient  to  find  the  amount  necessary 
for  repaying  the  60,000,000/,  of  our  foreign  obligations.      The 


1990.]  The  Finance  Bill.  [73 

Economist  index  number  of  prices  which  had  steadily  risen  from 
March,  1919,  to  April,  1920,  had  at  last  begmi  to  show  a  tendency 
to  fall.  He  held,  therefore,  that  we  had  no  reason  for  dissatis- 
faction, and  he  looked  to  the  future  with  hope  and  confidence. 

The  Finance  Bill  passed  through  its  Committee  and  other 
stages  during  Julj.  An  amendment  to  omit  the  increased  duty 
on  tea  was  negatived,  as  also  was  one  providing  for  a  reduction 
of  the  duty  on  spirits  used  in  hospitals  on  prescription.  Bear- 
Admiral  Adair  then  moved  an  amendment  to  place  sparkling 
wines  upon  the  same  level  as  other  wines.  The  amendment 
was  withdrawn  and  a  Government  amendment  reducing  the 
proposed  ad  valorem  duty  of  50  per  cent,  to  33^  per  cent,  was 
agreed  to  by  a  majority  of  171.  Amendments  to  reduce  the 
additional  duty  on  cigars,  and  to  abolish  the  preferential  rate 
for  British-grown  cigars  were  both  negatived.  On  the  subject 
of  Income  Tax  deductions,  Mr.  Lawson  moved  that  a  house- 
holder maintaining  his  mother  should  be  entitled  to  the  deduc- 
tion of  2252.  allowed  to  a  man  who  had  a  wife  living  with  him, 
but  the  amendment  was  negatived  by  a  majority  of  162.  The 
clause  dealing  with  stamp  duty  was  amended,  on  the  motion  of 
Sir  G.  Younger,  by  the  omission  of  the  sub-section  which  dealt 
with  the  rates  payable  by  way  of  composition  in  respect  of  the 
duty. 

When  the  Excess  Profits  Duty  came  up  for  consideration, 
Mr.  G.  Terrell  moved  an  amendment  which  would  have  main- 
tained the  duty  at  40  per  cent,  instead  of  increasing  it  to  the 
60  per  cent,  proposed  in  the  Bill.  The  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer  then  announced  that  while  this  duty  would  be  60 
per  cent,  for  the  present  year,  he  was  prepared  to  give  an  as- 
surance that  next  year  it  should  not  be  more  than  40  per  cent. 
After  a  long  debate  the  amendment  was  negatived  by  a  majority 
of  172.  An  amendment  was  then  agreed  to,  on  the  motion  of 
Mr.  Higham,  to  provide  that  ex-service  men  who  had  started 
in  business  since  the  armistice  should  have  a  concession  of  500^ 
as  opposed  to  200Z.  to  civiUans.  As  regards  the  Corporation 
Tax,  amendments  were  moved  and  rejected,  exempting  from 
the  tax  surplus  resulting  from  the  trading  of  a  Co-operative 
Society  with  its  own  members,  and  also  providing  that  the 
amount  of  tax  payable  in  respect  of  the  profits  of  a  British 
Company  should  in  no  case  exceed  the  amount  represented  by 
5  per  cent,  of  the  balance  of  the  profits,  instead  of  10  per  cent. 
as  provided  in  the  Bill.  The  proposed  repeal  of  the  Land  Values 
Duties  occasioned  various  amendments  Mr.  T.  Thomson  de- 
sired to  retain  the  duties,  and  Mr.  Hogge  desired  to  omit  the 
sub-sections  which  provided  that  after  the  passing  of  the  Act 
there  should  be  no  hirther  collection  of  the  Land  Values  Duty, 
but  that  duties  already  paid  should  be  re-imbursed.  Both 
amendments  were  rejected.  The  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer 
then  moved  a  new  clause  amending  the  pre-war  standard  of 
profit  for  Excess  Profits  Duty  in  accounting  periods  ending  after 


74]  ENGLISH  HISTORT.  [jult 

December  31,  1919.  He  explained  that  the  new  clause  was 
designed  to  alleviate  the  pressure  of  the  tax,  particularly  in  re- 
gard to  new  businesses  and  small  businesses.  The  amendment 
was  agreed  to,  as  also  was  another  by  the  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer  to  allow  an  extra  1  per  cent,  new  capital  in  busi- 
nesses. 

An  amendment  to  repeal  the  Imperial  Preference  Duties  im- 
posed b^  the  Finance  Act  of  1919,  and  one  to  exclude  mandated 
territones  from  the  ambit  of  Preferential  Duties  were  both 
negatived.  On  the  motion  of  Sir  J.  Hope  a  new  clause  was 
agreed  to  providing  that  certain  concessions  granted  in  the 
Finance  Act  of  the  previous  year  in  respect  of  the  Rent  Re- 
striction Act  should  be  adjusted  to  the  new  Rent  Restriction 
Act.  On  the  motion  of  the  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer 
another  new  clause  was  agreed  to,  providing  that  where  from 
profits  any  contribution  had  been  made  after  July  16,  1920,  to 
any  charitable,  educational,  or  scientific  society,  a  deduction 
should  be  made  in  respect  of  such  contributions  not  exceeding 
5  per  cent  of  these  profits  as  calculated  for  the  purposes  of  the 
Excess  Profits  Duty. 

Further  amendments  were  made  during  the  Report  sta^e. 
As  regards  the  Corporation  Tax,  Mr.  Kidd  moved  that  Societies 
registered  under  the  Industrial  and  Provident  Societies  Act 
should  not  pay  the  tax  on  the  profits  or  surplus  arising  from 
trading  among  their  own  members.  The  amendment  was 
negatived,  but  a  proviso  embodying  concessions  to  Statutory 
Companies  was  moved  by  Mr.  Baldwin,  and  was  agreed  to 
after  an  amendment  to  it  had  been  added  to  include  Dock 
Companies  in  the  list  of  those  to  which  the  concession  would 
apply.  On  the  motion  for  the  third  reading,  Mr.  Bottomley 
moved  that  the  House  regretted  that  the  Government  in  making 
financial  provision  for  1920-21  shoidd  have  ignored  the  previous 
declarations  of  Ministers  on  questions  of  fiscal  policy,  and  have 
brought  forward  misleading  estimates.  Mr.  Asquith  declared 
that  the  House  of  Commons  ought  to  prevent  the  necessity  for 
the  increase  of  taxation  by  a  proper  control  of  expenditure. 
The  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  pointed  out  that  by  the  effort 
made  in  the  present  Bill  we  should  be  enabled  to  pay  half  our 
war  debts  within  a  reasonable  time.  The  third  reading  was 
carried  and  the  Bill  passed  on  July  28.  It  received  the  royal 
assent  on  August  4. 

During  the  first  week  of  July  speeches  were  made  by  Lord 
Grey  and  Mr.  Arthur  Balfour  on  the  outlook  for  the  future. 
The  occasion  of  these  speeches  was  the  foimdation  of  a  British 
Institute  of  International  Affairs,  the  purpose  of  which  was  to 
keep  its  members  in  touch  with  the  international  situation,  and 
to  enable  them  to  study  the  relation  between  national  policies 
and  the  interests  of  society  as  a  whole.  The  idea  of  the 
Institute  had  originated  during  the  Peace  Conference  at  Paris. 
A  provisional  committee  had  then  been  formed  to  devise  a 


1990.]  Institute  of  International  Affairs.  [75 

scheme,  after  the  conference  was  over,  for  the  formation  of  the 
Institute,  and  original  members  had  been  selected.  Information 
rather  than  propaganda  was  the  essential  object  of  the  Institute, 
and  the  Society  was  prohibited  by  its  constitution  from  forming 
or  expressing  opinions  on  foreign  affairs.  The  resolution  con- 
stituting the  new  organisation  was  moved  by  Lord  Grey  of 
Fallodon,  who  said  that  there  was  no  intention  of  using  the 
Institution  as  an  instrument  for  defending  or  attacking  the 
policy  of  the  Government  of  the  day.  It  would  not  interfere 
with  policy,  but  it  would  provide  materials  upon  which  states- 
men, politicians,  and  journalists  could  form  sound  opinions. 
Asking  what  Governments  could  fairly  be  asked  to  do  to  help 
the  Institute,  Lord  Grey  said  he  thought  that  they  might  do 
two  things:  they  could  give  it  clearly  to  be  understood  that 
it  was  an  axiom  of  all  national  Governments  that  the  sanctity 
of  treaties  should  be  maintained;  they  could  also  let  it  be 
understood  that  they  had  adopted  a  rule  of  conduct  whereby 
they  would  not,  in  time  of  peace,  have  secret  treaties.  Secrecy 
of  treaties,  he  said,  was  always  objectionable,  though  in  war 
it  might  be  necessary.  One  of  the  great  lessons  of  the  war, 
in  his  opinion,  was  that  thinking  nationally  without  thinking 
internationally  led  to  disaster.  Before  the  war  Germany  was 
thinking  more  intensely  nationally  and  less  internationally  than 
any  country  in  the  world,  and  it  led  to  disaster.  Nations,  on 
the  other  hand,  were  thinking  internationally  when  they  formed 
the  League  of  Nations  at  Paris,  and  it  was  essential  they  should 
continue  to  think  internationally. 

Lord  Grey's  resolution  was  seconded  by  Mr.  Balfour,  who, 
after  remarking  that  he  had  succeeded  Lord  Grey  at  the  Foreign 
Office,  referred  to  the  work  of  the  Peace  Conference,  saying 
that  notwithstanding  the  criticisms  brought  against  it,  it  had 
been  the  most  fruitful  work  of  international  co-operation  which 
the  world  had  ever  seen.  He  believed  that  the  historian  of  the 
future,  looking  back  upon  the  year  1919,  would  feel  that  the 
result  of  the  colossal  sacrifices  made  by  the  allied  associated 
Powers  had  not  been  unworthy  of  the  efforts  brought  forth. 
He  called  upon  his  hearers  to  recognise  the  truth  that  mutual 
comprehension  could  at  least  exist  when  the  nations  met  to- 
gether to  discuss  affairs  common  to  them  all.  For  an  indefinite 
future  the  world  was  going  to  be  arranged  on  a  national  basis. 
That  was  perfectly  right.  What  was  required  was  to  combine 
with  national  feeUng  a  desire  for  international  comprehension 
and  international  amity,  for  this  would  be  the  surest  guarantee 
against  any  repetition  of  the  horrors  of  the  previous  five  years. 
Mr.  Balfour  was  then  followed  by  Mr.  Clynes,  and  the  resolu- 
tion inaugurating  the  Institute  was  carried  unanimously.  Lord 
Grey,  Mr.  Balfour,  Lord  Eobert  Cecil,  and  Mr.  Clynes  were 
forthwith  elected  Presidents  of  the  new  body. 

Foreign  affairs  were  discussed  by  the  House  of  Commons 
on  the  19th  and  again  on  July  21.     On  the  19th  Mr.  Ormsby- 


76]  ENGIilBH  HISTORY.  [toy 

Gore  moved  the  adjoamment  of  the  House  to  call  attention 
to  the  immediate  danger  to  British  interests  in  the  Middle  East 
arising  from  the  threatened  new  hostihties  in  Syria.  Mr.  Bonar 
Law  pointed  out  that  the  French  had  been  given  a  mandate  for 
the  whole  of  Syria,  and  that  it  was  for  them  to  take  what 
measures  they  considered  desirable  without  interference  from  us, 
so  long  as  those  measures  were  in  accordance  with  the  Treaty 
of  Peace. 

On  the  21st  the  adjournment  of  the  House  was  again  moved, 
in  order  that  Mr.  Lloyd  George  might  make  a  statement  on  the 
Spa  Alhed  Conference.  He  said  that  the  AUies  had  decided  to 
adhere  substantially  to  the  terms  already  submitted  to  Turkey, 
but  they  would  allow  Turkey  a  representative  on  the  Straits 
Commission.  It  had  been  decided  to  use  the  Greek  forces  to  re- 
store order  in  the  territory  between  Smyrna  and  the  Dardanelles. 
M.  Venizelos  had  done  this  in  ten  days,  and  the  Greeks  were 
undertaking  similar  operations  in  Thrace.  Turkey  had  been 
given  ten  days  only  in  which  to  sign  the  treaty.  A  document 
was  sent  from  Spa  to  the  Soviet  Government  declaring  that  if 
they  did  not  grant  an  armistice  to  the  existing  Government  of 
Poland,  the  Allies  would  give  Poland  all  the  assistance  in  their 
power.  The  Allies  had  insisted  on  Germany's  issuing  a  procla- 
mation that  all  rifles  must  be  surrendered  by  September,  and 
it  had  been  settled  that  she  should  deliver  2,000,000  tons  of 
coal  per  month  to  the  Allies.  Decisions  had  also  been  arrived 
at  with  regard  to  the  distribution  of  reparation.  British  interests 
were  to  get  22  per  cent.,  France  50  per  cent.,  and  Italy  10  per 
cent. 

In  the  course  of  the  debate  which  followed,  Mr.  Asquith, 
after  commenting  on  the  various  aspects  of  the  Conference  at 
Spa,  declared  that  instead  of  conferences  between  groups  of 
Powers  the  machinery  of  the  League  of  Nations  should  be 
brought  into  operation  as  the  normal  organ  for  dealing  with 
these  matters.  Mr.  T.  Shaw  and  Mr.  J.  H.  Thomas  insisted 
that  we  ought  now  to  hold  out  the  hand  of  friendship  to  the 
Eussian  people.  After  some  further  speeches  the  motion  for 
the  adjournment  was  withdrawn. 

Next  day  Lord  Parmoor  called  attention  in  the  House  of 
Lords  to  the  constitution  of  the  League  of  Nations,  and  to  the 
terms  of  the  Covenant,  and  desired  to  know  to  what  extent  the 
provisions  of  the  Covenant  had  become  operative.  Lords  Bryce 
and  Haldane  expressed  disappointment  with  the  progress  made 
in  popularising  the  League,  while  Lord  Sydenham  thought  that 
the  most  it  was  good  for  was  to  prevent  war  between  two 
small  countries.  In  reply  to  these  and  other  criticisms,  Lord 
Curzon  pointed  out  that  the  work  of  the  League  had  been 
crippled  by  the  defection  of  America.  The  League  was  about 
to  hold  its  eighth  meeting,  and  the  work  done  by  it  was  most 
encouraging  and  promised  a  future  of  practical  utility. 

The  annual  Conference  of  the  Miners'  Federation  of  Great 


idao.]  Conference  of  the  Miners*  Federation,  [77 

Britain  opened  at  Leamington  on  July  6.  Mr.  Smillie,  in  his 
presidential  address,  denied  that  the  policy  of  nationalisation  of 
the  mines  was  dead.  He  expressed  the  hope  that  the  period 
was  not  far  distant  when  the  nation  in  its  own  interests  would 
take  over  the  production  of  its  own  coal  for  the  benefit  of  the 
community.  The  Federation  had  no  desire  to  use  its  power 
merely  because  it  could  threaten  the  Government  or  nation, 
but  it  must  not  be  forgotten,  he  said,  that  the  great  mass  of 
human  beings  represented  in  the  organised  mining  movement 
had  been  struggling  to  emerge  from  the  cursed  system  of 
slavery  and  degradation  which  they  occupied  under  private 
ownership  of  mines.  The  miners  had  had  to  work  out  their 
own  social  salvation  in  face  of  bitter  opposition ;  they  had  done 
it  through  the  power  of  combination  and  organisation.  Mr. 
Smillie  denied  that  there  had  been  any  necessity  for  the  increase 
in  price  of  14«.  2(2.  per  ton  which  the  Government  had  placed 
upon  household  coal.  He  said  that  l^e  Executive  were  very 
anxious  that  the  miners  should  make  an  effort  to  reduce  the 
price  of  coal  by  the  amount  at  least  of  that  extra  14$.  2(2.  The 
Executive  now  wished  to  ask  the  conference  to  decide  whether 
the  Government  should  not  be  called  upon  to  reduce  the  price 
of  household  coal  by  145.  2d.  per  ton,  and  at  the  same  time  to 
give  an  increase  in  the  wages  of  mine  workers.  He  afi&rmed 
that  the  Government  were  now  in  a  position  to  reduce  the 
price  of  coal  and  to  give  an  increase  of  wages  while  yet  the  coal 
mdustry  would  continue  to  be  a  paying  proposition.  He  denied 
that  the  Government  were  entitled  to  put  the  profits  into  the 
Exchequer  as  they  were  doing.  The  miners  had  not  yet 
reached  a  position  m  which  they  were  able  to  face  the  increased 
cost  of  livmg,  and  the  Exchequer  was  not  entitled  to  make 
money  from  the  industry  until  the  miners  were  able  to  meet ' 
the  cost  of  living. 

After  a  discussion  in  private,  the  Conference  of  the  Miners' 
Federation  determined  to  make  fresh  demands  upon  the 
Government  in  accordance  with  the  advice  of  their  Executive. 
They  demanded  (1)  an  immediate  reduction  of  14«.  2(2.  per  ton 
in  the  price  of  domestic  coal,  and  (2)  an  advance  in  the  miners' 
wages  of  2«.  per  day  flat  rate  for  adults  over  18,  1^.  between 
18  and  16,  and  9(2.  per  day  for  workers  below  16.  There 
was  some  opposition  to  the  policy  of  the  Executive  in  coup- 
ling a  demand  for  cheaper  coal  with  that  for  an  advance  m 
wages,  the  argument  being  that  the  miners  should  not  concern 
themselves  with  the  interests  of  coal  consumers,  and  sacrifice  the 
larger  wages  which  they  might  otherwise  claim.  Mr.  SmiUie  and 
other  leaders,  however,  urged  the  wisdom  of  a  modified  demand. 
If  the  Government  refused  to  take  off  the  14^.  2(1  on  coal  it 
was  emphasised  that  an  amended  claim  for  wages  would 
probably  be  made,  so  to  absorb  all  the  surplus  profits  at  present 
going  to  the  National  Exchequer.  South  ^Wales  and  several 
other  districts  were  in  fact  pressing  for  an  immediate  claim  for 
an  increase  of  4«.  per  day. 


78]  ENGLISH  HISTORY.  [july 

The  prospect  of  a  strike  now  appeared  very  imminent,  for 
the  discontent  among  the  miners  was  not  limited  merely  to 
questions  of  wages  and  prices.  Before  it  separated  the 
Conference  of  the  Miners'  Federation  passed  two  ominous 
resolutions.  In  the  first  it  refused  to  operate  the  Ministry  of 
Mines  Bill  if  that  Bill  should  become  law,  Mr.  SmiUie  declaring 
that  the  effect  of  the  measure  on  wages  would  be  to  make  a 
Federation  strike  inevitable.  In  the  second,  the  conference 
decided  to  move,  at  the  special  Trades  Union  Congress  to  be 
held  in  the  following  week,  that  should  the  Government  refuse 
to  meet  the  Labour  demands  with  regard  to  Ireland  and  Bussia, 
a  general  **  down  tools  "  policy  should  be  adopted. 

The  Congress  met  in  London  on  July  13,  and  when  the 
miners*  resolution  was  brought  forward  it  was  decided  by  a  card 
vote  of  2,760,000  to  1,636,000  to  demand  the  withdrawal  of  all 
British  troops  from  Ireland  and  the  cessation  of  the  production 
of  munitions  of  war  destined  to  be  used  against  Ireland  and 
Bussia.  In  case  the  Government  refused  these  demands  the 
Congress  was  to  recommend  a  general  "down  tools"  policy, 
and  to  call  on  the  Trade  Unions  of  the  country  to  carry  out  the 
policy  by  taking  ballots  of  their  members,  or  by  other  methods 
which  were  in  accordance  with  their  constitution.  Some 
surprise  was  occasioned  by  the  action  of  the  Congress  in  voting 
for  the  miners'  resolution.  The  feeling  of  the  delegates,  as 
expressed  by  earlier  votes,  seemed  to  be  in  favour  of  attempting 
to  secure  better  understanding  between  the  workers  of  Ulster 
and  the  other  Irish  provinces,  and  of  asking  the  Government  to 
make  use  of  this  improved  atmosphere,  if  it  could  be  achieved, 
to  give  Ireland  an  immediate  and  substantial  measure  of  Home 
Bule. 

The  demands  of  the  Miners*  Federation  were  then  submitted 
to  the  Government,  and  on  July  26  a  meeting  took  place  at  the 
Board  of  Trade  in  which  Sir  Bobert  Home  informed  the 
representatives  of  the  Federation  that  the  Government  were 
unable  to  accede  to  the  claims  which  had  been  made.  Sir 
Bobert  Home  pointed  out  that  miners*  wages  had  risen  more 
than  the  cost  of  living  since  the  war,  while  in  addition  the 
miners  got  cheaper  coal  than  the  ordinary  consumer.  Whereas 
the  average  increase  in  colliery  wages  was  157  per  cent.,  the 
skilled  engineer  had  gone  up  by  only  132  per  cent.  The 
Industrial  Court  had  decided  that  there  was  no  warrant  for  a 
further  increase  in  the  engineers*  wages.  Moreover,  he  insisted 
that  several  factors  might  tend  to  lower  the  export  price  of 
coal.  The  State  had  taken  60  per  cent,  in  Excess  Profits  from 
the  great  industries,  but  if  the  miners  had  their  way  the  coal 
trade  alone  would  be  exempt  from  that  contribution.  These 
surplus  profits  were  **a  bit  of  luck**  to  which  the  State  was 
entitled.  The  British  consumer  was  getting  his  coal  cheaper 
than  the  consumer  in  other  countries,  and  the  Government  were 
unable  to  subsidise  the  supply  to  the  domestic  consumer.    In 


199a]  The  Slough  Motor  Depot,  [79 

the  face  of  this  definite  refusal  by  the  Government,  the  next 
move  of  the  miners  was  referred  for  consideration  to  a  confer- 
ence summoned  for  August  12 ;  we  shall  therefore  resume  later 
the  further  account  of  these  negotiations. 

The  question  of  the  Slough  Motor  Depot  once  again  came 
before  public  attention  in  July,  when  the  report  was  pubUshed 
of  the  Select  Committee  on  National  Expenditure,  criticising 
the  sale  of  the  Depot  by  the  Ministry  of  Munitions.    It  appeared 
that  the  purchaser  was  Sir  Perceval  Perry  and  the  amount 
paid  7,000,0002.,  while  the  dump  at  St  Omer  had  been  sold 
to  Leyland  Motors  Ltd.,  for  500,0002.    In  the  course  of  their 
report  the  Select  Committee  expressed  the  opinion  that  the 
clauses  in  the  Slough  contract,  which  provided  that  all  articles 
which  might  be  declared  surplus  within  the  next  two  years 
were  included  in  the  sale  without  any  extra  price,  were  contrary 
to  the  interests  of  the  taxpayer,  inasmuch  as  the  greater  the 
number  of  articles  declared  surplus,  the  greater  would  be  the 
share  of  the  profit  to  the  purchaser.     The  Committee  also 
expressed  the  opinion  that  an  effort  should  have  been  made 
to  ascertain  the  value  of  the  articles  included  in  the  Slough 
sale,  and  that  the  sale  should  not  have  included  articles  in 
various  parts  of  the  world  the  value  of  which  was  unknown. 
With  regard  to  the  sale  of  the  St.  Omer  dimip,  the^  held  that 
due  care  had  not  been  exercised  in  negotiating  this  contract 
They  considered  that  the  method  of  selling  an  indeterminate 
number  of  vehicles  for  a  fixed  sum  was  not  likely  to  secure 
the  highest  possible  price.     A  better  method  would  have  been 
for  the  price  to  depend  on  the  actual  number  of  vehicles  handed 
over  assessed  on  an  average  value  per  vehicle.     Finally,  the 
Committee  expressed  the  view  that  the  decision  of  the  Cabinet 
that  the  Ministry  of  Mimitions  should  cease  to  act  as  a  pur- 
chasing department  should  be  given  effect  to  at  once. 

Considerable  feeling  had  been  raised  in  the  country  and  in 
the  House  of  Commons  by  the  attitude  of  the  Government 
towards  General  Dyer  following  upon  the  Amritsar  incident. 
On  the  7th  Mr.  Churchill,  in  reply  to  a  question,  announced 
that  in  the  view  of  the  Army  Council  General  Dyer  could 
not  be  acquitted  of  an  error  of  judgment.  The  Army  Coimcil 
accepted,  therefore,  the  decision  of  the  Commander-in-Chief 
of  India,  and  did  not  consider  that  further  employment  should 
be  offered  to  General  Dyer  outside  India  Much  dissatisfaction 
was  caused  by  this  reply,  and  on  the  following  day  opportimity 
was  taken  of  the  vote  for  the  India  Office  to  discuss  the  matter 
at  length.  Mr.  Montagu  declared  that  the  theorjr  of  partnership 
should  be  that  which  lay  at  the  root  of  our  relations  with  India. 
Sir  Edward  Carson  dwelt  upon  the  difficulties  which  beset 
the  military  authority  called  m  to  reinstate  civil  order  out  of 
chaos  produced  by  a  state  of  rebeUion.  Mr.  Churchill  defended 
the  decision  of  the  Army  Council,  while  Mr.  Asquith  considered 
that  General  Dyer  had  been  guilty  of  an  error  of  judgment  and 


80]  ENGLISH  HISTOEY.  [july 

worse,  and  he  heartily  supported  the  course  which  the  Govern- 
ment had  taken.  Genersd  Sir  A.  Hunter- Weston  expressed 
the  opinion  that  no  good  could  be  done  either  to  General  Dyer, 
the  Army,  or  the  country  by  attacking  the  decision  come  to 
by  responsible  soldiers.  After  a  number  of  other  speeches  Mr. 
Bonar  Law  pointed  out  that  we  could  not  allow  it  to  be  said 
that  we  treated  Indians  less  fairly  than  other  subjects  of  the 
Crown.     The  amendment  to  reduce  the  vote  was  then  negatived. 

An  echo  of  this  discussion  occurred  in  the  House  of  Lords 
in  a  debate  which  lasted  two  days  on  July  19  and  20.  Lord 
Finlay  moved  a  resolution  deploring  the  treatment  that  had 
been  accorded  to  General  Dyer.  Lord  Sinha  declared  that 
the  suggestion  that  the  Government  of  India  had  at  any  time 
held  the  opinion  that  General  Dyer's  action  was  justified,  was 
most  mischievous.  Lord  Midleton  held  that  what  the  Govern- 
ment had  done  mi^ht  not  be  against  military  law,  but  it  was 
against  military  etiquette  and  precedent  laid  down  by  the 
highest  authority.  Lord  Crewe  thought  it  would  have  been 
wise  to  have  made  an  inquiry,  in  the  first  place  by  the  Govern- 
ment of  India.  The  Lord  Chancellor  explained  that  General 
Dyer  had  merely  been  placed  upon  half  pay,  which  was  the 
mildest  disciplinary  treatment  that  was  known  to  the  British 
Army.  Lord  Harris  complained  of  the  lack  of  consideration 
accorded  to  General  Dyer,  and  Lord  Ampthill  believed  that 
General  Dyer  had  been  right  in  what  he  did.  Lord  Milner 
and  Lord  Meston  urged  that  in  the  proceedings  which  had 
taken  place  at  Amritsar  the  limits  of  justice  and  humanity  had 
been  exceeded.  After  various  other  speeches  the  resolution 
was  agreed  to  by  a  majority  of  43. 

The  vote  for  the  Ministry  of  Health  was  dealt  with  on 
July  15.  Dr.  Addison  stated  that  the  Department  had  passed 
the  plans  of  200,000  houses  and  that  2,000  of  these  were  already 
built  and  inhabited.  He  said  that  there  was  still  a  deficiency 
of  labour,  and  he  referred  to  the  measures  which  had  been 
taken  for  the  prevention  and  treatment  of  disease.  In  order  to 
meet  the  present  need  of  the  voluntary  hospitals  for  pecuniary 
help,  the  King  Edward  Fund,  in  consultation  with  the  Min- 
istry, had  put  aside  a  quarter  of  a  miUion  from  which  grants 
were  being  made.  Medical  research  work  was  steadily  being 
carried  on. 

Among  the  new  Ministries,  the  Ministry  of  Food  was  one 
which  everybody  hoped  would  before  long  become  imnecessary. 
Indeed  many  people  had  thought  that  it  would  pass  out  of 
existence  soon  after  the  end  of  the  war,  but  the  difficulties  of 
food  supplies  and  prices  prevented  the  fulfilment  of  this  hope, 
and  on  tfuly  23  the  Government  found  it  necessary  to  move 
the  second  reading  of  a  Bill  to  continue  the  existence  of  the 
Ministry  for  some  further  period.  The  position  was  that  the 
powers  of  the  Ministry  of  Food  were  based  on  the  Defence 
of  the  Bealm  Act,  and  would  therefore  terminate  when  that 


IMO.]  Ministry  of  Food  (Continuance)  Bill.  [81 

Act  lapsed.  Mr.  McCurdy,  who  moved  the  second  reading, 
explained  that  the  Bill  was  intended  to  continue  the  office 
of  the  Food  Controller  until  September,  1922,  subject  to  the 
power  to  bring  that  office  and  the  Ministry  of  Food  to  an  end 
at  any  moment  when  the  need  for  its  continuance  had  ceased 
to  exist.  A  motion  for  the  rejection  was  negatived  by  a 
majority  of  66  in  a  small  House  and  the  Bill  was  referred  to 
a  Stan£n^  Committee.  On  the  Beport  stage  an  attempt  was 
made  to  Imiit  the  duration  of  the  Ministry  to  March,  1921,  but 
the  amendment  was  defeated.  Other  amendments  were  moved 
to  omit  the  paragraph  which  enabled  the  Food  Controller  to 
transfer  his  powers  to  other  Government  Departments,  and 
also  to  omit  a  para^i)h  which  granted  to  the  Food  Controller 
certain  powers  which  it  was  alleged  might  enable  a  system  of 
protection  to  be  introduced.  Both  amendments  were  negatived ; 
the  Bill  was  read  a  third  time  on  July  30,  and  received  the 
royal  assent  on  August  16. 

During  July  the  question  of  the  increase  of  railway  fares 
caused  considerable  agitation.  The  Ministry  of  Transport  had 
appointed  a  Bates  Advisory  Committee  which  spent  a  great 
part  of  the  month  taking  evidence  upon  the  matter.  The 
Committee  were  asked  by  the  Ministry  to  provide  for  a  deficiency 
for  the  fifteen  months  from  April  1  last  estimated  at  72,000,0002. 
to  be  raised  on  new  rates  between  August  and  June  next.  The 
British  Bailway  Companies  demanded  that  the  passenger  rates 
should  be  raised  to  double  their  pre-war  figure,  that  is  to  say, 
to  2<2.  a  mile  third  class,  and  in  the  case  of  goods  traffic  they 
asked  for  an  average  advance  of  112  per  cent.  The  threat  of 
increased  fares  caused  considerable  outcry  in  the  Press,  more 
especially  as  it  was  feared  that  the  increases  might  take  place 
just  before  the  commencement  of  the  holiday  season.  Sir  Eric 
Gteddes,  in  reply  to  a  question  in  the  House  of  Commons  on  July 
19,  pointed  out  that  in  consequence  of  the  rise  in  costs  generally, 
and  especially  in  wages  and  materials,  a  substantial  increase 
in  railway  charges  must  be  faced  if  the  policy  of  subsidy  was 
to  be  abandoned  He  said  that  the  Government  had  decided 
not  to  impose  any  increase  of  fares  on  ordinary  tickets  until 
after  the  Bank  Holiday,  but  he  gave  figures  showing  the 
urgency  of  an  alteration  as  soon  afterwards  as  possible. 

When  it  became  known  that  the  intention  of  the  Govern- 
ment was  to  date  the  increase  from  August  5,  protest  meetings 
were  held  in  which  the  Government  was  urged  to  postpone  the 
rise  until  after  the  holiday  season,  and  especially  to  give  longer 
notice  of  whatever  alterations  might  be  made.  The  report  of 
the  Bates  Advisory  Committee  was  issued  on  July  26.  They 
recommended  that  ordinary  tickets  should  be  increased  by  16| 
per  cent,  on  existing  fares,  making  a  total  of  75  per  cent,  above 
pre-war  prices.  Season  tickets  were  to  be  increased  by  SO  per 
cent,  on  the  fares  existing  before  May,  1918.  In  Ireland  the 
increase  was  to  be  38^  per  cent,  on  present  fares,  which  was 

F 


82]  ENGLISH  HISTORY.  &^ly 

equivalent  to  100  per  cent,  above  pre-war  fares,  and  season 
tickets  were  to  be  increased  by  75  per  cent,  over  the  fares  ex- 
isting before  May,  1918.  The  report  of  the  Committee  was 
based  on  the  assumption  that  the  changes  were  to  be  brought 
into  effect  on  August  6.  The  Government  lost  no  time  in 
adopting  the  report  of  the  Advisory  Committee.  Mr.  Bonar 
Law  announced  in  the  House  of  Commons  on  July  28  that  the 
increases  in  railway  fares  would  be  as  stated  above,  and  that 
they  would  take  effect  from  August  6.  On  the  29th  Mr.  Higham 
moved  the  adjournment  of  the  House  of  Commons  to  call  at- 
tention to  the  action  of  the  Government  in  taking  this  decision. 
In  the  course  of  the  debate  Mr.  J.  H.  Thomas  pointed  out  that 
the  rail  way  men's  wages  had  not  been  increased  more  than  was 
necessary  to  meet  the  increased  cost  of  living,  and,  while  ad- 
mitting that  the  increase  in  fares  was  needful,  he  argued  that 
the  application  of  it  in  August  was  unfair  to  a  certam  section 
of  the  community  who  had  arranged  for  their  holidays  before 
the  increase  had  been  notified.  Sir  Eric  Geddes  rephed  saying 
that  before  the  Government  control  of  the  railways  came  to  an 
end  a  further  sum  of  66,000,000Z.  had  to  be  raised  from  Great 
Britain.  If  the  increase  of  passenger  fares  was  appUed  at  the 
beginning  of  August  instead  of  later  on,  then  it  need  not  be 
more  than  25  per  cent.,  whereas  if  it  was  delayed  it  would  have 
to  be  fixed  at  40  per  cent.  Ultimately  the  increases  came  into 
force  on  the  date  determined  by  the  Government,  and  public 
protests  being  of  no  further  avail  were  soon  dropped. 

Disorder  continued  to  be  rampant  .in.  Irelandjthroughout 

the^nxonth.'    On  the  lOth  two  policemen  were  attacked  near 

Cork  while  carrying  official  correspondence  to  the  Post  Office. 

One  of  them  was  severely  wounded,  and  they  were  both  deprived 

of  their  arms,  despatches,  and  equipment.     Oi^.July  12  the 

Orange  celebrations,  .iQ..JBQlfaBt  wore  Jbeld- wdthout.  any.  unto- 

ward  incidents.     There  were  the  usual  processions,  bands,  and 

speeches,  preceded  by  a  night  of  noise  and  impromptu  bonfires. 

Sir  Edward  Carson,  addressing  the  processionists,  said  that 

Ulster  would  never  submit  to  the  domination  of  a  Parliament 

in  Dublin,  or  to  any  system  of  Government  under  which  the 

hierarchy  of  the  Eoman  Catholic  Church  would  be  the  real 

governors.    It  was  a  disgrace  to  the  Great  British  Government 

that  their  fellow-subjects  in  the  South  and  West  of  Ireland  could 

hardly  go  outside  their  doors  without  fear  of  murder  or  assassm- 

ation,  and  that  their  own  officers  were  being  sacrificed  day  after 

day  without  anyone  being  brought  to  justice.     He  called  upon 

the  Government  to  recognise  that  their  duty  was  to  protect 

Ulster  from  any  interference  by  Sinn  Fein  or  emissaries  of  Sinn 

Fein.     If  the  Government  wanted  help  the  Ulstermen  were 

prepared  to  help  them,  but  if  the  Government  were  unable  to 

protect  Ulster  from  the  machinations  of  Sinn  Fein,  then  the 

Ulstermen  would  take  the  matter  into  their  own  hands,  and 

would  reorganise  throughout  the  provinces  the  Ulster  Volunteers 


199a]  Crime  in  Ireland.  [83 

who  had  given  such  splendid  help  to  the  maintenance  of  the 
Empire  dming  the  war. 

On  July  13  a  police  motor  car  was  ambushed  by  an  armed 
party  in  County  Kerry,  two  constables  were  shot  dead,  and  the 
driver  and  a  district  inspector  were  dangerously  wounded.  A 
daring  coup  was  carried  out  on  July  15  when  the  whole  of  the 
mails  intended  for  Dublin  Castle  came  into  the  possession  of  v 
the  emissaries  of  the  Bepublicans  for  the  second  time  in  the  / 
year.  The  scene  of  the  incident  was  the  temporary  sorting 
office  at  the  Rotunda  Bink  in  the  centre  of  Dublin.  The  sorters 
had  just  finished  dealing  with  the  morning  mail  when  a  number  i 
of  men  suddenly  appeared  in  the  building.  Some  of  them 
mounted  guard  over  the  telephones  while  others  covered  the 
postal  employees  with  revolvers.  The  raiders  were  evidently 
well  informed,  for  they  timed  their  attack  at  precisely  the  right 
moment,  and  they  went  straight  to  the  place  where  the  official 
mail  had  been  deposited.  They  then  made  a  careful  selection 
from  it,  and  placmg  what  they  had  chosen  in  a  motor  car, 
which  drove  away,  they  all  disappeared  leaving  no  trace  of  the 
ocQurrence  of  any  unusual  incident.. 

A  pecuharly  brutal  outrage  was  committed  on  July  17  when*" 
Colonel  6.  F.  Smyth,  Divisional  Commissioner  of  Constabulary 
for  Munster,  who  had  lost  his  left  arm  in  the  war,  was  shot 
dead  by  a  party  of  disguised  men  who  burst  into  the  County     - 
Club,  Cork,  where  he  was  staying  in  readiness  for  the  opening 
of  the  Assizes.     Colonel  Smyth  was  in  the  smoking-room  of 
the  Club  in  the  evening  when  a  band  of  thirteen  or  fourteen 
armed  and  disguised  men  held  up  the  hall  porter,  and  after 
finding  their  victim,  riddled  his  head  with  revolver  bullets,  and 
wounded  in  the  leg  Mr.  Craig,  County  Inspector  for  Cork,  with 
whom  Colonel  Smyth  was  talking.     The  murder  was  regarded 
as  a  sequel  to  a  speech  on  June  19  by  Colonel  Smyth  to  police- 
men in  County  Kerry,  when  he  was  alleged  to  have  ordered 
men  not  to  be  afraid  to  shoot,  and  to  shoot  with  effect.    It  had 
also  been  said  that  this  speech  had  led  to  the  resignation  of  five 
constables  in  the  district.     Sir  Hamar  Greenwood  explained 
that  he  had  spoken  to  Colonel  Smyth  on  the  subject,  and  that 
the  Colonel  had  repudiated  the  accuracy  of  the  reports,  saying  * 
that  the  instructions  given  by  him  to  the  police  were  those 
already  notified  to  Parliament   by  the  Attorney-General  of   , 
Ireland,  and  that  the  resignation  of  the  constables  was  due  to   ' 
leir  refusal  to  take  up  their  duties  in  certain  barracks  in  a      - 
isturbed  part  of  County  Kerry.  ^ 

"TheSdoption  ^  murderous  tactics  by  the  Sinn  Feiners  led  i 
a  strong  feeling  for  reprisals  among  the  police.     On  July  19   ' 
^s  feeling  found  expression  in  the  little  town  of  Tuan  in   [ 

Iway,  which  was  raided  by  a  party  of  police  in  reprisal  for  the    )> 
lurder  of  two  of  their  comrades.    Prominent  buildings  were   ,' 
set  on  fire  and  damage  was  done  to  the  extent  of  many  thousand   ! 
pounds;  many  shots  were  fired  though  fortunately  there  was  i 

Fa      -^ 


^^ 


ENGLISH  HISTORY.  [iuly 


no  loss  of  life.     The  incident  was  provoked  by  an  attack  upon 
a  police  motor  wagon  which  was  ambushed  and  fired  upon 
'  with  the  death  of  two  of  its  occupants. 

"-y^    On  July  22  the  House  of  Commons  had  an  opportunity  of 

/discussing  the  policy  of  the  Government  on  the  vote  for  the 
^  office  of  the  Chief  Secretary  for  Ireland.  Sir  Edward  Carson 
expressed  the  view  that  the  Government  must  either  surrender 
to  the  Bepublic  set  up  in  Ireland,  or  grapple  with  it  and  put  it 
down.  Mr.  Devlin  declared  that  the  Irish  claimed  no  more 
\  than  to  be  allowed  to  govern  their  country  according  to  their 
own  will  and  sentiment.  Sir  Hamar  Greenwood  then  an- 
nounced that  in  order  to  deal  with  the  present  deplorable  state 
of  affairs  in  Ireland,  the  Government  intended  to  ask  the  House 
to  pass  immediately  certain  legislative  measures.  The  Criminal 
Injuries  Bill,  already  introduced,  would  enable  the  Government 
to  intercept  every  grant  paid  by  the  British  Exchequer  to  any 
disloyal  local  bodies,  and  would  authorise  the  Lord-Lieutenant 
to  set  up  new  tribunals  to  supersede  the  Civil  Courts  which  had 
failed  to  carry  out  their  functions.  Mr.  J.  H.  Thomas  advocated 
the  setting  up  of  Dominion  Home  Bule  in  Ireland.  At  the  end 
of  the  debate  the  Attorney-General  for  Ireland  pointed  out  that 

/   the  actual  question  now  before  the  House  amounted  in  effect  to 

I    a  vote  of  censure  on  the  Chief  Secretary,  who  ought  to  be  sup- 
ported in  the  endeavour  to  put  down  crime  and  outrage.     The 

j    motion  for  the  reduction  of  the  vote  was  then  defeated  by  a 

V  majority  of  139. 
.  ~  The  murder  of  Colonel  Smyth  was  the  signal  for  rioting  in 
Belfast  and  other  parts  of  Ireland.  In  Belfast  hostile  crowds 
fought  in  several  districts.  On  the  first  day  eight  persons  were 
killed  and  many  injured,  soldiers  and  police  were  actively  engaged, 
.  and  machine-guns  and  barbed  wire  were  in  use.  In  London- 
derry firearms  were  used  for  the  first  time  by  the  two  factions ; 
the  military  were  attacked  and  replied  with  several  volleys 
which  caused  three  deaths  and  nearly  thirty  cases  of  injury. 
On  the  22nd  a  large  number  of  arrests  were  made  by  the  police. 
The  headquarters  of  the  rioting,  however,  was  in  Belfast     By 

'  July  23  the  number  of  casualties  had  passed  100,  and  there 
were  at  least  thirteen  dead.  Triangular  contests  took  place 
between  soldiers,  Protestants,  and  Catholics,  but  notwithstand- 
ing the  general  disorder  the  daily  routine  of  business  continued 
comparatively  unaffected.     The  wrecking  of  shops  and  public 

i   houses  went  on  extensively,  and  fires  were  started  which  kept 

\  the  fire  brigade  incessantly  occupied. 
.^  The  means  of  meeting  the  situation  in  Ireland  were  under 
the  consideration  of  the  Government  at  the  end  of  July.     Pro- 
]  posals  tantamount  to  the  granting  of  Dominion  Home  Bule  to 

/  the  Southern  Provinces  of  Ireland  had  been  put  before  the 
^  Government  from  various  quarters.  Under  these  proposals  the 
.  Southern  Provinces  would  be  free  to  administer  themselves  as 
i  they  might  choose  on  condition  that  they  remained  an  integral 


\ 


\ 


VMOJ]  Escape  of  General  Lucas,  [85 

part  of  the  British  Empire,  and  that  their  defence  from  external 
aggression  should  be  left  in  the  hands  of  the  Imperial  Govern- 
ment. Ulster  would  be  free  either  to  remain  an  integral  part 
of  Great  Britain,  or  to  accept  arrangements  similar  to,  but 
separate  from,  those  suggested  for  the  Southern  Provinces.  Mr. 
Lloyd  George  had  expressed  his  readiness  at  any  time  to  meet 
representatives  of  any  political  section  for  the  purpose  of  dis- 
cussing how  affairs  might  be  improved,  and  considerable  atten- 
tion was  given  to  a  statement  by  Mr.  Thomas  to  the  effect  that 
the  Government  could  obtain  peace  by  the  setting  up  of 
Dominion,  JSome.  BuIq.  in  Ireland. 

Further  outrages  occurred  during  the  last  week  of  July.     On 
the  25th  a  police  sergeant  was  shot  dead  by  two  men  as  he  was 
entering  church  to  attend  Mass,  and  the  assailants  succeeded  in 
making  good  their  escape.    In  Coimty  Tipperary  a  typical  in- 
cident was  an  attack  by  four  disguised  men  on  a  yoimg  woman. 
They  cut  off  her  hair  and  destroyed  the  creamery  where  she  was 
engaged,  on  the  ground  that  she  had  been  seen  talking  with 
policemen  in  the  neighbourhood.     One  further  death  took  place     / 
m  Belfast  on  July  26,  bringing  the  total  casualty  list  up  to 
eighteen  deaths  and  about  300  wounded.     The  new  victim  was   ' 
a  taxi-cab  driver  who  failed  to  stop  when  challenged  by  a  mili- 
tary sentry.    This  was  the  final  act  of  the  Belfast  rioting.     On    ; 
July  26  Mr.  Devlin  moved  the  adjournment  of  the  House  of 
Commons  in  order  to  raise  the  question  of  the  riots.    A  long 
debate  ensued,  in  the  course  of  which  Sir  Hamar  Greenwood 
declared  that  a  disaster  had  been  averted  in  the  northern  part 
of  Ireland  by  the  intervention  of  the  police  and  military  force^ 
who  had  shown  the  strictest  impartiality. 

The  last  outrage  to  be  recorded  during  July  is  the  murder 
of  Mr.  Frank  Brooke,   Chairman  of  the  Dublin  and  South-  ) 
Eastern  Railway,  and  an  Irish  Privy  Councillor,  who  was  shot  / 
dead  in  his  office  at  Westland  Row  Station,  Dublin,  by  a  party  / 
of  armed  men  on  July  30.    The  murderers  pursued  their  usual  V 
tactics.    They  succeeded  in  approaching  Mr.  Brooke's  room/^ 
altogether  unnoticed,  and  then  suddenly  entered  and  opened 
fire  with  revolvers.    Eight  or  ten  shots  were  fired,  Mr.  Brooke 
was  immediately  killed,  and  considerable  damage  was  donej^ 
the  bullets  to  the  furniture  of  the  room. 

At_the  end  .of  July  General-  Lucas,  who  had  b.een  taken 
prisoner  by  the  Sinn  Feinerg.  at  Eermpy  on  June  26,  succeeded 
m  makmg  hte*  escape.  Early  on  the  morning^  orThe  30th  he 
niftnageato  remove  Ihe  bars  frotfi'the  winduw  of  his  room  and 
got  away  in  the  darkness.  After  wandering  for  some  hours 
across  country  he  had  the  good  fortune  to  intercept  a  military 
lorry  on  the  main  road  between  Limerick  and  Limerick 
Junction.  His  adventures,  however,  were  not  yet  over.  The 
lorry  had  not  proceeded  far  when  its  progress  was  barred  by  a 
fallen  tree  Ijong  across  the  road ;  as  it  pulled  up  a  volley  was 
fired  by  men  in  ambush ;  the  soldiers  left  the  lorry  and  returned 


86]  ENGLISH  HISTOBY.  [Ato. 

the  fire  which  continued  for  about  half  an  hour.  Two  soldiers 
were  shot  dead  and  three  were  wounded  before  relief  arrived 
and  the  attacking  party  were  compelled  to  retreat.  General 
Lucas  made  no  complaint  of  the  treatment  which  had  been 
accorded  to  him  while  he  was  a  prisoner. 

On  Au^st  5  the  Duke  of  Northumberland  brought  forward 
a  motion  m  the  House  of  Lords  deploring  the  failure  of  the 
Government  to  warn  the  public  of  the  true  character  of  the 
revolutionary  movement  in  Ireland,  and  of  the  international 
influences  which  were  behind  it.  He  urged  the  Government 
to  appeal  for  the  united  support  of  the  nation  in  the  present 
crisis.  Lord  Grey  and  Lord  MacDonnell  believed  that  the 
Sinn  Feiners  could  be  satisfied  by  a  grant  of  real  self-govern- 
ment within  the  Empire,  while  Lord  Salisbury  and  Lord 
Chaplin  declared  that  all  the  resources  of  the  Crown  should  be 
used  to  restore  law  and  order  in  Ireland.  In  this  respect  they 
found  the  cordial  agreement  of  the  Lord  Chancellor,  who 
insisted  that  we  must  again  restore  and  make  effective  the 
King's  Courts  and  bring  murderers  and  assassins  to  justice. 

Nor  did  the  Government  delay  in  taking  such  powers  as 
they  thought  would  enable  them  to  achieve  this  object.  On 
August  2  Sir  Hamar  Greenwood  formally  presented  to  the 
House  of  Commons  a  New  Bill  entitled  the  Bestoration  of 
Order  in  Ireland  Bill  which  provided  for  the  suspension  of 
trial  by  jury  in  disturbed  areas  and  the  substitution  of  trial  by 
Court  Martial.  In  cases  where  a  capital  charge  was  preferred, 
j  it  would  be  in  the  power  of  the  Lord-Lieutenant  to  add  a  civilian 
/  member  to  the  Coiurt  Martial.  This  member  would  not  neces- 
y  sarily  be  a  judge  though  he  must  have  legal  qualifications. 
There  was  no  provision  m  the  Bill  for  bringing  cases  to  England 
for  trial  as  had  been  widely  suggested.  Power  was  given  to  the 
Executive  to  make  regulations  in  excess  of  powers  already 
possessed  under  the  Defence  of  the  Bealm  Act.  The  Courts 
Martial  were  to  have  the  power  to  impose  fines  as  well  as  to 
order  imprisonment,  and  no  time  hmit  was  fixed  to  the 
operation  of  the  Bill.  Notice  of  opposition  was  at  once  given 
by  Mr.  Clynes  on  behalf  of  the  Labour  Party. 

The  Bill  was  earned- -through  Parliament  at  great  speed. 
On  the  order  for  fee-«econd  ^reading,  Mr.  Bonar  Law  moved  a 
resolution  limiting  the  discussion  to  ^r^^^;rl^^h^^^^'^MA^An^  that 
the  "BilT  ihust  be  brou^W  to  A  conclusion  on  the  following 
day.  Sir  "Hamar  Greenwood,  who  wus  iii " charge 'oT  the  IBill, 
explained  that  it  authorised  the  Government  to  substitute  trial 
by  Court  Martial  in  any  district  where  the  ordinary  tribunal 
was  impossible,  and  that  it  also  empowered  the  Government  to 
intercept  grants  to  local  authorities  which  were  disloyal  or 
refused  to  discharge  their  duties.  Mr.  As(}uith  declared  that 
the  proposed  measure  was  neither  a  correction  nor  a  palliative 
to  the  state  of  affairs  now  prevailing  in  Ireland.  Mr.  Lloyd 
George  said  that  until  the  Insh  accepted  the  fundamental  and 


19300  Restoration  of  Order  Bill,  [87 

indefeasible  fact  that  Britain  would  never,  and  could  never, 
concede  secession  to  them,  it  was  futile  to  propose  alternative 
claims  for  their  consideration.  The  Bill  was  opposed  by  Mr. 
Clynes,  and  it  was  urged  by  Mr.  Devlin  that  the  outrages  in 
Ireland  were  caused  by  the  policy  of  the  Government.  The 
motion  for  the  rejection  was  defeated  by  a  majority  of  218  and 

th^  second jeadjaqg^g^  then  agreed"to. " 

The  Committee  stage  was  taken  on  the  foUowing  day.  Sir 
Donald  Maclean  moved  an  amendment  to  limit  the  operation 
of  the  Act  to  a  period  of  twelve  months  after  the  termination 
of  the  war,  but  the  amendment  was  rejected  by  a  majority  of 
148,  as  also  was  one  providing  that  no  new  offences  should  be 
created  under  the  Bill.  On  the  motion  of  Mr.  Myers  it  was 
agreed  that  regulations  made  under  the  Act  should  be  laid  upon 
the  table  of  both  Houses  of  Parliament.  In  the  course  of  a 
subsequent  amendment  Mr.  Devlin  was  suspended  from  the 
service  of  the  House  for  disregarding  the  authority  of  the  Chair. 
The  motion  for  his  suspension  was  moved  by  Mr.  Shortt  and 
carried  by  a  majority  of  186,  the  sitting  being  suspended  by  the 
Speaker  until  Mr.  Devlin  had  withdrawn.  The  Government 
then  introduced  an  amendment  further  qualifying  the  definition 
of  the  one  person  with  legal  knowledge  who  must  be  on  the 
Court  Martial.  Other  Government  amendments  were  agreed 
to  by  majorities  of  over  200  and  the  third  reading  was  then 
carried  by  a  majority  of  188.  The  royal  assent  was  given  on 
August  9.  On  the  20th  the  regulations  made  under  the  Bill 
were  officially  announced.  The  announcement  stated  that  the 
regulations  had  been  rendered  necessary  by  the  abnormal  con- 
ditions at  present  prevaiUng  in  certain  parts  of  Ireland,  where 
an  organised  plan  of  violence  and  intimidation  had  resulted  in 
the  {Artial  breakdown  of  the  machinery  of  the  ordinary  law, 
and  in  the  non-performance  by  public  bodies  and  officials  of 
their  statutory  obUgations.  In  particular  it  had  been  found 
that  criminals  were  protected  from  arrest,  that  trial  by  jury 
could  not  be  obtained  because  of  the  intimidation  of  witnesses 
and  jurors,  and  that  local  authorities  and  other  officers  stood  in 
fear  of  injuries  to  their  persons  or  property  if  they  carried  out 
their  statutory  duties.  The  regulations  provided  for  the  putting 
into  operation  of  many  of  the  existing  Defence  of  the  Bealm 
regulations,  and  also  for  the  trial  of  crime  by  Court  Martial  or 
by  speciaUy  constituted  Civil  Courts ;  for  the  withholding  from 
local  authorities,  who  refused  to  discharge  the  obligations 
imposed  upon  them  by  statute,  of  grants  which  would  otherwise 
be  payable  to  them  from  public  funds,  and  for  application  of 
the  grants  so  withheld  to  the  discharge  of  the  obUgations  which 
the  local  authority  had  failed  to  fulfil.  Power  was  given  to  the 
Courts  in  certain  circumstances  to  order  that  cases  should  be 
heard  in  camera.  The  Government  stated,  however,  that  it 
was  not  their  intention  to  apply  these  regulations  in  substitution 
for  the  provisions  of  the  ordinary  law  in  places  where  the 


88]  ENGLISH  HISTORY.  t^w. 

judicial  and  administrative  machinery  of  the  ordinary  law  were 
available,  and  were  not  restricted  in  their  operation  by  methods 
of  violence  and  intimidation. 

Just  before  the  introduction  of  the  Restoration  of  Order 
BiU,  a  strong  deputation  of  commercial  and  professional  men 
from  the  South  of  Ireland  waited  upon  the  Prime  Minister 
with  a  plea  for  the  grant  to  Ireland  of  Dominion  status  within 
the  Empire  with  generous  financial  treatment.  The  deputation 
was  unanimous  in  condemning  the  Home  Rule  Bill.  It  also 
entered  strong  opposition  to  any  scheme  of  partition,  and 
demanded  fiscal  autonomy.  The  mere  fact  that  this  deputation 
took  place  afforded  indication  of  the  immense  progress  which 
had  recently  been  made  among  Irish  Unionists  in  favour  of 
a  wide  measure  of  self-government.  The  scheme  of  settlement 
proposed  was  based  upon  the  recognition  of  Dominion  status 
for  Ireland  foUowed  by  the  inauguration  of  a  constitutional 
assembly  elected  by  a  system  of  proportional  representation 
on  a  wide  democratic  franchise.  It  was  suggested  that  the 
six  Ulster  counties  should,  after  consultation,  be  entitled  to 
vote  themselves  out  of  an  all-Ireland  scheme  subject  to  the 
right  of  the  rest  of  Ireland  to  withdraw  any  concessions  offered 
by  the  majority  of  the  Irish  people  for  the  purpose  of  securing 
the  adhesion  of  Ulster. 

The  Prime  Minister,  in  his  reply,  committed  himself  to 
no  definite  undertaking.  At  the  same  time  he  welcomed  the 
expression  of  moderate  opinion  directed  to  the  attainment  of 
a  peaceful  solution.  He  remarked  that  this  was  the  first 
occasion  on  which  the  spokesmen  of  moderate  opinion  had 
come  to  him,  and  he  expressed  his  readiness  to  meet  the  deputa- 
tion at  any  time  it  wished.  He  expressed  a  desire  that  moderate 
opinion  throughout  Ireland  should  be  organised  and  should 
present  its  considered  view  to  the  Government.  In  his  opinion 
the  deputation  was  most  useful  and  helpful. 

In  the  course  of  August  much  interest  was  taken  in  a  visit 
paid  to  Ireland  by  Dr.  Mannix,  the  Roman  Catholic  Archbishop 
of  Melbourne.  Archbishop  Mannix  was  known  in  America 
as  a  stout  advocate  of  Sinn  Fein,  and  had  made  a  number  of 
inflammatory  speeches  in  that  country  which  gave  the  Govern- 
ment ground  for  belief  that  his  presence  in  Ireland  would 
constitute  a  real  danger;  accordingly  they  announced  that  he 
would  not  be  allowed  to  land  in  Ireland.  He  left  New  York, 
however,  in  the  Baltic  on  Jul^  31,  and  elaborate  arrangements 
were  made  b^  Sinn  Fein  for  his  reception  at  Liverpool.  Muni- 
cipal delegations  from  Dublin  and  Queenstown  were  appointed 
to  welcome  him,  and  arrangements  were  made  throughout 
County  Cork  for  bonfires  to  be  lit  when  the  liner  was  passing 
the  coast.  These  preparations  were,  however,  nullified  by  the 
action  of  the  Government,  who  transferred  the  Archbishop  from 
the  Baltic  off  Queenstown,  and  conveyed  him  to  Penzance  in 
a  destroyer.    Great  disappointment  was  manifested  amongst 


id2a]  Dominion  Some  Bute.  [89 

the  Irish  deputation  when  the  Baltic  arrived  at  Liverpool  and 
it  was  found  that  Dr.  Mannix  was  not  on  board.  Before  leaving 
Penzance  he  made  a  short  statement  in  which  he  said  that  his 
landing  in  England  was  involuntary  and  he  wanted  to  go  to 
Ireland.  This,  however,  the  Government  firmly  refused  to 
allow.  He  was  also  prohibited  from  visiting  Liverpool,  Man- 
chester or  Glasgow,  but  otherwise  he  was  accorded  freedom 
to  travel  where  he  pleased.  He  arrived  in  London  on  August 
10,  being  met  at  Paddington'by  a  delegation  representing  various 
Irish  organisations  in  London. 

The  increasing  popularity  of  the  proposals  for  what  was 
called  Dominion  Home  Eule  gave  rise  to  the  hopes  that  some 
settlement  on  these  lines  might  shortly  be  effected.     Mr.  Lloyd 


bddyy'expressly  including  Sinn  Fein  within  that  denomination. 
He  repeated'"tEe' essential  conditions  which  would  hava.  to  be 
accepted,  namely,  that  the  six  cotinHes  ^  the  north-east  of 
Ulslier  "8houI3*~receive  separfiKeTreaTinenLtiTihat  -undejL  no,  couc 
ditions  would  the  Governmerif  assent  tq^the  secession  of  Ireland 
or  any  pari  of  it*fr6m  th€rUtlltS3"  Kingdom,' and  that -nothing 
Bhould  be:d2asLvMch.couhi  imperil  the  security  of  the  ^United 
Edhgdom  and  Jber  safety  in  war.  Thia  ot(itom8nt.x)LihfiJPiiine 
Minister  was^eceive3^'wiBh  great  disappointment  in  Dublin. 
It  had  been  hoped  that  before  the  House  of  Commons  rose  for 
the  recess  the  Government  would  attempt  to  formulate  some 
new  Irish  policy,  and  it  was  held  that  merely  to  await  advances 
from  Sinn  Fein  would  be  entirely  useless.  It  was  urged  that 
the  initiative  should  be  taken  by  the  Government,  for  by  no 
other  procedure  was  it  likely  that  the  extremists  could  be 
displaced  from  the  power  which  they  had  gained  for  themselves^, ^ 

On  August  23  announcements  were  made  of  the  murder 
of  six  more  Irish  police.  One  wassholwTien  leaving  church 
by  four  men  who  subsequently  escaped  in  a  motor  car.  Others 
were  shot  in  Dublin,  in  Macroom,  and  in  Kilrush  by  unknown 
assailants  who  escaped.  In  County  Galway  a  police  party  was 
ambushed  and  one  policeman  killed  and  another  wounded ; 
other  patrols  were  similarly  ambushed  about  the  same  time, 
while  in  County  Cork,  a  coastguard  station  was  destroyed  by 
fire.  Forty  men  armed  with  revolvers  surprised  the  guard 
and  set  fire  to  the  station,  carrying  off  a  large  quantity  of 
stores. 

At  least  one  of  these  murders  gave  rise  to  prompt  reprisals. 

I>uriafiLfEirn?]^??^of '-^ug^^^  number  of  Sinn  'Feixx 

aBd-JJatinnafifit  premises  atTiisbum  were  burnt  down  and  the 
innfti  firp  hric&fe  waft  quite  unaMf  to  cope  with  the  outbreak 
of  aison.  .Ne|:t  day  further  buildings  were~cre'slroye3^T)y  fire, 
and  a  detachment  of  the  Belfast  *!Kre"  "Brigade  had  to  be  called 
in  tojssist.  Business  in  Lisbum  was  almost  entirely  suspended, 
an?  in  most  of  the  large  establishments  and  mills  the  workers 


90]  ENGLISH  HISTOliY.  [avg. 

were  called  upon  to  sign  a  statement  declaring  that  they  were 
not  Sinn^einefs  nor  had  they  any  sympathy  with  Sinn  Fein, 
but  that  they- were  lojal  to  jangrod  countiyr       '   "' 

Fiifther  disturbances  took  pISce'tir'East  Belfast  on  August 
25,  as  a  resiilt  6T  which  a  ntnnber^  of  persniiBI2£SJ^'mj ured.  It 
appeared  thalra'TfUffiOtije  hal  got  about  that  Protestant  children 
coming  from  school  were  attacked  near  the  Boman  Catholic 
Chapel,  and  information  to  this  effect  was  conveyed  to  the  ship- 
yards. A  large  number  of  men  immediately  ceased  work  and 
invaded  the  area  in  question.  Stone  throwing  and  some  re- 
volver firing  took  place  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Boman  CathoUc 
Chapel ;  police  and  military  were  quickly  on  the  scene,  and  the 
soldiers  mounted  machine-guns  outside  the  Chapel.  Stone 
throwing  between  the  rival  factions  continued,  and  the  crowds, 
as  soon  as  they  wer6  dispersed  by  the  poUce,  reassembled  at 
other  points  where  the  rioting  broke  out  anew.  Early  the  fol- 
lowing morning  the  rioting  assimied  a  more  serious  character. 
The  mob  got  completely  out  of  control  and  soldiers  were  com- 
pelled to  fixe  on  them,  several  persons  being  killed  or  wounded. 
On^the_night  of  August^^and  29,  the  rioting- Jacpl^s  jout  in 
another  part  of  Belfast  even  more  fiercely  than  ijUbad^done  in 
the  preceding  week.  The  origin  of  the  outbrealTwas  obscure, 
but  it  was  stated  that  a  nimiber  of  Nationalists  assembled  in 
the  evening  and  attacked  the  houses  of  Protestants.  The 
houses  were  wrecked,  and  in  retaUation  for  the  burning  of 
furniture  belonging  to  Nationahsts  in  Lisbum  and  other  districts 
in  Belfast,  the  furniture  was  taken  out  into  the  street  and 
burned.  A  large  crowd  soon  assembled  and  for  a  time  fierce 
rioting  took  place,  in  which  revolvers  were  freely  used  and  stone 
throwing  was  general.  A  detachment  of  troops  with  armoured 
cars  soon  arrived  on  the  scene  and  the  military  were  compelled 
to  open  fire  before  the  crowds  could  be  dispersed.  Sections  of 
the  rioters  continued  to  fire  revolver  shots  at  the  mihtary  and 
police,  and  throughout  the  night  there  was  incessant  sniping. 

Oiijiijgust_§QlBfilfa8t_ex^  the  worstr  riQtijigJn  its 

histoiy^  and  business  was  entirely  suspended  in  a  great  portion 
of  the  principal  th6foughfares  in  the  centre  of  the  city.  The 
rioting  began  in  the  morning  when^i^ramcar^  coming  to  the  city 
were  conveying  crowds  of  shipyard  and  other  workers.  Sinn 
Feiners  gathered  at  street  comers  and  began  throwing  stones 
at  the  tramcars :  for  a  short  period  the  rioting  was  confined  to 
stone  throwing  in  which  hundreds  were  engaged  on  both  sides ; 
the  affair  then  took  a  more  serious  turn  and  shots  began  to  ring 
out.  One  Sinn  Feiner  was  seen  to  come  out  openly  in  the 
middle  of  York  Street  and  fire  a  number  of  shots  towards  where 
a  large  crowd  had  assembled;  many  people  were  wounded, 
some  being  taken  to  hospital  in  motor  cars,  and  numerous  cases 
of  serious  injury  by  stone  throwing  were  reported.  The  fight- 
ing was  earned  on  with  extreme  ferocity  for  the  greater  part 
of  an  hour,  during  which  the  windows  of  numerous  business 


1920.]  Riots  in  Belfast  [91 

premises  were  smashed.  Soldiers  then  arrived  upon  the  scene 
and  the  Sinn  Feiners  retired  into  side  streets.  Desultory  stone 
throwing  continued  for  some  time  until  the  officer  in  command 
of  the  troops  warned  the  opposing  sections  that  if  they  did  not 
clear  the  street  they  would  be  fired  upon.  After  the  York  Street 
rioting  had  been  queUed  a  crowd  of  shipyard  workers  marched 
off  singing  loyal  songs  and  soon  came  into  colUsion  once  again 
with  Sinn  Feiners  and  Nationalists.  Stone  throwing  was  suc- 
ceeded by  firearms,  and  at  one  point  a  number  of  Sinn  Feiners 
suddenly  dashed  out  and  poured  a  regular  fusillade  of  revolver 
shots  into  the  advancing  crowd.  Nor  was  the  rioting  confined 
to  a  single  district.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  Brown  Square 
stone  throwing  and  shooting  occurred  and  troops  had  to  be 
called  to  the  scene ;  armoured  cars  were  also  brought  into  ser- 
vice, but  rioting  continued  more  or  less  fiercely  for  some  time 
and  many  casualties  were  reported.  The  military  were  com- 
pelled to  open  fire  on  a  crowd  which  had  attacked  a  shop  and 
begun  to  loot  the  premises.  A  machine-gun  was  brought  into 
action  and  the  crowd  quickly  melted  away,  though  not  before  a 
number  of  people  had  been  seriously  injured.  Armoured  cars 
continued  to  patrol  the  centre  of  the  city  throughout  the  day, 
and  there  were  a  number  of  isolated  attacks  upon  Nationalists. 
On  August  31  there  was  some  further  firing  as  also  sporadic 
outbrec^s  of  looting  and  rioting  in  some  of  the  outlying  districts, 
but  the.  soldiers  in  general  succeeded  in  restoring  order  with 
the  aid  of  armoured  cars  and  machine-guns.  The  street  rioting 
was  apt  to  break  out  with  great  suddenness,  and  often  arose 
from  very  trifling  provocation.  The.  total  casualties  _d.uring 
the  week-end  were  reported  to  .be^-20  dead  and  169  Rp.rioiialy 
wotliidBif ;  TTOt  IflCllriKhg  patients  who  were  treated  for  minor 
injuries  only.*  "This  troops'  wSe"  "quite  impartial  in  their  efforts^  > 
t»4[oop-  ordegr--  In  one  case  they  opened  fire  on  a  party  of  { 
Orangemen  who  were  going  to  attack  a  Sinn  Fein  Club.  This  \ 
was  alleged  to  be  the  first  occasion  on  which  the  troops  had  fired  ^ 
ujon  the  Union  Jack.  J 

ATiIrthSr^eature  of  the  rioting  was  the  large  number  of  fires 
whjdr  biuke  uul  in  varionB  parts  of .  "ftie  city  during  the  week ; 
the  number  was  estimated  at  about  170.  The  result  waa  to 
render  thousands  of  people  homeless'  and  in.3pite  of  the  efforts 
of  charitable  persons  the  greatest  diffi.culty-waa  found  in  Aiding 
fresh  accommodation.  A  Belief  Fund  was  started^  and  several 
bmidings  were  converted  into  temporaigr-  dormitories,  .  On 
'"Septembef  1  fierce  rioting  occurred. once  more.  The  rioting 
began  as  before  in  the  morning  while  shipyard  and  other  workers 
were  going  to  their  work.  Snipers  opened  fire  upon  the  work- 
men's tramcars  with  revolvers  and  other  weapons  from  a  side 
street,  and  continued  to  fire  even  after  the  arrival  of  troops. 
The  soldiers  opened  fire  on  them,  which  was  returned  by  the 
snipers,  and  the  fighting  continued  for  nearly  a  quarter  of  an 
hour ;  it  increased  in  intensity  as  the  snipers  were  driven  farther 


92]  ENGLISH  HISTORY.  [auo. 

into  their  retreats.  Every  tramcar  as  it  came  along  had  to  run 
a  gauntlet  of  fire,  and  each  vehicle  was  carrying  nearly  twice 
its  complement  of  passengers.  A  a  a  rftsnlt  nf  thiR  rj^^-^^g  the 
number  of  persons  reported  killed  was  increased  to  25,  while 
over  200  wounded  were  "detained  inr^hospital.  A  number  of 
other  premises  were  biuned  down,  Ufid^e  damage  was  BUllmated 
at  over  1,000,00()Z.  In  cohse(juOTcrijfi±ro  s ta te  yJLa,fflrirS4nili- 
tary  authoritiea. intrpducedjbhe^  on  Au^st  31,  all 

citizens  being  required  to.  remain  witKn  doors  from  lOlSO  at 
night  until  5  o'clock  in  the  morning."         '  ] 

Meanwhile' outrages'conlinued  to  take  place  in  other  parts 
of  Ireland.  On  August  28  Major  Johnstone  was  fatally  shot  at 
Eden,,  near  Glenges.  Hie  was  sitting  in  his  clining-foom  about 
iO  o'clock  at  night  when  he  was  fired  at  through  the  window 
and  killed.  On  August  30  attempts  were  made  to  cgjtpture -three 
pohce_baiTa£k8jn^oi^  ppnegal;  ^e'police'put  up  a  .success- 
f  ul.lfisistance^ln  each  case  and  pesLt,  pST  theattacks.  At  Boss- 
lare,  where  a  Fancy  Dress  Ball  was  being  held  in  the  hotel, 
masked  and  armed  men  entered  the  ballroom  and  ordered  the 
dance  to  be  stopped  and  the  dancers  to  face  the  wall  and  hold 
their  hands  up.  Many  of  them  were  then  searched  and  some 
of  the  women  were  told  to  go  home  on  the  ground  that  they 
were  insufliciently  clad.  On  September  l^jolicemen  were  at- 
tack^iin^CouaJty-Mayoj^one  was  ;kjlk(Tap(i  -anotEer' sei^ 
wounded,  and  on  the  same^ay  Mr.  J.  M.  Galway  Foley,  for- 

in 

County  LimericF~was  also  raided,  sporting  guns  and  ammuni- 
tion being  taken.  The  Browhead  Signal  Station,  which  had 
/  already  been  attacked  on  August  10,  was  totally  destroyed  by 
fire  and  bombs  on  the  night  of  August  31.  In  short  the  end  of 
August  found  Ireland  in  a  more  disturbed  condition  even  than 
it  had  yet  been. 

The  pressure  of  Government  business  at  the  end  of  the 
session  led,  as  usual,  to  the  appropriation  of  the  whole  time  of 
the  House  of  Commons  for  Government  business.  On  August  2 
Mr.  Bonar  Law  moved  that  until  the  autumn  adjournment 
of  the  House  Government  business  should  not  be  interrupted 
under  the  provisions  of  any  order  regulating  the  sittings  of  the 
House,  and  that  it  might  be  entered  upon  at  any  hour,  although 
opposed.  On  the  same  day  the  House  discussed  the  vote  for 
the  British  share  of  the  advances  to  be  made  in  respect  of 
German  coal  deliveries.  The  vote  asked  for  was  a  nominal  one 
of  lOOZ.  towards  a  sum  of  5,000,000?.  Sir  L.  Worthington-Evans 
said  that  the  British  participation  in  the  total  loan  supplied  by 
the  Allies  would  be  24  per  cent.  The  object  of  the  loan  was 
to  secure  to  France  the  monthly  deliveries  of  coal  to  which  she 
was  entitled  under  the  treaty,  and  it  was  ipade  for  the  purpose 
of  paying  the  difference  between  the  internal  price  of  coal  in 
Germany  and  the  export,  or  world  price,  of  coal.     Mr.  Lloyd 


1990]  The  Sitiiation  in  Poland.  [93 

George  explained  that  the  loan  would  come  out  of  shipping 
assets  allocated  to  us  by  the  Spa  Agreement,  and  the  vote  was 
then  agreed  to. 

Next  day  the  vote  for  the  Ministry  of  Munitions  came  up, 
and  Mr.  J.  F.  Hope  said  that  on  the  face  of  the  revised  estimate 
a  net  increase  of  19,003,0002.  was  asked  for,  whereas  in  fact  the 
receipts  considerably  exceeded  the  expenditure.  After  some 
criticism  concerning  the  action  taken  with  regard  to  the  St. 
Omer  dump,  the  vote  was  agreed  to  by  a  majority  of  153. 

On  August  4  Lord  Curzon  made  a  statement  on  the  treaty 
with  Turkey.  He  said  that  under  the  terms  of  the  treaty  a 
Financial  Commission  was  to  be  set  up  in  Constantinople  which 
was  to  take  over  the  entire  control  of  the  finances,  revenue,  and 
expenditure  of  the  country.  The  Allied  Powers  had  foregone 
all  claim  to  reparation,  and  had  not  exacted  any  war  indemnity. 
The  Straits  were  to  be  guaranteed  as  an  international  highway. 
Turkey  was  assured  of  free  access  to  the  ports  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  ^gean,  and  was  given  freedom  of  transit  in  the 
ports  taken  from  her,  and  a  free  zone  in  the  port  of  Smyrna. 

The  situation  in  Poland  was  mentioned  in  the  House  of 
Commons  several  times  at  the  beginning  of  August.  On  the 
2nd  Mr.  C.  Palmer  moved  the  adjournment  of  the  House  in 
order  to  call  attention  to  the  disturbing  effect  which  a  manifesto 
on  the  subject  of  Poland,  issued  by  a  member  of  the  Govern- 
ment, had  h$kd  on  foreign  opinion,  but  the  motion  was  negatived. 
On  the  6th  Mr.  Lloyd  George  stated,  in  reply  to  several 
questions,  that  the  British  Government  had  sent  a  second  note 
to  the  Soviet  Government  pointing  out  that  if  the  Soviet 
Government  insisted  on  peace  conditions  being  settled  between 
Poland  and  Bussia  to  the  exclusion  of  the  other  Powers,  the 
basis  on  which  it  was  proposed  to  conduct  negotiations  in 
London  would  have  disappeared.  Also  that  it  appeared  that 
the  Soviet  armies  had  now  far  advanced  into  ethnographical 
Poland,  and  should  advantage  be  taken  of  the  delay  now  caused 
to  continue  this  advance.  His  Majesty's  Government  would  be 
driven  to  the  conclusion  that  it  was  not  the  intention  of  the 
Soviet  Government  to  respect  the  liberty  and  independence 
of  Poland.  On  August  9  the  adjournment  of  the  House  was 
again  moved  by  Colonel  Wedgwood,  to  deprecate  the  taking  of 
warlike  measures  against  Bussia  without  the  House  having  an 
op^rtunity  of  discussing  the  matter  or  sanctioning  the  expense. 
Tms  motion  was  negatived  by  a  majority  of  116. 

A  more  complete  statement  on  Poland  was  made  by  Mr. 
Lloyd  George  in  moving  the  second  reading  of  the  Consolidated 
Fund  (Appropriation)  Bill  on  August  10.  The  Prime  Minister 
stated  that  at  the  Allied  Conference  at  Lympne  the  Allies  had 
agreed  that  it  was  the  sole  purpose  of  their  policy  in  this  matter 
to  secure  peace  on  the  basis  of  the  independence  of  ethno- 
graphical Poland.  The  Soviet  Government  had  said  that  the 
Foles  were  meeting  them  at  Minsk,  and  that  they  wished  to 


94]  ENGLISH  HISTOEY.  [auo. 

treat  directly  with  them  there.  The  Allies  had  agreed  that  if 
Poland  accepted  the  terms  of  the  Soviet  Government,  they  (the 
Allies)^  would  not  intervene  to  prevent  or  upset  the  arrange- 
ment. If  the  Minsk  Conference  should  fail  because  the  Soviet 
Government  insisted  on  terms  not  consistent  with  the  existence 
of  Poland  as  a  free  nation,  then  the  Allies  would  assist  the 
Poles  with  equipment  and  with  necessary  military  advice,  and 
thus,  either  by  naval  or  international  action,  would  exercise  an 
economic  pressure  upon  Soviet  Bussia,  and  would  feel  free 
to  send  supplies  to  General  Wrangel.  A  debate  followed,  in 
which  Mr.  Asquith  spoke  of  the  inaction  of  the  League  of 
Nations,  and  Mr.  Clynes  recognised  that  the  independence  of 
Poland  was  essential  to  the  continued  peace  of  the  world. 

The  Polish  question  was  regarded  by  the  Labour  Party  as  a 
matter  of  very  special  concern,  and  a  Council  of  Action  had 
been  appointed  to  consider  what  line  should  be  taken  on  the 
subject.  On  August  13  a  Trade  Union  and  Labour  Party 
Conference,  convened  by  the  Council  of  Action,  was  held  in 
London,  composed  of  689  representatives  of  Trade  Unions  and 
355  representatives  of  local  Labour  Party  organisations  and 
Trades  Councils.  The  conference  was  entirely  unanimous,  and 
forthwith  adopted  the  declarations  and  policy  of  the  Council  of 
Action.  The  principal  resolution  hailed  with  satisfaction  the 
declaration  of  the  Eussian  Government  in  favour  of  the  com- 
plete independence  of  Poland,  and  threatened  resistance  to  any 
and  every  form  of  military  and  naval  intervention  against  the 
Soviet  Government.  The  kind  of  resistance  intended  was 
defined  in  a  later  resolution  as  '*  any  and  every  form  of  with- 
drawal of  labour  which  circumstances  may  require."  The 
precise  plan  of  campaign  was  left  to  the  decision  of  the  Council 
of  Action,  which  was  authorised  to  remain  in  being  not  only  as 
long  as  there  might  be  a  possibility  of  intervention  on  behalf  of 
Poland  or  General  Wrangel,  but  until  the  Soviet  Government 
had  been  recognised  and  unrestricted  trading  and  commercial 
relationships  had  been  established  between  Great  Britain  and 
Bussia.  The  resolution  did  not  necessarily  contemplate  a 
general  strike,  though  it  was  obvious  that  this  weapon  was  to 
be  held  ultimately  in  reserve.  Mr.  Thomas  pointed  out  how 
ineffective  Parliamentary  effort  was  to  prevent  war  if  the 
Government  let  themselves  be  drawn  into  war,  and  urged  that 
under  these  circumstances  the  interference  of  Trade  Unionists 
was  justified.    Mr.  Clynes  took  up  a  similar  attitude. 

Its  policy  being  thus  endorsed  the  Council  of  Action  pro- 
ceeded to  hold  daily  sittings,  and  to  set  up  local  Committees  of 
Action  in  various  parts  of  the  country.  It  decided  that  Mr. 
W.  Adamson  and  Mr.  Harry  Gosling  should  go  to  Paris  to 
consult  with  representatives  of  the  Confederation  G^n^rale  du 
Travail,  and  the  French  Socialist  Party.  Labour  bodies  and 
Trade  Union  branches  were  to  be  advised  to  call  representative 
conferences  to  establish  local  Councils  of  Action,  and  these 


1920.]  Adjournment  of  Parliament.  [96 

Councils,  as  well  as  Trade  Unions,  were  to  be  asked  to  report 
on  any  orders  on  which  members  were  at  present  working  in 
the  making  of  munitions  or  equipment  or  other  war  material, 
or  the  movement  or  transport  of  these  munitions. 

After  a  few  days  it  became  clear  that  the  Council  of  Action 
did  not  really  intend  to  call  a  general  strike  in  support  of  Soviet 
Bussia.  Such  a  strike,  if  it  were  declared,  could  not  long  be 
maintained  and  would  invite  defeat.  The  policy  of  the  Council 
would  be  directed  rather  to  placing  a  veto  on  the  manufacture 
of  munitions  and  equipment,  and  to  a  refusal  to  carry  war 
material  or  troops  to  the  ports.  They  would  not  interfere 
with  the  provision  of  food  or  the  running  of  trains,  but  they 
would  not  carry  war  material  or  soldiers.  Mr.  Adamson  and 
Mr.  Gosling  forthwith  obtained  passports  and  went  to  France 
as  directed  by  the  Council,  but  they  had  no  sooner  arrived  in 
that  country  than  the  authorities  there  gave  them  notice  to 
leave,  and  they  were  compelled  to  return  to  England  leaving 
their  mission  unaccomplished.  With  this  incident  the  sudden 
enthusiasm  with  which  the  Council  of  Action  had  been  initiated 
as  suddenly  came  to  an  end,  and  little  more  was  heard  of  its 
activities. 

The  House  of  Commons  adjourned  on  August  16.     Mr. 
Bonar  Law  moved  that  it  should  reassemble  on  October  19 
for  the  autumn  recess  unless  the  Speaker,  after  consultation 
with  the  Government,  should  decide  that  the  pubhc  interest 
would  be  served  by  its  meeting  at  any  earlier  time.     The  only 
contingency  which  would  make  an  earlier  meeting  necessary, 
he  said,  would  be  if  the  terms  proposed  by  Bussia  to  Poland 
should  prove  to  be  insincere,  and  others  should  be  proposed 
which,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Government,  would  interfere  with 
the  independence  of  Poland  and  her  ethnographical  frontier. 
Mr.  Asquith  supported  the  motion,  and  Mr.  Clynes,  referring 
to  the  question  of  labour,  declared  that  it  ought  not  to  forfeit 
its  right  to  strike  if  the  Government  should  decide  on  a  foreign 
policy  dangerous  to  the  coimtry  and  to  the  world  at  large. 
Lord  Bobert  Cecil  expressed  profound  regret  at  the  threat  of 
direct  action  on  the  part  of  labour  made  by  the  Council  of 
Action.     Mr.  Lloyd  George  pointed  out  that  at  a  time  when 
he  and  his  colleagues  were  striving  for  peace,  any  extra  de- 
monstration on  the  part  of  labour  was  entirely  unjustifiable. 
The  motion  for  the  adjournment  was  then  agreed  to. 

A  similar  statement  was  made  on  behalf  of  the  Government 
in  the  House  of  Lords  on  the  motion  for  the  adjournment. 
Lord  Curzon  said  that  the  only  condition  on  which  Parhament 
might  be  summoned  during  the  recess  would  be  if  events  in 
the  Eastern  part  of  Europe,  and  events  now  happening  at 
Minsk,  involved  any  direct  infringement  of  the  independence 
of  Poland  and  of  the  maintenance  of  her  ethnographical  frontiers 
which  we,  with  our  Allies,  were  pledged  to  maintain  by  the 
Treaty  of  Versailles,  by  the  Covenant  of  the  League  of  Nations, 


96]  ENGLISH  HISTOEY.  [ato. 

and  by  the  declarations  which  from  time  to  time  we  had 
made. 

Just  before  the  adjournment  Dr.  Addison  introduced  in 
the  House  of  Commons  the  new  Ministry  of  Health  Bill,  which 
contained  important  provisions  relating  to  housing  and  municipal 
hospitals.  The  Bill  provided  that  County  Councils  and  County 
Borough  Councils  should  be  enabled,  if  they  thought  fit,  to 
maintain  or  contribute  to  the  maintenance  of  hospitals.  Power 
was  given  to  local  authorities  to  hire  houses  suitable  for  the 
housing  of  the  working  classes.  They  were,  moreover,  entitled 
to  use  compulsion  in  taking  over  houses  which  had  been  withheld 
from  occupation  for  a  period  of  at  least  three  months.  The 
Appeal  Tnbunal,  which  heard  appeals  from  orders  prohibiting 
luxury  building,  was  enabled  to  sit  in  more  than  one  division, 
and  thus  accelerate  the  hearing  of  appeals.  The  Minister  of 
Health  was  given  power  to  take  action  for  the  purpose  of 
checking  luxury  building  in  certain  cases  which  were  not  covered 
by  the  existing  law.  There  was  a  clause  designed  to  facilitate 
the  canning  out  of  housing  schemes  promoted  by  a  local 
authority  outside  its  own  area.  For  this  purpose  agreements 
might  be  made  between  the  local  authorities  concerned  for  the 
execution  of  works  incidental  to  the  scheme,  and  for  the  conse- 
quential financial  adjustments.  The  Bill  contained  a  further 
clause  enabling  persons  suffering  from  incipient  mental  disorder, 
but  not  certified  under  the  Lunacy  Acts,  to  be  received  with 
their  own  consent  in  Institutions  approved  by  the  Minister  for 
a  period  not  exceeding  six  months,  without  exposing  the  persons 
receiving  them  to  possible  penalties  under  the  Lunacy  Acts. 
It  was  anticipated  that  this  clause  would  be  especially  useful 
in  cases  of  shell-shock  and  similar  nervous  disorders.  It  was 
also  proposed  in  the  Bill  to  continue  the  power  of  prohibiting 
the  sale  of  clinical  thermometers  which  had  not  been  properly 
tested.  The  Bill  did  not  apply  to  Scotland  or  Ireland.  No 
discussion  took  place  upon  it  before  the  House  adjourned. 

The  result  of  Lord  Milner's  Mission  to  Egypt  was  announced 
about  the  middle  of  August,  when  the  Foreign  Office  reported 
the  termination  of  the  conversations  which  had  been  taking 
place  between  the  Mission  on  the  one  hand,  and  Zaghlul  Pasha 
and  his  colleagues  on  the  other.  As  a  result  of  these  conversa- 
tions a  certain  common  basis  of  agreement  was  attained,  the 
chief  points  of  which  were  as  follows:  The  independence  of 
Egypt  was  to  be  recogmsed  by  Great  Britain,  who  would 
guarantee  Egypt's  integrity  against  outside  aggression.  In 
return  Egypt  would  recognise  Great  Britain's  privileged  position 
in  the  Valley  of  the  Nile,  and  would  agree,  m  case  of  war,  to 
give  her  every  facility  and  access  to  Egyptian  territory.  Great 
Britain  would  maintain  a  garrison  in  Egypt  in  the  canal  zone. 
Egypt  would  regain  control  of  her  foreign  relations  subject  to 
her  not  making  treaties  at  variance  with  British  policy,  and 
would  have  the  right  to  have  her  own  diplomatic  representatives 


19300  The  Future  of  Egypt  [97 

abroad.  In  countries  where  no  Egyptian  representative  was 
appointed  the  British  representative  would  act  for  Egyptian 
interests.  The  capitulations  were  to  be  abolished  and  the  veto 
on  legislation  affecting  foreigners  would  be  vested  in  the  High 
Commissioner.  There  were  to  be  no  more  advisers  in  the 
different  Ministries,  but  a  British  official  was  to  be  appointed 
to  take  over  and  carry  out  the  operations  of  the  Pubhc  Debt 
Ck>mmission,  while  another  British  official  would  look  after 
the  legislation  affecting  foreigners.  If  the  Egyptian  Government 
so  desired  they  would  be  able  to  ask  these  officials  for  expert 
advice.  The  rights  of  the  British  officials  at  present  in  the 
Service  were  to  be  safeguarded,  and  any  who  were  dispensed 
with  by  the  Egyptian  Government,  or  who  wished  to  resign 
on  the  introduction  of  the  new  regime,  would  be  generously 
compensated.  All  British  officials  retained  or  appointed  in 
the  future  would  be  responsible  to  the  Egyptian  head  of  the 
department  to  which  they  were  appointed.  The  final  agreement, 
which  was  to  be  negotiated  between  properly  accredited  re- 
presentatives of  the  two  Governments,  would  have  to  be 
submitted  for  confirmation  to  the  British  Parliament  and  to 
the  Egyptian  National  Assembly.  It  was  highly  probable  that 
the  latter  would  be  asked  to  pass  a  new  organic  law  embodying 
the  new  agreement  and  laying  down  the  future  constitution  of 
the  country  and  the  relative  responsibilities  of  the  Minister  and 
the  Sovereign. 

About  the  middle  of  August  much  interest  was  aroused  by 
the  publication  of  a  number  of  wireless  telegrams  intercepted 
by  the  British  Government  which  had  reference  to  the  financial 
circumstances  of  the  Daily  Herald,  the  leading  labour  news- 
paper, the  editor  of  which  was  Mr.  George  Lansbury.  The 
messages  were  exchanged  between  Tchitcherin,  the  Soviet 
Foreign  Commissar,  and  Litvinoff,  Soviet  Envoy  at  Copen- 
hagen. In  the  first  of  these  telegrams  Tchitcherin  said  that 
Lansbury  was  particularly  anxious  for  help  in  obtaining  paper, 
and  spoke  of  a  sum  which  was  to  be  repaid  in  course  of  time. 
The  second  telegram  referred  to  a  credit  which  was  being 
opened  for  Lansbury  for  purchasing  paper.  One  telegram  from 
Litvinoff  remarked  that  on  Bussian  questions  the  Daily  Herald 
"  acts  as  if  it  were  our  organ,"  and  added  that  it  needed  50,000 
francs  for  six  months.  He  advised  that  help  should  be  afforded. 
Finally  a  telegram  stated  that  Litvinoff  had  given  instructions 
for  handing  over  the  Chinese  Bonds  to  the  Herald.  It  was 
understood  that  these  Bonds  were  in  the  possession  of  the 
Moscow  Norodny  Bank. 

The  suggestion  that  the  Daily  Herald  was  being  financed 
from  Bussia  was  indignantly  repudiated  by  that  Journal,  which 
denied  that  it  had  ever  received  Bolshevist  money,  Bolshevist 
paper,  or  Chinese  Bonds.  As  for  the  docimients  themselves 
the  Daily  Herald  said  that  there  was  no  proof  beyond  the 
word  of  the  British  Government  which  was  *'  a  notorious  liar." 

G 


98]  ENGLISH  HISTOEY.  [aiw. 

Three  or  four  weeks  later  the  incident  was  revived  by  the  Daily 
Herald  itself,  which  announced  that  they  had  received  an  offer  of 
75,000Z.  in  Eussian  gold  to  ensure  that  the  continued  publication 
of  the  paper  should  be  guaranteed.  The  offer  had  been  received 
by  one  of  the  Directors,  and  the  Daily  Heraid  asked  for  the 
opinion  of  its  readers  as  to  whether  it  should  accept  this 
Bolshevist  gold,  adding  that  the  financial  position  which  it  was 
intended  to  meet  had  in  fact  arisen,  and  that  without  it,  it 
would  be  necessary  at  once  to  double  the  price  of  the  paper. 
On  September  14  the  Board  of  Directors  of  the  Herald  met  and 
passed  a  resolution  declaring  that  they  had  no  knowledge  of 
any  money  offered  to  the  Daily  Herald  from  the  Third  Inter- 
national, and  now  that  the  fact  was  brought  to  their  knowledge 
they  decided  not  to  accept  the  offer.  They  expressed  their 
strong  faith  that  the  British  Labour  movement,  and  all  lo^al 
readers  of  the  Daily  Herald  recognised  the  ever-increasmg 
value  of  the  paper  to  the  movement,  and  would  support  it  to  the 
full  extent  of  its  financial  requirements.  After  some  correspond- 
ence with  the  Prime  Minister  the  incident  then  came  to  an  end. 

The  Increase  of  Eent  Act  proved  to  be  unpopular  in  various 
quarters,  and  a  movement  was  set  on  foot  in  Scotland  for  the 
declaration  of  a  24-hour  strike  as  a  demonstration  against 
increases  of  rent.  The  strike  took  place  on  August  23.  In 
Glasgow  tramway  cars  were  withdrawn  completely  from  the 
streets  in  the  early  hours  of  the  morning.  In  the  shipyards  on 
the  upper  reaches  of  the  Clyde  the  stoppage  was  general,  and 
business  throughout  the  town  was  seriously  interrupted.  Before 
midday  demonstrators  began  to  assemble,  and  processions  headed 
with  banners  and  bands  converged  upon  the  centre  of  the  city. 
In  spite  of  the  large  crowds  no  disorder  occurred.  In  Lanark- 
shire the  strike  was  a  comparative  failure,  although  60,000 
miners  remained  idle  for  the  day.  In  Edinburgh  the  men 
reluctantly  obeyed  the  orders  of  the  Unions  and  the  processions 
and  demonstrations  were  less  enthusiastic  than  those  which  had 
taken  place  in  Glasgow. 

A  far  more  serious  situation,  however,  now  began  to  be 
threatened  in  the  gradually  increasing  discontent  of  the  miners, 
.  which  at  last  seemed  as  though  coming  to  a  head  in  a  great 
strike.  The  Mining  Industry  Bill,  which  had  from  the  start 
been  tmpopular  among  the  miners,  passed  into  law  and  received 
the  royal  assent  on  August  16.  Before  it  passed  certain 
further  alterations  were  made  in  it  as  a  result  of  its  amendment 
in  the  House  of  Lords  and  subsequent  re-amendment  in  the 
House  of  Commons.  One  amendment  was  agreed  to  which 
substituted  for  the  Ministry  of  Mines  a  department  under  the 
Board  of  Trade  with  a  Secretaiy  for  Mines  as  its  chief.  The 
Lords  had  dropped  out  a  provision  limiting  the  expenses  in- 
curred in  any  one  year  to  250,000^,  and  fixing  the  salary  of 
the  Secretary  of  Mines  at  1,6002.  per  annum,  but  this  provision 
was  reinserted  by  the  Commons.    An  amendment  by  the  Lords 


1990.]  The  Mining  Indiistry  Bill.  [99 

requiring  mine-owners  to  pay  the  expenses  incurred  by  their 
representatives  on  Committees  other  than  Pit  Committees,  was 
disagreed  with,  and  amendments  were  inserted  in  its  place 
which  left  the  owners  free  to  decide  for  themselves  whether 
they  would  pay  them.  No  further  changes  of  importance  were 
made. 

The  crisis  in  the  coal  industry  started  with  a  delegate 
meeting  of  the  Miners'  Federation  on  August  12.  The  specific 
demands  of  the  miners  were  for  a  reduction  in  the  price  of  coal 
to  the  domestic  consumer,  and  an  increase  of  wages  for  them- 
selves, but  in  the  background  the  question  of  nationalisation 
of  the  mines  could  always  be  felt.  The  reply  of  the  Govern- 
ment to  the  miners  was  virtually  that  the  home  consumer  ought 
to  pay  the  economic  price  of  the  coal  he  burned.  It  was  true 
that  export  coal  was  sold  at  a  much  higher  price,  but  the 
Government  held  that  this  exceptional  profit  should  be  treated 
in  the  same  way  as  happened  m  other  industries,  and  be  ap- 
propriated to  national  uses  through  the  operation  of  the  Excess 
Profits  Duty.  The  miners,  on  the  other  hand,  desired  to  share 
these  excess  profits  with  the  consumer  leaving  the  Government 
merely  a  working  balance  of  3,000,000Z.  When  the  delegate 
meeting  met  on  August  12  it  decided  to  take  a  ballot  of  its 
members  as  to  whether  they  were  prepared  to  strike  in  support 
of  the  demands  put  before  the  Government.  Those  demands, 
it  will  be  remembered,  were  for  a  reduction  in  the  price  of 
domestic  coal  by  14^.  2d.  a  ton,  and  an  advance  of  wages  of  25. 
per  shift  for  members  of  18  years  of  age  and  upwards.  Is, 
per  shift  from  16  to  18  years,  and  9d.  per  shift  below  16. 
It  was  calculated  that  the  proposed  increase  of  wages  would 
cost  the  industry  27,000,000Z.,  and  the  reduction  of  price  would 
deplete  its  income  by  36,000,000/.  in  the  year.  The  schemes 
were  based  on  the  estimate  of  the  miners  that  the  surplus  pro- 
fits arising  from  exported  coal  amounted  to  66,000,0002.,  and 
the  Government,  though  not  accepting  these  figures,  held  that 
in  any  case  the  destination  of  the  excess  profits  should  be 
different  from  that  desired  by  the  miners. 

On  August  23  Mr.  Smillie  spoke  at  a  demonstration  of  North 
Wales  miners  at  Wrexham.  He  said  that  the  miners  were  de- 
termined that  the  nation  should  own  the  mines  and  that  the 
time  would  come  when  the  present  exploiters  would  have  to 
give  them  up.  They  were  face  to  face,  m  all  probability,  with 
a  strike  within  the  next  few  weeks.  The  Government,  through 
Sir  Robert  Home,  said  that  they  could  not  and  would  not  climb 
down:  that,  said  Mr.  Smillie,  was  also  the  position  of  the 
miners.  The  question  should  be  settled  on  the  justice  of  the 
claim.  He  expressed  the  hope  that  the  Triple  Alliance,  of 
which  the  miners  were  one  section,  might  feel  that  the  claim 
was  just  and  lend  support.  Unless  the  Government  were  pre- 
pared to  give  way  or  to  prove  that  the  claim  was  unfair,  he  was 
afraid  there  would  be  a  stoppage  in  the  coal  trade  in  three  weeks' 

o2 


100]  ENGLISH  HISTORY.  [aw. 

time.  The  miners,  he  said,  did  not  desire  the. stoppage;  they 
knew  all  about  strikes  and  did  not  approach  one  lightheartedly, 
but  there  were  times  when  it  would  be  wrong  not  to  use  their 
organisation  to  secure  their  just  demands.  This  speech  was 
taken  as  an  indication  that  the  desire  for  nationahsation  was 
really  at  the  back  of  the  miners'  demands. 

The  minets'  ballot  was  taken  on  August  25  and  26,  and  the 
result  announced  on  August  31.  The  figures  were  606,782  in 
favour  of  a  strike,  and  238,865  against,  giving  a  majority  in 
favour  of  a  strike  of  367,917.  The  percentage  majority  was 
thus  71*75,  more  than  the  necessary  two-thirds  required  to 
authorise  a  strike.  After  the  figures  had  been  discussed  by  the 
Executive  of  the  Miners*  Federation,  a  meeting  of  the  Triple 
Alliance  was  held  at  which  the  case  for  the  miners  was  presented. 
It  was  subsequently  considered  separately  by  the  Transport 
Workers  and  the  Bailwaymen,  and  on  meeting  again  the  con- 
ference passed  a  resolution  stating  that  they  were  unanimously 
of  opinion  that  the  claims  of  the  miners  were  both  reasonable 
and  just  and  should  be  conceded  forthwith.  On  September  2, 
200  delegates  attended  a  Miners'  Conference  and  decided,  with- 
out hesitation,  to  act  on  the  mandate  given  to  them  by  the 
ballot.  It  had  been  generally  anticipated  that  the  handing  in 
of  strike  notices  would  expire  on  September  18,  but  the  con- 
ference fixed  September  25  as  the  date,  and  the  extension  of 
a  week  was  regarded  as  a  sign  that  the  miners  would  welcome 
an  opportunity  to  resume  negotiations  with  the  Government. 
Thereupon  both  sides  hastened  to  place  their  cases  before  the 
public.  The  miners*  case  was  presented  by  Mr.  Hodges,  who 
pointed  out  that  since  1914  there  had  been  eight  increases  in 
the  price  of  coal  and  one  temporary  decrease,  but  the  Govern- 
ment had  offered  no  justification  of  the  alterations  based  on 
published  figures  of  ascertained  increased  costs.  He  said  that 
the  real  cause  of  the  last  increase  of  14s.  2d»  per  ton  was  pres- 
sure by  the  coal-owners  for  decontrol.  The  miners  claimed 
that  this  should  be  remitted  because  it  was  necessary  to  make 
a  beginning  in  effecting  a  reduction  in  the  cost  of  living.  They 
asserted  that  the  financial  position  of  the  industry  allowed  of 
the  reduction  without  involving  any  disturbance  of  conditions 
prevailing  in  the  industry,  and  that  the  general  body  of  con- 
sumers was  entitled  to  share  in  the  present  prosperity  of  the 
coal-fields.  The  coal-owners  had  pressed  for  the  increase  be- 
cause, however  high  the  general  rate  of  profits  in  the  industry 
might  be,  control  could  not  be  removed  while  some  coal-fields 
were  showing  a  very  high  profit  and  others,  comparatively 
speaking,  a  loss.  The  inevitable  result  of  the  removal  of  control 
would  be  that  the  home  price  of  coal  would  rise  steeply  and 
rapidly  to  meet  the  export  price.  The  miners  demanded  a  wage 
advance  because  they  were  not  receiving  wages  of  an  amount 
commensurate  with  the  expenses  of  living,  or  adequate  to  the 
dangerous  nature  of  their  calling.    The  total  increase  in  miners' 


1990.]  Demands  of  the  Miners.  [101 

wages  on  the  pre-war  average  of  32s.  6d,  was  50s.,  or  155  per 
cent.,  but  of  this  the  Sankey  advance  of  15s,,  or  30  per  cent., 
was  given  definitely  on  the  ground  that  the  miner's  pre-war 
wage  was  inadequate,  and  for  the  definite  purpose  of  improving 
his  standard  of  living.  Finally,  Mr.  Hodges  said  that  the  two 
sides  of  the  miners'  claim  stood  together ;  the  claim  was  one 
and  indivisible ;  he  insisted  that  the  surplus  earnings  now  avail- 
able in  the  industry  should  be  used  for  the  joint  benefit  of  the 
consumer  and  the  producer,  who  were  ahke  suffering  imder  the 
heavy  burden  of  high  prices. 

Sir  Bobert  Home  explained  the  case  of  the  Government  to 
Press  representatives  at  the  Board  of  Trade.  He  claimed  that 
the  public  indifference  to  the  demand  of  the  miners  was  due  to 
a  consciousness  of  the  absolute  fairness  of  the  attitude  taken  up 
by  the  Government  in  this  matter.  He  drew  the  inference  from 
Mr.  Smillie's  speech  at  Wrexham  that  the  present  demands 
were  put  forward  as  a  step  towards  the  nationalisation  of  the 
coal  industry,  but  he  said  that  the  House  of  Commons  had 
already  determined  the  attitude  of  the  Government  on  this 
question,  and  the  Government  did  not  propose  to  go  back  on 
that  decision,  nor  could  they  do  so  vnthout  consulting  the  House 
of  Commons.  It  was  not  proposed  to  get  rid  of  the  control  of 
prices,  because  the  Government  recognised  the  necessity  of 
keeping  a  sufficient  supply  of  coal  in  this  country  to  satisfy  our 
own  needs  at  a  price  which  was  fair  to  the  individual  consumer. 
If  full  control  were  re-imposed  it  would  be  necessary  to  re- 
engage a  large  staff  which  would  cost  the  country  at  least 
400,000/.  a  year.  If  the  wages  claim  of  the  miners  were  con- 
ceded an  immediate  increase  in  the  price  of  coal  would  become 
necessary.  The  Government  at  any  time  would  be  prepared  to 
meet  the  miners,  though  he  saw  no  good  purpose  in  issuing  an 
invitation  to  them  at  that  particular  moment.  In  so  far  as  the 
miners'  claim  was  a  wage  claim,  and  not  a  question  of  policy, 
the  Industrial  Court  was  the  body  to  decide  it. 

A  move  in  favour  of  peace  was  made  by  Sir  Bobert  Home 
on  September  7,  when  he  invited  Mr.  Smillie  to  bring  the 
Miners'  Executive  to  the  Board  of  Trade  to  discuss  the  position 
in  order  to  avoid  any  misunderstandings  in  their  respective  points 
of  view.  The  Executive  accepted  the  invitation  and  the  confer- 
ence took  place  at  the  Board  of  Trade  on  September  9,  but  the 
hopes  of  a  settlement  which  had  been  founded  upon  it  were 
disappointed.  The  conference  was  opened  by  Sir  Bobert  Home, 
who  msisted  that  if  a  fund  were  realised  by  the  hi^h  prices  ob- 
tained for  export  coal,  the  coal  trade  would  be  faihng  to  do  its 
duty  in  meetmg  the  obligations  of  the  country  unless  the  fund 
were  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  Exchequer.  He  said  that  the 
Government  thought  that  the  position  they  had  taken  up  would 
bring  far  more  good  to  the  community  than  that  which  would 
be  brought  about  by  the  miners'  proposals.  The  determination 
to  sell  coal  at  its  economic  price  had  been  endorsed  by  Parlia- 


102]  ENGLISH  HlSTOBY.  t8»w 

ment,  and  he  did  not  think  that  any  section  of  the  people  had 
a  right  to  strike  upon  any  such  issue  of  policy.  The  wage 
question  should  he  decided  by  the  Industrial  Court.  If  a  higher 
output  could  be  achieved  with  consequently  lessened  cost,  wage 
questions  could  be  much  more  amicably  settled.  Sir  Bobert 
Home's  final  suggestion  was  that  the  miners  should  meet  the 
coal-owners  to  thrash  out  the  anomaly  of  flat  rates.  The  poUcy 
of  the  Government  was  the  ultimate  decontrol  of  the  coal  trade, 
though  nobody  suggested  that  coal  prices  should  be  decontrolled 
within  any  near  period. 

Mr.  Smillie  replied  to  Sir  Bobert  Home  that  his  statement 
did  not  advance  matters,  but  was  merely  a  refusal  to  concede 
the  claims.  He  insisted  that  without  control  the  prices  for 
domestic  and  industrial  coal  would  be  much  higher  than  they 
now  were,  but  he  held  that  the  Government  were  not  entitled 
to  put  14^.  2d.  a  ton  on  domestic  coal.  As  regards  wages,  he 
did  not  think  that  the  miners  were  prepared  to  put  their  claim 
before  the  Industrial  Court.  They  felt  that  the  increased  cost 
of  living  entitled  them  to  a  higher  increase  than  they  had  put 
forward.  If  they  had  not  asked  for  a  reduction  in  the  price  of 
domestic  coal,  the  increase  which  they  would  have  claimed  in 
wages  would  have  been  at  least  twice  as  much.  They  agreed 
that  there  ought  to  be  the  largest  possible  output  secured  from 
the  mines  of  this  country,  but  they  would  hesitate  to  enter  into 
any  movement  which  might  increase  output  if  the  Government 
were  merely  going  to  take  the  price  of  it  and  pay  off  war  debt 
with  it. 

At  the  close  of  the  discussion  the  miners'  representatives 
conferred  together,  and  later  informed  the  President  of  the 
Board  of  Trade  that  they  considered  his  statement  contained 
no  new  proposal  which  would,  in  their  judgment,  lead  to  a  just 
settlement  of  the  miners'  claims.  The  Executive  accordingly 
departed  without  any  improved  understanding  having  been 
reached. 

The  next  move  came  from  the  miners.  The  Executive 
Committee  of  the  Miners'  Federation,  after  long  discussions  on 
September  15,  decided  to  seek  a  further  meeting  with  the 
President  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  and  a  second  coiSerence  was 
held  on  the  16th  and  17th.  The  new  proposals  advanced  on 
behalf  of  the  Miners'  Federation  were,  that  the  Government 
should  concede  forthwith  the  wage  advances  as  originally  formu- 
lated, and  that  the  increased  costs  following  on  the  concession* 
of  the  wage  application  should  not  be  put  on  the  price  of 
home-consumed  coal.  They  suggested  that  a  competent  and 
representative  tribunal  should  be  appointed  to  inquire  into  and 
determine  whether,  in  view  of  the  financial  position  of  the 
industry,  a  reduction  in  the  price  of  domestic  coal  should  take 
place,  and  if  so,  to  what  extent.  They  further  suggested  that 
a  Committee  should  be  appointed  to  inquire  into  the  cause  of 
declining  output,  and  that  there  should  be  a  full  inquiry  into 


199a]  Negotiations  with  the  Miners.  [103 

the  wages  system  now  prevailing  in  the  industry,  with  a  view 
to  granting  up  to  date  standards  of  wages  for  both  piece 
workers  and  time  workers.  Mr.  Smillie  expressed  the  belief 
that  it  was  possible  to  increase  output,  but  he  did  not  think 
there  was  the  slightest  hope  of  endeavouring  to  convince  the 
Miners'  Conference  that  there  should  be  no  strike  imless  an 
increase  of  wages  was  secured  and  something  was  done  to 
ascertain  whether  profits  in  the  coal  trade  should  not  to  some 
extent  go  in  relief  to  the  domestic  consumer  of  coal.  Sir 
Bobert  Home,  in  his  reply,  admitted  that  the  new  proposals 
made  an  alteration  in  the  situation.  As  regards  the  pnce  at 
which  coal  should  be  sold,  he  insisted,  however,  that  there  was 
no  room  for  setting  up  a  tribunal  to  re-investigate  a  problem 
which  had  already  been  dealt  with  by  ParUament.  As  regards 
the  claim  for  increase  of  wages,  he  was  prepared  to  hear 
anything  more  that  had  to  be  said  on  the  subject,  and  since 
they  had  now  imited  that  claim  with  suggestions  for  the 
increase  of  output,  a  means  seemed  to  be  afforded  of  arriving  at 
a  peaceful  solution.  Although  he  did  not  think  that  the  present 
wage  claim  was  justified,  he  was  willing  that  the  question 
should  be  submitted  to  an  independent  tribunal.  On  the  second 
day  of  the  discussion  Mr.  Smillie  made  it  clear  that  unless  the 
wage  advance  demanded  by  the  miners  was  conceded,  the 
Miners'  Executive  Council  would  have  no  other  course  than  to 
reconmiend  that  the  threatened  strike  should  take  place.  If 
those  wages  were  conceded  they  would  be  prepared  to  discuss 
the  question  of  declining  output,  and  make  recommendations 
with  a  view  to  rectifying  the  position.  The  attitude  of  the 
Government,  on  the  other  hand,  was  that  they  were  willing 
either  to  submit  the  wage  claim  to  an  impartial  tribunal,  or  to 
offer  the  miners  a  wage  advance  based  definitely  on  increased 
output.  Further  than  this  neither  side  would  go,  and  the  issue 
of  the  discussion  was  therefore  indeterminate. 

On  September  22  a  conference  took  place  between  the 
Prime  Minister  and  representatives  of  the  Triple  Alliance  on 
coal  prices.  The  object  of  the  deputation  was  to  impress  the 
Government  with  the  fact  that  the  miners  had  convinced  both 
the  railway  and  the  transport  workers  of  the  justice  of  their 
claim,  and  to  urge  the  Government  to  make  concessions.  By 
this  time  the  claim  for  a  decrease  in  the  price  of  coal  had  been 
definitely  dropped,  and  the  wage  question  was  the  only  one 
that  remained.  Mr.  Lloyd  George,  on  behalf  of  the  Govern- 
ment, offered  either  to  submit  the  question  of  wages  to  an 
impartial  tribunal  or  to  determine  it  with  reference  to  output 
under  a  scheme  to  be  agreed  to.  The  Committee  of  the  Tnple 
Alliance,  however,  decided  that  they  could  not  recommend  the 
acceptance  of  either  of  these  proposals  to  the  miners.  But 
the  discussion  still  continued,  and  the  Government  agreed 
that  an  immediate  increase  of  earnings  should  be  granted  if  an 
immediate  increase  of  output  could  be  ensured  to  warrant  the 


104]  ENGLISH  HISTORY.  [^Pt. 

increased  payments.  The  principle  of  this  scheme  was  at  length 
accepted  by  the  Miners'  Executive,  and  the  only  outstanding 
question  then  was  as  to  how  much  increase  of  wage  should 
correspond  to  how  many  tons  increase  of  output.  The  deter- 
mination of  this  question  was  referred  to  representatives  of  the 
coal-owners  and  the  Executive  Committee  of  the  Miners' 
Federation  at  a  meeting  at  the  Board  of  Trade  offices  on 
September  25.  The  conference  continued  for  several  days,  but 
finally  failed  to  reach  agreement,  and  the  negotiations  broke 
down  on  September  29.  The  main  question  at  issue  was  as  to 
what  datum  line  should  be  fixed  for  coal  output  beyond  which 
higher  wages  should  be  paid.  The  coal-owners  suggested  that 
the  datum  line  should  be  fixed  at  240,000,000  tons  per  year, 
but  the  miners  declined  to  take  this  figure  as  a  basis  of 
discussion.  They  brought  forward  in  place  of  it  a  counter- 
proposal, which  amounted  in  effect  to  an  offer  to  accept  a  datum 
line  as  a  temporary  measure  to  secure  the  immediate  concession 
of  the  28.  They  did  not  name  any  figure,  but  insisted  that  the 
2^.  increase  must  be  assured.  They  further  suggested  that  a 
National  Wage  Board  should  be  set  up  for  the  future  regulation 
of  the  wages  in  the  industry.  This  proposal  the  coal-owners 
refused  to  consider,  and  when  the  miners  had  made  it  clear 
that  this  and  nothing  else  would  satisfy  them,  nothing  further 
remained  but  to  report  to  the  Government  the  failure  to  arrive 
at  an  agreement.  During  the  progress  of  these  negotiations 
the  date  for  the  handing  in  of  strike  notices  had  been  put  back 
by  one  week — that  is  to  say  until  October  2.  At  the  end  of 
September  the  position  appeared  worse  than  it  had  previously 
been,  and  a  strike  was  regarded  as  inevitable,  but  we  must  here 
break  off  for  a  moment  the  thread  of  the  narrative  in  order  to 
relate  other  events  occurring  during  September. 

These  other  eveQts  were  all  connected  either  with  Labour 
or  the  state  of  Ireland.  As  regards  Labour,  an  important 
Trades  Union  Congress  was  held  at  Portsmouth  early  m  Sep- 
tember under  the  Presidency  of  Mr.  J.  H.  Thomas.  In  his 
opening  address  he  referred  to  the  unsettled  state  of  labour  in 
this  country.  He  said  that  he  did  not  believe  that  the  workers 
were  anxious  for  a  fight  merely  for  the  sake  of  fighting,  but  the 
other  side  must  clearly  understand  that  the  years  of  sacrifice 
and  effort  which  had  placed  them  in  the  position  which  they 
now  held,  would  not  and  must  not  be  lost.  The  workers, 
therefore,  were  prepared,  not  as  a  section  but  as  a  movement, 
to  accept  any  challenge  to  their  industrial  freedom  or  economic 
emancipation.  A  large  part  of  Mr.  Thomas'  speech  had  refer- 
ence to  the  recently  formed  Council  of  Action.  For  the  first 
time,  he  said,  there  had  been  a  united  and  determined  working- 
class  effort  to  challenge  the  existing  order  of  Parliamentaiy 
government.  Their  action  had  been  bold,  and  there  was  no 
doubt  that  it  definitely  challenged  the  constitution.  Dangerous 
as  was  the  remedy  he  thought  it  justified  by  the  result.     The 


19^.]  Trades  Union  Congress.  [106 

danger  could  not  be  over  until  a  complete  peace  and  under- 
standing with  the  Bussian  Government  had  been  arrived  at. 
The  Coimcil  of  Action  had  been  called  into  being  to  secure  the 
complete  independence  of  Poland  and  peace  with  Bussia,  and 
having  done  that  it  would  be  content  with  the  result  of  its 
labours.  It  had  no  authority  or  desire  to  usurp  or  extend  the 
clearly  defined  mandate  of  the  most  representative  and  unani- 
mous Congress  ever  held. 

On  September  8  the  Congress  discussed  the  dispute  between 
the  miners  and  the  Government.  Mr.  Hodges  presented  the 
arguments  by  which  the  miners  justified  their  demands,  and  a 
resolution  was  ultimately  passed  stating  that  the  Trades  Union 
Congress,  having  heard  the  miners'  case  for  a  reduction  in  the 
price  of  coal  and  an  advance  of  wages,  was  of  opinion  that  both 
claims  were  reasonable  and  just  and  should  be  conceded 
forthwith.  It  was  noticeable,  however,  that  no  promise  was 
made  of  financial  or  any  other  support  beyond  moral  support. 
On  September  9  the  principal  business  before  the  Congress  was 
a  proposal  to  amend  the  constitution  of  their  organisation  in 
order  to  transfer  the  executive  power  at  present  placed  in  the 
hands  of  the  Parliamentary  Committee,  to  a  larger  and  more 
representative  General  Council.  An  impression  existed  that 
the  new  Council  would  co-ordinate  Trade  Union  activity,  and 
the  proposal  laid  down  that  it  should  promote  common  action 
on  questions  of  wages  and  hours  of  labour,  use  its  influence  to 
promote  a  settlement  in  disputes,  assist  Trade  Unions  in  the 
work  of  organisation,  and  enter  into  relations  with  foreign 
labour  movements  with  a  view  to  securing  common  action  and 
international  solidarity.  Mr.  Clynes,  who  opposed  the  scheme, 
declared  that  it  did  nothing  to  meet  what  they  all  desired, 
but  simply  enlarged  the  size  of  the  Parliamentary  Committee. 
He  found  support  from  the  railwaymen  in  this  view,  but  on  a 
card  vote  the  Congress  decided  on  the  creation  of  the  Council 
by  4,858,000  votes  to  1,767,000. 

The  demands  of  the  miners  did  not  constitute  the  only  in- 
dustrial crisis  during  September.  In  the  Engineering  trade  a 
dispute  had  arisen  owing  to  a  strike  at  Sheffield  against  the 
appointment  of  a  non-Union  foreman  by  Messrs.  Cammell, 
Liand  Sc  Co.  Meetings  took  place  between  the  Engineering 
Employers'  Federation  and  the  men's  Federations,  but  by 
September  2  the  negotiations  had  definitely  failed  and  lock-out 
notices  issued  by  the  employers  were  due  to  take  effect  on 
September  4.  About  2,000  electricians  were  directly  involved, 
but  it  was  anticipated  that  from  500,000  to  750,000  workers 
in  the  engineering  trades  would  soon  be  affected.  Efforts  on 
the  part  of  the  Ministry  of  Labour  to  secure  an  agreement 
proved  fruitless,  and  a  lock-out  began  on  the  date  arranged. 
Thereupon  the  Ministry  decided  to  deal  with  the  matter  through 
the  agency  of  the  Industrial  Courts  Act,  and  they  appointed 
a  Court  of  Inquiry  under  Part  2  of  that  Act,  with  Sur  David 


/ 

I 


I 


I 


106]  ENGLISH  HISTORY.  [sm. 

Harrel  as  Chairman.  The  Court  had  scarcely  started  upon  its 
investigations  when  peace  was  attained  by  more  direct  methods. 
The  lock-out  started  by  the  Engineering  Employers*  Federation 
was  at  first  met  by  the  threat  of  a  strike  by  the  Electrical 
Trades  Union,  but  on  September  15  the  first  step  towards 
settlement  was  taken  at  a  meeting  of  the  National  Joint  In- 
dustrial Council  for  the  electricity  supply  industry.  The 
Electrical  Trades  Union  withdrew  the  point  of  principle  which 
had  been  chiefly  involved,  namely,  that  foremen  must  be 
members  of  a  Trade  Union,  and  it  was  then  mutually  agreed 
that  the  men  on  strike  should  resume  work,  that  the  lock-out 
should  come  to  an  end,  and  that  no  victimisation  should  take 
place  on  either  side. 

While  these  labour  problems  were  troubling  the  country, 
The  state  of  Ireland  continued  to  give  anxiety  not  less  serious. 
Among  the  embarrassments  of  the  GovernmentwereJthfi-iieter- 
mined  attempta-oaf^irisfa^prisoners-'io  pbtain^iheir  „r^^  by 
means  of  hunget.strikeSj  and  attention  was. fipexjiajlx. directed 
to  the  Lord  Mayor  of  Cork,  who  was  confined  in  Brixton 
prison,  and  whose  case  became  a  teSt^  case  botii  "for  1ihe  Govern- 
ment and  for  its  adversaries. '  The '  GoVemmwit  -determined, 
however,  to  remain  firm  on  the  subject,  and  resisted  pressure 
from  many  sides  to  release  the  Lord  Mayor.  On  September  3, 
after  the  hunger  strike  had  been  in  progress  for  three  weeks, 
an  infiuentially  signed  appeal  was  addressed  to  the  Government 
by  prominent  Labour  leaders,  insisting  that  public  sentiment 
had  been  outraged  and  that  the  death  of  the  Lord  Mayor  would 
bring  about  a  terrible  explosion  of  anger  which  could  only  lead 
to  further  bloodshed  in  Ireland.  In  reply  to  this  appeal  Mr. 
Bonar  Law  wrote  pointing  out  that  the  Lord  Mayor  was  one 
of  the  leaders  of  the  Irish  Republican  Army,  which  had  declared 
itself  to  be  at  war  with  the  forces  of  the  Crown,  and  according 
to  his  own  written  word  in  one  of  the  seditious  documents,  for 
the  possession  of  which  he  had  been  convicted,  he  and  his 
followers  were  determined  to  pursue  their  ends,  asking  for  no 
mercy  and  making  no  compromise.  He  had  been  arrested 
while  actively  conducting  the  affairs  of  a  rebel  organisation 
under  cover  of  a  mayoral  court.  Had  he  been  taken  at  his 
word  and  dealt  with  as  an  avowed  rebel,  he  would  have  been 
liable  immediately  to  be  shot.  Instead  of  that  he  had  been 
tried  by  a  legally  constituted  tribunal,  sentenced  to  a  moderate 
term  of  imprisonment,  and  given  at  once  all  the  privileges  of 
a  political  prisoner.  From  that  moment  he  had  sought  to 
defeat  the  ends  of  justice  by  refusing  food  in  the  belief  that  this 
course  would  lead  to  his  speedy  release.  To  release  him  would 
be  a  betrayal  of  those  loyal  officers  on  whose  devotion  to  duty 
the  fabric  of  social  order  in  Ireland  rested.  Since  the  arrest  of 
the  Lord  Mayor  fifteen  officers  had  been  brutally  and  treacher- 
ously done  to  death  without  even  a  chance  of  defending  them- 
selves.   Finally,  Mr.  Bonar  Law  made  clear  that  the  Government 


\ 


\ 


i9flo.]  The  Lord  Mayor  of  Cork.  107 

did  not  mean  to  release  him,  adding  that  if  the  Lord  Mayor 
died  in  prison  the  responsibility  would  rest,  in  some  degree, 
upon  those  who  by  their  repeated  appeals  had  encouraged  the  ^ 
belief  that  the  Government  would  recede  from  its  determina-^^ 
tion.     Many  appeals  continued  to  be  addressed  to  the  Govern- 
ment on  the  grounds  of  humanity,  but  none  of  them  had  any  > 
effect.     The  Lord  Mayor  lingered  on  for  several  weeks  longer  [ 
and  his  death  did  not  take  place  till  late  in  October  when  we  . 
shall  again  refer  to  it.  -^ 

"^h  September  9  reports  of  no  fewer  than  six  deaths  by 
violence  reachedT5ublin,  four  in  Galway  cily  and  two  at  Tullow 
in  County  Carlow.  At  Galway  a  disturbance  arose  at  the 
Railway  Station  when  a  recent  recruit  to  the  Royal  Irish 
Constabulary  shot  a  civilian  and  was  himself  then  shot  in  the 
chest  by  another  civilian.  Two  other  persons  were  shot  dead 
by  the  police.  At  Tullow  a  patrol  of  four  constables  was 
attacked  by  armed  and  disguised  men,  two  of  the  constables 
being  shot  dead  and  another  wounded.  On  September  14  a 
police  barrack  was  set  on  fire  by  a  party  of  raiders.  It  had 
been  vacated  by  its  garrison  earlier  m  the  day,  but  a  party 
of  ten  soldiers  returned  secretly  and  lay  in  ambush  behind  a 
neighbouring  wall.  When  the  raiders  had  just  begun  their 
work  of  destruction  the  soldiers  sprang  from  their  ambush  and 
demanded  surrender.  The  raiders  tried  to  escape  with  the 
result  that  the  soldiers  opened  fire  killing  two  men  immediately 
and  wounding  a  third  who  died  next  day. 

On  Septembej:_19  thft  militrfiiry  mf^^^  ^7®JT  successful  coup 
in  the  Dublin  mountains,  About  thirty-six  armed  soldiers 
surroimded  a  spot  where  about  IQO .  Sinn  Fein  Volunteers 
were  engaged  in  drill  and  hojnbing  practice.  While  these 
exercises  were  in  ^rogjress  the  military,  who  had  approached 
in  small  groups  m  civilian  clothes,  suddenly  called  on  the 
Volunteers  to  surrender.  Thirty-six  of  them  did  surrender 
anff  were  captured,  but  others  opened  fire  on  the  soldiers  ;  the 
fire  was  returned,  and  one  man  wa3  killed  and  another  wounded 
seriously.  In  addition  to  the  thirty-six  prisoners  a  quantity  of 
^e-arma  and  bombs  was^  seized.  Various  outrages  were  per- 
petrated about  this. time.  A  police  patrol  was  ambushed  in 
County  Limerick  ;  one  constable  was  shot  dead  and  two  others 
were- -wounded.  An  attempt  also  was  made  by  a  civilian  to 
shootThe  Officer  Commanding  a  detachment  of  the  Ist  Lanca- 
sHire  Regiment,  but  the  revolver  missed  fife,  and  after  a  struggle 
the  assailannescaped.  In  the  hall  of  Baker's  Hotel,  Galway, 
where  some  of  the  police  were  lodging,  a  young  lady  was 
attacked  by  six  masked  men  who  cut  off  her  hair  by  way  of 
reprisal  because  she  had  given  evidence  at  a  military  inquiry 
into  the  death  ^f  a  constable  who  had  been  murdered.  On 
September  20  aimed  men  made  a  daring  attack  on  a  small  party 
of  soldiers  in  Dublin;  two  soldiers  were  killed  and  th^ree 
wounded,  while  one  of  the  raiders  was  killed  and  one  wounded. 


108]  ENGLISH  HISTOBY.  [bbw. 

Og  Sgptr^bftr  2Q  a  fatal  oiit-^^ft^k  took  place  in  Balbriggan, 
a.  town  on  lEe  Grep.t  Nortiiem  Eairway  -aa-^ailer fnmi'TRiStin. 

/It  "tegan  with  the  murd.Qii^Ql  I)lstrict^lQspector  Burl^^  'and 
the  wounding  of  KislSrother  Sergeant  Burke,  wKicK  gave  rise 
to  prompt  reprisals  on  the  part  of  the  "  Bla^|lan3^TaM]7— the 
common  name  f or  the.  i:^pently  reciwtiQd,  police.  Two  civiUans 
were  killed  and '  aiT  Stocking  Factory  and  other  premises  were 
bjumt  down,  the  disorders  continuing  for  five  hours.  It  was 
alleged  that  the  police  went  along  the  streets  firing  their  rifles 
Bf,  doors  and  windows,  and  setting  fire  to  shops  and  dwellings, 
while  now  and  then  loud  explosions  were  heard.     Early  in  the 

ymoming  of  the  22nd  a  military  party  went  to  a  hotel  in  Dublin 
/  for  the  purpose  of  arresting  a  man  who  was  staying  there. 

\  When  they  entered  his  room  he  fired  at  them  with  a  revolver, 
and  the  fire  being  returned  the  man  was  shot  dead.  Among 
other  outrages  of  this  period  was  one  on  September  22  in 
County  Galway,  where  a  party  of  six  police  driving  in  a  motor 
lorry  were  ambushed  at  a  lonely  spot  by  a  large  number  of 
men  who  opened  fire  from  a  high  hill  overlooking  the  road; 
four  policemen  were  shot  dead  and  one  was  mortally  wounded. 
At  the  end  of  the  attack  soldiers  arrived  in  two  motor  lorries 
and  the  assailants  retreated;  subsequently  the  military  made 
thirty-six  arrests  on  suspicion.  As  a  result  of  this  conflict 
reprisals  were  carried  out  by  uniformed  men ;  seven  houses 
were  burnt  in  one  village,  six  in  another  and  five  in  another. 
Furthermore  it  was  alleged  that  three  young  men  had  been 
shot  dead,  and  the  population  of  the  villages  was  panic- 
-stricken. 

An  attempt  waiS..iOAdft  oa  Sep,tejQkeiL^iAJ;o.as§a8Mnate  Major- 
General  Sir  E.  P.  Stdeklandy  4)omi3MkRdifig«the.Cark  IJHlsion. 
The  General  was  motoring  ifrom  Cork  Military  Barracks  to 
the  city  when  he  was  fired  on  by  a  number  of  men  armed  with 
revolvers.     The  driver  was  slightly  wounded  and  the  car  was 

Senetrated  by  bullets,  but  GeneraJ^-Strifiklsili^BtraBed  the 
re  and  the  assailantD  made  off.-— Qn-fee"25th  aR-arttacE  was 
made  upon  a  police  patrat  in  the  Nationalist  district  of  Belfast. 
The  onslaught  was  of  a.JiiQflt  deteriniued  cKaracleii^  party 
of  men  armed  with  revolvers  suddenly  emerged  and  attacked 
the  police  patrol,  consisting  of  four  men,  without  any  warning. 
One  of  them  was  shot  dead  immediately,  two  others  wounded, 
and  the  life  of  the  fourth  constable  was  only  saved  by  the  fact 
that  he  tripped  and  fell.  While  lying  on  the  ground  he  took 
out  his  revolver  and  fired  upon  the  attacking  party  which  was 
taken  bv  surprise  and  scattered  in  all  directions.  The  noise 
of  the  firing  brought  other  police  patrols  to  the  scene,  and 
during  the  night  there  were  several  outbreaks  between  UnionistB 
and  Nationalists,  and  much  revolver  firing.  As  a  result  of  these 
disturbances  two  men  were  shot  dead  near  their  own  homes, 
and  one  while  standing  at  his  own  door.  Nearly  a  dozen  people 
were  detained  in  hospital  with  bullet  and  knife  wounds,  while 


iwo.]  Beprisals  in  Ireland.  [109 

a  considerable  number  of  others  received  minor  injuries.  On 
the  same  day  five  policemen  were  fired  at  in  the  village  of 
Broadford,  County  Clare,  by  a  party  of  armed  men ;  one 
constable  was  shot  dead  and  another  seriously  wounded;  the 
remainder  succeeded  in  making  good  their  escape. 

On  September  26  police  barracks  were  burnt  and  the  head 
constable  shot  in  the .  town  of  Trim.  On  th^  following  day  a 
number  of  armed  men,  said  to  have  been  Auxiliary  policemen, 
arrived  in  motor  lorries  and  went  through  the  streets  shouting 
and  firing  their  rifles.  Many  houses  were  set  on  fire,  the 
damage  to  property  being  estimated  at  50,000Z.  Earlier  in 
the  morning  of  the  same  date  an  explosion  took  place  in  Cork 
when  the  shop  front  of  a  drapery  stores  was  shattered  by  bombs. 
The  Curfew  Patrol  on  its  arrival  was  attacked  by  snipers,  whom 
they  pursued  and  fired  upon.  Several  shots  were  fired  in 
succession  followed  by  machine-gun  fire.  On  the  same  day  ^"^ 
A^ne.  Markievicz^  the. Sinn  Fein  M.P.  for  St.  Patrick's,  Dublin, 
was  arrested  by  a  party  of  poUcamen' near  T7ublin-an"ff  lodged 
in. the  Central  Bridewell  in  the  city. 

Ou^  September  28  an  audacious  Sinn  Fein  raid  was  made 
on  the  locaT  military  barrack  at  Mallow,  County  Cork.  The 
barrack  Was  occupied  by  about  fifty  men  of  the  "17t"E  Lancers, 
and  while  the  majority  of  them  were  out  exercising  horses  a 
large  band  of  men  arrived  in  the  town  in  motor  cars  and  dashed 
through  the  gate  of  the  barrack,  ignoring,  the  challenge  of  the 
sentry.  The  soldiers  were  surprised  and  a  sergeant  was  shot. 
The  raiders  thereupon  removed  everything  which  they  could 
carry  off  in  the  form  of  equipment,  including  a  machine-gun, 
a  number  of  rifles,  and  a  quantity  of  ammunition.  Before 
leaving  they  set  fire  to  the  building,  but  the  outbreak  was  ex- 
tinguished. Some  hours  later  reprisals  were  instituted  by  a 
large  body  of  military,  who  proceeded  to  wreck  the  town.  The 
Town  Hall  was  the  first  building  to  be  set  alight,  none  of  its 
valuable  records  being  saved,  and  the  work  of  destruction  was 
then  systematically  carried  out,  though  the  people  co-operated 
cordially  with  the  local  police  in  endeavouring  to  check  the 
soldiers  in  their  career  of  destruction.  Several  shots  were  fired 
by  soldiers  and  two  men  were  injured,  one  receiving  a  bullet 
wound  in  the  arm  and  the  other  being  shot  in  the  face.  The 
total  damage  was  estimated  at  about  200,0002. 

These  attacks  by  the  military  made  the  question  of  reprisals     / 
a  matter  for  the  immediate  consideration  of  the  Government,    f 
and  on  September  27  a  message  from  Sir  Hamar  Greenwood   ' 
was  issued  from  Dublin,  stating  that  there  was  no  truth  in     ^ 
the  allegations  that  the  Government  connived  at  or  supported 
reprisals.      The   Government  had  condemned    reprisals,   had 
issued  orders  against  them,  and  had  taken  steps  to  prevent 
them  notwithstanding  that  100  policemen  had  been  brutally 
murdered,  in  some  cases  by  expanding  bullets  which  resulted 
in  horrible  mutilation.    The  Chief  Secretary  added  that  the 


110]  ENGLISH  HISTORY.  [8.pt. 

number  of  alleged  reprisals^was  few,  and  the  damage  done 
exaggerated/  Keveftheless  the  policy  oF  reprisals  continued  to 
6e  defended  by  many  persons^  on  the  ground -tiaat-they-  were 
the  natural  result  of  extreme  provocatlQn^.jind.Jihat. they  had 
-^  in  fact  restored  order,  or  the  semblance  of  order^  in  some 

districts.  

-     An  opportunity  arose  on  the  last  day  of  September  for  the 
Chief  Hecretary  to  ~make  a  \statement  of.  the,  attitude  of  the 
Government  towards  the   q^uestion  of  reprisals.      Sir  Hamar 
Greenwood  attended  a  review  of  the  Royal  Irish  Constabulary 
at  the  police  depot  in  Phoenix  Park,  and  addressed  the  men  of 
the  Force,  who  were  drawn  up  on  the  parade  ground  under  the 
Commandant.     After  congratulating  them  on  their  smartness 
and  efficiency,  he  said  that  the  standards  of  their  famous  force 
were  high,  and  that  they  had  shown  a  patience  and  courage 
during  the  last  few  years  that  commanded  the  respect  of  all  law- 
abiding  people  in  the  civiUsed  world.    One  hundred  and  three  of 
their  comrades,  he  said,  had  been  brutally  murdered ;  170  had 
been  wounded,  and  their  wives,  families,  and  relations  had  been 
boycotted  because  they  had  done  their  duty.     He  said  that  the 
accounts  of  reprisals  in  certain  newspapers  were  often  mis- 
leading, but  that  there  had  been  cases  in  which  members  of 
the  Force  had  unjustifiably  taken  action  on  their  own  account. 
He  desired,  therefore,  to  emphasise  that  reprisals  would  ruin 
the  discipline  of  the  Force  and  could  not  be  countenanced  by 
those  in  authority.     He  fully  recognised  the  great  provocation 
under  which  they  suffered,  but  he  begged  them  to  remember 
that  they  had  the  British  Government  behind  them,  and  he 
assured   them   that  if   they  maintained   their   discipline    the 
present  calamitous  state  of  Ireland  would  quickly  be  brought 
to  an  end,  and  peace  would  be  re-established,  as  he  believed 
was  urgently  desired  by  the  vast  majority  of  the  Irish  people. 
Further  rioting  broke  out  in  Belfast  at  the  eiid  of  .September. 
On  the  27th  there  was  stone  throwing  an3  revolver  firing,  and 
a  couple  of  bayonet  charges  were  made .  by  the  military.  _The 
following  morning  there  was  a  lurther  outbreak,  an  onslaught 
being  made  on  tne  workers  of  a  house  repairing  yard  j  three 
of  the  men  were  bes^t^i  snd  hunted  from  the  establishment, 
and  it  was  stated  that  the  foreman  was  not  only  seriously 
assaulted  but  robbed.    Another  outbreak  of  lawlessness  occurred 
in  a  Nationalist  and  SinhTein  area  lale£~on,  wlxartwo  men 
were  shot  by  the  military  and  a  number  wounded.  __The  assail- 
ants on  this  occasion  took  the  precaution  of  extinguishing  all 
the  lights  in  the  neigbboiu:ihooii.fiO  that' the  entire  community 
was  in~  a   state  of  panic.      The   miUtary^   however^'JspO-^  es- 
tablished control  of  the  town  and  the  noting  then  subsided. 
Up  to  this  date  there  appeared  to  have  been  a  constant  increase 
in  the  bitterness  of  Irish  feeUng,  and  from  no  quarter  did  there 
come  any  suggestions  for  a  method  Ov4t  of  the  impasse,  which 
commanded  general  acceptance. 


1990.]  Fresh  Ballot  of  the  Miners,  [111 

CHAPTER  IV. 

END  OP  THE  YEAB. 

Thb  month  of  October  witnessed  the  final  breakdown  of  the 
negotiations  with  the  miners,  and  the  outbreak  of  the  strike 
which  had  for  so  long  been  threatened.  There  were,  indeed, 
at  the  beginning  of  the  month  renewed  attempts  to  reach  an 
understanding  which  for  a  few  days  appeared  as  though  they 
might  be  successful.  The  strike  did  not  begin,  as  had  been 
arranged,  on  October  2,  for  a  revised  proposal  was  made  by 
the  coal-owners  on  the  1st  of  the  month  upon  which  the 
Miners'  Federation  decided  to  take  another  ballot  of  their 
members.  It  will  be  remembered  that  the  negotiations  had 
broken  down  at  the  end  of  September  owing  to  the  inability 
of  the  owners  and  the  miners  to  agree  upon  the  question  of  a 
datum  line.  The  miners  desired  that  the  2«.  increase  of  wages 
should  be  paid  to  them  under  any  circumstances ;  the  owners 
would  only  agree  to  pay  it  if  the  standard  output  of  240,000,000 
tons  were  exceeded.  The  new  offer  of  the  coal-owners  now 
agreed  to  an  advance  of  Is,  a  day  for  an  output  of  240,000,000 
tons ;  Is.  6d.  a  day  for  an  output  of  244,000,000  tons ;  2s.  a 
day  for  an  output  of  248,000,000  tons,  and  further  advances  of 
wages  to  follow  further  increases  of  output.  The  Delegate 
Meeting  of  the  Miners'  Federation  thereupon  decided  to  post- 
pone the  termination  of  the  strike  notices  for  a  further  fortnight, 
until  October  16,  and  meanwhile  to  take  a  ballot  on  October  11 
and  12  on  the  owners'  offer. 

The  chance  of  that  offer  being  accepted  appeared  to  be 
very  slender.  One  Miners*  Council  after  another  in  different 
parts  of  the  country  resolved  upon  opposition,  though  some  of 
the  best-known  leaders  of  the  men  expressed  themselves  de- 
cidedly in  favour  of  acceptance.  Notable  amon^  these  was 
Mr.  Bobert  Smillie,  who  issued  a  statement  pointmg  out  that 
the  terms  now  put  forward  were  only  of  a  temporary  character 
and  could  not  be  accepted  as  a  final  solution  of  the  wages 
question.  He  advocated,  however,  that  the  miners  should 
accept  these  proposals  on  the  ground  that  it  would  give  a  period 
of  a  few  months  during  which  the  whole  question  of  wages  and 
miners'  conditions  could  be  gone  into,  with  a  view  to  a  national 
agreement  being  arrived  at  that  would  be  subject  to  the  approval 
of  the  men. 

The  Delegate  Meeting  of  the  Miners'  Federation  received 
the  report  upon  the  ballot  on  October  14.  The  figures  in 
favour  of  the  acceptance  of  the  owners*  offer  were  181,428,  and 
against  the  offer  635,098,  showing  a  majority  in  favour  of  a 
strike  of  453,670,  or  a  percentage  of  7  7 '8.  These  figures  were 
forthwith  conveyed  to  the  Government  with  an  intimation  that 
the  strike  notices  would  expire  on  the  16th  inst.  Mr.  Lloyd 
Gteorge,  in  reply,  dwelt  on  ttie  disaster  of  a  strike  and  declared 


112]  ENGLISH  HISTORY.  [ocr. 

that  the  Government  were  still  ready  to  explore  every  avenue 
to  a  peaceful  solution.  The  Prime  Minister's  appeal,  however, 
was  of  no  avail.  The  miners*  delegates  resolved,  on  October  15, 
that  work  must  cease  in  all  the  mines  on  the  following  day, 
and  two  days  later  the  stoppage  was  in  fact  complete. 

The  Government  were  prepared  with  then:  measures  to 
meet  the  emergency  on  the  basis  that  a  state  of  war  had  arisen. 
Arrangements  for  the  distribution  of  food  were  already  in 
existence,  and  although  there  was  no  serious  curtailment  of  the 
train  services,  it  was  announced  that  measures  in  this  direction 
would  become  necessary  in  a  few  days  if  the  strike  continued. 
A  notice  was  issued  by  the  Board  of  Trade  calling  upon  every 
member  of  the  public  to  cut  down  his  consumption  of  coal, 
gas,  and  electricity  to  the  lowest  possible  limit  so  as  to  conserve 
the  stocks  of  coal  that  were  available.  All  advertisement 
lighting  was  prohibited,  the  use  of  gas  and  electricity  for  power 
was  limited,  and  the  purchases  or  deliveries  of  coal  for  house- 
hold consumption  wei-e  cut  down  to  1  cwt.  per  week,  and  there 
was  a  general  prohibition  of  any  purchases  by  or  deliveries  to 
persons  who  had  more  than  10  cwt.  in  stock. 

The  strike  had  not  been  in  progress  many  days  before 
efforts  were  made  on  various  sides  to  suggest  a  solution.  Of 
these,  one  which  attracted  special  attention  came  from  Mr. 
Brace,  one  of  the  miners*  leaders.    He  laid  down  four  points : — 

1.  That  a  National  Wages  Board  should  be  set  up  for  the 
regulation  of  wa^es. 

2.  That  a  Jomt  Committee  of  coal-owners  and  miners  and 
representatives  of  the  Mines  Department  should  determine  the 
proportionate  shares  that  the  coal-owners,  the  workmen,  and 
the  State  should  draw  from  the  mining  profits  pool. 

3.  That  until  the  National  Wages  Board  had  established  a 
permanent  scheme  for  the  regulation  of  wages  the  2s,  a  day 
mcrease  should  be  paid,  but  be  reviewed  in  the  light  of  the 
financial  results  obtained  from  the  operation  of  Clause  2  at  the 
end  of  the  year. 

4.  That  the  coal-owners  and  miners  should  set  up  machinery 
forthwith  and  concentrate  upon  increasing  output. 

Informal  conversations  also  took  place  between  the  members 
of  the  Government  and  some  of  the  miners*  leaders  who  were  still 
in  London.  These  conversations  were  interrupted  by  a  sudden 
threat  from  a  hew  quarter,  for  the  delegates  of  the  National 
Union  of  Bailwaymen  issued  a  statement  that  if  the  miners' 
claims  were  not  granted,  or  negotiations  resumed  by  October 
28,  the  railwaymen  would  cease  work  at  midnight  on  the  24th. 
This  threat  would  very  likely  never  have  been  realised,  for  there 
was  pronounced  opposition  to  a  railway  strike  from  Mr.  Thomas 
and  from  a  large  proportion  of  the  railwaymen,  but  the  question 
was  never  brought  to  an  issue,  for  formal  negotiations  were 
resumed  between  officials  of  the  Miners'  Federation  and  Mr. 
Lloyd  George  with  other  members  of  the  Government.    After 


19900  The  Miners'  Strike.  [113 

nearly  breaking  down  these  negotiations  at  length  issued  in 
an  agreement  which  the  Executive  of  the  Federation  promised 
to  recommend  to  the  miners  for  adoption.  The  agreement 
provided  for  joint  District  and  National  Committees  on  output. 
A  joint  scheme  was  to  be  submitted  to  the  Government  for  the 
future  regulation  of  wages.  Advances  of  wages  by  2s.  a  shift 
for  men,  Is.  for  youths,  and  9d.  for  boys  were  to  be  made 
immediately  upon  resumption  of  work.  Aiter  January  3  wages 
were  to  be  adjusted  for  four  weeks  on  the  basis  of  export  coal 
values.  The  values  of  the  September  quarter  were  taken  as 
a  standard  warranting  advances  of  Is,,  6d.,  and  4^.  a  shift 
on  present  earnings.  Every  increase  in  the  proceeds  of  export 
coal  by  288,0002.  a  week  over  the  weekly  average  of  the 
September  quarter  would  entitle  the  workers  to  an  additional 
6df.,  3(2.,  or  2^(2.  a  shift.  All  coal  raised  in  excess  of  a  toimage 
at  the  rate  of  219,000,000  a  year  was  to  be  assumed  to  be 
export  coal.  Finally,  there  was  to  be  a  variation  of  the  owners' 
one-tenth  share  of  surplus  profits  proportionately  with  the  rise 
or  fall  of  wages. 

The  effect  of  this  agreement  was  that  the  men  got  their 
way  as  regards  an  immediate  increase  of  wages  by  2«.  a  day 
until  January  3.  After  that  date  wages  were  to  be  governed 
for  some  months  by  a  sliding  scale,  which  was  ultimately  to  be 
superseded  by  a  mutually  agreed  scheme  approved  by  the 
Government  for  the  permanent  regulation  of  wages. 

A  fresh  ballot  of  the  miners  was  taken  on  this  agreement 
on  November  2  when  the  strike  had  been  in  progress  for  just 
over  a  fortnight.  The  voting  amounted  to  338,045  in  favour  of 
accepting  the  terms,  and  346,504  against  acceptance,  showing 
an  adverse  majority  of  8,459  on  a  much  smaller  poll  than  that 
of  three  weeks  previously.  Since  these  figures  showed  very 
much  less  than  the  two-thirds  majority  necessary  for  the 
continuance  of  a  strike,  the  delegates  of  the  Miners'  Federation 
agreed  that  the  strike  should  be  declared  off  and  the  men  be 
advised  to  resume  work  on  November  4,  or  as  soon  after  as 
possible.  Thus  ended  a  dispute  which  had  been  without 
parallel  for  its  protracted  negotiations.  The  miners'  ori^al 
claim  was  formiilated  on  July  7  and  presented  to  the  President 
of  the  Board  of  Trade  on  the  26th  of  that  month.  On  August 
12  a  strike  ballot  was  decided  upon,  and  on  September  2  a 
delegate  meeting  ordered  notices  to  be  tendered  to  cease  work 
on  September  25.  From  that  time  onwards  negotiations  had 
been  almost  constant,  and  it  was  believed  that  there  was  no 
other  instance  of  laborious  negotiations  continuing  for  so  many 
weeks.  Work  was  resumed  in  man^  collieries  on  the  4th, 
though  in  others  the  necessity  for  repairs  prevented  resumption 
for  a  further  day  or  two.  The  emergency  orders  issued  hj  the 
Government  as  regards  heating  and  lighting  were  immediately 
levoked,  and  the  train  services  also  became  normal. 

On  October  11  the  Prince  of  Wales  arrived  in  London  after 

H 


114]  ENGLISH  mSTOKY.  [oor. 

his  tour  of  Australia  and  New  Zealand,  which  had  lasted  nearly 
seven  months.  The  Benown,  in  which  he  travelled,  arrived  at 
Portsmouth  in  the  morning  and  the  Prince  was  welcomed  by 
the  Mayor  and  Corporation  of  the  town.  In  reply  to  their 
address  he  thanked  them  for  their  courtesy  and  begged  them  to 
express  his  thanks  to  all  the  citizens  of  Portsmouth.  He  said 
that  he  had  been  most  deeply  impressed  by  the  imity  and  strength 
of  sentiment  which  bound  all  parts  of  His  Majesty's  dominions 
to  the  throne,  and  made  the  future  of  the  British  Empire 
secure.  He  now  looked  forward  greatly  to  his  stay  at  home, 
for  he  had  seen  very  little  of  the  United  Kingdom,  and  he  hoped 
to  have  the  opportunity  of  making  his  first  acquaintance  with 
many  great  centres  of  British  life  which  he  had  not  ^et  seen. 

On  his  journey  to  London  the  Prince  met  with  a  great 
popular  ovation.  He  was  met  at  Victoria  Station  by  the  King 
and  Queen,  and  then,  instead  of  driving  direct  to  Buckingham 
Palsirce,  he  went  home  by  a  roundabout  way,  several  miles  long, 
through  the  West  End  in  an  open  carriage  so  that  he  might  be 
seen  by  as  many  as  possible  of  the  hundreds  of  thousands  who 
wished  to  bid  him  welcbme  home.  The  tour  had  in  fact  been 
followed  in  England  with  widespread  interest,  and  had  done 
much  to  ensure  popularity  for  the  Prince.  On  behalf  of  the 
King  a  telegram  was  then  sent  to  the  Governors-General  of 
Australia  and  New  Zealand,  and  to  the  Governors  of  the 
Australian  States  and  West  Indian  and  other  Islands,  expres- 
sing thanks  for  the  universal  affection  and  loyal  enthusiasm 
evinced  towards  the  Prince  throughout  his  travels.  The  King 
added  that  the  Prince  had  derived  from  them  special  oppor- 
tunities to  gain  a  knowledge  of  our  oversea  dominions  and 
colonies,   and    to    become    personally  acquainted    with    their 

f>eoples.  He  hoped  that  such  mutual  intercourse  would  create 
urther  ties  of  confidence  and  devotion  between  the  throne  and 
the  generations,  present  and  future,  of  those  great  lands, 
and  thus  promote  the  unity,  strength,  and  prosperity  of  the 
Empire. 

Parliament  met  on  October  19,  and  found  itself  faced  with 
the  two  urgent  problems  of  the  coal  strike  and  the  state  of 
Ireland,  both  of  which  were  among  the  first  subjects  to  be 
discussed.  After  the  formal  business  of  the  opening.  Sir  Bobert 
Home  moved  the  adjournment  of  the  House  of  Commons  in 
order  to  give  an  opportunity  for  discussion  of  the  miners'  strike. 
He  pointed  out  that  since  the  Sanke^  Commission  sat,  the  cost 
of  living  had  risen  by  forty-nine  pomts,  which  would  have  en- 
titled the  miners  to  an  increase  of  about  lOs,  a  week,  but  they 
had  actually  received  an  increase  of  12«.  a  week  and  were  now 
asking  for  28,  a  day  more.  The  miners  had  refused  to  submit 
their  present  demands  to  the  decision  of  the  Industrial  Court, 
and  had  chosen  instead  to  come  out  on  strike.  Before  the  war 
the  output  of  coal  was  287,000,000  tons  a  year ;  in  the  third 
quarter  of  the  present  year  it  was  at  the  rate  of  about  236,000,000 


1990.]  Debate  on  the  Coal  Strike,  [115 

tonB  a  year.  It  was  absolutely  essential  for  the  public  well- 
being  that  this  output  should  be  increased.  Mr.  Brace  pro- 
posed that  the  2s,  should  be  given  at  once  as  a  temporary 
measure  on  the  understanding  that  between  the  present  date 
and  December  the  coal-owners  and  miners  should  concentrate 
on  output;  that  a  Joint  Committee  of  coal-owners  and  coal- 
miners,  and  representatives  of  the  Mines  Department  should 
determine  the  proportionate  shares  to  be  drawn  from  the  mining 
profits  pool,  and  that  a  National  Wages  Board  should  be  set 
up  to  prepare  for  future  wages  regulation.  After  some  dis- 
cussion Mr.  Lloyd  George  declared  that  there  must  be  guarantees 
as  to  output,  and  increased  reward  for  increased  output  seemed 
to  be  the  only  solution  of  the  difficulty.  After  Mr.  Adamson 
had  asked  for  a  conference  between  the  Prime  Minister,  the 
President  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  the  coal-owners,  and  the 
Miners'  Executive,  the  debate  was  adjourned. 

During  October  the  pinch  of  unemployment  began  to  be 
felt,  and  on  the  18th  there  were  riotous  scenes  in  Whitehall 
attending  a  march  and  demonstration  of  unemployed  when  the 
Mayors  of  a  number  of  Metropolitan  Boroughs  interviewed  the 
Prime  Minister  at  10  Downing  Street.  It  was  found  necessary 
for  the  police,  mounted  and  foot,  to  use  their  batons  to  break 
up  the  crowd,  and  between  thirty  and  forty  people  were  injured, 
chiefly  about  the  head,  twenty  being  treated  in  hospital ;  ten  of 
the  poUce  themselves  suffered  more  or  less  serious  hurt.  On 
the  19th  Mr.  Lloyd  George,  in  reply  to  a  question  in  the  House 
of  Commons,  announced  the  conclusions  reached  by  the  Cabinet 
Committee  on  unemployment,  and  the  measures  which  were 
being  taken  as  the  outcome  of  those  conclusions.  The  chief 
proposals  were,  for  the  employment  of  further  large  numbers 
of  ex-Service  men  on  the  housing  programme;  for  a  large 
scheme  of  new  arterial  roads  for  London  and  similar  schemes 
in  the  country ;  and  lastly,  for  the  admission  of  additional  men 
into  the  foundry,  iron-puddling  and  railway  waggon  building 
trades  in  which  there  had  been  a  serious  shortage  of  skilled 
labour.  On  the  same  date  the  subject  was  discussed  by  the 
London  County  Council,  amidst  noisy  interruptions  from 
unemployed  in  the  Gallery.  The  Council  appointed  a  Com- 
mittee to  deal  with  the  problem. 

On  the  21st  Mr.  Adamson  moved  a  resolution  in  the  House 
of  Commons  regretting  the  growing  volume  of  unemployment, 
and  declaring  that  every  possible  step  should  be  taken  to  arrest 
the  decline  in  trade  and  industry,  and  to  provide  work  or 
maintenance  for  those  whose  labour  was  not  required  in  the 
ordinary  market.  Dr.  Macnamara  spoke  of  the  great  extension 
of  unemployment  benefit  granted  under  the  Act  which  would 
come  into  force  in  three  weeks'  time,  and  of  the  various 
measures  taken  by  the  Government  on  behalf  of  ex-Service 
men.  Captain  Coote  suggested  that  the  Trade  Unions  should 
take  on  the  duties  of  the  Employment  Exchanges.    After  some 

09 


116]  ENGLISH  HISTOEY.  [oot. 

further  debate,  Major  Hamilton  moved  an  amendment  for  the 
insertion  of  words  expressing  regret  at  the  number  of  ex-Service 
men  stUl  unemployed,  and  satisfaction  with  the  steps  already 
taken  by  the  Government.  Dr.  Addison  expressed  the  opinion 
that  the  Labour  Party  might  help  to  devise  fair  and  efficient 
means  of  providing  work  for  unemployed  soldiers  and  others. 
The  resolution  was  ultimately  talked  out.  Figures  issued 
by  the  Ministry  of  Labour  showed  that  the  out-of-work 
donation  and  unemployment  insurance  claims  on  October  21 
were  330,275  in  England  and  Wales,  compared  with  244,729  on 
October  8.  The  total  number  of  workpeople  discharged  at 
works  closed  on  account  of  the  coal  strike  up  to,  and  including, 
October  21,  was  50,803.  Workpeople  discharged  through  re- 
ductions of  staff  numbered  102,062,  and  workpeople  placed  on 
short  time  amounted  to  89,366. 

The  Church  Congress  opened  at  Southend  on  October  19 
when  the  Bishop  of  Chelmsford,  who  was  President,  delivered 
his  inaugural  address.  The  general  subject  for  discussion  was 
"  The  Living  Christ  and  Problems  of  To-day."  The  President 
said  that  they  believed  that  this  was  the  dawn  of  the  era  of 
progress  and  peace.  There  had  never  been,  he  said,  in  the 
history  of  the  world  a  Treaty  of  Peace  so  impregnated  with  the 
teaching  of  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  as  that  signed  last  year. 
The  clauses  on  labour  and  on  international  relationships  were 
in  a  spirit  akin  to  Christianity  itself.  Li  the  course  of  the 
discussion  Dr.  Inge,  the  Dean  of  St.  Paul's,  said  that  we  must 
purge  our  minds  of  the  artificial  war  mentality  which  had  filled 
our  hearts  with  hatred  and  perverted  our  judgments.  He 
expressed  the  opinion  that  fear  as  much  as  anything  else  had 
dnven  the  nations  to  fly  at  each  others'  throats.  He  thought 
that  the  verdict  of  history  would  not  acquit  the  Germans  of 
waging  war  atrociously,  but  he  was  not  sure  that  we  were  not 
now  waging  peace  atrociously.  There  could  be  no  more  fatuous 
pohcy,  he  said,  than  to  try  to  get  Germany  permanently 
crippled,  for  this  would  not  only  inflict  grave  injury  on  our  own 
economic  life,  but  would  drive  Germany  into  alliance  with  the 
Military  Government  of  Bussia.  The  League  of  Nations  had 
a  difficult  task  but  the  alternative  was  a  mutual  suicide  club. 
At  a  later  sitting  of  the  Congress  considerable  controversy 
was  aroused  by  the  question  of  the  attitude  of  the  Church 
towards  amusements,  on  which  subject  several,  papers  were 
submitted  both  by  clerical  and  lay  members  of  the  Congress. 
The  meetings  ended  on  October  22.  The  general  impression 
left  as  a  result  of  them  was  that  the  tide  of  unity  in  the  Church 
was  rising,  and  that  this  fact  accounted  for  the  success  of  the 
Congress.  A  marked  feature  of  the  Congress  was  the  excellence 
of  several  jpapers  contributed  by  women. 

Several  political  speeches  were  delivered  during  October  by 
prominent  statesmen.  The  most  important  was  one  by  Mr. 
Lloyd  George  at  Llandudno  on  October  8,  in  which  the  Prime 


IMO.]  Speeches  by  Mr.  Lloyd  George.  [117 

Minister  defended  the  Coalition  Government.  He  said  that 
as  a  matter  of  fact  we  had  had  government  by  Coalition  in 
this  country  since  1886.  If  it  had  not  been  for  the  mishap  of 
1916  Mr.  Asquith  would  have  been  now  at  the  head  of  the 
Coalition  Government.  Coalition  did  not  mean  the  surrender 
of  principle  by  anybody.  Every  belhgerent  country,  with  the 
exception  of  America,  had  been  driven  to  Coahtion  to  save  its 
face.  The  conflict  of  parties  in  America  had  resulted  in  this, 
that  they  had  not  yet  signed  a  Treaty  of  Peace  with  Germany. 
The  great  issue  which  engaged  statesmanship  in  all  lands  was 
peace  at  home  and  abroad.  He  did  not  mean  treaties  of  peace, 
he  meant  the  atmosphere  of  peace  and  accord  not  merely  in 
Russia  and  Poland  and  Lithuania,  but  in  our  factories,  work- 
shops, and  mines  at  home.  It  was  of  no  use  making  peace  with 
Russia.  The  Government  of  Bussia  itself  made  that  difficult. 
It  did  not  command  confidence,  it  broke  pledges,  it  made  a 
pretence  of  making  peace  and  then  assiduously  took  advantage 
of  it  to  poison  the  atmosphere  of  the  country  with  whom  it 
was  negotiating.  Peace  at  home  was  very  necessary  and  very 
urgent.  The  average  number  of  people  who  went  out  of  work 
on  strikes  before  the  war  was  800,000  per  annum.  Last  year 
it  was  2,500,000,  just  when  the  country  needed  production 
more  than  ever.  Mr.  Lloyd  George  said  that  he  was  all  for 
strict  justice  and  equity  in  dealing  with  every  demand  which 
came  from  men  who  contributed  to  the  wealth  of  the  nation, 
but  he  was  equally  resolved  that  whatever  happened  the  rights 
of  the  community  could  not  be  surrendered  to  any  minority 
however  powerful.  If  a  minority  could  hold  up  the  community 
by  denying  to  them  the  necessities  of  life,  there  was  an  end  of 
democratic  government  in  this  country.  It  was  the  beginning 
of  the  Soviet  Government  in  Bussia.  Mr.  Lloyd  George  then 
referred  to  the  impending  strike  of  the  miners,  and  finally 
turned  to  Ireland,  predicting  that  Home  Bule  would  be  carried 
by  Coalition,  and  denying  that  he  was  in  the  hands  of  Sir 
Edward  Carson. 

The  next  day  Mr.  Lloyd  George  addressed  a  meeting  in 
Carnarvon  on  the  Irish  question.  He  insisted  that  nothing 
which  had  been  done  in  the  past  could  justify  altogether  the 
conditions  of  the  present.  During  the  past  thirty  or  forty 
years  more  had  been  done  to  redress  the  evils  of  the  past  in 
Ireland  than  in  any  country  in  the  world,  and  yet  what  was 
the  position  in  that  country?  During  the  last  year  283  police- 
men had  been  shot  in  Ireland,  109  of  them  being  shot  dead. 
About  100  soldiers  had  been  shot  and  many  more  had  been 
fired  at.  The  police  had  endured  the  attacks  w^n  them 
patiently  for  two  or  three  years,  but  finally  their  patience  had 
given  way  and  there  had  been  some  reprisals.  The  Sinn 
Feiners  justified  their  action  by  saying  that  there  was  a  state  of 
war,  but  what  they  called  a  war  was  carried  on  by  men,  not  in 
qniform,  who  attacked  the  police  unawares  and  under  the  guise 


118]  ENGLISH  HISTOEY.  [oor. 

of  peaceful  civilians.  This  was  more  than  the  police  could  be 
expected  to  tolerate.  Moreover,  there  was  a  system  of  de- 
moralisation which  made  it  impossible  to  find  any  evidence  to 
convict  the  murderers.  Turning  to  the  question  of  restoration 
of  order  in  Ireland,  the  Prime  Minister  referred  to  the  cry  for 
Dominion  Home  Eule,  and  pointed  out  that  there  was  no  one 
who  had  the  authority  to  speak  for  his  countrymen  who  would 
be  prepared  to  accept  Dominion  Home  Bule,  but  the  main 
objection  to  it  was  that  it  was  not  possible  to  give  Ireland  the 
right  to  organise  a  separate  Army  and  Navy. 

On  .  October  14  Mr.  Asquith  dealt  with  the  question  of 
Dominion  Home  Eule  in  a.Bpfech  at"Ayr.  He  said  that  he  had 
no  fears  whatever  of  Irish  separation,  and  the  only  possible 
solution  of  the  difl&culty  was  to  give  Ireland  Dominion  Home 
Eule  in  the  largest  and  fullest  sense.  This  meant  complete 
legislative  independence  in  all  matters  of  local  concern.  It  also 
meant  actual  fiscal  autonomy,  including  the  imposition  of 
Customs  and  Excise  Duties.  It  meant  further  the  power  to 
raise  local  Military  Forces  for  .home  defence,  and  also  (subject 
to  certain  clearly  defined  conditions  and  limitations)  the  power 
to  raise  a  Naval  Force.  As  a  matter  of  fact  he  did  not  believe 
that  Ireland  would  create  a  Navy,  for  she  could  get  all  her 
Navy  work  done  much  more  cheaply  and  efiSciently  by  the 
Imperial  Navy  close  at  hand. 

My.  Churchill  replied  to  Mr.  Asguith  in  a  speech  at  Dundee 
OQ^  October  16.  He  said  that  liEe  best^chaince  of  maimg  an 
Irish  settlement  had  been  in  1916  when  Sir  Edward  Carson 
had  offered  to  try  to  bring  about  an  Irish  Home  Eule  settle- 
ment. He  did  not  blame  Mr.  Asquith  or  Lord  Grey,  or  any  of 
the  other  Ministers  of  that  time,  but  it  was  not  for  them,  aiter 
having  missed  that  opportunity,  to  lecture  those  who  succeeded 
them  for  having  failed  to  turn  good  opportunities  to  accoimt. 
He  pointed  out  that  the  Government  possessed  the  imshaken 
support  of  an  enormous  majority  in  the  House  of  Commons, 
and  he  thought  that  Mr.  Asquith  might  have  given  it  his  power- 
ful aid  instead  of  splitting  up  the  Liberal  Party.  It  was  the 
intention  of  the  Government  to  break  up  the  murder  gang  in 
Ireland.  A  permanent  settlement  on  a  Home  Eule  basis  with 
the  Irish  people  could  never  be  on  the  basis  of  surrender  to 
treacherous  murder,  but  only  on  the  basis  of  justice  and  of 
generosity. 

Among  the  Irish  prisoners  confined  for  political  offences  the 

hunger  strike  continued  notwithstanding  the  firm  attitude  of 

I    the  Government,     On  October  17  Michael  Fitzgerald  died  after 

\    having  refused  food  since  August  10  when  he  had  been  lodged, 

with  ten  other  prisoners,  in  Cork  Gaol.     He  had  been  arrested 

'in  connexion  with  the  shooting  of  a  soldier  at  Fermoy  and  was 

awaiting  trial  on  the  capital  charge.    By  the  middle  of  October 

tho  condition  of  Alderman  McSwmey,  the  Lord  Mayor  of  Cork, 

had   become  extremely  critical,  and  his  death  took  place  on 


iwo.]  Death  of  the  Lord  Mayor  of  Cork.  [119 

Octob6r^25JiLB£u;tp_n  IMson  on  the  seventy-fourth  day  of  his 
hunger  strike.  _Next  morning  :,"ttie;'^tionalist  newspapers  in 
Ireland  appeared -with  heavy  Jblack  borders,  and  their  j?oh tents 
were  concerned  almost  entirely  with  accounts  of  the  life  and 
death  of  the  late  Lord  Mayor.  The  ioij  was"  taken  Trom 
Brixton  Prison  to  St.  George's  Boman  Catholic  Cathedral, 
Southwark,  after  an  inquest  had  been  held  at  which  a  verdict 
was  returned  that  Alderman  McSwiney  had  died  from  the  results 
of  exhaustion  due  to  prolonged  refusal  to  take  food.  On  the  28th 
a  procession  went  through  the  streets  of  London  in  which  the 
coffin  was  conveyed  to  Euston  to  be  taken  to  Cork  for  burial. 
The  original  intention  of  landing  the  remains  of  the  late  Lord 
Mayor  at  Dublin  had  to  be  abandoned  owing  to  the  action  of 
the  Government,  who  feared  the  risk  of  political  demonstrations, 
and  placed  a  special  steamer  at  the  disposal  of  the  relatives  and 
friends  to  proceed  direct  to  Cork  without  landing  at  any  other 
place.  The  funeral  took  place  on  October  31  in  the  circle  of 
ground  known  as  the  Eepublican  Plot,  and  marked  by  every 
sign  of  public  sympathy  and  lament.  Dense  masses  Uned  the 
route,  and  a  Requiem  Mass  was  held  at  the  Cathedral,  the 
whole  population  of  the  city  of  Cork  being  swayed  by  the 
single  desure  to  honour  their  late  Lord  Mayor. 

Mnrdftffl  ftn5^  ^ntragpfl  jvfra  continually  reported  in  Ireland 
during.. October — On  the  IsFof  the  month  the  police  foun J 
the  dead  body  of  Captain  Lendrum.  tansf'  coffin  on  the  ^railway 
line  near  KHmun^iailwaylStation.  Captain  Lendrum,  who 
was  Resident  Magistrate  at  Ealkee,  had  disappeared  on  Sep- 
tember 22  under  circumstances  which  gave  rise  to  the  belief 
that  he  had  fallen  into  a  Sinn  Fein  ambush.  Since  that  time 
threats  of  reprisals  had  appeared  in  the  Press  unless  Captain 
Lendrum's  whereabouts  were  promptly  revealed.  Official  steps 
were  at  once  taken  to  prevent  any  such  unauthorised  acts,  but 
apparently  those  responsible  for  the  murder  thought  it  best 
in  the  circumstances  to  reveal  the  truth,  and  Captain  Lendrum' s 
body  in  a  coffin  was  placed  in  a  position  where  it  would  be 
discovered.  On  the  same  day  that  this  discovery  was  made 
a  motor  police  patrol  was  ambushed  in  County  SUgo,  a  police 
officer  being  killed  and  two  policemen  who  were  with  him 
wounded.  On  the  2nd  three  auxiliary  policemen  were  attacked 
by  civilians  in  Patrick  Street,  Cork,  one  constable  being  wounded. 
The  Sinn  Feiners,  however,  did  not  have  iiall  thmr.  own  way. 
Oft"  the  4th  a  patrot  of  "thirty  soldiers  surprised  about  sixty 
civilians  who  were  preparing  an  ambush  in  County  Cork.  One 
df  the  civilians  was  killed  and  several  shot-guns,  a  quantity  of 
ammunition,  bicycles,  steel  helmets,  and  equipment  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  military.  On  the  same  day  soldiers  raided 
a  Sinn  Fein  Quarter  Sessions  Court  which  was  sitting  at  Navan. 
They  seized  all  the  documents  including  the  Solicitors'  Briefs, 
searched  the  members  of  the  Court,  and  took  the  names  of  all 
present,     On  the  following  day  the  military  in  Dublin  seized 


120]  ENGLISH  HISTORY.  [ocr. 

the  mails  for  the  second  time  within  a  fortnight.  All  the  mail 
bags  were  carriecT  from  the  Botunda  Bink  to  Dublin  Castle 
where  the  letters  were  examined.  While  this  was  going  on 
a  daring  robbery  was  conmiitted  by  five  young^men  armed 
with  revolvers  at  the  SogflL-BB^mond  "5freeT"¥ranch  of  the 
Provincial  BaTlkinTJuBlin.  Two  of  tEe  men  took  up  positions 
as  sentries  at  tte  ttoor^  ihe  others  entered  the  Bank  and,  pre- 
senting revolvers,  held  up  the  staff  and  three  people  who  were 
in  the  office  at  the  time.  One  of  the  men  next  cut  the  telephone 
wires  while  another  seized  a  cash  box.  It  was  estimated  that 
a  sum  of  8001.  was  taken.  On  October  6  an  officer  of  the  West 
Biding  Begiment  was  shot  in  the  grounds  of  CoUinstown  Aero- 
drome, County  Dublin. 

Cork  was  the  scene  of  jnanj^  outrages.     On  October  8  a 

/'military  lorr^  driving  aTong^ barrack*  Street  wa|TJ5Qmbed  by 

civilians  from  a^  street  comer,  oiie"oniheT)6mb8  exploding  in  the 

centre  of  the  lony.  and  blowing  a  hand  off  one  soldier  who  died 

shortly  afterwards;  three  others  were  dangerously' wounded. 

^      The  remaining    soldiers  fired    about  twenty    rounds  in    the 

\    direction  from  which  the  bombs  were  thrown,  and  the  streets, 

\  which  had  been  crowded  at  the  time,  were  quickly  cleared.     It 

was  then  found  that  two  men  and  one  girl  had  received  bad 

wounds  from  fragments  of  bombs.     About  the  same  date  another 

/  attack  was  made  on  the  police  in  County  Clare.     The  sergeant 

^    and  five  constables  left  their  barracks  to  go  to  the  Post  Office, 

.  but  when  they  arrived  there  fire  was  opened  on  them  from  the 

'  windows  of  the  upper  part  of  the  house  and  of  adjoining  houses 

/  and  from  the  other  side  of  the  road.     Two  constables  were 

shot  dead  while  the  remainder  succeeded  in  getting  back  to 

their  barracks  though  under  fire  the  whole  way.     Another 

military  car  was  ambushed  near  Cork  on  October  9,  one  officer 

being  killed  and  another  officer  dangerously  wounded,  while 

^     three  soldiers  were  also  hit.     On  the  following  day  another 

/     outrage  of  the  same  nature  was  committed  in  County  Cork ; 

/     the  driver  of  the  motor  lorry  was  in  this  case  killed,  and  one 

N.C.O.   and  three  men  wounded.     Six  rifles,  a  revolver,  and 

some  ammunition  were  captured.     The  attacking  party  was 

said  to  have  been  100  strong,  and  used  a  hotchkiss  gun  and 

bombs. 

On  October  12  Dublin  was  startled  to  learn  that  two  military 
officers  had  been  killed  in  the  performance  of  their  duty  on  the 
north  side  of  the  city.  The  officers  and  a  party  of  men  had 
gone  to  a  house  to  make  an  arrest,  and  soon  after  being  admitted 
they  were  fired  upon,  the  young  men  whom  they  were  trying 
to  arrest  succeeding  in  escaping  by  the  back  of  the  house.  On 
the  14th  two  serious  shootmg  affrays  occurred  in  Dublin.  In 
the  first,  which  broke  out  in  the  afternoon,  men  attacked  an 
armoured  car,  wounding  one  of  the  soldiers  but  having  one 
of  their  own  number  killed.  Two  hours  later  soldiers  who 
lyere  raiding  a  shop  were  fired  at  by  a  body  of  civilians  an4 


/ 


1990.]  Outrages  in  Ireland.  [121 

retorafidJllfiJSre.  An  official  report  stated  that  an  officer  and 
two  civilians  were  killed,  and  one  N^CT.D.  and  a  Dublin  Metro- 
politan police  constable  were  wounded.  Two  other  shooting 
affirays  took  place  in  Dublin  on  October  17,  both  of  them  fatal, 
while  on  the  same  date  new'  noting  Ido'k  place  in_  Belfast, 
revolver  firing  being  freely  indulged  in,  asafesunTof  which 
one  man  was  shot  dead  and  about  a  dozen  adinilted^  Jo^ltaspital 
suffering  fro£a'  gunshot  and  ptherjwounds.  Some  of  them  died 
later.  Meanwhile  from  County  Ghftlwa^  there  came  stories 
of  reprisals  on  the  part  of  the  police  which  were  more  or  less 
well  authenticated.  When  Parliament  opened  Sir  Hamar 
Greenwood  said  that  the  outrages  against  the  police  and 
military  forces  since  January  1  had  included  the  loss  of  118 
lives.  The  effective  strength  of  the  Boyal  Irish  Constabulary 
was  now  higher  than  it  had  been  for  the  last  fifteen  years. 

On  October  20  Mr.  A.  Henderson  moved  a  resolution  in  the 
House  regretting  the  present  state  of  lawlessness  in  Ireland,  and 
declaring  that  an  independent  investigation  should  at  once  be 
instituted  into  the  causes  and  extent  of  reprisals  taken  by  those     i 
whose  duty  it  was  to  preserve  law  and  order.     Sir  Hamar 
Greenwood  said  that  the  difficulty  to-day  was  based  on  a  de-     , 
mand  for  complete  independence  reinforced  by  an  army  equipped,     \ 
organised,  and  working  day  and  night  by  a  policy  of  assassma-      ^. 
tion  and  of  burning;  the  paramoimt  duty  of  the  Irish  Gov-       > 
emment    was    to    break   up    the   murder   ^ang    which    had 
terrorised  Ireland.    Mr.  Bonar  Law  also  pointed  out  that  in 
the  conditions  prevailing  in  Ireland  at  the  present  time  it  was 
impossible  to  have  any  inquiry,  which  would  be  fair,  in  public, 
bemuse  men  would  be  terrorised  into  swearing  falsely.    Mr. 
J.  H.  Thomas  expressed  the  view  that  the  Government  had  no 
right  to  put  into  gaol  railwaymen  who  refused  to  carry,  armed 
soldiers  or  munitions  in  Ireland.    In  the  House  of  Lords  at  the 
same  time  a  request  for  an  inquiry  into  the  question  of  reprisals 
and  other  points  was  also  refused. 

On  October JZ2^a  miKfary  party  of  the  Essex  Begiment  was 
ambushed  15  miles  from  Cork  by  120  armed  men,  three  of  the 
sbTaJersTmcIudihg  the  heutenaut  in  connnand,  being  fatally 
wounded.  "The  mifitary  were  in  occupation  of  two  large  motor 
lorries  and  were  taken  completely  by  surprise.  They  returned 
the  fire  and  continued  the  fight  for  neany  an  hour,  but  were 
eventually  obliged  to  surrender  and  allow  the  raiders  to  take 
their  arms  and  equipment.  Another  successful  ambush  was 
carried  out  on  a  police  patrol  in  County  Galwav  on  October  25. 
The  patrol  cdrisisled" "of  a  sergeant  and  eight  men;  three  of 
them  were  wounded  and  three  killed,  while  the  assailants 
escaped.  T^he  tactics  of  Sinn  Fein  were  all  of  a  similar  char- 
acter^^and  the  outrages  which '  "occurred  "durii^  October  are  far 
top  numerQUfiiorlihdividual  mention.  A  considerable  sensation 
was  caused,  however,  StHdte  end  of  the  month  by  an  outbreak 
of  a  sinular  kind  in  Scotland,    At  the  yiUage  of  Bothwell  som0 


/ 


122]  ENGLISH  HISTORY.  [ocr. 

constables  interrupted  a  band  of  armed  Sinn  Feiners  who  were 

contemplating  a  raid  in  search  of  arms  at  a  Drill  Hall  where  a 

quantity  of  ammunition  was  stored  for  the  use  of  the  local 

Territorials.     An  attack  was  made  by  two  policemen  on  a  band 

of  armed  men,  and  one  of  them  was  wounded  by  two  bullets 

while  the  other  succeeded  in  escaping  to  obtain  assistance. 

y^   The  Committee  stage  of  the  Home  Eule  Bill  in  the  House 

/  of  Commons  was  completed    during  October.      Colonel  W. 

(      Guinness  moved  an  amendment  designed  to  confer  on  the  Irish 

V    Parliaments  the  control  of  Customs  and  Excise.    Mr.  Fisher, 

\  however,  pointed  out  that  so  long  as  Ireland  was  divided  into 

pouthem  and  Northern  Governments  it  would  be  impracticable 

/to  establish  a  Customs  barrier  across  the  Island.     The  amend- 

/  ment  was  ultimately  negatived  by  a  majority  of  129.     The  last 

(    day  of  the  Committee  stage  was  October  29,  when  Major  Hills 

moved  an  amendment  to  give  the  control  of  Income  Tax  to  the 

Irish  Parliaments.     The  amendment  was  negatived.    Mr.  Beid 

then  moved  a  new  clause  to  provide  that  no  law  made  in  Ireland 

should  have  the  effect  of  prejudicing  or  diminishing  the  rights 

of  any  existing  or  pensioned  officer  of  a  Local  Authority.     This 

clause,  slightly  amended  by  Mr.  Fisher,  was  agreed  to,  and  the 

3ill  was  then  reported  as  amended. 

One  further  BiU  haa  -to  be  named  whick  paoood-through  all 
its,  stages  in  the  bourse  of  a  week  in  the  latter  half  of  October. 
This  Bill  was  the  Emeri^ehcy  Powers  Biir  introduced  with 
Special  reference  to  the  miners'  stnEeT  which  was  lihen  in  pro- 
gress. Us  second  reading  was  moved  in  the  HouseoTCbmmons 
by  Mr.  Bonar  Law  on  October  25.  He  explained  that  its  ob- 
ject was  to  provide  the  Government  with  the  powers  essential 
to  deal  with  any  widespread  emergency  which  might  threaten 
the  life  of  the  community  as  a  whole.  The  Bill  empowered  the 
Government  to  make  such  regulations  as  should  be  needful  to 
secure  the  supply  of  food,  water,  fuel,  light,  and  other  necessaries, 
and  to  preserve  peace.  The  rejection  of  the  Bill  was  moved  by 
Mr.  Adamson  on  behalf  of  the  Labour  Party,  and  Mr.  Asquith 
expressed  the  view  that  it  required  prolonged  and  careful 
Parliamentary  discussion.  Mr.  Clynes  thought  that  the  moment 
chosen  for  putting  forward  the  Bill  was  inopportune,  while  Sir 
Donald  Maclean  suggested  that  a  Select  Committee  should  re- 
port on  the  proposals  contained  in  it.  The  second  reading  was 
then  carried  by  a  majority  of  202  after  the  closure  had  first  been 
applied. 

The  Committee  sta^e  was  taken  next  day.  Clause  1  pro- 
vided that  if  at  any  time  any  action  taken  or  immediately 
threatened  were  calculated  to  deprive  any  substantial  portion  of 
the  community  of  the  essentials  of  life,  a  "  state  of  emergency  " 
might  be  declared  by  proclamation.  The  clause  was  eventually 
carried  after  a  short  debate  ended  by  the  closure.  Mr.  Shortt 
moved  an  amendment,  which  was  agreed  to,  to  secure  that  no 
proclamation  should  be  enforced  for  more  than  one  month.     An 


IMO.]  Emergency  Powers  BiU.  [123 

amendment  moved  by  Mr.  Grundy  providing  that  Parliament, 
if  not  sitting  at  the  time  when  a  proclamation  was  issued,  should 
be  summoned  to  meet  within  five  days,  was  also  agreed  to.  On 
Clause  2  Government  amendments  were  introduced  providing 
that  there  should  be  no  power  to  enforce  compulsory  military 
service  or  industrial  conscription,  and  that  it  should  not  be 
made  an  offence  under  the  Act  for  any  person  to  take  part  in 
a  strike  or  peacefully  to  persuade  any  other  person  to  do  so.  A 
further  amendment  was  agreed  to  providing  that  the  regulations 
should  not  continue  in  force  longer  than  seven  days  after  they 
had  been  laid  before  Parliament  unless  both  Houses  agreed  to 
them  by  resolution.  The  Bill  was  read  a  third  time  and  passed 
on  October  27.  On  the  28th  it  passed  through  all  its  stages 
in  the  House  of  Lords,  and  the  royal  assent  was  given  on 
October  29. 

The  second  reading  of  the  Ministry  of  Health  (Miscellaneous 
Provisions)  Bill  was  moved  by  Dr.  Addison  in  the  House  of 
Commons  on  November  4.  He  explained  that  the  object  of  the 
Bill  was  to  deal  with  post-war  problems.  Under  it  Local 
Authorities  were  empowered  under  certain  circumstances  com- 
pulsorily  to  hire  empty  houses.  It  also  prolonged  the  period 
for  granting  subsidies.  Other  provisions  concerned  housing 
schemes,  continued  temporary  hospital  treatment,  and  em- 
powered Local  Authorities  to  contribute  in  aid  of  volimtary 
hospitals.  The  rejection  was  moved  by  Lord  Winterton,  and 
after  some  further  debate  the  discussion  was  adjourned  till 
November  9.  On  its  resumption  Mr.  A.  Samuel  expressed  the 
fear  that  the  Bill  would  heavily  tax  the  finances  of  the  country. 
After  the  closure  had  been  moved  and  carried  the  Bill  was  read 
a  second  time.  A  motion  that  it  should  be  referred  to  a  Com- 
mittee of  the  whole  House  was  negatived,  and  it  was  referred 
to  a  Standing  Committee. 

The  Agricultural  Bill  passed  through  its  remaining  stages  in 
the  House  of  Commons  during  November.  On  the  2nd  of  the 
month  a  new  Government  clause  was  agreed  to,  allowing  the 
tenant  of  a  farm  under  an  incumbent  to  continue  in  occupation 
of  the  farm  notwithstanding  the  termination  of  the  incumbent's 
interest  until  his  tenancy  was  determined  by  a  notice  to  quit  in 
the  ordinary  fashion.  A  clause  was  also  added  applying  the 
provisions  of  the  Bill  with  regard  to  compensation  to  cottages 
m  holdings  under  the  Act  of  1908.  Mr.  W.  Smith  moved  a  new 
clause  to  provide  that  where  a  rental  was  not  actually  reserved, 
a  workman  who  was  put  in  occupation  of  premises  of  small 
value  should  be  assured  that  they  were  fit  for  human  habitation. 
The  clause  was  agreed  to  by  a  majority  of  224,  and  another 
clause  providing  for  the  establishment  of  Wages  Committees  in 
Wales  was  also  added  to  the  Bill.  Many  other  amendments 
were  made,  at  the  end  of  which  the  third  reading  was  passed  on 
November  25.  Its  main  provisions  in  the  form  in  which  it  left 
the  House  of  Commons,  were  as  follows ;  It  continued  and 


124]  ENGLISH  HISTORY.  [hov. 

amended  the  Com  Production  Act,  1918,  and  provided  for  the 
termination  of  that  Act  by  Order  in  Council  on  an  address  to 
His  Majesty  by  both  Houses  of  Parliament.  Guaranteed  prices 
for  wheat  and  oats  were  continued,  though  they  were  no  longer 
to  be  fixed  in  advance  but  to  vary  from  a  datum  line  for  the 
year  1919  of  68s.  per  cjuarter  for  wheat  and  46*.  for  oats  as  the 
cost  of  production  varied.  The  Agricultural  Wages  Board  was 
continued,  a  separate  Wa^es  Board  for  Wales  being  set  up.  As 
regards  control  of  cultivation,  the  Act  of  1917  was  greatly  modi- 
fied. Orders  might  be  issued  requiring  that  cultivation  should 
be  according  to  the  rules  of  good  husbandry ;  that  an  improve- 
ment or  change  of  cultivation  should  be  made,  or  that  necessary 
works  of  maintenance  should  be  carried  out;  but  no  inter- 
ference was  allowed  with  the  discretion  of  the  occupier  as  to  the 
crops  to  be  grown.  Provision  was  made  for  an  appeal  to  an 
arbitrator.  Power  was  given  to  the  Minister  to  put  into  the 
hands  of  a  Receiver  or  Manager  any  estate  on  which  good 
husbandry  and  food  production  were  prejudiced  by  general 
mismanagement.  Powers  were  also  taken  for  the  destruction 
of  weeds. 

The  second  part  of  the  Agriculture  Bill  amended  the  Agri- 
cultural Holdings  Acts;  while  the  right  of  a  landlord  to  give 
a  tenant  notice  to  quit  was  preserved  the  existing  provisions 
for  compensation  for  disturbance  were  extended.  The  tenant 
farmer  would  receive  compensation  for  disturbance  in  every 
case  where  he  left  his  holding  in  consequence  of  a  notice  to  quit, 
provided  that  he  (the  tenant  farmer)  was  not  himself  at  fault. 
He  would  receive  full  compensation  for  all  loss  directly  attri- 
butable to  the  quitting  which  might  be  incurred  by  sale  or  re- 
moval of  his  stock,  etc.,  together  with  an  additional  sum  equal 
to  one  year's  rent.  If  the  notice  to  quit  were  given  capriciously 
this  additional  sum  might  be  increased  by  an  arbitrator  up  to  a 
maximum  of  four  years*  rent.  Provision  was  made  for  payment 
of  compensation  for  disturbance  in  the  case  of  allotment  gardens, 
and  the  same  principle  of  compensation  was  appUed  to  tied 
cottages  occupied  by  agricultural  labourers. 

During  November  some  discussion  took  place  in  the  House 
of  Lords  on  affairs  in  Egypt  and  also  in  Persia.  As  regards 
the  former  country  Lord  Gurzon  said  that  a  new  memorandum 
had  been  sent  to  Cairo  in  August,  a  summary  of  which  had 
already  appeared.  Lord  Milner  explained  that  his  Mission 
had  not  yet  reported  as  they  were  anxious  to  hear  the  views 
of  Zaghlub  Pasha  and  other  influential  Ee^yptians  who  had 
arrive!  in  London. 

The  position  in  Persia  was  discussed  on  November  16. 
Lord  Curzon  then  stated  that  the  whole  of  our  policy  was 
directed  towards  steadying  the  situation  in  that  country.  We 
had  now  informed  Persia  that  we  expected  the  Mejliss  to  be 
summoned  in  the  ensuing  month  in  order  that  the  Anglo- 
Persian  Agreement  might  be  submitted  to  it  before  the  copi- 


1920.]  Anniversary  of  the  Armistice,  [125 

mencement  of  the  new  year.  If  the  Persian  Parliament 
accepted  the  agreement  we  should  do  our  best  to  help  them 
with  troops. 

Early  in  the  year  two  important  arrests  were  made  in 
connexion  with  affairs  in  Ireland.  The  first  was  that  of 
Mrs.  Annan  Bryce  who  had  been  arrested  without  warrant 
at  Holyhead  and  taken  as  a  prisoner  to  Ireland  on  an  order 
from  the  Irish  Executive.  This  action  was  criticised  in  the 
House  of  Lords  on  November  9,  but  was  defended  by  Lord 
Crawford,  who  explained  that  Mrs.  Bryce  had  been  arrested 
under  a  regulation  of  the  Defence  of  the  Bealm  Act  which 
empowered  arrests  to  be  made  without  warrant  on  the  authority 
of  a  person  authorised  by  the  competent  Naval  or  Military 
Authority. 

The  other  arrest  was  that  of  ex-Colonel  Malone,  M.P.,  who 
had  made  a  revolutionary  speech  at  the  Albert  Hall  on  Novem- 
ber 7.  On  the  9th  his  fiat  in  London  was  raided,  and  a  large 
number  of  documents  removed  which  were  alleged  to  be  of  a 
revolutionary  nature.  On  the  following  day  ex-Colonel  Malone 
himself  was  arrested  in  Dublin  where  he  had  gone  to  take  part 
in  the  inaugural  meeting  of  Trinity  College  Historical  Society. 
On  the  12th  he  was  formally  charged  at  Bow  Street  Police  Court 
with  having  committed  an  act  (namely,  delivering  a  speech  at 
the  Albert  Hall)  Ukely  to  cause  sedition  and  disaffection  among 
the  civilian  population.  Among  the  passages  of  the  speech  in 
question  was  one  in  which  he  adjured  his  audience  to  leave  no 
stone  unturned  in  preparing  for  a  social  revolution.  He  hoped 
that  the  Russian  revolution  would  soon  be  followed  by  a  British 
revolution,  even  if  it  had  to  be  achieved  by  the  execution  of 
various  statesmen.  ''What,"  he  said,  ''are  a  few  Churchills 
or  Curzons  on  lamp-posts  compared  to  the  massacre  of  thou- 
sands of  human  bemgs?  "  Ex-Colonel  Malone  was  remanded 
for  a  week,  at  the  end  of  which  his  case  came  again  before  the 
magistrate,  and  he  was  sentenced  to  six  months'  imprisonment 
in  the  Second  Division.  Notice  of  appeal  was  immediately 
given,  and  the  defendant  was  released  on  bail  pending  the 
hearing  of  the  appeal. 

The  second  anniversary  of  the  armistice  was  celebrated  with 
even  greater  ceremony  than  in  the  previous  year.  Two  out- 
standing events  characterised  the  celebration  :  the  King  unveiled 
the  Cenotaph  in  its  permanent  form,  and  an  imknown  warrior 
was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey.  The  body  of  this  unknown 
soldier  had  been  disinterred  from  the  battle-fields  in  France  and 
was  brought  to  England  on  November  10.  On  the  morning 
of  the  11th  the  coffin,  covered  by  a  Union  Jack,  was  carried 
from  Victoria  Station  with  Field-Marshals  and  Admirals  as 
pall-bearers,  and  traversed  a  long  route  to  the  Cenotaph  amidst 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  silent  spectators.  In  Whitehall  the 
Cenotaph  was  draped  with  the  National  flag.  The  King,  in 
the  uniform  of  a  Field-Marshal,  stood  near  the  Colonial  Office 


126]  ENGLISH  HI8T0EY.  [hov. 

waiting  to  step  into  his  place  as  chief  mourner,  and  his  first  act 
after  the  arrival  of  the  procession  was  to  step  forward  to  the 
coffin  and  place  upon  it  a  wreath  of  laurel  leaves  and  crimson 
flowers.  As  the  clock  struck  eleven  the  King  pressed  a  button 
and  the  flags  which  veiled  the  Cenotaph  fluttered  down.  The 
King  then  placed  the  first  wreath  at  the  base  of  the  Cenotaph, 
followed  by  the  Prince  of  Wales,  the  Prime  Minister,  the 
Adjutant-General,  and  the  representatives  of  the  Dominions 
and  Colonies.  The  cottin  was  afterwards  conveyed  to  West- 
minster Abbey  where  the  Bang  scattered  over  it  soil  brought 
from  the  battle-field.  For  some  days  the  grave  was  left  covered 
with  the  pall  and  the  Ypres  Flag,  while  Westminster  Abbey 
was  kept  open  all  day  long  in  order  that  it  might  be  visited 
by  the  large  crowds  of  people  who  wished  to  see  it.  The  grave 
was  not  sealed  till  the  night  of  November  17  when  it  had  been 
visited  by  over  a  million  persons  who  formed  a  queue  that  was 
almost  continuous  during  the  week. 

The  Defence  of  the  Bealm  (Acquisition  of  Land)  Bill  was 
debated  in  the  House  of  Lords  in  the  course  of  November. 
Lord  Peel  moved  the  second  reading  on  the  15th  of  the  month. 
He  explained  that  the  Bill  empowered  the  Government  to 
dispose  of  land  free  from  restrictive  covenants  to  which  it  was 
subjected  immediately  before  its  acquisition.  The  Bill  also 
did  away  with  the  pre-emptive  right  of  the  owner  of  any  land 
adjoining  that  to  be  sold  to  be  given  the  first  refusal  of  such 
land.  Clause  3  dealt  with  the  resale  of  land,  and  other  clauses 
were  inserted  for  the  purpose  of  clearing  up  legal  doubts.  Lord 
Salisbury  pointed  out  that  under  the  Bill  a  purchaser  of  pre- 
emption would  be  deprived  of  his  bargain,  but  the  motion  was 
agreed  to  and  the  Bill  read  a  second  time. 

In  its  Committee  stage  an  amendment  was  added  to  Clause 
1  which  empowered  the  Government  to  dispose  of  land  free 
from  restrictive  covenants.  The  amendment,  which  was  moved 
by  Lord  Malmesbury,  was  intended  to  secure  that  the  Govern- 
ment should  not  have  unlimited  control  over  land  which  had 
been  acquired  solely  for  the  purposes  of  the  war.  A  few  other 
amendments  of  less  importance  were  also  added. 

Oh  the  17th  Lord  Gainford  moved  a  resolution  declaring 
that  reductions  should  be  immediately  set  on  foot  in  the  staffs 
of  Government  Departments,  so  that  all  buildings  which  had 
been  erected  by  the  Government  on  spaces  to  which  the  public 
had  access  prior  to  the  war  should  be  removed,  and  that  for 
the  retention  of  any  such  spaces  later  than  June  30  Parlia- 
mentary authority  should  be  obtained.  Lord  Stanmore  ex- 
plained that  the  evacuation  of  hotels,  museums,  and  other  public 
places  had  been  steadily  progressing,  and  that  the  evacuation 
of  temporary  buildings  was  now  being  dealt  with.  Lord 
Buokmaster  expressed  the  view  that  during  the  two  years  which 
had  elapsed  since  the  cessation  of  hostihties  greater  progress 
ought  to  have  been  made.    Lord  Crawford  stated  that  thQ 


19S0.]  Belief  of  Unemployment,  [127 

GoYemment  were  resolved  to  end  the  present  state  of  things 
as  soon  as  the  efficiency  of  the  Pubhc  Service  made  it  possible. 
Lord  Gainford's  motion  was  then  carried  by  a  majority  of  twenty- 
six.  Shortly  afterwards  a  Parhamentary  Paper  was  issued 
showing  the  staffs  of  the  principal  Government  offices  on 
October  1.  The  return  showed  a  sUght  total  reduction  of 
1783  as  compared  with  the  September  figures,  but  the  staffs  of 
all  Departments  still  amounted  to  366,243,  being  a  reduction 
of  only  64,257  in  the  two  years  succeeding  the  armistice.  In 
three  cases  the  staffs  had  recently  been  increased,  namely,  in 
the  Pensions  Ministry,  the  Inland  Revenue  Department,  and 
the  Ministry  of  Health. 

The  problem  of  unemployment  became  more  acute  as  the 
winter  advanced.  Early  in  November  the  Government  intro- 
duced an  Unemployment  (Belief  Works)  Bill,  the  object  of 
which  was  explained  by  Mr.  Munro  in  moving  the  second 
reading  on  November  18.  He  said  that  the  intention  of  the 
Bill  was  to  give  power  to  Local  Authorities  and  any  appropriate 
Government  Departments  to  acquire  and  enter  upon  land 
compulsorily  for  the  purpose  of  contributing  to  works  of  public 
utility  with  a  view  to  finding  immediate  work  for  the  un- 
employed. This  power  could  only  be  exercised  with  the 
express  approval  of  the  Ministry  of  Labour.  A  Local  Authority 
was  also  empowered,  with  the  approval  of  the  Minister  of 
Health,  to  contribute  to  works  of  pubhc  utihty  which  were 
being  extended  beyond  his  area.  The  second  reading  was  agreed 
to,  and  after  a  few  amendments  had  been  added  the  Bill  was 
read  a  third  time  and  passed  on  November  26. 

The  programme  of  the  Government  for  the  reUef  of  un- 
employment was  outUned  by  the  Prime  Minister  in  reply  to 
a  deputation  from  the  London  County  Council  on  November  24. 
The  deputation  pressed  for  powers  which  would  enable  them 
to  act  promptly  in  beginning  relief  work,  particularly  as  regards 
the  acquisition  of  land  for  arterial  roads,  and  the  Prime  Minister 
promised  to  do  what  was  possible  to  secure  immediate  possession 
for  the  Council.  Mr.  Lloyd  George's  exposition  of  the  Govern- 
ment schemes  followed  on  the  lines  of  a  statement  which  had 
just  been  issued  by  the  Cabinet  Conmiittee  on  unemployment. 
The  position  was,  that  in  out-of-work  donation  35,000,0002. 
had  already  been  spent,  which  was  to  be  increased  to  40,000,000Z. 
by  March  31  next.  The  Civil  LiabiUties  Department  had  spent 
2,000,000Z.  since  the  armistice,  which  was  to  be  increased  to 
4,000,000/.  Industrial  training  for  disabled  men  had  cost 
5,000,000Z.,  which  was  to  be  increased  to  26,500,000/.  On  the 
broken  apprenticeship  scheme  1,000,000/.  had  been  spent,  and 
5,500,000/.  was  to  be  the  total  expenditure.  On  land  settle- 
ment 23,000,000/.  were  to  be  spent,  of  which  7,500,000/.  had 
already  been  spent,  while  on  overseas  settlement  1,000,000/. 
were  to  be  spent.  Altogether  5,525,000  men  had  been  demobil- 
ised, of  whom  250,000  were  still  out  of  work  and  received  the 


128]  ENGLISH  HISTORY.  [hov. 

out-of-work  donation  at  11.  or  IZ.  ds.  per  week.  The  Cabinet 
Committee  had  decided  that  productive  work  must  be  found 
for  them  in  the  form  of  road  work  and  housing.  As  regards 
the  former,  a  great  new  arterial  road  scheme  was  to  be  msti- 
tuted  round  and  about  the  outskirts  of  London.  New  arterial 
roads  were  to  be  made  in  the  provinces,  and  in  nineteen  large 
towns  schemes  for  their  construction  had  already  been  scheduled. 
As  regards  housing,  there  was  a  shortage  of  500,000  houses,  in 
the  construction  of  which  it  was  hoped  to  absorb  a  large  number 
of  unemployed. 

Parliament  was  occupied  with  the  question  of  Ireland  from 
time  to  time  during  November.  Not  only  was  the  Home  Bule 
Bill  still  under  consideration,  but  another  Bill  called  the 
Criminal  Injuries  (Ireland)  Bill  was  brought  up  for  its  second 
reading  on  November  5.  The  Attorney-General  explained  that 
the  object  of  the  Bill  was  to  compel  County  Councils  to  pay 
the  sums  awarded  for  criminal  injuries,  and  the  Bill  empowered 
the  Lord  Lieutenant,  in  certain  circumstances,  to  allow  the 
payment  due  to  be  spread  over  five  years  instead  of  one,  and 
empowered  County  Councils,  with  the  consent  of  the  Local 
Government  Board,  to  borrow  from  banks  for  the  payment  of 
compensation.  The  Bill  was  opposed  by  Mr.  MacVeagh  and 
others,  but  the  motion  for  the  rejection  was  negatived  by  a 
majority  of  126,  and  after  an  abortive  attempt  to  refer  it  to 
a  Committee  of  the  whole  House  it  was  sent  to  a  Standing 
Committee. 

The  Lord  Mayor's  Banquet  on  November  9  provided  an 
opportunity  for  Mr.  Lloyd  George  to  make  a  statement  on 
public  affairs.  He  began,  accordmg  to  custom,  with  foreign 
questions,  referring  especially  to  the  German  Peace  Treaty  and 
the  Bussian  situation.  He  said  that  there  were  still  penis  to 
be  faced,  but  nevertheless  things  were  going  right,  and  the  dis- 
armament clauses  of  the  Peace  Treaty  were  being  carried  out. 
The  German  Navy  had  practically  disappeared ;  the  Army  had 
been  reduced  below  150,000  men,  and  was  rapidly  approximat- 
ing to  the  figure  of  100,000  specified  in  the  Treaty.  The  big 
guns  were  practically  all  surrendered,  although  there  were  stm 
too  many  nfles  at  large.  As  to  reparation,  tiie  Prime  Minister 
indicated  that  proposals  by  Germany  for  liquidating  her  lia- 
bilities would  be  examined  by  conferences  of  experts  on  behalf 
of  Germany  and  the  Allies,  and  he  looked  forward  with  great 
hope  and  confidence  to  really  tangible  results.  As  regards 
Bussia,  he  said  that  Bolshevism  was  a  passing  phase  which 
could  not  survive  though  it  might  be  followed  by  a  generation 
of  anarchy  which  might  poison  all  the  nations  of  tiie  world. 
It  was  for  that  reason  that  the  Grovemment  had  persevered  in 
its  efforts  to  secure  peace,  and  they  would  continue  to  persevere 
because  they  realised  the  danger  of  a  Bussia  sodden  with 
anarchy,  from  foreign  affairs  Mr.  Lloyd  George  passed  to  the 
industrial  situation,  and  referred  particularly  to  the  cosd  strike 


1990.]  The  Government  of  Ireland.  [129 

which,  in  his  opinion,  was  now  revealing  a  better  atmosphere 
on  all  sides.  The  voting  of  the  men  against  a  settlement  had 
shown  that  there  was  an  atmosphere  of  suspicion  even  with 
their  own  leaders,  and  that  this  must  be  removed  by  giving  the 
workers  confidence  in  the  present  form  of  Government.  The 
Prime  Minister  then  dealt  with  the  Irish  situation,  declaring 
that  while  they  had  witnessed  a  spectacle  of  organised  assassina- 
tion of  the  most  cowardly  character,  Ireland  would  soon  be 
less  disturbed.  "We  have  murder  by  the  throat!"  he  ex- 
claimed, and  too  much  attention  should  not  be  paid  to  the 
distorted  accounts  of  partisans  who  gave  vivid  descriptions  of 
the  horror  of  what  they  called  reprisals,  and  slurred  over  the 
horror  of  murder.  Until  the  present  conspiracy  of  murder  was 
suppressed  there  was  no  hope  of  the  real  peace  or  conciliation 
in  Ireland  which  everybody  desired.  Finally,  Mr.  Lloyd  George 
emphasised  that  the  Government  were  offering  Ireland  "not 
subjection  but  equality,  not  servitude  but  partnership." 

Mr.  Asquith  also  spoke  on  Ireland  on  November  19  with 
special  reference  to  the  question  of  reprisals.  The  occasion  of 
the  speech  was  a  luncheon  at  the  National  Liberal  Club,  and 
Mr.  Asquith  began  by  observing  that  for  the  last  six  months 
a  state  of  civil  war  had,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  existed  in 
Ireland.  Beginning  with  raids  upon  barracks  it  had  developed 
into  a  sporadic  campaign  of  ambush  and  murder.  Difficult  as 
the  task  of  detection  and  punishment  was,  the  practice  of  re- 
prisals put  justice  altogether  in  the  background.  The  situation 
was  one  of  the  most  serious  that  the  British  people  had  ever 
had  to  face.  Mr.  Asquith  then  referred  to  several  cases  of 
alleged  reprisals,  with  a  strong  condemnation  of  the  Chief 
Secretary  who  had  denied  that  there  was  any  evidence  of 
reprisals  having  occmred.  Finally,  Mr.  Asquith  said  that  the 
people  of  the  country  should  be  brought  to  realise  what  was 
unplied  by  a  pohcy  of  reprisals,  adding  that  he  would  not  rest 
until  he  had  opened  then:  eyes  as  far  as  he  could  to  the  dis- 
honour that  was  being  done  in  their  name. 

The  subject  was  further  discussed  by  the  National  Liberal 
Federation  which  met  at  Bradford  on  November  26.  Sir 
Donald  Maclean  moved  a  resolution  regretting  the  continuance 
of  international  unrest  and  the  failure  of  the  Governments  of 
the  Allies  to  secure  a  settled  state  of  peace.  This  resolution 
was  carried  with  only  four  dissentients.  Another  resolution 
was  then  moved  by  Sir  John  Simon  attributing  the  present 
state  of  anarchy  in  Ireland  to  the  denial  of  sen-government 
to  the  Irish  people,  and  affirming  that  further  coercion  and 
military  rule  would  aggravate  the  situation.  The  resolution 
further  called  for  Domimon  Home  Bule,  and  urged  the  Govern- 
ment to  call  a  representative  conference  to  consider  practical 
methods  of  carrying  it  into  effect.  Sir  John  Simon  then 
dealt  with  the  question  of  reprisals,  saying  that  any  honest  in- 
quirer who  examined  the  detailed  information  available  must 

I 


I 


130]  ENGLISH  HISTORY.  [hot. 

come  to  the  conclusion  that  the  Government  had  connived  at 
reprisals.  Amendments  were  then  put  forward  by  two  Coalition 
M.P.'s  who  spoke  amidst  much  interruption,  but  these  amend- 
ments were  rejected  and  the  main  resolution  carried  by  large 
majorities. 

>  The    Government  of    Ireland    Bill  passed  the  House  of 
Commons  during  November.     On  the  8th  of  the  month  the 
Bill  was  recommitted  in  respect  of  certain  amendments  and 
new  clauses.     Mr.  Fisher  moved  that  the  Southern  Parliament 
should  pay  annually  certain  sums  of  money  to  the  University 
Colleges  in  Dublin,  Cork,  and  Galway.     This  was  agreed  to,  as 
also  was  a  Government  clause  setting  up  machinery  by  which 
the  two  Parliaments  by  agreement  could  constitute   Second 
Chambers.     On  the  Beport  stage  Sir  L.   Worthington-Evans 
moved  the  insertion  of  a  clause  providing  that  if  either  of  the 
Irish  Houses  of  Commons  was  not  properly  constituted,  the 
King  in  Council  might  by  order  provide  for  the.  dissolution  of 
the  Parliament,  for  postponing  the  issue  of  a  proclamation  for 
/  summoning  a  new  Parliament,  and  for  the  exercise  of  the 
/    powers  of  government  by  the  Lord-Lieutenant  with  the  assist- 
/     ance  of  a  Committee  and  a  Legislative  Assembly.     Mr.  Asquith 
V      and  Sir  Edward  Carson  criticised  the  new  clause  which,  how- 
ever, was  agreed  to  by  a  majority  of  126. 

^  On  November  10  a  further  amendment  was  agreed  to  on  the 
motion  of  Captain  C.  Craig,  to  provide  that  the  identical  Acts 
of  the  two  Irish  Parliaments  for  estabUshing  a  Parliament  for 
the  whole  of  Ireland  must  be  agreed  to  by  an  absolute  majority 
in  each  Parliament  at  the  third  reading.  Another  amendment 
was  agreed  to,  moved  by  Sir  J.  Butcher,  with  the  object  of 
preventing  either  of  the  Irish  Parliaments  from  levjring  a  tax  on 
capital.  A  Government  amendment  was  subsequently  accepted 
to  allow  Irish  Members  of  Parhament  to  continue  to  sit  in  the 
British  House  of  Commons  until  the  dissolution  of  the  present 
Parliament. 

-^  The  third  reading  was  taken  on  November  11,  when  the 
rejection  was  moved  by  Mr.  Adamson  supported  by  Mr.  Asquith. 
Mr.  Lloyd  George  then  pointed  out  that,  although  Great  Britain 
could  give  to  Ireland  no  powers  which  would  endanger  the 
integrity  of  the  United  Kingdom  or  its  strategic  safety,  or  which 
would  enable  South  Ireland  to  coerce  Ulster,  practically  all  other 

S)wers  of  self-government  were  handed  over  to  her  under  the 
ill.  Sir  Edward  Carson  said  that  Ulster,  having  accepted  the 
view  of  the  Government  that  it  was  essential  that  they  should 
be  put  under  a  Parliament  of  their  own  which  they  did  not  ask 
for,  would  do  her  best  to  make  the  arrangement  a  success.  Mr. 
Devlin  declared  that  the  Irish  problem  was  rooted  in  religious 
differences  which  the  Bill  would  increase.  The  motion  for  the 
rejection  was  then  negatived  by  a  majority  of  131,  and  the  Bill 
was  passed. 

In  the  House  of  Lords  the  Lord  Chancellor  moved  the 


19300  Oovernmefit  of  Ireland  Bill.  [131 

second  reading  of  the  Home  Bule  Bill  on  November  23,  and 
Lord  Dmiraven  moved  its  rejection  on  the  ground  that  it  met 
with  no  support  from  the  great  majority  of  the  Irish  people, 
and  afforded  no  prospect  of  any  permanent  settlement.  Lord 
Oranmore  and  Browne  believed  that  if  a  settlement  were 
proposed  on  the  lines  suggested  by  the  Lish  Convention,  with 
the  addition  of  full  fiscal  control,  Ireland  would  be  willing  to 
accept  it.  The  second  reading  debate  extended  in  all  over  three 
days.  On  the  second  day  Lord  Salisbury  declared  that  before 
the  Bill  was  put  into  force  there  should  be  evidence  that  the 
South  of  Ireland  was  fitted  to  work  it  and  wanted  it.  Lord 
Londonderry  insisted  that  we  must  keep  control  of  the  coasts 
of  these  Islands  and  of  Customs  and  Excise.  On  the  third  day 
Lord  Midleton  urged  the  postponement  of  the  Bill  to  see 
whether  a  settlement  could  not  be  arrived  at  on  the  lines  sug- 
gested by  the  large  body  of  opinion  in  the  South  and  West  of 
Ireland.  He  moved  the  adjournment  of  the  debate  for  a  fort- 
night. Lord  Crewe  expressed  the  opinion  that  the  Government 
should  try  ageun  to  obtain  some  united  expression  of  the 
Irish  views.  Lord  Curzon  asked  the  House  to  accept  the  Bill 
as  the  contribution  of  the  Government  to  the  solution  of  the 
Irish  problem.  He  pointed  out  that  the  responsibility  for  the 
destiny  of  Ireland  would  then  pass  to  the  Insh.  The  motion 
for  the  adjournment  was  defeated  by  a  majority  of  eighty-six, 
and  Lord  Dunraven's  motion  by  a  majority  of  eighty-nine,  and 
the  Bill  was  read  a  second  time. 

The  opening  of  November  was  notable  for  the  announce- 
ment of  a  widespread  series  of  outrages  in  Ireland,  resulting  in 
the  deaths  of  seven  servants  of  the  Crown  and  the  wounding  of 
twelve  others.  These  were  evidently  the  outcome  of  a  pre- 
arranged attack  on  members  of  the  Boyal  Irish  Constabulary 
throughout  the  country.  In  County  Donegal  a  poUce  patrol 
consisting  of  a  sergeant  and  three  men  was  ambushed  by  a  large 
party  of  armed  men  and  one  constable  was  wounded.  In 
County  Longford  a  district  inspector  was  shot  dead  in  an 
hotel.  In  Aing's  County  a  sergeant  of  the  Boyal  Irish 
Constabulary  was  fired  on  when  proceeding  from  his  home  to 
the  police  barrack  and  died  later  in  an  infirmary.  In  County 
Tyrone  a  police  patrol  was  fired  at  by  a  party  of  men  in 
ambush,  and  a  constable  was  wounded.  In  County  Tipperary 
a  police  patrol  was  fired  at  and  one  constable  was  killed  and 
another  wounded,  while  in  the  same  County  an  unsuccessful 
attempt  was  made  to  shoot  an  Army  Officer.  In  County 
Kerry  two  constables  were  shot  dead  at  one  village,  and  poUce 

gatrols  were  attacked  in  three  or  four  other  parts  of  the  County, 
imilar  outrages  occurred  also  in  County  Boscommon,  County 
Kilkenny,  and  County  Galway.  As  a  sequel  to  the  shooting 
in  Tralee,  County  Kerry,  armed  men  arrived  in  lorries  on 
November  1  and  fired  their  rifles  through  the  streets;  the 
County  Hall   was  also  burned   down.      In  Tipperary  much 

x2 


\ 


132]  ENGLISH  HISTORY.  [not. 

damage  was  done.  It  was  alleged  that  soldiers  smashed  the 
windows  in  many  shops  in  two  of  the  streets  and  destroyed  a 
great  amount  of  property. 

Very  few  of  the  murderers  of  the  police  were  ever  discovered, 
but  when  they  were  the  Government  did  not  hesitate  to  apply 
the  final  punishment  of  the  law.  On  November  1  the  execution 
took  place  of  Kevin  Barry,  a  yoimg  medical  student  who  had 
been  condenmed  to  death  by  a  general  Court  Martial  for  the 
shooting  of  a  soldier.  Numerous  efforts  ha.d  been  made  to 
secure  a  reprieve  for  him,  but  the  Prime  Minister  refused  to 
consider  the  matter  and  the  sentence  was  duly  carried  out  in 
Mountjoy  prison. 

On  the  following  day  another  long  list  of  outrages  was 
reported ;  more  policemen  were  murdered  and  several  civilians 
were  also  killed.  In  County  Clare  and  County  Kerry  houses 
were  burned. 

,^  On  November  2  Lord  Lorebum  brought  forward  a  resolu- 
tion in  the  House  of  Lords  condemning  the  murders  and  other 
excesses  perpetrated  in  Ireland,  and  urging  the  Government  to 
bring  into  operation  a  measure  of  self-government  for  Ireland 
including  fiscal  autonomy,  and  reserving  to  the  Imperial  Parlia- 
ment the  control  of  the  Navy,  Army,  and  foreign  affiGkirs.     Lord 

\  Salisbury  then  expressed  the  opinion  that  there  was  no  remedy 
>pxcept  reprisals,  which,  if  authorised  by  the  Government,  would 
be  carried  out  with  a  proper  discipline.  Lord  Curzon  said  that 
the  Forces  of  the  Crown  were  entitled  to  go  to  great  extremes 
in  self-protection.  He  thought  it  would  be  a  mistake  to  intro- 
duce any  fiscal  measures  which  would  have  a  disuniting  effect. 
Lord  Lorebum' s  motion  was  accordingly  negatived  by  a  majority 
of  thirty-one.  Two  days  later  Mr.  T.  P.  O'Connor  moved  the 
adjournment  of  the  House  of  Commons  in  order  to  call  attention 
to  "  the  policy  of  f rightfulness  pursued  in  Ireland."  Sir  Hamar 
Greenwood  stated  that  the  Commander-in-Chief  in  Ireland 
and  the  head  of  the  police  were  insisting  on  strict  discipline, 
and  any  of  the  police  or  the  soldiers  found  guilty  of  reprisals 
were  severely  punished,  but  the  policy  of  the  Government  was 
to  assert  the  authority  of  the  Crown  and  do  their  best  to 
stamp  out  the  murder  of  policemen,  soldiers,  and  loyal  citizens. 

^  The  organised  series  of  attacks  on^serva^ts  of  the  Crown, 
which  started  at  the  end  of  October^  continued  for  several  days 
into  November.  News  reached  Dublin  onTS'dvembcr'S  ot  the 
murder  of  two  more  policemen  and  the  woimding  of  others. 
Burnings,  which  were  described  as  reprisals,  also  took  place, 
and  a  great  deal  of  property  was  destroyed.  A  larger  measure 
of  reprisals  took  place  that  evening  when  the  town  of  Granard 
in  County  Longford  was  partially  destroyed  as  a  reprisal  for  the 
murder  of  a  district  inspector  of  the  Boyal  Irish  Constabulary. 
Shortly  before  midnight  eleven  lorries  entered  the  town  carrying 
men  who  were  said  to  have  worn  uniforms.  Shots  were  fired 
in  the  streets  and  soon  afterwards  an  attack  was  made  with 


1920.]  Terrorism  in  Ireland.  [133 

bombs  and  petrol  on  one  of  the  largest  public  houses  in  the 
town.  It  was  soon  in  flames  and  other  houses  afterwards 
shared  its  fate.  The  raiders  went  from  street  to  street  firing 
shops  until  fourteen  of  them  were  ablaze.  When  the  shooting 
began  most  of  the  inhabitants  left  their  homes  and  sought 

J>laces  of  safety.  After  some  hours  the  raiders  re-entered  their 
brries  and  drove  away.  Shortly  afterwards  a  poUce  patrol  and 
some  soldiers  were  ambushed  in  the  neighbourhood  and  a 
sergeant  was  murdered  and  two  constables  wounded.  At  the 
same  time  terrorism  broke  out  again  in  Tralee.  It  was  alleged 
thn^j|jrmn][bfty«  nf  ^|]iifnrmA/i  tyiati  Jeft.  the4iQlic.e  barracks  armed 
witE'^Eatchets  and  crowbars  and  carryingtins  of  petrol,  _and 
ttitacked  the  business  premises""  of  pf 6minent  Sinn  ^Peiiiers. 
They  confined  their  operations  to' two  districts;  the  prin- 
cipal streets  were  not  damaged,  but  the  whole  town  was 
alarmed  by  the  breaking  of  glass,  the  smashing  in  of  doors  and 
shutters,  the  explosions  of  bombs  and  volleys  of  rifle  fire. 
During  the  night  the  sky  was  lit  up  by  the  flames  of  burning 
buildings  and  there  were  scenes  of  the  wildest  panic.  Mean- 
while the  continued  refusal  of  railway  workers  in  Ireland  to 
carry  Government  traffic  produced  a  crisis  on  more  than  one 
of  the  principal  lines,  and  the  country  was  within  measurable 
distance  of  the  closing  down  of  three  or  four  of  the  larger 
railways. 

The  climax  of  outrage  which  occurred  at  the  end  of 
Octobenmd'^e  "beginning  of  November  was  followed  by  a 
brief  period  of  comparative  quiet,  and  a  spirit  that  appeared 
more  hurmonious  to  peene.  The  death  of  the  Lord  Mayor  of 
Cork  had  made  clear  that  the  Government  did  not  intend  to 
be  coerced  loLthfijitQlicy  of  the  Jxunger  strikers,  and  the  lesson 
was  taken.. to  heart,  by  Sinn  Fein.  Up  to  the  middle  of 
November  prisoners  in.  Cork  Gaol  were  still  on  hunger  strike, 
but  on  November  11  a  telegram  was  received  from  Mr.  Arthur 
Griffith,  the  acting  President  of  Sinn  Fein,  calling  off  the  strike 
and'expressing  the  opinion  that  the  prisoners  had  sufficiently 
proved  their,  devotion  and  fidelity,  and  that  they  should  now, 
as  they  were  prepared  to .  die  for  Ireland,  be  prepared  again  to 
live  for  her.  Thus,  .the  strong  action  of  the  .Government  defin- 
ilely  fittdfed  the  policy,  of  hunger  striking. 

The^Sinn  Fein  tactics  of  ambushingjoljce  patrols  still  con- 
tinue J,~EowOTerj^m  Ja_desujtor^  manner.  On  November  15 
armed  and  disguised  men  took  four  passengers  out  of  the  Cork 
and  Bandon  train  and  drove  them  off  in  motor  cars,  all 
trace  of  them  being  lost.  These  passengers  were  Staff  officers 
attached  to  Victoria  Barracks,  Cork,  and  they  were  dressed 
in  plain  clothes  in  order  not  to  attract  hostile  attention.  On 
NovemberJ2_reprisals  occurred  in  Cork,  following  upon  the 
mufdeiTof  a  sexgeanT  ^  The~  Boyal  Irish  Constabulary.  Three 
mexL-wera  killed,  and  two  wounded,  the  military  entering  their 

houses  duripg  the  night.  ^^ 

_v 


134]  ENGLISH  HISTOEY.  [nov. 

It  was  quite  clear  that  Sinn  Fein  did  not  mean  to  hesitate 
to  pursue  any  tactics,  however  extreme,  that  might  be  necessary 
to  attain  then:  end.  On  JSosemher-lS  .Sir_H.ainar  Greenwood 
read  to  the  House  of  Commons  a  document  written  by  the 
Commander-in-Chief  dCffie^lQHh  Bepublican^A^aayia^his  Chief 
of  staff,  suggesting  that  typhoid  fever  should  be  spread  among 
the  English  troojps  by  infelSiM  "6f  imcrol)eg,'lbiid  ^ai^ 
their  horses  inl^e  same  mariner,  The  Tqdnapping  of  members 
of  theTorces  of  the  Crown  by  EepubUcans  soon  began  to 
spread  in  Cork  and  the "  soiah^. JdbJtedand.  At-Boo&-*<m  Nov- 
ember 21  two  policemejv  after  leaving  Mass,  were\.saicldenly 
held  up  by  eight  civilians  who  placed  revolvers  to  their  heads 
and  took  them  comjjletely  by  surprise.  7_0iie  of  them  was  set 
free  but  the  other  was  drivenjff^to  an  unknown  destination  and 
no  trace  "of  Bm~C(raid  bOound.  THe^ost'tbBsperate  of  all 
outbreaks  by~tlie  ^piibEcan  murder  gang  took  place  in  Dublin 
on  NoT^P^J?*^^i^-21*-^h^^  houses  and  hotels  were  raided  simultane- 
ously in  different  parts  bOKe.  city,  and  British  officers  and 
ex-officers  were  inwr^ereji jn.  cold  blogd.  The  raids  were  made 
on  hotelsln  the  city  and  private  houses  in  the  city  and  suburbs. 
They  usually  began  with  a  knock  on  the  door;  if  it  was 
answered  by  the  officer  he  was  shot  dead  on  the  spot ;  if  the 
door  was  oi>ened  by  a  servant,  the  raiders  rushed  into  the 
house  and  killed  the  unprepared  officer  or  officers  at  sight.  In 
two  or  three  cases  officers'  wives  were  pulled  out  of  their  beds 
and  their  husbands  were  murdered  before  their  eyes.  In  all 
fourteen .  men  were  murdered  including  iejx ,  unanned .  Bi^sh 
officers.  Later  in_Jhe^  day  a^fattle  oopurred  jvtl.  a  iooihsll 
ground  at  Dublin,  the  military  being  fired  on  by  scouts  posted 
about  the  field.  They  returned  the  fire  and  the  people  stam- 
ypeded,  the  report  stating  that  nine  persons  were  killed  and 
\  between  fifty,  and  sixtyjsounded. 

-^  These  murders  gave  rise  to  a   debate  in  the  House  of 
Commons  on  November  22,  when  Mr.  Lloyd  George  affirmed 
that  the  Government  were  convinced,  in  spite  of  recent  out- 
breaks, that  the  Irish  authorities  were  gradually  succeeding  in 
breaking  up  the  gang  of  assassins.    A  disorderly  scene  tiien 
arose  between  Mr.  Devlin  and  Major  Molson,  and  the  Speaker 
\     suspended  the  sitting.     On  its  resumption  Major  Molson  offered 
\    an  apology  to  Mr.  Devlin,  to  the  Speaker,  and  to  the  House, 
I   which  was  accepted.     Two  days  later  Mr.  Asquith  moved  a 
/    resolution  condemning  the  outrages  committed  against  Forces 
/     of  the  Crown  and  civilians  in  Ireland  on  November  21,  and  the 
attempts  of  the  Executive  to  repress  crime  by  methods  of 
.     terronsm  and  reprisals,  and  declaring  the  urgency  of  taking 
I     immediate  steps  to  bring  about  the  pacification  demanded  in 
the  interests  of  Ireland  and  the  Empire.    Sir  Hamar  Greenwood 
pointed  out  that  the  cessation  of  the  outrages  would  mean  that 
peace  would  be  immediately  and  automatically  re-established. 
There  was  no  policy  of  reprisals,  he  said ;  on  the  contrary,  the 


1920.]  Discovery  of  Sinn  Fein  Plots.  [135 

British  officers  had  successfully  maintained  discipline  in  the    * 
face  of  inhuman  provocation.    He  claimed  that,  notwithstanding 
what  had  happened  and  was  still  happening,  the  Government 
were  succeeding  in  their  Irish  policy,  and  he  asked  the  House       / 
to  show  every  consideration  for  those  who,  at  the  orders  of      / 
that  House,  were  fighting  the  battle  against  assassins.    After     / 
some  debate  Colonel  J.  Ward  moved  the  omission  of  the  words     ' 
naming  the  date  November  21,  and  the  substitution  for  them  of     \ 
words  expressing  the  thanks  of  the  House  to  those  servants 
of  the  Crown  who  were  fulfilling  their  duty  in  Ireland  under 
circumstances  of  unexampled  difficulty,  and  its  approval  of  the 
steps  taken  b^  His  Majesty's  Government  to  restore  peace,    j 
After  the  apphcation  of  the  closure  the  amendment  was  carried  / 
by  a  majority  of  220,  and  the  resolution  as  amended  was  ihej^ 
agreed  to. 

— Oh  November  23  a  report  was  issued  from-Duhlis  .Castle  of 
the  shooting  bflhree  prisoners  during  an  attenipt  to  escape,  from 
military  custody.  IrieTnen  were  well-known  members  of  the 
Lisli  Bepublican  Organisation,  and  their  arrests  were  regafded 
as  of  some  importance.  It  appeared  thaf  the  prisoners  had 
been  confined  m  a  room  containing  a  large  quantity  of  army 
material  and  equipment.  One  of  them  seized  a  bomb  which  he 
threw  at  the  sentry ;  it  did  not  explode,  however,  since  it  had 
not  been  detonated.  Another  prisoner  took  a  rifle  and  fired  at 
the  other  members  of  the  guard.  The  commander  of  the  guard 
then  entered  and  the  prisoners  were  shot.  ^>w  ffftrne  day  a 
series  of  searches  began  in  Dubliiu^aa  ihe  result  of  which  many 
men  were  taken  into  custody.  ...Meanwhile,.  Cork,  continued  to 
be  a  ceiitre  of  disturbance:  thrffi  fnrthftr  ^fiathn  ocnirrftd  th^f* 
as  thft  result  x^LA-bomb .  .explosiQii^  Jhe  cause  ot. which  W9»8  not 
ascertained. 

The  officers  who  had  been  murdered  on  November  21  were 
buried  with  full  miUtary  honours.  Their  bodies  were  brought 
to  England  on  November  26,  and  a  vast  crowd  of  people  as- 
sembled at  Euston  Station  to  witness  their  arrival  in  London. 
From  the  station  processions  went  to  Westminster  Abbey  and 
to  the  Roman  Catholic  Cathedral  at  Westminster  where  a 
Bequiem  Mass  was  celebrated.  ^-. 

The  Sinn  Feiners  did  not  restrict  their  activities  to  Ireland 
when  they  saw  any  chance  of  carrying  out  their  methods  else- 
where.   Li  the  last  week  of  November  a  Sinn  Fein  document 
was  captured  containing  plans  for  the  destruction  of  Stuart 
Street  Power  House,  Manchester,  and  for  a  concerted  attack  oi 
Liverpool  Docks.     The  attack  was  to  be  carried  out  by  ovei 
seventy  men  provided  with  sledges,  paraffin  oil,  waste,  and  gun-' 
cotton,  and  was  designed  to  compel  Manchester  to  **  shut  down,", 
since  the  Power  Station  supplied  more  than  half  the  factorieij 
as  well  as  coal  mines  and  tramways.     The  Liverjpool  schema 
was  also  an  extensive  organisation.    It  provided  for  an  attaci 
on  twenty-one  points,  and  included  the  opening  of  dock  gat< 


-^ 


y^ 


136]  ENGLISH  HISTOEY.  [hot. 

• 

and  the  demolition  of  pumps  and  Power  Stations.  A  few  days 
later  a  plot  was  successfully  put  into  execution;  incendiary 
fires  broke  out  in  various  quarters,  and  many  cotton  warehouses 
were  damaged.  In  each  case  the  method  followed  was  the 
same ;  bolts  were  severed  with  powerful  bolt  cutters,  paraffin 
and  petrol  were  scattered  about,  and  lighted  paper  thrown  down 
to  ignite  the  trail  of  oil.  At  one  period  fifteen  fires  were  in  pro- 
gress at  the  same  time.  The  plan  evidently  had  been  to  destroy 
the  great  business  quarters,  but  owing  to  the  alertness  of  the 
fire  brigades  it  fortunately  failed  in  its  intention.  At  this  time 
fears  were  also  entertained  of  an  attack  upon  the  Houses  of 
Parliament,  as  also  upon  official  headquarters  in  Downing 
Street.  Barricades  were  erected  at  both  ends  of  King  Charles 
Street  and  the  Whitehall  entrance  to  Downing  Street,  and  the 
usual  privilege  of  the  public  of  being  shown  over  the  Houses  of 
Parliament  on  Saturdays  was  suspended. 

On  Nnvflmbfir  29  thft  n^Q^t  (\\asiAtrmiR  of  the  long  series 
of  ambushes  of  spldiers  and  police  in  Ireland  by  revolutionaiy 
gangs  was  reported,  when  jrbecame^nqwn  that  on  the  previ- 
ous  day  every  member  of  a  patrol  ofseveriteettaunl^ 
had  been  killed,  kidnapped,  "OT  woiih^ed  iy^aJaod^^  men 

who  outnumbered  them  bjl^ye-or  six  to  one.  Fifteen  were 
killed  on  the  spot,  one  was  wounded  and  died  later,  while  the 
remaining  man  was  missing.  Their  ammunition  and  arms  were 
taken  and  the  lorries  burned .  This  patrol  was  composed  entirely 
of  ex-officers,  every  one  of  whom  had  been  selected  because  of 
conspicuous  merit  on  the  field  of  battle  during  the  late  war. 
The  ambush  took  place  at  Johnstown,  a  village  between  Mac- 
room  and  Dunmanway.  Following  the  outrage  shops  in  the 
district  were  set  on  fire  and  a  large  number  of  people  left  the 
neighbourhood  fearing  further  reprisals.  On_November  29 
the  auxiliary  police  carried  out  further  searches  of  houses~in 
Dublin.  These  began  with  a  visit  to  ^^_^  J^^T^n  FfiT"  'Rprk  ^n 
Herlfof3r Street-  The  safe  was^Blown  open,  bundles  of  books 
and  documents  were  taken  away,  and  a  considerable  sum  of 
money  111  nT)tes  and  silver.  On  tha-  last  day  of-tbe  mSilth  the 
poIicQ  also  carried  out  a  search  of  the  offices  in  London^of  the 
Irish  Self-Determination  League,  and  afterwards..searched  the 
residences  of  seven  of  the  leading  members  of  the  organisation. 
On  that  day  Mr.  Bonar  Law  made  a  speech  to  the  Unionist 
Club;"  in  which  he  spoke  on  the  situation  Jn  Tf eland.     He  said 

"that  there  were  only  two  possible  alternatives  as  to  the  self- 

f      government  which  could  be  given  to  Ireland.     One  was  to 

realise  that  the  question  a£fected  not  only  Ireland  but  also  the 

whole  of  the  United  Kingdom,  and  that  any  possible  solution 

)must  be  one  which  commended  itself  as  just  and  right,  not 

/merely  to  the  majority  in  Ireland,  but  to  the  great  mass  of 

/  the  people  in  Great  Britain  as  well.     That  was  the  alternative 

which  had  been  adopted  by  the  Government,  and  if  Mr.  Asquith 

•  had  been  Prime  Minister  he  would,  said  Mr.  Bonar  Law,  in  all 


1920.]  Mr,  Bonar  Law  on  Ireland.  [137, 

probability  have  dealt  with  it  precisely  in  the  same  way.  But 
now,  instead  of  supporting  or  trying  to  improve  the  measure 
which  had  been  introduced,  he  poured  contempt  on  it  in  every 
way,  although  it  undoubtedly  gave  a  larger  measure  of  self- 
government  to  Ireland  than  his  own  Home  Bule  Bill.  Another 
alternative  was  that  which  had  been  put  forward  by  Lord  Grey, 
to  the  effect  that  at  the  end  of  two  years  the  whole  position 
should  be  handed  over  to  the  Irish  to  settle  among  themselves. 
This  alternative  was  condemned  by  Mr.  Bonar  Law  on  the 
ground  that  the  two  years'  interval  would  be  spent  by  both 
parties  in  gathering  their  strength  in  order  to  fight  each  other 
at  the  end  of  it. 

^n  the  last  day  of  November  Mr.  Lloyd  George  made  an 
important  speech  to  members  of  the  Federation  of  British  In- 
dustries at  the  Hotel  Cecil.  He  admitted  that  the  period  was 
one  of  depression,  and  whether  long  or  short  it  would  be  serious. 
The  causes  were  not  peculiar  to  our  own  country,  for  all  countries, 
whether  with  Rood  or  bad  Governments,  were  equaUy  affected. 
It  seemed  to  be  forgotten  that  there  had  been  a  war  which 
cost  over  40,000,000,0()0<.  sterUng,  and  that  the  damage  could  not 
be  repaired  by  another  10,000»0(X),000Z.  Europe  was  practically 
impoverished  and  not  able  to  buy  our  goods.  Until  wealth  had 
been  again  created  neither  Governments  nor  Federations  could 
do  anything  to  a  solution  of  the  problem.  The  first  remedy  was 
peace.  The  whole  energy  of  business  men  and  statesmen  ought 
to  be  concentrated  on  the  task  of  restoring  the  wealth  of  man- 
kind, and  this  could  not  be  done  except  m  peace.  Mr.  Lloyd 
George  expressed  the  view  that  industries  should  be  left  as  far 
as  possible  to  work  out  their  own  salvation.  He  did  not  beUeve 
in  Government  control  and  Government  interference  either  for 
home  or  foreign  trade.  The  policy  of  the  Government  was  that 
the  less  inteiterence  there  was  with  trade  on  the  part  of  the 
Government,  the  better  it  was  for  trade  and  the  better  it  was 
for  the  Government.  Public  and  private  economy  were  neces- 
sary on  the  strictest  lines.  PubUc  economy  came  first.  It  was 
the  business  of  the  Government  to  set  the  example,  but  examples 
ought  to  be  followed. 

Several  supplementary  votes  were  taken  at  the  beginning 
of  December.  The  most  important  of  these  was  one  for  the 
Ministry  of  Food,  which  was  agreed  to  after  Mr.  McCurdy  had 
stated  that  the  Ministry  would  come  to  an  end  at  the  close  of 
the  year.  A  supplementary  vote  of  6,500,000Z.  for  the  Navy 
was  dealt  with  on  December  14.  Sir  J.  Craig  explained  that 
it  was  rendered  necessary  fiirstly  by  the  miscalculation  made 
when  the  estimates  were  prepared  the  previous  year  in  con- 
nexion with  war  commitments,  and  secondly  by  the  increases 
in  wages.  The  largeness  of  the  staff  was  partly  accounted  for 
by  non-normal  work,  and  two  large  items  of  1,829,0002.  and 
1,648,000^  arose  through  clearing  up  contracts  entered  into 
during  the  war.    The  scheme  for  the  retention  and  improvement 


138]  ENGLISH  HISTORY.  [dbc. 

of  the  Eoyal  Naval  Eeserve  and  the  Royal  Naval  Volunteer 
Reserve  had  now  been  approved.  The  reduction  of  the  vote 
was  moved  first  by  500,000Z.  and  afterwards  by  1,000,OOOZ.,  but 
both  amendments  were  rejected.  On  the  same  day  there  was 
a  supplementary  vote  of  1,935,300Z.  for  the  Air  Force.  Mr. 
Churchill  said  that  the  vote  would  involve  no  new  charge  to 
the  State  nor  any  disbursement  by  the  Exchequer.  It  chiefly 
concerned  the  year  1919-20. 

On  the  following  day  there  was  a  supplementary  vote  for 
40,000,000Z.  for  the  Army.  Mr.  Churchill  stated  that  20,000,0002. 
of  this  was  new  money,  and  the  remaining  sum  represented  no 
additional  new  charge  to  the  Exchequer;  it  was  for  paying 
off  war  debts,  chiefly  to  India.  Of  the  new  money  between 
1,500,000Z.  and  2,000,0002.  was  for  special  expenditure  in 
Ireland  and  18,000,0002.  was  for  Mesopotamia  and  Persia.  Mr. 
Asquith  moved  to  reduce  the  vote  by  1,000,0002.  but  the  amend- 
ment was  negatived  by  a  majority  of  104  and  the  vote  was 
agreed  to. 

The  most  important  debate  during  December,  however,  was 
one  on  national  expenditure  on  December  9,  in  which  Mr.  6. 
Lambert  moved  "that  this  House  resolves  that  it  will  not 
sanction  expenditure  for  1921-22  in  excess  of  808,000,0002.,  the 
amount  estimated  as  being  necessary  for  a  normal  year  by  the 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  on  October  23,  1919."  The 
motion  was  seconded  by  Mr.  Marriott.  Mr.  Chamberlain  then 
pointed  out  that  in  1918-19  our  expenditure  was  3,140,000,0002. 
and  in  1919-20  it  was  reduced  to  2,160,000,0002.  This  year, 
apart  from  the  provision  for  the  redemption  of  debt,  it  was 
reduced  to  1,282,000,0002.  The  Army  supplementary  estimate 
was  for  40,000,0002.,  but  of  that  sum  18,000,0002.  were  due  to 
terminal  charges  of  the  war,  and  16,000,0002.  were  due  to  the 
disturbed  condition  of  the  Middle  East.  Various  reductions, 
amounting  to  8,500,0002.,  came  as  a  set-off  to  the  additional 
expenditure.  The  Budget  estimate  of  the  revenue  would 
probably  be  approximately  realised,  but  there  would  be  less  for 
the  redemption  of  the  floating  debt.  In  pursuance  of  the  policy 
of  reducing  national  expenditure,  the  Cabinet  had  decided,  he 
said,  that  schemes  involving  expenditure  not  yet  in  operation 
should  remain  in  abeyance ;  that  certain  Departments  created 
during  the  war  should  be  wound  up ;  that  military  expenditure 
should  be  curtailed  as  much  as  possible ;  that  the  Committee 
of  Imperial  Defence  should  at  once  investigate  the  whole 
question  of  Naval  strength,  and  that  the  utmost  economy 
should  be  exercised  with  regard  to  the  Air  Force.  Mr.  Cljmes 
then  expressed  satisfaction  that  the  efforts  to  economise  would 
not  affect  insurance  for  unemployment.  Sir  Godfrey  Collins 
moved  an  amendment  expressing  the  necessity  for  reducing  to 
the  utmost  extent  possible  the  expenditure  in  ail  public  services. 
Lord  Hugh  Cecil  suggested  a  Select  Committee  to  ascertain  the 
country's  taxable  capacity.     After  the  debate  had  continued  for 


1990.]  Debate  on  National  Expenditure.  [139 

some  time,  Mr.  Lloyd  George  said  that  our  Budget  had 
increased  much  less  heavily  than  that  of  other  coxmtries,  and 
that  we  were  the  only  country  that  was  pajdng  its  way  and 
reducing  its  debt.  The  amendment  of  Sir  Godfrey  Collins  was 
then  carried  by  a  majority  of  255,  and  the  original  motion  as 
amended  was  agreed  to  by  a  majority  of  277. 

Among  the  Bills  considered  during  December  was  a  Boads 
Bill,  the  object  of  which  was  explained  by  Sir  Eric  Geddes  in 
moving  the  second  reading  on  the  2nd.  He  said  that  it  gave 
administrative  power  to  impose  the  new  taxation  levied  on 
power  instead  of  on  oil,  and  to  substitute  the  Ministry  of 
Transport  for  the  Boads  Bosurd  in  regard  to  the  funds  under  the 
Board.  Sir  I.  PhilUps  thought  that  the  Bill  gave  the  Minister 
very  autocratic  powers,  but  the  second  reading  was  carried  and 
no  material  alterations  were  made  during  the  Committee  stage. 
The  Bill  passed  its  third  reading  on  December  14. 

The  Committee  stage  of  the  Ministry  of  Health  Bill  was 
dealt  with  on  December  8.  A  new  Government  clause  for  the 
purpose  of  applying  the  provisions  of  the  Bill  to  Ireland  was 
agreed  to.  On  the  motion  of  Sir  F.  Banbury,  any  house  re- 
quired for  the  occupation  of  a  worker  on  an  a^cultural  holding 
was  excluded  from  the  scope  of  Clause  1,  which  gave  power  to 
hire  houses  compulsorily  for  housing  purposes.  After  some 
further  amendments  had  been  carried  the  Bill  was  read  a  third 
time  and  passed.  Its  career  in  the  House  of  Lords  was  brief. 
The  second  reading  was  moved  by  Lord  Sandhurst  on  December 
14,  but  an  amendment  by  Lord  Strachey  to  postpone  the 
second  reading  for  two  months  was  carried,  after  a  short 
debate,  by  a  majority  of  sixteen. 

The  stote  of  Ireland  showed  no  improvement  up  to  the  end~^ 
of  the  year.    At  the  beginning  of  December  rumours  were  y 
current  that  indirect  negotiations  were  in  progress  between  - 
members  of  the  Government  and  members  of  Sinn  Fein.    It  \ 
was  known  that  Mr.  Arthur  Henderson  had  gone  to  Dublin,    / 
and  it  was  believed  that  he  was  working  towards  an  Irish  peace. 
On  December  3  Mr.  Lloyd  Georga  was  the  guest  of  the  Con--^^ 
slitulionat  Cliib  at  a  dinner  given  in  his  honour,  this  heina  the 
fint  Occasion  upon  which  a  Liberal  Prime  Minister  had  been 
entertained  within  the  walls  of  the  Club.     He  devoted  his  speech 
to  a  denunciation  of  the  murder  campaign  in  Ireland,  declaring 
that  rebellion  must  be  suppressed  before  the  Irish  problem  could 
be  faced  and  concord  established.     He  said  th^t  a  well-organised, 
highly  subsidised  murder  campaign  was  going  on  in  Ireland 
against  men  who  were  engaged  in  discharging  the  elementary 
duties  of  civilisation,  but  he  had  heard  of  no  demonstration  to 
be  addressed  by  Mr.  Asquith  to  denounce  it.     All  the  execration 
was  for  the  victims  and  their  avengers.     For  the  honour  of  his 
Party  he  declared  that  faction  did  not  represent  liberalism. 
Slander  always  had  a  big  circulation ;  if  they  had  any  doubt, 
let  them  inquire  as  to  what  books  were  selling  at  i^e  present 


140]  ENGLISH  HISTORY.  [d»o. 

moment.  He  regretted  that  French  journals  should  send  men 
to  Ireland  to  scavenge  among  the  people  who  conspired  to 
destroy  France  in  her  darkest  hour,  and  he  believed  Frenchmen 
were  ashamed  of  the  journals.  Not  even  the  Turks  were  guilty 
of  the  brutal  savagerjr  which  had  marked  some  of  the  murders 
in  Ireland.  A  report  which  came  to  the  Headquarter  Staff 
from  the  poUce  a  fortnight  ago  stated  that  they  were  breaking 
up  the  murder  organisation  and  regaining  authority  in  Ireland, 
but  one  of  the  greatest  obstacles  was  the  way  in  which  some 
newspapers  and  public  men  in  this  country  used  their  influence 
on  the  side  of  organised  opposition  to  this  country.  The  real 
danger  was  the  encouragement  given  to  the  forces  of  disorder 
in  Ireland  15y  the  appearance  that  this  coimtij  was  wea^ 
It  was  not  weakemng,.,S9iid  'M'r.  Lloyd  George.  The  present 
Governmenl7as  long  as  they  were  in  ofl&ce^,  meant^tct  use  jiyery 
power  they  possessed'  to  stamp  out  feese.  evils.  The  best 
methods  of  establishing  peace  could  not  be  considered*  iMitil  the 
terror  in  Ireland  haJ  beelI~'destroysJ:   "Fifi^^^  Prime 

MinisterinBisted  on  tlie' necessity  to  suppress  rebellion,  restore 
freedoin  to  Ireland^  an3  then  face  ^he-prjtjlem,  establish  con- 
cordj  and  make  Ireland  a  worthy  partner  in  the  Ernpir^.^ 

Early  in  December  many  arrests  Were  made  both  in  Dublin 
and  Glasgow.  Arrests  in  Dublin  included  that  of  Mr.  Joseph 
McGrath,  who  was  the  sixth  Sinn  Fein  member  of  Parliament 
who  had  been  arrested  in  the  recent  series  of  searches  in  the 
city.  In  Glasgow  eight  men  were  arrested  who  were  suspected 
of  being  associated  with  Sinn  Fein  Activities.  In  the  case  of 
some  of  them  it  was  alleged  that  they  had  tried  to  purchase 
arms  and  ammunition  from  soldiers. 

Mr.  Arthur  Henderson  returned  from  his  mission  in  Ireland 
on  December  6,  and  expressed  the  view  that  he  had  never  seen 
so  marked  and  so  widespread  a  desire  for  peace  in  that  country. 
He  strongly  urged,  therefore,  that  advantage  should  be  taken 
/  of  this  desire  for  peace  to  promote  a  settlement  by  conference 
and  conciliation  as  a  beginning.     He  expressed  the  belief  that 

,   steps  towards  a  settlement  would  be  supported  by  the  heads  of 
the  CathoUc  Church  and  by  organised  labour  in  Ireland. 
y-    These  negotiations  were  echoed  in  resolutions  in  favour  of 
/  a  truce  from  violence  that  were  on  the  agenda  of  the  Dublin 
City  Council  at  a  meeting  on  December  6.     Before  this  meeting 
had  proceeded  far  with  its  business,  however,  six  of  the  members 
were  arrested,  including  one  member  of  Parliament,  and  the 
Council  was  obliged  to  adjourn  before  the  resolutions  had  been 
/     reached.     In  Glasgow  also  further  arrests  took  place,  one  in- 
volving a  midnight  motor  chase  ending  in  the  capture  of  the 
^      motor  which  was  found  to  contain  a  considerable  quantity  of 
arms  and  explosives. 

-^  A  few  da^ys  after  Mr.  Hendersoji's  return  he  addressed  a 
meeting  in  Lancashire,  in  which  he  made  a  vigorous  attack 
upon  the  Government.     He  said  that  the  settled  policy  of  the 


1920.]  Irish  Policy  of  the  Government.  [141 

Govemment  was  reactionary  in  conception,  brutal  in  its  applica- 
tion, and  destructive  in  its  consequences.  The  agents  of  the 
Government  had  by  their  actions  produced  in  the  minds  of  the 
Irish  people  the  same  effect  as  a  mad  dog  loose  in  the  public 
streets  would  produce.  With  regard  to  reprisals,  he  affirmed 
that  the  Govemment  had  struck  a  blow  at  the  sanctions  of  law 
and  order,  and  that  they  had  used  the  Forces  of  the  Crown  as 
the  instrument  of  a  blind  and  ruthless  vengeance.  Yet  he  was 
convinced  that  there  was  a  possibility  of  making  peace  with  the 
Irish  people.  Wherever  he  had  been  in  Ireland  he  had  found 
an  earnest  desire  for  peace,  and  he  was  convinced  that  it  could 
be  turned  into  a  constructive  settlement. 

On  December  10  Mr.  .LlQyd..Gig^i:ge_Jiiade-.A-.fitatement-iQ: 
the  Efouse  of  C!omrhon&^Qli.the  Irish  JBolicy  ..of  the  Governments 
He  made  special  reference  to  overtures  which  had  been  received 
in  the  form  of  resolutions  passed  by  the  Galway  County  Council,, 
and  also  of  a  communication  from  a  distinguished  Irish  priest,. 
Father  0*  Flanagan^  who  was  described  as  the  President  of  Sinn 
Fein  in  the  absence  ot.Mr^  de.Yalera.  Both  these  communica- 
tions indicated  a  desire  for  peace,  but  Mr.  Lloyd  George  insisted 
that  the  first  necessary  preliminary  to  the  re-establishment  of 
normal  conditions  was  that  murder  and .  crimes  of  violence 
should  cease.  He  was  not  clear  how  far  these  overtures  repre- 
sented the  opinion  of  Sinn  Fein,  and  he  thought  that  their 
offers  had  too  much  of  the  appearance  of  one  independent 
power  negotiating  with  another.  He  suggested  that  peace 
might  be  secured  by  consent,  if  the  Sinn  Fein  M.P.'s  already 
legally  elected  were  to  draft  terms  which  included  some  under- 
standing to  work  loyally  the  Govemment  of  Ireland  Bill,  for 
the  Prime  Minister  expressed  his  firm  determination  to  go  on 
with  that  Bill.  On  the  other  hand,  he  insisted  upon  the  need 
for  a  relentless  prosecution  of  the  war  on  the  murder  gangs  as 
a  condition  of  the  free  expression  by  Ireland  of  her  real  opinion. 
He  proposed  to  issue  a  proclamation  calling  on  all  people  in 
the  proclaimed  districts  to  surrender  their  arms  either  to  the 
military  officer  or  to  the  parish  priest.  After  the  period  for 
surrender  had  expired,  anyone  within  the  proclaimed  district 
found  with  arms  or  wearing  uniforms  without  authorisation 
would  be  liable  to  arrest,  to  trial  by  Court  Martial  as  rebels, 
and  to  punishment.  The  proclamation  was  issued  immediately 
afterwards.  It  referred  to  the  declaration  of  Martial  Law  in 
the  Counties  of  Cork,  Tipperary,  Kerry,  and  Limerick,  and 
fixed  December  27  as  the  date  by  which  all  arms  and  ammunition 
held  by  unauthorised  persons  in  these  Counties  must  be  sur- 
rendered, the  penalty  for  infringement  being  death. 

Further  serious ^ven_t8_ocf!iirrftd  in  -the  middle  of  December 7 
Duringla  raidHoETpremises  situated  in  the  heart  of  Dublin  the 
authorities  discovered  extensive  plant  for  the  manufacture  of 
bombs  and  explosive  material  in  quantities  sufficient  to  blow 
up  a  considerable  portion  of  the  city.     The  centre  of  the  main 


142]  ENGLISH  HISTOBY.  [dsc. 

disorder  was,  however,  the  city  of  Cork.  On  December  11  a 
murderous  attack  was  made  on  a  party  of  Jhfi..rorces  ofTEe 
Crowtt,"'"WhicK  resuRea  m  the  death . of  ^pne. cadet  and  the  severe 
wounding  of _s'even  others?  ""TCs  usual  thej,  were  amJbushM~in 
a  loiry  on  the  outsldrts  of  the  city.  'This  outrage  was  promptly 
followed  by  a  series  of  appalling  reprisals,  as  the  result  of 
which  almost  the  entire  centre  of  the  city  was  set  in  flames, 
and  a  general  exodusof  the  people  took  place  into  the  country 
areas.  The  reprisals  began  in  the  ■evening"whenr^e  streets 
were  crowded  and  the  shops  full  of  people.  Lorries  drove 
rapidly  around  the  principal  streets,  and  the  occupants  dis- 
charged their  rifles  at  short  intervals,  while  incendiaries  went 
about  burning  and  looting,  removing  valuables  in  portmanteaux. 
Afiaong -the  buildings  which  were  burnt  to  the  ground  were 
the  City  Hall  and  the  Com  Exchange  "covering  2  acres  of 
ground,  and  the  Carnegie  Free  Library.  Patrick  Street,  the 
main  commercial  artery  of  the  city,  was  devastated  on  a  frontage 
of  over  100  yards.  It  was  stated  at  the  time  that  the  number 
of  buildings  destroyed  was  about  300  and  the  damckge  was 
provisionally  estimated  at  over  3,000,000Z. 

The.  .gllogatiOB^  that..  t.hiR    dfi^trnffiioTi    wn-a   an    inatflnrft    of 

reprisals  by  the  police  waarepudiatedin  the  House  of  Commons 
oh  December  13  by  Sir  Hamar  Greenwood,  who  said  that  there 
wus  no  evidence  whatever  that  the  fires  were  staxieifL  by  the 
forces  of  the  Crown.  He  a3de<T  that  there  were  no  incendiary 
bombs  in  the  possession  of  the  Forces  of  the  Crown  in  Ireland, 
though  the  Sinn  Feiners  possessed  them  and  the  Government 
were  seizing  them  in  numbers  every  week.  In  the  evening 
Lieut. -Commander  Kenworthy  moved  the  adjournment  to  call 

<  attention  to  the  events  in  Cork,  and  the  Chief  Secretary  again 
affirmed  that  there  was  no  evidence  as  to  who  started  the 
burnings  in  Cork,  and  he  did  not  believe  it  was  the  Forces  of 
the  Crown.  An  order  had  been  issued  by  General  Strickland, 
who  was  in  command  of  the  Military  Forces,  declaring  that 
anyone  found  looting  or  burning  or  attempting  either  would  be 

^ot. 
-    Up  to  this  time  the  Church  had  exercised  little  influence  for 

'  the  repression  of  crime,  but  the  climax  in  Cork  led  to  a  strong 
/     pronouncement  by  Dr.  Cohalan,  Bishop  of  Cork,  a  leader  of  the 
Roman  CathoUc  Church  in  Ireland.     After  a  strong  denunci- 
ation of  murder  and  arson,  he  promulgated  a  decree  to  the 
J    effect  that  anyone  within  his  diocese  who  organised  or  took 
y     part  in  an  ambush,  or  kidnapping,  or  should  otherwise  be  guilty 
of  murder  or  attempted  murder  should  incur  by  that  fact  the 
censure  of  excommunication.     About  this  period  two  attacks 
were  made  on  police  barracks,  both  of  which  involved  sharp 
fighting.     One  took  place  in  County  Armagh,  when  a  party  of 
police  and  soldiers  going  to  the  rescue  was  ambushed.      All 
the  roads  in  the  neighbourhood  had  been  barricaded,  but  the 
relief  party  got   through  and   broke  up  the  attack  on   the 


1920.]  Further  Outrages  in  Ireland.  [143 

barracks.  The  Sinn  Fein  Hall  in  Newry  was  burnt  down  on 
December  13.  Another  fight  lasting  five  hours  took  place  at 
barracks  in  County  Longford,  but  the  attackers  were  obliged 
to  retire,  though  they  succeeded  in  blowing  in  the  end  of  the 
barrack  building  with  explosives.  On  the  16th  a  patrol  of 
eight  policemen  was  ambushed  in  County  Tipperary  by  100 
men ;  four  constables  were  shot  and  one  was  seriously  wounded. 
On  the  same  day  some  sensation  was  created  by  the  shooting 
of  an  inoffensive  priest,  the  Bev.  Canon  Magner,  by  a  cadet 
who,  however,  was  understood  to  be  out  of  his  mind.  On  the 
17th  District-Inspector  Sullivan  of  the  Eoyal  Irish  Constabulary 
was  shot  dead  in  Dublin  by  two  masked  men  who  had  concealed 
themselves  in  a  doorway.  ^ 

Measures  for  the  repression  of  reprisals  were  still  carried 
out  by  the  Army  AutJiorTEies.     On  December  18  a  warning  was 
iastted  that  under "Tffartial  Law  acts  uf  indiSCipHhe"  by  Forces 
o£  the  Crown  -might involve  the  death  penalty .  'A'day  or  two 
later-A-series  of  igncounters-  betwe«i  -soldiers  and  -civiliftPB  took 
plaee^n  the  borders  of  County  Kilkenny  andTCminty  Tipperary 
in  a  very  mountainous  and  thinly"  populated  district.     These 
encounters  developed  almost  into  a  pitched  battle,  in  the  course 
of  which  a  number  of  casualties  were  inflicted  upon  the  attackers.   ' 
A  more  satisfactory  incident  was  the  termination  of  the  railway^ 
slrike  which  had  been  in  progress  for  many  months  owing  to 
thQ  refusal  of  the  railwaymen  to^  handle  Goremment  traffic. 
The  Government  had  announced  fhieir  intention  of  closing  the  ^^ 
Irish   railways,   and   the  Labour   Party   thereupon   issued   a     "^ 
national  manifesto  calling  upon  the  Irish  railwaymen  to  resume      / 
work  in  order  to  prevent  the  dislocation  of  trade  and  commerce     / 
which  would  ensue.     At  a  conference  on  December  21   the 
railwaymen  unanimously  decided  to  accede  to  this  demand  and      \ 
to  resume  work  without  discrimination  as  to  the  class  of  trafficy""'""^ 
conveyed,  provided  that  the  men  who  had  already  been  dis^v 
missed  or  suspended  were  reinstated  by  the  Companies.     T^ 
this.  pro:siso~thfl^Govemment  readily  agreed. 

There  was  no  pausft4a-4ha>  campaign  <^  BM»d^.and4>tttrage 
djanngthft.Christmtw  holidays  in  Ireland.^  Beports  from  various 
parts  of  the  country  showed  that  eleven  persons  were  killed  and 
several  others  injured.  Two  banks  were  robbed  and  attempts 
were  made  to  destroy  two  newspaper  offices.  One  policeman 
and  five  civiUans  were  shot  in  County  Limerick  and  two  civihans 
in  Tralee.  A  farmer  in  Tyrone  was  killed  while  defending  his 
house  against  raiders.  A  soldier  lost  his  life  in  Dublin  through 
neglect  to  answer  the  challenge  of  a  sentry,  and  a  young  man 
was  killed  in  Limerick.  On.  J)ecember  30  aJioJiib-was^^ung  in 
thrrommnroial  officn  <A  iA^i^Erumaaa!^  Journal  and  blew4i£ole 
in  the  floor.  ^This.  was  the  third  attempt  that  had  been  made 
within  a  short  period  to  T)urii'"Qiese'"omces.  The  end, of _ the 
year'  gave  little  hope  for  an  early  truce,  for  it  was  stated  that 
the  negotiations  between  Downing  Street  and  Sinn  Fein  had 


144]  ENGLISH  HISTOKY.  [d«c. 

/  liot  yet  led  to  any  satisfactory  result.     It  appeared  that  the 
'    Government  had  asked  for  more  effective  guarantees  than  a 
""  mere  truce  could  ^ve,  and  had  encountered  a  firm  refusal  from 
(     the  advanced  section  of  Sinn  Fein. 

Meanwhile  the  Home  Bule  Bill  had  been  passed  into  law. 
In  Committee  of  the  House  of  Lords  on  December  1  a  number 
of  amendments  were  moved  and  rejected.  One  moved  by  Lord 
\  Oranmore  and  Browne,  to  the  effect  that  the  Southern  Parlia* 
ment  should  have  a  Senate  was,  however,  carried  by  a  majority 
of  eighty-four,  and  a  second  amendment  was  then  also  inserted 
giving  a  Senate  to  the  North  of  Ireland.  An  amendment  was 
subsequently  carried  that  the  two  Senates  for  Southern  and 
Northern  Ireland  sitting  together  should  constitute  an  Irish 
Senate  to  take  the  place  of  the  Council  of  Ireland.  On  Decem- 
ber 6  an  amendment  was  agreed  to,  on  the  motion  of  Lord 
Balfour,  to  take  away  the  power  to  impose  a  sur-tax  while  re- 
taining the  power  to  grant  relief.  Another  amendment  was 
carried  providing  that  the  Act  should  not  come  into  force  in 
either  Southern  or  Northern  Ireland  until  resolutions  had  been 
passed  by  both  Houses  of  Parliament  of  the  United  Kingdom, 
declaring  that  Ireland  was  in  a  fit  state  to  govern  itself.  After 
a  number  of  other  amendments  the  third  reading  was  carried  on 
December  14. 

/^The  Lords'  amendments  came  before  the  House  of  Conmions 
/on  December  16,  when  the  amendments  giving  a  Senate  to  each 
/  of  the  Irish  Parliaments  were  agreed  to.     The  amendment 
altering  the  constitution  of  the  Council  of  Ireland  was,  however, 
disagreed  to,  as  also  was  that  which  required  a  resolution  of 
both  Houses  of  Parliament  of  the  United  Ejngdom  before  the 
Act  could  come  into  force.     When  the  Bill  returned  to  the 
Lords  they  decided  not  to  insist  on  their  amendment  constitut- 
ing the  Council  of  Ireland,  but-  to  amend  it  by  substituting  for 
the  Lord  Chancellor  of  Ireland  as  the  President  some  person 
named  by  the  Lord-Lieutenant,  and  by  deleting  the  provision 
for  the  election  of  members  of  the  Council  by  the  lower  House 
:  of  Parliament  by  proportional  representation.      After    some 
i  further  conversation  between  the  two  Houses  agreement  was 
'  i:eached  and  the  royal  assent  was  given  on  December  23. 

Apart  from  the  Home  Bule  Bill  the  most  important  measure 
before  Parliament  during  December  was  the  Agriculture  Bill, 
the  second  reading  of  which  was  carried  in  the  House  of  Lords 
on  December  8.  During  the  Committee  stage  an  amendment 
moved  by  Lord  Parmoor  was  carried,  omitting  the  sub-section 
which  gave  the  Ministry  of  Agriculture  the  power  both  to  pre- 
scribe improvements  in  existmg  methods  of  cultivation,  and  to 
order  that  land  should  be  put  or  kept  under  the  plough.  A 
Government  amendment  providing  for  a  Central  Agricultural 
Wages  Committee  for  Wales  was  agreed  to,  as  also  were  several 
amendments  on  the  subject  of  compensation.  Lord  Selbome 
moved  that  a  landlord  might  regain  occupation  for  a  holding 


1920.]  The  Agriculture  Bill.  [145 

which  he  had  let  to  a  tenant  within  seven  years  of  the  creation 
of  the  tenancy  without  payment  of  compensation.  This  also  was 
agreed  to  hy  a  majority  of  forty-two.  The  third  reading  was 
carried  on  December  21.  On  the  22nd  the  House  of  Commons 
met  in  the  afternoon  to  consider  the  Lords'  amendments,  upon 
which  they  were  occupied  during  a  continuous  session  of  twenty- 
two  and  B,  half  hours.  During  the  prolonged  proceedings  the 
chair  was  alternately  occupied  by  the  Speaker,  the  Chairman  of 
Committees,  and  the  Deputy-Chairman  of  Committees.  The 
Government  proposed  to  agree  with  practically  the  whole  of 
the  Lords'  amendments,  but  this  attitude  met  with  stout  opposi- 
tion during  the  night  from  a  group  of  members,  including  several 
members  of  the  Labour  Party,  who  protested  against  what  they 
described  as  the  surrender  of  the  Government  to  the  House  of 
Lords.  Eventually  agreement  was  reached  between  the  two 
Houses  on  December  ^  and  the  Bill  passed  into  law. 

Another  Bill  which  was  passed  during  December  was  the 
Dyestuffe  (Import  Begulation)  Bill.  Sir  B.  Home  moved  the 
second  reading  in  the  House  of  Commons  on  December  7,  and 
explained  that  the  object  of  the  Bill  was  to  prohibit  (except 
under  hcense)  the  import  of  synthetic  organic  dyes,  colours,  and 
colouring  matter,  and  the  intermediates  of  organic  dyes.  Pro- 
vision was  made  for  setting  up  a  Licensing  Committee  com- 
posed of  consumers  and  producers  with  three  neutral  members. 
Major  Barnes  moved  the  rejection  of  the  Bill  on  the  ground 
that  it  re-introduced  the  protectionist  system  of  prohibition 
and  hcenses.  Ultimately  the  BiU  was  read  a  second  time 
after  the  application  of  the  closure.  The  closure  was  apphed 
frequently  during  the  Committee  stage  and  the  third  reading 
was  carried  on  December  17.  The  BUI  was  read  a  second  time 
in  the  House  of  Lords  on  December  21  and  received  the  royal 
assent  on  the  23rd. 

The  third  reading  of  the  Appropriation  Bill  was  utilised  by 
Mr.  Balfour  for  a  survey  of  the  work  of  the  League  of  Nations 
during  the  first  eleven  months  of  its  existence.     He  divided  the 
work  of  the  League  into  three  heads  :  the  work  of  organisation, 
the  economic  work,  and  the  political  work.     He  referred  to  the 
establishment  of  a  permanent  Court  of  International  Justice, 
raising  the  question  as  to  whether  the  appeals  to  this  Court 
should  be  made  compulsory  on  both  parties.     The  plan  which 
had  actually  been  adopted  was  to  pass  the  scheme  in  a  voluntary 
form  and  Uien  to  put  an  additional  protocol  which  any  nation 
might  sign  declaring  its  adhesion  to  the  oblig 
nation  was  invited  to  sign  it,  and  in  the  vo 
already  been  signed  by  this  country  and  all 
British  Dominions  and  a  large  number  of  < 
Glynes,  who  spoke  next,  regarded  the  decisi 
at  Geneva  as  very  disappomting,  and  insii 
the  delegation  should  not  represent  merely 
it  was  to  command  confidence. 


146]  ENGLISH  HISTOEY.  [dec. 

Parliament  was  prorogued  on  December  23  at  the  end  of 
a  year  characterised  by  a  very  large  output  of  new  legislation. 
The  hold  of  Mr.  Lloyd  George  over  the  House  of  Commons 
showed  no  signs  of  weakening,  although  defections  from  the 
Coalition  were  regarded  as  likely  to  occur  before  long.  Dis- 
content was  graduaUy  arising  over  unemployment  and  hi^h 
prices,  and  there  was  a  general  tendency  to  connect  these  evils 
with  excessive  taxation  and  multiplication  of  Ministries.  It 
was  anticipated,  therefore,  that  the  next  session  would  be 
less  preoccupied  with  new  legislative  measures,  but  would 
devote  its  time  to  the  important  work  of  controlling  the  Execu- 
tive through  finance. 

The  problem  of  unemployment  was  the  leading  topic  of 
discussion  at  the  end  of  the  year,  for  the  position  had  gradually 
become  very  acute.  The  policy  of  the  Government  was  set 
forth  by  Dr.  Macnamara  on  the  motion  for  the  second  reading 
of  the  Appropriation  Bill  on  December  21.  He  said  that  they 
proposed  to  draft  50,000  ex-service  men  into  the  building  trades, 
to  embark  upon  the  construction  of  arterial  roads,  to  introduce 
certain  amendments  in  the  Unemployment  Insurance  Act 
modifying  the  four  weeks'  period  as  a  qualification  for  benefits, 
and  finally  to  establish  a  Central  Committee  under  the  Chairman- 
ship of  Lord  St.  Davids  to  administer  a  fund  of  3,000,0002. 
on  schemes  other  than  roads  and  housing.  Mr.  Cl^es  objected 
that  the  proposals  did  not  go  far  enough.  He  said  that  there 
were  at  least  1,000,000  imemployed,  of  whom  not  more  than 
one-tenth  would  be  affected  by  the  policy  of  the  Government. 
The  test  of  the  Government  was  how  far  it  could  secure  em- 
ployment to  the  masses  and  contentment  in  their  employment. 
He  regarded  the  problem  as  one  that  could  only  be  solved  by 
State  action,  and  he  concluded  by  urging  that  a  complete  cure 
was  impossible  until  complete  peace  and  the  conditions  of  peace 
were  restored  to  the  earth.  Mr.  Lloyd  George,  who  took 
part  in  the  debate,  doubted  whether  there  were  any  sCure  for 
unemployment,  and  did  not  claim  that  the  proposals  of  the 
Government  were  any  more  than  palliatives.  He  pointed  out 
that  the  malady  was  not  confined  to  this  country,  being  worse 
everywhere  else  except  in  France  where  there  was  an  enormous 
amount  of  State  employment  in  the  restoration  of  the  de- 
vastated regions.  As  regards  housing,  there  was  work  for  ten 
years  ahead  even  in  overtaking  arrears.  In  the  circumstances 
he  could  not  understand  the  fecurs  of  unemployment  in  the 
building  trade,  and  he  thought  that  the  attitude  of  the  Unions 
was  selfish  in  raising  objections  to  the  introduction  of  new  men. 

On  December  22  the  Prime  Minister  received  a  deputation 
representing  the  City  of  London  and  many  great  municipalities, 
who  urged  that  the  Government  contribution  towards  the  cost 
of  local  relief  works  for  meeting  unemployment  should  be  in- 
creased from  30  per  cent,  to  75  per  cent.  The  proposal,  declared 
Mr.  Lloyd  George,  was  impossible  of  acceptance.     He  pointed 


1920.]  The  Problem  of  Unemployment.  [147 

out  that  the  great  difficulty  was  the  restriction  of  cash.  Bates 
had  doubled  and  taxes  had  gone  up  five  times  owing  to  the 
|[igantic  cost  of  the  war.  Germany  was  bankrupt  and  was 
mcreasing  its  indebtedness  enormously.  England  was  differently 
constituted;  the  burdens  on  the  taxpayer  had  been  increased 
to  relieve  the  burdens  on  the  ratepayer.  The  Government 
was  anxious  for  fresh  suggestions  for  deaUng  with  unemployment. 
When  it  was  suggested  that  they  should  provide  work  for  women 
he  was  unable  to  see  how  it  could  be  done.  There  was  a  vast 
demand  for  domestic  servants  which  was  not  satisfied.  The 
Government  was  doing  its  best  to  consider  schemes  for  restarting 
the  demand  for  our  goods  in  Europe.  There  had  never  been 
such  generous  contributions  before  from  the  Exchequer  towards 
the  solution  of  the  problem  of  unemployment.  The  Exchequer 
could  not  grant  the  request  of  the  mxmicipalities  because  the 
only  way  to  find  the  money  would  be  by  new  taxes.  Only  by 
contributory  co-operation  between  the  Government  and  the 
local  authorities,  and  by  co-operation  between  all  classes,  could 
they  hope  to  reach  a  solution  or  to  alleviate  suffering. 

The  Committee  referred  to  by  Dr.  Macnamara  under  the 
Chairmanship  of  Lord  St.  Davids  was  immediately  appointed 
under  the  title  of  The  Unemployment  Grants  Committee.  Their 
duties  were  to  administer  a  sum  of  3,000,000Z.  which  Parliament 
would  be  asked  to  place  at  their  disposal  for  the  purpose  of 
assisting  local  authorities  in  the  United  Eangdom  in  carrying 
out  approved  schemes  of  useful  work  other  than  work  on  roads 
and  on  housing  schemes.  The  expenditure  was  not  to  exceed 
the  total  of  3,000,000Z.  Works  were  to  be  approved  only  in 
areas  where  the  existence  of  serious  unemployment,  not  other- 
wise provided  for,  was  certified  by  the  Ministry  of  Labour. 
Preference  in  employment  was  to  be  given  to  unemployed 
ex-service  men.  The  grant  must  not  in  any  case  exceed  30  per 
cent,  of  the  Wages  Bill  of  additional  men  taken  on  for  work. 
Finally,  the  works  must  be  such  as  were  approved  by  the 
appropriate  Government  Departments  as  smtable  works  of 
public  utility. 

So  urgent  had  the  position  become  that  a  conference  was 
held  at  10  Downing  Street  on  Christmas  Day.  Dr.  Macnamara 
stated  that  on  December  10  265,000  ex-service  men,  148,000 
civilian  men,  and  131,000  women  were  registered  as  unemployed. 
Beyond  these  figures  there  was  known  to  be  a  considerable 
margin  of  persons  unemployed  but  not  registered.  The  trades 
in  which  the  ^eatest  number  of  imemployed  were  registered 
were  engineenng  and  iron  founding  88,000,  general  labourers 
81,000,  and  transport  trades  52,000.  The  subject  was  still  the 
main  preoccupation  of  the  Government  when  the  year  closed. 

The  passing  of  1920  raised  few  regrets.  The  state  of 
Ireland  throughout  the  year  was  worse  than  it  had  ever 
previously  been:  crime  and  outrage  were  continuous  from 
beginning    to  end.     Labour  problems  still    remained    acute, 

k2 


142]  ENGLISH  HISTOBY.  [dec. 

disorder  was,  however,  the  city  ot  Cork.  On  December  11  a 
murderous  attack  was  made  on_a  party  of  the  Forges  of  the 
Crowli;*'i^icE  resuITed  in  the  death^gf  ^Q.:ne^Cjaidet  and  the  severe 
wounding  lot  seven  othersT^lG^usugl  thex  yere^ambushed  in 
a  lorry  on  the  outskirts  of  the  city!  TPhis  outrage  was  promptly 
followed  by  a  series  of  app&llihg  reprisals,  as  the  result  of 
which  almost  the  entire  centre  of  the  city  was  set  in  flames, 
and  a  general  exodusof  the  people  took  place  into  the  country 
areas.  The  reprisals  began  in  the  "evenmg  "when  the~  streets 
were  crowded  and  the  shops  full  of  people.  Lorries  drove 
rapidly  around  the  principal  streets,  and  the  occupants  dis- 
charged their  rifles  at  short  intervals,  while  incendiaries  went 
about  burning  and  looting,  removing  valuables  in  portmanteaux. 
Affi^i^-JJiebuildiiigs  jwhich  were  burnt  to  the  ground  were 
the  City  Hall  and  the^Cbm  Exchange  cdvermg  2  acres  of 
ground,  and  the  Carnegie  !Free  Library.  Patrick  Street,  the 
main  commercial  artery  of  the  city,  was  devastated  on  a  frontage 
of  over  100  yards.  It  was  stated  at  the  time  that  the  number 
of  buildings  destroyed  was  about  300  and  the  damage  was 
provisionally  estimated  at  over  3,000,000Z. 

The,.AllegatioB>- thaL.  thi&-^e^^  waft  an  inatflnre  of 

repnsals  by  the  police  waarepudiatadin  the  House  of  Commons 
oh  December  13  by  Sir  Hamar  Greenwood,  who  said  that  there 
was  no  evidence  whatever  that  Hhe  fires  were  started  by  the 
J^orces j3f  the  Crown.  He  aSdecT  that  there  were  no  incendiary 
bombs  In  the  possession  of  the  Forces  of  the  Crown  in  Lreland, 
though  the  Sinn  Feiners  possessed  them  and  the  Government 
were  seizing  them  in  numbers  every  week.  In  the  evening 
Lieut.-Commander  Kenworthy  moved  the  adjournment  to  call 
^  attention  to  the  events  in  Cork,  and  the  Chief  Secretary  again 
afi^med  that  there  was  no  evidence  as  to  who  started  the 
burnings  in  Cork,  and  he  did  not  believe  it  was  the  Forces  of 
the  Crown.  An  order  had  been  issued  by  General  Strickland, 
who  was  in  command  of  the  Military  Forces,  declaring  that 
anyone  found  looting  or  burning  or  attempting  either  would  be 
^ot. 

-    Up  to  this  time  the  Church  had  exercised  little  influence  for 
^  the  repression  of  crime,  but  the  climax  in  Cork  led  to  a  strong 
/     pronouncement  by  Dr.  Cohalan,  Bishop  of  Cork,  a  leader  of  the 
Roman  CathoUc  Church  in  Ireland.    After  a  strong  denunci- 
ation of  murder  and  arson,  he  promulgated  a  decree  to  the 
effect  that  anyone  within  his  diocese  who  organised  or  took 
J     part  in  an  ambush,  or  kidnapping,  or  should  otherwise  be  guilty 
of  murder  or  attempted  murder  should  incur  by  that  fact  the 
\     censure  of  excommunication.    About  this  period  two  attacks 
/     were  made  on  poUce  barracks,  both  of  which  involved  sharp 
/      fighting.     One  took  place  in  County  Armagh,  when  a  party  of 
•       police  and  soldiers  going  to  the  rescue  was  ambushed.      All 
the  roads  in  the  neighbourhood  had  been  barricaded,  but  the 
relief  party  got  through  and   broke  up  the  attack  on   the 


iMO.]  Further  Outrages  in  Ireland.  [143 

barracks.  The  Sinn  Fein  Hall  in  Newiy  was  burnt  down  on 
December  13.  Another  fight  lasting  five  hours  took  place  at 
barracks  in  County  Longford,  but  the  attackers  were  obliged 
to  retire,  though  they  succeeded  in  blowing  in  the  end  of  the 
barrack  building  with  explosives.  On  the  16th  a  patrol  of 
eight  policemen  was  ambushed  in  County  Tipperary  by  100 
men ;  four  constables  were  shot  and  one  was  senously  wounded. 
On  the  same  day  some  sensation  was  created  by  the  shooting 
of  an  inoffensive  priest,  the  Bev.  Canon  Magner,  by  a  cadet 
who,  however,  was  understood  to  be  out  of  his  mind.  On  the 
17th  District-Inspector  Sullivan  of  the  Boyal  Irish  Constabulary 
was  shot  dead  in  Dubhn  by  two  masked  men  who  had  concealed 
themselves  in  a  doorway.  ^ 

Measures  for  the  repression  of  reprisals  were  still  carried 
out  by"{Ee  Army  Autliorines.     OnT)ecem1ber  18  a  warning  was 
iosued  that  under  Tffartial  Law  uclu  of  iudi8Cipline''l)y  Forces 
ot  the  Crown  might mvohre  the  death  penalty.  *  A' day  or  two 
later-a  smes  of  encounters-  faetwe^ot  goldiers  and-erriliftPB  took 
place  en  the  borders  of  County  Kilkenny  aiidXounty  Tipperary 
in  a  very  mountainous  and  thinly  populated  district.     These 
encounters  developed  almost  into  a  pitched  battle,  in  the  course 
of  which  a  number  of  casualties  were  inflicted  upon  the  attackers. 
A  more  satisfactory  incident  was  the  termination  of  the  railway , 
strike  which  had  been  in  progress  for  many  months  owing  to 
the  refusal  of  the  railwaymen  to^  handle  Geremment  traffic. 
The  Government  had  announced  their  intention  of  closing  the  ^_ 
Irish   railways,   and   the  Labour   Party   thereupon   issued   a 
national  manifesto  calling  upon  the  Irish  railwaymen  to  restune 
work  in  order  to  prevent  the  dislocation  of  trade  and  commerce 
which  would  ensue.     At  a  conference  on  December  21   the     ^ 
railwaymen  unanimously  decided  to  accede  to  this  demand  and 
to  resume  work  without  discrimination  as  to  the  class  of  traffic 
conveyed,  provided  that  the  men  who  had  already  been  dis- 
missed or  suspended  were  reinstated  by  the  Companies.     Tp^^ 
tlu&  pro^dsothfi^Government  readily  agreed. 

There  was.no  paTinn  in  the  campaifTi  c^  m«»d£r.ajid^outrage 
<iiiring  th*^  nhriiBtman  holidays  in  Ireland.  Reports  from  various 
parts  of  the  country  showed  that  eleven  persons  were  killed  and 
several  others  injured.  Two  banks  were  robbed  and  attempts 
were  made  to  destroy  two  newspaper  offices.  One  poUceman 
and  five  civihans  were  shot  in  County  Limerick  and  two  civilians 
in  Tralee.  A  farmer  in  Tyrone  was  killed  while  defending  his 
house  against  raiders.  A  soldier  lost  his  life  in  Dublin  through 
neglect  to  answer  the  challenge  of  a  sentry,  and  a  young  man 
was  killed  in  Limerick.  On  JDecember  -^Q  a  bomb  wft*?  ^MPg  in 
thr^rnmmomial  offioo  <^  the  JBruma$i\  Journal  and  blew  a  £ole 
in  the  floor,  ^This  was  the  third  attempt  that  had  been  made 
within  a  short  period  to  bum  'these  "offices.  The  end  of.  the 
year'  gave  little  hope  for  an  early  truce,  for  it  was  stated  that 
the  negotiations  between  Downing  Street  and'  Sinn  Fein  had 


:> 


144]  ENGLISH  HISTORY.  [dec. 

/  ilot  yet  led  to  any  satisfactory  result.    It  appeared  that  the 
'    GoYemment  had  asked  for  more  efifective  guarantees  than  a 
^mere  truce  could  ^ve,  and  had  encountered  a  firm  refusal  from 
(     the  advanced  section  of  Sinn  Fein. 

Meanwhile  the  Home  Bule  Bill  had  been  passed  into  law. 
I  In  Committee  of  the  House  of  Lords  on  December  1  a  number 
of  amendments  were  moved  and  rejected.  One  moved  by  Lord 
'  Oranmore  and  Browne,  to  the  effect  that  the  Southern  Parlia- 
ment should  have  a  Senate  was,  however,  carried  by  a  majority 
of  eighty-four,  and  a  second  amendment  was  then  also  inserted 
giving  a  Senate  to  the  North  of  Ireland.  An  amendment  was 
subsequently  carried  that  the  two  Senates  for  Southern  and 
Northern  Ireland  sitting  together  should  constitute  an  Irish 
Senate  to  take  the  place  of  the  Council  of  Ireland.  On  Decem- 
ber 6  an  amendment  was  agreed  to,  on  the  motion  of  Lord 
Balfour,  to  take  away  the  power  to  impose  a  sur-tax  while  re- 
taining  the  power  to  grant  reUef .  Another  amendment  was 
carried  providing  that  the  Act  should  not  come  into  force  in 
either  Southern  or  Northern  Ireland  until  resolutions  had  been 
passed  by  both  Houses  of  Parliament  of  the  United  Kingdom, 
declaring  that  Ireland  was  in  a  fit  state  to  govern  itself.  After 
a  number  of  other  amendments  the  third  reading  was  carried  on 
December  14. 

\V^The  Lords'  amendments  came  before  the  House  of  Commons 
/on  December  16,  when  the  amendments  giving  a  Senate  to  each 
/  of  the  Irish  Parliaments  were  agreed  to.    The  amendment 
/     altering  the  constitution  of  the  Coimcil  of  Ireland  was,  however, 
disagreed  to,  as  also  was  that  which  required  a  resolution  of 
both  Houses  of  ParUament  of  the  United  Kingdom  before  the 
Act  could  come  into  force.     When  the  Bill  returned  to  the 
Lords  they  decided  not  to  insist  on  their  amendment  constitut- 
ing the  Council  of  Ireland,  but-  to  amend  it  by  substituting  for 
the  Lord  Chancellor  of  Ireland  as  the  President  some  person 
named  by  the  Lord-Lieutenant,  and  by  deleting  the  provision 
for  the  election  of  members  of  the  Council  by  the  lower  House 
of  Parliament  by  proportional  representation.      After   some 
;  further  conversation  between  the  two  Houses  agreement  was 
'reached  and  the  royal  assent  was  given  on  December  23. 

Apart  from  the  Home  Bule  Bill  the  most  important  measure 
before  Parliament  during  December  was  the  Agriculture  Bill, 
the  second  reading  of  which  was  carried  in  the  Mouse  of  Lords 
on  December  8.  During  the  Conmiittee  stage  an  amendment 
moved  by  Lord  Parmoor  was  carried,  omitting  the  sub-section 
which  gave  the  Ministry  of  A^culture  the  power  both  to  pre- 
scribe improvements  in  existmg  methods  of  cultivation,  and  to 
order  that  land  shoidd  be  put  or  kept  under  the  plough.  A 
Government  amendment  providing  for  a  Central  Agricultural 
Wages  Conmiittee  for  Wales  was  agreed  to,  as  also  were  several 
amendments  on  the  subject  of  compensation.  Lord  Selbome 
moved  that  a  landlord  might  regain  occupation  for  a  holding 


1920.]  The  Agriculture  BiU.  [146 

which  he  had  let  to  a  tenant  within  seven  years  of  the  creation 
of  the  tenancy  without  payment  of  compensation.  This  also  was 
agreed  to  by  a  majority  of  forty-two.  The  third  reading  was 
carried  on  December  21.  On  the  22nd  the  House  of  Commons 
met  in  the  afternoon  to  consider  the  Lords'  amendments,  upon 
which  they  were  occupied  during  a  continuous  session  of  twenty- 
two  and  a  half  hours.  During  the  prolonged  proceedings  the 
chair  was  alternately  occupied  by  the  Speaker,  the  Chairman  of 
Committees,  and  the  Deputy-Chairman  of  Committees.  The 
Government  proposed  to  agree  with  practically  the  whole  of 
the  Lords'  amendments,  but  this  attitude  met  with  stout  opposi- 
tion during  the  night  from  a  group  of  members,  including  several 
members  of  the  Labour  Party,  who  protested  against  what  they 
described  as  the  surrender  of  the  Government  to  the  House  of 
Lords.  Eventually  agreement  was  reached  between  the  two 
Houses  on  December  23  and  the  Bill  passed  into  law. 

Another  Bill  which  was  passed  during  December  was  the 
Dyestuffis  (Import  Begulation)  Bill.  Sir  B.  Home  moved  the 
second  reading  in  the  House  of  Commons  on  December  7,  and 
explained  that  the  object  of  the  Bill  was  to  prohibit  (except 
under  license)  the  import  of  sjmthetic  organic  dyes,  colours,  and 
colouring  matter,  and  the  intermediates  of  organic  dyes.  Pro- 
vision was  made  for  setting  up  a  Licensing  Committee  com- 
Gised  of  consimiers  and  producers  with  three  neutral  members, 
ajor  Barnes  moved  the  rejection  of  the  Bill  on  the  ground 
that  it  re-introduced  the  protectionist  system  of  prohibition 
and  licenses.  Ultimately  the  Bill  was  read  a  second  time 
after  the  application  of  the  closure.  The  closure  was  applied 
frequently  during  the  Committee  stage  and  the  third  reading 
was  carried  on  December  17.  The  Bul  was  read  a  second  time 
in  the  House  of  Lords  on  December  21  and  received  the  royal 
assent  on  the  23rd. 

The  third  reading  of  the  Appropriation  Bill  was  utilised  by 
Mr.  Balfour  for  a  survey  of  the  work  of  the  League  of  Nations 
during  the  first  eleven  months  of  its  existence,  fie  divided  the 
work  of  the  League  into  three  heads :  the  work  of  organisation, 
the  economic  work,  and  the  political  work.  He  referred  to  the 
establishment  of  a  permanent  Court  of  International  Justice, 
raising  the  question  as  to  whether  the  appeals  to  this  Court 
should  be  made  compulsory  on  both  parties.  The  plan  which 
had  actually  been  adopted  was  to  pass  the  scheme  in  a  voluntary 
form  and  then  to  put  an  additional  protocol  which  any  nation 
might  sign  declaring  its  adhesion  to  the  obligatory  form.  Every 
nation  was  invited  to  sign  it,  and  in  the  voluntary  form  it  had 
already  been  signed  by  this  country  and  all  the  members  of  the 
British  Dominions  and  a  large  number  of  other  nations.  Mr. 
Clynes,  who  spoke  next,  regarded  the  decision  of  the  Assembly 
at  Geneva  as  very  disappomting,  and  insisted  that  in  future 
the  delegation  should  not  represent  merely  the  Government  if 
it  was  to  command  confidence. 

K 


146]  ENGLISH  HISTOEY.  [Dsa 

Parliament  was  prorogued  on  December  23  at  the  end  of 
a  year  characterised  by  a  very  large  output  of  new  legislation. 
The  hold  of  Mr.  Lloyd  George  over  the  House  of  Commons 
showed  no  signs  of  weakening,  although  defections  from  the 
Coalition  were  regarded  as  likely  to  occur  before  long.  Dis- 
content was  gradually  arising  over  unemployment  and  hi^h 
prices,  and  there  was  a  general  tendency  to  connect  these  evils 
with  excessive  taxation  and  multiplication  of  Ministries.  It 
was  anticipated,  therefore,  that  the  next  session  would  be 
less  preoccupied  with  new  legislative  measures,  but  would 
devote  its  time  to  the  important  work  of  controUing  the  Execu- 
tive through  finance. 

The  problem  of  unemployment  was  the  leading  topic  of 
discussion  at  the  end  of  the  year,  for  the  position  had  gradually 
become  very  acute.  The  policy  of  the  Government  was  set 
forth  by  Dr.  Macnamara  on  the  motion  for  the  second  reading 
of  the  Appropriation  Bill  on  December  21.  He  said  that  they 
proposed  to  draft  50,000  ex-service  men  into  the  building  trades, 
to  embark  upon  the  construction  of  arterial  roads,  to  introduce 
certain  amendments  in  the  Unemployment  Insurance  Act 
modifying  the  four  weeks'  period  as  a  qualification  for  benefits, 
and  finally  to  establish  a  Central  Committee  under  the  Chairman- 
ship of  Lord  St.  Davids  to  administer  a  fund  of  3,000,0002. 
on  schemes  other  than  roads  and  housing.  Mr.  Cl^es  objected 
that  the  proposals  did  not  go  far  enough.  He  said  that  there 
were  at  least  1,000,000  unemployed,  of  whom  not  more  than 
one-tenth  would  be  affected  by  the  policy  of  the  Government. 
The  test  of  the  Government  was  how  far  it  could  secure  em- 
ployment to  the  masses  and  contentment  in  their  employment. 
He  regarded  the  problem  as  one  that  could  only  be  solved  by 
State  action,  and  he  concluded  by  urging  that  a  complete  cure 
was  impossible  until  complete  peace  and  the  conditions  of  peace 
were  restored  to  the  earth.  Mr.  Lloyd  George,  who  took 
part  in  the  debate,  doubted  whether  there  were  any  ^cure  for 
unemployment,  and  did  not  claim  that  the  proposals  of  the 
Government  were  any  more  than  palliatives.  He  pointed  out 
that  the  malady  was  not  confined  to  this  country,  being  worse 
everywhere  else  except  in  France  where  there  was  an  enormous 
amount  of  State  employment  in  the  restoration  of  the  de- 
vastated regions.  As  regards  housing,  there  was  work  for  ten 
years  ahead  even  in  overtaking  arrears.  In  the  circumstances 
he  could  not  understand  the  fears  of  unemployment  in  the 
building  trade,  and  he  thought  that  the  attitude  of  the  Unions 
was  selnsh  in  raising  objections  to  the  introduction  of  new  men. 

On  December  22  the  Prime  Minister  received  a  deputation 
representing  the  City  of  London  and  many  great  municipalities, 
who  urged  that  the  Government  contribution  towards  the  cost 
of  local  relief  works  for  meeting  unemployment  should  be  in- 
creased from  30  per  cent,  to  76  per  cent.  The  proposal,  declared 
Mr.  Lloyd  George,  was  impossible  of  acceptance.    He  pointed 


192a]  The  Problem  of  Unemployment.  [147 

oat  that  the  great  difficulty  was  the  restriction  of  cash.  Bates 
had  doubled  and  taxes  had  gone  up  five  times  owing  to  the 
gigantic  cost  of  the  war.  Germany  was  bankrupt  and  was 
mcreasing  its  indebtedness  enormously.  England  was  differently 
constituted;  the  burdens  on  the  taxpayer  had  been  increased 
to  relieve  the  burdens  on  the  ratepayer.  The  Government 
was  anxious  for  fresh  suggestions  for  dealing  with  unemployment. 
When  it  was  suggested  that  they  should  provide  work  for  women 
he  was  unable  to  see  how  it  could  be  done.  There  was  a  vast 
demand  for  domestic  servants  which  was  not  satisfied.  The 
Government  was  doing  its  best  to  consider  schemes  for  restarting 
the  demand  for  om:  goods  in  Eiurope.  There  had  never  been 
such  generous  contributions  before  &om  the  Exchequer  towards 
the  solution  of  the  problem  of  unemployment.  The  Exchequer 
could  not  grant  the  request  of  the  municipalities  because  the 
only  way  to  find  the  money  would  be  by  new  taxes.  Only  by 
contributory  co-operation  between  the  Government  and  the 
local  authorities,  and  by  co-operation  between  all  classes,  could 
they  hope  to  reach  a  solution  or  to  alleviate  suffering. 

The  Committee  referred  to  by  Dr.  Macnamara  under  the 
Chairmanship  of  Lord  St.  Davids  was  immediately  appointed 
under  the  title  of  The  Unemployment  Grants  Committee.  Their 
duties  were  to  administer  a  sum  of  3,000,0002.  which  Parliament 
wotdd  be  asked  to  place  at  their  disposal  for  the  purpose  of 
assisting  local  authorities  in  the  United  Kingdom  in  carrying 
out  approved  schemes  of  useful  work  other  than  work  on  roads 
and  on  housing  schemes.  The  expenditure  was  not  to  exceed 
the  total  of  3,000,0002.  Works  were  to  be  approved  only  in 
areas  where  the  existence  of  serious  unemployment,  not  other- 
wise provided  for,  was  certified  by  the  Ministry  of  Labour. 
Preference  in  employment  was  to  be  given  to  unemployed 
ex-service  men.  The  grant  must  not  in  any  case  exceed  30  per 
cent,  of  the  Wages  Bill  of  additional  men  taken  on  for  work. 
Finally,  the  works  must  be  such  as  were  approved  by  the 
appropriate  Government  Departments  as  smtable  works  of 
puolic  utility. 

So  urgent  had  the  position  become  that  a  conference  was 
held  at  10  Dovming  Street  on  Christmas  Day.  Dr.  Macnamara 
stated  that  on  December  10  265,000  ex-service  men,  148,000 
civilian  men,  and  131,000  women  were  registered  as  unemployed. 
Beyond  these  figures  there  was  known  to  be  a  considerable 
margin  of  persons  unemployed  but  not  registered.  The  trades 
in  which  the  ^eatest  number  of  unemployed  were  registered 
were  engineenng  and  iron  founding  88,000,  general  labomrers 
81,000,  and  transport  trades  52,000.  The  subject  was  still  the 
main  preoccupation  of  the  Government  when  the  year  closed. 

The  passing  of  1920  raised  few  regrets.  The  state  of 
Ireland  throughout  the  year  was  worse  than  it  had  ever 
previously  been:  crime  and  outrage  were  continuous  from 
beginning    to  end.    Labour  problems  still    remained    acute, 


148]  ENGLISH  HISTOEY.  [dec.  1920. 

though  the  disturbances  were  not  greater  than  the  previous 
year.  Both  in  1919  and  1920,  the  autumn  had  been  marked 
by  a  great  strike,  in  the  former  case  of  the  railwaymen,  in  the 
latter  of  the  miners.  Social  and  poUtical  conditions  were  still 
those  prevailing  at  the  close  of  hostilities.  But  at  the  end  of 
1920,  signs  were  not  wanting  of  a  change.  A  depression  of 
trade  and  concomitant  rise  of  unemployment  were  the  gloomier 
aspects  of  this  change.  On  the  other  hand,  a  heavy  fall  of 
pnces  at  the  end  of  the  year  was  a  welcome  sign.  On  many 
sides,  the  belief  was  entertained  that  the  period  of  transition 
was  over,  and  that  the  country  would  now  by  slow  and  gradual 
steps  revert  to  a  more  stable  condition.  None  supposed  that 
the  future  was  going  to  be  easy ;  but  none  doubted  that,  what- 
ever difficulties  might  arise,  they  would  be  successfully  sur- 
mounted by  the  determination  and  good  sense  of  the  British 
people. 


FOREIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTORY. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  LEAGUE  OF  NATIONS. 

The  League  of  Nations,  in  regard  to  which  there  had  been  a 
large  amount  of  discussion  in  all  coimtries  during  1919,  came 
into  existence  with  the  ratification  of  the  Treaty  of  Versailles 
on  January  10,  1920.  The  circumstances  in  which  the  League 
was  bom  were  in  one  respect  anomalous  and  unexpected.  Dr. 
Woodrow  Wilson,  the  President  of  the  United  States  of  America, 
had  been  more  responsible  than  any  other  statesman  for  the 
foundation  of  the  League,  and  for  the  terms  of  the  Lease's 
Constitution  or  "  Covenant."  And  yet,  owing  to  the  opposition 
of  the  Republican  Party  in  Washington,  with  which  we  deal 
fully  elsewhere  (see  The  United  States),  the  American  Bepublic 
was  not  a  member  of  the  League  at  the  time  of  its  final  in- 
auguration ;  and  throughout  the  year  with  which  we  are  dealing, 
she  failed  to  join  the  new  brotherhood  of  nations.  The  imex- 
pected  absence  of  America  was,  of  course,  a  serious  handicap 
to  the  League  at  its  origin,  and  a  grave  disappointment  to  the 
European  statesmen — especially  the  British  statesmen — ^who 
had  seconded  with  sincerity  President  Wilson's  work  in  Paris, 
as  also  to  every  well-wisher  of  the  League  and  every  advocate 
of  international  peace ;  but  in  view  of  certain  other  and  favour- 
able developments  which  we  shall  have  to  relate,  it  is  possible 
to  exaggerate  the  importance  of  the  absence  even  of  such  a 
great  country  as  the  United  States  of  America. 

The  horrors  and  colossal  waste  of  the  Great  War  had  deeply 
impressed  the  imagination  of  all  the  civilised  nations  of  the 
world ;  and  out  of  the  real  determination  to  endeavour  to  pre- 
vent the  occurrence  of  any  such  catastrophe  in  the  future,  the 
League  of  Nations  arose.  The  prime  object  of  the  Lea^e 
was  to  threaten  with  an  overwhelmingly  powerful  combination 
of  forces  any  State  which  should  contemplate  an  aggressive  war 
in  the  future.  The  text  of  the  Covenant  of  the  League  was 
given  in  full  in  the  last  number  of  the  Annual  Begisteb  ;  but 
it  may  be  well  to  quote  again  Article  10,  which  in  the  opinion 
of  President  Wilson  was  the  very  essence  of  the  new  scheme 
to  preserve  peace.     This  article  read  as  follows : — 

"The  members  of  the  League  undertake  to  respect  and 

149 


150]         FOREIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTOEY.         [1920. 

preserve  as  against  external  aggression  the  territorial  integrity 
and  existing  political  independence  of  all  members  of  the  League. 
In  case  of  any  such  aggression  or  in  case  of  any  threat  or  danger 
of  such  aggression,  the  Council  shall  advise  upon  the  means  by 
which  this  obligation  shall  be  fulfilled." 

It  was  this  Article  which  committed  the  nations  who  were 
members  of  the  League  to  something  in  the  nature  of  a  general 
alliance :  an  alliance  which  President  Wilson  hoped  to  see  so 
general  that  it  would  be  virtually  imiversal. 

Now  although  President  Wilson  had  taken  the  lead  in  the 
foundation  of  the  League,  a  highly  important  part  was  played 
by  the  statesmen  of  other  countries,  particularly  by  statesmen 
from  all  parts  of  the  British  Empire,  and  in  the  event  the  ideas 
which  gave  birth  to  the  League  proved  to  have  a  stronger  hold 
in  the  British  Commonwealth  than  in  the  United  States.  In 
the  foundation  of  the  League,  the  work  of  Mr.  Lloyd  George, 
Lord  Bobert  Cecil,  and  General  Smuts  needs  perhaps  special  re* 
cognition ;  and  mention  must  also  be  made  of  the  important 
"  support  given  to  the  project  by  the  enlightened  French  states- 
y  man,  M.  Ldon  Bourgeois.  And  hence  it  was  that  the  European 
leaders  were  disappointed  but  not  dismayed  when  it  became 
necessary  to  go  forward  in  the  absence — temporary  or  otherwise 
— of  the  United  States. 

The  first  members  of  the  League  were  of  necessity  those 
States  which  signed  the  Treaty  of  Versailles.  Thirty-two 
countries  took  part  in  the  negotiations  which  preceded  the 
Treaty  of  Versailles ;  but  one  of  these,  and  not  the  least  im- 
portant, namely,  China,  did  not  sign  the  Treaty.  All  the  other 
States  signed  the  Treaty,  of  which  the  League  Covenant  was 
a  part,  and  all  save  three  duly  ratified  the  Treaty  by  means  of 
votes  in  their  respective  Parliaments.  The  three  which  did  not 
ratify  were  the  United  States  and  the  two  petty  republics  of 
Ecuador  and  Nicaragua.  China  subsequently  signed  and  rati- 
fied the  Treaty  with  Austria  (Treaty  of  St.  Germain)  of  which 
the  Covenant  was  also  a  part,  so  that  in  this  manner  China 
became  a  member  of  the  Lea^e.  Thus  twenty-nine  States 
joined  at  the  outset.  The  Bntish  Empire  represented  six  of 
these,  because  Canada,  Australia,  South  Africa,  New  Zealand, 
and  India  entered  as  separate  imits,  whilst  Great  Britain  signed 
I  for  the  United  Eingdom  and  for  the  remainder  of  the  Empire. 

It  may  be  remarked  in  passing  that  it  was  this  six-fold  entry 
of  the  British  Empire  into  the  League,  carrying  as  it  did  six 
votes  in  the  Assembly  instead  of  one,  which  was  one  of  the 

g Dints  which  gave  rise  to  a  great  deal  of  criticism  in  the  United 
tates,  and  which  led  to  the  adoption  by  the  Bepublicans  for 
party  purposes  of  the  cry  of  "  Six  votes  to  One."  The  virtual 
independence  enjoyed  by  the  British  Overseas  Dominions  was 
not  understood  by  the  American  masses,  though  the  Bepublican 
criticism,  based  upon  the  contention  that  the  British  Empire 
was  a  single  State,  had  perhaps  greater  weight  in  the  case  of 


i^ao,]  League  of  Nations.  [151 

India,  which  in  all  important  respects  was  actually  governed 
by  Great  Britain. 

This  American  contention  was,  however,  a  sufficient  answer 
to  the  diametrically  opposite  criticism  of  European  sceptics, 
that  the  League  was  in  its  origin  a  purely  American  project ; 
indeed,  the  Republican  opponents  of  President  Wilson  averred 
that  he  had  been  led  astray  by  the  British. 

To  return  to  the  question  of  the  original  membership  of  the 
League,  these  signatories  included,  in  the  second  place,  the 
Great  Powers,  France,  Italy,  and  Japan,  who  were  to  have, 
like  Great  Britain,  permanent  representation  on  the  Council. 
The  following  European  States  were  also  signatories :  Belgium, 
Greece,  Pokuid,  Czecho-Slovakia,  Eumania,  Portugal,  and  the 
Serb-Croat-Slovene  State.  The  following  American  "associ- 
ated "  countries  also  joined :  Brazil,  Bolivia,  Cuba,  Guatemala, 
Haiti,  Peru,  Panama,  Uruguay,  and  (after  long  delay  in  ratifi- 
cation) Honduras.  As  stated  above  China  gave  her  adherence 
in  a  different  manner,  and  two  other  Oriental  States,  Siam 
and  the  Hedjaz,  were  also  signatories  of  the  Treaty  of  Versailles. 
Liberia  was  also  a  member  of  the  Paris  Conference  and  a 
signatory  of  the  Treaty. 

We  now  come  to  what  was  undoubtedly  the  most  encouraging 
development  during  the  year.  In  the  annexe  to  the  Covenant 
thirteen  countries,  which  had  remained  neutral  during  the  war, 
were  formally  invited  to  accede  to  the  Covenant.  Notwith- 
standing the  almost  universal  character  which  the  war  had 
possessed,  most  of  these  neutral  countries  were  of  considerable 
miportance,  particularly  from  the  moral  point  of  view.  They 
included,  in  the  first  place,  Spain,  and  the  nve  Teutonic  neutrals, 
Sweden,  Denmark,  Norway,  the  Netherlands,  and  Switzerland. 
The  reader  may  be  reminded  that  the  aggregate  population  of 
these  States  was  about  40,000,000 — equal  to  that  of  France ; 
and  the  ancient  grandeur  of  Spain,  and  the  pinnacle  of  pro- 
gressive civilisation  reached  by  the  five  other  countries,  need 
no  emphasis.  Moreover,  owing  to  the  fact  that  these  six 
European  countries  had  remained  neutral  during  the  war,  they 
were  in  a  position  of  peculiar  moral  authority,  and  it  rested 
with  their  statesmen  more  than  with  any  other  statesmen  in 
any  other  part  of  the  world,  to  meet  the  criticism  of  the  League 
which  was  made  in  Germany  and  elsewhere,  that  it  was  merely 
a  continuance  of  the  war  alliance.  All  these  six  States  adhered 
to  the  Covenant ;  and  they  thus  gave  to  the  League  an  impartial 
character  which  it  could  not  have  acquired  in  any  other  way — 
not  even  if  there  had  been  no  defection  on  the  part  of  the  United 
States. 

In  addition  to  these  European  countries,  six  American 
Bepublics  were  invited  to  join,  these  being,  Argentina,  Chile, 
Colombia,  Paraguay,  Venezuela,  and  Salvador.  All  these 
countries  likewise  joined;  and  the  adhesion  of  Argentina  and 
Chile  (which  together  with  Brazil  constituted  the  three  leading 


150]        FOBEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTOKY.         [1920. 

preserve  as  against  external  aggression  the  territorial  integrity 
and  existing  political  independence  of  all  members  of  the  League. 
In  case  of  any  such  aggression  or  in  case  of  any  threat  or  danger 
of  such  aggression,  the  Council  shall  advise  upon  the  means  by 
which  this  obligation  shall  be  fulfilled." 

It  was  this  Article  which  committed  the  nations  who  were 
members  of  the  League  to  something  in  the  nature  of  a  general 
alliance :  an  alliance  which  President  Wilson  hoped  to  see  so 
general  that  it  would  be  virtually  universal. 

Now  although  President  Wilson  had  taken  the  lead  in  the 
foundation  of  the  League,  a  highly  important  part  was  played 
by  the  statesmen  of  other  countries,  particularly  by  statesmen 
from  all  parts  of  the  British  Empire,  and  in  the  event  the  ideas 
which  gave  birth  to  the  League  proved  to  have  a  stronger  hold 
in  the  British  Commonwealth  than  in  the  United  States.  In 
the  foundation  of  the  League,  the  work  of  Mr.  Lloyd  George, 
Lord  Bobert  Cecil,  and  General  Smuts  needs  perhaps  special  re- 
cognition; and  mention  must  also  be  made  of  the  important 
support  given  to  the  project  by  the  enlightened  French  states- 
man, M.  L^on  Bourgeois.  And  hence  it  was  that  the  European 
leaders  were  disappointed  but  not  dismayed  when  it  became 
necessary  to  go  forward  in  the  absence — temporary  or  otherwise 
— of  the  United  States. 

The  first  members  of  the  League  were  of  necessity  those 
States  which  signed  the  Treaty  of  Versailles.  Thirty-two 
countries  took  part  in  the  negotiations  which  preceded  the 
Treaty  of  Versailles ;  but  one  of  these,  and  not  the  least  im- 
portant, namely,  China,  did  not  sign  the  Treaty.  All  the  other 
States  signed  the  Treaty,  of  which  the  League  Covenant  was 
a  part,  and  all  save  three  duly  ratified  the  Treaty  by  means  of 
votes  in  their  respective  Parliaments.  The  three  which  did  not 
ratify  were  the  United  States  and  the  two  petty  republics  of 
Ecuador  and  Nicaragua.  China  subsequently  signed  and  rati- 
fied the  Treaty  with  Austria  (Treaty  of  St.  Germain)  of  which 
the  Covenant  was  also  a  part,  so  that  in  this  manner  China 
became  a  member  of  the  Lea^e.  Thus  twenty-nine  States 
joined  at  the  outset.  The  Bntish  Empire  represented  six  of 
these,  because  Canada,  Australia,  South  Africa,  New  Zealand, 
and  India  entered  as  separate  units,  whilst  Great  Britain  signed 
for  the  United  Kingdom  and  for  the  remainder  of  the  Empire. 
It  may  be  remarked  in  passing  that  it  was  this  six-fold  entry 
of  the  British  Empire  into  the  League,  carrjdng  as  it  did  six 
votes  in  the  Assembly  instead  of  one,  which  was  one  of  the 
points  which  gave  rise  to  a  great  deal  of  criticism  in  the  United 
States,  and  which  led  to  the  adoption  by  the  Bepublicans  for 
party  purposes  of  the  cry  of  "  Six  votes  to  One."  The  virtual 
independence  enjoyed  by  the  British  Overseas  Dominions  was 
not  understood  by  the  American  masses,  though  the  Bepublican 
criticism,  based  upon  the  contention  that  the  British  Empire 
was  a  single  State,  had  perhaps  greater  weight  in  the  case  of 


1930.]  League  of  Nations.  [151 

India,  which  in  all  important  respects  was  actually  governed 
by  Great  Britain. 

This  American  contention  was,  however,  a  sufficient  answer 
to  the  diametrically  opposite  criticism  of  European  sceptics, 
that  the  League  was  in  its  origin  a  purely  American  project ; 
indeed,  the  Bepublican  opponents  of  President  Wilson  averred 
that  he  had  been  led  astray  by  the  British. 

To  return  to  the  question  of  the  original  membership  of  the 
League,  these  signatories  included,  in  the  second  place,  the 
Great  Powers,  France,  Italy,  and  Japan,  who  were  to  have, 
like  Great  Britain,  permanent  representation  on  the  Council. 
The  following  European  States  were  also  signatories :  Belgium, 
Greece,  Poland,  Czecho-Slovakia,  Bumania,  Portugal,  and  the 
Serb-Croat-Slovene  State.  The  following  American  "associ- 
ated "  countries  also  joined :  Brazil,  Bolivia,  Cuba,  Guatemala, 
Haiti,  Peru,  Panama,  Uruguay,  and  (after  long  delay  in  ratifi- 
cation) Honduras.  As  stated  above  China  gave  her  adherence 
in  a  different  majiner,  and  two  other  Oriental  States,  Siam 
and  the  Hedjaz,  were  also  signatories  of  the  Treaty  of  Versailles. 
Liberia  was  also  a  member  of  the  Paris  Conference  and  a 
signatory  of  the  Treaty. 

We  now  come  to  what  was  undoubtedly  the  most  encouraging 
development  during  the  year.  In  the  annexe  to  the  Covenant 
thirteen  countries,  which  had  remained  neutral  during  the  war, 
were  formally  invited  to  accede  to  the  Covenant.  Notwith- 
standing the  almost  universal  character  which  the  war  had 
possessed,  most  of  these  neutral  countries  were  of  considerable 
miportance,  particularly  from  the  moral  point  of  view.  They 
included,  in  the  first  place,  Spain,  and  the  nve  Teutonic  neutrals, 
Sweden,  Denmark,  Norway,  the  Netherlands,  and  Switzerland. 
The  reader  may  be  reminded  that  the  aggregate  population  of 
these  States  was  about  40,000,000 — equal  to  that  of  France ; 
and  the  ancient  grandeur  of  Spain,  and  the  pinnacle  of  pro- 
gressive civilisation  reached  by  the  five  other  countries,  need 
no  emphasis.  Moreover,  owing  to  the  fact  that  these  six 
European  countries  had  remained  neutral  during  the  war,  they 
were  in  a  position  of  peculiar  moral  authority,  and  it  rested 
with  their  statesmen  more  than  with  any  other  statesmen  in 
any  other  part  of  the  world,  to  meet  the  criticism  of  the  League 
which  was  made  in  Germany  and  elsewhere,  that  it  was  merely 
a  continuance  of  the  war  alliance.  All  these  six  States  adhered 
to  the  Covenant ;  and  they  thus  gave  to  the  League  an  impartial 
character  which  it  could  not  have  acquired  in  any  other  way — 
not  even  if  there  had  been  no  defection  on  the  part  of  the  United 
States. 

In  addition  to  these  European  countries,  six  American 
Bepublics  were  invited  to  join,  these  being,  Argentina,  Chile, 
Colombia,  Paraguay,  Venezuela,  and  Salvador.  All  these 
countries  likewise  joined;  and  the  adhesion  of  Argentina  and 
Chile  (which  together  with  Brazil  constituted  the  three  leading 


152]         FOREIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTORY.         [i92a 

Republics  of  Latin  America)  may  be  regarded  as  only  second 
in  unportance  to  the  accession  of  the  European  neutrals.  The 
thirteenth  country  which  was  invited  to  join  was  Persia,  and 
she  also  accepted  the  invitation. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  the  representative  bodies  of  the 
League  were  a  "Council**  and  an  "Assembly.**  These  had 
been  likened  respectively  to  a  Government  and  a  Parliament, 
and  there  was  a  certain  element  of  truth  in  the  simile,  though 
the  comparison  ought  not  to  be  pressed  too  far.  The  Assembly 
was  the  main  representative  body,  and  in  it  every  State  in  the 
League  was  to  be  represented,  and  was  to  possess  one  vote  and 
only  one  vote — though  a  State  might  have  more  than  one 
representative  in  the  diet.  The  Council  was,  in  some  sense, 
an  executive  body,  and  did  in  this  respect  truly  resemble  a 
Government.  In  the  case  of  the  Council  the  theoretical  equality 
of  every  sovereign  State  disappeared.  As  originally  arranged, 
what  were  known  during  1919  as  the  "Principal  Allied  and 
Associated  Powers  '*  were  each  to  have  one  representative  and 
one  vote  in  the  Council ;  whilst  all  the  other  States  who  were 
members  of  the  League  were  to  have  collectively  only  four 
representatives  on  the  Council.  Thus  the  United  States,  Great 
Britain,  France,  Italy,  and  Japan  were  to  be  represented  per- 
manently on  the  Council,  whereas  the  remaining  four  councillors 
would  be  only  temporary  members — and  would  also,  in  some 
sense,  represent  not  only  their  own  countries,  but  the  whole 
body  of  the  League.  The  first  four  temporary  members  of  the 
Council  were  appointed  under  the  authority  of  the  Treaty  of 
Versailles  itself,  and  were  Spain,  Belgium,  Greece,  and  Brazil. 

It  was,  of  course,  the  intention  that  the  Council  should  meet 
much  more  often  than  the  Assembly,  but  it  will  be  observed 
that  the  complete  Council  was  unable  to  meet,  in  the  manner 
originally  intended,  ovnn^  to  the  non-ratification  of  the  Treaty 
by  the  United  States.  As  will  be  seen,  however,  the  Council 
(thus  consisting  of  only  eight  members)  met  on  a  number  of 
occasions  during  the  year,  and  was  able  to  carry  out  not  un- 
important work. 

In  addition  to  the  Council  and  the  Assembly,  the  League 
possessed  a  permanent  Secretariat,  which  functioned  to  some 
extent  as  an  international  civil  service.  The  head  of  this  body 
was  the  Secretary-General  of  the  League,  Sir  Eric  Drummond. 
After  a  brief  sojourn  in  London  the  Secretariat  took  up  its 
abode  in  Geneva,  which  was  to  be  the  League  capital.  The 
possession  of  this  permanent  Secretariat  was  a  most  important 
point,  and  placed  the  new  League  of  Nations  in  a  position  of 
great  advantage  as  compared  with  all  earlier  movements  to- 
wards internationalism. 

It  was  decided  that  the  first  meeting  of  the  Assembly  should 
be  held  at  Geneva  in  November,  1920.  But  in  the  meantime, 
not  only  did  the  Secretariat,  under  the  energetic  guidance  of 
Sir  Eric  Drummond,  work  continuously  on  the  matters  which 


1920.]  League  of  Nations.  [153 

it  was  the  duty  of  the  League  to  supervise,  but  also  no  fewer 
than  ten  meetings  of  the  Council  were  held.  The  first  session 
of  the  Council  was  summoned  by  President  Wilson  (in  accord- 
ance with  the  provisions  of  the  Treaty  of  Versailles)  to  meet 
in  Paris  on  January  16;  and  between  February  and  October 
three  other  sessions  were  held  in  Paris,  three  in  London,  one  in 
Bome,  one  in  San  Sebastian,  and  one  in  Brussels.  During  the 
first  year  of  its  existence  the  Council  had  the  rather  difficult 
task  of  working  in  conjunction  with  a  somewhat  parallel  body, 
the  Supreme  Council  of  the  Allied  Powers.  The  Supreme 
Council  of  the  Allies  was,  of  course,  both  in  theory  and  in  fact, 
what  the  German  critics  accused  the  League  Council  of  being, 
namely,  a  continuance  of  the  Supreme  Allied  and  Associated 
Council  of  the  period  of  the  war.  Both  Councils  were,  of 
course,  international  bodies ;  and  in  some  degree  the  importance 
of  the  decisions  of  the  Allied  Council  may  have  overshadowed 
the  doings  of  the  League  Council.  But  whereas  the  Allied 
Council  had  passed  its  zenith,  the  League  Cotmcil  was  in  its 
infancy,  and  might  be  expected  to  grow.  In  this  connexion,  it 
is  important  to  remember  that  the  allotment  of  mandates  under 
the  Treaty  of  Versailles  was  a  duty  pertaining  not  to  the  League 
Council,  but  to  the  Allied  Council. 

The  Council  showed  wisdom  in  proceeding  at  first  slowly 
and  with  great  caution.  The  Council  had  to  remember  that 
they  had  not  yet  met  the  diet  to  which  they  were  largely  re- 
sponsible, and  also  that  in  view  of  the  possibility  of  an  eventual 
adhesion  to  the  League  by  the  United  States,  it  was  better  not 
to  take  decisions  which  might  have  to  be  modified  after  that 
adhesion  had  occurred.  Nevertheless,  important  matters  came 
up  for  consideration  by  the  Council.  One  of  the  first  duties 
that  the  Executive  performed  was  the  appointment  of  three 
out  of  the  five  members  of  the  Commission  which  was  to  trace 
the  border-line  of  the  Saar  Basin.  It  was  also  the  duty  of  the 
League,  represented  now  by  the  Coxmcil,  to  take  over  the 
Gk>vemment  of  the  Saar  Basin  for  fifteen  years,  until  the  pleb- 
iscite there  should  take  place.  And  in  February  the  Council 
duly  took  over  the  Grovemment  of  this  territory.  Another  duty 
of  the  Council  was  to  establish  Danzig  as  a  free  city  with  an 
Executive  and  Legislature  of  its  own;  and  in  February  the 
Lea^e  Council,  in  conjtmction  with  the  Supreme  Council  of 
the  Allies,  appointed  Sir  Beginald  Tower  as  High  Commissioner 
for  Danzig,  and  it  was  his  duty  to  supervise  the  working-out  of 
the  new  constitution  of  the  port. 

In  another  important  matter  the  League  actually  intervened 
to  prevent  war,  of  which  there  appeared  to  be  serious  danger. 
Grave  friction  arose  between  Sweden  and  Finland  on  the 
question  of  the  Aaland  Islands,  and  the  Swedish  Minister  was 
actually  withdrawn  from  Helsingfors.  The  British  Govern- 
ment (acting  in  accordance  with  Article  11  of  the  League 
Covenant)  drew  the  attention  of  the  Secretary-General  to  the 


154]         FOEEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTORY.         [1920. 

danger  of  war,  and  the  League  thereupon  intervened  in  the 
discussion  and  induced  the  two  disputants  to  debate  the  case 
under  the  supervision  of  the  League  Council  itself. 

A  similar  case  arose  in  the  autumn,  when  hostilities  broke 
out  between  Poland  and  Lithuania.  Here  again  the  League 
intervened,  with  the  consent  of  both  beUigerents,  and  the 
military  operations  were  suspended  pending  an  inquiry.  In 
this  case  the  Council  advised  that  a  plebiscite  of  the  district  in 
dispute  between  the  two  countries  should  be  held,  and  at  the 
end  of  the  year  bodies  of  neutral  troops  were  despatched  to 
Yilna  in  order  to  keep  the  peace  during  the  prospective  refer- 
endum. 

Various  other  matters  of  scarcely  less  importance  were  also 
dealt  with  by  the  Council.  Under  the  Treaty  of  Versailles  it 
was  the  duty  of  the  League  to  adjudicate  on  the  destiny  of 
the  small  districts  of  Eupen  and  Malmedy ;  after  investigating 
the  matter,  the  Coimcil  ^ave  these  districts  to  Belgium.  The 
League  also  interested  itself  in  the  repatriation  of  Bussian 
prisoners  of  war  in  Central  Europe,  and  of  German  and  Austro- 
Hungarian  prisoners  of  war  in  Bussia.  The  Council  was  thus 
instrumental  in  sending  hundreds  of  thousands  of  unfortunate 
men  back  to  their  homes.  At  the  end  of  September  and  be- 
ginning of  October  an  International  Financial  Conference  was 
held  at  Brussels  under  the  auspices  of  the  League.  But  on 
this  occasion  the  conference  was  not  really  one  of  the  League 
of  Nations  itself,  since  it  included  various  countries  which  were 
not  members  of  the  League,  to  wit,  Germany,  Austria,  Hungary, 
Bulgaria,  Finland,  and  the  United  States.  Moreover,  not  all 
the  countries  members  of  the  League  were  represented  at  this 
conference.  Among  other  matters  with  which  the  Council 
dealt,  may  be  mentioned  the  attempt  to  prevent  the  spread  of 
typhus  fever  in  Eastern  Europe,  the  proposed  simplification  of 
the  passport  regulations  between  various  coimtries,  and  sundry 
international  labour  regulations.  In  reference  to  the  work  of 
the  Council  it  should  be  mentioned  that,  under  the  terms  of 
the  Covenant,  it  was  not  necessary  for  the  same  country  to  be 
represented  for  any  given  length  of  time  by  the  same  personage, 
complete  freedom  being  allowed  in  this  respect.  Sir  Eric 
Drummond  attended  the  meetings  of  the  Council  in  his  official 
capacity. 

The  first  session  of  the  Assembly  was  held  at  Geneva  in 
November.  The  meetings  were  held  in  the  Salle  de  la  Befor- 
mation,  and  the  first  sitting  was  opened  in  the  morning  of 
November  15.  Forty-two  countries  were  represented,  namely, 
twenty-eight  of  the  signatories  of  the  Treaty  of  Versailles  (as 
detailed  above)  and  China  and  all  the  thirteen  neutrals  who 
had  accepted  the  invitation  to  become  original  members.  An 
address  of  welcome  was  given  by  M.  Motta,  the  President  of 
Switzerland,  who  emphasised  the  necessity  that  the  League 
should  become  universal,  and  in  particular   that  **  America 


1990.]  League  of  Nations,  [155 

should  soon  take  its  rightful  place  in  the  League;''  and  he 
also  said  that  "  The  more  universal  the  League  becomes,  the 
more  its  help  and  impartiality  will  be  guaranteed.  The  victors 
will  not  for  ever  be  able  to  dictate,  and  the  collaboration  of  the 
vanquished  is  a  vital  necessity.  Hate  is  a  curse ;  the  people 
are  great  by  their  generosity  or  their  repentance." 

M.  Motta  proposed  that  M.  Hymans,  the  chief  Belgian 
dele^te,  should  be  elected  President  of  the  Assembly,  and  this 
motion  was  carried  by  35  votes  to  6.  During  part  of  the  period 
when  the  Assembly  was  in  session  Mr.  Balfour  represented 
Great  Britain.    Mr.  Barnes  also  represented  Great  Bntain. 

The  meetings  of  the  Assembly  lasted  for  more  than  a  month, 
and  various  interesting  and  important  matters  were  dealt  with. 
To  some  extent,  however,  all  the  delegates  seemed  to  be  con- 
scious of  the  absence  of  the  United  States  from  the  World- 
Parliament,  and  there  was  undoubtedly  a  disinclination  to  take 
important  decisions,  pending  a  general  clarification  of  the 
American  attitude  towards  the  League.  This  attitude  on  the 
part  of  the  delegates  was  particularly  noticeable  when  the  repre- 
sentatives of  various  neutral  countries,  the  Scandinavian  king- 
doms and  Argentina,  submitted  important  amendments  to  the 
Covenant.    All  these  proposed  amendments  were  shelved. 

On  other  matters  definite  progress  was  made,  however.  A 
scheme  for  a  Permanent  International  Court  of  Justice  was 
drawn  up,  and  after  a  prolonged  discussion  recommendations 
were  adopted  on  the  vexed  q^uestion  of  the  limitation  of  arma- 
ments. This  recommendation  was  that  the  Powers  should 
undertake  to  limit  their  armaments  on  the  basis  of  expenditure, 
and  should  agree,  taking  as  a  basis  their  expenditure  in  the 
next  financial  year,  not  to  exceed  that  expenditure  in  the  two 
years  immediately  following.  Lively  discussions  also  took  place 
upon  the  propriety  of  admitting  to  the  League  the  ex-enemy 
countries,  particularly  Germany.  And  actual  applications  for 
admission  were  received  from  Austria  and  Bulgaria.  The 
representatives  of  the  nations  which  had  been  neutral  in  the 
war  were  almost  without  exception  in  favour  of  the  early  ad- 
mission of  Germany  to  the  League.  One  of  the  Argentine 
delegates,  for  instance,  Senor  Pueyrredon,  averred  that  the 
non-admission  of  certain  States  would  tend  to  create  the  appear- 
ance, quite  unfairly,  that  the  League  was  a  partial  alliance, 
framed  to  end  the  war,  and  not  an  organisation  to  preserve 
peace.  Mr.  Barnes  also  entered  an  eloquent  plea  for  the  ad- 
mission of  all  the  enemy  States,  and  the  same  attitude  was 
taken  up  by  Lord  Bobert  Cecil,  who  was  acting  temporarily, 
by  the  way,  as  a  representative,  not  of  Great  Britain,  but  of 
South  Africa.  Lord  Bobert  Cecil  made  it  clear,  however,  that 
Germany  would  have  to  apply  for  admission  and  could  not 
be  specially  invited.  But  it  appeared  probable  that  the  early 
adnussion  of  Germany  would  be  thwarted  by  the  opposition  of 
the  French  delegates. 


156]         FOBEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTOEY.         [1920. 

At  the  beginning  of  December  some  friction  arose  with  the 
Argentine  delegates;  these  representatives  were  strongly  in 
favour  of  certain  amendments  to  the  Covenant,  and  appear  to 
have  keenly  resented  the  motion  postponing  the  consideration 
of  all  amendments  until  the  next  meeting  of  the  Assembly; 
and  it  created  some  discussion  when  the  Argentine  delegation 
withdrew  from  the  meetings.  But  it  was  subsequently  made 
clear  that  this  was  not  intended  to  indicate  that  Argentina  had 
withdrawn  from  the  League. 

On  December  15  the  Austrian  application  for  admission  to 
the  League  came  up  for  consideration,  and  after  a  long  discussion 
it  was  decided  to  admit  that  country.  Of  the  thirty-six  countries 
represented  at  this  meeting,  thirty-five  voted  in  favour  of  the 
admission  of  Austria,  whilst  Mr.  Millen,  the  AustraUan  delegate, 
abstained.  On  the  same  day  the  Assembly  elected  the  four 
new  non-permanent  members  of  the  Council,  the  countries 
elected  being,  Spain,  Brazil,  Belgium,  and  China.  Thus  the 
only  change  in  the  composition  of  the  Council  was  that  China 
replaced  Greece. 

On  December  16  the  question  of  the  admission  of  Bulgaria 
came  up,  and  that  country  was  admitted  by  thirty-five  votes. 
Four  other  States  were  also  admitted,  namely,  Costa  Bica, 
Finland,  Albania,  and  Luxemburg.  Various  other  countries 
also  applied  to  be  admitted,  including  Armenia,  Esthonia, 
Lettland,  and  Lithuania,  but  these  applications  were  refused 
on  the  ground  that  the  countries  in  question  were  not  sufficiently 
established. 

It  was  decided  that  the  Assembly  should  meet  in  Geneva 
every  September,  and  should  meet  on  other  occasions  elsewhere 
if  necessary. 

The  opinion  was  general  that  the  proceedings  at  Geneva 
were  more  satisfactory  and  hopeful  than  had  been  anticipated ; 
and  more  than  one  observer  called  attention  to  the  fact  that 
the  debates  had  been  strikingly  amicable,  notwithstanding  the 
fact  that  representatives  of  forty-two  nations,  many  of  them 
with  conflictmg  interests,  were  present.  Indeed,  except  for  the 
one  instance  in  which  the  Argentine  delegates  thought  that 
undue  deference  was  being  paid  to  the  absent  United  States, 
no  serious  friction  of  any  kind  occurred.  The  constitution  of 
the  League  was  necessarily  open  to  criticism  in  many  different 
respects.  In  particular  it  was  pointed  out  that  the  provisions 
of  the  Covenant  requiring  unanimity  in  the  decisions  of  both 
the  Council  and  the  Assembly,  on  almost  all  important  matters, 
before  such  decisions  could  be  effective,  were  provisions  which 
would  be  extremely  likely  to  hamper  the  activities  of  the 
League  in  the  future.  And  it  was  also  pointed  out  that  the 
equality  of  all  States  in  the  Assembly,  for  instance,  the  equality 
of  Honduras  with  France,  was  really  an  absurdity.  Neverthe- 
less, it  was  probably  inevitable  that  this  latter  provision  should 
be  incorporated  in  the  Covenant  in  the  first  instance,  imtil  some 


1920.]  League  of  Nations.  [157 

different  and  more  satisfactory  system  of  representation  was 
worked  out  by  the  Assembly  itself.  And,  speaking  generally, 
it  was  quite  inevitable  that  there  should  be  serious  blemishes 
in  the  organisation  of  the  League  in  its  early  years,  and  such 
blemishes  were  not  to  be  regarded  as  in  any  way  a  discouraging 
feature. 

The  adherents  of  the  League  i>ointed  out  that  it  already 
included  over  three-fourths  of  mankind.  This  was,  perhaps,  an 
unduly  optimistic  method  of  looking  at  the  matter.  A  more 
important  point  was  the  proportion  of  the  white  race  which 
was  included.  And  unfortunately  more  than  half  the  white 
race,  and  much  more  than  half  the  area  of  the  white  man's 
world,  still  remained  outside.  Apart  from  smaller  States,  the 
United  States,  Germany,  Bussia,  and  Hungary  were  still  out- 
side the  League.  But  there  were  hopes  that  the  United  States 
would  eventually  join,  even  though  the  Covenant  might  have 
to  be  somewhat  modified  to  admit  her.  And  if  the  moderate 
parties  in  Germany  succeeded  in  maintaining  their  position  as 
against  the  reactionary  Boyalists  on  the  one  side  and  the  friends 
of  the  Bolsheviks  on  the  other  side,  there  appeared  to  be  a 

food  prospect  that  she  would  be  admitted  in  due  course  to  the 
ieague,  and  would  bring  an  important  element  of  stability  to 
it.  In  regard  to  Bussia  the  case  was,  of  course,  entirely  different. 
Bolshevism  was  at  war  with  historic  civilisation,  and  until 
Bussian  Socialism  changed  its  character  it  appeared  to  be  in- 
evitable that  a  fundamental  antagonism  should  exist  between 
the  aims  of  Bussia  and  the  aims  of  the  League. 

The  encouraging  features  have  already  been  mentioned ;  the 
adhesion  of  the  European  neutrals,  bringing  with  it  a  uni(j[ue 
possibility  of  healing  the  breaches  of  the  war :  and  the  adhesion 
of  the  whole  of  South  America,  except  the  minor  republic  of 
Ecuador,  which  left  the  United  States  isolated  even  in  her  own 
hemisphere.  And  it  may  be  remarked  that  the  entrance  of 
almost  all  Latin  America  into  the  League  made  the  Monroe 
Doctrine  an  irrelevant  anachronism.  The  Southern  Bepublics 
having  voluntarily  entered  into  the  obligations  of  the  League, 
the  Monroe  Doctrine  had  really  ceased  to  have  any  meaning. 
And  although  it  may  be  said  that  the  prophet  was  without 
honour  in  his  own  country,  he  was  certainly  not  without  honour 
in  his  own  continent. 

What  was,  however,  of  greater  importance  than  any  detail 
was  the  fact  that  the  League  existed.  Its  mere  existence  was 
a  unique  and  unprecedented  tribute  to  the  idea  of  international 
peace.  And  whatever  the  shortcomings  of  the  League  at  its 
birth,  there  was  a  widespread  hope  at  the  end  of  1920  that  it 
would  grow  and  prosper. 


158]         FOREIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTORY.         [1920. 

CHAPTER  II. 

FRANCE   AND   ITALY. 
FBANCE. 

At  the  opening  of  the  year  1920  France  was  in  a  stronger 
position  than  she  had  been  in  for  several  generations.  The 
Allied  victory  over  Germany  and  the  restoration  of  Alsace- 
Lorraine  to  France  had  placed  France  in  the  position  which 
she  occupied  during  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  century — 
that  of  the  strongest  power  on  the  European  continent.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  year  M.  Poincar^  was  still  President  and 
M.  Clemenceau  was  still  Prime  Minister,  but  as  both  Senatorial 
and  Presidential  elections  were  due  in  January,  important 
political  changes  occurred  early  in  the  year.  It  will  be 
remembered  that  at  the  General  Election  for  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  which  took  place  in  November,  1919,  there  had  been 
a  strong  tendency  towards  Conservatism,  the  Socialist  Party 
being  badly  defeated.  The  elections  for  the  Senate  were  held 
on  January  11,  and  these  exhibited  the  same  trend  of  opinion  as 
had  been  shown  in  the  previous  autumn.  Owing  to  the  post- 
ponement of  elections  during  the  war,  two-thirds  of  the  nine- 
year  Senatorial  seats  had  to  be  contested,  and  altogether  240 
Senators  had  to  be  elected.  The  elections  proved  to  be  an 
overwhelming  victory  for  the  various  Liberal  and  RepubUcan 
groups,  who  secured  218  seats.  The  parties  of  the  Right  won 
20  seats,  and  the  Socialists  won  2. 

Whilst  these  important  events  were  taking  place  in  the 
internal  poUtics  of  France,  the  final  stages  in  the  ratifying  of 
the  Peace  Treaty  with  Germany  were  being  passed  through. 
It  will  be  remembered  that  the  Treaty  of  Versailles  was  to 
come  into  force  so  soon  as  it  had  been  ratified  by  Germany  and 
by  three  of  the  principal  Allied  and  Associated  Powers;  and 
since  it  had  now  been  ratified  by  Germany  and  by  France, 
Great  Britain,  Italy,  and  Japan  (though  not  by  the  United 
States),  it  was  only  necessary  that  the  protocols  certifying 
these  facts  should  be  signed  by  the  parties  to  the  Treaty,  and 
formal  peace  would  then  exist  between  the  AUied  Powers  and 
Germany.  The  Supreme  Council  of  the  Allies  decided  that  this 
final  ceremony  should  take  place  in  Paris  on  January  10.  Two 
delegates  were  sent  by  the  German  Government  to  carry  out 
the  signing  of  the  protocol.  Baron  v.  Lersner  and  Herr  v. 
Simson.  The  ceremony  took  place  at  the  Ministry  of  Foreign 
Affairs  in  the  Quai  d'Orsay  shortly  after  four  o'clock  on  the 
afternoon  of  January  10.  The  protocol  was  signed  by  M. 
Clemenceau  for  France,  by  Mr.  Lloyd  George  for  Great  Britain, 
by  Signer  Nitti  for  Italy^  and  by  Mr.  Matsui  for  Japan ;  and, 
of  course,  by  the  two  German  delegates.  The  protocol  was 
also  signed  by  the  representatives  of  various  minor  Allied  and 


1990.]  France.  [159 

Associated  Countries,  which  had  akeady  ratified  the  Treaty, 
these  being  Belgium,  Bolivia,  Brazil,  Czecho-Slovakia,  Guate- 
mala, Panama,  Peru,  Poland,  Siam,  and  Uruguay.  The  formal 
End  of  the  War  was  timed  at  6.15  p.m.  on  January  10,  but  the 
actual  signing  of  the  protocol  took  place,  as  already  stated, 
somewhat  earlier  on  that  same  afternoon. 

On  January  14  M.  L6on  Bourgeois  was  elected  President  of 
the  Senate.  And  the  election  of  the  new  President  of  France, 
by  a  joint  session  of  the  two  Houses  of  the  Legislature,  was 
fixed  for  January  17.  The  two  most  important  candidates 
were  M.  Deschanel  and  M.  Clemenceau.  Among  the  other 
candidates  was  Field-Marshal  Foch,  who,  however,  secured  very 
little  support.  The  rivalry  between  Deschanel  and  Clemenceau 
revealed  certain  very  interesting  tendencies  in  French  politics. 
The  contest  turned  mainly  on  the  terms  of  peace  which  had 
been  imposed  upon  Germany.  Clemenceau's  supporters  con- 
tended that  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Versailles  were  satis- 
factory from  the  French  point  of  view ;  his  opponents  declared 
that  he  had  given  way  too  much  to  the  American  and  British 
standpoints,  and  that  the  peace  was  unsatisfactory,  particularly 
in  respect  of  the  guarantees  for  the  reparations  due  to  France 
and  in  the  matter  of  the  French  eastern  frontier.  It  will  be 
remembered  that  a  large  body  of  French  opinion  had  desired 
that  France  should  secure  the  line  of  the  Bhine  as  her  eastern 
frontier.  M.  Deschanel  represented  these  critics  of  the  Treaty 
of  Versailles.  A  preliminary  ballot  of  the  Bepublican  groups 
gave  408  votes  to  Deschanel,  and  389  votes  to  Clemenceau; 
and  when  this  result  was  announced  Clemenceau  withdrew  his 
candidature,  but  his  name  figured,  nevertheless,  in  the  formal 
voting  of  the  National  Assembly  on  January  17.  Altogether 
888  legislators  cast  their  votes,  and  Deschanel  secured  no  fewer 
than  734  votes.  The  success  of  Deschanel  was  regarded  in 
France  as  in  some  sense  a  victory  for  the  opponents  of  the 
Treaty  of  Versailles.  M.  Deschanel  was  bom  m  1856,  and  had 
held  the  office  of  President  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  M. 
Poincar^  was  to  remain  in  office  as  President  until  February  18. 

On  January  18  M.  Clemenceau  resigned  office  as  Premier ; 
and  M.  Poincar6  entrusted  M.  Millerand  with  the  task  of  form- 
ing a  Cabinet.  M.  Millerand  found  no  difficulty  in  obtaining 
the  necessary  support,  and  the  full  list  of  the  members  of  his 
Cabinet  was  published  two  days  later.  M.  F.  Marsal  was 
Minister  of  Fmance,  M.  A.  Lefevre  was  Minister  of  War,  and 
M.  A.  Sarraut  was  Minister  for  the  Colonies.  M.  Alexandre 
Millerand,  who  himself  took  the  portfolio  of  Foreign  Affairs, 
was  sixty  years  of  age,  and  had  greatly  distinguished  himself  as 
Minister  for  War  during  the  critical  days  of  1914.  His  first 
reception  by  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  was  somewhat  stormy, 
and  a  vote  of  confidence  on  January  22  was  only  passed  by  281 
votes  to  240.  But  a  second  vote  of  confidence  on  January  30 
was  passed  by  510  votes  to  70. 


160]         FOEEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTOEY.         [1920. 

On  February  5  and  6  there  was  an  important  debate  on 
foreign  policy  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies ;  and  a  long  speech 
was  delivered  by  the  Prime  Minister.  He  said  that  the  new 
Cabinet  had  every  intention  of  continuing  the  same  foreign 
policy  which  had  enabled  France  to  surroimd  herself  with  such 
faithful  allies  during  the  war.  In  reference  to  the  Adriatic 
problem,  M.  Millerand  said  that  the  only  desire  of  France  was 
to  reach  a  satisfactory  solution  of  the  difficulties  existing  in  this 
part  of  the  world — a  solution  in  perfect  agreement  with  the 
sister  nation  of  Italy  and  with  the  Serbian  people.  In  regard 
to  the  Bulgarian  question  the  Premier  said  that  on  the  previous 
day  he  had  received  news  that  the  Bulgarian  Parliament  had 
ratified  the  Treaty.  Passing  on  to  a  consideration  of  the  pro- 
posed peace  terms  for  Turkey,  M.  Millerand  answered  certain 
criticisms  which  had  been  made  earUer  in  the  debate  by 
M.  Cachin.  France,  he  declared,  had  important  and  historic 
interests  in  the  East,  and  these  she  had  no  intention  of  abandon- 
ing. ''  M.  Cachin  declared  yesterday  that  we  appeared  to  be 
threatening  the  independence  of  the  Syrian  populations.  No 
French  Government  has  ever  entertained  such  a  design,  and  it 
is  a  libel  on  France  to  reproach  her  with  a  policy  of  conquest 
which  has  never  entered  her  mind.  The  only  wish  of  France 
is  to  give  these  populations  justice  and  a  good  administration. 
When  yesterday  I  heard  the  Government  credited  with  inten- 
tions which  it  has  not,  I  seemed  to  hear  an  echo  of  the  slanders 
levelled  by  the  German  Government  at  the  work  of  France  in 
Morocco." 

Turning  to  the  question  of  relations  with  Eussia,  M.  Millerand 
said  that,  contrary  to  the  allegations  of  M.  Cachin,  Great  Britain 
had  been  true  to  her  agreements,  and  none  of  the  Allies  had 
entered  into  any  agreement  with  the  Soviet  Government.  In 
regard  to  Poland,  the  French  Government  intended  to  maintain 
the  closest  friendship  with  that  country,  and  if  she  were  attacked 
by  the  Bolsheviks  she  would  receive  every  support.  Finally, 
the  Prime  Minister  dealt  with  the  canying  out  of  the  Treaty 
of  Versailles.  He  said  that  the  Cabinet  intended  to  maintain 
complete  accord  with  France's  Allies;  and  although  it  was 
regrettable  that  the  United  States  had  not  so  far  ratified  the 
Treaty,  yet  the  Separations  Commission  had  begun  its  work 
smoothly,  and  he  felt  no  anxiety  as  to  the  ultimate  adhesion 
of  America  to  the  Treaty.  He  said  that  Germany  had  been 
dilatory  in  the  matter  of  fulfilling  the  stipulations  of  the  Treaty, 
particidarly  in  regard  to  the  essential  deliveries  of  coal.  "  I 
mean  to  avail  myself  at  the  right  moment  of  all  the  means 
placed  at  my  disposal  by  the  Treaty,  and  I  declare,  without 
making  any  kind  of  threat,  but  merely  in  order  that  the  position 
may  be  qmte  clear  and  well  understood,  that  we  do  not  intend 
to  claim  anything  from  Germany  to  which  she  is  not  strictly 
bound  under  the  terms  of  the  Treaty,  but  we  shall  exact  every- 
thing she  owes  us,  and  to  obtain  it  we  shall  have  recourse  to 
the  measures  of  all  kinds  provided  for  in  the  Treaty." 


iwaj  France.  [161 

After  the  conclusion  of  the  debate  the  House  passed  a  vote 
of  confidence  in  the  Govemment  by  513  votes  to  68. 

After  his  assumption  of  office  on  February  18,  M.  Deschanel 
sent  the  usual  Presidential  message  to  Parliament.  M.  Deschanel 
said  that  there  was  no  higher  destiny  than  that  of  serving  France, 
and  he  thanked  the  Legislators  for  having  permitted  him  to 
continue  to  serve  her  in  union  with  themselves.  He  hoped  to 
maintain  the  national  unity  which  had  been  so  conspicuous 
during  the  war.  ''  Our  first  duty  is  to  define  clearly  our 
diplomatic,  miUtary,  economic,  and  financial  poUcy  to  the 
country.  We  can  only  build  up  our  policy  for  the  future  on 
sound  bases.  I  appeal  to  all  the  experience  and  talent  of  the 
members  of  this  assembly  on  behalf  of  this  act  of  sincerity  and 
moral  probity.  To  strengthen  the  unity  between  all  peoples 
who  fought  for  the  right,  and  who,  by  reason  of  that  fact,  are 
great,  to  strengthen  the  bonds  with  those  peoples  whose  affinities 
or  interests  bind  them  to  us — this  is  the  first  guarantee  of 
peace  and  the  basis  of  that  League  of  Nations  to  which  the 
Treaty  of  Versailles  entrusted  the  execution  of  certain  capital 
clauses,  and  which  we  should  support  by  means  of  effective 
action  in  order  to  spare  the  world  fresh  horrors.  France  wishes 
that  the  Treaty  to  which  Germany  appended  her  signature 
shall  be  obeyed,  and  that  the  aggressor  shall  not  take  from  her 
the  fruits  of  her  heroic  sacrifices.  She  means  to  live  in  security. 
To-day,  as  yesterday,  our  policy  is  an  affair  of  will-power, 
energy,  and  faith.  The  Bussian  people  fought  by  our  side 
daring  three  years  for  the  cause  of  Liberty ;  may  it,  master  of 
itself,  soon  resume  in  the  plenitude  of  its  genius  the  course  of 
its  civilising  mission.  The  Eastern  question  causes  periodical 
wars.  The  fate  of  the  Ottoman  Empire  has  not  yet  been 
settled.  Our  secular  interests,  rights,  and  traditions  ought  to 
be  safeguarded  there  too." 

Turning  to  questions  of  internal  politics,  M.  Deschanel  said 
that  the  work  of  restoring  France  to  prosperity  would  be 
arduous,  and  he  declared  that  the  person  who  evaded  the  pay- 
ment of  taxes  was  acting  like  a  soldier  who  deserts  his  post 
on  the  field  of  battle.  It  was  essential  that  conflicts  between 
Capital  and  Labour  should  be  avoided.  In  his  peroration  M. 
Deschanel  exhorted  the  Legislators  to  follow  in  the  footsteps 
of  the  heroic  Frenchmen  who  had  won  the  war:  "We  shall 
accomplish  our  formidable  task  if  we  keep  in  our  souls  that 
sacred  flame  which  rendered  France  the  Bepublic  Invincible, 
and  saved  the  world." 

In  the  middle  of  February  the  trial  of  M.  Gaillaux,  the  ex- 
Prime  Minister  of  France,  who  had  been  under  arrest  for 
treason  since  January,  1918,  commenced.  The  case  was  re- 
garded as  the  most  important  of  the  treason  trials,  of  which 
there  had  been  a  long  series  since  the  middle  of  the  war.  M. 
Cullanx  was  tried  before  the  Senate,  sitting  as  a  High  Court 
of  Jnstioe,  with  M.  Jjkm  Bourgeois  as  President  of  the  Court. 

L 


162]         FOEEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTOEY.        [1920. 

The  prolonged  delay  in  bringing  M.  Caillaux  to  trial  was  due 
to  the  fact  that  investigations  had  to  be  made  in  many  different 
parts  of  the  world,  inching  South  America.    M.  Caillaux  was 
charged  with  "having  sought  to  weaken  the  security  of  the 
State  abroad  by  intrigues,  machination,  and  intelligence  with 
the  enemy  of  a  nature  likely  to  favour  enemy  action  in  regard 
to  France,  or  her  Allies,  fighting  against  common  enemies, 
and  thus  to  advance  the  progress  of  the  enemy  armies."     M. 
Lescouv6  (the  Public  Prosecutor),  M.  Moinet,  and  others  ap- 
peared for  the  prosecution.     M.  Qiafferi,  M.  Moutet,  and  others 
appeared  for  the  defence.     The  trial  was  extremely  long  and 
also  in  many  respects  extremely  dramatic.     The  trial  began,  on 
February  17,  with  a  series  of  interrogations  by  the  President 
of  the  Court,  and  this  part  of  the  scene  alone  lasted  for  several 
days.     Next  there  came  a  cross-examination  of  the  prisoner  by 
the  Public  Prosecutor.     All  kinds  of  activity  on  the  part  of 
M.   Caillaux  were  investigated  in  ^eat  detail  and  at  great 
length.     He  was  questioned  regardmg  his  relations  with  an 
enemy  agent  named  Minotti,  in  South  America,  regarding  his 
relations  with  another  enemy  agent,  a  certain  Count  Lipscher, 
and  also  in  regard  to  his  associations  with  the  traitors  Lenoir, 
Bolo,  and  Duval,  who  had  already  been  executed  for  treason. 
The  prisoner  had  also  to  account  for  his  close  association  with 
various  schemers  in  Italy,  including  the  notorious  Cavallini. 
During  these  interrogations,  M.  Caillaux  frequently  made  long 
speeches  on  all  manner  of  political  questions.     In  the  matter 
of  Count  Lipscher  little  to  his  discredit  appears  to  have  trans- 
pired ;   but  apart  from  the  details  of  the  mvestigation  it  was 
obvious  that  if  the  prisoner  had  been  entirely  innocent  of  the 
charges  brought  against  him,  he  had  had  a  surprising  amount 
of  association  with  imdesirable  persons.    And  it  was  also  es- 
tablished that  the  German  Government  regarded  Caillaux  as 
the  right  man  to  approach  under  circumstances  favourable  to 
Germany.    M.   Moutet,  speaking  for  the  defence,  attributed 
political  motives  to  the  accusers,  and  said  that  notwithstanding 
the  fact  that  the  world  had  been  ransacked  for  evidence  for 
many  months,  the  evidence  produced  was  of  a  ridiculous  and 
trumpery  character.    After  many  weeks  of  investigation  the 
capital  charge  of  treason  was  dismissed,  and  the  prosecution 
did  not  ask  for  the  death  sentence;  but  Caillaux  was  found 
guilty  on  the  minor  count  of  correspondence  with  the  enemy, 
and  was  sentenced  to  three  years'  imprisonment,  ten  years' 
interdiction  of  rights  of  voting,  and  eligibility  for  any  public  func- 
tion, and  five  years'  prohibition  from  appearing  in  certain  pl&u^es 
indicated  by  the  Government.    It  was  found  that  his  relations 
with  Bolo  and  Almereyda  did  not  fall  within  the  penal  code, 
but  he  was  condemned  for  his  friendship  with  Minotto,  Cavallini, 
and  to  some  extent  for  his  association  with  Count  Lipscher. 
Having  already  served  more  than  two  years'  imprisonment, 
Caillaux  was  set  at  liberty  at  the  end  of  the  trial.    The  verdict 
was  given  on  April  23. 


iwo.]  France.  [163 

During  the  spring  there  were  serious  Labour  troubles  in 
France.  At  the  end  of  February  a  serious  dispute  arose  on  the 
Paris,  Lyons,  and  Mediterranean  Eailway  system,  owing  to 
disciplinary  measures  which  had  been  taken  against  one  man. 
A  strike  was  declared  on  that  line  on  February  25,  and  subse- 
quently spread  to  the  State  lines  also.  The  G-ovemment  im- 
mediately called  to  the  colours  those  employees  who  were  in 
the  Army  Beserve.  A  general  strike  of  railwaymen  was  de- 
clared on  February  29 ;  but  the  response  was  only  partial,  and 
an  agreement  was  reached  within  twenty-four  hours.  At  the 
beginning  of  May  another  railway  strike  broke  out,  and  on  this 
occasion  the  Labour  agitators  hoped  to  make  the  stnke  universal, 
and  it  was  supported  by  the  General  Confederation  of  Labour, 
who  called  out  the  seamen,  dockers,  and  miners  in  support  of 
the  railwaymen.  The  aims  of  the  General  Confederation  were 
not  only  economic,  but  also  partly  political :  and  they  an- 
nounced that  they  aimed  at  the  international  allotment  of  war 
burdens,  an  economic  entente  of  all  peoples  on  a  basis  of  co- 
operation, at  the  cessation  of  all  colonial  expeditions,  and  at 
general  disarmament.  The  response  to  the  call  on  the  part  of 
the  workers  was,  however,  half-hearted  and  partial,  though  in 
certain  localities,  including  Marseilles,  the  strike  was  almost 
universal.  The  strike  was  extremely  unpopular  in  the  country 
at  large,  and  the  Government  took  legal  proceedings  against 
the  revolutionary  ring-leaders.  Within  a  week  it  was  clear 
that  the  strike  would  fail,  owing  to  the  apathy  or  actual  hostility 
of  a  large  part  of  the  working  classes,  but  it  was  not  until 
May  21  that  the  leaders  of  the  General  Confederation  declared 
the  strike  at  an  end. 

In  February  the  Government  issued  a  new  5  per  cent.  State 
Loan,  which  became  known  as  the  "Recovery  Loan."  The 
subscription  lists  remained  open  for  several  weeks,  and  it  was 
announced  in  April  that  the  total  amount  subscribed  was 
15,700,000,000  francs. 

During  the  spring  and  summer  certain  differences  of  opinion, 
important  but  not  fundamental,  arose  between  the  French  and 
British  Governments.  In  a  debate  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
on  March  25,  M.  Barthou,  who  had  once  been  Prime  Minister 
and  was  now  Chairman  of  the  Foreign  Affairs  Committee  of 
the  Lower  House,  delivered  a  speech  on  foreign  policy  generally 
in  which  he  took  occasion  to  attack  the  poBcy  of  the  British 
Government.  He  complained  that  Great  Britain  had  profited 
more  than  any  other  country  by  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of 
Versailles;  and  that  the  course  of  events  had  recently  been 
such  that  the  hatred  of  Germany  was  now  directed  almost  ex- 
clusively against  France.  This  was,  he  said,  particularly  the 
case  in  the  matter  of  permitting  Germany  to  deal  with  her 
own  war-criminals,  for  which  concession  Great  Britain  had 
gained  all  the  credit  in  German  eyes.  The  speaker  made 
various  other  complaints  against  the  British  Government  in 


164]         FOREIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTORY.        [IMO. 

general  and  Mr.  Lloyd  George  in  particular ;  but  it  was  clear 
before  the  end  of  his  speech  that  he  did  not  carry  the  Chamber 
with  him.  On  the  following  day,  M.  Millerand  made  a  reply 
in  which  he  endeavoured  to  remove  the  bad  impression  created 
by  M.  Barthou's  speech.  The  Prime  Minister  said  that  there 
was  no  ''crisis  in  the  alliance;"  and  he  pointed  out  that  the 
reason  the  concession  to  Germany  in  the  matter  of  the  war- 
criminals  was  signed  by  the  British  Prime  Minister  was  that 
at  the  time  the  note  was  sent  the  Peace  Conference  was  sitting 
in  London.  The  Premier  said,  however,  that  France  was  de- 
termined to  see  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Versailles  fulfilled, 
and  although  the  British  Government  were  in  favour  of  allowing 
the  German  Government  to  send  troops  into  the  Ruhr  district, 
to  suppress  the  Spartacist  insurrection  there,  France  viewed 
these  movements  of  troops  with  grave  concern. 

The  di£ferences  between  the  French  and  British  Govern- 
ments were  also  apparent  at  the  beginning  of  April,  when  the 
German  Government  was  suppressing  the  Spartacist  revolt. 
It  will  be  remembered  that  to  the  East  of  the  Allied  armies 
in  the  occupied  portion  of  Germany  there  was  a  neutral  zone, 
into  which,  by  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Versailles,  the 
German  Government  were  not  allowed  to  send  troops.  During 
the  Spartacist  insurrection  which  followed  the  coup  d*itat  in 
Berlin  (see  Germany),  the  revolutionaries  in  the  Valley  of  the 
Ruhr,  a  highly  industrialised  district  which  was  included  in  the 
neutral  zone,  took  advantage  of  the  unavoidable  absence  of  the 
Government  forces  to  seize  control  of  the  entire  administration 
of  this  important  part  of  Germany.  The  German  Government 
applied  for  permission  to  send  forces  into  this  part  of  the 
neutral  zone  in  the  exceptional  circumstances  which  had  arisen, 
as  without  doing  so  it  was  impossible  for  them  to  overcome  the 
revolt  in  the  neutral  zone  itself,  or  to  prevent  the  successful 
insurrection  in  that  zone  lending  important  support  to  the 
Spartacists  farther  East.  The  British,  Italian,  and  American 
Governments  were  all  in  favour  of  allowing  the  German  Govern- 
ment, which  in  the  circumstances  existing  was  a  bulwark 
against  the  spread  of  Bolshevism,  to  send  a  limited  number  of 
troops  into  the  neutral  zone  until  law  and  order  had  been  re- 
established there.  The  French  Government,  however,  inter- 
posed obstacles  to  the  granting  of  any  such  license  to  the 
German  Government.  The  revolt  continued  to  spread,  and  at 
the  beginning  of  April  German  troops  marched  into  the  Riihr 
Valley  to  restore  order,  although  no  permission  for  them  to  do 
so  had  been  granted  by  the  Allies  as  a  whole.  Thereupon  the 
French  Government,  without  the  consent  of  the  British  and 
Italian  Governments,  ordered  their  own  troops  to  march  forward 
into  the  neutral  zone — ^though  not  into  the  same  part  of  the 
neutral  zone — and  to  occupy  various  German  towns  as  a  penalty 
for  the  German  advance.  Frankfort,  Darmstadt,  and  Hanau 
were  occupied  on  April  6,  and  Homburg  was  entered  on  the 


i 


IMO.]  France.  [166 

following  day.  Black  troops  took  part  in  the  advance,  a  point 
which  gave  special  umbrage  to  the  Germans.  This  independent 
action  on  the  part  of  the  French  Government  led  to  an  inter- 
change of  somewhat  sharp  notes  between  London  and  Paris, 
the  British  Government  taking  exception  both  to  the  French 
advance  in  itself  and  still  more  so  to  the  fact  that  the  advance 
had  been  made  without  due  consultation  with  the  other  Allied 
Gtovemments.  Within  a  few  days,  however,  an  agreement 
between  the  French  and  British  Governments  was  reached. 
The  black  troops  were  immediately  withdrawn,  and  the  French 
Government  made  it  clear  that  in  the  future  they  would  not 
act  without  securing  the  consent  of  the  other  Allies.  The 
British  Government  on  their  side  made  it  clear  that  they  in- 
tended to  see  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  YersaiUes  respected  by 
the  German  Government.  After  the  suppression  of  the  Blihr 
revolt,  both  the  German  and  French  troops  were  withdrawn. 
(For  further  particulars  of  these  occurrences,  see  Germany.) 

Durinfi[  the  spring  and  summer  there  were  various  con- 
ferences between  the  French,  British,  and  other  Allied 
Gk>vemments,  at  San  Bemo,  Hythe,  Spa,  and  elsewhere,  these 
conferences  relating  largely  to  the  reparations  due  from  Germany 
under  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Versailles.  At  these  discus- 
sions similar  differences  of  opinion  appear  to  have  existed  be- 
tween the  British  and  French  representatives,  the  British  being 
more  disposed  than  the  French  to  recognise  the  difficulties  with 
which  the  German  Government  were  confronted.  But  these 
diJOferences  of  opinion  only  related  to  (questions  of  method,  and 
were  in  no  way  fundamental.  In  the  middle  of  May  M.  Poincar6, 
the  Ex-President  of  France,  resigned  his  position  as  President 
of  the  Beparations  Conmiission,  on  account  of  what  he  regarded 
as  the  undue  leniency  which  had  been  shown  towards  Germany. 
M.  MiUerand  stated  publicly,  however,  that  he  thought  M. 
Poincari's  fears  were  groundless. 

On  May  23  a  serious  accident  occurred  to  M.  Deschanel. 
The  President,  who  was  travelling  by  night,  fell  from  his  train 
near  Montar^s.  Considering  the  nature  of  the  accident,  the 
injuries  sustamed  were  not  grave,  and  no  bones  were  broken. 
But  it  subsequently  transpired  that  the  President  was  suffering 
from  a  serious  nervous  breakdown,  owing  to  overwork,  and  he 
was  unable  to  return  to  his  official  duties.  His  illness  continued 
for  weeks,  and  as  he  made  no  progress  towards  recovery,  it  was 
announced  in  the  middle  of  September  that  in  accordance  with 
the  recommendation  of  his  medical  advisers,  the  President  had 
resigned  his  office. 

It  was  soon  evident  that  the  great  majority  of  public  men 
that  M.  MiUerand  should  himself  become  President. 
The  Premier  at  first  declined  to  accede  to  these  demands,  but 
after  some  delay  he  consented  to  do  so.  The  election  took 
place  on  September  23,  and  out  of  892  votes  cast,  no  fewer  than 
695  were  given  M.  MiUerand.    A  SociaUst  candidate,  M.  Delory, 


166]        FOEEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTOBY.        [1920. 

obtained  69  votes.  M.  Millerand  announced  that  he  hoped 
somewhat  to  increase  the  powers  of  the  Presidential  office,  par- 
ticularly in  regard  to  foreign  policy.  M.  Georges  Leygues 
became  Prime  Minister  and  Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs ;  but 
otherwise  the  composition  of  the  Cabinet  remained  unchanged. 
On  September  25  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  passed  a  vote  of 
confidence  in  the  new  Government  by  515  votes  to  71.  It  was 
notable  that  in  the  statements  issued  both  by  the  new  President 
and  by  the  new  Government,  it  was  proclaimed  that  France 
would  do  her  utmost  to  make  the  League  of  Nations  a  success. 
At  the  end  of  November  M.  Leygues  visited  London  to  confer 
with  British  and  Italian  statesmen  on  the  Greek  crisis  and 
other  matters. 

In  the  middle  of  November  it  was  announced  that  the 
Government  proposed  to  reduce  the  period  of  mihtary  service 
from  two  years  to  eighteen  months. 

In  November  Lord  Derby,  the  British  Ambassador  in  Paris, 
retired  from  that  office,  and  was  succeeded  by  Lord  Hardinge. 
It  was  also  announced  that  M.  Paul  Cambon,  the  veteran 
French  Ambassador  in  London,  would  retire  in  January,  1921. 

Throughout  the  year  there  was  considerable,  though  inter- 
mittent, discussion  of  the  proposal  that  France  should  resume 
diplomatic  relations  with  the  Vatican ;  and  at  the  end  of 
November  the  Government  proposal  to  renew  relations  was 
approved  by  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  by  387  votes  to  210. 

The  defeat  of  the  Socialists  at  the  General  Election  of  1919 
appeared  to  have  caused  that  party  to  become  more  extreme  in 
its  views.  And  after  much  discussion  throughout  the  year  1920, 
a  great  SociaUst  Conference  held  at  Tours  in  December  voted 
by  a  large  majority  in  favour  of  adhesion  to  the  so-called  "  Third 
International,"  the  international  organisation  of  Socialists  which 
was  under  the  control  of  the  Bolsheviks  of  Moscow. 

The  financial  situation  in  France  gave  occasion  for  most 
serious  anxiety.  Among  other  imfavourable  features,  the  ex- 
change value  of  the  franc  had  fallen  greatly  since  the  end  of 
the  war,  and,  with  fluctuations,  stood  at  about  60  francs  to  the 
pound  sterling  during  most  of  the  year ;  and  the  value  of  the 
franc  in  terms  of  the  American  dollar  was  even  lower. 

The  Ordinary  Budget  for  1920  provided  for  a  Revenue  of 
15,885,000,000  francs  and  for  an  Expenditure  of  17,860,000,000 
francs.  It  was  anticipated  that  the  Extraordinary  Expenditure 
would  amount  to  over  7,000,000,000  francs. 

ITALY. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  year  Signer  Nitti's  Liberal  Govern- 
ment was  still  in  power.  It  will  be  remembered  that  a  Greneral 
Election  was  held  in  November,  1919,  and  that  the  results  had 
shown  a  creat  increase  in  the  strength  of  the  Official  Socialist 
Party.    An  equally  important  result  of  the  elections  was  that 


1920.]  Italy.  [167 

the  newly-fonned  Clerical  Party  gained  over  a  hundred  seats 
in  the  New  Parliament.  The  increase  in  the  numbers  of  the 
Socialists  and  Clericals  had  been  achieved  mainly  at  the  expense 
of  the  Conservative  groups,  though  the  Badical,  Bepublican, 
and  Reformist  SociaUst  parties  had  also  fared  badly.  After  the 
elections  the  Government  were  still  able  to  rely  upon  the 
support  of  the  Conservatives,  Radicals,  Bei|ublicans,  and  Be- 
f  ormist  Socialists,  whilst  the  I^Cnisterial  party  itself  (the  Liberals) 
was  still  powerful.  Moreover,  the  new  Catholic  party  could  be 
expected  to  support  them  on  many  important  questions ;  and 
there  was  no  possibiUty  of  any  aUiance  between  the  Clericals 
and  the  Official  Socialists. 

Notwithstanding  the  endless  discussions  which  had  taken 
place  during  1919,  no  solution  of  the  Adriatic  question  had  been 
reached  at  the  end  of  that  year ;  and  the  difficulty  of  adjusting 
the  conflicting  claims  of  the  Itahans  and  the  Jugo-Slavs  did  not 
diminish  as  time  passed.  And  the  extraordinary  escapade  of 
the  poet  D' Annunzio,  who  had  seized  the  port  of  Fiume,  natur- 
ally exasperated  the  feelings  of  the  Jugo-Slavs. 

Signor  Nitti  went  to  Paris  at  the  beginning  of  January,  and 
took  part  in  the  final  ceremony  by  which  the  Treaty  of  Peace 
with  Germany  was  ratified. 

Parliament  was  opened  for  the  spring  session  on  February  3, 
and  the  Government  entered  upon  a  decidedly  troublous  period, 
owing  mainly  to  the  uncertainty  of  the  attitude  of  the  Clericals. 
In  March  Signor  Nitti  foimd  it  necessary  to  reconstitute  his 
Cabinet,  and  he  re-allotted  the  portfolios  with  the  object  of  con- 
solidating as  closely  as  possible  all  the  parties  in  the  House, 
other  than  the  Clericals  and  the  Official  Socialists.  Signor 
Scialoja  remained  at  the  Foreign  Office.  Signor  Luzzatti,  a 
Conservative  leader,  was  given  the  post  of  Vice-Premier,  and 
President  of  the  Treasury.  Signor  AUessio,  the  Badical  leader, 
became  Minister  of  Posts,  and  Signor  Bonomi,  the  well-known 
leader  of  the  Reformist  Socialists,  was  given  the  post  of  War 
Minister.  This  latter  appointment  was  noteworthy  in  that  it 
was  an  innovation  to  place  a  civilian  at  the  Ministry  of  War. 
The  Cabinet  was  strengthened  by  the  reconstruction,  but  it  was 
obvious  that  the  Parliamentary  position  was  still  unstable. 

On  March  28  Si^or  Nitti  made  an  important  speech  in  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  on  the  Adriatic  question.  He  declared 
that  he  had  never  regarded  the  Jugo-Slav  people  as  enemies  of 
Italy,  but  had,  on  the  contrary,  always  desired  to  regard  them 
as  friends,  and  had  wished  to  see  them  co-operating  with  the 
Italian  nation.  He  condenmed  the  chauvinist  campaign  which 
had  taken  place  in  the  Press  of  both  coimtries.  There  were, 
said  the  Prime  Minister,  three  possible  solutions  of  the  Adriatic 
question.  The  first  was  a  direct  agreement  between  the  Italian 
and  Jugo-Slav  Governments,  and  he  himself  thought  that  this 
would  be  the  best  solution,  and  he  wished  to  see  an  effort  made 
in  this  direction.     The  second  solution  was  to  demand  the 


168]         FOEEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  mSTOEY.         [iMO. 

enforcement  of  the  Pact  of  London.  He  had  candidly  explained 
to  France  and  Great  Britain  that  if  Italy  claimed  the  applica- 
tion of  the  Pact,  it  was  their  duty  to  give  their  assent  to  this 
coursa  But  the  Italian  people  must  understand  that  if  they 
demanded  the  Pact  they  must  take  it  as  it  was :  they  could  not 
have  the  Pact  of  London  and  Fiume  as  well.  He  had,  however, 
suggested  that  if  Italy  were  given  the  territory  accorded  to  her 
by  the  Pact,  an  autonomous  form  of  government  should  be  be- 
stowed upon  northern  Dalmatia.  The  third  solution  was  to 
accept  the  proposal  formulated  by  President  Wilson  in  the 
previous  December,  but  this  involved  the  creation  of  a  buffer 
state  at  Fiume,  which  was  wanted  neither  by  Italy  nor  the 
Jugo-Slavs.  He  himself  believed  in  a  direct  understanding  with 
Belgrade. 

During  the  meeting  of  the  Supreme  Council  of  the  Allies  at 
San  Bemo  in  April,  Signor  Nitti  acted  as  Chairman ;  and  he 
gained  credit  from  the  moderation  of  the  counsel  which  he  there 
gave.  The  Italian  Premier  took  his  stand  by  the  side  of  Mr. 
Lloyd  George  in  protesting  against  the  French  idea  of  inde- 
pendent action  by  one  ally  in  the  event  of  any  infringement  of 
the  Treaty  of  Versailles  by  Germany,  but  at  the  same  time,  and 
again  like  Mr.  Lloyd  George,  he  made  it  clear  that  Italy  was 
resolved  that  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  should  be  fulfilled. 

Whilst,  however,  Signor  Nitti  gained  in  credit  in  so  far  as 
the  general  question  of  the  treatment  of  Germany  was  con- 
cerned, in  the  more  special  problems  which  affected  Italy  herself 
more  nearly,  it  became  apparent  that  he  was  finding  ex- 
treme difficulty  in  discovering  a  solution.  The  attention  of  the 
country  was  still  largely  concentrated  upon  the  question  of  the 
Adriatic.  And  the  fact  that  the  Premier  was  obliged  to  return 
from  San  Bemo  without  a  solution  of  this  vexed  question, 
favourable  to  Italy,  and,  indeed,  without  any  real  solution  at  all, 
caused  a  great  deal  of  adverse  comment.  It  was  said  that  whilst 
many  of  the  sentiments  expressed  in  Signor  Nitti's  speeches 
were  admirable,  he  had  been  unable  to  achieve  anything 
definite. 

It  therefore  came  as  no  surprise  to  the  country  when,  on 
May  11,  the  Government  were  defeated  in  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies.  The  motion  on  which  the  defeat  occurred,  was  not 
one  of  first-rate  importance,  but  the  Government  regarded  it  as 
a  question  of  confidence,  and  they  were  defeated  by  the  large 
margin  of  193  votes  to  112.  The  Cabinet  resided ;  and  on  the 
following  day  the  King  interviewed  Signori  Nitti,  Orlando,  and 
Tittoni,  and  other  statesmen.  The  King  experienced  much 
difficulty,  however,  in  finding  anyone  willing  to  form  a  Cabinet ; 
and  it  was  said  that  Signor  Bonomi,  who  had  been  asked  to  do 
so,  had  failed  to  obtain  the  necessary  support  Signor  Giolitti 
was  reported  to  have  recommended  to  the  sovereign  that  Signor 
Nitti  should  be  asked  to  return ;  however  this  may  have  been, 
in  the  end  Signor  Nitti  did  form  a  new  Ministry,  this  time  with 


199a]  Italy.  [16S 

the  support  of  the  Clericals,  several  well-known  members  of 
that  purty  taking  office  in  the  new  Government.  The  Clerical 
leader  himself,  Signor  Meda,  was  not  a  member  of  the  Govern- 
ment, but  one  of  his  chief  followers,  Signor  de  Nava,  became 
Minister  of  Finance.  Signor  Scialoja  remained  at  the  Ministry 
of  Foreign  Affiairs.  Whilst  on  the  face  of  matters  the  new 
Cabinet  appeared  to  have  wider  support  than  the  old  Ministry 
had  possessed,  yet  it  was  generally  felt  that  its  life  could  not  be 
of  long  duration. 

And  these  anticipations  proved  to  be  correct.  Signor  Nitti's 
term  of  office  lasted  for  only  a  few  more  weeks ;  and  on  June  9 
he  was  compelled  once  more  to  resign.  And  this  time  his 
resignation  was  final.  The  developments  which  then  took 
place  were  surprising  and  even  dramatic.  Two  days  later  it 
was  announced  that  the  King  had  called  upon  Signor  Giolitti 
(the  great  Conservative  leader  who  had  been  so  famous  in  the 
past  but  had  been  the  leader  of  the  Neutralists  during  the  war) 
to  form  a  Government,  and  that  Signor  Giolitti  had  consented 
to  do  so.  Signor  GioUtti's  internal  policy  had  always  been  a 
moderate  brand  of  Conservatism,  and  hence  he  was  well  fitted 
in  this  respect  to  lead  the  heterogeneous  constitutional  party 
which  now  existed  in  the  Chamber.  But  it  was,  of  course,  in 
view  of  foreign  afihirs  that  Signor  Giolitti's  return  to  office 
occasioned  most  surprise  and  interest,  both  in  Italy  and  abroad. 
He  had  been  opposed  to  Italy's  entry  into  the  war.  He  had 
made  no  secret  of  the  fact  that  he  regarded  Italian  intervention 
as  an  act  of  disloyalty  towards  the  Powers  to  which  Italy  was 
allied,  and  also  as  contrary  to  the  country's  own  interest  It 
was  in  consequence  of  this  attitude  on  the  part  of  Si^or 
Giolitti  in  1915  and  afterwards,  that  his  enemies  had  described 
him  as  pro-German,  and  had  even  gone  so  far  as  to  liken  his 
position  in  Italy  to  that  occupied  by  M.  Caillaux  in  France. 
The  comparison  was,  however,  always  quite  unfair  to  Signor 
Giolitti.  In  the  first  place,  to  be  a  Neutralist  in  Italy  was  one 
thing :  to  be  a  Neutralist  in  France  was  quite  another  thing. 
Also  Signor  Giolitti' s  previous  record  had  undoubtedly  entitl^ 
him  to  oe  regarded  as  a  statesman  of  the  first  rank,  and  he  was 
entirely  free  from  the  ugly  suspicions  which  hung  over  the  head 
of  M.  Caillaux  from  the  early  days  of  the  war  onwards. 

Signor  Giolitti  succeeded  in  forming  a  Government,  the 
composition  of  which  was  announced  on  June  15.  Perhaps 
the  most  important  feature  in  the  Cabinet  was  that  it  in- 
cluded Signor  Meda,  the  leader  of  the  Clericals,  as  President 
of  the  Treasury.  The  support  of  the  Catholic  party  was  thus 
definitely  secured,  and  this  necessarily  gave  the  new  Govern- 
ment a  position  of  greater  stability  than  any  Cabinet  had  enjoyed 
since  the  General  Election  in  the  previous  year.  Signor  Gioutti 
had  in  fact  obtaiaed  the  support  of  every  important  party  except 
the  Official  Socialists,  over  whom  he  possessed  a  large  majority 
in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.     Signor  Bonomi  became  Minister 


170]         POUEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTORt.       [1920. 

of  War,  Signer  Fera  became  Minister  of  Justice,  Signor  Tedesco 
was  Minister  of  Finance,  and  Count  Sforza  took  the  portfolio 
of  Foreign  Affairs. 

The  chief  speculation  in  regard  to  Signor  Giolitti's  assump- 
tion of  office  naturally  concerned  the  position  which  Italy  would 
now  occupy  in  regard  to  the  Allied  Powers.  In  the  event,  how- 
ever, it  was  found  that  notwithstanding  the  attitude  which  he 
had  taken  up  regarding  the  war,  Signor  GioUtti  was  able  to 
maintain  satisfactory  relations  with  France  and  Great  Britain 
quite  as  weU  as,  and  perhaps  somewhat  better  than,  his  pre- 
decessors had  done.  He  was  perhaps  materially  assisted  in  his 
task  by  the  sponger  po8ition%.hi?h  he  occupied  in  his  own 
country. 

Signor  Giolitti  made  his  first  statement  to  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  on  June  24,  and  was  well  received  by  the  Hbuse.  He 
said  that  notwithstanding  the  complex  character  of  the  new 
Cabinet,  the  members  had  been  able  to  agree  upon  a  progranmie, 
even  down  to  the  details.  In  reference  to  foreign  policy  the 
new  Prime  Minister  said  :  "  The  principal  object  of  our  foreign 
policy  is  to  ensure  complete  and  definite  peace  for  Italy  and  &e 
whole  of  Europe — an  essential  condition  for  a  soUd  commence- 
ment of  the  work  of  reconstruction.  We  must  maintain  the 
most  intimate  and  cordial  relations  with  the  peoples  who  were 
our  allies  and  associates  during  the  war,  and  who  do  not  forget 
the  enormous  sacrifices  made  by  Italy  for  the  common  cause. 
In  order  to  achieve  this  complete  peace  we  must,  without  delay, 
establish  friendly  relations  with  all  the  other  peoples,  and, 
without  restrictions,  commence  normal  relations  even  with  the 
Bussian  Government.*'  Signor  Giolitti  also  announced  that  a 
Bill  embodying  amendments  to  the  Constitution  would  be  brought 
in,  in  order  to  ensure  much  more  complete  parliamentary  control 
over  foreign  policy.  It  was  jsroposed  that  declarations  of  war 
and  treaties  and  agreements  with  foreign  Powers  should  require 
the  s^iuction  of  Parliament.  In  reference  to  domestic  policy, 
the  Premier  declared  that  measures  would  be  taken  to  reduce 
imports  and  to  increase  exports,  in  order  to  improve  the  posi- 
tion of  the  Italian  exchange.  It  was  also  proposed  to  confiscate 
war  profits ;  and  an  increase  in  death  duties  and  in  the  taxes  on 
unearned  income  generally  was  foreshadowed.  The  system  of 
co-partnership  in  the  industries  of  the  country  was  also  to  be 
encouraged.  The  same  statement  of  policy  was  made  in  the 
Senate  and  was  there  also  well  received. 

It  was  not  long  before  the  stability  of  the  Government  was 
severely  tested  by  domestic  troubles.  In  the  middle  of 
September  the  industrial  workers  of  many  parts  of  Italy,  but 
especially  those  of  Turin  and  the  north,  decided  to  take  extreme 
action  in  order  to  remedy  the  grievances  from  which  they  felt 
that  they  were  suffering.  The  disturbances  were  mo^  seriouB 
in  the  iron  and  steel  factories.  The  workers  in  the  steelfactories 
considered  that  the  profits  made  by  the  owners  of  the  factories 


1990.]  ttaly.  [171 

were  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  wages  paid  to  the  workers. 
The  Trades  Unions  now  aimed  at  what  was  practically  syndi- 
calist control  of  the  industry,  claiming  that  the  employees  should 
supervise  the  bujring  of  the  raw  materials,  the  selling  of  the 
finished  product,  the  adjustment  of  the  scale  of  wages,  and  the 
general  conditions  of  work  in  the  factories.  The  owners  of 
the  factories  were  not  disposed  to  grant  these  demands ;  and 
the  workers  therefore  proceeded  to  extreme  measures  and  seized 
the  steel  factories  in  a  large  number  of  localities.  In  some 
cases  the  managers  and  clerks  were  even  prevented  from  leav- 
ing the  factories,  and  were  compelled  to  carry  out  their  duties 
under  the  supervision  of  the  syndicaUst  workmen.  A  surprising 
feature  of  the  situation  which  arose  was  that  the  Government 
took  no  steps  whatever  to  interfere ;  and  it  did  not  therefore 
come  wholly  as  a  surprise  when  it  was  announced  on  September 
17  that  the  Government  proposed  to  impose  a  large  measure  of 
syndical  control  upon  the  manufacturers.  Thus  to  a  great 
extent  the  Government  took  the  side  of  the  workers,  which  was 
quite  in  accord  with  the  very  democratic  policy  which  Signor 
Giolitti  had  now  adopted. 

In  October  there  were  peasant  risings  in  Sicily,  but  these 
led  to  less  important  results. 

While  Signor  Giolitti  was  dealing  with  these  important 
domestic  questions,  he  also  set  in  motion  direct  negotiations 
with  Jugo-Slavia  on  the  Adriatic  problem.  The  negotiations 
took  place  at  Santa  Margherita  Ligure,  and  the  principal  repre- 
sentatives on  the  two  sides  were  Count  Sf  orza  and  M.  Trumbitch 
respectively.  It  will  be  remembered  that  M.  Trumbitch  had 
lon^  been  in  control  of  Jugo-Slav  foreign  policy,  and  it  was 
proDably  not  an  accident  that  the  new  Italian  Foreign  Minister 
was  a  personal  friend  of  the  Slav  stsitesman.  In  striking  con- 
trast to  the  previous  history  of  this  problem,  the  negotiations 
now  proceeded  with  great  rapidity,  and  on  November  10  it  was 
announced  that  a  settlement  had  been  reached.  The  agree- 
ment gave  the  whole  of  Istria  to  Italy,  and  Italy  also  obtained 
the  islands  of  Cherso,  Lussin,  and  Unie.  Fiume  was  to  be 
independent,  but  was  brought  into  territorial  contiguity  with 
Italy.  Zara  was  to  have  an  autonomous  government,  but  was 
to  be  under  Italian  suzerainty.  The  island  of  Lagosta,  farther 
to  the  south,  was  also  given  to  Italy.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
Jugo-Slavs  obtained  Northern  Dalmatia  which  they  had  always 
desired,  but  which  they  had  not  been  given  by  the  Treaty  of 
London.  The  details  of  the  new  agreement  were  embodied  in 
a  new  Treaty,  known  as  the  Treaty  of  Bapallo,  which  was  signed 
forthwith  and  was  ratified  by  the  Italian  Parliament  before  the 
end  of  November.  It  was  a  triumph  for  Signor  Giolitti  and 
Count  Sforza  that  every  party  in  the  Chamber  voted  in  favour 
of  the  Treaty,  with  the  solitary  exception  of  the  OfiBcial 
Socialists,  who  abstained  not  because  they  disapproved  of  the 
Treaty  but  because  they  disapproved  of  the  Government.  (For 
further  particulars  of  the  Adriatic  settlement,  see  Jugo-Slavia.) 


172]        FOEEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  mSTOEY.        [1920. 

The  direct  agreement  which  had  now  fortunately  been 
reached  between  Borne  and  Belgrade  brought  to  a  grotesque 
end  the  extraordinary  regime  which  the  poet  d*Annunzio  had 
maintained  in  Fiume  for  more  than  a  year.  At  the  beginning 
of  September  d'Annunzio  proclaimed  the  independence  of 
Fiume,  under  the  name  of  the  "  Begency  of  the  Quamero ;  "  and 
when  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Bapallo  were  announced  the 
Dictator  of  Fiume  refused  to  recogmse  the  agreement,  and  at 
the  beginning  of  December  even  went  so  far  as  to  declare  war 
upon  Italy.  At  the  end  of  December  General  Caviglia  was 
ordered  to  advance  into  Fiume  and  to  dispose  of  this  disturber 
of  the  peace.  The  Italian  troops  moved  on  December  24,  and 
after  d'Annunzio's  legionaries  had  resisted  for  a  few  hours, 
General  Caviglia  took  possession  of  the  city,  having  come  to  an 
agreement  with  Signor  Giganti,  the  Mayor,  over  the  head  of 
d'Annunzio,  who  refused  to  see  reason  till  the  end. 

In  September  a  serious  earthquake  occurred  in  Tuscany, 
Fivizzano  and  other  small  towns  and  villages  being  wrecked. 
Several  hundred  persons  were  killed. 

The  financial  position  of  the  country  caused  much  anxiety 
during  the  year,  and  the  Italian  exchange  fell  even  more  than 
the  French  exchange,  the  value  of  the  lira  being,  with  consider- 
able fluctuations,  only  about  100  to  the  pound  sterling.  The 
Ordinary  Expenditure  of  the  State  for  the  year  1919-20  was 
over  5,000  million  lire. 


CHAPTEE  m. 

GEBMANY  AND  AUSTRIA. 
GERMANY. 

In  surveying  the  condition  of  Germany  at  the  beginning  of 
1920,  it  is  necessary  first  to  consider  the  territori&l  changes 
which  had  been  brought  about  by  the  Treaty  of  Versailles  and 
also  certain  internal  territorial  rearrangements  which  had  taken 
place  as  the  result  of  the  Bevolution.  By  the  Treaty  of 
Versailles  provinces  had  been  severed  from  Germany  in  almost 
all  directions.  The  two  most  important  cessions  of  territory 
were,  of  course,  the  loss  of  Alsace-Lorraine  to  France  and  of  a 
large  stretch  of  territory  in  West  Prussia,  Posen,  and  Silesia  to 
Poland.  Of  these  two  cessions  of  territory,  the  latter  was  much 
the  more  important  from  the  practical,  if  not  from  the  senti- 
mental, point  of  view.  The  territory  ceded  to  Poland  amounted 
to  nearly  20,000  square  miles,  and,  coupled  with  the  establish- 
ment of  Danzig  as  an  independent  state,  which  was  also  imposed 
upon  Germany,  this  loss  had  the  effect  of  cutting  ofF  East 
Prussia  from  the  main  territory  of  Germany.  The  other 
territorial  provisions  of  the  Treaty  of  Versailles  were  also  by  no 


IMOJ  Oeffnany.  [178 

means  of  negligible  importance.  Danzig  and  Memel  were  to 
be  ceded  to  tbe  Allies,  their  fate  to  be  subsequently  decided.  A 
portion  of  Silesia  was  to  be  ceded  to  Czecho-Slovakia.  And 
apart  from  the  actual  cessions  of  territory,  the  treaty  arranged 
that  plebiscites  should  be  held  in  certain  areas  to  decide  the 
destinies  of  the  districts  concerned.  Thus  certain  districts  of 
East  Prussia  and  West  Prussia  were  to  poll  to  decide  whether 
they  should  belong  to  Germany  or  to  Poland.  A  third  portion 
of  Silesia,  which  was  in  dispute  between  Germany  and  Poland, 
was  to  exercise  the  right  of  self-determination.  The  small  dis- 
tricts of  Eupen  and  Malmedy  were  to  decide  whether  they  would 
belong  to  Belgium  or  to  Germany.  And,  again,  the  middle  and 
southern  districts  of  the  province  of  Schleswig,  which  of  course 
had  been  annexed  to  Prussia  in  1866,  were  to  decide  their  own 
destinies.  And  finally,  the  coal-producing  valley  of  the  Saar, 
which  had  been  provisionally  separated  from  Germany,  was  to 
be  the  subject  of  a  referendum  after  the  lapse  of  fifteen  years. 

Before  proceeding  to  consider  the  residts  of  the  plebiscites 
and  the  internal  rearrangements  to  which  reference  has  already 
been  made,  we  may  briefly  consider  the  definitive  cessions  of 
territory  imposed  upon  the  German  Bepublic  by  the  Treaty  of 
Versailles  from  the  wide  standpoint  of  German  and  European 
history.  The  Allied  and  Associated  Governments  had  assimied 
the  task  of  revising  territorial  changes  and  arrangements  which 
had  been  made  as  far  back  as  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  For  instance.  West  Prussia  at  the  time  of  this  Treaty 
of  Versailles  had  been  part  of  Germany  for  a  century  and  a  half. 
The  principle  of  revising  territorial  changes  which  had  been 
brought  about  during  and  after  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth 
centmry  was  not  without  historic  justification,  although  the 
principle  had  been  very  unequally  applied  in  different  cases.  It 
was  in  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  century  that  the  process 
set  in  which  was  to  transform  the  meanmp  of  the  word 
Germany.  The  German  kingdom  of  Prussia  Began  to  annex 
foreign  territories,  mainly  Slavonic  territories,  which  were 
eventually  incorporated  not  only  in  Prussia  but  in  Germany. 
The  expansion  of  Prussia  was  unlike  the  subordination  of 
Slavonic  and  Italian  territories  to  the  Austrian  Crown,  because 
the  foreign  dominions  of  Austria  were  never  legally  incorporated 
in  Germany.  And  whilst  in  this  manner  the  territory  which 
was  German  in  law  came  to  extend  far  beyond  the  territory 
which  was  German  in  history  and  in  fact,  in  another  manner 
and  another  direction  "Germany"  came  to  be  restricted  to 
something  considerably  less  than  its  historic  and  legitimate 
dimensions.  Just  as  the  suzerainty  of  the  Prussian  Crown  in 
Grermany  brought  within  the  confines  of  the  Empire  certain 
considerable  alien  territories,  so  did  the  establishment  of  that 
same  suzerainty  exclude  from  the  State  which  adopted  the 
German  name,  the  great  city  of  Vienna  and  the  adjoining 
districts  of  German-Austria  which  had  of  course  been  in  the 


174]         FOEEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTORY.  ,      [im 

past  the  very  heart  of  the  German  Empire.  Thus  it  came 
about  that  the  HohenzoUem  Empire  was  unnaturally  and 
illegitimately  expanded  in  certain  directions,  and  was  un- 
naturally restricted  in  another  direction.  And*  in  the  widest 
sense  it  was  this  anomalous  development  of  territorial  poUtics 
in  Central  Europe — a  development  which  began,  as  has  been 
stated,  in  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  century  and  culmin- 
ated in  1870 — which  was  the  first  problem  with  which  the 
statesmen  at  Versailles  had  to  deal. 

It  will  now  be  seen  that  it  is  possible  to  summarise  in  a 
single  sentence  the  manner  in  which  the  Peace  Conference  dealt 
with  this  most  important  problem.  The  Conference  cancelled 
completely  the  unnatural  expansion  of  Germany  which  had 
been  proceeding  during  the  past  150  years  ;  the  Conference  did 
not  cancel  the  schism  in  Germany — the  exclusion  of  Austria — 
which  had  been  incidental  to  that  unnatural  expansion. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  work  of  the  Conference,  so 
far  as  it  related  to  these  territorial  problems,  was  based  not 
upon  a  single  principle,  but  upon  several  different  principles 
which  were  by  no  means  always  congruous  with  one  another. 
The  Conference  sought  in  the  first  place  to  undo  historic  out- 
rages. It  endeavoured,  secondly,  to  do  justice  to  the  wishes  of 
the  existing  populations  of  disputed  districts.  And,  thirdly,  the 
statesmen  responsible,  more  particularly  the  French,  were  in- 
fluenced by  a  not  unnatural  desire  to  reduce  the  possibilities  of 
a  revival  of  German  power.  It  was  the  first  principle  which 
was  appUed  to  the  case  of  West  Prussia,  and  also  pnmarily  to 
that  of  Alsace-Lorraine.  The  second  principle  was  applied 
most  scrupulously  to  the  case  of  Schleswig,  where,  it  may  be 
remarked  m  passing,  the  first  principle  does  not  appear  to  have 
been  considered,  since  South  Schleswig  (in  which  there  was 
not  even  a  plebiscite)  had  never  been  part  of  Germany  until 
1866.  And,  finally,  it  was  clearly  the  third  principle  which  was 
dominant  in  the  refusal  to  accede  to  the  almost  unanimous 
desire  of  the  Austrian  people  to  be  reunited  to  the  major  portion 
of  Germany,  from  which  they  had  been  definitely  severed  in 
1866.  And  the  third  principle  was  also  evident  in  certain 
minor  provisions  of  the  Treaty  of  Versailles,  as  also  in  the 
Treaty  of  St.  Germain. 

Whien,  therefore,  Germans  came  to  survey  the  course  of  their 
history  between  the  first  partition  of  Poland,  in  1772,  and  the 
Treaty  of  Versailles,  they  could  not  fail  to  feel  singiilarly  dis- 
satisfied with  the  results  which  had  been  achieved.  After  the 
Thirty  Years  War  German  unity  had  been  reduced  to  a  shadow, 
and  it  had  been  definitely  destroyed  by  Napoleon.  But  in  1815 
German  unity  had  been  given  a  certain  real  and  legitimate 
political  existence  by  the  establishment  of  the  Germanic  Con- 
federation. This  natural  development  had  been  destroyed  by 
Prussia  fifty  years  later,  in  pursuit  of  her  policy  of  aggression. 
For  a  few  decades  the  greater  part  of  Germany  had  been  able 


iwa]  Oermany.  [175 

to  enjoy  suoh  satisfaction  as  could  be  extracted  from  the  Hohen- 
zoUem  aggrandisement.  The  Germans  now  found,  however, 
that  they  had  been  thwarted  not  only  in  that  wrongful  career 
of  foreign  conquest,  which  may  be  regarded  for  modem  purposes 
as  haying  begun  with  the  first  partition  of  Poland,  but  also 
in  that  legitimate  ambition  to  re-establish  German  imity,  which 
had  been  already  half  accomplished  by  the  formation  of  the 
Germanic  Confederation.  The  Germans  had,  in  fact,  got  the 
worst  of  both  worlds. 

If,  however,  the  Germans  were  in  a  position  to  complain 
that  the  first  two  principles  to  which  we  have  referred,  the 
principle  of  righting  historic  wrongs  and  the  principle  of  self- 
determination,  were  not  applied  by  the  Conference  with  com- 
plete theoretical  impartiahty,  the  conquered  people  had  only 
to  survey  their  own  history  during  the  past  century  and  a  half, 
and  they  were  compelled  to  admit  that  m  the  days  of  their  own 
prospenty  they  had  paid  no  regard  whatsoever  to  the  two 
principles  concerned. 

We  have  now  to  consider  the  internal  territorial  re-arrange- 
ments which  were  made  after  the  establishment  of  the  German 
Republic.  It  will  be  remembered  that  during  the  period  of  the 
Hohenzollem  Empire  there  had  been  twenty-six  States  within 
the  German  Federation.  During  the  war  the  number  had 
been  reduced  by  one  by  the  fusion  of  the  principalities  of 
Schwarzbur^-Budolstadtand  Schwarzburg-Sonderhausen.  After 
the  Bevolution  there  was  a  rapid  reduction  in  the  nimiber  of 
the  smaller  States.  Alsace-Lorraine  was,  of  course,  lost  to 
France,  and  the  two  principalities  of  Beuss — the  so-called 
Elder  and  Younger  Unes — ^united  into  a  single  State.  The 
Duchy  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha  split  into  two  halves;  Coburg 
voluntarily  united  itseU  with  Bavaria,  and  Gotha  later  in  the 
year  1919  entered  into  negotiations  with  a  number  of  the  other 
small  States  of  central  Germany  to  bring  about  a  general  union 
of  the  little  republics  concerned.  Six  States  took  part  in  these 
negotiations,  which  were  brought  to  a  successful  conclusion  at 
the  end  of  December,  1919.  The  States  which  thus  agreed  to 
unite  were:  (1)  Schwarzburg,  (2)  Beuss,  (3)  Gotha,  (4)  Saxe- 
Weimar,  (5)  Saxe-Meiningen,  and  (6)  Saxe-Altenburg.  The 
total  population  of  the  united  States  was  just  over  1,500,000, 
and  weir  joint  area  was  just  over  4,500  square  miles.  The 
States  took  the  name  of  Thuringia  (Einheitsstaat  Thuringen). 
The  town  of  Weimar  was  made  the  capital  of  the  new  State. 

It  wiU  be  seen  that  owing  to  these  various  fusions  and 
changes  the  twenty-six  States  of  the  German  Federation  were 
reduced  to  eighteen. 

We  have  now  to  consider  the  general  political  situation  in 
the  country  at  the  beginning  of  1920.  It  will  be  remembered 
that  from  the  time  of  the  Bevolution  until  the  end  of  1919  the 
Liberal  and  Badical  Parties  in  combination  with  the  so-called 
Majority  Socialist  Party  bad  held  power  continuously,  and  had 


176]         FOEEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTOEY,        [i920. 

been  strikingly  confirmed  in  their  position  by  the  Greneral  Election 
held  in  January,  1919  (see  Annual  Ebgistbb,  1919,  p.  199). 
The  chief  point  of  interest  in  the  General  Election  had  been  the 
close  correspondence  of  the  results  with  those  that  used  to  be 
obtained  in  the  elections  for  the  old  Eeichstag  in  the  time  of 
the  Empire.  On  February  11, 1919,  the  new  Parliament  elected 
Herr  F.  Ebert  as  President  of  the  German  EepubUc.  Herr  P. 
Scheidemann  acted  as  Prime  Minister  during  the  first  half  of 
1919,  but  at  the  time  of  the  signing  of  the  Treaty  of  Peace  in 
June  he  was  succeeded  by  Herr  Bauer,  one  of  the  best-known 
leaders  of  the  Majority  Socialist  Party,  who  had  not  been  a 
member  of  Herr  Scheidemann*  s  Government.  The  Govern- 
ment which  had  thus  been  established  in  Germany  was  probably 
the  best  which  could  have  been  formed  in  the  existing  circum- 
stances; but  the  Ministry  and  the  parties  which  supported 
them  were  placed  in  an  unstable  and  very  difficult  position. 
The  Government  had  to  face  the  extreme  hostility  of  the  Con- 
servative Party  on  the  one  side,  who  had  been  opposed  from 
the  beginning  to  the  new  Eepublican  institutions,  and  of  the 
extreme  revolutionaries  on  the  other  side,  who,  for  entirely 
dijfferent  reasons,  had  been  opposed  to  the  submission  to  the 
Entente,  and  desired  an  alliance  with  the  Bolshevik  forces  of 
Eussia.  During  1919  the  Government  had  been  placed  in 
greater  difficulties  by  the  parties  of  the  Left  than  by  the 
parties  of  the  Eight,  and  the  extreme  Socialists  had  made 
several  unsuccessful  attempts  at  armed  insurrection.  But  as 
we  shall  see  shortly  the  reactionary  groups  were  also  capable  of 
making  serious  trouble  for  the  Government. 

During  January  and  February  there  were  no  events  of  first- 
class  importance,  but  in  March  there  were  kaleidoscopic  changes 
in  Berlin,  which  illustrated  dramatically  the  difficulty  of  tiie 

Eosition  of  the  moderate  German  Government,  placed  as  it  was, 
etween  the  extremists  of  the  Eight  and  of  the  Left.  During 
the  early  weeks  of  the  year  certain  personages  belonging  to  the 
Conservative  Party  were  agitating  actively  against  the  Grovem- 
ment,  and  were  endeavouring  to  find  some  pretext — ^preferably 
a  democratic  pretext — for  taking  action  against  them.  One  of 
the  most  prominent  persons  in  this  movement  was  a  certain  Dr. 
Wolfgang  Kapp,  who  had  once  held  office  as  President  of  East 
Prussia,  and  had  long  been  known  as  a  founder  of  the  Fatherland 
Party  and  an  associate  of  the  notorious  Admiral  von  Tirpitz. 
During  January  and  February  Eapp  entered  into  correspondence 
with  the  Prime  Minister,  Herr  Bauer,  and  brought  complaints 
against  the  Government.  The  chief  of  these  complaints  were 
that  Herr  Ebert  had  remained  in  power  too  long,  since  accord- 
ing to  the  Constitution  the  President  ought  to  be  elected  by  the 
whole  nation,  and  not  merely  (as  Ebert  had  been)  by  the 
National  Assembly;  that  the  Ministry  itself  had  likewise  re- 
tained power  too  long,  since  it  and  the  Parliament  which  sap- 
ported  it  were  elected  and  established  only  for  the  purpose  of 


1990.]  Oemumy.  [m 

concluding  peace ;  and  also  that  the  Government's  administration 
had  been  mefiicient  and  had  failed  to  restore  the  economic 
position  in  the  country,  which  had  remained  deplorable  since 
the  conclusion  of  the  armistice.  There  was  but  little  substance 
in  any  of  these  charges,  except,  perhaps,  the  first ;  and  there  is 
every  reason  to  suspect  that  they  were  only  put  forward  as  a 
cover  for  different,  and  possibly  sinister,  designs.  Herren  Ebert, 
and  Bauer  naturally  paid  no  attention  to  Dr.  E^app's  demands ; 
and  in  the  middle  of  March  the  reactionaries  seem  to  have  thought 
that  the  time  had  arrived  for  them  to  come  out  into  the  open 
and  declare  opposition  to  the  existing  Bepublican  Government. 

On  March  12  Herr  Bauer  appears  to  have  obtained  informa- 
tion regarding  the  plot,  and  possibly  it  was  this  which  induced 
the  conspirators  to  act  earlier  than  they  had  intended  and 
certainly  prematurely.  Eapp  had  obtained  an  important  ac- 
complice in  the  person  of  General  Baron  v.  Luttwitz,  who  was 
the  Conmiander  of  the  1st  Division  of  the  Beichswehr.  Another 
commander  of  the  Beichswehr,  General  Marker,  also  appears 
to  have  been  very  doubtful  in  his  loyalty  to  the  Government. 
During  the  past  twelve  months  both  these  soldiers  had  served 
well  under  the  able  and  enlightened  War  Minister,  Herr  Noske, 
in  the  work  of  suppressing  the  insurrections  of  the  "  Spartacists," 
as  the  German  Bolshei^s  were  called.  But  that,  of  course, 
was  a  duty  in  which  reactionaries  and  moderates  could  well  co- 
operate without  friction. 

Finding  that  his  plot  was  discovered.  Dr.  Eapp  carried  out 
a  sudden  coup  d*itat  in  Berlin,  which  met  with  momentary 
success.  Supported  by  regiments  of  Marines  and  by  the  irregu- 
lar "Baltic"  troops  (the  German  troops  who  had  occasioned 
trouble  in  Courland  in  the  previous  year  by  fighting  indepen- 
dently of  any  Government),  who  were  now  stationed  at  Doberitz, 
and  by  the  Beichswehr  troops  whom  General  v.  Luttwitz  had 
led  astray,  Eapp  advanced  upon  Berlin  in  the  early  hours  of 
March  13.  Bealising  that  the  generals  in  command  of  the 
Beichswehr  had  betrayed  their  trust,  Herren  Ebert  and  Bauer 
fled  from  Berlin  to  Dresden,  and  were  perhaps  fortunate  in 
bein^  able  to  escape  before  the  Baltic  troops  arrived.  Im- 
mediately after  he  reached  Berlin,  at  10  a.m..  Dr.  Eapp  issued 
a  proclamation  declaring  that  the  Ebert-Bauer  Administration 
haii  ceased  to  exist  and  that  he  was  himself  acting  as  Imperial 
Chancellor,  and  that  General  v.  Luttwitz  had  been  appointed 
Minister  of  Defence.  The  proclamation  also  stated  that  Dr. 
Eapp  only  regarded  his  Administration  as  provisional,  and  that 
he  would  "restore  constitutional  conditions"  by  holding  new 
elections.  The  new  Government  disclaimed  any  intention  of 
restoring  the  monarchy,  but  all  Eapp's  chief  supporters  were 
monarchists,  and  he  had  the  old  Impenal  colours — black,  white, 
and  red — hoisted  in  the  capital.  It  was  also  perhaps  significant 
that  immediately  after  the  coup  d'Stat  much  coming  and  going 
was  reported  from  the  ex-Eaiser's  Duteh  home  at  Amerongen. 

M 


178]         FOEEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTOBY.         [i9ao. 

Herr  Ebert  and  his  associates  were  not  slow  to  decide  upon 
the  measures  to  be  taken  against  the  reactionaries.  They  issued 
an  appeal  to  the  working  classes  to  engage  in  a  drastic  general 
strike.  The  appeal,  which  was  signed  by  Herren  Ebert,  Bauer, 
and  Noske,  read  as  follows : — 

**  The  military  revolt  has  come.  Ehrhardt's  naval  brigade 
is  advancing  on  Berlin  to  overthrow  the  Government.  These 
servants  of  the  State,  who  fear  the  dissolution  of  the  Army, 
desire  to  put  reactionaries  in  the  seat  of  the  Government.  We 
refuse  to  bend  before  military  compulsion.  We  did  not  make  the 
revolution  in  order  to  have  again  to  recognise  militarism.  We 
will  not  co-operate  with  the  criminals  of  tibe  Baltic  States.  We 
should  be  ashamed  of  ourselves,  did  we  act  otherwise. 

''  A  thousand  times,  No !  Cease  work !  Stifle  the  opportunity 
of  this  military  dictatorship !  Fight  with  all  the  means  at  your 
command  to  retain  the  republic.  Put  all  differences  of  opinion 
aside. 

"  Only  one  means  exists  against  the  return  of  Wilhelm  II. 
That  is  the  cessation  of  all  means  of  communication.  No  hand 
may  be  moved.  No  proletarian  may  assist  the  dictator.  Strike 
along  the  whole  line." 

The  response  to  this  appeal  by  the  working  classes  was 
enthusiastic  and  all  but  universal.  Except  in  East  Prussia  and 
to  some  extent  in  Pomerania  and  Silesia,  the  Eapp  ''  Govern- 
ment" obtained  scarcely  any  support  in  the  coimtry ;  and  the 
Saxon,  Bavarian,  Wurtemburg,  and  Baden  Governments  all 
rallied  to  the  support  of  President  Ebert — though  notwithstand- 
ing the  loyalty  of  the  Saxons,  the  President  and  the  Prime 
Mmister  thought  it  advisable  to  remove  from  Dresden  to  Stutt- 
gart. Furthermore,  notwithstanding  that  Eapp  and  v.  Luttwitz 
disclaimed  any  intention  of  restoring  the  Hohenzollem  regime, 
they  met  with  the  bitter  hostility  of  the  working  classes  in 
Berlin,  who  succeeded  in  bringing  to  a  standstill  the  whole  hte 
of  the  capital. 

It  was,  indeed,  apparent  after  forty-eight  hours  that  the  ex- 
traordinary success  01  the  general  stnke  would  make  the  new 
Eapp  regime  impossible.  During  the  first  two  days  there  were 
rumours  that  in  order  to  avoid  civil  war  Ebert  and  Bauer  were 
willing  to  compromise  with  the  conspirators ;  but  it  soon  became 
obvious  that  any  such  course  would  be  unnecessary. 

The  feature  which  hampered  Eapp  fatally  was  the  com- 
plete success  of  the  strike  in  Berlin  itself ;  and  since  his  writ 
did  not  even  run  in  the  capital,  the  usurping  Chancellor  felt 
compelled  to  resim  on  March  17.  He  endeavoured  to  cover  up 
his  failure,  by  aUeging  that  his  mission  had  been  fulfilled,  in 
that  the  Government  had  now  proclaimed  that  they  would  hold 
a  General  Election  within  a  few  weeks,  but  his  protestationa 
notwithstanding,  it  was  obvious  to  all  the  onlookers  that  his 
real  designs  had  been  to  displace  the  old  Government  altogether, 
and  very  probably  to  upset  the  entire  republican  regime.    A 


iwoj  Oermany.  [179 

meeting  of  the  National  Assembly  was  held  at  Stuttgart  on 
March  18,  and  the  Prime  Minister  made  a  long  speech  dealing 
with  Eapp's  escapade,  but  before  then,  the  crisis  had  already 
passed — and  had  in  fact  given  place  to  a  crisis  of  a  totally 
different  kind.  On  March  18  some  of  the  members  of  the 
Gh>yemment  returned  to  Berlin,  and  on  that  day  also  Kapp's 
troops — ^who  were  known  as  the  "  Baltic  "  troops,  although  the 
name  properly  applied  only  to  a  section  of  them — ^iSt  the 
capital.  Their  departure  was  unfortunately  marked  by  a  most 
disagreeable  incident.  As  they  marched  through  the  streets 
towards  the  Brandenburg  Gate,  the  populace  which  had  always 
been  entirely  hostile  to  them,  collected  in  great  numbers  and 
followed  the  soldiers,  jeering  vociferously.  The  legionaries 
were  in  an  ill-humour  at  the  failure  of  their  coup,  and  being 
farther  aggravated  by  the  behaviour  of  the  crowds,  when  the 
last  detachment  reached  the  Brandenburg  Gate  they  wheeled 
about,  and  fired  several  volleys  into  the  mass  of  civilians  who 
had  followed  them.  A  panic  ensued,  and  a  considerable  number 
of  persons  were  killed  and  woimded.  Kapp  himself  fled  to 
Sweden. 

When  the  Government  returned  to  the  capital,  they  found 
that  the  stiike  which  they  had  utihsed  to  overcome  Eapp  had 
now  got  beyond  control ;  and  indeed  in  the  east  end  of  Berlin, 
Soviets  were  being  declared,  and  one  Daunig  had  declared 
himself  President  of  a  new  German  Communist  Bepublic. 
The  Qt>vemment  called  off  the  strike,  but  a  large  numoer  of 
the  strikers  refused  to  return  to  work,  and  on  March  19 
Spartacist  risings  occurred  in  many  different  places,  especially 
in  western  Prussia,  Bavaria,  Wurtemburg,  and  Leipzig.  At 
the  latter  place  the  rising  was  extremely  serious,  and  m  sup- 
pressing tms  local  insurrection  the  Government  even  had  to 
use  aeroplanes  over  the  streets  of  the  city  itself  in  order  to 
intimidate  the  Communists.  The  Communist  leaders  decided 
to  direct  the  strike,  the  power  of  which  had  been  proved  against 
Kapp,  against  the  Government  itself.  In  Berlin,  with  the 
active  assistance  of  the  Prime  Minister  of  Prussia,  Herr  Hirsch, 
the  Federal  Government  were  soon  able  to  gain  control  of 
affairs ;  and  in  Saxony,  Bavaria,  and  Wurtemburg  the  troops 
were  also  able  to  overcome  speedily  the  insurrection.  But  in 
the  west,  in  Westphalia  and  the  Bhineland,  the  situation  be- 
came extremely  serious.  The  position  was  in  this  part  of 
Germany  complicated  by  the  fact  of  the  existence  of  the  neutral 
zone  lying  between  the  territory  occupied  by  the  Entente,  and 
the  main  part  of  Germany,  where  the  Government  were  of 
course  free  to  move  their  forces  as  they  pleased.  Apart  from  a 
small  force  for  police  purposes,  the  German  Government  were 
not  allowed  to  send  troops  into  the  neutral  zone.  The 
military  police  in  the  zone  were  quite  incapable  of  dealing  with 
the  Spartadst  insurrection;  and  the  insurgents  speedily  took 
possesaioa  of  Essen,  after  a  treacherous  atteck  on  the  rear  of 

MS 


180]        POEEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTORY.        ti9». 

the  small  Government  force.  The  Bevolutionists  also  seized 
Wesel.  And  the  union  of  "Bed"  Germany  with  Bolshevik 
Bussia  was  proclaimed,  many  of  the  leaders  of  the  revolt  being, 
indeed,  Bussians  or  Bussian  Jews.  The  Government  took 
alarm  at  the  development  of  the  Spartacist  peril,  and  on  March 
23  it  was  even  rumoured  that  a  purely  Socialist  Government — 
containing  several  members  of  the  Independent  Socialist  Party 
— ^was  to  be  formed.  This  rumour  proved  to  be  untrue,  but 
two  of  the  ablest  members  of  the  Cabinet,  Herr  Noske  and 
Herr  Erzberger,  who  were  specially  obnoxious  to  the  Com- 
munists, were  asked  by  Herr  Bauer  to  resign.  The  resignation 
of  these  two  Ministers  was  in  some  sense  a  concession  to  the 
extremists,  but  the  latter  refused  to  consider  compromise ;  and 
feeling  overwhelmed  with  the  difficulty  of  the  situation,  Herr 
Bauer  himself  resigned  on  March  26.  Fortimately  Herr  Ebert 
had  no  difficulty  in  finding  a  statesman  willing  to  undertake 
the  burden  of  the  Chancellorship.  The  President  asked  Herr 
Hermann  Miiller,  who  had  previously  held  the  office  of  Minister 
for  Foreign  Affairs,  to  form  an  Administration.  Within  forty- 
eight  hours  it  was  announced  that  Herr  Miiller  had  succeeded 
in  forming  a  Cabinet,  which  included  (as  did  the  previous  Ad- 
ministration) members  of  all  the  three  moderate  parties,  the 
Clericals,  the  Democrats,  and  the  Majority  SociaUsts.  The  new 
Cabinet  was  composed  as  follows : — 

Ohanoellor  and  Minister  for  Foreign  Ailairs  -       -  Herr  Miiller. 

Under-Seoretaiy  for  Foreign  Affairs       -        -        •  Herr  v.  Haniel. 

Minister  of  the  Interior  and  Vioe-GhanceUor         •  Heir  Koch. 

Minister  of  Posts Herr  Qiesherts. 

Minister  of  Finance Herr  Wirth. 

Minister  of  Transport Herr  Bell. 

Minister  of  Justice Herr  Blunck. 

Minister  of  Labour Herr  Schlicke. 

Minister  of  Economics Herr  Schmidt. 

Minister  of  Defence Herr  Gassier. 

Minister  of  Food Herr  Hermes. 

Minister  without  Portfolio Herr  David. 

President  of  the  Treasury Herr  Bauer. 

Herr  Miiller' s  tenure  of  the  Foreign  Office  was  only 
temporary,  and  before  the  middle  of  April  he  relinquished  that 
position  to  Dr.  Arnold  Koster.  At  the  same  time  there  was  a 
reconstruction  of  the  Government  of  Prussia,  Herr  Braun  be- 
coming Premier.  The  new  Ministry  was  constituted  on  much 
the  same  lines  as  that  of  Germany,  and  including  members  of 
all  the  three  moderate  parties. 

As  soon  as  he  assumed  office  Herr  Miiller  had  to  deal  with 
the  pressing  problem  of  the  insurrection  in  the  Buhr  Valley, 
and  the  neutral  zone  generally.  The  German  Government 
applied  to  the  Allies  for  permission  to  send  troops  into  the  dis- 
turbed districts  in  excess  of  the  numbers  allowed  by  the  Treaty 
of  Versailles.  It  appears  that  in  view  of  the  situation  which  had 
arisen  the  British  and  Italian  Governments  made  various  sug- 


1090.]  Oermany.  [181 

gestions  for  a  temporary  modification  of  these  particular  pro* 
Tisions  of  the  Treaty  of  Versailles  (Articles  42  to  44).  It  was 
proposed,  for  instance,  that  German  forces  might  be  allowed  to 
occupy  the  Biihr  Valley  under  whatever  guarantees  Marshal 
Foch  might  think  necessary ;  or  that  the  German  troops  should 
be  accompanied  by  Allied  officers;  or  that  the  matter  should 
be  left  in  the  hands  of  the  German  Government  with  a  warning 
that  if  the  neutral  zone  were  not  re-evacuated  as  soon  as 
practicable,  a  further  district  of  Germany  would  be  occupied  by 
(he  Entente.  The  French  Government,  however,  rais^  diffi- 
culties ;  and  declared  that  if  the  Germans  were  allowed  to  send 
forces  into  the  Eiihr  district,  they  (the  French)  should  be 
allowed  to  occupy  Frankfort,  Homburg,  and  other  neighbour- 
ing German  towns,  with  the  sanction  of  the  Allies,  during  the 
period  that  the  German  troops  were  in  the  neutral  zone. 
Owing  to  these  differences  of  opinion  between  the  Allied 
Governments  no  quick  decision  was  reached ;  and  in  the  mean- 
time, the  insurrection  in  the  Biihr  Valley  was  becoming  daily 
more  serious.  Moreover,  the  German  Government  themselves 
hindered  a  settlement  by  indicating  that  they  could  not  accept 
the  French  suggestion  of  a  parallel  occupation  of  Frankfort  by 
French  troops.  It  was  obvious  that  matters  would  soon  reach 
a  crisis,  notwithstanding  the  conciliatory  efforts  of  the  British 
Government.  And  it  came  as  no  great  surprise  when,  on  April 
3,  German  Begular  troops,  of  the  Beichswehr,  entered  the 
neutral  zone  in  force,  although  no  permission  for  them  to  do  so 
had  been  granted  by  the  Entente.  The  troops  were  under  the 
command  of  General  von  Watter,  and  they  experienced  no 
serious  difficulty  in  dealing  with  the  Spartacists,  although  the 
latter  possessed  some  artillery.  The  Bevolutionary  Head- 
quarters at  Miilheim  were  taken  on  April  4. 

These  incidents  led  to  somewhat  sensational  developments 
between  the  French,  British,  and  German  Governments.  Im- 
mediately after  the  German  troops  crossed  the  line,  the  French 
Government  itself  gave  orders  to  its  own  troops  to  advance, 
and  Frankfort  was  occupied  on  April  6  and  Homburg  on  the 
following  day.  The  French  Government  proclaimed  the 
necessity  of  this  move  on  the  ground  that  Articles  42  to  44  of 
the  Treaty  of  Versailles  had  been  broken  by  the  Germans. 
The  French  advance  occasioned  extreme  bitterness  of  feeling  in 
Germany,  more  particularly  as  some  of  the  occupying  troops 
were  black ;  and  the  attitude  of  the  crowds  in  Frankfort  became 
so  hostile,  that  on  one  occasion  the  French  troops  brought  a 
machine-gun  into  action,  and  a  number  of  civilians  were  kiUed 
and  wounded.  The  British  Government  also  disapproved  of 
the  French  action,  partly  because  they  regarded  the  advance  as 
an  extreme  measure  which  should  only  have  been  adopted  in 
the  last  resort,  and  still  more  so  because  the  French  move  had 
been  made  independently,  and  without  the  sanction  of  the  other 
Allied  Governments,    The  British  held  that  the  enforcement 


182]        FOBBIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTORY.        [IMO. 

of  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Versailles  was  an  affidr  for  the 
Allies  collectively,  and  not  for  any  single  Allied  Government. 

The  Franco-British  difference  of  opinion  was,  however,  of 
short  duration  (see  France) ;  and  it  was  soon  made  clear  that 
whilst  the  British  Government  were  disposed  to  think  that 
there  had  been  a  genuine  necessity  to  send  the  German  troops 
into  the  Biihr  Valley,  they  were  equally  as  determined  as  the 
French  to  see  that  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  were  observed. 
And  the  extreme  rapidity  with  which  the  German  troops  over- 
came the  Bevolutionaries  tended  to  bring  the  whole  crisis  to  an 
end. 

On  April  12  Herr  Miiller  made  a  statement  on  the  situation 
in  the  National  Assembly  at  Berlin.  He  complained  of  French 
militarism,  and  in  particular  that  Senegalese  negroes  should 
have  been  quartered  in  Frankfort  University.  He  laid  the 
blame  for  the  developments  largely  upon  Eapp  and  his  associates ; 
and  said  that  it  was  owing  to  the  undermining  of  the  loyalty  of 
the  Beichswehr  bv  the  reactionaries,  that  the  working  classes 
had  now  lost  conndence  in  the  Bepublican  army.  The  latest 
casualty  Ust  which  had  been  received  from  the  disturbed  area 
proved  the  severity  of  the  actions  which  had  taken  place ;  160 
officers  and  men  had  been  killed  and  nearly  400  had  been 
wounded.  The  advance  of  the  German  troops  into  the  Btihr 
had  been  necessary  in  order  to  protect  the  lives  and  property  of 
peaceable  citizens  living  in  that  district.  It  was  true,  said  the 
speaker,  that  according  to  Articles  42  and  43  of  the  Treaty  of 
Peace,  the  German  Government  were  not  allowed  to  assemble 
armed  forces  in  the  neutral  zone,  because  to  do  so  would  con- 
stitute a  hostile  act  against  the  signatory  Powers ;  but,  he  asked, 
was  this  prescription  laid  down  in  order  to  prevent  the  re- 
establishment  of  public  order?  By  an  agreement  of  August, 
1919,  the  Entente  had  sanctioned  the  maintenance  in  the  neutral 
zone  of  a  military  police  force,  and  therefore  the  Entente,  in- 
cluding France,  had  recognised  that  measures  necessary  for  the 
preservation  of  order  in  the  neutral  zone  did  not  constitute  a 
violation  of  the  Treaty. 

A  meeting  of  the  Supreme  Council,  consisting  of  the  British, 
French,  and  Italian  Prime  Ministers,  was  opened  at  San  Bcono 
on  April  19 ;  and  the  Council  had  to  deal,  among  other  questions, 
with  the  German  invasion  of  the  Biihr  Valley,  and  with  the 
problem  of  German  disarmament  generally.  Mr.  Lloyd  George, 
with  the  support  of  Signor  Nitti,  proposed  that  the  German 
Government  should  be  invited  to  attend  the  Conference;  but 
this  was  strongly  opposed  by  M.  Millerand,  and  the  proposal 
therefore  lapsed.  The  result  of  the  discussions  at  San  Bemo 
on  the  German  question  was  that  a  note  dealing  with  the 
question  of  disarmament  was  sent  to  the  German  Government 
at  the  end  of  April.  The  note  declared  that  so  long  as  the 
German  Government  was  not  taking  serious  steps  to  carry  out 
the  disarmament  clauses  of  the  Treaty  of  Versailles,  it  was 


i9aa]  Germany.  [183 

impossible  for  the  Allied  Govemments  even  to  consider  the 
German  request  that  the  permanent  force  of  100,000  men, 
allowed  by  the  Treaty,  should  be  increased.  Germany  was 
not  fulfilling  her  engagements  either  in  the  destruction  of  the 
materials  of  war,  or  m  the  reduction  of  the  number  of  troops, 
or  in  the  provision  of  coal,  or  with  regard  to  reparation.  The 
Allied  Govenmients  intended  to  insist  upon  the  carrying  out 
of  the  terms  of  the  Treaty,  though  in  cases  where  the  German 
Government  were  faced  wil^  unavoidable  difficulties,  the  Allied 
Grovemments  would  not  necessarily  insist  upon  a  literal  inter- 
pretation of  the  terms.  And  it  was  not  their  intention  to  annex 
any  portion  of  German  territory. 

So  far  as  the  occupation  of  the  Btihr  Valley  was  concerned 
the  above  note  came  almost  after  the  event ;  because,  as  already 
stated,  the  rapidity  with  which  the  Beichswehr  overcame  the 
insurgents  made  it  possible  for  the  German  Government  to 
withdraw  the  troops  within  a  few  weeks.  At  the  end  of  April 
the  Foreign  Minister,  Herr  Eoster,  declared  that  the  French 
ought  now  to  evacuate  Frankfort,  Darmstadt,  and  Homburg, 
beoiuse  the  German  troops  had  been  reduced  to  17,500  which 
was  permitted  by  the  agreement  of  August,  1919.  On  the 
Allied  side,  however,  it  was  stated  that  the  force  must  be  re- 
duced forthwith  to  twenty  battalions,  six  squadrons,  and  two 
batteries ;  and  that  even  this  force  would  have  to  be  replaced 
entirely  by  a  body  of  10,000  police  by  July  10.  The  German 
Government  made  the  necessary  reductions,  and  on  May  17  the 
French  evacuated  Frankfort  and  the  other  occupied  towns. 

The  reactionary  and  Spartacist  insurrections  having  been 
thus  quelled,  the  German  Government  proceeded,  in  accordance 
with  their  declarations,  to  make  the  necessary  preparations  for 
holding  the  General  Election.  The  elections  were  fixed  for 
Sunday,  June  6.  All  the  parties  undertook  active  campai|[ns, 
but  the  general  public  showed  less  interest  in  these  elections 
for  the  new  Beichstag  than  they  had  shown  in  the  elections 
for  the  temporary  National  Assembly  in  January,  1919.  The 
total  number  of  electors  was  about  32,000,000,  approximately 
15,000,000  men  and  17,000,000  women :  but  in  the  event,  only 
about  80  per  cent,  of  the  voters  exercised  their  rights.  It  will 
be  remembered  that  in  the  elections  of  1919,  the  results  had 
been  strikingly  in  accord  with  the  last  General  Election  for  the 
Beichstag  before  the  war ;  and  had  therefore  constituted  a  re- 
markable popular  confirmation  of  the  attitude  of  the  Beichstag 
Bloc  during  the  war.  The  present  elections  yielded  different 
results.  T^e  three  moderate  parties  had  been  in  an  over- 
whelming majority  both  in  the  last  Imperial  Beichstag  and  also 
in  the  new  Bepublican  National  Assembly.  They  were  agsin 
returned  with'  a  majority  over  the  Bight  and  Left  political 
wings  combined;  but  the  majority  was  now  very  small.  It 
will  be  remembered  that  the  Grerman  political  parties  were  now 
grouped,  from  Bight  to  heit,  as  follows :  The  National  Party 


184]         FOBEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTORY.         [i9ao. 

(the  old  Conservatives);  the  German  People's  Party  (the  old 
National  Liberals);  the  Democrats  (the  old  Radicals);  the 
Clericals  (the  old  Centre,  which  now  included  Protestant  as 
well  as  Catholic  Clericals) ;  the  Majority  Socialists ;  the  Minority 
Socialists  or  Independent  Socialists ;  and  lastly  the  Communiste 
or  Spartacists,  whose  opinions  were  comparable  with  those  of 
the  Bolsheviks  of  Russia. 

In  Januarv,  1919,  the  Communists,  no  doubt  realising  their 
numerical  insignificance,  had  refused  to  take  any  part  in  the 
polling.  On  this  occasion,  however,  they  decided  to  enter  the 
contest,  and  it  may  be  said  at  once  that  not  the  least  remark- 
able (and  not  the  least  satisfactory)  feature  of  the  elections  was 
the  utter  collapse  of  the  Spartacists.  The  satisfaction  which 
the  rout  of  the  Spartacists  caused  to  all  moderate  men  was, 
however,  tempered  by  the  success  of  the  Independent  Socialists, 
who  had  for  months  been  growing  increasingly  more  extreme 
in  their  views,  and  were  now,  indeed,  one  of  the  most  extreme 
Socialist  parties  in  all  Europe,  outside  Russia.  The  total 
number  of  deputies  in  the  new  Reichstag  was  slightly  greater 
than  in  the  National  Assembly,  being  about  470,  the  exact 
number  being  doubtful  until  the  destinies  of  the  plebiscite  areas 
in  West  Prussia,  East  Prussia,  and  Silesia  had  been  decided. 
The  Spartacists  won  only  two  seats.  The  Independent  Social- 
ists, however,  increased  their  membership  of  the  House  from 
twenty-two  to  eighty.  The  success  of  the  Independent  Social- 
ists was  gained,  as  might  have  been  expected,  chiefly  at  the 
expense  of  the  Majority  Socialists,  who  had  been  by  far  the 
largest  party  in  the  National  Assembly.  Indeed,  the  reduction 
in  numbers  of  the  Majority  Socialists  was  almost  exactly  the 
same  as  the  increase  in  numbers  of  the  Minority  Socialists. 
The  total  of  the  Majority  Socialists  fell  from  165  to  110.  The 
Clerical  electorate,  whose  strength  lay  in  the  west  and  south, 
was  as  always  a  remarkably  constant  feature.  The  Clericals 
returned  with  eighty-eight  deputies,  as  against  ninety  in  the 
Assembly. 

Passing  to  a  consideration  of  the  Liberal  and  Conservative 
Parties,  we  find  that  on  the  Right  wing  of  politics  there  had 
also  been  a  remarkable  change.  The  Democrats  fared  worse  in 
the  elections  than  any  other  party.  And  the  two  parties  of  the 
Right  were  returned  in  far  greater  strength  than  they  had  pos- 
sessed in  the  National  Assembly.  The  number  of  Democrats 
fell  from  seventy-five  to  forty-five,  which  was  the  more  remark- 
able when  the  increased  size  of  the  House  was  borne  in  mind. 
The  German  National  Party,  representing  the  old  Conservatives, 
and  still  avowed  monarchists,  increased  their  strength  from 
forty-two  to  sixty-five.  But  the  most  remarkable  gains  were 
those  of  the  German  People's  Party.  This  party — the  old 
National  Liberals — ^represented  chiefly  the  great  industrial 
interests  and  had  been  very  influential  though  not  very 
numerous,  under  the  Empire.    In  January,  1919,  they  had  been 


1910.]  Gemumy.  [185 

almost  annihilated  at  the  polls,  and  had  won  onl^  twenty-two 
seats.    Now,  however,  they  returned  with  over  sixty  deputies. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  elections  apparently  revealed  two 
diametrically  opposite  tendencies:  a  drift  from  the  moderates 
to  the  extreme  Left,  and  a  drift  from  the  moderates  to 
the  extreme  Bight.  And  these  two  tendencies  had  affected 
adversely  the  Majority  Socialists  and  Democrats  respectively. 
It  is  possible,  however,  that  the  two  tendencies  were  really  to 
be  attributed  in  some  sense  to  a  single  cause.  In  all  democratic 
countries  all  Ministries  fail  to  come  up  to  the  expectations  of 
many  of  their  supporters.  And  some  of  their  supporters  will 
search  about  for  another  party  for  whom  to  cast  their  votes. 
The  popular  support  of  a  democratic  Ministry  necessarily  tends 
to  wear  away;  and  it  is  probable  that  it  was  this  general 
discontent  among  the  Mimsterial  electors  which  was  the  real 
cause  of  what  appeared  to  be  opposite  tendencies.  The  excep- 
tion is  to  be  found,  of  course,  in  the  supporters  of  the  Clerical 
Party,  whose  political  fidelity  was  proverbial.  It  is  noteworthy 
that  it  was  not  the  most  extreme  parties  of  all,  the  German 
Nationals  and  the  Communists,  who  profited  mainly  by  the 
Ministerial  discontent.  It  was  the  German  People's  Party  and 
the  Independent  Socialists  who  profited.  And  it  is  hardly 
necessary  to  point  out  that  a  Democrat  who  was  discontented 
with  the  Government  would  naturally  vote  for  the  German 
People's  Party,  and  that  a  Majority  Socialist  who  was  dis- 
contented with  the  Government  would  naturally  vote  for  an 
Independent  Socialist. 

llie  Majority  Socialists  were  stiU  the  largest  party  in  the 
country,  as  in  the  House,  and  secured  about  5,500,000  votes 
— nearly  1,000,000  more  than  the  respective  totals  of  the 
Independent  Socialists  and  the  Clericals,  whose  strength  was 
about  equal.  The  Democrats  secured  a  little  over  2,000,000 
votes;  whilst  the  two  parties  of  the  Bight  together  secured 
over  7,000,000  votes,  about  equally  divided  between  them. 

The  two  parties  of  the  Bight  had  increased  their  total  vote 
by  no  less  than  3,500,000,  and  the  democratic  vote  had  sunk 
by  about  the  same  number.  The  total  poll  of  the  Majority 
Socialists  had  sunk  by  no  less  than  5,500,000,  whilst  the  poll 
of  the  Minority  Socialists  had  risen  by  more  than  2,500,000. 
When  allowance  is  made  for  the  decrease  in  the  total  poll,  there 
was  virtually  no  difference  in  the  Clerical  poll,  as  compared  with 
January,  1919.  It  will  be  seen  that  as  between  the  non-Socialists 
and  the  Socialists  as  a  whole,  the  position  of  the  non-Socialists 
had  markedly  improved,  and  they  had,  in  fact,  slightlj^  increased 
their  aggregate  poll,  notwithstanding  the  dimmution  of  the 
total  number  of  electors  who  exercised  their  rights. 

Owing  to  the  changes  in  the  relative  strength  of  parties,  it 
was  several  weeks  before  a  Cabinet  could  be  formed ;  and  after 
sevendpoliticians  had  attempted  in  vain  to  form  a  new  Cabinet, 
Herr  !Fehrenbach,  one  of  the  most  respected  leaders  of  the 


186]         FOBEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTOEY.         [1920. 

Clerical  Party,  succeeded  in  doing  so.  What  nught  have  been 
an  extremely  unstable  Parliamentary  position  was  avoided  by 
the  good  sense  shown  by  the  German  People's  Party,  who  were 
led  by  Herr  Stresemann.  The  German  People's  Party  decided 
to  abandon  their  position  of  opposition  and  their  association 
with  the  Conservatives,  and  agreed  to  unite  with  the  Clericals 
and  Democrats  to  form  a  Government.  The  Majority  Socialists 
would  not  actually  join  a  Ministry  which  included  the  German 
People's  Party,  but  they  agreed  to  lend  the  new  Government 
their  general  support  in  the  Beichstag.  Thus  it  came  about  that 
twenty  months  after  the  Bevolution  an  entirely  non-Socialist 
Government  came  into  power  in  Germany,  though  it  was  true 
that  the  new  Government  depended  partly  upon  the  support  of 
the  Majority  Socialists,  whose  moderation,  however,  made  them 
more  comparable  to  the  Badical-Socialists  of  France  and  to 
Badicals  in  other  countries,  than  to  the  Socialist  parties  of  most 
other  countries  in  Europe.  The  new  German  Prime  Minister, 
Herr  Constantin  Fehrenbach,  was  bom  in  1852,  and  entered 
the  Bavarian  Parliament  as  a  Catholic  and  a  representative 
of  Freiburg  when  he  was  about  thirty  years  of  age.  He  was 
elected  to  the  Beichstag  in  1903  and  he  became  President  of 
that  House  in  1918.  And  in  1919  he  became  President  of  the 
National  Assembly. 

Herr  Fehrenbach  was  able  to  form  a  strong  Cabinet  from 
the  personal  point  of  view.  Herr  Heinze  became  Vice-Premier 
and  Minister  for  Justice,  Dr.  Simons  became  Foreign  Minister, 
Herr  Wirth  became  Minister  of  Finance,  Herr  Eoch  was 
Minister  of  the  Interior,  and  Herr  Giesbeits  was  Minister  of 
Posts.  Herr  Noske  was  not  a  member  of  the  new  Cabinet. 
I  The  new  Prime  Minister  made  his  first  declaration  to  the 

,  Beichstag  on  June  28,  and  declared  that  so  long  as  the  formerly 

hostile  States  refused  to  modify  the  Treaty  of  Versailles,  the 
German  Government  could  have  no  other  poUcy  than  to 
endeavour  to  the  best  of  their  ability  to  carry  out  the  terms 
of  that  Treaty. 

At  the  meeting  of  the  Supreme  Council  at  San  Bemo  in 
April  it  was  decided  to  invite  the  German  Government  to  a 
Conference  at  Spa,  in  Belgium,  in  prder  to  settle  the  questions 
relating  to  disarmament  and  reparations  which  arose  under  the 
terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Versailles.  The  Spa  Conference  was 
held  during  the  first  half  of  July,  and  Herr  Fehrenbach  himself 
attended  the  Conference  at  which  it  will  be  remembered  Mr. 
Lloyd  George  and  M.  Millerand  were  also  present.  Before 
going  into  the  Conference  with  the  Germans  the  Allies  agreed 
amongst  themselves  as  to  the  proportions  of  the  total  German 
reparation  which  should  be  allotted  to  each  of  the  Allied 
countries.  Thus  France  was  to  receive  52  per  cent.,  the 
British  Empire  22  per  cent.,  Italy  10  per  cent.,  Belgium  8  per 
cent.,  and  Serbia  6  per  cent.,  the  small  remaining  proportion 
to  be  divided  amongst  other  claimants.    Apart  from  her  8  per 


iwo.]  Germany.  [187 

cent.  Belgium  was  to  have  the  privilege  of  transferring  her 
entire  war  debt  to  Germany's  shoulders,  and  she  was  also  to 
have  a  prior  claim  upon  the  first  100,000,000Z.  paid  by  Germany. 
These  proportions  were  settled,  but  the  total  amount  to  be  paid 
by  Germany  was  not  decided. 

The  Conference  was  to  have  been  opened  on  July  5,  and  a 
preliminary  sitting  was  in  fact  held  on  that  da^,  but  owing  to 
the  non-arrival  of  Herr  Gessler,  the  German  Mimster  of  Defence, 
it  was  not  possible  to  proceed  with  the  serious  consideration 
of  the  first  subject  on  the  agenda,  which  was  the  question  of 
German  disarmament.  The  Conference  was  held  under  the 
presidency  of  the  Bel^an  Prime  Minister,  M.  Delacroix,  and 
the  Belgian  Foreign  Mmister,  M.  Hymans,  also  attended.  The 
British  representatives,  in  addition  to  Mr.  Lloyd  George  him- 
self, were  Liord  Curzon  and  Sir  L.  Worthington-Evans.  The 
chief  Italian  representative  was  Count  Sforza,  the  distinguished 
and  successful  Foreign  Minister.  The  German  Premier  was 
accompanied  by  Dr.  Simons  and  Herr  Wirth. 

On  the  following  day  Herr  Gessler  arrived,  and  he  proceeded 
at  once  to  make  a  formal  request  that  the  100,000  men,  which 
was  the  limit  of  the  German  Army  allowed  by  the  Treaty, 
should  continue  to  be  exceeded,  on  the  ground  that  it  was  im- 
possible for  the  Government  to  keep  order  with  such  a  small 
force.  Mr.  Lloyd  George  then  explained  the  reasons  for  the 
Allies'  anxiety.  He  said  that  the  Treaty  allowed  Germany 
100,000  men,  100,000  rifles,  and  2,000  machine-guns.  Germany, 
however,  still  possessed  a  Begular  Army  of  200,000  men,  and 
also  possessed  50,000  machine-guns,  and  12,000  guns.  More- 
over, she  had  only  surrendered  1,500,000  rifles,  although  it  was 
obvious  that  there  must  be  millions  of  rifles  in  the  country. 
During  the  discussions  on  the  following  days  it  transpired  from 
statements  made  by  the  chief  of  the  General  Staff  himself, 
Greneral  von  Seeckt,  that  in  addition  to  the  Beichswehr  there 
were  various  other  organised  forces  in  Germany  such  as  the 
Einwohnerwehr  and  i£e  Sicherheitspolizei.  The  Einwohner- 
wehr  alone  appear  to  have  numbered  over  500,000  men .  General 
von  Seeckt  proposed  that  the  Begular  Army  should  be  reduced 
gradually  to  100,000  men  by  October,  1921.  A  discussion  upon 
this  matter  took  place  between  the  Allies,  and  it  was  decided 
that  Grermany  should  be  given  until  January  1,  1921,  to  reduce 
the  strength  of  the  Beichswehr  to  the  Treaty  figure  of  100,000 
men.  The  exact  conditions  laid  down  were  that  Germany 
should  reduce  the  Beichswehr  to  150,000  men  by  October  1, 
withdraw  the  arms  of  the  Einwohnerwehr  and  the  Sicherheits- 
polizei, and  issue  a  proclamation  demanding  the  surrender  of 
all  arms  in  the  hands  of  the  civilian  population,  with  effective 

Senalties  in  the  event  of  default.    On  July  9  the  German 
elegates  signed  the  agreement  embodying  these  stipulations 
in  regard  to  disarmament. 

llie  later  sittings  of  the  Conference  were  concerned  with 


188]         FOREIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTORY.        [i9ao. 

the  question  of  the  trial  of  the  Gennan  "war-criminals/'  the 
delivery  of  coal  as  a  form  of  reparation,  and  various  other 
financial  matters.  It  was  the  question  of  coal  which  required 
the  closest  attention,  largely  owing  to  the  extreme  need  of 
France  for  supplies  of  coal,  and  the  agreement  relating  to  this 
matter  was  signed  on  July  16.  It  was  decided  that  for  six 
months  after  August  1  the  German  Government  should  deliver 
up  2,000,000  tons  of  coal  per  month. 

The  question  of  the  war-criminaJs  referred  to  above  had 
been  under  discussion  since  the  beginning  of  the  year.  It  will 
be  remembered  that  the  Treaty  of  Versailles  had  required  that 
certain  persons  with  an  especially  evil  record  in  the  war  should 
be  handed  over  to  the  Allies.  And  lists  of  the  chief  persons 
coming  under  the  heading  of  "  war-criminals  "  were  published 
by  the  Allied  Governments  at  the  end  of  January.  The  hsts 
included  a  number  of  very  well-known  persons,  such  as  the 
Crown  Prince  Rupprecht  of  Bavaria,  Field-Marshal  von 
Mackensen,  General  von  Elluck,  Admiral  von  Tirpitz,  and 
Admiral  von  Capelle.  It  will  be  remembered,  however,  that 
the  Ex-Emperor  William  had  fled  to  Holland,  and  since  the 
Dutch  Government  definitely  declined  to  hand  him  over  to  the 
Allies  (see  The  Netherlands),  it  was  generally  held,  especially  in 
Great  Britain,  that  it  was  difficult  to  press  forward  very  vigor- 
ously with  the  punishment  of  those  who,  however  important 
their  positions,  had  only  been  the  Emperor's  servants.  It  was 
therefore  subsequently  decided  that  the  German  Government 
itself  should  be  mstructed  to  proceed  with  the  punishment  of 
the  war-criminals  concerned.  But  it  transpired  at  Spa  that 
the  German  Government  had  been  extremely  dilatory  in  taking 
the  necessary  proceedings. 

The  last  five  months  of  the  year  were  much  less  eventful  in 
Germany.  The  country  was  still  suffering  from  a  shortage  of 
food,  though  not  in  the  acute  degree  which  was  so  painfully 
characteristic  of  Austria  and  also  of  some  of  the  other  countries 
farther  east.  The  German  Government  appear  to  have  made 
serious  efforts  to  comply  with  their  Treaty  obligations  regarding 
disarmament  and  reparation.  For  instance,  in  the  three  weeks 
following  the  Spa  Conference  over  4,000  heavy  guns  and  field 
guns  were  destroyed ;  and  measures  were  taken  to  obtain  the 
very  large  number  of  arms  which  existed  all  over  the  country 
in  the  hands  of  the  civilian  population.  Great  numbers  of 
livestock  were  also  handed  over  to  the  Allies.  Thus  France 
received  from  Germany  (up  to  November  30)  over  30,000  horses, 
over  65,000  cattle,  and  over  100,000  sheep.  And  Belgium  re- 
ceived, up  to  the  same  date,  6,000  horses,  67,000  cattle,  and 
36,000  sheep. 

The  financial  position  of  the  country  remained  extremely 
serious.  The  total  national  debt  (funded  debt  and  floating  debt) 
amounted  to  200,000,000,000  marks,  that  is,  10,000,000,000i. 
sterling  at  the  old  pre-war  rate  of  exchange.    The  anticipated 


1090.]  Germany.  [189 

Bevenue  for  the  year  1920-21  was  27,950,000,000  marks,  and 
the  anticipated  Ordinary  Expenditure  was  23,800,000,000  marks. 
There  was,  however,  also  an  anticipated  Extraordinary  Expendi- 
ture of  no  less  than  11,600,000,000  marks.  And  a  heavy  deficit 
on  the  railways  was  expected.  The  exchange  value  of  the  mark 
had  fallen  disastrously  since  the  armistice,  and  though  it  rose 
towards  the  end  of  the  year,  the  mark  was  still  reckoned  at  over 
200  to  the  poimd  sterling  in  December. 

Various  statistics  of  population  were  pubUshed  during  the 
year.  Amon^;  other  sigmficant  features,  it  was  stated  that  the 
number  of  children  under  five  years  of  age,  in  the  whole  of  the 
territories  of  the  former  HohenzoUem  Empire,  had  sunk  from 
8,000,000  in  1911  to  6,000,000  in  1919. 

The  most  favourable  feature  in  the  German  situation  was 
undoubtedly  the  steadfast  resistance  of  the  people  as  a  whole 
to  the  spread  of  Bolshevism.  And  in  overcoming  the  first 
wave  of  extremism,  the  country  owed  more  to  Herr  Gustav 
Noske  than  to  any  other  man.  After  resigning  from  the 
Cabinet,  Herr  Noske  became  President  of  the  province  of 
Hanover. 

AUSTRIA. 

As  explained  in  the  last  number  of  the  Annual  Bbgistbb, 
the  breakmg  away  of  all  the  outlying  provinces  of  the  Austro- 
Hungarian  Empire  from  the  small  German  core  of  Austria — 
the  country  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Vienna — left  the  great 
Imperial  capital  in  a  situation  which  was  desperate  and  almost 
insupportable.  Before  the  war  Vienna  was  the  centre  of  the 
second  largest  empire  in  Europe.  It  was  now  left  stifling  as 
the  centre  of  a  few  counties  whose  resources,  agricultural  and 
otherwise,  were  only  sufficient  at  the  best  to  support  a  moderate- 
sized  provincial  town.  And  the  predicament  in  which  the 
Viennese  found  themselves  was  aggravated  in  a  high  degree  by 
the  hostile  attitude  towards  Austna  which  the  succession  states 
(as  the  new  countries  were  called)  took  up.  Czecho-Slovakia, 
Jugo-Slavia,  and  even  Hungary  maintained  a  virtual  blockade 
against  unhappy  Austria,  and  there  was  extremely  little  com- 
mercial intercourse  between  these  territories  and  Austria, 
although  before  the  war  they  were  the  districts  from  which  the 
capital  mainly  drew  its  supplies  of  food.  Moreover,  the  in- 
dustries and  finances  of  Austria  herself  were  suffering  from  a 
hopeless  break-down.  The  desperate  economic  situation  of 
the  country  overshadowed  every  other  interest  in  Austria 
during  the  year. 

After  the  abdication  of  the  Emperor  Charles,  a  political 
organisation  was  brought  into  existence,  and  the  leaders  of  the 
Bepublic  were  doing  their  best  to  make  this  organisation 
function,  notwithstanding  the  adverse  conditions.  A  Parlia- 
ment had  been  instituted,  and  the  Chairman  of  this  Parliament 
I>r«   Seitz,   acted  as  President  of  the  Bepublic.    A  General 


190]         FOEEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTOBY,        [1920. 

Election  had  been  held  in  February,  1919,  which  had  resulted 
in  the  return  of  a  majority  of  non-Socialists  over  Socialists ; 
but  a  coahtion  Ministry  had  been  formed,  under  the  premier- 
ship of  Dr.  Karl  Benner,  who  was  himself  a  Social  Democrat. 

At  the  end  of  January  a  census  of  the  population  of  the 
Bepublic  of  Austria,  as  defined  by  the  Treaty  of  St.  Germain, 
was  taken.  The  area  of  the  new  Austria,  including  the  small 
territory  ceded  by  Hungaiy,  was  just  over  32,000  square  miles. 
The  population  of  the  Bepublic  was  approximately  6,412,000  of 
whom  1,842,000  were  in  Vienna  itself.  In  regard  to  the  pro- 
vinces, about  3,300,000  lived  in  the  province  of  Lower  Austria. 

During  the  year  there  were  no  such  striking  poUtical 
changes  as  occurred  in  Germany.  But  in  June  the  difficulty 
which  had  long  been  experienced  in  holding  the  coalition 
Government  together  led  at  last  to  a  Cabinet  crisis,  and  Dr. 
Benner  resigned.  The  country  was  without  a  Government  for 
nearly  a  month ;  but  on  July  3  a  new  Coalition  Cabinet  was 
formed  in  which  the  leadership  now  fell  to  the  Christian 
Sociahsts  instead  of  to  the  Social  Democrats.  Dr.  Mayer,  a 
Christian  Socialist,  became  Prime  Minister,  but  Dr.  Benner 
remained  in  Office  as  Foreign  Minister.  It  was  arranged  that 
a  General  Election  should  be  held  as  soon  as  possible. 

The  General  Election  was  not  held,  however,  until  October  17. 
Four  parties  took  part  in  the  contest :  the  German  Nationalists 
or  Conservatives;  the  Christian  Socialists  or  Clericals  (who 
were  closely  comparable  to  the  Christian  People's  Party  in 
Germany) ;  the  Social  Democrats ;  and  the  Communists,  who 
were  comparable  to  the  Spartacists  of  Germany.  The  Com- 
munists suffered  a  complete  rout,  and  it  was  reported  that  they 
polled  less  than  li  per  cent,  of  the  voters  in  Vienna.  Among 
the  other  parties  the  Clericals  improved  their  position  and 
obtained  eighty-two  seats  in  the  House.  Both  the  Conserva- 
tives and  the  Socialists  lost,  the  Conservatives  obtaining  twenty 
seats  and  the  Socialists  sixty-six.  Seven  Independent  Deputies 
were  elected.  Thus  109  non-Socialists  were  elected  as  against 
sixty-six  Sociahsts ;  and  the  result  of  the  election  was  to  con- 
firm the  Clericals  in  power.  Dr.  Mayer  remained  Premier  and 
took  the  portfoho  of  Foreign  Affairs.  There  were  no  Socialists 
in  the  Cabinet.  In  December  Dr.  Michael  Hainsch  was  elected 
President  of  the  Bepubhc  in  succession  to  Dr.  Seitz. 

I  On  October  10  polling  took  place  in  Zone  A  of  the  Elagen- 
furt  plebiscite  area,  in  Carinthia,  and  resulted  in  an  overwhelm- 
ing majority  for  Austria.  The  plebiscite  led  to  a  remarkable 
occupation  by  Serbian  troops  (see  Jugo-Slavia). 

The  ratification  of  the  Treaty  of  St.  Germain  took  place  in 
Paris  on  July  16.  The  delegate  sent  by  Austria  for  the  final 
signature  was  Herr  Eichoff. 

As  already  stated  the  financial  situation  of  the  country  was 
desperate.  This  was  expressed  in  the  rate  of  exchange  of  the 
Austrian  crown.  At  the  end  of  the  year  the  value  of  the  crown 
bad  sunk  to  over  2,000  to  the  pound  sterling. 


iMO.]  Russia.  [191 

CHAPTER  IV. 

BUSSIA — POLAND— LITHUANIA — UKBAINIA — FINLAND — BBTHONIA 
—  LBTTLAND  —  DANZIG  —  CZECHO-BLOVAKIA  —  HUNGABT  — 
BUICANIA — ^JUQO-BLAVIA — ^TUBKBY — GBEBCE — THE  MINOB 
STATES  OF  SOUTH-EASTEBN  EX7B0FE. 

■ 

BUSSIA. 

The  opening  of  the  year  1920  found  M.  Lenin's  Bolshevik 
GoYemment  still  in  power,  and  in  a  stronger  position  than  it 
had  ever  been  since  the  extremists  seized  control  of  affairs  at 
the  end  of  1917.  As  pointed  out  in  previous  numbers  of  the 
Annual  Begisteb,  M.  Lenin's  Bolshevik  State,  as  established 
by  the  Treaty  of  Brest-Litovsk  in  the  spring  of  1918,  had 
corresponded  rather  to  the  old  historic  State  of  Muscovy  than 
to  the  Itussian  Empire  of  the  18th,  19th,  and  early  20th  centuries. 
The  Bolshevik  State  had  at  first  been  confined  to  central  Bussia, 
and  not  only  had  the  foreign  border  states,  such  as  Finland  and 
Poland,  fallen  away,  but  the  great  province  of  Ukrainia  (or 
Little  Bussia)  had  refused  to  recognise  Lenin's  Government,  and 
an  anti-Bolshevik  Government  had  also  been  established  in 
Siberia.  Moreover,  anti-Bolshevik  forces  actually  invaded  the 
territory  of  the  new  Muscovite  Republic.  Of  these  latter  forces 
the  most  important  was  an  army  under  General  Denikin,  which 
was  operating  in  South  Bussia  and  was  based  upon  the  Black 
Seaports. 

During  the  year  1919  the  Bolshevik  State  had  been  assailed 
from  all  points  of  the  compass,  and  General  Denikin's  Army 
in  particular  had  at  first  attained  considerable  success ;  but  as 
the  year  progressed  the  Bolshevik  Army  had  defeated  all  their 
enemies  m  turn,  and  at  the  close  of  the  year  they  had  advanced 
hundreds  of  miles  into  Siberia,  and,  having  inflicted  a  defeat 
upon  Denikin  in  December,  they  were  also  advancing  towards 
the  Black  Sea. 

The  head  of  the  Siberian  State  was  a  certain  Admiral 
Koltchak,  who  had  from  the  first  been  one  of  the  most  vigorous 
opponents  of  Bolshevism,  and  during  the  first  half  of  1919  he 
had  led  an  advance  into  European  Bussia.  In  July,  however, 
he  had  suffered  a  severe  defeat,  and  after  a  disastrous  retreat 
eastwards,  his  capital  of  Omsk  had  been  lost,  and  he  was  com- 
pelled to  remove  his  headquarters  to  Irkutsk.  At  the  end  of 
December  the  Bolshevik  Armies  were  700  miles  east  of  Omsk ; 
and  on  January  8  a  battle  was  fought  at  Krasnoyarsk  (800  miles 
east  of  Omsk)  and  the  remnants  of  KoltchiJc's  Army  were 
routed,  and  surrendered  to  the  advancing  Bolsheviks.  According 
to  the  Bolshevik  reports,  about  70,000  men  were  captured  after 
this  battle. 

After  the  defeat  of  Koltchak  in  July,  the  Bolshevik  Minister 
of  War,  M.  Trotsky,  was  able  to  concentrate  his  main  forces 


192]         FOEEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HI8T0BY.         twa(^ 

against  Denikin.  In  the  autumn  of  1919  Denikin  reached  as  far 
north  as  Orel,  and  as  far  to  the  north-west  as  Eiejff,  which  the 
Ukrainians  had  lost  to  the  Muscovites.  In  December,  how- 
ever, Denikin  suffered  a  series  of  disastrous  defeats,  and  at  the 
end  of  the  year  he  was  in  full  retreat  towards  his  bases  on  the 
Black  Sea.  On  January  3  the  Bolsheviks  made  a  daring  ad- 
vance against  Denikin' s  right  wing.  They  crossed  the  Volga 
on  the  ice  and  stormed  the  great  town  of  Tsaritsyn,  which  had 
been  a  place  of  great  importance  to  Denikin  in  that  it  had  been 
the  seat  of  a  large  French  gun  factory.  On  January  5  the 
Bolsheviks  reached  the  coast  of  the  Sea  of  Azoff  at  Mariupol, 
and  on  the  following  day  cavalry,  under  the  command  of  the 
now  famous  Bolshevik  leader.  General  Budenny,  entered 
Taganrog.  Novo-Tcherksk,  the  capital  of  the  Don  Cossacks, 
was  taken  on  Januaoy  7,  and  Bostoff  fell  on  January  10.  After 
these  successes  the  advance  was  somewhat  less  rapid  and  the 
Bolsheviks  did  not  reach  Odessa  imtil  February  8. 

Whilst  the  Bolsheviks  were  achieving  these  successes  in  the 
south,  the  last  stages  of  the  Koltchak  tragedy  were  being  played 
in  Siberia.  At  the  end  of  December,  after  the  Siberian  Govern- 
ment had  been  compelled  to  flee  from  Omsk  to  Irkutsk,  an 
insurrection  against  Koltchak' s  Government  broke  out  at  the 
latter  town.  The  leaders  of  the  rebellion  called  themselves 
Social  Bevolutionaries,  but  the^  seem  to  have  had  little  in 
common  with  the  Socisbl  Bevolutionary  Party  which  had  existed 
in  European  Bussia  in  1917  and  1918,  and  which  had  been 
genuinely  anti-Bolshevik  in  its  tendencies.  These  new  Social 
Bevolutionaries  at  Irkutsk  appear  to  have  been  hardly  dis- 
tinguishable from  the  Bolsheviks  themselves.  After  the  final 
defeat  of  Koltchak' s  forces  at  Krasnoyarsk,  the  unfortunate 
Admiral  was  left  at  the  mercy  of  the  traitors,  rebels,  and 
Bolshevik  enemies  by  whom  he  was  surrounded.  There  was 
at  Irkutsk  a  large  force  of  Czecho-Slovak  troops,  which  was 
reported  to  number  40,000  men.  Czech  forces  had  been  in 
Siberia  for  several  years,  having  been  constituted  in  the  first 
instance  from  liberated  prisoners  of  war  taken  by  the  Bussians 
from  the  old  Austro-Hungarian  Army.  Some  of  these  Czecho- 
slovak troops  had  shown  remarkable  valour  in  fighting  against 
the  Bolsheviks.  But  in  the  face  of  the  advance  from  Krasnoyarsk, 
they  showed  an  extraordinary  lack  of  their  former  courage. 

After  the  destruction  of  Koltchak' s  force  at  Krasnoyarsk, 
the  Czech  contingent  was  the  only  organised  anti-Bolshevik 
Army  west  of  Lake  Baikal.  The  so-called  Social  Bevolutionaries 
demanded  that  the  Czechs  should  hand  over  Admiral  Koltchak 
to  them.  Faced  by  the  advance  of  the  Bolsheviks  in  over- 
whelming numbers,  and  surrounded  by  the  armed  mob  of 
Social  Bevolutionaries,  who  were  obviously  in  league  with  the 
Bolsheviks,  the  Bohemians  became  panic-stricken.  The  Czech 
leaders  decided  to  surrender  Admiral  Koltchak,  well  knowing 
taht  he  would  be  tried  for  his  life.    Their  action  in  doing  so 


1990.]  Bttssia,  [193 

naturally  caused  considerable  criticism  in  Europe;  but  the 
Czechs  alleged  in  excuse  that  they  were  themselves  in  an  in- 
defensible position,  and  that  they  would  have  been  annihilated 
if  they  had  refused  to  comply  with  the  Social  Bevolutionary 
demand.  Moreover,  the  Czechs  alleged  that  the  French  Com- 
missioner at  Irkutsk,  General  Janin,  authorised  them  to  deliver 
up  Koltchak  to  the  Social  Bevolutionaries.  It  should  be  said 
that  there  was  a  small  Japanese  contingent  at  Irkutsk,  and  that 
the  Japanese  commanders  endeavoured  to  intervene  to  save 
Koltchak  and  to  prevent  the  Czech  betrayal. 

Admiral  Koltchak  was,  however,  handed  over  to  the 
Bevolutionaries,  and  when  the  Bolsheviks  themselves  arrived  at 
Irkutsk  at  the  end  of  January,  the  Social  Bevolutionaries  at 
once  gave  the  Siberian  leader  into  the  hands  of  his  arch-enemies. 
The  Solsheviks  proceeded  to  carry  out  the  usual  semblance  of 
a  trial,  and  Admiral  Koltchak  and  his  Prime  Minister,  M. 
Pepelaie£F,  were  condemned  to  death.  They  were  shot  at  Irkutsk 
on  February  7  (see  Obituary). 

The  Social  Bevolutionaries,  having  seized  possession  of 
Irkutsk,  did  not  remain  west  of  Lake  Baikal,  but  proceeded  to 
take  possession  of  Eastern  Siberia,  and  they  arrived  at  Vladi- 
vostOKsk  under  the  red  flag  on  January  31.  The  leader  of  the 
Constitutionalist  forces  east  of  Lake  Baikal,  a  certain  General 
Semenoff,  appears  to  have  been  unable  to  offer  any  serious 
resistance  to  them. 

The  Bolsheviks  entered  Archangel,  which  had  been  evacu- 
ated by  the  British  in  the  previous  year,  on  February  20. 

The  formidable  increase  in  power  of  the  Soviet  Government 
which  was  made  so  manifest  by  the  defeats  of  Koltchak  and 
Denikin,  naturally  attracted  the  attention  of  the  civilised 
Governments  of  the  world.  It  will  be  remembered  that  a 
meeting  of  the  Supreme  Council  was  held  in  London  at  the 
end  of  February  (see  English  History),  and  after  the  meeting  a 
memorandum  was  issued  regarding  the  policy  of  the  Allies  in 
Bussia.    In  this  memorandum  it  was  stated  inter  cUia,  that — 

"  If  the  conmiunities  which  border  on  the  frontiers  of  Soviet 
Bussia  and  whose  independence  or  de  facto  autonomy  they  have 
recognised  were  to  approach  them  and  to  ask  for  advice  as  to 
what  attitude  they  should  take  with  regard  to  Soviet  Bussia, 
the  Allied  Governments  would  reply  that  they  cannot  accept 
the  responsibility  of  advising  them  to  continue  a  war  which  may 
be  injurious  to  tibeir  own  interest. 

"Still  less  would  they  advise  them  to  adopt  a  policy  of 
aggression  towards  Bussia.  If,  however,  Soviet  Bussia  attacks 
them  inside  their  legitimate  frontiers,  the  Allies  will  give  them 
every  possible  support. 

''  The  Allies  cannot  enter  into  diplomatic  relations  with  the 
Soviet  Government,  in  view  of  their  past  experiences,  until  they 
have  arrived  at  the  conviction  that  Bolshevik  horrors  have 
come  to  an  end  and  that  the  Government  of  Moscow  is  ready 

N 


194]         FOEEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTORY.         [I92a 

to  conform  its  methods  and  diplomatic  conduct  to  those  of  all 
civilised  Governments. 

"  The  British  and  Swiss  Governments  were  both  compelled 
to  expel  representatives  of  the  Soviet  Government  from  their 
respective  countries  because  they  had  abused  their  privileges." 

The  policy  of  ostracising  Bussia  was  carried  on  during  the 
year  with  varying  completeness  by  the  civilised  Governments. 
The  most  rigid  attitude  was  taken  up  by  the  French  and 
American  Governments,  whilst  the  British  Government  was 
inclined  to  vacillate,  and  the  ItaUan  Government,  after  Signor 
Giolitti  came  into  power,  were  in  favour  of  concluding  full 
peace  with  the  Soviet  Government.  Much  the  most  important 
development  during  the  latter  half  of  the  year  was  the  very 
serious  war  which  broke  out  between  Bussia  and  Poland, 
which  will  be  foimd  described  in  full  elsewhere  (see  Poland), 
and  it  was  the  grave  danger  which  thus  ensued  for  one  of  the 
most  important  states  created  by  the  Paris  Conference,  which 
was  the  most  important  factor  in  keeping  the  British  and 
Italian  Governments  more  or  less  in  line  with  French  policy, 
which  was  one  of  consistent  and  determined  hostihty  to 
Bolshevism  and  all  its  works.  The  victories  over  Koltchak 
and  Denikin  had  enlarged  the  sphere  of  Bolshevism  from  the 
limits  of  Muscovy  to  something  approaching  the  extent  of 
Imperial  Bussia.  Indeed  if  we  tried  to  simunarise  in  a  sentence 
the  most  important  developments  in  eastern  Europe  during  the 
year,  we  should  have  to  say  that  Muscovy  had  once  more 
become  Bussia. 

At  the  end  of  March  the  Bolsheviks  took  Denikin' s  last 
base  at  Novo-Bossisk ;  and  General  Denikin  himself  was  forced 
to  retire  to  England.  Later  in  the  year  two  other  attempts 
were  made  by  anti-Bolshevik  Busdans  to  rescue  parts  of  Bussia 
from  Bolshevism  by  force  of  arms.  The  first  attempt  was  made 
in  the  summer  b^  General  Wrangel,  who  started  operations  in 
the  Crimea  durmg  the  most  active  part  of  the  campaign 
between  the  Bussians  and  the  Poles.  He  had  some  support 
from  France.  General  Wrangel  at  first  had  some  success  and 
broke  out  from  the  Crimea.  But  in  November  the  Bolsheviks 
concentrated  their  forces  against  him  and  he  was  severely 
defeated,  and  Sevastopol  itself  was  taken.  The  other  attempt, 
was  by  a  certain  General  Balahovitch,  who  attempted  in  the 
autumn  to  establish  an  independent  state  of  White  Bussia, 
comprising  the  large  Bussian  provinces  lying  immediately  to 
the  east  of  Poland ;  but  after  the  conclusion  of  the  armistice 
between  Bussia  and  Poland,  General  Balahovitch  was  also 
completely  defeated  by  the  Soviet  troops.  Neither  General 
Wrangel  nor  General  Balahovitch  achieved  anything  approach- 
ing the  success  which  had  fallen  temporaxily  to  Admiral 
Koltchak  and  to  General  Denikin. 

Notwithstanding  the  ostracism  of  Bussia  by  the  Allied 
Governments,  there  was  not  a  complete  lack  of  official  inter- 


1920.]  Russia,  [196 

course  between  Great  Britain  and  Bussia.  Thus  early  in  the 
year  negotiations  took  place  in  Copenhagen  between  Mr. 
O'Orady  and  a  certain  M.  Litvinoff,  representing  Great  Britain 
and  Bussia  respectively,  regarding  the  reciprocal  repatriation  of 
Bussian  and  British  prisoners  of  war.  These  negotiations  were 
happily  brought  to  a  successful  issue,  and  an  agreement  was 
signed  on  February  11.  During  the  summer  also,  a  Bolshevik 
emissary,  M.  Erassin,  paid  two  visits  to  London  to  confer  with 
the  British  Government  regarding  the  possibility  of  opening 
trade  relations  between  the  two  countries,  but  in  the  curciun- 
stances  existing  in  Bussia,  nothing  very  definite  could  result 
from  such  negotiations.  Bussia  was  utterly  impoverished,  and 
had  few  commodities  which  she  could  send  in  exchange  for 
British  goods,  her  paper  money  was  valueless  outside  her  own 
territory,  individual  trading  had  been  suppressed  by  the  Soviet 
authorities  on  principle,  and,  moreover,  the  Bolsheviks  could 
not  be  trusted  to  abide  by  their  own  undertakings. 

It  would  be  difSicult  to  find  any  parallel  to  the  strange 
position  occupied  by  Bolshevik  Bussia.  A  great  nation  of 
white  men  had  fallen  outside  the  brotherhood  of  civilisation. 
The  Allied  Governments  were  not  formally  at  war  with  Bussia, 
yet  all  ordinary  international  intercourse  with  the  Soviet  terri- 
tory had  ceased.  A  person  designing  to  go  to  Bussia  was  under- 
taUng  a  great  and  most  hazardous  adventure.  And  such  a 
journey  had  taken  on  the  character  of  dangerous  exploration  in 
a  savage  country.  This  complete  lapse  from  all  civilised  codes 
of  thought  and  action  was  manifest  m  the  type  of  warfare  that 
was  waged  by  the  Bolsheviks.  In  a  sense,  all  wars  between 
civilised  nations  are  civil  wars.  The  belligerents  have  common 
standards  of  action,  from  which  they  do  not  depart,  or  if  they 
do  so  depart,  on  a  very  small  scale  compared  to  the  whole 
extent  of  the  fighting  (as  with  the  German  atrocities  in 
Belgium),  there  is  an  immense  outcry,  and  the  accused  party 
feels  immediately  called  upon  to  make  indignant  and  elaborate 
explanations  and  denials.  But  with  African  savages  this  was 
otherwise;  and  it  was  otherwise  with  Bussian  Bolsheviks. 
They  acknowledged  none  of  the  customary  standards  of  con- 
duct ;  and  the  wholesale  slaughter  of  prisoners,  of  civihans,  of 
women  and  even  children  for  which,  accordmg  to  accounts 
received  from  many  different  sources,  they  were  responsible 
made  their  name  a  byword  throughout  the  world,  and  became 
so  well  known  that  civilisation  ceased  to  be  surprised  or  even 
shocked  at  atrocities  committed  by  Bolsheviks.  Cruelty  and 
murder,  on  the  largest  scale,  were  to  be  taken  as  a  matter  of 
course  in  Bussia. 

In  regard  to  the  internal  condition  of  the  country  very  little 
reliable  information  was  available.  The  Soviet  Government 
appear  to  have  established  some  kind  of  order  in  the  towns ; 
life  was  fairly  safe  in  the  streets  of  Moscow  and  Petrograd. 
The  success  of  the  original  Bolshevik  movement  in  1917  had 

h2 


196]         FOREIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTORY.         [1920. 

been  achieved  by  undermining  all  respect  for  any  kind  of  law 
and  order,  and  for  many  months  there  was  no  effective  govern- 
ment whatsoever.  Every  robber  and  murderer  called  himself  a 
Communist,  and  used  his  lethal  weapons  as  he  pleased.  But  as 
time  passed  the  Bolshevik  leaders  did  succeed  in  suppressing 
all  violence  except  their  own,  at  least  in  the  large  towns.  Over 
the  more  remote  rural  districts,  however,  the  authority  of  the 
Soviet  Government  was  apparently  but  little  more  than  nominal. 
The  country  was  not  effectively  policed.  And  the  difficulties  of 
the  Government  in  this  matter  were  increased  by  the  rapid 
decay  of  the  railway  material  inherited  from  Tsarist  Russia,  and 
the  inability  of  the  existing  regime  to  replace  such  material. 
Thus  conmiunications,  always  bad,  were  now  worse  than  ever. 
According  to  the  accounts  of  the  few  travellers  who  emerged 
from  Russia,  the  shortage  of  food  seems  to  have  been  somewhat 
less  severe  than  in  1918  and  1919,  but  our  knowledge  of  this, 
as  of  other  matters,  was  necessarily  imperfect. 

POLAND. 

The  year  1920  was  highly  eventful  for  Poland.  When  the 
Entente  Powers  re-established  the  Polish  State  at  the  end  of 
the  European  War,  they  had  in  view,  firstly,  the  application  of 
the  principles  of  historic  justice,  and  secondly,  the  desire  to 
create  a  strong  State  which  should  act  as  a  protection  of 
civilised  Europe  against  Bolshevik  Russia  and  should  also 
serve  to  separate  Russia  from  Germany  and  thus  to  prevent  the 
dangerously  active  Communist  Party  in  Germany  receiving 
support  from  Soviet  Russia.  And  during  1920  Poland  did,  in 
fact,  serve  as  the  centre  of  the  resistajQce  to  the  spread  of 
Bolshevism.  And,  as  will  be  seen  shortly,  the  value  of  the 
Polish  Armies  proved  in  a  striking  manner  the  wisdom  that  the 
Allied  (and  particularly  the  French)  statesmen  had  shown  when 
they  decided  to  resuscitate  Poland,  not  as  a  truncated  Duchy  of 
Warsaw,  but  in  the  fulness  of  her  provinces. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  the  Treaty  of  Versailles  had 
undone  not  only  the  work  of  the  third  and  second  partitions  of 
Poland,  but  also  very  largely  the  work  of  the  first  great  parti- 
tion of  Poland  in  1772.  Almost  the  whole  of  the  Prussian 
province  of  West  Prussia  had  been  returned  to  Poland,  so  that 
Poland  now  reached  to  the  sea  to  the  west  of  the  city  of 
Danzig.  And  the  important  and  prosperous  province  of  Posen, 
which  had  been  annexed  by  Brandenburg  later  than  West 
Prussia,  and  had  always  remained  more  Poush  than  the  latter 
province,  had  also  been  returned  to  Poland.  In  view  of  the 
events  which  occurred  during  the  year,  it  is  important  to 
remember  that  these  two  populous  and  civilised  provinces  had 
been  re-acquired  by  Poland,  because  the  re-annexations  had  the 
effect  of  shifting  the  Polish  centre  of  gravity  westwards — of 
shifting  it,  in  fact,  almost  to  the  west  of  Warsaw. 


1920.]  Poland.  [197 

At  the  beginning  of  the  year  General  Pilsudski,  who  had 
become  President  of  the  Polish  Bepublic  after  the  armistice  in 
November,  1918,  still  held  that  office.  M.  Paderewski  had 
been  Premier  for  almost  the  whole  of  1919,  but  in  December 
he  had  been  compelled  to  resi^,  owing  to  the  fact  that  he  had 
been  the  apologist  to  the  Pohsh  people  of  the  Entente  scheme 
to  grant  autonomy  to  Eastern  (xalicia,  with  the  possibility  of 
an  eventual  complete  separation  of  that  Butheman  province 
from  Poland.  This  scheme  to  separate  Eastern  Gahcia  was 
extremely  unpopular  both  among  the  Polish  people  in  general 
and  in  tibe  Parliament  at  Warsaw.  M.  Paderewski  was  suc- 
ceeded as  Premier  by  M.  Skulski.  M.  S.  Patek  was  Foreign 
Minister. 

During  1919  the  Poles  had  been  waging  warfare  almost  un- 
ceasingly against  the  Bolsheviks,  but  during  that  ^ear  the  main 
efforts  of  me  Muscovites  had  been  directed  agamst  Koltchak 
and  Denikin,  rather  than  against  General  Pilsudski's  forces. 
There  is  little  doubt  that  the  great  majority  of  the  Polish  people 
wished  to  re-establish  the  frontier  against  Bussia  as  it  had 
existed  before  1772,  which  would,  of  course,  have  carried  the 
Polish  borders  far  to  the  east  of  Minsk,  and  to  the  east  of 
Vitebsk  and  Mohilev,  and  this  demand  was  formally  adopted 
by  the  National  Democratic  Party  in  the  Diet.  In  the  matter 
of  this  particular  demand,  the  sympathies  of  observers  in 
Western  Europe  were  divided.  It  was  pointed  out  with  truth 
that  the  provinces  annexed  by  Bussia  in  1772  were  peopled  by 
Bussians,  and  had  been  seized  by  Poland  in  the  days  of 
Bussia' s  weakness.  On  the  principle  of  nationality,  therefore, 
these  Eastern  provinces  belonged  by  right  to  Bussia  rather 
than  to  Poland.  But  on  the  other  hand,  it  was  pointed  out 
that  in  the  circumstances  now  existing,  it  was  certainly  to  the 
advantage  of  these  West  Bussian  provinces  to  come  under  the 
alien  but  civilised  jurisdiction  of  Poland,  rather  than  to  be  the 
prey  of  the  kindied,  but  now  horribly  degenerate,  state  of 
Muscovy. 

The  miUtary  operations  which  were  proceeding  in  January 
were  favourable  to  the  Polish  Armies.  On  January  4,  a  Polish 
Army,  acting  in  conjunction  with  the  Letts,  captured  the  town 
of  Dvinsk,  which  was  not  only  an  important  success  in  itself, 
but  had  the  effect  of  uniting  the  Polish  and  Lettish  Armies 
which  had  hitherto  been  separated  by  a  strip  of  Lithuanian 
territory — and  Lithuania,  which  went  in  fear  of  Poland,  was 
by  no  means  whole-hearted  in  the  anti-Bolshevik  cause.  At 
the  same  time  the  Poles  advanced  towards  the  south-east  with 
the  object  of  rescuing  Kieff,  which  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of 
the  Bolsheviks  after  the  defeat  of  Denikin.  The  advance  in 
this  direction  was  at  first  very  rapid,  and  the  town  of  Jitomir 
was  captured  on  January  5. 


198]         FOBEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTOBY.         [1920. 

During  February  tentative  peace  negotiations  were  opened 
with  Bussia,  but  at  this  time  the  majority  of  the  leading  Poles 
were  not  especially  desirous  of  concluding  peace.  As  already 
stated  the  National  Democratic  Party  in  the  Diet  desired  to  see 
the  frontier  of  1772  restored,  but  General  Pilsudski  himself 
thought  that  this  demand  would  be  excessive ;  and  he  advocated 
that  a  chain  of  buffer  States  should  be  constituted  between 
Bussia  and  Poland.  The  negotiations  were  prolonged  through 
February  and  March,  but  without  any  definite  result. 

After  the  ratification  of  the  Treaty  of  Versailles  on  January  15, 
Poland  was  authorised  by  the  Supreme  Council  to  take  over 
the  part  of  the  Province  of  West  Prussia,  as  far  as  the  sea-coast 
north-west  of  Danzig,  which  had  been  definitely  ceded  by 
Germany  under  the  terms  of  the  Treaty.  The  great  German 
fortress  city  of  Thorn  was  entered  by  a  body  of  Polish  cavalry 
on  January  18,  and  the  Polish  troops  of  occupation  then 
marched  slowly  forwards  towards  the  coast,  which  they  were 
due  to  reach  on  February  5.  The  coast-line  thus  acquired  by 
Poland  was  over  40  miles  in  length.  The  German  Governor 
of  Thorn,  in  leaving  the  city,  reminded  his  compatriots  there 
that  Thorn  had  been  built  by  the  Germans,  though  they  were 
now  obliged  to  leave  it.  He  bade  them,  however,  to  be  of  good 
cheer,  and  to  look  forward  to  the  dawn  of  a  brighter  day. 

The  peace  negotiations  with  Bussia  having  produced  no 
results,  the  Polish  Government  prepared  in  Apnl  to  march 
eastward  and  take  possession  of  the  provinces  which  they  had 
not  obtained  by  negotiation  and  which  were  suffering  from  the 
Bolshevik  terror.  For  ten  days  in  the  latter  half  of  April  the 
Polish  western  frontiers  were  closed  to  ordinary  postal,  tele- 
graphic, and  railway  traffic ;  and  great  preparations  for  an 
offensive  were  made.  On  April  27  the  blow  was  delivered,  the 
chief  offensive  being  imdertaken  south  of  the  Pripet  marshes. 
This  offensive  in  the  south  was  undertaken  in  combination  with 
the  Army  of  the  weakly  Ukrainian  Bepublic,  which  was  still 
under  the  command  of  General  Petlura.  Jitomir  (which  had 
been  lost  since  January)  was  taken  in  the  first  rush,  and  a 
portion  of  Bussia's  diminishing  supply  of  rolling  stock  was 
captured ;  it  was  stated  that  160  locomotives  and  over  2,000 
trucks  were  taken.  The  Polish  Army  was  largely  composed  of 
cavalry  and  the  advance  was  very  rapid ;  by  May  3  the  cavalry 
had  reached  the  town  of  Fastoff,  situated  less  than  40  miles 
from  Kieff.  And  it  was  also  announced  in  Warsaw  on  May  3 
that  25,000  prisoners,  105  guns,  many  machine-guns,  2  armoured 
trains,  and  much  other  war  material  had  been  taken.  As  the 
Poles  approached  Eieff  the  Bussians  resisted  more  strongly, 
and  the  advance  was  less  rapid.  The  Poles  were  flushed  with 
their  preliminary  victories,  however,  and  they  entered  the 
Ukrainian  capital  in  triumph  on  May  8.  The  duty  of  keeping 
order  in  Eieff  was  ^ven  over  at  once  to  Petlura's  troops. 

It  was  stated  m  Polish  circles  in  London  that  a  definite 


1920.]  ,    Poland.  [199 

agreement  had  been  concluded  between  Poland  and  Ukminia 
in  regard  to  the  division  of  territory  in  the  event  of  the  success 
of  the  new  offensive.  It  was  stated  that  the  Polish  Government 
had  informed  the  Russian  Government  that  they  would  demand 
the  right  of  self-determination  for  all  the  peoples  west  of  the 
frontier  of  1772.  A  great  stretch  of  country  south  of  the 
Pripet,  towards  the  Bumanian  frontier,  was  to  be  given  to 
Ukmnia.  The  latter  country,  however,  resigned  (or  was  said 
to  resign),  in  favour  of  Poland,  its  claims  to  Eastern  Galicia, 
and  also  its  claims  to  the  western  district  of  Volhynia  known 
as  Polesia,  which  included  the  important  towns  of  Luck  and 
Eovel — names  which  will  be  well  remembered  by  those  who 
followed  the  course  of  the  Busso-German  campaign  in  1915  and 
1916. 

The  success  of  the  Polish  offensive  and  in  particular  the 
capture  of  Eieff,  produced  a  highly  important  reaction  in  Bussia. 
During  January,  February,  and  March  the  war  had  not  been 
pressed  very  vigorously  by  either  side,  though  it  should  be 
remembered  that  there  had  been  nothing  in  the  nature  of  a 
definite  armistice  between  the  two  countries,  and  that  the  April 
offensive  of  the  Poles  had  been  in  no  sense  a  deliberate  com- 
mencement of  a  new  war.  When,  however,  the  Bussians 
realised  the  seriousness  of  the  Polish  attack  they  made  a  great 
effort  to  concentrate  troops  in  the  west;  and  this  they  were 
able  to  do  effectively  because  they  had  now  freed  themselves 
from  the  entanglements  with  Eoltchak  and  Denikin.  The 
Bolsheviks  at  first  concentrated  their  reserves  on  the  northern 

ert  of  the  front,  and  launched  a  counter-offensive  between  the 
lieper  and  the  Dvina.  This  first  counter-attack  took  place 
on  May  18,  and  during  the  latter  half  of  May  there  was  serious 
fighting  with  varying  success  in  this  region.  It  must  be  re- 
membered that  the  character  of  the  Polish  demands  had  tended 
to  stimulate  the  opposition  of  many  Bussians  who  were  not 
Bolsheviks,  since  great  districts  to  the  west  of  the  1772  line, 
in  regard  to  which  Poland  was  now  claiming  the  right  to 
dictate,  were  peopled  (and  as  a  matter  of  fact  had  always  been 
peopled)  by  a  large  majority  of  Bussians,  notwithstanding  that 
the  territories  in  question  had  once  belonged  to  Poland.  Even 
Bussians  who  were  not  Bolsheviks  could  hardly  be  expected  to 
desire  that  these  Bussian  provinces  should  be  placed  under  a 
foreign  Power. 

During  June  the  fighting  was  continued  actively  with  varying 
success,  and  in  the  meantime  there  was  a  change  of  Government 
in  Warsaw.  M.  Skulski  resigned ;  and  a  non-party  Government 
was  formed  by  M.  Grabski  who  had  been  Mmister  of  Finance 
in  the  former  Cabinet.  Prince  Sapieha  became  Minister  for 
Foreign  Affairs.  Several  of  the  Ministers  in  M.  Bkulski's 
Cabinet  retained  their  positions,  including  General  Leshniewski 
(Minister  of  War),  M.  Lopuszanski,  and  M.  Bartel. 

By  the  end  of  June  the  situation  was  becoming  somewhat 


200]         FOEEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTOKY.         [1920. 

serious,  as  the  weight  of  the  Bussian  numbers  was  making 
itself  felt  in  the  north,  notwithstanding  that  General  Wrangel 
(see  Bussia)  was  now  making  a  diversion  in  the  south  of  Bussia. 
Eieff  was  again  lost  by  the  Poles,  and  on  July  10  it  was 
announced  that  the  Bussians  were  approaching  the  railway 
junction  of  Samy.  M.  Grabski  went  to  the  Conference  at  Spa 
m  order  to  endeavour  to  obtain  the  assistance  of  the  AUied 
Governments.  Early  in  July  it  was  announced  that  the  whole 
Polish  Army,  which  was  stretched  along  a  front  of  about  500 
miles,  from  the  Dvina  in  the  north  to  the  Bumanian  frontier 
in  the  south,  had  been  ordered  to  retire.  And  in  the  south  the 
retirement  appears  to  have  taken  place  under  difficult  circum- 
stances, for  the  Poles  were  there  being  harried  by  the  famous 
Bussian  cavalry  leader.  General  Budenny,  who  captured  Bovno 
by  a  very  sudden  advance.  It  appears  to  have  been  the  first 
intention  of  the  Polish  military  authorities  to  retire  to  the  old 
German  positions  in  Bussia,  which,  it  will  be  remembered,  ran 
(north  of  the  Pripet)  past  Molodetchno,  Baranovitchi,  and 
Pinsk ;  but  on  reaching  the  old  German  line  they  were  unable 
to  defend  it  and  were  driven  farther  west.  Minsk  was  taken 
by  the  Bussians  on  July  11,  and  Samy  fell  on  the  following 
day.  The  Poles  retook  Bovno,  but  lost  it  a  second  time  twenty- 
four  hours  later. 

The  result  of  M.  Grabski's  visit  to  Spa  was  that  the  AlUed 
Governments  decided  to  interfere  on  behalf  of  Poland ;  and  the 
British  Government  took  the  initiative  in  the  matter.  The 
British  Government  sent  a  note  to  the  Bussian  Government 
requesting  that  an  armistice  should  be  concluded  with  Poland, 
and  at  the  same  time  proposing  that  the  PoUsh  Army  should 
retire  behind  the  provisional  eastern  frontier  of  Poland  which 
had  been  laid  down  by  the  Peace  Conference  in  1919.  It  was 
not  until  this  development  took  place  that  this  provisional 
eastern  frontier  of  Poland  was  made  known.  The  frontier 
proposed  by  the  Allies  was  far  to  the  west  of  the  line  of  1772, 
and  accorded  fairly  well  with  the  ethnographic  boundary.  It 
began  at  Grodno  in  the  north,  on  the  southern  border  of 
Lithuania,  ran  to  Bialystok,  then  to  the  Bug  at  Brest-Litovsk, 
then  along  the  course  of  the  Bug  to  the  old  Austrian  frontier 
west  of  Sokol,  then  south  past  Przemysl  (being  about  20 
miles  to  the  east  of  that  fortress),  to  the  Carpathian  Mountains. 
The  British  note  also  suggested  that  the  Bussian  Army  should 
halt  50  kilometres  to  the  east  of  the  Polish  line.  At  the  same 
time  the  British  Government  informed  the  Poles  that  they 
would  have  to  accept  the  decisions  of  the  Supreme  Council  on 
the  Danzig  question  and  on  the  problem  of  Teschen. 

During  the  four  weeks  which  succeeded  this  first  British 
offer  to  Bussia,  negotiations  were  prolonged  in  an  extraordinary 
manner  by  the  uncertainty — probablv  the  calculated  uncer- 
tainty— of  the  Soviet  Government.  And  in  the  meantime  the 
Bolshevik  armies  continued  to  press  forward  with  considerable 


1920.]  Poland.  [201 

rapidity.  And  i^e  advance  of  the  Bussians  was  hastened  by 
the  permission  which  they  obtained  from  the  Lithuanian 
Government  to  pass  through  the  north-eastern  district  of 
Lithuania,  and  through  the  town  of  Yihia  itself,  which  had 
been  occupied  by  the  Poles,  the  Lithuanian  Government  being 
in  Kovno.  Mr.  Lloyd  George  sent  an  offer  to  the  Bussian 
Government  suggesting  that  a  general  Peace  Conference  should 
be  held  in  London,  at  which  the  Bolshevik  Government,  the 
Pohsh  Government,  and  the  Governments  of  the  small  border 
States  should  be  represented.  The  British  Prime  Minister  did 
not  suggest,  however,  that  General  Wrangel  or  any  other  anti- 
Bolshevik  Bussian  leader  should  be  represented;  and  in  this 
respect  the  new  British  offer  was  more  favourable  to  the  Soviet 
thui  suggestions  which  had  been  made  previously,  and  came 
very  near  toskde  facto  recognition  of  M.  Lenin's  Government  as 
the  Government  of  All  Bussia. 

On  July  20  it  was  announced,  however,  that  Mr.  Lloyd 
Greorge's  proposals  had  been  rejected  by  the  Bolsheviks.  The 
Bussians  stated  that  they  objected  to  any  further  conferences 
with  the  Baltic  States  since  they  had  already  made  peace  with 
those  countries.  In  regard  to  Poland  herself,  the  Bussian 
Government  stated  that  the  frontier  proposed  by  the  British 
was  actually  unfair  to  Poland,  and  that  in  direct  negotiation 
with  that  country,  Bussia  would  grant  her  a  more  favourable 
frontier.  The  Bolsheviks  also  declined  to  accept  any  kind  of 
conditions  in  regard  to  General  Wrangel  or  any  other  "  White  " 
Bussian  leader,  and  demanded  that  these  leaders  and  their 
followers  should  surrender  unconditionally. 

This  note  from  Bussia  was  the  more  remarkable  because  the 
British  conditions  had  already  been  accepted  by  the  Polish 
Government,  notwithstanding  that  the  proposals  involved  the 
retirement  of  the  Polish  Amiy  over  a  distance  of  more  than 
100  miles  in  the  east,  and  the  abandonment  of  Yilna  to 
Lithuania  in  the  north.  The  refusal  of  the  Bussians  to  accept 
such  relatively  favourable  terms  was  probably  due  to  an  in- 
tention on  their  part  to  advance  very  much  farther  west  than 
either  Poland  or  the  Allies  would  voluntarily  permit.  The 
Bussians  were  probably  only  playing  for  time.  The  reply  of 
the  British  Government  was  to  ask  for  further  particulars  as  to 
the  intentions  of  the  Bussians.  This  move  was  necessary  since, 
on  the  face  of  the  matter,  the  Bussian  proposal  was  discourteous 
to  the  Allies  rather  than  unfavourable  to  Poland. 

On  July  14  Vilna  was  evacuated  by  the  Poles,  and  order 
was  preserved  in  the  town  for  a  short  time  by  Lithuanian 
troops.  But  a  few  days  later  the  Bussians  arrived,  and  the 
Lithuanians  surrendered  their  capital,  in  accordance  with  their 
arrangement  with  Bussia,  without  resistance.  Having  captured 
Vilna  the  Bussian  troops  struck  south  and  did  not  penetrate 
any  farther  into  Lithuania.  Their  advance  was  very  rapid, 
and  on  July  21  they  entered  the  town  of  Grodno,  100  nules 


202]         FOKEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTOEY.         [1920. 

south-west  of  Vilna — Grodno  being  just  outside  the  north-east 
comer  of  Poland  as  defined  by  the  Supreme  Council.  Thia 
advance  brought  the  Bussians  to  within  60  miles  of  the  German 
frontier.  On  the  Polish  right  wing,  too,  the  Bussians  gained 
successes,  and  on  July  22  they  forced  a  passage  of  the  river 
Styr,  and  entered  Galicia.  In  view  of  the  character  of  the 
Bussian  offer,  the  British  Government  advised  the  Poles  to 
accept  the  Bussian  suggestion  of  direct  negotiations  for  an 
armistice.  But  there  was  considerable  anxiety  in  Western 
Europe  as  to  whether  the  Bolshevik  offer  was  sincerely  meant, 
or  whether  the  Bussians  were  merely  protracting  the  negoti* 
ations  until  they  had  advanced  farther  into  Poland,  and  even 
taken  "Warsaw — a  possibility  which  could  no  longer  be  ignored. 
There  was  great  poUtical  agitation  in  Warsaw  and  suggestions 
were  made  for  the  formation  of  a  new  Ministry.  On  July  23 
Bussian  cavalry  reached  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Grerman 
frontier  at  Augustovo,  but  they  were  subsequently  compelled  to 
retire. 

On  July  22  an  Allied  Mission  of  advice  left  Paris  for  Warsaw. 
The  most  important  member  of  the  Mission  was  General 
Weygand  (one  of  Marshal  Foch's  best-known  staff  officers)  who 
went  in  the  capacity  of  miUtary  adviser. 

On  July  24  the  Bussian  Government  issued  a  wireless 
message  that  they  had  instructed  their  supreme  military  com- 
mand to  enter  into  negotiations  for  an  armistice ;  but  at  the 
same  time  the  Bussians  continued  their  great  military  activity^ 
and  speaking  in  Moscow  on  July  24  M.  Trotsky  made  a  most 
bellicose  speech.  He  said  that  Poland  would  Portly  cease  to 
be  a  defensive  buffer  for  Western  Europe  against  Bussia,  and 
would  become  instead  a  bridge  by  means  of  which  the  social 
revolution  could  spread  from  Bussia  to  Western  Europe. 
"  That  is  why  the  Entente  is  feverishly  increasing  its  assistance 
to  Poland.  That  is  why  we  on  our  side  must  treble  our  efforts 
in  order  to  face  the  Entente,  before  they  can  send  any  army 
corps,  with  the  absolute  destruction  of  the  White  Seigneurs,  a 
destruction  which  will  be  irreparable  and  hopeless." 

In  the  meantime  a  special  ''War  Cabinet"  was  formed  in 
Warsaw,  with  M.  Witosh  at  its  head.  There  were  only  four 
other  members  of  the  Cabinet,  these  being  M.  Daszynski 
(Deputy  Premier),  M.  Grabski,  M.  Skulski,  and  Prince  Sapieha^ 
who  remained  Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs.  M.  Witosh  declared 
that  the  policy  of  the  New  Cabinet  was  to  defend  the  full 
independence  of  the  PoUsh  Bepublic  and  conclude  a  just  and 
lasting  peace.  The  Cabinet  received  the  support  of  all  parties 
in  the  Diet. 

On  July  25  the  Allied  Mission,  including  General  Weygand 
and  Lord  D'Abemon  (British  Minister  in  Berlin),  arrived  in 
Warsaw.  The  arrival  of  the  Mission  gave  new  encouragement 
to  the  Poles;  but  at  the  same  time  an  unfortunate  incident 
occurred  at  Danzig.    A  Dutch  vessel,  the  Triton,  arrived  at 


1920.]  Poland.  [203 

the  port  with  a  cargo  of  150,000  rifles  sent  by  the  Allied 
Governments  for  the  Polish  Army,  but  difficulty  and  delay 
occurred  through  the  action  of  the  Danzig  dockers,  who  refused 
to  unload  the  vessel.  The  result  was  to  delay  the  receipt  of 
arms  sorely  needed  by  the  Polish  Aimy,  and  was  the  more 
culpable  on  the  part  of  the  Danzigers  m  that  the  Treaty  of 
Versailles  secured  the  use  of  the  Port  of  Danzig  to  the  Poles. 

The  situation  was  becoming  more  critical  hourly,  and  on 
July  27  the  Bussians  took  Pinsk,  and  crossed  the  boundary  of 
Poland  as  now  defined  by  the  Supreme  Council.  And  at  the 
end  of  July  some  indication  was  given  of  the  sort  of  terms 
which  the  Bussians  would  have  liked  to  impose  upon  Poland,  by 
the  publication  of  a  series  of  definite  demands  m  a  Bolshevik 
paper  in  Eieff.     These  demands  were  as  follows : — 

1.  Poland  to  give  up  Vilna,  Minsk,  Grodno,  and  Eholm. 

2.  Poland  must  hand  over  all  war  material,  and  furnish  as 
an  indemnity  a  quantity  of  hve  stock,  salt,  manufactured  articled, 
machinery,  and  70  per  cent,  of  her  railway  rolling  stock. 

3.  At  the  end  of  twelve  months  Poland  will  be  allowed  to 
dedde  on  her  form  of  government,  but  until  that  time  a  Soviet 
regime  will  be  instituted. 

4.  The  military  occupation  of  Poland  to  last  five  years. 

5.  All  salt  and  coal  mines  in  Poland  to  be  handed  over  to 
the  Bussian  Soviets  as  guarantees  of  good  behaviour. 

During  the  last  few  days  of  July  the  Bussian  advance  was 
very  rapid.  They  took  Ossowiec,  Suwalki,  and  Lomza,  and 
once  more  entered  Augustowo.  The  Bussian  troops  marched 
west  within  3  miles  of  the  German  frontier,  and  reports  from 
Grerman  sources  said  that  the  sound  of  the  Bussian  and 
Polish  guns  could  be  heard  in  the  villages  of  East  Prussia. 
The  French  officers  in  Warsaw  were  authorised  by  their  own 
Government  to  take  an  active  part  in  organising  the  defence  of 
the  Polish  capital.  General  Pilsudski  himself  went  to  the 
south-east  front  to  take  charge  of  the  defence  of  Lemberg. 
And  every  possible  effort  was  made  to  enlist  in  the  Army  every 
Pole  capable  of  bearing  arms,  for  it  was  obvious  that  the  capital 
was  now  in  inuninent  peril.  On  July  30  the  Polish  officers 
who  were  authorised  to  conclude  an  armistice  were  at  last 
allowed  to  cross  the  Bussian  lines ;  and  the  site  of  the  negoti- 
ations was  fixed  at  Baranovitchi. 

On  August  3,  however,  when  the  Bussians  had  advanced 
still  farther,  it  was  announced  that  the  armistice  negotiations 
had  been  postponed  by  the  Bussians  on  the  ground  that  the 
Polish  delegates  had  been  only  authorised  to  negotiate  the  con- 
ditions of  an  armistice,  and  not  conditions  for  a  definite  peace. 
The  unfortimate  Polish  delegates  returned  to  Warsaw  to  receive 
instructions  from  their  Government.  On  August  3  the  Bussian 
Army  entered  Brest-Litovsk ;  and  the  Bussians  formally  es- 
tablished a  Soviet  regime  in  the  part  of  Poland  which  they  had 
conquered.     The  head  of  the  new  Soviet  "Government"  in 


204]         FOKEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTORY.         [1920. 

occupied  Poland  was  a  certain  M.  J.  Marklevski.  The  Polish 
Soviet  called  upon  the  working  classes  in  all  Poland  to  rise 
against  General  Pilsudski.  The  Eussian  Government  sent  out 
a  message  stating  that  they  were  willing  to  begin  negotiations 
for  a  dennite  peace  at  Minsk. 

After  it  became  clear  that  the  Russians  had  crossed  the 
boundary  of  Poland  as  laid  down  by  the  Supreme  Council,  it 
was  definitely  announced  by  the  British  Government  that  the 
Allies  would  give  active  support  to  Poland  in  the  defence  of  her 
independence.  At  the  beginning  of  August  it  was  fully  realised 
both  in  London  and  in  Paris  that  the  position  was  extremely 
grave.  At  this  time  a  certain  M.  Eameneff  and  other  emissaries 
of  the  Eussian  Government  were  in  London,  but  Mr.  Lloyd 
George  was  unable  to  induce  them  to  agree  to  any  defimte 
plan  for  the  conclusion  of  an  armistice,  though  the  Eussian 
Government  were  careful  to  refrain  from  breaking  off  negoti- 
ations altogether.  At  the  beginning  of  August,  too,  Mr.  Lloyd 
George  and  M.  Millerand  held  a  conference  at  Hythe  on  the 
Polish  situation.  Field-Marshal  Foch  accompanied  the  French 
Prime  Minister  to  Hythe.  M.  Millerand  and  Field-Marshal 
Foch  left  England  on  August  9.  It  was  decided  to  help  Poland 
vnth  mimitions,  but  not  to  send  Allied  troops  to  Warsaw. 

On  August  6  the  Polish  Government  issued  an  appeal  to  the 
world,  which  was  worded  as  follows : — 

"  The  armistice  proposed  by  Poland  to  Soviet  Eussia  has 
been  rejected.  The  Soviet  Government  acted  throughout  de- 
ceitfully, freely  altering  messages,  refusing  to  allow  the  Polish 
delegates  to  communicate  with  their  Government,  and  delaying 
negotiations  so  as  to  make  them  fruitless.  Poland  did  all  in 
her  power  to  settle  the  questions  in  dispute  with  the  Soviets 
in  accordance  with  the  principles  of  justice  and  civihsation. 
Poland's  wish,  as  well  as  the  wish  of  the  world,  as  expressed  by 
the  leaders  of  the  democratic  Governments  of  Western  Europe 
and  by  the  public  opinion  of  those  democracies,  has  been  fn^- 
trated.  The  Soviets  pretended  to  be  willing  to  meet  these 
wishes.  But,  first,  they  delayed  the  date  of  the  commencement 
of  negotiations  for  a  week,  only  to  tell  the  Polish  delegates 
finally  that  they  wished  to  discuss  not  only  an  armistice,  but 
also  peace,  and  that  their  powers  were  therefore  not  full  enough. 
The  Soviets  want  to  gain  time ;  they  want  to  take  Warsaw 
and  dictate  their  terms  of  peace  to  a  defeated  Poland.  The 
Polish  nation  will  never  accept  a  humiliating  peace,  but  will 
rather  defend  herself  to  the  last. 

''The  people  of  Poland,  peasants  and  workmen,  are  now 
ralljdng  en  masse  to  the  flag,  and  have  decided  to  surrender 
their  freedom  only  at  the  cost  of  their  own  blood,  and  to  permit 
the  invader  to  enter  the  city  only  over  their  bodies.  The 
nations  of  the  world  remember  the  massacre  of  the  suburb  of 
Praga,  near  Warsaw,  committed  by  Catherine  the  Great's 
General  Suveroff,  and  remember  how  the  French  people  de- 


1920.]  Poland.  [205 

fended  Paris  before  the  victorious  Prussian  Army  in  the  days 
of  187L  The  nations  of  the  world  cannot  be  heedless  to  the 
bloodshed  which  threatens  to  overwhelm  not  only  Poland  but 
also  threatens  the  rights  of  men  and  nations  to  free  and  in- 
dependent existence. 

''Poland  is  being  accused  of  Imperialism,  but,  from  the 
moment  the  world  recognised  her  independence,  Poland  was 
continually  forced  to  fight  for  her  life.  The  armistice  was  not 
yet  signed  at  Spa,  1918,  when  Lemberg,  a  truly  Polish  city, 
had  to  fight  for  her  existence  against  an  enemy  led  by  an 
Austrian  archduke.  At  the  same  time  the  Soviet  Armies  took 
Lithuania  and  threatened  to  march  on  Warsaw,  through  the 
Polish  corridor  to  the  German  frontier,  and  then  through 
Grermany  on  to  the  Bhine.  Trotsky  announced  that  the 
Cossacks  of  the  Bed  Army  would  water  their  horses  in  the 
Bhine.  All  these  attacks  have  been  repulsed.  Lemberg  was 
saved  actually  by  children.  The  Bolshevik  invaders  of  Lithuania 
were  thrown  back.  The  Pohsh  commander,  Joseph  Pilsudski, 
issued  a  proclamation  announcing  that  the  people  of  that 
country  could  determine  their  own  future.  He  then  captured 
Dunaburg  and  Latgalia,  and  ceded  these  conquests  to  Lettland, 
which  had  already  proclaimed  her  independence.  He  announced 
agrarian  reforms  for  Lithuania  and  reopened  the  University  of 
Vilna. 

"It  has  been  said  that  by  doing  so  he  has  been  merely 
obeying  the  wishes  of  the  great  landlords.  In  reaUty  enclosure 
of  common  lands  by  great  landowners  has  been  expressly 
forbidden  and  the  prohibition  enforced,  common  lands  being 
preserved  for  the  peasantry.  Such  is  the  so-called  Pohsh  Im- 
perialism. In  the  hard  struggle  to  found  national  independence 
fought  in  the  last  twenty  months  under  the  most  adverse 
economic  conditions,  the  Pohsh  nation  received  her  first  Diet 
elected  on  the  basis  of  universal  suffrage,  initiated  a  scheme  of 
far-reaching  social  reforms,  and  finally  nominated  a  Government 
at  whose  head  stands  a  peasant  representative  of  the  biggest 
peasant  party  in  Poland,  with  next  to  him  a  leader  of  Polish 
workmen. 

*'  In  this  critical  hour  of  her  decisive  struggle  Poland  turns 
to  the  nations  of  the  world  to  tell  them  that  Poland  fights  for 
her  life  under  i^e  standard  of  freedom  and  progress,  and  that 
her  fall  would  be  due  not  only  to  overbearing  might,  but  also 
to  the  indifference  of  a  world  which  calls  itself  democratic 
and  freedom-loving,  a  world  of  principles  of  hberty  for  indi- 
viduals and  nations.  Can  the  conscience  of  the  world  look  on 
at  the  crimes  to  be  conmutted  on  the  Vistula  by  the  former 
generals  of  Nicholas  n.  acting  under  the  orders  of  former 
generals  of  WiUiam  n.  ?  At  this  most  tragic  hour,  and  in  view 
of  our  endless  misery,  in  view  of  the  crime  to  be  committed  on 
the  Vistula,  we  are  making  your  conscience,  the  conscience  of 
the  nations  of  the  world,  responsible.    Your  indifference  can. 


206]  FOEEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTORY.        [1920. 

as  in  1772,  1795,  1831,  and  1863,  allow  these  troops  of  the  East 
to  destroy  the  beginnings  of  a  freedom  which,  founded  on  the 
ruins  of  the  CaBsarism  of  Nicholas  and  William,  may  now  dis- 
appear beneath  Bolshevik  ImperiaUsm.  May  your  conscience 
stir  you  into  action. 

**  If  Polish  freedom  dies,  to-morrow  yours  will  be  threatened. 
Think  how  the  fall  of  Poland  may  become  the  commencement 
of  a  new  world-war.  A  Bolshevik  victory  on  the  Vistula 
threatens  all  Western  Europe;  a  new  world-war  hangs  over 
the  world  like  a  storm-cloud.  Wake  up,  nations  of  the  world. 
Humanity,  justice,  and  truth  call  you.  You  hesitate?  Are 
you  afraid  of  war?  It  will  come  to  you  as  it  came  to  us. 
When  it  is  on  your  threshold,  it  will  be  too  late  to  save  your- 
selves. Not  only  our,  but  also  your,  future  is  at  stake  to-day 
on  the  Vistula." 

During  the  next  week,  every  day,  almost  every  hour,  brought 
important  news;  and  in  London  and  Paris  the  situation  was 
likened  to  that  other  situation  six  years  earlier  when,  in  the 
early  days  of  September,  the  German  Armies  were  advancing 
upon  Paris.  Bealising  the  importance  of  the  PoUsh  communi- 
cations with  the  coast,  the  Bussians  struck  west  along  the 
German  frontier  through  the  town  of  Przasnysz  at  the  main 
railway  running  from  Warsaw  to  Danzig.  Przasnysz  was  oc- 
cupied by  the  Bussians  on  August  8 ;  and  on  the  same  day,  on 
the  Polish  right  wing,  the  town  of  Vladimir- Volhynsk  was  also 
lost.  A  few  days  later  the  Bussians  cut  the  main  Danzig 
railway  at  Ciechanow  and  Mlawa.  Farther  south  the  Bussians 
were  not  so  near  Warsaw,  but  they  captured  Ostrolenka  on 
August  9.  On  the  extreme  right  wing  of  the  Polish  Army,  the 
Bussians  were  still  50  miles  from  Lemberg. 

On  August  10  Mr.  Lloyd  George  made  known  the  terms  of 
peace  which  the  Bussians  proposed  to  offer  Poland.  These 
terms  included  inter  alia :  (1)  The  reduction  of  the  Polish  Army 
to  an  annual  contingent  of  50,000  men,  with  a  permanent  force 
of  only  10,000  men ;  (2)  the  demobilisation  of  the  existing  Polish 
Arm^  within  one  month ;  (3)  all  surplus  arms  in  excess  of  the 
requirements  of  the  Army  as  above  reduced  to  be  handed  over 
to  Soviet  Bussia  and  Soviet  Ukrainia ;  (4)  all  war  industries  to 
be  demobilised ;  (5)  no  troops  or  war  materials  to  be  sent  to 
Poland  from  abroad ;  and  other  items.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
Bussian  Government  agreed  to  withdraw  Bussian  and  Soviet 
Ukrainian  troops  from  the  Polish  front  as  the  Polish  Army 
was  demobilised.  And  the  Bussians  agreed  that  the  permanent 
frontier  of  Poland  in  the  east  should  be  somewhat  more  favour- 
able to  Poland  than  the  line  fixed  by  the  Supreme  Council. 
The  Bussians  proposed  that  if  an  armistice  were  concluded,  the 
Bussian  Army  should  halt  on  the  line  which  it  had  then  reached, 
and  that  the  Polish  Army  should  retire  50  versts  farther  west, 
the  intervening  zone  to  be  neutral  territory. 

It  was  announced  that  peace  negotiations  should  begin  at 


1990.]  Poland.  [207 

Minsk  on  August  11,  but  owing  to  further  procrastination  on 
the  part  of  the  Bussians  the  meeting  did  not  take  place  on  that 
day. 

Whilst  these  events  were  taking  place,  the  Polish  Govern- 
ment were  making  great  efforts  to  defend  their  capital,  and 
they  were  well  supported  by  the  people  in  general,  and  many 
thousands  of  volunteers  rushed  to  the  colours.  General  Weygand 
was  asked  by  the  Government  to  take  supreme  control  of  the 
Polish  Armies,  under  the  formal  headship  of  President  Pilsudski. 
General  Weygand  said  that  he  was  unable  thus  to  become 
Chief  of  the  General  Staff,  but  that  he  was  very  willing  to  act 
as  General  Military  Adviser. 

On  August  12  the  Bussians  took  Pultusk,  30  miles  from 
Warsaw,  and  during  the  following  few  days  they  advanced 
almost  to  the  eastern  suburbs  of  the  capital.  On  the  north 
they  struck  at  the  great  fortress  town  of  Novo-Georgievsk.  It 
should  be  explained  that  although  the  Poles  had  lost  the  direct 
railway  to  Danzig,  they  still  controlled  the  more  westerly  line 
running  through  Thorn.  The  Bussians,  however,  pressed  for- 
wards, and  on  August  14  they  occupied  Soldau,  a  town  in  that 
part  of  West  Prussia  which  had  now  been  ceded  to  Poland. 
And  the  Soviet  troops  advanced  so  far  west  that  they  were 
able  to  shell  trains  on  the  Warsaw-Thom-Danzig  railway. 
Thorn  itself,  however,  was  crowded  with  volunteers  from 
amon^  the  Polish  population  of  the  annexed  parts  of  West 
Prussia.  On  August  13  the  Bussians  occupied  Sierock,  less 
than  20  miles  from  Warsaw.  On  August  13  also  the  Franco- 
British  Mission — or  rather  the  civihan  members  thereof — 
moved  from  Warsaw  to  Posen. 

It  may  be  appropriate  to  point  out  here  that  serious  as  the 
situation  was,  it  was  not  so  serious  as  it  would  have  been  if 
that  shifting  of  Poland's  centre  of  gravity  westward,  to  which 
reference  has  already  been  made,  had  not  taken  place.  In 
many  respects  the  province  of  Posen  was  the  most  civilised  and 
most  important  province  of  Poland,  and  even  if  Warsaw  had 
fallen,  the  Poles  might  still  have  been  able  to  make  a  successful 
resistance,  based  upon  their  small  but  very  solid  western  province. 
Warsaw  was  not  actually  the  Poles'  last  line  of  defence. 

On  August  14  the  Bussians  reached  the  small  village  of 
Okuniew,  situated  only  12  miles  east  of  Warsaw.  This  was 
the  nearest  approach  of  the  enemy  to  the  Polish  capital ;  and 
the  Polish  communique  of  August  14  announced  that  a  counter- 
offensive  had  been  set  in  motion  north-west  of  Warsaw^  in  the 
district  of  Plonsk.  On  August  16  the  Poles  announced  that 
this  northern  counter-offensive  was  proceeding  successfuUy,  and 
that  120  munition  wagons  had  already  been  captured. 

The  situation  which  had  arisen  bore  a  real  and  not  merely 
an  imaginary  likeness  to  the  situation  before  Paris  in  September, 
1914.  It  appears  that  after  their  defeats  far  to  the  east  of 
Warsaw  the  Poles  had  deliberately  retreated  very  rapidly,  and 


208]         FOREIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTOEY.         [1920. 

had  at  the  same  time  formed  new  and  fairly  large  armies  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  Warsaw.  The  Bussians  on  their  side 
supposed  that  they  had  won  the  final  victory,  and  advanced  a 
great  deal  too  fast.  When,  therefore,  the  Poles  were  in  a 
position  to  deliver  their  comiter-offensive,  the  Bussians  were  in 
a  disorganised  condition  and  were  not  prepared  to  meet  the 
unexpected  attack.  The  blow  was  struck  at  the  two  wings  of 
the  Bussian  Army.  In  the  north,  picked  troops  based  upon 
Novo-Georgievsk,  and  under  the  command  of  General  Sikorski, 
struck  due  north  towards  the  German  frontier.  And  on  the 
extreme  right  wing  of  the  PoUsh  Army,  General  Pilsudski 
himself  led  an  attack  against  the  Bussian  troops  who  had  been 
advancing  upon  Lemberg — ^including  General  Budenny's  cavalry 
divisions. 

The  disorganised  and  unsuspecting  Bussian  troops  were 
taken  by  surprise  much  in  the  same  manner  as  v.*  Kluck's 
Army  was  caught  in  the  flank  in  September,  1914;  and  the 
results  were  even  more  disastrous  for  the  invading  force.  In 
the  north,  the  Polish  offensive  won  quick  and  remarkable 
successes.  The  main  body  of  the  Bussian  troops  on  the  Polish 
left  were  driven  back  on  the  Warsaw-Mlawa-Danzig  railway, 
and  on  the  evening  of  the  18th  Ciechanow  was  retaken  by  the 
Poles.  It  will  be  remembered  that  a  large  body  of  Bussian 
cavalry  had  advanced  far  to  the  west,  to  the  more  westerly 
railway  to  Danzig;  owing  to  the  vigour  of  the  Polish  attack 
this  advanced  body  of  Bussians  was  caught  in  a  trap.  They 
had  been  making  a  successful  advance  into  the  so-called  Polish 
corridor  leading  to  the  sea-coast  west  of  Danzig,  and  had  been 
quite  unconscious  of  the  strength  of  the  new  Polish  force  at 
Novo-Georgievsk.  When  the  news  spread  to  the  Bussians 
that  the  Poles  had  launched  this  new  offensive,  the  cavalry 
troops  in  the  north  beat  a  hasty  retreat  along  the  German 
frontier,  and  the  pressure  on  Thorn  was  therefore  inmiediately 
relieved.  But  the  retreat  was  not  sufficiently  rapid  to  escape 
the  spear  head  of  the  Polish  attack  from  the  south,  and  large 
numbers  of  the  Bolshevik  cavalry  found  their  retreat  completely 
cut  off.  Thirty  thousand  Bussian  troops  crossed  the  German 
frontier  in  this  district  and  were  duly  disarmed. 

The  success  that  the  Poles  obtained,  not  only  on  their  left 
but  also  on  their  right,  east  of  Lemberg,  enabled  them  to 
advance  also  in  their  centre.  And  on  August  23  the  Polish 
General  Staff  were  able  to  announce  that  they  had  captured 
200  guns  and  35,000  prisoners.  And  so  precipitate  was  the 
retreat  in  the  centre,  that  on  August  21  the  Pohsh  Army  once 
more  entered  Brest-Litovsk.  The  ground  over  which  the 
battles  were  being  fought  was,  of  course,  that  over  which  that 
other  and  greater  Bussian  Army  had  retired  five  years  earlier, 
and  in  many  respects  history  wis  again  repeating  Itself.  Now. 
as  in  1915,  the  Bussian  Army  was  utterly  broken ;  now,  as  in 
1915,  the  retreat  was  extremely  rapid;  and  now,  as  in  1915, 


1920.]  Poland.  [209 

there  was  every  prospect  that  by  retreating  into  their  vast 
country  the  Bussians  would  be  able  to  reform  their  armies. 
The  advance  was  continued  rapidly  in  all  directions,  but  in  the 
north  there  was  a  new  development,  because  the  Lithuanian 
Government,  seeing  that  the  Bussians  were  compelled  to  retire, 
decided  to  take  action  on  their  own  account ;  and  accordingly 
Lithuanian  troops  occupied  Vilna  on  August  24  in  order  to 
prevent  it  once  more  fallmg  into  the  hands  of  the  Poles. 

Li  the  meantime  the  Peace  Conference  at  Minsk  was  opened 
on  August  17 ;  and  a  surprising  revelation  then  took  place.  In 
the  Bussian  terms  which  had  been  transmitted  to  Mr.  Lloyd 
(George  there  had  been  a  reference  to  a  civic  militia,  for  whom, 
as  well  as  for  the  small  Begular  Army,  the  Poles  were  to  be 
entitled  to  retain  arms.  But  in  the  terms  as  given  to  the 
Poles  at  Minsk,  the  clauses  relating  to  this  civic  militia  (which 
had  appeared  from  the  version  given  to  Mr.  Lloyd  George  to 
be  an  ordinary  military  poUce  force)  were  greatly  enlarged.  It 
appeared  that  this  so-called  civic  militia  which  Bussia  proposed 
to  force  Poland  to  establish,  was  in  reality  to  be  a  force  of 
armed  Trades  Unionists,  200,000  strong,  organised  after  the 
regular  Soviet  pattern.  And  the  Bussians  therefore  contem- 
plated that  this  Trade-unionist  Soviet  force  should  be  far  more 
powerful  than  the  truncated  Polish  Army  remaining  under  the 
control  of  the  Polish  Government.  The  clauses  relating  to 
this  Soviet  force  were  evidently  part  of  the  scheme  to  foist 
Bolshevism  upon  Poland.  The  fact  that  a  false  version  of  the 
terms  had  been  given  to  Mr.  Lloyd  George  caused  great  re- 
sentment in  English  political  circles.  At  the  time  that  the 
real  character  of  the  Bussian  terms  was  made  known,  Mr. 
Lloyd  George  was  in  conference  with  Signor  Giolitti  at  Lucerne, 
and  in  view  of  this  development  the  British  and  Italian  Prime 
Ministers  issued  a  statement  that  they  considered  that  the 
Bussian  terms  constituted  an  attempt  "  to  impose  on  Poland 
conditions  incompatible  with  national  independence."  And 
the  statement  continued  that  "the  Government  of  Poland  is 
based  on  the  choice  of  the  whole  adult  male  population  of  the 
country  without  distinction  of  class,  and  tms  so-called  civil 
army,  to  be  drawn  from  one  class  only,  which  is  referred  to 
in  the  fourth  condition  of  the  Soviet  terms,  is  only  an  indirect 
method  of  organising  a  force  to  overthrow  by  violence  this 
democratic  constitution  and  substituting  for  it  the  despotism 
of  a  privileged  few  who  may  have  absorbed  the  doctrmes  of 
Bolshevism."  And  the  proclamation  further  stated  that  the 
withholding  of  these  important  particulars  from  the  British 
Government  was  a  gross  breach  of  faith ;  and  the  Prime 
Ministers  pertinently  remarked  that  "  negotiations  of  any  kind 
with  a  Government  which  so  lightly  treats  its  word  become 
difficult,  if  not  impossible." 

Fortunately  the  successes  of  the  Polish  Armies  made  it 
quite  impossible  for  the  Bussians  to  think  of  enforcing  their 

O 


210]         FOEEIGN  AND  COIjONIAL  HISTOEY.         [1920. 

terms  upon  the  Warsaw  Govemment.  The  Eussian  Army  lost 
nearly  100,000  men  in  prisoners  alone  during  the  second  half 
of  August.  And  towards  the  end  of  the  month,  also,  the 
arrival  of  Allied  warships  at  Danzig  cleared  up  the  situation  in 
regard  to  the  forwarding  of  arms  to  the  Poles.  Indeed,  in  the 
circumstances  which  had  now  arisen  it  is  somewhat  surprising 
that  the  Poles  consented  to  continue  the  negotiations.  The 
Warsaw  Govemment  were  desirous  of  peace,  however,  and  the 
character  of  their  demands  may  be  judged  from  the  following 
statement  made  by  the  Polish  delegates  at  Minsk  on  August 
19:— 

**  The  Delegation  of  the  Polish  Eepublic  has  arrived  at 
Minsk  for  the  purpose  of  fixing  the  conditions  of  the  armistice 
and  of  a  peace,  which  will  put  an  end  to  the  war  between 
Poland  and  the  Soviet  Eepublic.  The  war  was  imposed  on 
Poland  when  the  Govemment  of  the  Soviets,  after  having 
taken  at  the  end  of  1918  the  lands  of  White  Lithuania  and 
Euthenia,  and  after  having  imposed  the  Soviet  regime  on  them, 
directed  its  troops  on  to  the  ethnographic  territory  of  Poland, 
with  the  clear  object  of  marching  on  Warsaw  and  imposing  a 
Soviet  regime  on  Poland  against  the  will  of  her  people,  ^e 
Polish  Eepublic,  menaced  m  its  hberty  and  its  recently  won 
independence,  was  compelled  to  resist  the  Bolshevik  invasion. 

'*  Our  troops  occupied  territories  formerly  attached  to  Poland, 
not  with  an  imperiahstic  object  but  in  view  of  the  right  of  self- 
determination  of  peoples.  The  population  of  these  countries 
in  manifold  petitions  asked  to  be  reunited  to  Poland.  On  his 
entry  into  Yilna,  Marshal  Pilsudski  announced  that  i^e  people 
of  Lithuania  would  decide  their  own  fate.  Poland  helped 
Lettland  to  deliver  Dunaburg  (Dvinsk),  and  immediately  re- 
stored it  to  the  Lettish  Eepublic,  in  conformity  with  ite  wishes. 
The  PoUsh  Diet  prepared  peace  conditions,  which  proclaim  the 
oblivion  of  the  past  for  Eussia  and  Poland,  and  Kussia's  re- 
nunciation of  the  Tsar's  sanguinary  inheritsmce,  and  has  pro- 
posed basing  the  question  of  White  Euthenia  and  Lithuania 
and  Ukrainia  on  the  will  of  the  populations. 

"  When  that  hope  failed,  the  Polish  troops  arrived  in  Ukrainia 
and  White  Eussia,  in  the  name  of  the  principles  above  men- 
tioned, recognised  Ukrainia' s  right  to  independence,  and  guaran- 
teed her  self-determination.  The  facts  above  mentioned  clearly 
prove  that  the  relations  between  Poland  and  the  other  nations 
have  always  been  based  on  the  principle  of  the  recognition  of 
the  rights  of  all  peoples  to  liberty  and  self-determination,  and 
also  of  the  dependence  of  the  choice  of  a  regime  on  the  will  of 
the  majority  of  the  people. 

''  The  Diet  and  the  Eepublic  of  Poland,  composed  in  a  great 
measure  of  peasants  and  workmen,  which  has  ^own  its  demo- 
cratic character  by  voting  the  Agrarian  Beform  Law  and  the 
Ei^ht  Hours'  Working  Day  Law,  has  given  proof  of  the  direction 
it  mtends  to  give  to  Poland's  policy.    At  the  commencement 


19ML]  Poland.  [211 

of  1919  the  Diet  published  a  declaration  saying  that  Poland  was 
making  war  solely  to  ensure  her  liberty  and  her  frontiers. 

''  As  to  the  purely  Russian  territories,  Poland  was  not  able 
to  apply  Imperialism  to  them,  for  the  foot  of  a  Polish  soldier 
never  touched  Bussian  soil.  The  Government  of  the  Soviet 
Bepublic  acted  in  the  opposite  sense ;  taking  advantage  of  the 
weakening  of  Poland,  it  myaded  purely  Pohsh  territories  and 
menaced  Warsaw.  It  published  manifestoes  and  proclamations 
announcing  the  introduction  of  the  Soviet  regime  into  Poland, 
notwithstanding  the  protestations  of  the  Polish  population. 
The  Soviet  Grovemment  did  all  that,  although  the  fate  of  the 
war  was  not  yet  decided. 

''  The  Government  of  Poland  sincerely  desires  peace  with  the 
Soviet  Bepublic  in  the  interests  of  the  two  nations  and  of 
humanity,  exhausted  by  a  prolonged  war.  This  peace  will  be 
possible  and  durable,  if  it  is  just  and  if  it  is  the  result  of  an 
agreement  between  the  two  nations,  in  which  mutual  considera- 
tion will  be  given  to  the  following  points:  The  political  and 
economic  interests,  the  sovereignty  and  complete  independence 
of  the  Bepublic  of  Poland  within  the  frontiers  indispensable  for 
her  economic  and  political  development,  the  guarantee  that 
Bussia  will  not  interfere  in  the  internal  questions  of  Poland ; 
such  are  the  princiral  conditions  of  our  peace  terms. 

"  In  the  future  Poland  has  no  intention  of  interfering  in  the 
internal  affairs  of  other  nations  and  States,  and  it  fully  recog- 
nises the  principle  that  every  people  has  a  right  to  govern  itself, 
according  to  its  desires.  In  the  hope  that  these  principles  will 
be  admitted,  and  that  a  durable,  just,  and  democratic  peace  will 
result  therefrom  for  both  nations,  the  Polish  delegation  ap- 
proaches the  negotiations  for  the  armistice  conditions  and  the 
principles  of  the  peace." 

After  the  Polish  victories  in  August,  there  was  no  very 
serious  rally  on  the  part  of  the  Bolsheviks,  and  indeed  at  the 
beginning  of  September  the  Bussians  suffered  a  crowning  disaster 
in  the  crushing  defeat  of  General  Budenny's  cavalry  force.  It 
appears  that  alter  the  general  defeat  of  the  Bussians,  Budenny 
received  orders  to  turn  his  forces  north  from  Lember^  and  to 
cover  the  Bussian  retreat ;  but  the  cavalry  leader  decided  not 
to  obey  the  orders  of  the  Bussian  supreme  command.  Instead 
of  obeying  orders,  he  made  a  dash  for  Lemberg  on  his  own 
responsibinty  and  succeeded  in  getting  within  12  miles  of  the 
Gaucian  capital.  Here,  however,  he  became  entangled  with 
a  much  stronger  Polish  force  which  took  him  not  only  in  the 
front  but  also  in  the  flanks,  and  the  Poles  claimed  &at  the 
Bussian  cavalry  divisions  had  been  almost  completely  destroyed. 
Budenny  himself  was  wounded. 

The  Polish  advance  continued  throughout  September,  and 
the  railway  junction  of  Kovel  was  taken  on  September  13. 
The  advance  in  the  south  was  very  rapid,  and  Luck  was  taken 
on  September  16.    On  the  north  also  the  advance  continued, 

02 


212]         FOREIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTORY.        fi9ao. 

• 

and  Grodno  was  taken  on  September  27.  Two  days  later  the 
Polish  cavalry  were  reported  to  be  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Lida,  60  miles  beyond  Grodno.  The  advance  of  the  Poles  led 
to  a  serious  complication  with  the  Lithuanian  Government. 
It  will  be  remembered  that  before  the  Bolshevik  advance  in 
July  the  Poles  had  been  in  occupation  of  Yilna  and  the  sur- 
rounding district.  When  the  Bolsheviks  were  compelled  to 
retire,  the  Lithuanians  took  the  opportunity  to  occupy  the  old 
historic  capital  of  their  country.  Yilna  had,  however,  always 
been  claimed  by  the  Poles,  and  the  Polish  leaders  and  the 
people  of  Warsaw  therefore  viewed  with  considerable  chagrin 
the  fact  that  their  advancing  armies  had  been  forestalled  in 
Yilna  by  a  third  party.  Hence  all  through  September  there 
was  friction  of  a  most  serious  character  between  Poland  and 
Lithuania ;  and  on  more  than  one  occasion  the  troops  of  the 
two  countries  came  into  conflict  with  one  another.  The  situ- 
ation developed  in  an  extraordinary  manner  at  the  beginning 
of  October.  In  alliance  with  the  Poles  and  forming  part  of  the 
PoUsh  Army  there  was  a  large  White  Eussian  (White  Buthenian) 
contingent,  led  by  a  certain  General  Zeligowski.  Now  in  the 
province  of  Yilna,  the  White  Bussians  ^  were  the  largest  single 
nationaUty,  and  this  was  in  fact  one  of  the  grounds  upon 
which  the  Poles  urged  their  claim,  to  the  country.  The  White 
Bussians  on  their  own  part  claimed  that  they  had  a  better 
right  to  Yilna  than  the  Poles  had.  And  consequently  on 
October  9,  General  ZeUgowski  suddenly  marched  upon  Yilna, 
and  since  his  force  was  much  better  armed  than  the  Lithuanian 
troops,  he  entered  the  capital  the  same  day  without  difficulty. 
General  Zeligowski' s  coup  was  carried  out  without  the  formal 
approval  of  the  Warsaw  Government,  but  probably  not  without 
their  connivance.  This  action  on  the  part  of  the  White 
Bussians  led  to  further  and  more  serious  conflicts  between  the 
Poles  and  the  Lithuanians,  but  fortunately  the  League  of 
Nations  intervened  and  an  armistice  was  concluded  between 
the  two  countries  (see  Lithuania). 

Whilst  this  new  quarrel  was  arising  with  Lithuania,  ihe 
Poles  were  continuing  successfully  their  negotiations  with  the 
Bussian  Government.  At  the  end  of  August  the  Polish 
Government  recalled  their  delegates  from  Minsk,  but  they  did 
not  break  off  the  negotiations.  Having  obtained  the  consent 
of  the  Lettish  Government,  the  Poles  suggested  that  the  site 
of  the  negotiations  should  be  shifted  to  Biga,  and  on  Sep- 
tember 14  the  Polish  delegation  again  left  Warsaw,  this  time 
for  Lettland.     The  first  meeting  of  the  Peace  Conference  took 

'The  reader  may  be  reminded  that  in  contemporary  parlance  the  term 
**  White  RaBsian"  meant  two  entirely  different  things.  It  was  applied  in  the 
first  place  to  the  people  and  dialect  of  the  Minsk- Vilna  district.  This  was,  of 
course,  the  historic  meaning  of  the  term.  But  in  the  previous  three  years  the 
term  '*  Bed  "  had  become  the  nickname  of  the  Bolshevik  Party,  and  hence  those 
Russians  who  were  Anti-Socialist,  or  at  all  events  Anti-Bolshevik,  had  come  to  be 
known  as  **  White  "  Russiaiis. 


1990.]  Poland.  [213 

place  at  Biga  on  September  21,  the  head  of  the  Polish  delega- 
tion being  M.  Dombski  and  the  head  of  the  Bussian  delegation 
being  M.  Yoffe.  Whilst  the  negotiations  were  taking  place,  the 
Polish  Army  continued  to  advance,  and  at  the  end  of  September 
Pinsk  and  Baranovitchi  were  captured,  the  Poles  thus  reaching 
the  old  German  line  of  defence  in  Bussia.  Negotiations  not 
only  for  an  armistice  but  also  for  a  definite  Peace  Treaty  were 
undertaken  at  Bi^.  And  in  view  of  the  Bussian  defeats,  it 
came  as  no  surpnse  when  it  was  announced,  on  October  11, 
that  the  Bussians  had  accepted  all  the  more  important  Polish 
demands. 

The  armistice  and  the  preliminary  Peace  Treaty  were  signed 
at  Biga  on  October  12.  The  terms  were  extremely  favourable 
to  Poland.  The  new  frontier  to  which  Bussia  had  been  forced 
to  agree  lay  far  to  the  east  of  the  frontier  as  laid  down  by  the 
Supreme  Council.  In  the  north  Poland  obtained  direct  access 
to  ijettland  on  the  Dvina  above  Dvinsk,  Lithuania  thus  being 
completely  cut  off  from  Bussia.  It  will  be  remembered  that 
whereas  Poland  was  on  bad  terms  with  Lithuania,  she  was  on 
good  terms  with  Lettland.  Minsk  remained  just  outside  Polish 
territory,  but  the  Poles  obtained  Baranovitchi,  Pinsk,  Eovel, 
Bovno,  and  the  whole  extent  of  the  important  Baranovitchi- 
Bovno  railway.  In  the  south-east  the  border  of  Galicia  once 
more  became  an  international  frontier,  as  in  the  days  of  the 
Bussian  and  Austro-Hungarian  empires. 

Poland,  as  now  redefined,  was  a  country  half  as  large  again 
as  the  Poland  of  the  Curzon  Line,  even  supposing  that  all  the 
territory  claimed  by  Lithuania  ultimately  became  attached  to 
that  country.  The  area  of  new  Poland  was  about  150,000 
square  miles,  and  its  population  was  just  under  30,000,000,  of 
whom  about  two-thirds  were  Poles.  The  country  contained 
nearly  6,000,000  Bussians  (of  various  dialects — Little  Bussian, 
White  Bussian,  etc.)  and  over  3,000,000  Jews. 

The  frontier  was  as  good  as  most  that  had  been  suggested. 
Some  would  criticise  the  new  eastern  line  on  the  groimd  that 
it  had  been  pushed  farther  east  than  was  strictly  justifiable 
ethnographically.  Others  would  re^t  that  only  6,000,000 
Bussians  had  been  saved  by  Polish  civilisation  from  the  horrible 
degradation  of  Bolshevism. 

The  Treaty  committed  Bussia  to  a  recognition  of  White 
Bussia  and  Ukrainia  as  separate  entities.  But  this  recognition 
was  only  nominal,  since  it  left  the  Muscovites  free  to  interfere 
and  establish  Soviet  institutions  in  those  great  provinces.  In- 
deed, they  had  already  established  a  Soviet  Government  in 
Ukrainia,  and  a  representative  of  that  Government  took  part 
in  the  negotiations  at  Biga.  Poland  had  saved  herself,  but  had 
felt  incapable  of  pressing  the  claims  of  her  erstwhile  friends 
and  allies,  General  Petlura  and  General  Balahovitch.  Indeed, 
the  latter  had  to  hasten  out  of  Polish  territory  before  the 
armistice  came  into  force  on  October  19,  since  otherwise  he  and 


214]         FOBEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTOKY.        [1920. 

his  men  would  have  been  disarmed.  The  Treaty  of  Biga  was 
ratified  by  both  the  Polish  and  Russian  Governments  before 
the  end  of  October. 

During  July  the  plebiscites  in  the  AUensteinand  Marienwerder 
districts,  which  were  to  take  place  imder  the  authority  of  the 
Treaty  of  Versailles  in  order  to  settle  whether  those  districts 
should  belong  to  Poland  or  to  Germany,  were  duly  held.  In 
both  districts  over  90  per  cent,  of  the  votes  cast  were  in  favour 
of  Germany. 

In  the  autumn  of  1919  the  British  Government  sent  a 
mission  to  Poland,  under  the  leadership  of  Sir  Stuart  Samuel, 
to  investigate  the  charges  of  cruelty  and  oppression  brought  by 
Polish  Jews  against  the  Polish  people  and  Government.  The 
mission  issued  a  long  report  in  July.  It  was  found  that,  during 
the  first  few  months  of  Polish  independence,  the  Polish  popu- 
lace had  given  vent  to  their  hatred  of  the  Jews,  and  that  about 
350  Jews  had  been  killed  in  various  parts  of  the  country.  The 
poUce  appear  to  have  been  not  free  from  blame  in  this  matter. 
But  the  report  stated  that  as  the  power  of  the  Warsaw  Govern- 
ment became  consolidated,  the  murders  ceased  and  the  oppression 
decreased. 

The  polling  in  the  plebiscite  area  of  Upper  Silesia — claimed 
by  Germany  and  Poland — had  not  taken  place  at  the  end  of  the 
year. 

The  rise  of  Poland  almost  to  the  position  of  a  potential 
Great  Power  must  be  regarded  as  the  most  important  event  in 
the  history  of  Europe  durmg  the  year. 

LITHUANU. 

Lithuania  was  essentially  a  more  important  country  than 
either  Estland  or  Lettland.  Within  the  prospective  boundaries 
of  Lithuania  there  existed  a  population  of  about  5,000,000, 
or  about  double  the  population  of  either  Estland  or  Lettland. 
The  population  of  Lithuania  also  differed  from  that  of  the  two 
minor  States  in  that  it  was  mainly  Boman  Catholic.  The 
Lithuanians  hoped  that  their  country  when  definitely  established 
would  include  at  least  the  old  Bussian  Imperial  Governments 
of  Yilna,  Kovno,  and  Suvalki.  The  Lithuanians,  however,  had 
been  less  successful  in  establishing  their  State  on  a  firm  basis 
than  had  their  northern  neighbours.  They  were  unfortimate  in 
being  on  unfriendly  terms  not  only  with  Bussia  but  also  with 
Poland. 

During  1919  they  had  been  nearly  overwhelmed  by  the 
Bussians,  and  they  had  only  been  saved  from  destruction  by  a 
strange  assortment  of  armies — ^Polish,  Lettish,  German,  and 
minor  contingents  of  other  nationalities.  The  Polish  aid  was, 
of  course,  the  most  important,  but  the  Lithuanians  found  the 
Poles  dangerous  allies ;  and  during  the  course  of  their  operations 
against  the  Bussians,  the  Poles  occupied  the  city  and  province 


1930.]  Lithuania.  [215 

of  Vilna,  to  which  they  laid  claim.  The  Lithuanian  Govern- 
ment were  therefore  established  at  Eovno,  instead  of  at  Yilna, 
the  historic  capital  of  the  comitry.  The  head  of  the  Govern- 
ment was  Mr.  A.  Smetona. 

It  is  perhaps  appropriate  to  mention  here  that  whilst  the 
Lithuanians  were  m  a  majority  in  Eovno  and  Suvalld,  the 
largest  single  nationality  in  the  province  of  Yilna  was  the 
so-called  White  Bussians;  and  in  the  city  of  Yilna  itself, 
the  Poles  claimed  to  be  the  largest  nationality.  The  White 
Bussians  were  not  really  a  distinct  nationality  from  the  Bussians 
proper.  The  White  Bussian  tongue  was  only  a  dialect  of 
Bussian;  and  indeed  White  Bussia  bore  much  the  same  re- 
lationship to  Bussia  that,  for  instance,  Catalonia  did  to  Spain. 

At  the  beginning  of  May  elections  were  held  for  the  I>iet 
in  the  part  of  the  country  under  the  control  of  the  Eovno 
Government.  It  was  stated  that  112  deputies  were  elected, 
among  whom  the  Clericals  had  a  majority  over  all  other  parties 
combined.  The  Socialists  obtained  only  thirteen  seats ;  and  the 
Polish  Separatists  only  three  seats. 

The  defeats  suffered  by  the  Polish  Army  in  July,  during  the 
war  with  Bussia,  led  to  serious  compUcations  between  Lithuania 
and  Poland.  Being  alarmed  at  the  defeat  of  their  armies,  the 
Poles  endeavoured  to  obtain  assistance  from  Lithuania;  and 
the  Warsaw  Government  offered  to  retium  Yilna  to  Lithuania, 
on  condition  that  a  close  union  was  estabUshed  between  Lithu- 
ania as  a  whole  and  Poland.  The  offer  was  not  an  especially 
attractive  one  to  Lithuania,  and  a  similar  offer  had  in  fact 
been  previously  rejected  by  the  Lithuanian  Government.  The 
Lithuanian  authorities  had  always  demanded  the  complete  in- 
dependence of  their  country.  This  offer  was  therefore  rejected 
by  the  Eovno  Government  \  and  in  the  meantime  the  Lithuanians 
concluded  a  treaty  of  peace  with  Bussia,  which  was  duly  signed 
on  July  12.  It  appears  that  the  common  enmity  towards 
Poland  which  the  Bussians  and  Lithuanians  possessed  was 
sufficient  to  overcome  the  natural  antipathy  of  the  Lithuanians 
to  Bolshevism.  And  during  the  next  few  weeks  the  Lithuanians 
undoubtedly  behaved  in  a  friendly  manner  towards  the  Bussians 
during  the  advance  of  the  latter  upon  Warsaw.  The  Poles 
were  retreating  rapidly  at  this  time,  and  they  evacuated  Yilna. 
The  Bussians  did  not  halt  at  the  boundary  of  Yilna,  although 
they  had  recognised  that  province  as  a  part  of  Lithuania  in  the 
Peace  Treaty ;  on  the  contrary  they  continued  to  advance,  and 
occupied  Yilna  city  on  July  14.  The  Bussians  claimed  that 
they  were  entitled  to  enter  this  part  of  Lithuania  since  it  had 
been  occupied  by  the  Poles ;  and  it  is  true  that  they  did  not 
attempt  to  advance  towards  Eovno. 

During  the  next  four  weeks  there  was  a  complete  reversal 
of  fortune  in  the  Busso-Polish  campaign ;  and  the  Bussians 
were  compelled  to  flee  from  Yilna,  as  on  the  other  parts  of  their 
battle  line.    The  Lithuanians  then  seized  their  opportunity, 


216]  FOEEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTOEY.        [i92a 

and  they  marched  east  on  the  heels  of  the  retiring  Eussians, 
and  took  possession  of  Vihia,  on  August  24.  The  Lithuanians 
also  advanced  in  another  direction,  where  they  had  less  excuse, 
namely,  in  the  south-west.  The  frontier  of  Poland  drawn  up 
by  the  Supreme  Coimcil  at  the  end  of  1919,  the  so-called  Curzon 
Line,  had  cut  the  province  of  Suvalki  in  two,  the  northern  half 
going  to  Lithuania,  and  the  southern  half  to  Poland.  Suvalki 
town  itself  was  left  to  Poland.  It  may  perhaps  be  explained 
that  the  province  of  Suvalki  formed  part  both  of  Napoleon's 
Grand  Duchy  of  Warsaw  and  of  Confess  Poland,  though,  as 
already  stated,  the  majority  of  the  inhabitants  were  Lithuanians. 
The  German  Government,  during  the  period  that  they  were 
dominant  in  the  east,  separated  Suvalki  from  Poland  and  gave 
it  to  Lithuania,  a  course  of  action  for  which  there  was  a  good 
deal  to  be  said.  But,  as  already  stated,  the  Western  Allies  had 
decided  to  divide  the  province.  During  September  there  were 
conflicts  between  Polish  and  Lithuanian  troops  both  in  Suvalki 
and  in  Vilna,  but  f ortimately  not  on  a  very  large  scale.  The 
two  Governments  opened  negotiations  at  Kalvaria;  but  the 
negotiations  were  soon  broken  off.  The  Polish  Army  in  the 
pursuit  of  the  Eussians  took  Grodno  on  September  27,  and 
passed  through  the  edge  of  the  province  of  Yilna,  but  did  not 
advance  upon  Vilna  city. 

In  so  far  as  the  province  of  Suvalki  was  concerned,  the 
special  grievance  of  the  Lithuanians  was  that  the  town  of  Seiny 
was  left  on  the  south  side  of  the  Curzon  Line,  although  that 
town  was  the  ecclesiastical  capital  of  Lithuania.  Both  sides  in 
these  territorial  disputes  appealed  to  the  League  of  Nations. 

It  is  possible  that  a  satisfactory  agreement  would  have  been 
reached  at  once;  but  as  already  mentioned  elsewhere  (see 
Poland)  there  was  a  sudden  intervention  on  the  part  of  the 
White  Eussian  division  of  the  Polish  Army,  led  by  General 
Zeligowski.  This  White  Eussian  division  seized  Vilna  on 
October  9. 

The  public  in  Western  Europe  were  quick  to  liken  General 
Zeligowski' s  coup  to  that  of  the  poet  d'Annunzio  at  Fiume. 
There  was  undoubtedly  a  general  similarity  between  the  two 
cases,  and  sympathy  for  the  Lithuanians  was  therefore  general. 
General  Zeligowski  acted  independently  of  the  Polish  Govern- 
ment, just  as  d'Annunzio  had  been  independent  of  the  Italian 
Government;  though  there  was  better  reason  to  suspect  the 
connivance  of  the  authorities  at  Warsaw  than  there  had  been 
to  accuse  the  Italian  Government  of  collusion.  The  parallel 
ought  not,  however,  to  be  pressed  too  far.  Zeligowski  was 
acting  not  as  a  Polish  citizen  but  as  a  White  Eussian  nationalist. 
And  he  was,  ostensibly,  at  least,  claiming  the  right  of  self- 
determination  for  Vilna.  And  whilst  the  Lithuanians  no  doubt 
had  an  extremely  good  historical  claim  to  Vilna,  their  claim  on 
the  grounds  of  present-day  ethnography  were  not  strong — ^far 
less  strong  than  the  Jugo-Slav  claun  to  Fiume  had  been.     The 


1920.]  Lithuania.  [217 

volunteers  of  Zeligowski's  White  BuBsian  division  had  been 
inflamed  by  stories  of  Bolshevik  massacres,  which  were  alleged 
to  have  taken  place  in  Yilna,  with  the  connivance  of  the  Eovno 
Government.  The  story  was  si>read  about  in  Poland  in  general 
and  in  the  White  Bussian  contingent  in  particular  that  2,000 
Poles  had  been  slaughtered  in  Yilna  by  the  Bolsheviks.  It 
subsequently  transpired,  however,  that  this  story  was  almost 
entirely  false,  and  that  the  total  number  of  persons  executed  by 
the  Bussians  was  under  forty,  and  that  not  all  of  these  had  been 
Poles.  General  ZeUgowski  undoubtedly  had  the  whole-hearted 
support  of  the  Polish  people,  but  owing  to  pressure  from  the 
French  and  British  Governments,  the  Warsaw  Ministry  were 
not  able  to  support  him  officiaUy. 

After  the  seizure  of  Yilna,  fighting  took  place  between 
Zeligowski's  men  and  the  Lithuaman  troops ;  but  fortunately 
the  Council  of  the  League  of  Nations,  which  was  in  session  at 
Brussels  at  the  end  of  October,  was  again  able  to  intervene. 
The  Council  suggested  that  a  plebiscite  should  take  place  in 
Yilna  to  decide  tiie  destiny  of  that  province ;  and  the  Council 
were  also  successful  in  prevailing  upon  the  combatants  to 
conclude  an  armistice  with  one  another.  Both  the  Lithuanian 
and  the  Polish  Governments  accepted  the  League  Council's 
proposal  for  a  plebiscite ;  and  accordingly  a  small  international 
f oree — the  first  troops  to  act  under  the  League  of  Nations — was 
despatehed  to  Yilna  to  keep  order  during  the  polling.  The 
plebiscite  had  not  yet  taken  place  at  the  end  of  the  year. 

The  Port  of  Memel  and  the  surrounding  district,  which  had 
been  severed  from  Germany,  was  left  with  an  uncertain  status 
during  the  year.  The  port  was  occupied  by  French  troops.  It 
was  not  yet  given  to  Lithuania,  though  that  country  was  with- 
out a  port  of  any  considerable  size.  It  was  reported  that 
many  of  the  bxurghers  of  Memel  wished  their  city  to  be 
established  as  a  free  State,  rather  than  to  be  incorporated  in 
Lithuania. 

The  Lithuanian  Government  was  accorded  de  facto  recog- 
nition by  Great  Britain,  but  not  de  lege  recognition.  Lithuania 
applied  for  admission  to  the  League  of  Nations,  but  the 
application  was  unsuccessful. 

UKRAINIA. 

The  Ukrainian  independence  movement,  led  by  General 
Petlura,  encountered  repeated  disasters  during  the  year.  The 
movement  enjoyed  considerable  sympathy  in  the  world  at  large, 
because  it  aimed  not  only  at  establishing  the  independence 
of  the  large  Buthenian  province  of  Bussia,  but  was  also  anti- 
Bolshevik.  In  different  circumstances  the  Separatist  movement 
in  Ukrainia  Qike  that  in  White  Bussia)  might  have  been  regarded 
as  a  retrograde  step,  for  the  Ukrainians  were  only  provincially 
distinct  from  the  Great  Bussians;    but  since  the  failure  of 


218]        FOEEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTOKY.  [1920. 

Petlura  meant  the  subjection  of  all  Buthenia  to  Bolshevism, 
the  Buthenian  Hetman  had,  as  already  stated,  many  friends 
abroad. 

When  the  Poles,  laimched  their  great  offensive  against 
Bussia  at  the  end  of  April,  they  concluded  an  alliance  and 
complete  agreement  with  General  Petlura.  And  when  the 
Polish  troops  reached  Kieff  they  turned  over  the  control  of  the 
capital  to  the  Buthenian  troops.  General  Petlura  shared,  of 
course,  in  the  subsequent  reverses  of  the  Poles ;  and  although 
the  Poles  recovered  so  much  eastern  territory  in  September, 
they  were  unable  to  save  their  allies  as  well  as  themselves.  And 
when  the  Buthenians  were  deprived  of  Polish  support  after  the 
armistice  between  Poland  and  Bussia  on  October  19,  they  were 
quite  unable  to  stand  against  the  Bolshevik  Army,  and  at  the 
end  of  November  General  Petlura  with  the  remnant  of  his 
brave  followers  crossed  the  frontier  of  Poland,  now  a  neutral 
State,  and  had  to  submit  to  being  disarmed.  The  Ukrainian 
movement,  therefore,  appeared  to  have  failed  completely  at  the 
end  of  the  year ;  but  General  Petlura  annoimced  that  he  would 
reopen  war  with  Bussia. 

General  Petlura  was  ^ven  neither  de  jure  nor  even  de  facto 
recognition  by  Great  Britain.  Ukrainia  applied  for  admission 
to  the  League  of  Nations,  but  the  application  was  refused. 

FINLAND. 

At  the  opening  of  the  year  Mr.  Erich's  anti-Socialist  Govern- 
ment was  stUl  in  power ;  and  Finland  had  recovered  to  a  great 
extent  from  the  effects  of  the  Bolshevik  insurrection.  The 
attention  of  the  country  was  now  largely  concentrated  upon 
external  instead  of  upon  internal  affairs.  And  in  particular 
much  excitement  was  caused  in  Helsingfors  by  the  demand  of 
the  population  of  the  Aaland  Islands  for  reimion  with  Sweden. 
It  will  be  remembered  that  the  people  of  the  Aalands  were  of 
Swedish  extraction.  The  Finnish  Government  endeavoured  to 
meet  the  wishes  of  the  Aalanders  by  a  compromise.  The 
Government  introduced  into  the  ParUament  a  Bill  conferring 
local  autonomy  upon  the  islands.  The  Bill  was  passed  by  a 
large  majority  at  the  beginning  of  May ;  but  it  was  announced 
in  Stockholm  a  few  days  later  that  the  offer  had  been  rejected  by 
the  representative  body  which  the  Aalanders  had  established  on 
their  own  responsibility.  The  Aalanders  then  sent  a  deputation 
to  Stockholm  to  express  the  desire  of  the  islands  to  be  reunited 
with  Sweden.  And  the  Aaland  leaders  issued  a  public  demand 
to  be  allowed  to  exercise  the  right  of  self-determination.  When 
the  deputation  returned  from  Sweden,  the  leaders  were  arrested 
by  the  Finnish  Government ;  and  in  June  a  battalion  of  Finnish 
troops  was  landed  in  the  islands.  The  Swedish  Government 
then  intervened  and  demanded  explanations  from  Finland. 
The  diplomatic  situation  became  strained,  and  there  was  even 


1920.]  Finland.  [219 

talk  of  war  between  Finland  and  Sweden.  The  Finns  declared 
that  the  Aalands  were  geographically  part  of  Finland,  and  that 
it  was  strategically  impossible  for  Finland  to  surrender  them. 
The  Swedish  Government  on  their  side  declared  that  the  Finns 
in  refusing  to  allow  the  Aalanders  the  right  of  self-determination^ 
were  denying  the  very  principle  to  which  they  owed  their  own 
independent  existence,  and  were  using  the  self-same  arguments 
which  the  old  Russian  Imperial  Government  had  used  in  regard 
to  Finland.  In  regard  to  the  Finnish  argument  that  the 
surrender  of  the  islands  would  be  strategically  dangerous  to 
Finland,  the  Swedes  pointed  out  that  from  the  beginnmg  of  the 
controversy  Sweden  had  expressed  her  willingness  to  undertake 
not  to  fortify  the  islands  m  the  event  of  their  reunion  with 
Sweden.  The  situation  became  acute,  but  at  the  instance  of 
Great  Britain  the  case  was  taken  up  by  the  League  of  Nations^ 
and  was  considered  in  July,  at  a  meeting  of  the  Council  of  the 
League  which  was  held  in  London.  At  the  meeting  of  the 
Council  the  Swedish  and  Finnish  representatives  stated  their 
respective  cases.  Mr.  Brantin^  was  the  Swedish  representative 
and  Mr.  EnckeU  was  the  Finmsh  representative.  The  Finnish 
case  was  that  the  matter  was  entirely  a  question  of  Finnish 
domestic  poUcy  and  was  therefore,  under  the  terms  of  Article 
15  of  the  Covenant  of  the  League,  outside  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  Lea^e.  The  raising  of  this  point  by  Fmland  caused 
considerable  difficulty  and  great  delay.  The  League  Council 
decided  that  this  point  as  to  whether  the  question  of  the 
Aalands  did  or  did  not  fall  exclusively  within  the  domestic 
jurisdiction  of  Finland  was  one  that  ought  to  be  decided  by 
international  jurists.  The  question  was  therefore  turned  over 
for  the  consideration  of  a  commission  of  international  jurists ; 
the  preliminary  question  was  decided  in  favour  of  Sweden,  but 
the  matter  was  still  unsettled  at  the  end  of  the  year. 

In  the  autumn  Finland  concluded  a  Peace  Treaty  with  Bussia 
by  the  terms  of  which  Finland  obtained  an  accession  of  territory 
in  the  north-east.  The  agreement  gave  Finland  the  port  of 
Petehenga,  which  was  stated  to  be  free  from  ice  throughout  the 
year. 

The  Finnish  Government  was  accorded  de  jure  recognition 
by  the  Powers;  and  Finland  was  admitted  to  the  League  of 
Nations  in  the  autumn. 

ESTLAND. 

During  the  first  twelve  months  after  the  retirement  of  the 
Grerman  troops  from  the  east,  Estland  was  compelled  to  fight 
for  ite  existence  against  the  assaults  of  Bolshevik  Bussia ;  but 
on  December  31,  1919,  an  armistice  was  concluded  with 
Bussia,  and  during  1920  the  Uttle  Bepublic  was  able  to  begin 
the  work  of  reorganisation.  The  Army  which  had  amounted  to 
nearly  100,000  men,  was  largely  demobilised.  The  head  of  the 
Government  was  Mr.  A.  Bei.    Dorpat  University  was  reopened 


220]  FOBEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTOEY.        [1920. 

as  a  purely  Est  institution  in  December,  1919.  A  provisional 
Diet  had  been  established  in  1919,  but  at  the  end  of  November, 
1920,  a  General  Election  was  held  for  the  new  State  Parliament. 
There  were  a  large  number  of  political  groups  contesting  the 
elections,  but  the  Anti-Socialist  parties  obtained  a  large  collec- 
tive majority  over  the  Socialists.  The  Est  Government  was 
accorded  de  facto  recognition  by  Great  Britain,  but  not  de  lege 
recognition.  Estland  also  applied  to  be  admitted  to  the  League 
of  Nations,  but  the  application  was  rejected. 

LETTLAND. 

The  Letts  continued  the  war  with  Bussia  longer  than  the 
Ests,  and  peace  was  not  concluded  with  the  Soviet  until  the 
summer  of  1920.  Mr.  E.  Ulmanis  was  head  of  the  Lett 
Government.  Elections  for  the  first  formal  Parliament  of  the 
Bepublic  were  held  in  April.  Of  the  150  deputies  elected  93 
were  non-Socialists  and  57  were  Socialists.  Lettland  was  ac- 
corded de  facto  recognition  by  the  British  Government,  but  not 
de  lege  recognition.  Lettland  also  applied  to  be  admitted  to  the 
League  of  Nations,  but  as  in  the  cases  of  the  other  Baltic  States, 
the  application  was  rejected. 

DANZIG. 

As  stated  elsewhere.  Sir  Beginald  Tower  was  appointed 
First  Administrator  of  the  free  city  of  Danzig  by  the  League  of 
Nations  (see  Chapter  I.).  Jn  May  the  General  Election  for  the 
Constituent  Assembly  of  the  free  city  was  held.  The  German 
non-Socialist  parties  obtained  94  seats ;  the  Social  Democrats 
obtained  19  seats ;  and  the  Polish  Party  17  seats.  On  November 
15  the  formal  proclamation  of  Danzig  as  a  free  city  took  place. 
And  at  the  beginning  of  December  the  elected  Constituent 
Assembly  proclaimed  itself  the  Parliament  of  Danzig,  with 
power  to  pass  laws  until  1923.  The  delay  in  establishing  the 
new  State  was  due  to  the  difficulty  of  concluding  an  agreement 
with  Poland  in  regard  to  the  Polish  rights  of  transit  through  the 
port. 

CZECHO-SLOVAKIA. 

Of  the  States  which  had  arisen  on  the  wreck  of  the  Austro- 
Hungarian  Empire,  Czecho-Slovakia  was  in  many  respects  the 
least  unfortimate.  The  economic  situation  of  the  coimtry  was 
somewhat  less  serious  than  in  most  of  the  neighbouring  States, 
though  the  shortage  of  food  was  still  serious.  And  the  political 
situation  was  fairly  stable,  partly  owin^  to  the  fact  that  the 
Bohemians  were  not  entirely  without  political  experience  at  the 
time  of  the  Bevolution  in  October,  1918,  and  partly  because  the 
old  Bohemian  State  Administration  had  proved  to  be  susceptible 
of  conversion  and  expansion  into  a  suitable  administrative 
machine  for  the  new  independent  and  enlarged  State. 


1920.]  Czechoslovakia.  [221 

After  the  independence  of  the  country  had  been  declared  at 
the  end  of  October,  1918,  a  National  Constituent  Assembly  had 
been  nominated  by  the  Bohemian  leaders,  fair  representetion 
being  given  to  the  different  Czech  parties,  the  object  of  this  step 
being  to  obviate  the  necessity  of  holding  elections  in  the  dis- 
turbed state  of  the  country.  Professor  T.  G.  Masaryk  became 
first  President  of  the  Republic.  During  1919  no  great  change 
in  the  situation  took  i>lace,  and  at  the  beginning  of  1920  M.  V. 
Tusar  was  Prime  Minister,  and  Dr.  E.  Benes  was  Minister  for 
Foreign  AiEairs.    No  Parliamentary  Elections  had  been  held. 

At  the  opening  of  the  year  the  Constituent  Assembly  was  still 
considering  the  terms  of  the  constitutional  law  which  had  to  be 
passed.  The  law  bringing  the  Czech  Constitution  formally  into 
existence  was  passed  at  the  end  of  February.  The  law  pro- 
vided that  there  should  be  two  Houses  of  Parliament,  a  Senate 
and  a  Chamber  of  Deputies,  the  former  to  be  elected  for  eight 
years  and  the  latter  for  six  years.  It  was  provided  that  the 
President  of  the  Bepublic  should  be  elected  every  seven  years 
by  the  two  Houses  of  Parliament,  sitting  in  joint  session — after 
the  pattern  of  a  Presidential  Election  in  France.  The  Constitu- 
tion provided  that  the  President  could  declare  war  with  the 
consent  of  Parliament  and  that  he  should  be  the  Supreme 
Commander  of  the  armed  forces.  In  certain  other  respects  the 
President  was  given  considerable  powers.  The  constitution 
guaranteed  freedom  of  the  Press  and  freedom  of  speech ;  and 
tiiere  were  also  safeguards  for  racial  minorities,  in  accordance 
with  the  specifications  of  the  Paris  Peace  Conference. 

The  Constitution  provided  that  the  territory  of  the  Bepublic 
should  be  an  indivisible  unity,  but  certain  autonomous  rights 
were  given  to  the  small  Buthenian  district  in  the  Carpathians. 
It  was  provided  that  the  Senate  should  consist  of  150  members 
and  that  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  should  consist  of  300  mem- 
bers. It  was  also  provided  that  the  Parliamentary  Elections 
should  take  place  under  a  system  of  proportional  representation. 

The  constitutional  law  having  been  passed,  the  Constituent 
Assembly  dissolved  itself,  and  the  General  JSlection  for  the 
first  regular  Parliament  of  the  Bepublic  was  fixed  for  the  middle 
of  Aprn,  although  the  frontier  of  Czecho-Slovakia  in  the  north- 
east (Teschen)  still  remained  undefined.  The  elections  for  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  were  fixed  for  A^ril  18  and  those  for 
the  Senate  for  April  25.  The  poUtical  situation  was  complex, 
mainly  because  the  Paris  Peace  Conference  had  decided  to  give 
Czecho-Slovakia  a  strate^c  frontier  in  the  north-west,  instead 
of  an  ethnographic  frontier.  The  line  of  the  Giant  Mountains 
was  the  natural  geographical  border  between  Saxony  and 
Czecho-Slovakia,  and  it  had  the  advantage  from  the  Bohemian 
point  of  view  that  it  was  a  defensible  border,  but  it  also  had 
the  disadvantage  that  a  solid  mass  of  Germans  lived  on  the 
south  side  of  l£e  mountains,  in  the  territonr  which  had  come 
to  be  known  as  "German   Bohemia."     And   this  German 


222]         FOREIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTOEY.         [1920. 

Bohemia  was  a  veritable  ^'Ulster"  of  the  most  determined 
type.  The  result  of  the  inclusion  in  Gzecho-Slovakia  of  this 
important  racial  minority  was  that  the  new  Czecho-Slovak 
Parliament  would  suffer  in  a  minor  degree  from  the  same 
handicap  that  had  afflicted  the  old  Austrian  Beichsrath.  In  the 
Beichsrath,  it  will  be  remembered,  the  deputies  were  divided 
primarily  on  national  lines  and  then  again  sub-divided  on 
political  lines.  Thus  there  had  been  German  Conservatives, 
German  Liberals,  and  German  Socialists ;  Polish  Conservatives, 
Polish  Liberals,  and  Polish  Socialists ;  Bohemian  Conservatives, 
Bohemian  Liberals,  and  Bohemian  Socialists ;  Jugo-Slav  Con- 
servatives, Jugo-Slav  Liberals,  and  Jugo-Slav  Socialists;  and 
so  forth.  And  the  result  of  these  national  divisions  had 
necessarily  been  that  the  genuine  working  out  of  political  and 
economic  problems  had  been  impossible,  since  a  healthy  de- 
velopment of  political  issues  had  been  thwarted  at  every  turn 
by  the  national  animosities. 

The  same  system  of  political  grouping  had  now  been  per- 
petuated in  Czecho-SlovsJda,  though  of  course  in  a  much  less 
aggravated  degree,  since  the  number  of  nationaUties  was  smaller. 

The  elections  for  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  took  place  as 
arranged  on  April  18.  On  the  whole,  the  elections  were  a 
success  for  the  Socialists.  Both  M.  Tusar  and  Dr.  Benes  were 
Socialists,  though  they  did  not  belong  to  the  same  Socialist 
Party.  The  party  led  by  Dr.  Benes,  the  Czech  National 
Socialist  Party,  was  comparable  to  the  Italian  Eeformist  Social- 
ist Party.  The  Social  Democratic  Party,  to  which  the  Prime 
Minister  himself  belonged,  was  an  orthodox  Socialist  Party, 
although  it  had  a  small  left  wing  possessed  of  Bolshevik  sym- 
pathies. The  Czech  National  Socialists  obtained  77  seats,  the 
Social  Democrats  32,  and  the  German  Socialists  also  32.  The 
non-Socialists  obtained  altogether  137  seats;  but  they  were, 
of  course,  not  a  united  party,  since  they  consisted  of  Czechs, 
Germans,  and  seven  Hungarians.  The  Czech  non-Socialists, 
divided  into  National  Democrats,  Agrarians,  and  Clericals,  won 
90  seats,  and  the  German  National  Party  won  40  seats.  The 
total  niunber  of  deputies  elected  fell  short  of  the  full  300, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  no  polling  could  ts^e  place  in  the 
electoral  district  of  Teschen,  where  the  plebiscite  for  which 
provision  had  been  made  in  the  Treaty  of  Versailles  had  still 
not  been  held.  In  the  elections  for  the  Senate,  the  results 
turned  out  to  be  very  similar,  though  in  the  case  of  the  Upper 
House  the  non-Socialists  were  in  a  small  majority.  M.  Tusar's 
Oovemment  remained  in  power.  * 

The  Constituent  Assembly  having  been  elected,  the  attention 
of  the  country  was  concentrated  on  the  Teschen  question. 
Under  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Versailles,  a  plebiscite  was  to 
be  held  in  the  district  of  Austrian  Silesia  surrounding  the  town 
of  Teschen,  in  order  to  decide  whether  that  district  should  be 
xmited  with  Poland  or  with  Czecho-Slovakia.    The  plebiscite 


IL 


1900.1  Cteeho-Slovakia.  [223 

in  this  district  of  Silesia  should  not  be  cocfused  with  the 
plebiscite  which  was  to  take  place,  also  under  the  terms  of  the 
iSreaty  of  Versailles,  in  soAialled  "  Upper  Silesia."  Upper 
Silesia  lay  to  the  north  of  Teschen  and  was  in  Prussian  Silesia, 
not  in  Austrian  Silesia.  And  in  the  cose  of  Upper  Silesia,  too, 
the  plebiscite  was  to  decide  not  between  Poland  and  Czecho- 
slovakia but  between  Poland  and  Germany.  The  two  disputed 
districts  resembled  one  another,  however,  in  that  they  had 
caused  an  astonishing  amomit  of  controTersy  and  ill-feeUng 
between  the  various  ^urtiee  concerned. 

Both  Upper  Silesia  and  Teschen  Silesia  were  important 
from  the  economic  point  of  view,  because  both  districts,  and 
especially  the  former,  were  rich  in  coal  mines. 

The  Czechs  laid  claim  to  the  Teschen  district  in  the  first 
instance  on  historical  grounds,  since  the  province  had  been  part 
of  the  Kingdom  of  Bohemia,  which  they  claimed  to  he  indivisible. 
On  the  other  hand,  there  was  undoubtedly  a  large  PoUsh 
majority  in  the  north-eastern  part  of  the  disputed  distnct.  The 
town  of  Teschen  itself,  situated  in  the  middle  of  the  territory, 
was  very  much  in  doubt  from  the  national  point  of  view,  since 
the  townsfolk  were  very  largely  Austrian. 

After  the  disruption  of  the  Austro-Hungarian  Empire  the 
Czechs  and  Poles  agreed  to  a  provisional  partition  of  Teschen ; 
but  in  April,  1919,  actual  hostilities  broke  out  between  Poland 
and  Czecho-Slovaiia.  The  Poles  had  begun  to  organise  their 
half  of  the  province  as  part  of  Poland,  and  in  particular  bad 
arranged  that  the  Silesian  population  should  participate  in  the 
elections  for  the  Polish  National  Assembly.  The  Czechs  de- 
nounced this  action  as  a  violation  of  the  purely  provisional 
character  of  the  partition,  and  straightway  marched  strong 
forces  into  the  Polish  zone.  The  intervention  of  the  AUied 
Governments  brought  the  hostihties  to  a  speedy  termination, 
and  a  new  partition  line  was  drawn  up  by  the  Powers.  But 
these  events  caused  intense  resentment  in  Poland,  particularly 
as  the  Polish  troops  had  had  very  much  the  worst  of  the 
encounters  during  the  short  period  of  hostiUties.  There  was 
a  personal  incident  which  was  especially  keenly  felt.  One  of 
the  chief  Polish  officers  in  Silesia  was  Colonel  Haller,  brother 
of  the  famous  and  extremely  popular  Polish  general  of  Uiat 
name.  And  when  the  Poles  were  resisting  the  Czech  advance. 
Colonel  Haller  himself  was  killed. 

During  the  next  twelve  months  there  was  constant  rioting 

'        '    ■  ons,  the  riots  not 

Plebiscite  Com- 
1  July,  1920,  the 
to  the  reasonable 
e  Czecho-Slovak 
ish  Premier ;  and 
tie  two  countries 
i.     It  was  decided 


224]         FOEEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTOEY.         [1920. 

to  partition  the  Teschen  province  forthwith  instead  of  holding 
a  plebiscite.  The  agreement  which  was  thus  reached  ^ave  a 
large  moiety  of  territory  to  Poland,  but  Czecho-Slovakia  had 
the  better  of  the  bargain  in  the  matter  of  the  coal-fields. 

During  August,  when  the  Eussian  armies  were  advancing 
upon  Warsaw,  Czecho-Slovakia  followed  the  lead  of  Germany 
in  declaring  strict  neutrality  in  the  Eusso-Polish  War.  Since 
Czecho-Slovakia  was  a  member  of  the  League  of  Nations 
(which  Germany,  of  course,  was  not)  the  propriety  of  this 
course  was  somewhat  doubtful. 

In  the  middle  of  August,  Czecho-Slovakia  concluded  a  de- 
fensive alliance  with  the  Kingdom  of  the  Serbs,  Croats,  and 
Slovenes.  The  alliance  provided  that  if  one  party  were  the 
victim  of  an  unprovoked  attack  on  the  part  oi  Hungary,  the 
other  party  should  come  to  its  assistance.  It  was  provided 
that  the  alliance  should  be  renewable  every  two  years,  and  that 
the  terms  of  the  agreement  should  be  made  known  to  the 
League  of  Nations  in  accordance  with  the  League  Covenant. 

In  September  M.  Cemy  succeeded  M.  Tusar  as  Prime 
Minister. 

During  December  somewhat  serious  Communist  disturb- 
ances broke  out  in  various  parts  of  Czecho-Slovakia,  especially 
in  Brunn  and  Brux. 

The  financial  position  of  Czecho-Slovakia  was  less  serious 
than  that  of  most  neighbouring  countries,  and  much  better 
than  that  of  Poland  and  Austria.  The  exchange  value  of  the 
Bohemian  ''  crown  "  was  better  than  that  of  the  German  mark, 
though  it  fluctuated  considerably. 

HUNGARY. 

When  King  Charles  abdicated  from  the  throne  of  Hungary 
in  the  autumn  of  1918,  the  revolution  which  took  place  was 
unlike  any  other  of  the  numerous  revolutions  which  occurred 
in  the  other  countries  of  Central  and  Eastern  Europe.  Indeed, 
the  Hungarian  revolution  scarcely  deserves  to  be  called  a 
revolution ;  because  the  regime  which  was  then  established  was 
of  a  thoroughly  Conservative  character,  and  the  dominant 
groups  were  even  monarchic  in  their  sympathies.  For  a  short 
period  during  1919,  a  clique  of  extreme  Socialists,  in  league 
with  the  Bolsheviks  of  Bussia,  had  seized  power  in  Budapest ; 
but  they  had  soon  been  expelled,  and  the  Hungarians  had  then 
restored  the  monarchy  in  the  person  of  the  Archduke  Joseph, 
but  the  latter  had  been  compelled  to  resign  by  the  Entente 
Powers.  During  1919  also  a  Rumanian  Army  had  occupied 
Budapest,  but  the  troops  had  been  withdrawn  before  the  end 
of  the  year. 

At  the  beginning  of  1920  a  Conservative  Government  was 
firmly  established  m  Budapest,  with  M.  Huzar  as  Prime 
Minister.     The  territory  over  which  this  Government  ruled 


1920.]  Hungary.  [225 

was,  of  course,  small  compared  to  the  territory  of  the  Himgarian 
Kingdom  as  it  had  existed  before  the  war.  Transylvania  had 
been  lost  to  Eumania,  the  Slovak  districts  had  ^one  to  Czecho- 
slovakia, and  Croatia-Slavonia  and  other  districts  in  the 
south  had  been  annexed  by  the  S.H.S.  Kingdom.  Owing  to 
the  constant  political  changes  in  Budapest,  the  conclusion  of 
the  Treaty  of  Feace  between  the  Allied  and  Associated  Powers 
and  Hungary  had  been  delayed,  but  at  the  beginning  of  the 
year  the  Hungarian  Peace  Delegation  was  summoned  to  Paris. 
The  Delegation,  which  was  headed  by  Coimt  Apponyi,  arrived  in 
Paris  on  January  7,  and  on  January  15  the  terms  of  the  pro- 
posed treaty  were  handed  to  the  Hungarians. 

The  general  scheme  of  the  treaty  was  modelled  on  that  of 
the  Treaty  of  St.  Germain.  The  treaty  compelled  Hungary  to 
recognise  the  independence  of  the  Serb-Croat-Slovene  Kmgdom 
and  of  Czecho-Slovakia.  The  Hungarians  were  compelled  to 
pav,  in  addition  to  the  Hungarian  debt,  a  part  of  the  Austrian 
debt,  representing  the  Hungarian  share  of  the  general  Austro- 
Hunganan  indebtedness.  Hungary  was  to  pay  the  expenses 
of  the  Allied  Armies  of  Occupation,  except  for  the  unauthorised 
(Rumanian)  military  operations  subsequent  to  November  3, 
1918. 

The  treaty  also  indicated  the  proposed  frontiers  of  Hungaiy. 
On  the  west  Hungary  was  to  cede  a  strip  of  territory  to  Austria, 
this  strip  being  populated  by  Germans.  The  frontier  with 
Austria  was  to  run  southwards  from  Antonienhof  to  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Tuka.  The  new  frontier  with  Czecho-Slovakia 
was  to  run  east  from  Antonienhof,  partly  along  the  Danube, 
and  then  across  to  the  east  of  Surany  on  the  Theiss.  The 
frontier  with  Rumania  was  to  run  approximately  north  and 
south  from  the  Czecho-Slovak  frontier  to  the  neighbourhood 
of  Nagylak.  And  the  frontier  with  the  S.H.S.  Kingdom  was 
to  run  westwards,  partly  along  the  Drave  and  the  Mur  to  the 
Austrian  frontier. 

The  treaty  also  stipulated  that  the  Hungarian  Army  should 
be  reduced  to  35,000  men,  having  no  heavy  artillery.  Since 
the  Treaty  of  Peace  gave  Rumania  a  large  Magyar  and  German 
population,  it  was  stipulated  that  that  country  should  accept 
"racial  minority"  clauses  similar  to  those  inserted  in  the 
treaties  of  1919. 

The  terms  of  the  treaty,  which  were  certainly  drastic,  were 
received  with  an  outory  in  Hungary ;  and  it  was  at  first  declared 
that  it  was  impossible  for  the  country  to  sign  any  such  agree- 
ment. The  discussions  between  the  Hungarian  delegates  and 
the  Allies  were  continued  for  months ;  and  it  was  not  until  the 
summer  that  the  Treaty  of  Peace  was  finally  signed. 

At  the  end  of  January  a  General  Election  was  held  for  the 
National  Constituent  Assembly ;  and  in  the  result  the  various 
non-Socialist  Parties  were  returned  with  a  large  majority.  And 
indeed  it  soon  became  apparent  that  the  dominant  feeling  in 

P 


226]         FOREIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTORY.         [1920. 

Hungary  was  entirely  Conservative.  A  proclamation  was 
issued  stating  that  Hungary  remained  a  kingdom.  The 
National  Assembly  met  in  the  middle  of  February;  and  on 
March  1  the  Assembly  elected  the  Chief  of  the  State.  It  was  in 
accordance  with  the  proclaimed  continuance  of  the  monarchic 
regime  that  the  Chief  of  the  State  was  given  the  title  "  I^gent " 
and  not  ''President."  There  was  Uttle  or  no  competition  for 
the  Regency ;  and  the  well-known  statesman,  Admiral  Horthy, 
was  elected  by  a  large  majority  of  the  legislators. 

M.  Huszar  remained  in  power  until  the  Regent  had  been 
elected,  but  the  Prime  Minister  then  resigned.  Admiral  Horthy 
then  asked  M.  Simon^-Semadam  to  form  a  Government,  and  in 
the  middle  of  March  it  was  announced  that  this  statesman  had 
been  successful  in  forming  a  Cabinet.  M.  Simonyi-Semadam 
had  been  able  to  obtain  the  joint  support  of  the  powerful 
Clerical  and  Agrarian  parties,  and  he  had  the  loyal  help  of  M. 
Huszar,  although  the  latter  was  not  a  member  of  the  Govern- 
ment.    The  Cabinet  was  constituted  as  follows : — 

Premier  and  Minister  of  the  Interior  -  M.  Simonyi-Semadam. 

Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs       ....  Count  P.  Teleki. 

Minister  of  Finance Baron  F.  Koranyi 

Minister  for  War General  Soos. 

Minister  of  Agriculture M.  J.  Bubinek. 

Minister  of  Public  Worship  -        -  M.  S.  Haller. 

Minister  of  Justice M.  A.  KuUm. 

Minister  of  Food M.  S.  NagynyL 

Bepresentatiye  of  Small  Fanners  •  M.  Sokoropatka. 

Minister  of  Public  Welfare         -       -  -  M.  A.  Benard. 

Minister  for  National  Minorities  -  M.  J.  Bleyer. 

It  was  not  clear  what  was  precisely  implied  by  the  obstinate 
maintenance  of  the  monarchic  regime.  The  majority  in  the 
country  and  in  the  National  Assembly  were  clearly  royalists, 
but  there  were  several  royalist  parties.  Admiral  Horthy  mmself , 
as  also  the  famous  statesman  Coxmt  Andrassy,  were  the  leaders 
of  the  strict  Legitimists,  who  hoi>ed  to  see  King  Charles  himself 
restored  to  the  throne.  M.  Friedrich,  who  had  been  Prime 
Minister  during  the  brief  monarchic  restoration  in  the  previous 
year,  was  the  leader  of  a  group  which  hoped  to  see  the  Archduke 
Joseph  ascend  the  throne.  And  there  was  also  a  third  group  of 
royaUsts  who  wanted  a  king  who  was  not  a  member  of  the 
Habsburg  family.  From  the  foreign  point  of  view  the  chief 
fact  to  remember  was  that  the  actufld  situation  in  Hungary  was 
what  the  position  in  Germany  would  have  been  if  the  two 
parties  of  the  Bight,  the  German  National  Party  and  the 
German  People's  Party,  had  obtained  a  majority  at  the  General 
Election  in  the  summer. 

The  first  Hungarian  reply  to  the  peace  conditions  of  the 
Supreme  Council  made  proposals  which  were  widely  at  variance 
vrith  the  conditions  that  hail  been  laid  down.  And  indeed  the 
reply  seemed  to  indicate  an  entire  lack  of  comprehension  on  the 
part  of  its  authors  of  the  situation  which  had  arisen.    For 


1930.]  Hungary.  [227 

instance,  the  reply  demanded  that  there  should  be  a  plebiscite 
in  the  territories  taken  from  Hungary,  and  suggested  that  the 
frontier  of  Transylvania  should  be  the  ridge  of  the  Bihar 
mountains.  The  Hungarians  introduced  a  note  almost  of 
comedy  into  their  reply  by  demanding  that  Hungary  should  be 
given  Fiume !  After  prolonged  discussion,  the  Hungarians  at 
last  decided  in  May  to  accept  the  treaty.  The  treaty  was 
signed  in  the  Galerie  du  Grand  Trianon  at  Versailles  on  June  4, 
and  was  therefore  named  the  Treaty  of  Trianon.  The  ceremony 
was  brief.  M.  Millerand  was  in  the  chair,  and  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain  were  represented  by  their  respective 
Ambassadors  in  Paris,  Mr.  Hugh  Wallace  and  Lord  Derby. 
Bepresentatives  of  Italy,  Japan,  Canada,  Australia,  South  Africa, 
New  Zealand,  Poland,  Bumania,  Jugo-Slavia,  Greece,  China, 
Belgium,  Portugal,  Cuba,  Nicaragua,  Panama,  and  Siam  were 
present.  The  Hungarian  plenipotentiaries  weve  M.  A.  Denard 
and  M.  A.  Drasche-Lazar. 

In  July  the  Prime  Minister  resigned,  and  was  succeeded  in 
that  office  by  Count  Teleki. 

During  the  previous  year  allegations  had  been  made  by  the 
extreme  Socialists  that  after  the  fall  of  the  Soviet  Government 
in  Budapest  in  August,  1919,  there  had  been  a  general  massacre 
of  Bolsheviks  by  the  anti-Socialists,  with  the  connivance  of  the 
new  Government,  and  constituting  what  they  styled. a  ''  White 
Terror,"  comparable  to  the  Bed  Terror  existing  in  Bussia.  It 
was  even  alleged  in  certain  quarters  that  British  officers  in 
Hungary  had  taken  part  in  this  supposed  "  White  Terror." 
The  JBntish  Foreign  Office  therefore  instituted  an  inquirer  into 
the  matter,  and  the  report  of  the  official  investigators  was  issued 
in  May,  1920.  The  report  found  that  after  the  re-establishment 
of  Constitutional  Government  thirty  Bolsheviks  who  had  com- 
mitted murder  during  the  Bolshevik  regime  had  been  executed 
in  accordance  with  the  law  of  the  land.  It  was  also  ascertained 
that  before  the  Constitutional  Government  could  make  its 
authority  effective,  the  public  had  in  certain  cases  taken  sum- 
mary vengeance  upon  Imown  Bolsheviks — nearly  all  Jews — for 
the  excesses  which  they  had  committed  when  they  were  in 
power.  And  it  was  stated  that  about  370  Bolsheviks  had  been 
Killed  in  this  manner.  It  was  found,  however,  that  the  Consti- 
tutional Government  so  far  from  taking  any  part  in  this  ven- 
geance, had  put  a  stop  to  it  as  soon  as  they  were  able  to  assert 
their  authority.  And  the  investigation  of  course  disproved  the 
ridiculous  charge  against  British  officers. 

It  was  reported  in  December  that  Count  Teleki's  Govern- 
ment were  contemplating  accepting  the  abdication  of  the  Habs- 
burgs  as  final,  and  constituting  Hungary  as  an  independent 
kingdom  under  an  entirely  new  dynasty. 


p2 


222]        FOREIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTORY.         |1920. 

Bohemia  was  a  veritable  *'  Ulster "  of  the  most  determined 
type.  The  result  of  the  inclusion  in  Czecho-Slovakia  of  this 
important  racial  minority  was  that  the  new  Czecho-Slovak 
Parliament  would  suffer  in  a  minor  degree  from  the  same 
handicap  that  had  a£9icted  the  old  Austrian  Beichsrath.  In  the 
Beichsrath,  it  will  be  remembered,  the  deputies  were  divided 
primarily  on  national  lines  and  then  again  sub-divided  on 
political  lines.  Thus  there  had  been  German  Conservatives, 
German  Liberals,  and  German  Socialists ;  Polish  Conservatives, 
Polish  Liberals,  and  Polish  Socialists ;  Bohemian  Conservatives, 
Bohemian  Liberals,  and  Bohemian  Socialists ;  Jugo-Slav  Con- 
servatives, Jugo-Slav  Liberals,  and  Jugo-Slav  Socialists;  and 
so  forth.  And  the  result  of  these  national  divisions  had 
necessarily  been  that  the  genuine  working  out  of  political  and 
economic  problems  had  been  impossible,  since  a  healthy  de- 
velopment of  political  issues  had  been  thwarted  at  every  turn 
by  the  national  animosities. 

The  same  system  of  political  grouping  had  now  been  per- 
petuated in  Czecho-Slova^a,  though  of  course  in  a  much  less 
aggravated  degree,  since  the  nmnber  of  nationalities  was  smaller. 

The  elections  for  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  took  place  as 
arranged  on  April  18.  On  the  whole,  the  elections  were  a 
success  for  the  Socialists.  Both  M.  Tusar  and  Dr.  Benes  were 
SociaUsts,  though  they  did  not  belong  to  the  same  Socialist 
Party.  The  party  led  by  Dr.  Benes,  the  Czech  National 
Socialist  Party,  was  comparable  to  the  Italian  Reformist  Social- 
ist Party.  The  Social  Democratic  Party,  to  which  the  Prime 
Minister  himself  belonged,  was  an  orthodox  Socialist  Party, 
although  it  had  a  small  left  wing  possessed  of  Bolshevik  sym- 
pathies. The  Czech  National  Socialists  obtained  77  seats,  the 
Social  Democrats  32,  and  the  German  Socialists  also  32.  The 
non-Socialists  obtained  altogether  137  seats;  but  they  were, 
of  course,  not  a  united  party,  since  they  consisted  of  Czechs, 
Germans,  and  seven  Hungarians.  The  Czech  non-Socialists, 
divided  into  National  Democrats,  Agrarians,  and  Clericals,  won 
90  seats,  and  the  German  National  Party  won  40  seats.  The 
total  number  of  deputies  elected  fell  short  of  the  full  300, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  no  polling  could  take  place  in  the 
electoral  district  of  Teschen,  where  the  plebiscite  for  which 
provision  had  been  made  in  the  Treaty  of  Versailles  had  still 
not  been  held.  In  the  elections  for  the  Senate,  the  results 
turned  out  to  be  ybtj  similar,  though  in  the  case  of  the  Upper 
House  the  non-Sociausts  were  in  a  small  majority.  M.  Tusar's 
Oovemment  remained  in  power. 

The  Constituent  Assembly  having  been  elected,  the  attention 
of  the  country  was  concentrated  on  the  Teschen  question. 
Under  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Versailles,  a  plebiscite  was  to 
be  held  in  the  district  of  Austrian  Silesia  surrounding  the  town 
of  Teschen,  in  order  to  decide  whether  that  district  should  be 
united  with  Poland  or  with  Czecho-Slovi^a.    The  plebiscite 


I9fia]  Czechoslovakia,  [223 

in  this  district  of  Silesia  should  not  be  confused  with  the 

Plebiscite  which  was  to  take  place,  also  under  the  terms  of  the 
'reaty  of  Versailles,  in  so-called  "Upper  Silesia."  Upper 
Silesia  lay  to  the  north  of  Teschen  and  was  in  Prussian  Silesia, 
not  in  Austrian  Silesia.  And  in  the  case  of  Upper  Silesia,  too, 
the  plebiscite  was  to  decide  not  between  Poland  and  Czecho- 
Slo^vukia  but  between  Poland  and  Germany.  The  two  disputed 
districts  resembled  one  another,  however,  in  that  they  had 
caused  an  astonishing  amount  of  controversy  and  ill-feeling 
between  the  various  parties  concerned. 

Both  Upper  Silesia  and  Teschen  Silesia  were  important 
from  the  economic  point  of  view,  because  both  districts,  and 
especially  the  former,  were  rich  in  coal  mines. 

The  Czechs  laid  claim  to  the  Teschen  district  in  the  first 
instance  on  historical  grounds,  since  the  province  had  been  part 
of  the  Kingdom  of  Bohemia,  which  they  claimed  to  be  indivisible. 
On  the  other  hand,  there  was  undoubtedly  a  large  Polish 
majority  in  the  north-eastern  part  of  the  disputed  district.  The 
town  of  Teschen  itself,  situated  in  the  middle  of  the  territory, 
was  very  much  in  doubt  from  the  national  point  of  view,  since 
the  townsfolk  were  very  largely  Austrian. 

After  the  disruption  of  the  Austro-Hungarian  Empire  the 
Czechs  and  Poles  agreed  to  a  provisional  partition  of  Teschen ; 
but  in  April,  1919,  actual  hostilities  broke  out  between  Poland 
and  Czecho-Slovakia.  The  Poles  had  begun  to  organise  their 
half  of  the  province  as  part  of  Poland,  and  in  particular  had 
arranged  that  the  Silesian  population  should  participate  in  the 
elections  for  the  Polish  National  Assembly.  The  Czechs  de- 
nounced this  action  as  a  violation  of  the  purely  provisional 
character  of  the  partition,  and  straightway  marched  strong 
forces  into  the  Polish  zone.  The  intervention  of  the  Allied 
Governments  brought  the  hostilities  to  a  speedy  termination, 
and  a  new  partition  line  was  drawn  up  by  the  Powers.  But 
these  events  caused  intense  resentment  in  Poland,  particularly 
as  the  Polish  troops  had  had  very  much  the  worst  of  the 
encounters  during  the  short  period  of  hostilities.  There  was 
a  personal  incident  which  was  especially  keenly  felt.  One  of 
the  chief  Polish  officers  in  Silesia  was  Colonel  HaUer,  brother 
of  the  famous  and  extremely  popular  Polish  general  of  that 
name.  And  when  the  Poles  were  resisting  the  Czech  advance, 
Colonel  Haller  himself  was  killed. 

During  the  next  twelve  months  there  was  constant  rioting 
all  over  me  province  between  the  rival  factions,  the  riots  not 
bein^  prevented  by  the  arrival  of  the  Allied  Plebiscite  Com- 
mission. But  during  the  Spa  Conference  in  July,  1920,  the 
controversy  took  a  timi  for  the  better,  owing  to  the  reasonable 
attitude  taken  up  both  by  Dr.  Benes,  the  Czecho-Slovak 
Foreign  Minister,  and  by  M.  Grabski,  the  Polish  Premier ;  and 
a  direct  agreement  was  reached  between  the  two  countries 
under  the  supervision  of  the  Supreme  Council.    It  was  decided 


224]         FOEEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTOKY.         [1920. 

to  partition  the  Teschen  province  forthwith  instead  of  holding 
a  plebiscite.  The  agreement  which  was  thus  reached  ^ave  a 
large  moiety  of  territory  to  Poland,  but  Czecho-Slovakia  had 
the  better  of  the  bargain  in  the  matter  of  the  coal-fields. 

During  August,  when  the  Bussian  armies  were  advancing 
upon  Warsaw,  Czecho-Slovakia  followed  the  lead  of  Germany 
in  declaring  strict  neutrality  in  the  Busso-Polish  War.  Since 
Czecho-Slovakia  was  a  member  of  the  League  of  Nations 
(which  Germany,  of  course,  was  not)  the  propriety  of  this 
course  was  somewhat  doubtful. 

In  the  middle  of  August,  Czecho-Slovakia  concluded  a  de- 
fensive alliance  with  the  Kingdom  of  the  Serbs,  Croats,  and 
Slovenes.  The  alliance  provided  that  if  one  party  were  the 
victim  of  an  unprovoked  attack  on  the  part  of  Hungary,  the 
other  party  should  come  to  its  assistance.  It  was  provided 
that  the  alUance  should  be  renewable  every  two  years,  and  that 
the  terms  of  the  agreement  should  be  made  known  to  the 
League  of  Nations  in  accordance  with  the  League  Covenant. 

In  September  M.  Cemy  succeeded  M.  Tusar  as  Prime 
Minister. 

During  December  somewhat  serious  Communist  disturb- 
ances broke  out  in  various  parts  of  Czecho-Slovakia,  especially 
in  Brunn  and  Brux. 

The  financial  position  of  Czecho-Slovakia  was  less  serious 
than  that  of  most  neighbouring  countries,  and  much  better 
than  that  of  Poland  and  Austria.  The  exchange  value  of  the 
Bohemian  **  crown ''  was  better  than  that  of  the  German  mark, 
though  it  fluctuated  considerably. 

HUNGARY. 

When  King  Charles  abdicated  from  the  throne  of  Hungary 
in  the  autumn  of  1918,  the  revolution  which  took  place  was 
unlike  any  other  of  the  numerous  revolutions  which  occurred 
in  the  other  countries  of  Central  and  Eastern  Europe.  Indeed, 
the  Hungarian  revolution  scarcely  deserves  to  be  called  a 
revolution ;  because  the  regime  which  was  then  established  was 
of  a  thoroughly  Conservative  character,  and  the  dominant 
groups  were  even  monarchic  in  their  sympathies.  For  a  short 
period  during  1919,  a  clique  of  extreme  Socialists,  in  league 
with  the  Bolsheviks  of  Bussia,  had  seized  power  in  Budapest ; 
but  they  had  soon  been  expelled,  and  the  Hungarians  had  then 
restored  the  monarchy  in  the  person  of  the  Archduke  Joseph, 
but  the  latter  had  been  compelled  to  resign  by  the  Entente 
Powers.  During  1919  also  a  Bumanian  Army  had  occupied 
Budapest,  but  the  troops  had  been  withdrawn  before  the  end 
of  the  year. 

At  the  beginning  of  1920  a  Conservative  Government  was 
firmly  established  m  Budapest,  with  M.  Huzar  as  Prime 
Minister.     The  territory  over  which  this  Government  ruled 


1920.]  Hungary.  [225 

was,  of  course,  small  compared  to  the  territory  of  the  Hmigarian 
Kingdom  as  it  had  existed  before  the  war.  Transylvania  had 
been  lost  to  Bmnania,  the  Slovak  districts  had  gone  to  Czecho- 
slovakia, and  Croatia-Slavonia  and  other  districts  in  the 
south  had  been  annexed  by  the  S.H.S.  Kingdom.  Owing  to 
the  constant  political  changes  in  Budapest,  the  conclusion  of 
the  Treaty  of  Peace  between  the  Allied  and  Associated  Powers 
and  Hungary  had  been  delayed,  but  at  the  beginning  of  the 
year  the  Hungarian  Peace  Delegation  was  summoned  to  Paris. 
The  Delegation,  which  was  headed  by  Count  Apponyi,  arrived  in 
Paris  on  January  7,  and  on  January  15  the  terms  of  the  pro- 
posed treaty  were  handed  to  the  Hungarians. 

The  general  scheme  of  the  treaty  was  modelled  on  that  of 
the  Treaty  of  St.  Germain.  The  treaty  compelled  Hungary  to 
recognise  the  independence  of  the  Serb-Croat-Slovene  Kingdom 
and  of  Czecho-Slovakia.  The  Hungarians  were  compelled  to 
pav,  in  addition  to  the  Hungarian  debt,  a  part  of  the  Austrian 
debt,  representing  the  Hungarian  share  of  the  general  Austro- 
Hunganan  indebtedness.  Hungary  was  to  pay  the  expenses 
of  the  Allied  Armies  of  Occupation,  except  for  the  unauthorised 
(Rumanian)  military  operations  subsequent  to  November  3, 
1918. 

The  treaty  also  indicated  the  proposed  frontiers  of  Hungary. 
On  the  west  Hungary  was  to  cede  a  strip  of  territory  to  Austria, 
this  strip  being  populated  by  Germans.  The  frontier  with 
Austria  was  to  run  southwards  from  Antonienhof  to  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Tuka.  The  new  frontier  with  Czecho-Slovakia 
was  to  run  east  from  Antonienhof,  partly  along  the  Danube, 
and  then  across  to  the  east  of  Surany  on  the  Theiss.  The 
frontier  with  Rumania  was  to  run  approximately  north  and 
south  from  the  Czecho-Slovak  frontier  to  the  neighbourhood 
of  Nagylak.  And  the  frontier  with  the  S.H.S.  Kingdom  was 
to  run  westwards,  partly  along  the  Drave  and  the  Mur  to  the 
Austrian  frontier. 

The  treaty  also  stipulated  that  the  Hungarian  Army  should 
be  reduced  to  35,000  men,  having  no  heavy  artillery.  Since 
the  Treaty  of  Peace  gave  Bumania  a  large  Magyar  and  German 
population,  it  was  stipulated  that  that  country  should  accept 
"racial  minority"  clauses  similar  to  those  inserted  in  the 
treaties  of  1919. 

The  terms  of  the  treaty,  which  were  certainly  drastic,  were 
received  with  an  outery  in  Hungary ;  and  it  was  at  first  declared 
that  it  was  impossible  for  the  country  to  sign  any  such  agree- 
ment. The  discussions  between  the  Hungarian  delegates  and 
the  Allies  were  continued  for  months ;  and  it  was  not  until  the 
summer  that  the  Treaty  of  Peace  was  finally  signed. 

At  the  end  of  January  a  General  Election  was  held  for  the 
National  Constituent  Assembly ;  and  in  the  result  the  various 
non-Socialist  Parties  were  returned  with  a  large  majority.  And 
indeed  it  soon  became  apparent  that  the  dominant  feeling  in 

P 


226]         FOREIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTORY.         [1920. 

Hungary  was  entirely  Conservative.  A  proclamation  was 
issued  stating  that  Hungary  remained  a  kingdom.  The 
National  Assembly  met  in  the  middle  of  February;  and  on 
March  1  the  Assembly  elected  the  Chief  of  the  State.  It  was  in 
accordance  with  the  proclaimed  continuance  of  the  monarchic 
regime  that  the  Chief  of  the  State  was  given  the  title  "  Regent " 
'  and  not  ''President."  There  was  little  or  no  competition  for 
the  Regency ;  and  the  well-known  statesman,  Admiral  Horthy, 
was  elected  by  a  large  majority  of  the  legislators. 

M.  Huszar  remained  in  power  until  the  Regent  had  been 
elected,  but  the  Prime  Minister  then  resigned.  Admiral  Horthy 
then  asked  M.  Simonyi-Semadam  to  form  a  Government,  and  in 
the  middle  of  March  it  was  announced  that  this  statesman  had 
been  successful  in  forming  a  Cabinet.  M.  Simonyi-Semadam 
had  been  able  to  obtain  the  joint  support  of  the  powerful 
Clerical  and  Agrarian  parties,  and  he  had  the  loyal  help  of  M. 
Huszar,  although  the  latter  was  not  a  member  of  the  Govern- 
ment.    The  Cabinet  was  constituted  as  follows : — 

Premier  and  Minister  of  the  Interior        -        -  M.  Simonyi-Semadam. 

Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs       ....  Count  P.  Teleki. 

Minister  of  Finance Baron  F.  Koranyi 

Minister  for  War General  Soos. 

Minister  of  Agriculture M.  J.  Bubinek. 

Minister  of  Public  Worship  -        -        -  M.  S.  Haller. 

Minister  of  Justice M.  A.  Knlim. 

Minister  of  Food M.  S.  NagynyL 

Bepresentative  of  Small  Farmers  •  M.  Sokoropatka. 

Minister  of  Public  Welfare         -       -  -  M.  A.  Benard. 

Minister  for  National  Minorities  -  M.  J.  Bleyer. 

It  was  not  clear  what  was  precisely  implied  by  the  obstinate 
maintenance  of  the  monarchic  regime.  The  majority  in  the 
country  and  in  the  National  Assembly  were  clearly  royalists, 
but  there  were  several  royalist  parties.  Admiral  Hor&y  himself, 
as  also  the  famous  statesman  Count  Andrassy,  were  the  leaders 
of  the  strict  Legitimists,  who  hoped  to  see  King  Charles  himself 
restored  to  the  throne.  M.  Friedrich,  who  had  been  Prime 
Minister  during  the  brief  monarchic  restoration  in  the  previous 
year,  was  the  leader  of  a  group  which  hoped  to  see  the  Archduke 
Joseph  ascend  the  throne.  And  there  was  also  a  third  group  of 
royalists  who  wanted  a  king  who  was  not  a  member  of  the 
Habsburg  family.  From  the  foreign  point  of  view  l^e  chief 
fact  to  remember  was  that  the  actuaa  situation  in  Hungary  was 
what  the  position  in  Germany  would  have  been  if  the  two 
parties  of  the  Bight,  the  German  National  Party  and  the 
German  People's  Party,  had  obtained  a  majority  at  the  General 
Election  in  tne  summer. 

The  first  Hungarian  reply  to  the  peace  conditions  of  the 
Supreme  Council  made  proposals  which  were  vddely  at  variance 
wim  the  conditions  that  had  been  laid  down.  And  indeed  the 
reply  seemed  to  indicate  an  entire  lack  of  comprehension  on  the 
part  of  its  authors  of  the  situation  which  had  arisen.    For 


i9aai  Hungary.  [227 

instance,  the  reply  demanded  that  there  should  be  a  plebiscite 
in  the  territories  taken  from  Hungary,  and  suggested  that  the 
frontier  of  Transylvania  should  be  the  ridge  of  the  Bihar 
mountains.  The  Hungarians  introduced  a  note  almost  of 
comedy  into  their  reply  by  demanding  that  Hungary  should  be 

E'ven  Fiume !  After  prolonged  discussion,  the  Hungarians  at 
st  decided  in  May  to  accept  the  treaty.  The  treaty  was 
signed  in  the  Galerie  du  Grand  Trianon  at  Versailles  on  June  4, 
and  was  therefore  named  the  Treaty  of  Trianon.  The  ceremony 
was  brief.  M.  Millerand  was  in  the  chair,  and  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain  were  represented  by  their  respective 
Ambassadors  in  Paris,  Mr.  Hugh  Wallace  and  Lord  Derby. 
Bepresentatives  of  Italy,  Japan,  Canada,  Australia,  South  Africa, 
New  Zealand,  Poland,  Bumania,  Jugo-Slavia,  Greece,  China, 
Belgium,  Portugal,  Cuba,  Nicaragua,  Panama,  and  Siam  were 
present.  The  Hungarian  plenipotentiaries  weie  M.  A.  Denard 
and  M.  A.  Drasche-Lazar. 

In  July  the  Prime  Minister  resigned,  and  was  succeeded  in 
that  office  by  Count  Teleki. 

During  the  previous  year  allegations  had  been  made  by  the 
extreme  Socialists  that  after  the  Ukll  of  the  Soviet  Government 
in  Budapest  in  August,  1919,  there  had  been  a  general  massacre 
of  Bolsheviks  by  the  anti-Socialists,  with  the  connivance  of  the 
new  Government,  and  constituting  what  they  styled. a  ''  White 
Terror,"  comparable  to  the  Bed  Terror  existing  in  Bussia.  It 
was  even  alleged  in  certain  quarters  that  British  officers  in 
Hungary  had  taken  part  in  this  supposed  "White  Terror." 
The  British  Foreign  Office  therefore  instituted  an  inquirer  into 
the  matter,  and  the  report  of  the  official  investigators  was  issued 
in  May,  1920.  The  report  found  that  after  the  re-establishment 
of  Constitutional  Government  thirty  Bolsheviks  who  had  com- 
mitted murder  during  the  Bolshevik  regime  had  been  executed 
in  accordance  with  the  law  of  the  land.  It  was  also  ascertained 
that  before  the  Constitutional  Government  could  make  its 
authority  effective,  the  public  had  in  certain  cases  taken  sum- 
mary vengeance  upon  ^own  Bolsheviks — nearly  all  Jews — for 
the  excesses  whidb  they  had  committed  when  they  were  in 

Ewer.  And  it  was  stated  that  about  370  Bolsheviks  had  been 
led  in  this  manner.  It  was  found,  however,  that  the  Consti- 
tutional Government  so  far  from  taking  any  part  in  this  ven- 
geance, had  put  a  stop  to  it  as  soon  as  they  were  able  to  assert 
their  authority.  And  the  investigation  of  course  disproved  the 
ridiculous  charge  against  British  officers. 

It  was  reported  in  December  that  Count  Teleki' s  Gt)vem- 
ment  were  contemplating  accepting  the  abdication  of  the  Ebkbs- 
burgs  as  final,  and  constituting  Hungary  as  an  independent 
kingdom  under  an  entirely  new  dynasty. 


p2 


228]         FOBEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTORY.         [1920. 

BUMANIiu 

At  the  beginning  of  the  year  Dr.  A.  Vaida-Voevod  was 
Prime  Minister  but  the  political  situation  was  unstable,  as  in 
the  General  Election  which  took  place  at  the  end  of  thepre-vious 
year  powerful  Transylvanian  and  Bessarabian  paorties  had  been 
returned  to  Parliament,  which  had  upset  the  old  balance  of 
parties.  At  the  beginning  of  the  year  the  Prime  Minister  went 
to  Paris  to  confer  with  the  Supreme  Council,  and  whilst  he  was 
away  his  opponents  within  and  without  Parliament  took  the 
opportunity  to  attack  his  leadership.  The  Prime  Minister  was 
negotiating  with  the  Supreme  Council  on  various  questions,  but 
particularly  on  the  question  of  the  formal  union  of  Bessarabia 
with  Bumania.  His  negotiations  were  successful,  and  early  in 
March  it  was  announced  that  the  Supreme  Council  had  recog- 
nised the  union  of  Bessarabia  with  the  Bumanian  Kingdom. 

Whilst  Dr.  Vaida-Voevod  was  abroad,  M.  S.  Pop  acted  as 
Prime  Minister;  and  early  in  March,  possibly  owmg  to  the 
attacks  which  had  been  made  upon  the  Ministry,  M.  Pop  and 
the  entire  Cabinet  took  the  somewhat  extraordinary  course  of 
resigning  office,  notwithstanding  the  absence  of  the  Prime 
Minister.  General  Averescu  became  Prime  Minister,  but  at  the 
beginning  of  April  it  was  announced  that  the  King  had  dissolved 
Parliament,  General  Averescu's  position  having  been  made  im- 
possible by  the  Transylvanians,  who  favoured  Dr.  Vaida-Voevod. 
It  was  decided  that  the  election  should  not  be  held  imtil  the  end 
of  May. 

In  the  election  campaign  two  opposing  blocs  were  formed. 
General  Averescu's  mam  support  was  in  the  old  kingdom  of 
Bumania,  where  the  party  which  he  himself  led  was  strong  and 
was  now  named  the  People's  Party.  The  Premier  was  also  able 
to  reckon  on  the  support  of  the  National  Liberals,  who  had  been 
dominant  in  Parhament  before  the  war,  and  upon  that  of  the 
Conservative  Democrats,  led  by  the  famous  statesman  M.  Take 
Jonescu.  On  the  other  hand,  none  of  these  old-established 
parties  was  very  strong  in  the  newly  annexed  territories,  where 
m  fact  the  various  new  parties,  led  by  the  Transylvanians,  were 
forming  a  coalition  hostile  to  the  Government.  The  People's 
Party,  however,  carried  the  war  into  the  enemy's  camp,  and 
undertook  a  very  active  campaign  in  Transylvania.  In  the  re- 
sult, the  People's  Party  won  a  great  electoral  triumph  not  only 
in  the  old  kingdom  but  also  in  Transylvania ;  and  indeed  the 
People's  Party  alone,  without  regard  to  the  allied  parties  (none 
of  which  did  well),  obtained  a  substantial  majority  in  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies.  Out  of  the  total  of  365  Deputies 
elected,  the  People's  Party  won  212  seats.  General  Averescu's 
position  therefore  became  extraordinarily  strong,  and  the  col- 
lapse of  the  Transylvanians  was  almost  sensational.  The  once 
powerful  National    Liberal   Party  only  won  9  seats.      The 


1920.]  Bumania.  [229 

Socialists  only  won  19  seats.  The  so-called  Saxons  of  Transyl- 
vania retomed  8  Deputies. 

Greneral  Averescu  then  reconstructed  his  Cabinet,  M.  Take 
Jonescu  being  Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs,  and  M.  N.  Titulesco 
being  Minister  of  Finance. 

Parliament  was  opened  on  June  26  by  the  King  in  person. 
During  the  session  the  Legislature  ratified  the  Treaty  of  Saint 
Germain  and  the  Treaty  of  Neuilly. 

In  the  autumn  Bumania  entered  the  defensive  agreement 
which  had  been  formed  between  Gzecho-Slovakia  and  Jugo- 
slavia. 

On  December  8  an  infernal  machine  exploded  in  the  Senate, 
killing  Bishop  Badu,  and  mortally  wounding  M.  Grecianu 
(the  Minister  of  Justice),  and  another  Senator.  The  crime  was 
believed  to  have  been  perpetrated  by  anarchists. 

THE  KINGDOM  OF  THE  SERBS,  CROATS,  AND  SLOVENES. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  year  the  political  situation  in  the  new 
united  Jugo-Slav  stote  was  very  unstable.  Although  fourteen 
months  had  elapsed  since  the  collapse  of  the  Austro-Hungarian 
Empire  and  the  conseqjuent  imion  of  the  Jugo-Slav  provinces 
of  that  monarchy  with  mdependent  Serbia,  no  General  Election 
had  yet  been  held  in  the  triune  kingdom,  nor  had  any  con- 
stitution been  drawn  up  even  provisionally.  The  situation  was 
therefore  in  striking  contrast  to  that  existing  in  Bumania,  where 
it  will  be  remembered  rapid  progress  with  the  constitutional  re- 
arrangements made  necessary  by  the  large  accessions  of  territory 
had  been  made.  Yet  in  some  respects  the  problem  of  reorgan- 
isation ought  to  have  been  simpler  in  Jugo-Slavia  than  in 
Bumania ;  for  Serbia  had  not  absorbed  a  considerable  foreign 
population,  whereas  Bumania  had  done  so.  There  were,  how- 
ever, several  causes  bringing  about  delay  in  Jugo-Slavia.  In  the 
first  place  the  different  branches  of  the  Jugo-Slav  people,  now 
united  with  one  another,  were  much  less  closely  akin  than  were 
the  Bumanians  of  the  different  provinces  which  had  been 
similarly  united  by  the  victorious  war.  And  though  there  were 
considerable  numbers  of  foreigners  in  the  regions  annexed  by 
Bumania,  especially  of  course  in  Transylvania,  yet  in  every  case 
the  Bumanians  were  in  the  majority  and  were  dominant.  The 
Jugo-Slav  situation  was  different,  because  Croatia  and  Serbia, 
for  instance,  were  separated  by  religious  differences,  and  having 
had  such  different  histories  for  centuries  they  were  in  some 
respects  almost  different  nationalities,  notwithstanding  the  funda- 
mental linguistic  affinity.  A  second  difficulty  in  Jugo-Slavia 
was  the  very  sharp  conflict  between  the  two  chief  political  parties 
in  Serbia,  the  lUdicals  cmd  the  Democrats.  And  perhaps  a 
third  difficulty  was  to  be  found  in  the  still  unsettled  frontier 
between  the  8.H.S.  State  and  Italy,  all  the  Jugo-Slavs,  without 
iion  of  province  or  of  party,  being  very  bitter  about  the 
daim  to  Fiume  and  Northern  Dalmatia. 


230]         FOEEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTOEY.         [1920. 

Before  the  end  of  1919  the  Democratic  Party  lead  by  M. 
Davidovitch,  had  assumed  office ;  but  they  were  m  a  minority 
in  Parliament  and  were  therefore  unable  to  face  the  Legislature. 
The  Democrats  carried  on  the  business  of  the  country,  however, 
for  some  months  without  reference  to  Parliament,  but  it  was  of  ! 

course  obvious  that  such  a  situation  could  not  continue.    The  i 

Democrats  and  the  Eadicals  were  divided  not  only  by  the  personal  I 

bitterness  which  was  usual  among  party  polincians  in  south- 
eastern Europe,  but  also  by  real  differences  of  principle.  The 
Democrats  were  the  more  progressive  party  and  among  other 
things  advocated  women's  suffrage.  They  also  favoured  a 
unified  constitution  for  Jugo-Slavia,  whereas  the  Eadicals 
wished  to  establish  the  kingdom  on  a  federal  scheme.  In  the 
middle  of  February,  when  the  time  approached  for  the  assembly 
of  Parliament,  M.  Davidovitch  resigned ;  and  he  was  succeeded 
as  Premier  by  the  Eadical  leader,  M.  Protitch. 

The  most  important  question  facing  the  Government  of  the 
coimtry,  whether  Eadical  or  Democrat,  was  that  of  the  Adriatic 
dispute  with  Italy.  The  reader  will  recollect  that  the  difficulty 
of  reaching  a  satisfactory  territorial  settlement  in  the  Adriatic 
arose  partly  out  of  the  essential  historical  cmd  ethnographical 
difficulties  surrounding  the  problem  and  partly  from  the  treaty 
known  as  the  Pact  of  London,  which  had  been  concluded  with 
Italy  by  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Eussia  at  the  time  when 
Italy  entered  the  war  in  the  spring  of  1915.  This  Treaty  of 
London,  which  was  signed  in  London  on  April  26,  1915,  had 
caused  an  immense  amount  of  discussion  both  before  and  after 
the  armistice  with  Germany.  Some  of  the  provisions  of  the 
treaty  had  become  generally  known,  but  the  official  text  of 
the  Agreement  was  not  pubUshed  until  the  end  of  April,  1920. 
The  wording  of  the  treaty  was  therefore  of  exceptionsJ  interest. 
The  territorial  articles  which  concern  us  here  were  more  par- 
ticularly the  4th  and  5th  of  the  treaty.  These  articles  read 
as  follows : — 

"  Article  4. — Under  the  Treaty  of  Peace,  Italy  shall  obtain 
the  Trentino,  Cisalpine  Tjrrol  with  its  geographical  and  natural 
frontier  (the  Brenner  frontier),  as  wefl  as  Trieste,  the  counties 
of  Gorizia  and  Gradisca,  all  Istria  as  far  as  the  Quamero,  and 
including  Volosca  and  the  Istrian  islands  of  Cherso  and  Lussin, 
ds  well  as  the  small  islands  of  Plavnik,  Unie,  Canidole,  Palazzuoli, 
I  San  Pietro  di  Nembi,  Asinello,  Gruica,  and  the  neighbouring 

I  islets." 

"  Note. — The  frontier  required  to  ensure  execution  of  Article  4 
hereof  shall  be  traced  as  follows : — 

''  From  the  Piz  Umbrail  as  far  as  north  of  the  Stelvio,  it 
shall  follow  the  crest  of  the  Ehetian  Alps  up  to  the  sources  of 
the  Adige  and  the  Eisach,  then  following  the  Eeschen  and 
Brenner  mountains  and  the  Oetz  and  Ziller  heights.  The 
frontier  shall  then  bend  towards  the  south,  cross  Mt.  Toblach 
and  join  the  present  frontier  of  the  Gamic  Alps.     It  shall 


i9ao.]  Jugoslavia.  [231 

follow  this  frontier  line  as  far  as  Mt.  Tarvis  and  from  Mt. 
Tarvis  the  watershed  of  the  Julian  Alps  by  the  Predil  Pass, 
Mt.  Mangart,  the  Tricomo  (Terglu),  and  the  watersheds  of  the 
Podberdo,  Podlaniscam  and  Idria  passes.  From  this  point  the 
frontier  shall  follow  a  south-easterly  direction  towards  the 
Schneebdrg,  leaving  the  entire  basin  of  the  Save  and  its  tribu- 
taries outside  Italian  territory.  From  the  Schneeberg  the 
frontier  shall  come  down  to  the  coast  in  such  a  way  as  to  in- 
clude Castua,  Mattugha,  and  Volosca  within  Italian  territory." 

"Article  5. — ^Italy  shall  also  be  given  the  province  of  Dal- 
matia  within  its  present  administrative  boundaries,  including 
to  the  north  Lisarica  and  Tribania ;  to  the  south  as  far  as  a 
line  starting  from  Cape  Planka  on  the  coast  and  following 
eastwards  the  crests  of  the  heights  forming  the  watershed, 
in  such  a  way  as  to  leave  within  Italian  territory  all  the  valleys 
and  streams  flowing  towards  Sebenico — such  as  the  Cicola, 
Eerka,  Butisnica,  and  their  tributaries.  She  shall  also  obtain 
all  the  islands  situate  to  the  north  and  west  of  Dalmatia,  from 
Premuda,  Selve,  Ulbo,  Scherda,  Maon,  Pago,  and  Patadura  to 
the  north,  up  to  Meleda  to  the  south,  including  8ant'  Andrea, 
Busi,  Lissa,  Lesina,  Tercola,  Curzola,  Cazza,  and  Lagosta,  as 
well  as  the  neighbouring  rocks  and  islets  and  Pelagosa,  with 
the  exception  of  Greater  and  Lesser  Zirona,  Bua,  Solta  and 
Brazza. 

**  To  be  neutralised :  — 

"  (1)  The  entire  coast  from  Cape  Planka  on  the  north  to  the 
southern  base  of  the  peninsula  of  Sabbioncello  in  the  south,  so 
as  to  include  the  whole  of  that  peninsula ;  (2)  the  portion  of  the 
coast  which  begins  in  the  north  at  a  point  situated  10  kilometres 
south  of  the  headland  of  Bagusa  Vecchia  extending  southward 
as  far  as  the  Biver  Vofussa,  in  such  a  way  as  to  include  the 
gulf  and  ports  of  Cattaro,  Antivari,  Dulcigno,  St.  Jean  de  Medua, 
and  Durazzo,  without  prejudice  to  the  rights  of  Montenegro 
consequent  on  the  declarations  exchanged  between  the  Powers 
in  April  and  May,  1909.  As  these  nghts  only  apply  to  the 
present  Montenegrin  territory,  they  cannot  be  extended  to  any 
territory  or  ports  which  may  be  assigned  to  Montenegro. 
Consequently  neutraUsation  shall  not  apply  to  any  part  of  the 
coast  now  belonging  to  Montenegro.  There  shall  be  maintained 
all  restrictions  concerning  the  port  of  Antivari  which  were 
accepted  by  Montenegro  in  1909 ;  (3)  finally,  aU  the  islands  not 
given  to  Italy." 

"  Note, — The  following  Adriatic  territory  shall  be  assigned  by 
the  four  Allied  Powers  to  Croatia,  Serbia,  and  Montenegro : — 

**  In  the  Upper  Adriatic,  the  whole  coast  from  the  bay  of 
Volosca  on  the  borders  of  Istria  as  far  as  the  northern  frontier 
of  Dahnatia,  including  the  coast  which  is  at  present  Hungarian 
and  all  the  coast  of  Croatia,  with  the  port  of  Fiume  and  the 
small  ports  of  Novi  and  Carlopa^o,  as  well  as  the  islands  of 
Veglia,   Pervichio,   Gregorio,   Gob,  and   Arbe.    And,  in   the 


230]         FOEEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTOEY.  [1920. 

Before  the  end  of  1919  the  Democratic  Party  lead  by  M. 
Davidovitch,  had  assumed  office ;  but  they  were  m  a  minority 
in  Parliament  and  were  therefore  unable  to  face  the  Legislature. 
The  Democrats  carried  on  the  business  of  the  country,  however, 
for  some  months  without  reference  to  Parliament,  but  it  was  of 
course  obvious  that  such  a  situation  could  not  continue.  The 
Democrats  and  the  Eadicals  were  divided  not  only  by  the  personal 
bitterness  which  was  usual  among  party  politicians  in  south- 
eastern Europe,  but  also  by  real  differences  of  principle.  The 
Democrats  were  the  more  progressive  party  and  among  other 
things  advocated  women's  suffrage.  They  also  favoured  a 
unified  constitution  for  Jugo-Slavia,  whereas  the  Eadicals 
wished  to  establish  the  kingdom  on  a  federal  scheme.  In  the 
middle  of  February,  when  ti^e  time  approached  for  the  assembly 
of  Parliament,  M.  Davidovitch  resigned ;  and  he  was  succeeded 
as  Premier  by  the  Eadical  leader,  M.  Protitch. 

The  most  important  question  facing  the  Government  of  the 
country,  whether  Eadical  or  Democrat,  was  that  of  the  Adriatic 
dispute  with  Italy.  The  reader  will  recollect  that  the  difficulty 
of  reaching  a  satisfactory  territorial  settlement  in  the  Adriatic 
arose  partly  out  of  the  essential  historical  and  ethnographical 
difficulties  surroimding  the  problem  and  partly  from  the  treaty 
known  as  the  Pact  of  London,  which  had  been  concluded  with 
Italy  by  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Eussia  at  the  time  when 
Italy  entered  the  war  in  the  spring  of  1915.  This  Treaty  of 
London,  which  was  signed  in  London  on  April  26,  1915,  had 
caused  an  immense  amount  of  discussion  both  before  and  after 
the  armistice  with  Germany.  Some  of  the  provisions  of  the 
treatv  had  become  generally  known,  but  the  official  text  of 
the  Agreement  was  not  published  until  the  end  of  April,  1920. 
The  wording  of  the  treaty  was  therefore  of  exceptional  interest. 
The  territorial  articles  which  concern  us  here  were  more  par- 
ticularly the  4th  and  5th  of  the  treaty.  These  articles  read 
as  follows : — 

**  Article  4. — Under  the  Treaty  of  Peace,  Italy  shall  obtain 
the  Trentino,  Cisalpine  Tyrol  with  its  geograjphical  and  natural 
frontier  (the  Brenner  frontier),  as  weU  as  Trieste,  the  counties 
of  Gorizia  and  Gradisca,  all  Istria  as  far  as  the  Quamero,  and 
including  Volosca  and  the  Istrian  islands  of  Gherso  and  Lussin, 
as  well  as  the  small  islands  of  Plavnik,  Unie,  Canidole,  Palazzuoli, 
San  Pietro  di  Nembi,  Asinello,  Gruica,  and  the  neighbouring 
islets." 

"  Note. — The  frontier  required  to  ensure  execution  of  Article  4 
hereof  shall  be  traced  as  follows : — 

'*  From  the  Piz  Umbrail  as  far  as  north  of  the  Stelvio,  it 
shall  follow  the  crest  of  the  Ehetian  Alps  up  to  the  sources  of 
the  Adige  and  the  Eisach,  then  following  the  Eeschen  and 
Brenner  mountains  and  the  Oetz  and  Ziller  heights.  The 
frontier  shall  then  bend  towards  the  south,  cross  Mt.  Toblach 
and  join  the  present  frontier  of  the  Camic  Alps.     It  shall 


1990.]  Jugo-Slavia.  [231 

follow  this  frontier  line  as  far  as  Mt.  Tarvis  and  from  Mt. 
Tarvis  the  watershed  of  the  Julian  Alps  by  the  Predil  Pass, 
Mt.  Mangart,  the  Tricomo  (Terglu),  and  the  watersheds  of  the 
Podberdo,  Podlaniscam  and  Idria  passes.  From  this  point  the 
frontier  shall  follow  a  south-easterly  direction  towards  the 
Schneeb^rg,  leaving  the  entire  basin  of  the  Save  and  its  tribu- 
taries outside  ItaUan  territory.  From  the  Schneeberg  the 
frontier  shall  come  down  to  the  coast  in  such  a  way  as  to  in- 
clude Castua,  Mattuglia,  and  Yolosca  within  Italian  territory." 

**  Article  5. — ^Italy  shall  also  be  given  the  province  of  Dal- 
matia  within  its  present  administrative  boundaries,  including 
to  the  north  Lisarica  and  Tribania ;  to  the  south  as  far  as  a 
line  starting  from  Cape  Planka  on  the  coast  and  following 
eastwards  tiie  crests  of  the  heights  forming  the  watershed, 
in  such  a  way  as  to  leave  within  Italian  territory  all  the  valleys 
and  streams  flowing  towards  Sebenico — such  as  the  Cicola, 
Eerka,  Butisnica,  and  their  tributaries.  She  shall  also  obtain 
all  the  islands  situate  to  the  north  and  west  of  Dalmatia,  from 
Premuda,  Selve,  Ulbo,  Scherda,  Maon,  Pago,  and  Patadura  to 
the  north,  up  to  Meleda  to  the  south,  including  Sant'  Andrea, 
Busi,  Lissa,  Lesina,  Tercola,  Curzola,  Cazza,  and  Lagosta,  as 
well  as  the  neighbouring  rocks  and  islets  and  Pelagosa,  with 
the  exception  of  Greater  and  Lesser  Zirona,  Bua,  Solta  and 
Brazza. 

"  To  be  neutralised :  — 

"  (1)  The  entire  coast  from  Cape  Planka  on  the  north  to  the 
southern  base  of  the  peninsula  of  Sabbioncello  in  the  south,  so 
as  to  include  the  whole  of  that  peninsula ;  (2)  the  portion  of  the 
coast  which  begins  in  the  north  at  a  point  situated  10  kilometres 
south  of  the  headland  of  Bagusa  Yecchia  extending  southward 
as  far  as  the  Biver  Yofussa,  in  such  a  way  as  to  include  the 
gulf  and  ports  of  Cattaro,  Antivari,  Dulcigno,  St.  Jean  de  Medua, 
and  Durazzo,  without  prejudice  to  the  rights  of  Montenegro 
consequent  on  the  declarations  exchanged  between  the  Powers 
in  April  and  May,  1909.  As  these  rights  only  apply  to  the 
present  Montenegrin  territory,  they  cannot  be  extended  to  any 
territory  or  ports  which  may  be  assigned  to  Montenegro. 
Consequently  neutralisation  shall  not  apply  to  any  part  of  the 
coast  now  belonging  to  Montenegro.  There  shall  M  maintained 
all  restrictions  concerning  the  port  of  Antivari  which  were 
accepted  by  Montenegro  in  1909 ;  (3)  finally,  all  the  islands  not 
given  to  Itoly." 

"  Note, — The  following  Adriatic  territory  shall  be  assigned  by 
the  four  Allied  Powers  to  Croatia,  Serbia,  and  Montenegro : — 

"  In  the  Upper  Adriatic,  the  whole  coast  from  the  bay  of 
Yolosca  on  the  borders  of  Istria  as  far  as  the  northern  frontier 
of  Dalmatia,  including  the  coast  which  is  at  present  Hungarian 
and  all  the  coast  of  Croatia,  with  the  port  of  Fiume  and  the 
small  ports  of  Novi  and  Carlopago,  as  well  as  the  islands  of 
Yeglia,   Pervichio,   Gregorio,   Goli,   and   Arbe.    And,  in   the 


230]         FOEEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTORY.  [i920. 

Before  the  end  of  1919  the  Democratic  Part^  lead  by  M. 
Davidovitch,  had  assumed  office ;  but  they  were  m  a  minority 
in  Parliament  and  were  therefore  unable  to  face  the  Legislature. 
The  Democrats  carried  on  the  business  of  the  country,  however, 
for  some  months  without  reference  to  Parliament,  but  it  was  of 
course  obvious  that  such  a  situation  could  not  continue.  The 
Democrats  and  the  Radicals  were  divided  not  onl^  by  the  personal 
bitterness  which  was  usual  among  party  pohticians  in  south- 
eastern Europe,  but  also  by  real  differences  of  principle.  The 
Democrats  were  the  more  progressive  party  and  among  other 
things  advocated  women's  suffrage.  They  also  favoured  a 
unified  constitution  for  Jugo-Slavia,  whereas  the  Radicals 
wished  to  establish  the  kingdom  on  a  federal  scheme.  In  the 
middle  of  February,  when  the  time  approached  for  the  assembly 
of  Parliament,  M.  Davidovitch  resigned ;  and  he  was  succeeded 
as  Premier  by  the  Radical  leader,  M.  Protitch. 

The  most  important  question  facing  the  Government  of  the 
country,  whether  Radical  or  Democrat,  was  that  of  the  Adriatic 
dispute  with  Italy.  The  reader  will  recollect  that  the  difficulty 
of  reaching  a  satisfactory  territorial  settlement  in  the  Adriatic 
arose  partly  out  of  the  essential  historical  and  ethnographical 
difficulties  surrounding  the  problem  and  partly  from  the  treaty 
known  as  the  Pact  of  London,  which  had  been  concluded  with 
Italy  by  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Russia  at  the  time  when 
Italy  entered  the  war  in  the  spring  of  1915.  This  Treaty  of 
London,  which  was  signed  in  London  on  April  26,  1915,  had 
caused  an  immense  amount  of  discussion  both  before  and  after 
the  armistice  with  Germany.  Some  of  the  provisions  of  the 
treatv  had  become  generally  known,  but  the  official  text  of 
the  Agreement  was  not  published  until  the  end  of  April,  1920. 
The  wording  of  the  treaty  was  therefore  of  exceptional  interest. 
The  territorial  articles  which  concern  us  here  were  more  par- 
ticularly the  4th  and  5th  of  the  treaty.  These  articles  read 
as  follows : — 

"  Article  4. — Under  the  Treaty  of  Peace,  Italy  shall  obtain 
the  Trentino,  Cisalpine  Tjrrol  with  its  geographical  and  natural 
frontier  (the  Brenner  frontier),  as  weU  as  Trieste,  the  counties 
of  Gorizia  and  Gradisca,  all  Istria  as  far  as  the  Quamero,  and 
including  Volosca  and  the  Istrian  islands  of  Cherso  and  Lussin, 
as  well  as  the  small  islands  of  Plavnik,  Unie,  Canidole,  Palazzuoli, 
San  Pietro  di  Nembi,  Asinello,  Gruica,  and  the  neighbouring 
islets." 

"  Note. — The  frontier  required  to  ensure  execution  of  Article  4 
hereof  shall  be  traced  as  follows : — 

"  From  the  Piz  Umbrail  as  far  as  north  of  the  Stelvio,  it 
shall  follow  the  crest  of  the  Rhetian  Alps  up  to  the  sources  of 
the  Adige  and  the  Eisach,  then  following  the  Reschen  and 
Brenner  mountains  and  the  Oetz  and  ZiUer  heights.  The 
frontier  shall  then  bend  towards  the  south,  cross  Mt.  Toblach 
and  join  the  present  frontier  of  the  Gamic  Alps.     It  shall 


1920.]  Jugoslavia.  [231 

follow  this  frontier  line  as  far  as  Mt.  Tarvis  and  from  Mt. 
Tarvis  the  watershed  of  the  Julian  Alps  by  the  Predil  Pass, 
Mt.  Mangart,  the  Tricomo  (Terglu),  and  the  watersheds  of  the 
Podberdo,  Podlaniscam  and  Idria  passes.  From  this  point  the 
frontier  shall  follow  a  south-easterly  direction  towards  the 
Schneeberg,  leaving  the  entire  basin  of  the  Save  and  its  tribu- 
taries outside  Italian  territory.  From  the  Schneeberg  the 
frontier  shall  come  down  to  the  coast  in  such  a  way  as  to  in- 
clude Castua,  Mattuglia,  and  Yolosca  within  Italian  territory." 

**  Article  5. — ^Italy  shall  also  be  given  the  province  of  Dal- 
matia  within  its  present  administrative  boundaries,  including 
to  the  north  Lisarica  and  Tribania ;  to  the  south  as  far  as  a 
line  starting  from  Cape  Planka  on  the  coast  and  following 
eastwards  tibe  crests  of  the  heights  forming  the  watershed, 
in  such  a  way  as  to  leave  within  Italian  territory  all  the  valleys 
and  streams  flowing  towards  Sebenico — such  as  the  Cicola, 
Eerka,  Butisnica,  and  their  tributaries.  She  shall  also  obtain 
all  the  islands  situate  to  the  north  and  west  of  Dalmatia,  from 
Premuda,  Selve,  Ulbo,  Scherda,  Maon,  Pago,  and  Patadura  to 
the  north,  up  to  Meleda  to  the  south,  including  Sant'  Andrea, 
Busi,  Lissa,  Lesina,  Tercola,  Curzola,  Cazza,  and  Lagosta,  as 
well  as  the  neighbouring  rocks  and  islets  and  Pelagosa,  with 
the  exception  of  Greater  and  Lesser  Zirona,  Bua,  Solta  and 
Brazza. 

*•  To  be  neutralised :  — 

"  (1)  The  entire  coast  from  Cape  Planka  on  the  north  to  the 
southern  base  of  the  peninsula  of  Sabbioncello  in  the  south,  so 
as  to  include  the  whole  of  that  peninsula ;  (2)  the  portion  of  the 
coast  which  begins  in  the  north  at  a  point  situated  10  kilometres 
south  of  the  headland  of  Bagusa  Vecchia  extending  southward 
as  far  as  the  Biver  Yof ussa,  in  such  a  way  as  to  include  the 
gulf  and  ports  of  Cattaro,  Antivari,  Dulcigno,  St.  Jean  de  Medua, 
and  Durazzo,  without  prejudice  to  the  rights  of  Montenegro 
consequent  on  the  decli^tions  exchanged  between  the  Powers 
in  April  and  May,  1909.  As  these  nghts  only  apply  to  the 
present  Montenegrin  territory,  they  cannot  be  extended  to  any 
territory  or  ports  which  may  be  assigned  to  Montenegro. 
Consequently  neutralisation  shall  not  apply  to  any  part  of  the 
coast  now  belonging  to  Montenegro.  There  shall  be  maintained 
aU  restrictions  concerning  the  port  of  Antivari  which  were 
accepted  by  Montenegro  in  1909 ;  (3)  finally,  all  the  islands  not 
given  to  Italy.*' 

"  Note. — The  following  Adriatic  territory  shall  be  assigned  by 
the  four  Allied  Powers  to  Croatia,  Serbia,  and  Montenegro : — 

''In  the  Upper  Adriatic,  the  whole  coast  from  the  bay  of 
Yolosca  on  the  borders  of  Istria  as  far  as  the  northern  frontier 
of  Dalmatia,  including  the  coast  which  is  at  present  Hungarian 
and  all  the  coast  of  Croatia,  with  the  port  of  Fiume  and  the 
small  ports  of  Novi  and  Carlopa^o,  as  well  as  the  islands  of 
Yeglia,  Pervichio,   Gregorio,   Gob,   and   Arbe.    And,  in   the 


232]         FOEEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTORY.         [1920. 

Lower  Adriatic  (in  the  region  interesting  Serbia  and  Monte- 
negro) the  whole  coast  from  Cape  Planka  as  far  as  the  Biver 
Dnn,  with  the  important  harbours  of  Spalato,  Bagusa,  Cattaro, 
Antivari,  Dulcigno  and  St.  Jean  de  Medua  and  the  islands  of 
Greater  and  Lesser  Zirona,  Bua,  Solta,  Brazza,  Jaclian,  and 
Calamotta.  The  port  of  Durazzo  to  be  assigned  to  the 
independent  Moslem  State  of  Albania." 

It  was  these  clauses  of  the  Treaty  of  London  which  had 
given  rise  to  all  the  prolonged  discussion  and  ill-feeling  between 
Italy  and  Jugo-Slavia.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  Pact  of 
London  assigned  nearly  all  Dalmatia  to  Italy,  notwithstanding 
that  that  province  was  populated  almost  exclusively  by  Jugo- 
slavs. On  the  other  hand,  the  Pact  of  London  did  not  give 
Fiume  to  Italy.  Throughout  1919  prolonged  discussions  took 
place.  During  the  most  critical  parts  of  the.  war,  after  the 
Italian  defeat  at  Caporetto,  and  when  the  Germans  were  ad- 
vancing in  the  spring  of  1918,  the  Italians  had  shown  a  disposi- 
tion to  come  to  an  amicable  agreement  with  the  Jugo-Slavs ; 
but  after  the  victory  of  the  Allies,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
Italians  had  been  inclined,  not  only  to  claim  the  execution  of 
the  Treaty  of  London,  but  to  claim  also  the  port  of  Fiume. 
Since  the  British  and  French  Governments  had  been  signatories 
of  the  Treaty  of  London,  they  were  placed  in  a  difficult  position 
by  this  controversy ;  if  Italy  claimed  the  Treaty  of  London, 
the  British  and  French  Governments  were  not  in  a  position  to 
refuse  to  agree.  The  American  Government,  however,  laboured 
under  no  such  difficulty;  and  President  Wilson  had  made  it 
clear  that  he  could  not  agree  to  any  such  settlement  as  that  in- 
dicated by  the  Treaty  of  London,  which  would  be  a  flagrant 
violation  of  the  principle  of  nationalities.  After  the  prolonged 
discussion  in  1919,  the  American,  British,  and  French  Govern- 
ments sent  a  memorandum  to  the  Italian  Government  in 
December,  embodying  proposals  for  a  compromise.  It  was  evi- 
dent that  the  American  Government  had  taken  the  lead  in  for- 
mulating these  particular  proposals.  The  compromise  which 
the  memorandum  indicated  gave  Dalmatia  to  Jugo-Slavia  and 
established  Fiume  and  the  surrounding  district  as  a  buffer  State. 
This  December  proposal  gave  the  ^eater  part  of,  but  not  all, 
Istria  to  Italy,  and  the  Italian  frontiers  were  not  brought  up  to 
the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  Fiume.  These  proposals  were 
rejected  by  the  Italian  Government.  Further  discussions  then 
took  place  in  Paris  and  London,  and  Signor  Nitti,  the  Italian 
Prime  Minister,  visited  London.  At  the  beginning  of  January 
M.  Trumbitch  stated  the  case  for  his  country  before  the  Supreme 
Council.  The  American  Government  were  not  consulted  in 
these  later  negotiations ;.  and  on  January  14  the  French  and 
British  Governments  addressed  what  sounded  almost  like  an 
ultimatum  to  the  Jugo-Slavs.  The  Cabinet  at  Belgrade  were 
presented  with  a  new  compromise,  modified  for  the  benefit  of 
Italy,  and  were  informed  that  if  the  Jugo-Slav  Government  did 


1920.]  Jugoslavia.  [233 

not  accept  these  new  proposals,  the  French  and  British  Govern- 
ments would  agree  to  a  settlement  on  the  basis  of  the  treaty  of 
London  itself,  and  would  authorise  Italy  to  carry  that  treaty 
into  effect.  This  modified  compromise — though  it  did  not  give 
Dalmatia  to  Italy — ^brought  the  Italian  frontiers  down  to  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  Fiiune,  giving  Italy  all  Istria,  and  also 
gave  Italy  some  measure  of  control  over  Fiume  itself,  though 
that  port  was  established  as  a  nominally  free  State. 

The  Jugo-Slav  Government  did  not  accept  this  compromise, 
however ;  they  made  counter-proposals  and  also  drew  attention 
to  the  fact  that  since  they  had  never  been  informed  of  the  terms 
of  the  Treaty  of  London,  the  communication  from  the  French 
and  British  Governments  was  somewhat  lacking  in  clarity.  It 
appears  that  in  reply  to  this  last  criticism  the  French  and  British 
Govenunents  communicated  the  terms  of  the  Pact  of  London 
privately  to  the  Belgrade  Cabinet.  The  American  Government, 
finding  that  the  British  and  French  Governments  were  taking 
these  steps  without  consulting  them,  also  intervened  in  the 
discussion,  and  pointed  out  that  the  compromise  to  which  they 
had  agreed  in  December  had  now  been  modified  in  essential 
particulars.  In  a  note  dated  February  10  President  Wilson 
dealt  with  all  the  points  at  issue  very  thoroughly,  and  pointed 
out  in  detail  what  he  regarded  as  the  injustice  of  the  Italian 
claims.  Dr.  Wilson  said  that  the  latest  proposals  were  a  viola- 
tion of  the  principle  of  nationalities,  and  of  the  principles  for 
which  America  had  entered  the  war.  And  the  last  paragraph 
in  his  letter  was  worded  as  follows :  "  If  it  does  not  appear 
feasible  to  secure  acceptance  of  the  just  and  generous  concessions 
offered  by  the  British,  French,  and  American  Governments  to 
Italy  in  the  joint  memorandum  of  those  Powers  of  December  9, 
1919,  which  the  President  has  already  clearly  stated  to  be  the 
TnaTimnTn  coucession  that  the  Government  of  the  United  States 
can  offer,  the  President  desires  to  say  that  he  must  take  under 
serious  consideration  the  withdrawal  of  the  treaty  with  Germany 
and  the  agreement  between  the  United  States  and  France  of 
June  28,  1919,  which  are  now  before  the  Senate,  and  permitting 
the  terms  of  the  European  settlement  to  be  independently 
established  and  enforced  by  the  Associated  Governments." 

After  this  strong  intervention  of  President  Wilson,  the 
January  proposals  were  abandoned  by  the  French,  British,  and 
Italian  Governments;  and  entirely  new  attempts  were  subse- 
quently made  to  reach  a  solution  of  the  thorny  question.  There 
was  therefore  no  attempt  to  coerce  Jugo-Slavia,  and  the 
American  intervention  was  naturally  greeted  with  great  en- 
thusiasm in  that  country.  The  Jugo-Slavs  pointed  out  that 
they  had  already  made  considerable  sacrifices,  since  even  the 
Wilson  proposals  of  1919 — which  had  excluded  the  Volosca 
coast  district  from  Italy — had  included  400,000  Jugo-Slavs 
within  the  Italian  frontiers. 

Apart  from  the  Fiume  question  itself,  President  Wilson  had 


234]         FOBEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTOEY.         [1920. 

taken  exception  to  a  proposal  also  made  by  the  French  and 
British  Governments  in  January  that  Jugo-Slavia  should  com- 
pensate herself  for  the  loss  of  territory  inhabited  by  Jugo-Slays 
in  the  north  by  annexing  a  strip  of  northern  Albania,  at  the 
other  end  of  the  Adriatic  coast.  The  American  President  said 
that  he  was  quite  as  much  opposed  to  giving  Albanian  territory 
to  Jugo-Slavia,  as  he  was  to  giving  Jugo-Slav  territory  to 
Italy. 

Thus  the  attempt  to  reach  a  settlement  in  December  broke 
down  against  the  opposition  of  the  Italians ;  and  the  almost 
desperate  attempt  of  the  French  and  British  Governments  to 
enforce  a  settlement  in  January  broke  down  against  the  opposi- 
tion of  the  United  States  and  of  Jugo-Slavia  herself. 

In  March  the  British  Government  made  yet  further  attempts 
to  play  the  part  of  mediator,  but  no  serious  progress  was  made 
imtQ  after  Signor  Giohtti  had  become  Italian  Prime  Minister. 

As  already  stated,  M.  Protitch,  the  Badical  leader,  became 
Prime  Minister  once  more  in  the  middle  of  February  ;  and  he 
endeavoured  to  improve  upon  the  methods  of  his  immediate  pre- 
decessor, by  meeting  the  national  Parliament.  He  found  diffi- 
culty in  obtaining  a  quorum  in  the  Legislature,  however,  as  the 
Democrats  were  incensed,  and  absented  themselves  in  a  body 
from  Parliament.  The  new  Government  were  therefore  scarcely 
in  a  better  position  than  their  predecessors,  although  since  they 
were  federalists,  they  had  the  support  of  the  Croatian  National- 
ists. It  was  said,  however,  that  the  Croatian  Nationalists,  who 
were  led  by  a  certain  Dr.  Laginja,  made  very  extreme  demands 
upon  the  new  Government,  and  even  went  so  far  as  to  claim 
important  military  and  civil  posts  in  Croatia  for  persons  who 
had  been  officers  and  officials  under  the  old  Austro-Hungarian 
administration.  In  the  result.  Dr.  Laginja  was  himself  ap- 
pointed Ban  (Governor)  of  Croatia,  and  in  accepting  this  post 
he  insisted  that  the  appointment  should  be  made  by  tiie  Cabmet 
as  a  whole  and  not  by  the  Ministry  of  the  Interior,  so  that  the 
administrative  autonomy  of  Croatia  might  be  made  plain.  These 
proceedings  on  the  part  of  the  Government  were  severely 
criticised  by  the  Democrats,  who,  as  already  explained,  were 
strict  unionists.  M.  Protitch  made  a  declaration  to  Parliament 
on  March  5,  and  said  that  he  hoped  Albania  would  be  left  to  the 
Albanians,  who  should  be  free  to  manage  their  own  affairs  under 
the  supervision  of  the  League  of  Nations. 

M.  Protiteh  found  difficulty  in  governing  in  face  of  the 
obstructionist  tactics  of  the  Opposition,  and  negotiations  there- 
fore took  place  with  a  view  to  forming  a  Coalition  Government. 
The  Prince  Begent  himself  used  his  mfluence  to  this  end,  and 
the  Jugo-Slav  Minister  in  Paris,  M.  Yesniteh,  was  recalled  to 
Belgrade.  The  Prince  Begent  charged  M.  Vesniteh  with  the 
task  of  forming  a  Government,  as  M.  Protiteh  had  abandoned 
the  attempt  to  govern  the  country  in  circumstances  where  the 
parties  were  too  evenly  balanced.     It  was  announced  in  the 


1920.]  Jugoslavia.  [23& 

middle  of  May  that  M.  Vesnitch  had  succeeded  in  forming  a 
Coalition  Government.  M.  Vesnitch  had  the  advantage  that, 
although  he  was  a  Radical,  he  was  not  greatly  disliked  by  the 
leaders  of  the  Democratic  Party.  M.  Davidovitch  himself  be- 
came Minister  of  the  Interior.  M.  Protitch  became  Minister 
chained  with  the  special  function  of  preparing  for  the  calling  of 
the  Constituent  Assembly.  M.  Trumbitch,  the  famous  Dalma- 
tian leader,  remained  Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs ;  M.  Eoroshets 
was  Minister  of  Communications;  M.  C.  Stoyanovitch  was 
Minister  of  Finance ;  and  M.  Trinkovitch  (one  of  the  leaders  of 
the  Croatian  Nationalists)  became  Minister  of  Posts  and  Tele- 
graphs. 

The  new  Prime  Minister  announced  that  he  would  make 
preparations  for  the  election  of  the  Constituent  Assembly,  and 
that  the  Treaties  of  Peace  with  Germany,  Austria,  and  Bulgaria 
would  be  duly  ratified. 

At  the  beginning  of  August  the  Ministry  of  Social  Policj 
published  statistics  of  the  area  and  population  of  the  S.H.S. 
kingdom,  which  were  stated  to  relate  to  the  month  of  Jime, 
1920.  It  was  not  stated  what  particular  frontier  line  had  been 
taken  in  the  North- West,  where  the  frontier  line  was,  of  course, 
stiU  undefined.  The  population  of  Serbia  proper  was  given  as 
4,457,000 ;  and  that  of  the  entire  S.H.S.  State  as  14,344,000. 
It  is  doubtful  how  much  reliance  ought  'to  be  placed  in  these 
figures,  the  total  for  Serbia  proper  bemg  in  particular  strangely 
high.  At  the  end  of  July  yet  another  Ministerial  crisis  arose ; 
but  it  proved  impossible  for  anyone  save  M.  Vesniteh  to  form  a 
Cabinet.  And  i2fter  the  crisis  had  lasted  for  nearly  a  month 
M.  Vesniteh  once  more  became  formal  head  of  the  Government. 

During  the  crisis  of  the  Busso-Polish  War  in  the  summer 
the  Jugo-Blav  Government  declared  their  neutrality.  It  appears 
that  public  opinion  in  Belgrade  had  now  come  to  regard  M. 
Lenin's  Government  as  truly  representing  Bussia;  and  since 
the  Serbians  still  nursed  their  historic  affection  for  Bussia,  they 
were  strongly  averse  from  all  idea  of  going  to  war  with 
that  country,  even  though  she  might  be  fiolshevik.  The  in- 
cident was  an  instructive  commentary  on  the  predominance  of 
Serbia  in  the  united  Jugo-Slav  State;  because  the  Croats,. 
Slavonians,  and  Slovenes,  nearly  all  of  whom  were  Boman 
Catholics,  certainly  had  no  kind  or  historic  sympathy  with 
Bussia,  and  on  the  contrary  might  have  been  expected  to  sym- 
pathise thoroughly  with  Poland. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  under  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of 
Saint  Germain  a  plebiscite  was  to  take  place  in  the  district  of 
Carinthia  surroimdmg  the  town  of  Elagenfurt,  in  order  to  decide 
whether  that  district  should  belong  to  Austria  or  to  Jugo-Slavia. 
The  plebiscite  area  was  divided  into  two  zones,  A  and  B.  The 
zone  "  A  "  was  in  the  south,  and  this  zone  was  to  vote  first.. 
If  the  plebiscite  in  zone  "  A  "  went  in  favour  of  Jugo-Slavia  a 
plebiscite  was  also  to  be  held  in  zone  "  B."    But  if  on  the  other 


236]         FOEEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTOEY.         [1920. 

hand,  zone  ''  A  "  voted  in  favour  of  Austria,  there  was  to  be  no 
plebiscite  in  zone  ''B/'  which  was  to  revert  automatically  to 
Austria.  Zone  "  B,"  being  in  the  north,  at  the  Grerman  end  of 
the  disputed  district,  it  could  of  course  be  taken  for  granted  that 
if  zone  "A"  voted  for  Austria,  then  a  fortiori  zone  "  B  "  could 
be  expected  to  do  so.  The  plebiscite  in  zone  ''  A  "  took  place  in 
October  and  resulted  in  a  large  majority  for  Austria.  The  pub- 
lication of  the  results  was  followed  by  an  incident  which  reminded 
observers  in  the  West  of  those  which  had  taken  place  at  Fiume 
and  Vilna.  When  the  result  of  the  plebiscite  became  known, 
Jugo-Slav  troops  were  suddenly  marched  into  the  zone,  not- 
withstanding that  it  had  now  reverted  to  Austria,  and  had 
been  controlled  during  the  polling  by  an  Allied  Plebiscite  Com- 
mission. This  particular  attempt  to  carry  through  a  coup 
d'4tat  caused  little  trouble,  however.  The  Jugo-Slav  Govern- 
ment promptly  received  orders  from  the  Supreme  Council  to 
withdraw  their  troops ;  and  the  Serbian  force  therefore  evacu- 
ated the  zone  before  the  end  of  the  month. 

After  Signor  Giolitti  became  Italian  Prime  Minister,  direct, 
although  at  first  informal,  negotiations  were  opened  between 
Ital^  and  Jugo-Slavia  on  the  question  of  a  settlement  of  the 
territorial  problem  in  the  Adriatic  coast-lands.  Some  particulars 
of  these  negotiations  have  already  been  given  (see  Italy).  In 
November  a  formal  conference  between  representatives  of  the 
two  countries  was  opened  at  Santa  Margherita  de  Ligure. 
The  two  chief  negotiators  were  the  respective  Foreign  Ministers, 
Count  Sforza  and  M.  Trumbitch.  The  negotiations  proceeded 
with  the  most  remarkable  rapidity.  Count  Sforza  was  prepared 
to  abandon  altogether  the  claim  to  Dalmatia,  which  had  been 

g'ven  to  Italy  by  the  Pact  of  London ;  and  he  also  refrained 
om  claiming  Fiume,  only  demanding  that  that  port  should  be 
established  as  an  independent  State.  He  made  a  claim  to  Zara, 
however,  and  asked  that  the  Italian  frontier  should  be  brought 
up  to  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Fiume,  past  Yolosca,  somewhat 
after  the  manner  of  the  January  proposal  of  the  French  and 
British  Governments.  The  conference  opened  on  November  8, 
and  both  M.  Yesnitch  and  M.  Trumbitch  took  part  in  the  dis- 
<;ussions.  Signor  Bonomi,  the  Italian  Minister  for  War,  accom- 
panied Count  Sforza.  It  was  evident  that  the  ground  had  been 
very  carefully  prepared  by  Signor  Giolitti,  for  the  negotiations 
proceeded  with  such  rapidity  that  a  treaty  was  signed  on 
November  12.  The  treaty  was  known  as  "  The  Treaty  of 
Eapallo,"  the  house  in  which  it  was  signed  being  situated  in  the 
Commune  of  that  name.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  ItaUan  Govern- 
ment were  now  prepared  to  forego  important  parts  of  the  claims 
formerly  put  forward.  The  Itolian  Nationalists  had  claimed 
the  Treaty  of  London,  pl%is  Fiume.  Various  Italian  Ministries 
had  endeavoured  to  claim  either  the  Treaty  of  London  or  Fiume. 
But  Signor  Giolitti  and  Count  Sforza  were  now  claiming  neither 
the  one  nor  the  other.     The  Italian  Government  were  abandon- 


1990.]  Jugoslavia.  [237 

ing  the  more  extreme  and  least  defensible  sections  of  the  Pact 
of  London ;  and  they  were  not  claiming  Fiume.  They  were 
abandoning  all  Dalmatia  except  Zara. 

The  Treaty  of  Bapallo  was  signed  by  Signor  Giolitti  (who 
came  to  Santa  Margherita  at  the  end  of  the  negotiations),  Count 
Sforza,  and  Signor  Bonimi,  on  the  Italian  side;  and  by  M. 
Yesnitch,  M.  Trumbitch,  and  M.  Stoyanovitch  on  the  Jugo-Slav 
side.  The  treaty  established  Fimne  as  an  independent  port. 
The  Italian  frontier  was  brought  down  to  the  south-east  of 
Volosca,  in  contiguity  with  the  territory  of  the  free  city.  Zara, 
with  its  suburbs  of  Borgo  Erizzo,  Boccagnazzo,  and  Gemo,  and 
part  of  the  Commune  of  Diclo,  became  part  of  the  Ejngdom  of 
Italy.  The  islands  of  Cherso  and  Lussm,  as  also  the  islands  of 
Lagosta  and  Pelagosa  were  also  recognised  as  part  of  the  King- 
dom of  Italy.  The  treaty  contained  a  number  of  minor  pro- 
visions relating  to  such  matters  as  educational  facilities  for 
Italians  in  Jugo-Slavia,  and  for  Jugo-Slavs  in  Italy. 

It  wiU  be  seen  that  by  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Bapallo, 
Italy  obtained  formal  possession,  not  only  of  the  whole  of  Gorz, 
Gradisca,  and  Trieste,  but  also  of  practically  all  Istria,  and  of  a 
large  part  of  Camiola.  The  Italian  frontier  ran  south-east  from 
Monte  Nero,  and  passed  within  20  miles  of  Laibach,  and 
south-east  to  the  Schneeberg,  and  then  south  to  Volosca,  on  the 
coast. 

It  appeared  from  subsequent  statements  made  by  Count 
Sforza  that  Italy  and  Jugo-Slavia  had  also  agreed  to  act  to- 
gether to  thwart  any  attempt  to  revive  the  Habsburg  Monarchy, 

The  Treaty  of  Bapallo  was  ratified  by  Jugo-Slavia  on 
November  22.  The  negotiations  having  thus  been  terminated, 
M.  Trumbitch  retired  from  the  Foreign  Ministry,  as  he  said  that 
he  regarded  his  work  as  closed.  Throughout  the  many  changes 
of  Government  that  had  taken  place  in  Jugo-Slavia  aurin^  the 
two  years  which  had  elapsed  since  the  conclusion  of  the  armistice 
with  Germany,  M.  Trumbitch  had  remained  at  the  Foreign 
Office. 

At  the  end  of  November  a  General  Election  was  held  in  Jugo- 
Slavia  in  order  to  estabhsh  a  Constituent  Assembly  with  full 
authority.  There  had  been  no  General  Election  in  Serbia  since 
1912 ;  and  the  Belgrade  Parliament  had  therefore  represented 
only  part  of  Serbia  even  as  that  country  existed  before  the 
European  War — the  reader  will  remember  that  Serbia  had 
gained  accessions  of  territory  by  the  little  war  in  the  Balkans, 
which  had  preceded  the  European  War. 

The  total  number  of  Deputies  in  the  new  Constituent 
Assembly  was  420.  The  two  large  parties,  the  Badicals  and 
the  Democrats,  obtained  between  ti^em  just  under  half  the  total 
nimiber  of  seats.  There  were  a  large  number  of  smaller  parties, 
of  which  the  most  important  were  the  Croatian  Peasants'  Party, 
the  Croatian  Nationalists,  the  Slovene  Clericals,  the  Moham- 
medans of  Bosnia,  and  the  Communists.     The  last-named  party 


238]         FOREIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTOEY.         [i92a 

had  their  greatest  strength  in  Serbia  itself.  The  Croatian 
Nationalists  fared  badly  in  the  elections,  and  much  the  largest 
party  in  Croatia  was  the  Peasants'  Party  led  by  Dr.  Baditch. 
It  appeared,  however,  that  Dr.  Baditch  desired  to  claim  almost 
as  wide  a  measure  of  autonomy  for  Croatia  as  did  Dr.  Laginja 
himself.  There  were  about  sixty  Communists  returned  for  the 
^hole  country,  a  total  which  was  somewhat  alarming. 

M.  Yesnitch's  Government  resigned,  and  at  the  end  of 
December,  M.  Pashitch  became  Prime  Minister  of  a  Cabinet 
including  both  Radicals  and  Democrats. 

TURKEY. 

Although  Treaties  of  Peace  were  concluded  with  Germany, 
Austria,  and  Bulgaria,  during  1919,  no  progress  was  made  dur- 
ing that  year  towards  the  conclusion  of  peace  with  Turkey.  It 
seems  to  have  been  originally  hoped  by  the  European  Powers 
that  the  United  States  of  America  would  undertake  a  mandate 
for  Turkey  under  the  newly  constituted  League  of  Nations,  and 
hence  there  was  deliberate  delay  in  coming  to  a  settlement  on 
the  questions  involved  in  the  break-up  of  the  Turkish  Empire, 
until  it  was  known  for  certain  whether  the  United  States  would 
or  would  not  adhere  to  the  Lea.gue  of  Nations.  Towards  the 
•end  of  1919  it  became  clear  that  there  was  little  or  no  prospect 
of  the  United  States  entering  the  League  of  Nations  in  the  near 
future,  and  therefore  at  the  end  of  the  year  the  British,  French, 
and  ItaUan  Governments  reluctantly  took  in  hand  the  settle- 
ment of  the  peace  terms  with  Turkey,  without  reference  to  the 
United  States.  The  discussions  between  the  British,  French, 
and  Italian  statesmen  proceeded  rapidly  during  the  early  weeks 
of  1920;  and  at  a  meeting  of  the  Supreme  Council,  held  in 
London  in  February,  the  first  and  perhaps  the  most  important 
definite  decision  was  taken.  It  was  decided — and  the  decision 
was  at  once  made  known  to  the  world — that  the  Turkish 
Government  should  be  allowed  to  remain  at  Constantinople. 
The  decision  to  leave  Constantinople  in  the  hands  of  the  Turks 
met  with  strong  opposition  in  some  quarters  in  England,  and 
with  definite  support  in  other  quarters. 

Towards  the  end  of  1919,  General  AU  Biza  Pasha  had 
become  Prime  Minister ;  but  aiter  several  changes  of  Govern- 
ment had  taken  place  during  the  winter,  Damad  Ferid  Pasha 
became  Prime  Minister  at  the  beginning  of  April,  and  it  fell  to 
his  lot  to  accept  the  terms  which  the  Allies  imposed  upon 
Turkey. 

The  Turkish  Government  itself  were  inclined  to  accept  any 
terms  which  the  Allies  thought  fit  to  impose ;  but  in  Asia  Minor 
there  was  a  strong  movement  among  the  Turkish  population, 
in  opposition  to  the  cession  of  the  lar^e  territories,  which  the 
Allies  were  demanding.  The  party  m  Turkey  which  were 
bitterly  opposed  to  the  submission  to  the  Allies  were  known  as 


iMa]  Turkey.  [241 

Commisdon,  and  pointed  out  that  the  State  actually  situated  in 
the  Straits,  namely,  Turkey,  was  not  to  be  represented  on  the 
Commission.  It  was  also  declared  that  the  conditions  under 
which  the  Commission  was  to  be  established  infringed  the 
sovereign  rights  of  the  Turkish  Government.  The  reply  de- 
manded that  the  authority  of  the  Straits  Commission  shoiidd  be 
restricted,  and  that  a  Turkish  Delegate  should  have  a  seat  upon 
the  proposed  body.  In  regard  to  Thrace,  the  Turks  declared 
that  the  cession  of  the  territory  was  a  violation  of  the  principle  of 
nationahties  which  the  Allies  professed  to  support.  In  regard 
to  the  question  of  the  Smyrna  district,  the  Turkish  Government 
stated  that  they  were  unable  to  agree  to  a  proposal  which 
violated  the  rights  and  sentiments  of  the  Turkish  people.  And 
the  Turks  demanded  that  the  Greek  troops  in  the  Smyrna 
district  should  be  withdrawn  forthwith.  The  Turkish  Govern- 
ment agreed  to  the  reduction  of  the  Turkish  Army,  and  to  the 
proposals  which  virtually  abolished  the  Turkish  Navy.  But  in 
regard  to  the  territorial  provisions  of  the  Draft  Treaty,  they 
made  several  suggestions  for  alterations.  The  delegation  pro- 
posed that  the  southern  frontier  of  Armenia  should  not  be  ex- 
tended beyond  the  former  Turco-Bussian  frontier ;  and  certain 
other  territorial  suggestions  were  made. 

The  reply  of  the  Allies  to  the  objections  of  the  Turks  was 
not  delivered  for  several  weeks,  the  delay  being  somewhat  sur- 
prising, because  the  Supreme  Council  consented  to  scarcely  any 
modification  of  the  terms  as  presented  to  the  Turks  in  May. 
The  only  modification  of  any  importance  to  which  the  Allies 
agreed  was  the  acceptance  of  the  Turkish  proposal  that  Turkey 
should  be  represented  on  the  Straits  Commission.  The  Allied 
note  was  very  sternly  worded.  And  in  regard  to  the  Turkish 
excuse  for  the  manner  in  which  the  Ottoman  Empire  had  entered 
into  the  war,  the  Allies  said  that  they  were  quite  unable  to  agree 
that  Turkey  had  any  less  responsibility  than  the  countries  to 
which  she  had  been  allied.  And  in  reference  to  this  matter  the 
'Allied  note  said : — 

*'  The  Allied  Powers  have  given  careful  consideration  to  the 
observations  of  the  Turkish  Government  on  the  draft  Treaty  of 
Peace  which  it  is  asked  to  sign.  The  Turkish  Government 
would  appear  to  think  that  its  responsibility  in  the  Great  War  is 
less  than  that  of  its  Allies,  and  that  it  is,  therefore,  entitled  to 
lenient  treatment.     The  Allies  cannot  accept  that  plea. 

"  In  the  opinion  of  the  Allies,  Turkey  voluntarily  joined  a  con- 
spiracy against  the  liberty  of  all  nations  at  a  time  when  its 
tyrannical  purpose  had  become  revealed  to  all.  They  consider 
tibat  Turkey  was  thereby  guilty  of  peculiar  treachery  to  Powers 
which  for  more  than  haJf  a  century  had  been  her  steadfast 
friends.  Turkey  entered  the  war  without  the  shadow  of  excuse 
or  provocation.  The  Allies  entertained  no  hostile  designs 
agamst  Turkey.  Indeed,  in  August,  1914,  the  Allied  Powers 
made  a  declaration  to  the  Porte  that  if  Turkey  maintained  her 

Q 


240]         FOREIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTORY.         [1920. 

50,000  men,  of  whom  only  2,500  were  to  be  officers.  The 
officers  were  to  serve  for  not  less  than  twenty-five  years  and 
the  men  for  not  less  than  twelve  years.  Compulsory  service 
was  to  be  aboUshed  in  Tmrkey.  The  Tmrkish  Navy  was  also 
to  be  abolished,  except  for  a  few  small  vessels  for  police  pur- 
poses.    The  Turkish  Air  Force  was  also  to  be  aboUshed. 

There  were  stringent  financial  conditions  embodied  in  the 
treaty.  The  power  of  imposing  taxes  was  withdrawn  from  the 
TurMsh  Government  and  was  to  be  given  to  a  Finance  Com- 
mission consisting  of  representatives  of  Great  Britain,  France, 
and  Italy. 

Turkey  was  to  recognise  the  establishment  of  a  mandate  for 
Palestine  under  the  League  of  Nations,  the  mandate  in  question 
to  go  to  Great  Britain. 

And  in  the  treaty  as  originally  drawn  up  turkey  was  to 
recognise  Italian  Sovereignty  over  the  Dodecanese. 

In  the  "  Commission  of  the  Straits,"  to  which  reference  has 
been  made  above,  representatives  of  Great  Britain,  France, 
Italy,  and  Japan  were  to  have  the  predominant  voice,  but  Ru- 
mania and  Greece  were  also  to  be  represented. 

The  Covenant  of  the  League  of  Nations  and  the  Labour  Con- 
vention, as  embodied  in  the  Treaty  of  Versailles,  were  incor- 
porated in  the  treaty. 

The  preamble  to  the  treaty  enumerated  the  High  Contract- 
ing Parties,  who  were  the  four  Principal  Allied  Powers — Great 
Britain,  France,  Italy,  and  Japan — and  also  Belgium,  Poland, 
Czecho-Slovakia,  Greece,  the  Serb-Croat-Slovene  Kingdom, 
Rumania,  Portugal,  Armenia,  and  the  Hedjaz,  on  the  one  hand, 
and  Turkey  on  the  other  hand. 

The  terms  of  the  treaty  were  received  with  dismay  in  Con- 
stantinople, and  with  defiance  by  the  Turkish  Nationalists 
in  Asia  Minor.  The  Turkish  delegation  were  allowed  some 
weeks  to  consider  their  reply  to  the  terms.  The  two  points  in 
the  treaty  to  which  the  Turks  seem  to  have  taken  particular 
exception  were  the  cession  of  Thrace  to  Greece  and  the  rights 
bestowed  upon  Greece  in  the  Smyrna  district.  The  reply  of  the 
Turkish  delegation  was  deUvered  to  the  Supreme  Council  at 
the  end  of  June.  With  regard  to  the  entry  of  Turkey  into  the 
war,  the  Turkish  delegation  said  that  this  was  the  work  of  the 
Committee  of  Union  and  Progress  and  not  of  the  Turkish  nation 
as  a  whole.  The  reply  stated  that  the  Ottoman  Government 
were  prepared  to  recognise  the  independence  of  Armenia  and  of 
the  Hedjaz,  and  the  Protectorate  of  France  over  Tunis  and 
Morocco.  The  Turks  were  also  prepared  to  abandon  all  claim 
to  Lybia,  to  Egypt,  and  the  islands  in  the  Aegean  Sea,  including 
Imbros,  Tenedos,  Lemnos,  Samothrace,  MytUene,  Chios,  Samos, 
and  Nikaria.  The  Government  were  also  prepared  to  recognise 
the  annexation  of  Cyprus  by  Great  Britain,  and  the  loss  of 
Syria,  Mesopotamia,  and  Palestine.  The  reply  went  on,  how- 
ever, to  protest  against  the  composition  of  the  proposed  Straits 


192a]  Turkey.  [241 

Commission,  and  pointed  out  that  the  State  actually  situated  in 
the  Straits,  namely,  Turkey,  was  not  to  be  represented  on  the 
Commission.  It  was  also  declared  that  the  conditions  under 
which  the  Commission  was  to  be  estabhshed  infringed  the 
sovereign  rights  of  the  Turkish  Government.  The  reply  de- 
manded that  the  authority  of  the  Straits  Commission  shoidd  be 
restricted,  and  that  a  Turkish  Delegate  should  have  a  seat  upon 
the  proposed  body.  In  regard  to  Thrace,  the  Turks  declared 
that  the  cession  of  the  territory  was  a  violation  of  the  principle  of 
nationalities  which  the  Allies  professed  to  support.  In  regard 
to  the  question  of  the  Smyrna  district,  the  Turkish  Government 
stated  that  they  were  unable  to  agree  to  a  proposal  which 
violated  the  rights  and  sentiments  of  the  Turkish  people.  And 
the  Turks  demanded  that  the  Greek  troops  in  the  Smyrna 
district  should  be  withdrawn  forthwith.  The  Turkish  Govern- 
ment agreed  to  the  reduction  of  the  Turkish  Army,  and  to  the 
proposals  which  virtually  abolished  the  Turkish  Navy.  But  in 
regard  to  the  territorial  provisions  of  the  Draft  Treaty,  they 
made  several  suggestions  for  alterations.  The  delegation  pro- 
posed that  the  southern  frontier  of  Armenia  should  not  be  ex- 
tended beyond  the  former  Turco-Bussian  frontier ;  and  certain 
other  temtorial  suggestions  were  made. 

The  reply  of  the  Allies  to  the  objections  of  the  Turks  was 
not  delivered  for  several  weeks,  the  delay  being  somewhat  sur- 
prising, because  the  Supreme  Council  consented  to  scarcely  any 
modification  of  the  terms  as  presented  to  the  Turks  in  May. 
The  only  modification  of  any  importance  to  which  the  Allies 
agreed  was  the  acceptance  of  the  Turkish  proposal  that  Turkey 
should  be  represented  on  the  Straits  Commission.  The  Allied 
note  was  very  sternly  worded.  And  in  regard  to  the  Turkish 
excuse  for  the  manner  in  which  the  Ottoman  Empire  had  entered 
into  the  war,  the  Allies  said  that  they  were  quite  unable  to  agree 
that  Turkey  had  any  less  responsibility  than  the  countries  to 
which  she  had  been  allied.  And  in  reference  to  this  matter  the 
'Allied  note  said : — 

"  The  Allied  Powers  have  given  careful  consideration  to  the 
observations  of  the  Turkish  Government  on  the  draft  Treaty  of 
Peace  which  it  is  asked  to  sign.  The  Turkish  Government 
would  appear  to  think  that  its  responsibility  in  the  Great  War  is 
less  than  that  of  its  Allies,  and  that  it  is,  therefore,  entitled  to 
lenient  treatment.     The  Allies  cannot  accept  that  plea. 

"  In  the  opinion  of  the  Allies,  Turkey  volxmtarily  joined  a  con- 
spiracy against  the  liberty  of  all  nations  at  a  time  when  its 
tyrannical  purpose  had  become  revealed  to  all.  They  consider 
tibat  Turkey  was  thereby  guilty  of  peculiar  treachery  to  Powers 
which  for  more  than  haJf  a  century  had  been  her  steadfast 
friends.  Turkey  entered  the  war  without  the  shadow  of  excuse 
or  provocation.  The  Allies  entertained  no  hostile  designs 
agamst  Turkey.  Indeed,  in  August,  1914,  the  Allied  Powers 
made  a  declaration  to  the  Porte  tiiat  if  Turkey  maintained  her 

Q 


242]         FOREIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTORY.        [i9ao. 

neutrality  throughout  the  war  the  Allies  would  guarantee  the 
integrity  of  the  Turkish  dominions.  This  declaration  the 
Turkish  Government  disregarded,  thus  proving  that  ambition 
and  not  security  was  its  purpose  in  entermg  the  war. 

'*  The  Turkish  delegation  does  not  appear  to  appreciate  the 
loss  and  suffering  which  Turkey's  intervention  has  caused  to 
humanity.  The  extent  of  Turkey's  UabiUty  is  not  to  be  gauged 
merelv  by  the  cost  of  overcoming  the  Turkish  Armies.  JBy 
gratmtously  closing  a  great  international  waterway  in  the  face 
of  the  Allies  and  so  cutting  off  the  communications  between 
Russia,  Rumania,  and  the  Western  Allies,  Turkey  certainly  pro- 
longed the  war  by  not  less  than  two  years,  and  caused  a  loss  to 
the  AlUes  of  several  millions  of  lives  and  thousands  of  millions 
of  pounds.  The  reparation  which  Turkey  owes  to  those  who, 
at  terrible  cost,  have  re-estabUshed  liberty  for  the  world  is  far 
greater  than  she  can  ever  pay." 

The  Allies  then  went  on  to  give  their  considered  opinion 
upon  the  situation  created  by  the  appalling  atrocities  committed 
on  many  occasions  and  in  many  different  places  and  on  the 
largest  scale  by  the  Turks.  The  passages  in  the  note  deaUng 
with  this  problem  had  the  character  of  a  final  verdict  upon  a 

S[uestion  which  had  been  a  running  sore  in  the  side  of  Europe 
or  a  century  and  more.  "  The  Allies  are  clear  that  the  time 
has  come  when  it  is  necessary  to  put  an  end  once  and  for  all  to 
the  empire  of  the  Turks  over  other  nations.  The  history  of  the 
relations  between  the  Porte  and  the  Great  Powers  in  the  long 
period  before  the  war  was  one  long  story  of  repeated  and  un- 
availing attempts  to  put  an  end  to  atrocities  in  Bulgaria, 
Macedonia,  Armenia,  and  elsewhere,  attbcities  which  startled 
and  shocked  the  conscience  of  mankind.  During  the  past 
twenty  years  Armenians  have  been  massacred  under  conditions 
of  unexampled  barbarity,  and  during  the  war  the  record  of  the 
Turkish  Government  in  massacre,  in  deportation,  and  in  mal- 
treatment of  prisoners  of  war,  immeasurably  exceeded  even  its 
own  previous  record.  It  is  estimated  that  since  1914  it  has 
massacred,  on  the  mendacious  pretext  of  an  alleged  revolt, 
800,000  Armenians,  including  women  and  children,  and  has 
expelled  or  deported  more  than  200,000  Greeks  and  200,000  Ar- 
menians from  their  homes.  Not  only  has  the  Turkish  Govern- 
ment failed  to  protect  its  subjects  of  other  races  from  pillage, 
outrage,  and  murder,  but  there  is  abundant  evidence  that  it  has 
been  responsible  for  directing  and  organising  savagery  against 
people  to  whom  it  owed  protection. 

"  For  these  reasons  the  Allied  Powers  are  resolved  to  eman- 
cipate all  areas  inhabited  by  a  non-Turkish  majority  from 
Turkish  rule.  It  would  neither  be  just  nor  would  it  conduce  to 
lasting  peace  in  the  Near  and  Middle  East,  that  large  masses  of 
non-Turkish  nationality  should  be  forced  to  remain  under 
Turldsh  rule.  The  Allies  can  make  no  modification  in  the 
clauses  of  the  treaty  which  detach  Thrace  and  Smyrna  from 


^ 


192a]  Turkey.  [243 

Turkish  rule,  for  in  both  areas  the  Turks  are  in  a  minority. 
The  same  considerations  apply  to  the  frontiers  fixed  between 
Syria  and  Turkey. 

"  For  the  same  reason  they  can  make  no  change  in  the  pro- 
visions which  provide  for  the  creation  of  a  free  Armenia  within 
boundaries  which  the  President  of  the  United  States  will  deter- 
mine as  fair  and  just." 

Having  dealt  with  this  matter  of  the  iniquities  perpetrated 
under  Turkish  rule,  the  Allies  proceeded  to  explam  the  pro- 
visions of  the  treaty  in  regard  to  Smyrna,  a  point  to  which,  as 
already  explained,  the  Turks  had  taken  particular  objection. 
The  note  said  that :  ''  The  provisions  concerning  Smjrma  will  in 
no  way  have  the  effect  of  restricting  the  trade  and  commerce  of 
Anatolia.  On  the  contrary,  the  freedom  of  the  port  is  guaranteed 
by  the  treaty,  its  inhabitants  will  have  the  strongest  interest  in 
making  their  town  the  port  of  the  hinterland,  and  under  an 
honest  Government  will  serve  the  interior  more  effectively  than 
ever.  The  arrangement  is  analogous  to  that  introduced  at 
Danzig." 

In  regard  to  the  Zone  of  the  Straits  the  Allied  Powers  agreed 
to  the  Turkish  suggestion  that  the  Constantinople  Government 
should  be  represented  on  the  governing  body.  In  conclusion 
the  AUies  pointed  out  that  they  had  been  generous  to  the 
Turkish  Government  in  leaving  them  in  Constantinople ;  and 
the  note  drew  attention  to  the  fact  that  "  in  view  of  the  misuse 
made  by  the  Turks  of  their  power  in  the  past,  the  Allies  have 
had  grave  doubts  as  to  the  wisdom  of  this  step.  If  the  Turkish 
Grovemment  refuses  to  sign  the  Peace,  still  more,  if  it  finds 
itself  unable  to  re-establish  its  authority  in  Anatolia,  or  to  give 
effect  to  the  treaty,  the  Allies,  in  accordance  with  the  terms  of 
the  treaty,  may  be  driven  to  reconsider  this  arrangement,  by 
ejecting  the  Turks  from  Europe  once  and  for  all.  The  Allied 
Powers  hereby  notify  the  Turkish  delegation  that  Turkey  is 
granted  a  period  of  ten  days  to  signify  definitely  her  acceptance 
of  the  clauses  of  the  treaty  and  her  intention  to  sign  it.  This 
pNBriod  expires  on  July  27,  at  12  midnight.  If  the  treaty  is  not 
signed  in  its  present  form,  the  Allied  I^owers  would  take  such 
action  as  they  may  consider  necessary  in  the  circumstances." 

Whilst  the  negotiations  were  proceeding  with  the  Turkish 
delegation  in  Paris,  it  became  necessary  to  take  action  against 
the  Turkish  Nationalist  force  in  Asia  Minor.  The  Nationalists 
declared  that  whatever  the  Government  at  Constuitinople  might 
do,  the  Turkish  people  would  never  agree  to  the  Allies'  terms. 
Fortunately  there  was  an  army  on  the  spot  which  was  strong 
enough  to  deal  with  the  situation  thus  created.  It  will  be  re- 
membered that  the  Greeks  had  already  been  permitted  by  the 
Powers  to  occupy  Smyrna  and  the  surrounding  district.  The 
Nationalist  movement  had  spread  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
Nationalist  Army,  whose  Headquarters  were  at  Angora,  had 
occupied  all  the  country  up  to  the  Eastern  shore  of  the  Sea  of 

Q2 


244]  FOREIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTORY.        {mo. 

Marmora.  There  was  a  strong  body  of  Nationalist  troops  in 
Brusa;  and  indeed  the  Turkish  Grovemment  had  very  little 
authority  outside  Constantinople. 

The  Greek  Prime  Minister,  M.  Venizelos,  visited  England 
in  June,  and  he  was  then  given  authority  to  proceed  against 
the  Nationalist  forces  to  the  north  of  Smyrna,  and  in  the  direc- 
tion of  Brusa.  The  campaign  which  ensued  was  very  short  and 
sharp.  The  Greek  Army  moved  north  with  great  rapidity,  and 
struck  at  the  Nationahsts  before  their  concentration  was  com- 
pleted. The  Nationalists  were  badly  armed,  and  were  to  some 
extent  taken  by  surprise.  The  Greek  Army  never  had  any 
difficulty  in  overcommg  the  resistance  which  was  offered,  and 
entered  Brusa  in  triumph  on  July  8.  The  weakness  of  Mustapha 
Kemal  Pasha's  force  may  be  gauged  from  the  fact  that  in  the 
storming  of  Brusa  the  Greeks  captured  only  one  field-gun  and 
six  machine-guns.  The  Greeks  did  not  advance  upon  Angora 
itself. 

The  Turkish  portion  of  Thrace  which  had  been  given  to 
Greece  was  occupied  by  Greek  troops  at  the  end  of  July.  The 
local  Turks  attempted  some  resistance  but  were  easily  overcome. 
The  town  of  Adnanople  itself  was  occupied  on  July  25  ;  and 
King  Alexander  made  a  state  entry  into  the  town  on  the  follow- 
ing day. 

The  Turkish  Government  signified  their  willingness  to  sign 
the  treaty  several  days  before  the  Allies'  ultimatum  elapsed ; 
but  further  delay  was  then  caused  by  the  Greek  Government 
which  had  from  the  beginning  taken  serious  exception  to  the 
cession  of  the  Dodecanese  to  Italy.  It  will  be  remembered 
that  Italy  had  been  in  occupation  of  the  Dodecanese  since  the 
Italo-Turkish  War  of  1912.  The  islands  were,  however,  in- 
habited by  a  population  which  was  almost  exclusively  Greek. 
The  Greek  Government  now  declared  that  they  would  refuse  to 
sign  the  treaty  with  Turkey  if  this  provision  remained  unaltered. 
This  difficulty  caused  a  delay  of  another  fortnight ;  but  eventu- 
ally, an  agreement  was  come  to  between  Italy  and  Greece, 
which  provided,  firstly,  that  all  the  Dodecanese  other  than 
Rhodes  should  be  ceded  to  Greece,  and,  secondly — and  this  was 
a  somewhat  extraordinary  provision — that  Italy  should  agree 
to  the  holding  of  a  plebiscite  in  Rhodes  to  decide  the  destiny 
of  this  island,  if  Great  Britain  agreed  to  cede  Cyprus  to  Greece. 
It  was  arranged  that  if  this  event  ever  took  place  a  plebiscite 
was  to  be  held  in  Rhodes  within  fifteen  years  of  the  cession 
of  Cyprus.  A  special  convention  was  drawn  up  dealing  with 
this  matter  of  the  Dodecanese,  the  convention  to  be  signed 
by  Greece  and  Italy  at  the  same  time  as  the  treaty  with 
Turkey. 

The  treaty  was  eventually  signed  at  Sevres  on  August  10, 
the  principal  Turkish  delegate  being  Riza  Tewfik  Bey.  The 
treaty  was  also  signed  for  Great  Britain,  France,  Italy,  Japan, 
Greece,  Rumania,  Belgium,  Poland,  Czecho-Slovakia,  Armenia, 


1920.]  Turkey.  [245 

and  Portugal.  The  treaty  became  known  as  the  Treaty  of 
Siyres.  Jugo-Slavia  refused  to  sign  the  treaty  because  she  was 
unwilling  to  assume  the  appropriate  part  of  the  Turkish  debt 
which  feU  to  her  with  her  portion  of  ex-Turkish  territory.  The 
Kingdom  of  the  Hedjaz  was  also  unrepresented  as  war  had  now 
broken  out  between  the  Emir  Feiral  and  France. 

In  the  middle  of  September  the  Italians  evacuated  the  lesser 
Dodecanese  Islands  in  accordance  with  the  Italo-Greek  Con- 
vention. In  reference  to  this  matter,  the  reader  may  be  re- 
minded that  Rhodes,  which  Italy  had  insisted  upon  retaining, 
was  much  the  largest  island  in  the  group.  Indeed,  all  the  other 
islands  were  of  very  small  size.  The  treaty  having  been  signed, 
normal  relations  were  re-established  with  the  Constantinople 
Government,  but  unfortunately  the  authorities  at  Constantinople 
were  far  from  being  an  effective  Government  of  Asiatic  Turkey. 
Mustapha  Kemal  Pasha  was  still  the  leader  of  a  powerful  party 
in  Asia  Minor,  and  he  even  went  so  far  as  to  call  a  Turkish 
"Parliament"  in  Angora.  Moreover,  later  in  the  autunm 
Eemal  directed  his  forces  (in  agreement  with  the  Russian 
Government)  against  Armenia. 

In  the  midme  of  October  Damad  Ferid  Pasha  resigned ;  and 
he  was  succeeded  as  head  of  the  Government  by  Tewfik  Pasha. 

In  December  the  Government  entered  into  negotiations  with 
the  Nationalist  leaders  at  Angora,  but  no  settlement  of  any 
kind  was  reached  before  the  end  of  the  year.  The  situation 
therefore  remained  most  anomalous,  for  Turkey  really  had  two 
Grovemments  at  this  time — one  at  Constantinople  and  the  other 
at  Angora. 

GREECE. 

During  the  year  the  most  extraordinary  series  of  kaleido- 
scopic changes  took  place  in  Greece.  There  were  few  countries 
which  had  gained  more  than  Greece  from  the  war,  in  proportion 
to  the  size  and  importance  of  the  country;  and  the  Greeks 
ought  to  have  regarded  themselves  as  especially  fortimate  in 
this  matter,  because  they  had  in  point  of  fact  played  a  somewhat 
doubtful  pa^  in  the  war,  and  no  man  could  say  how  much  sin- 
cerity there  had  been  in  their  long-delayed  adherence  to  the  Allied 
cause.  The  highly  favourable  bargains  which  the  Greek  King- 
dom had  been  able  to  make  with  the  Great  Powers  had  been  due 
almost  entirely  to  the  statesmanlike  quahties  and  the  extra- 
ordinary tact  which  had  been  displayed  throughout  the  discus- 
sions by  the  Greek  Prime  Minister,  M.  Venizelos. 

During  the  first  half  of  the  year  Greece  was  chiefly  occupied 
with  establishing  her  position  at  Smyrna  and  in  taking  over  the 
other  territories  which  had  been  allotted  to  her  by  the  Supreme 
Council.  It  was  decided  that  the  portion  of  Thiace  which  had 
been  taken  from  Bulgaria  should  be  given  to  Greece;  and 
Greece  was  authorised  to  occupy  this  district  at  the  end  of  May. 
Turkish  Thrace,  including  the  great  town  of  Adrianople,  was 


246]         FOEEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTOEY.         [i92a 

also  assigned  to  Greece  and  was  occupied  by  that  country  at 
the  end  of  July.  Greece  thus  extended  her  dominions  to  the 
coast  of  the  Black  Sea. 

During  the  summer  it  was  announced  that  King  Alexander 
had  contracted  a  morganatic  marriage  with  a  certain  mile  Manos 
in  the  previous  November. 

Whilst  M.  Venizelos  was  in  Paris  in  August  an  attempt  was 
made  to  assassinate  him,  and  it  was  reported  that  the  criminals 
were  adherents  of  the  Boyalist  cause.  The  publication  in 
Athens  of  the  news  of  the  attempted  assassination  led  to  out- 
breaks of  serious  riots  against  real  and  supposed  partisans  of  ex- 
King  Constantine. 

Fortimately  M.  Venizelos  was  not  seriously  wounded  and 
he  was  able  to  attend  the  meeting  of  Parliament  on  September 
7.  The  Prime  Minister  received  an  extremely  enthusiastic 
welcome  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  and  a  speech  of  welcome 
was  made  by  the  President  of  the  House,  who  proposed  a 
resolution  proclaiming  that  the  Prime  Minister  was  the  saviour 
of  Greece,  and  that  a  permanent  memorial  should  be  erected  to 
him  in  the  Chamber.  It  is  worth  recording  that  this  resolution 
was  passed  unanimously.  M.  Venizelos  then  rose  to  reply  to 
the  President  and  to  thank  the  Chamber  for  its  welcome,  and 
also  to  present  three  treaties  to  Parliament.  The  treaties  in 
question  were  that  with  Turkey,  that  with  the  Great  Powers 
relating  to  the  transfer  from  them  to  Greece  of  the  portion  of 
Thrace  which  had  been  ceded  to  the  Powers  by  Bulgaria  ;  and, 
thirdly,  that  with  Italy  regarding  the  Dodecanese,  to  which 
reference  has  already  been  made  elsewhere  (see  Turkey).  The 
first  two  of  these  treaties  at  any  rate  were  thoroughly  satisfactory 
to  Greece,  and  were  certainly  a  monument  to  M.  Venizelos's 
statesmanship.  The  Prime  Minister  said  that  since  the 
Chamber  was  to  be  dissolved  within  a  few  days  there  would 
not  be  time  for  the  ratification  of  these  treaties,  but  this  need 
not  be  regarded  as  a  serious  matter,  because  so  far  as  the  terri- 
torial sections  of  the  agreements  were  concerned,  the  treaties 
had  already  been  carried  into  effect.  M.  Venizelos  said  that 
so  soon  as  the  Chamber  was  dissolved,  martial  law  and  the 
censorship  would  be  abolished,  and  the  General  Election  would 
be  held  m  the  autumn.  Replying  to  the  charges  of  his  op- 
ponents, M.  Venizelos  said  that  he  would  guarantee  that  the 
elections  would  be  held  under  conditions  of  absolute  liberty. 

The  last  ordinary  sitting  of  the  Chamber  was  on  September 
23.  It  is  perhaps  worth  recording  here  that  the  Chamber  which 
was  now  dissolved  was  that  which  had  been  elected  in  1915  and 
had  been  dissolved  by  King  Constantine  in  the  following  year, 
and  had  then  been  recalled  by  M.  Venizelos  in  1917.  The  issue 
of  the  General  Election  was  therefore  fraught  with  the  greatest 
possible  interest. 

In  conse<}uence  of  the  peculiar  history  of  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  which  was  being  dissolved,  the  elections  would  under 


1920.]  Greece.  [247 

any  circumstances  have  been  of  the  very  greatest  importance  to 
the  country,  but  they  were  rendered  even  more  critical  by  the 
tragic  event  which  intervened  between  the  dissolution  of  Parlia- 
ment and  the  day  of  the  elections.  The  event  in  question  was 
the  death  of  King  Alexander. 

The  King's  death  took  place  imder  the  most  tragic  and  un- 
usual circumstances.  On  October  2  the  King  was  walking  in 
the  grounds  of  his  domain  at  Tatoi,  when  his  pet  dog  was  at- 
tacked by  a  monkey.  The  King  endeavoured  to  separate  the 
animals,  and  was  himself  badly  bitten  by  another  monkey.  It 
was  at  first  thought  that  his  wounds  were  not  serious ;  but  blood 
poison  ensued,  and  it  was  soon  realised  that  the  King's  condi- 
tion was  critical.  The  best  medical  assistance  was  obtained 
from  Paris,  but  the  efforts  of  the  physicians  were  unfortunately 
unavailing  and  King  Alexander  died  on  October  25. 

King  Alexander  was  the  second  son  of  ex-King  Constantine 
and  ex-Queen  Sophie,  sister  of  the  ex-Emperor  William  II. 
He  was  bom  at  Tatoi  in  July,  1893 ;  and  was  proclaimed  King 
of  the  Greeks  in  June,  1917.  He  had  gained  the  sympathy  of 
many  people,  both  in  Greece  and  abroad,  by  his  romantic 
marriage  with  Mile  Aspasie  Manos. 

The  election  campaign  was  akeady  proceeding  when  the  King 
died,  but  the  date  of  the  elections  was  postponed,  and  M. 
Venizelos  summoned  the  Chamber  to  meet  for  a  special  session 
on  October  28.  The  Chamber  duly  met  on  that  afternoon,  but 
less  than  half  the  Deputies  were  present.  The  Prime  Minister 
announced  to  the  Deputies  that  King  Alexander  had  died,  and 
declared  that  in  his  opinion  the  Constitutional  successor  to  the 
Throne  was  the  late  King's  younger  brother,  Prince  Paul.  The 
Prime  Minister  also  announced  that  the  Government  had  sent 
a  message  to  Prince  Paul  offering  him  its  syinpathy  on  the  un- 
timely death  of  his  elder  brother,  and  informing  him  of  his  suc- 
cession to  the  Hellenic  Throne.  The  Government  appear  to 
have  also  intimated  to  Prince  Paul  that  he  should  not  come  to 
Greece  until  after  the  General  Election  had  proved  whether  the 
existing  Government  enjoyed  the  confidence  of  the  Greek  people. 
M.  Venizelos  said  that  it  was  therefore  necessary  to  elect  a 
Begent  to  serve  during  the  interval,  and  he  proposed  that 
Admiral  Coundouriotis  should  be  elected  to  that  post.  The 
few  members  of  the  Opposition  who  were  present  declared  that 
they  considered  that  the  question  of  the  succession  could  be 
satisfactorily  settled  in  only  one  way — ^by  a  vote  of  the  entire 
Greek  people.  Admiral  Coundouriotis  was  subsequently  elected 
Begent  by  a  large  majoritv  of  the  Deputies  present. 

The  funeral  of  King  Alexander  took  place  in  the  Cathedral 
at  Athens.  It  was,  of  course,  one  of  the  tragedies  of  the 
late  King's  position,  that  none  of  his  nearest  relatives  could 
be  present  either  during  his  last  illness  or  at  the  funeral.  Ex- 
King  Constantine,  Ex-Queen  Sophie,  the  ex-Crown  Prince, 
Prince   Paul,    and  the   three   prmcesses,  were  all  exiled  in 


248]         FOEEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTOEY.         [IMO. 

Switzerland.  The  Dowager  Queen  Olga  came  to  Athens,  but 
did  not  arrive  until  after  the  King's  death.  Madame  Manos 
was,  however,  constantly  with  her  husband  during  his  last 
illness.  The  funeral  was  attended  by  the  Dowager  Queen 
Olga,  Madame  Manos,  Admiral  Coundouriotis,  the  Crown 
Prince  of  Sweden,  and  Crown  Prince  Alexander  of  the  Serbs, 
Croats,  and  Slovenes. 

The  reply  of  Prince  Paul  to  the  message  of  the  Greek 
Government  caused  considerable  perturbation  in  Greece  and 
to  some  extent  even  in  Europe  generally.  The  reply  was  as 
follows : — 

**  I  declare  that  I  do  not  share  the  point  of  view  of  the 
Hellenic  Government  that,  according  to  the  Constitution,  I  am 
to-day  called  upon  to  ascend  the  Throne.  The  Throne  does  not 
belong  to  me ;  it  belongs  to  my  august  father  King  Constantino, 
and,  constitutionally,  my  eldest  brother  is  his  successor. 
Neither  of  them  has  ever  renounced  his  rights,  but  both  have 
been  obliged  to  leave  Greece  in  obedience  to  the  dictates  of  their 
patriotic  duty." 

Prince  Paul  then  went  on  to  say  that  he  could  not  ascend 
the  Throne  in  the  existing  circumstances.  **  I  would  onl^ 
ascend  the  Throne  if  the  Hellenic  people  were  to  decide  that  it 
did  not  want  the  return  of  my  august  father,  and  were  to  ex- 
clude the  Crown  Prince  George  from  his  right  of  succession." 

This  declaration  by  Prince  Paul  placed  the  Government  in  a 
difficult  position,  and  it  soon  became  evident  that  there  was  a 
strong  movement  aiming  at  the  restoration  of  King  Constantino. 
M.  Venizelos  was  quite  prepared  to  face  the  issue,  and  the 
question  of  the  return  of  King  Constantino  immediately  became 
the  real  issue  of  the  General  Election.  M.  Yenizolos  declared 
openly  that  if  he  and  the  Liberal  Party  were  returned  to  power 
the  result  would  be  a  condemnation  of  the  claims  of  King 
Constantino.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Opposition  obtained  a 
majority,  he  (M.  Venizelos)  would  retire  altogether  from  politi- 
cal life.  The  Opposition  leaders  came  out  openly  in  support  of 
King  Constantino. 

In  the  meantime  a  proclamation  was  issued  by  M.  Streit 
from  Lucerne.  M.  Streit  was  Kin^  Constantino's  confidential 
adviser  and  had  boon  Foreign  Minister  during  the  first  part  of 
the  war  when  King  Constantino  was  still  on  the  Greek  Throne. 
M.  Venizelos  had  stated  that  King  Constantino  and  his  advisers 
had  imdortakon  obligations  towards  the  Central  Powers.  In 
his  proclamation  M.  Streit  said  that  having  boon  Foreign 
Mimster  he  was  in  a  position  to  give  a  formal  denial  to  tUs 
statement.  He  said  that  King  Constantino  had  undertaken 
before  the  war  no  engagement  which  could  prevent  the  freedom 
of  the  foreign  policy  of  the  country.  And  that  "  at  no  moment 
during  the  war  was  any  obligation  assumed  by  King  Constantine 
to  fight  by  the  side  of  the  Central  Powers,  or  imposing  upon 
Greece  a  neutral  attitude." 


1930.]  Greece.  [249 

The  Greneral  Election  was  duly  held  on  November  14.  It 
had  loDR  been  known  to  those  who  kept  in  contact  with  affairs 
in  the  Near  East  that  the  Boyalist  Party  in  Greece  had  never 
ceased  to  be  powerful.  But  the  result  of  the  General  Election, 
which  was  a  sweeping  victory  for  the  Opposition,  came  as  a 
surprise  in  Great  Britain.  The  Liberals  were  badly  defeated 
in  almost  all  parts  of  the  country,  and  in  some  provinces  they 
were  literally  crushed.  It  was  stated  that  in  the  Peloponnesus, 
in  Thessaly,  and  in  Macedonia,  there  was  not  a  single  Venizelist 
candidate  elected.  The  Opposition  were  returned  with  a 
majority  of  151,  having  secured  a  total  of  261  seats. 

On  the  following  day  M.  Yenizelos  tendered  to  the  Begent 
the  resignation  of  the  Liberal  Cabinet.  A  Cabinet  was  then 
formed  by  the  aged  statesman,  M.  Demetrius  Balli,  who  there- 
upon requested  Admiral  Coundouriotis  to  resign  the  Be^ency. 
The  Dowager  Queen  Olga  was  then  appointed  Begent,  m  the 
expectation  that  King  Constantino  would  soon  return  to  Greece. 
M.  Balli  arranged,  however,  that  before  King  Constantino  was 
formally  invited  to  return  to  the  Throne,  a  plebiscite  upon  the 
question  should  be  held.  M.  Yenizelos  left  Greece  and  went  to 
France. 

The  result  of  the  elections  placed  the  Allied  Powers  in  a 
somewhat  difficult  position.  They  had,  of  course,  always 
favoured  M.  Yenizelos,  and  they  had  certainly  favoured  Greece  in 
the  Peace  settlements.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Greek  people  ap- 
peared now  to  have  given  a  decisive  verdict  in  favour  of  the  return 
of  King  Constantino.  It  was  reported  that  the  French  Govern- 
ment wished  to  forbid  King  Constantino  to  return.  But  the 
British  and  Italian  Governments  were  not  in  favour  of  placing 
the  Allies  in  the  position  of  appearing  to  oppose  the  declared 
wishes  of  the  Greek  people  on  a  question  which  was  primarily 
the  concern  of  Greece.  The  result  of  these  differences  of  opinion 
in  the  highest  quarters  was  that  a  somewhat  compromising  pro- 
clamation was  issued  by  the  British,  French,  and  Italian 
Governments.  The  proclamation  stated  that  the  recall  of  King 
Constantino  could  only  be  regarded  as  a  ratification  by  the 
Greek  people  of  the  actions  of  tiie  King  which  had  been  hostile 
to  the  Alhes.  And  the  proclamation  stated  that  the  recall  of 
the  King  would  create  an  unfavourable  situation  between  Greece 
and  the  Great  Powers,  and  that  in  the  event  of  that  recall  taking 

Slace  the  Great  Powers  would  "  reserve  to  themselves  complete 
berty  in  dealing  with  the  situation  thus  created." 
This  proclamation  made  the  situation  difficult  for  M.  Balli, 
but  that  statesman  decided  to  proceed  with  the  plebiscite. 
This  second  poll  of  the  people  was  held  on  December  5. 

It  was  stated  on  behalf  of  the  Liberals  that  they  would  re- 
frain from  taking  any  part  in  the  poll.  They  thus  confessed 
beforehand  that  they  anticipated  defeat.  It  is  doubtful  whether 
the  Liberals  of  the  rank  and  file  obeyed  the  orders  of  their 
leaders  to  refrain  from  the  poll.     The  total  number  of  votes 


250]         FOEEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTOEY.         [1920. 

cast  in  the  plebiscite  appears  to  have  been  greater  than  in  the 
General  Election  a  few  weeks  earlier.  It  is  more  probable  that 
the  Liberals  of  the  rank  and  file,  like  their  compatriots  of  other 
parties,  were  in  truth  carried  away  by  an  enthusiasm — temporary 
or  otherwise — to  see  the  return  of  the  royal  exile.  However 
this  may  have  been,  there  was  an  enormous  majority  in  favour 
of  King  Gonstantine.  It  was  stated  that  1,012,742  votes  were 
cast  and  that  of  these  999,962  were  in  favour  of  King  Gonstantine. 
After  a  result  such  as  this  only  one  course  of  action  was  possible, 
and  M.  Ealli  formally  invited  King  Gonstantine  to  return. 

The  Allied  Powers  took  no  dennite  steps  to  forbid  this  con- 
summation, but  they  issued  a  declaration  that  King  Gonstantine 
would  not  be  recognised,  and  withdrawing  the  subsidies  which 
Greece  had  been  receiving  from  the  Powers. 

King  Gonstantine  and  Queen  Sophie  left  Switzerland,  and 
arrived  in  Athens  on  December  19,  their  return  to  their  capital 
being  made  the  occasion  for  a  tremendous  demonstration  of 
sympathy.  King  Gonstantine  was  received  ever3rwhere  with 
immense  enthusiasm. 


BULGARIA. 

At  the  opening  of  the  year,  M.  Stambolisky,  the  leader  of 
the  Agrarian  Party,  was  Prime  Minister,  the  Agrarians  having 
been  very  successful  in  the  General  Election  of  1919.  The 
Treaty  of  Peace  with  Bulgaria  had  been  signed  at  the  end  of 
November,  1919.  At  the  beginning  of  January  the  treaty  was 
presented  to  the  Bulgarian  Parliament  for  ratification.  Speakers 
of  all  parties  condemned  the  terms  of  the  treaty ;  but  the  House 
reahsed  that  it  could  do  nothing  but  submit  to  the  inevitable, 
and  the  treaty  was  ratified  by  a  lar^e  majority.  At  the  end 
of  February,  Parliament  was  again  dissolved,  though  the  same 
Government  continued  in  office.  The  General  Election  took 
place  on  March  28,  and  in  the  result  the  position  of  the 
Agrarian  Party  was  still  further  strengthened.  The  Agrarians 
obtained  110  seats  out  of  a  total  of  229,  the  total  membership 
of  the  House  having  been  reduced  by  9,  owing  to  the  cession 
of  territory,  under  tiie  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Peace.  The 
Democrats  obtained  24  seats,  and  the  other  non-Socialist 
parties  obtained  36  seats.  The  old  Moderate  Socialist  Party 
fared  very  badly,  being  reduced  to  9  Deputies ;  but  the  Com- 
munists proved  very  powerful  in  the  towns  and  won  50  seats. 
M.  Stamoolisky  reorganised  his  Government,  and  being  sup- 
ported bv  the  other  non-Socialists,  as  well  as  by  the  Agrarians, 
he  was  able  to  continue  in  power. 

Later  in  the  year  M.  Stambolisky  visited  England. 

At  the  meeting  of  the  Assembly  of  the  League  of  Nations  at 
Geneva  in  December,  Bulgaria  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
League. 


1920.]  Albania.  [251 

ALBANIA. 

Prog[re88  was  made  during  the  year  in  establishing  the 
international  status  of  Albania.  In  January  the  French  and 
British  Governments  made  proposals  to  Jugo-Slavia  which 
involved  a  partition  of  Albanian  territory  between  Jugo-Slavia, 
Italy,  and  Greece,  but  in  deference  chiefly  to  the  protests  of 
President  Wilson,  these  proposals  were  afterwards  abandoned 
(see  Jugo-Slavia).  At  the  end  of  January  a  National  Congress 
of  Albanians  gathered  at  Lusnia,  and  passed  resolutions  pro- 
testing against  the  French  and  British  proposals.  The  Congress 
elected  a  Begency  Council  of  notables,  to  act  in  the  place  of 
a  prince,  and  also  a  Government,  under  the  premiership  of 
Suleiman  Bey  Delvina.  Shortly  afterwards  the  seat  of  the 
Administration  was  moved  to  Tirana.  The  new  Government 
was  unconnected  with  the  chief,  Essad  Pasha,  who  was  assas- 
sinated in  Paris  in-  the  summer.  After  Signor  Giolitti  became 
Italian  Prime  Minister,  he  came  to  a  speedy  agreement  with 
the  Tirana  Government.  The  Italians  evacuated  the  Valona 
district,  which  they  had  held  for  several  years,  and  retained  no 
hold  over  Albania,  except  the  right  to  fortify  Cape  Linguetta 
and  Cape  Trepanti.  Italy  retained  the  island  of  Sasseno. 
Italy  also  recognised  the  independence  of  Albania.  It  was  no 
doubt  largely  owing  to  this  reasonable  attitude  on  the  part  of 
the  Italian  Government  that  Albania  was  admitted  to  the 
League  of  Nations  by  the  Assembly  at  Geneva  in  December. 
The  frontiers  of  the  country  with  Jugo-Slavia  and  Greece 
remained,  however,  undefined.  In  December  Bias  Bey  Yrioni 
became  Premier. 

MONTENEGBO. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  Montenegro  was  absorbed  in 
the  Kingdom  of  the  Serbs,  Croats,  and  Slovenes  after  the  con- 
clusion of  the  armistice  with  Germany.  This  action  on  the 
part  of  Serbia  gave  rise  to  some  criticism  in  Western  Europe ; 
but  neither  in  1919  nor  in  1920  were  any  steps  taken  to  ascertain 
the  real  desires  of  the  Montenegrins  themselves. 


CHAPTER  V. 

LESSEB  STATES  OF  WE8TEBN  AND  NOBTHEBN  EX7B0PE :  BBLGIUM 
— ^LUXBMBTTBG — THE  NETHBBLANBS — SWITZEBLANP — ^LIECH- 
TENSTEIN —  SPAIN  —  POBTUGAL — DENMABK  AND  ICELAND — 
SWEDEN — ^NOBWAY. 

BELGIUM. 

At  the  end  of  1919  a  General  Election  was  held  in  Belgium, 
which  had  revealed  a  large  increase  in  the  Socialist  vote ;  but- 
there  had  been  a  satisfactory  co-operation  between  the  parties. 


252]         FOEEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTOKY.         |1920. 

of  which  the  Clerical  Party  remained  somewhat  the  strongest, 
and  a  Coalition  Government  had  been  formed,  with  M.  Delacroix 
as  Prime  Minister. 

In  March  statistics  were  published  giving  the  population  of 
Belgium  at  the  end  of  1918.  The  total  population  was  stated 
to  be  7,555,500.  The  excess  of  the  female  sex  was  stated  to  be 
only  73,000. 

The  National  Budget  for  the  year  1920-21  was  dealt  with 
dimng  the  spring  session  of  ParUament.  It  was  stated  that 
the  Expenditure  was  estimated  at  1,597,406,500  francs;  and 
that  on  the  basis  of  the  existing  taxation  the  Bevenue  was 
estimated  at  less  than  half  that  sum,  namely,  at  797,129,400 
francs.  The  Prime  Minister  said,  however,  that  additional 
taxes  would  be  imposed,  particularly  under  the  heads  of  Income 
Tax,  Super-Tax,  Entertainments  Tax,  Customs,  and  Begistration 
Dues.  There  was  also  expected  to  be  a  very  heavy  receipt 
from  a  special  War  Profits  Tax ;  and  the  Prime  Minister 
therefore  hoped  that  at  the  end  of  the  year  the  Bevenue  would 
probably  exceed  the  Expenditure. 

In  the  spring,  as  described  elsewhere,  the  small  districts  of 
Eupen  and  Malmedy  were  definitely  united  to  the  Belgian 
Kingdom  imder  the  authority  of  the  League  of  Nations.  Under 
the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Versailles  the  inhabitants  of  the 
districts  had  the  right  to  express  their  wish  to  remain  united 
with  Germany,  but  it  was  reported  that  only  a  very  small 
minority  of  the  inhabitants  expressed  in  the  required  manner 
a  wish  to  remain  united  with  the  German  Bepublic.  The 
Council  of  the  League  of  Nations,  therefore,  decided  that  it  was 
the  wish  of  the  majority  of  the  inhabitants  to  be  annexed  to 
Belgium,  and  the  union  accordingly  took  place. 

During  the  summer,  negotiations  took  place  between  the 
French  and  Belgian  Governments  for  the  conclusion  of  a 
military  alliance.  The  negotiations  were  brought  to  a  success- 
ful conclusion,  and  the  military  alliance  was  concluded  after 
full  consultation  between  the  respective  General  Staffs.  It  was 
at  first  anticipated  that  some  diiBQculty  would  arise  in  connexion 
with  Article  XVIII.  of  the  Covenant  of  the  League  of  Nations. 
It  will  be  remembered  that  Article  XVm.  read  as  follows: 
**  Every  treaty  or  international  engagement  entered  into  here- 
after by  any  member  of  the  League  shall  be  forthwith  registered 
with  the  Secretariat,  and  shall  as  soon  as  possible  be  published 
b^  it.  No  such  treaty  or  international  engagement  shall  be 
bmding  until  so  registered."  The  French  and  Belgian  Govern- 
ments felt  that  it  would  destroy  the  purpose  of  the  alliance  if 
they  gave  to  the  League  the  details  of  the  military  agreement. 
In  the  beginning  of  November,  however,  the  two  Governments 
sent  to  Sir  Eric  Drummond,  Secretary-General  of  the  League, 
a  formal  announcement  that  the  military  alliance  had  been 
concluded,  and  a  statement  that  it  was  of  a  purely  defensive 
character.     But  the  technical  details  were  not  disclosed. 


1920.]  Belgium.  [26S 

Daring  the  summer  the  Legislature  passed  a  Bill  rendering 
legal  and  constitutional  the  scheme  of  full  manhood  suffrage 
in  Parliamentary  Elections,  which  had,  however,  already  been 
put  into  practice  in  the  General  Election  of  the  previous 
autumn  (see  Annual  Begisteb,  1919,  p.  239).  The  vote  was 
thus  given  to  practically  all  men  over  twenty-one  years  of  age. 
A  proposal  to  grant  votes  to  women  was  defeated. 

During  the  year  negotiations  with  the  Netherlands  for  the 
revision  of  the  treaties  of  1839  were  continued.  The  Belgians 
abandoned  the  claims  to  territorial  modifications  in  their  favour 
which  they  had  at  first  put  forward,  but  the  final  details 
regulating  the  rights  of  navigation  in  the  Scheldt  were  not 
decided. 

As  described  elsewhere  (see  Chapter  I.)  an  International 
Financial  Conference  was  held  at  Brussels  during  the  autunm 
under  the  auspices  of  the  League  of  Nations.  The  President 
of  the  Conference  was  M.  Ador,  Ex-President  of  the  Swiss 
Confederation. 

In  the  autumn  a  political  crisis  arose.  During  the  most 
critical  phase  of  the  Busso-Polish  War,  the  Belgian  Government 
took  the  somewhat  extraordinary  action  of  refusing  to  allow 
munitions  intended  for  Poland  to  pass  through  the  port  of 
Antwerp.  This  action  was  taken  by  the  Ministry  as  a  whole, 
but  the  Foreign  Minister,  M.  Hymans,  expressed  his  disapproval 
by  resigning  ofiKce.  Subsequently  several  other  Ministers  also 
resigned ;  and  at  the  end  of  October  M.  Delacroix  decided  that 
it  was  impossible  for  him  to  carry  on  the  Government  and 
accordingly  sent  in  his  resignation  to  the  King.  The  crisis 
lasted  for  three  weeks  ;  but  on  November  19  it  was  announced 
that  the  Clerical  politician,  M.  Carton  de  Wiart,  had  succeeded 
in  forming  a  Coalition  Ministry,  including  Clericals,  Liberals, 
and  Sociahsts.  M.  Jaspar,  a  Clerical,  was  Minister  for  Foreign 
Affairs,  and  M.  Vandervelde,  the  well-known  Socialist,  was 
Minister  of  Justice.  Neither  M.  Delacroix  nor  M.  Hymans 
was  a  member  of  the  new  Cabinet. 

LUXEMBURG. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  during  1919  the  Grand-Duchess 
Marie  Adelaide  had  abdicated  from  the  Throne  of  Luxemburg 
and  had  been  succeeded  by  her  younger  sister,  the  Grand- 
Duchess  Charlotte,  who  subsequently  married  Prince  Felix  of 
Bourbon-Parma.  During  the  year  there  was  an  improvement 
in  the  relations  between  Belgium  and  Luxemburg.  The  claim 
to  annex  Luxemburg  which  some  Belgians  had  put  forward 
after  the  armistice  with  Germany  was  entirely  abandoned,  and 
early  in  the  year  the  Bel^an  Government  sent  a  message  to 
Luxemburg  City  recognismg  the  Grand-Duchess  Charlotte  as 
sovereign  of  Luxemburg.  The  scheme  for  an  economic  union 
between  Luxemburg  and  France,  which  had  been  approved  by 


264]         FOEEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTOBY.         [1920. 

the  Luxemburg  electors  in  1919,  was  not  put  into  effect,  and 
negotiations  for  a  trade  agreement  with  Belgium  were  opened 
instead.  It  was  announced  in  September  that  the  ex-Grand- 
Duchess  Marie  Adelaide  had  entered  the  Carmelite  Convent  of 
St.  Theresa  at  Modena.  It  was  announced  in  October  that 
Princess  Hilda  and  Princess  Sophie,  younger  sisters  of  the 
reigning  Grand-Duchess,  had  both  become  betrothed  to  German 
princes,  a  Wurtemburger  and  a  Saxon  respectively. 

THE  NETHERLANDS. 

At  the  opening  of  the  year  Jonkheer  de  Beerenbrouck's 
Government  was  still  in  power,  with  Jonkheer  van  Eamebeek 
still  acting  as  Foreign  Minister.  The  first  event  of  the  year 
was  the  discussion  with  the  Great  Powers  relative  to  the 
handing  over  of  the  ex-Emperor  William,  who,  it  will  be  re- 
membered, had  taken  refuge  in  Dutch  territory  in  1918.  In 
the  middle  of  January  a  formal  demand  was  made  by  the  Peace 
Conference  that  the  ex-Emperor  should  be  delivered  up  by  the 
Netherlands  Government.  The  letter  making  this  demand, 
which  was  given  to  the  Dutc]i  Minister  in  Paris,  read  as 
follows : — 

"Paris,  Jan.  16,  1920.  In  notifying  by  the  present  letter 
to  the  Queen's  Government  the  text  of  Article  227  (a  certified 
copy  of  which  is  included)  of  the  Treaty  of  Peace  with  Germany, 
which  came  in  force  on  January  10,  1920,  I  have  the  honour 
to  announce  at  the  same  time  that  the  Allies  have  decided  to 
put  into  execution  without  delay  the  conditions  of  this  article. 
Consequently  the  Powers  address  to  the  Government  of  Holland 
an  official  demand  to  hand  over  to  them  William  of  Hohen- 
zoUem,  ex-Emperor  of  Germany,  in  order  that  he  may  be  sent 
for  trial. 

''  The  persons  residing  in  Germany  against  whom  the  Allied 
and  Associated  Powers  have  brought  forward  charges,  must  be 
handed  over  to  them  in  accordance  with  Article  228  of  the 
Peace  Treaty.  The  ex-Emperor,  if  he  had  remained  in  Germany, 
would  have  been  handed  over  under  the  same  conditions  bv  the 
German  Government.  ^ 

"  The  Netherlands  Government  is  in  possession  of  the  im- 
prescriptible reasons  which  imperatively  demand  that  the  pre- 
meditated violations  of  international  treaties,  as  well  as  the 
systematic  ignoring  of  the  most  sacred  laws  of  international 
justice,  be  followed  in  the  case  of  all,  including  the  most  highly- 
placed  personages,  by  the  special  penalties  provided  for  by  the 
Peace  Treaty. 

''  The  Allied  Powers  recall  briefly  among  so  many  wrongs 
the  cynical  violation  of  the  neutrality  of  Belgium  and  Luxemburg, 
the  barbarous  and  pitiless  system  of  hostages,  the  mass  deporta- 
tions, the  carrying  off  of  yoimg  girls  from  Lille,  who  were 
torn  from  their  families,  and  delivered  up  in  a  helpless  condition 


1990.]  TJie  Netherlands.  [255 

to  the  worst  atrocities,  the  systematic  devastation  of  whole 
territories  without  military  objects,  the  unrestricted  submarine 
warfare,  including  the  inhuman  abandonment  of  victims  on  the 
high  seas,  the  innumerable  acts  committed  against  non-com- 
batants by  the  German  authorities  in  spite  of  the  rule  of  war- 
fare, etc.,  etc. 

**  For  all  these  acts  the  responsibility,  at  least  the  moral  re- 
sponsibility, lies  with  the  Supreme  Head  who  ordered  them  or 
aoused  his  powers  to  infringe,  or  allow  to  be  infringed,  the  most 
sacred  rules  of  the  human  conscience.  The  Powers  cannot 
conceive  that  the  Government  of  the  Netherlands  will  regard 
with  less  reprobation  than  themselves  the  inmiense  responsibility 
of  the  ex-Emperor.  Holland  would  not  fulfil  her  international 
duty  if  she  refused  to  associate  herself  with  the  other  nations, 
so  far  as  her  resources  permit,  in  punishing  or  if  she  hindered 
the  chastisement  of  the  crimes  committed. 

''In  addressing  their  demands  to  the  Government  of  the 
Netherlands  the  Powers  believe  it  their  duty  to  call  attention 
to  their  special  character.  The  task  devolves  upon  them  of 
assuring  tiie  carrying  out  of  Article  227  without  permitting 
themselves  to  be  stopped  by  discussion,  because  in  the  circimi- 
stances  there  is  question  not  of  a  public  Commission  of  a 
juridical  character,  but  of  a  high  international  political  act, 
rendered  necessary  by  the  conscience  of  the  world,  in  which 
the  forms  of  law  have  been  laid  down  solely  to  assure  to  the 
accused  a  number  of  guarantees  of  a  kind  so  far  unknown  in 
international  law. 

''  The  Powers  are  convinced  that  Holland,  who  has  always 
shown  her  respect  for  right  and  her  love  of  justice,  and  who 
was  one  of  the  first  to  claim  her  place  in  the  League  of  Nations, 
will  not  wish  to  cover  by  her  moral  authority  tiie  violation  of 
the  essential  principles  of  the  solidarity  of  nations,  or  attempt 
to  prevent  a  repetition  of  a  similar  catostrophe.  The  Nether- 
lands people  is  deeply  interested  in  not  ^ving  itself  the  appear- 
ance of  protecting  the  chief  author  by  giving  him  shelter  on  its 
territory,  and  in  faciUtating  the  trial  demanded  by  the  voice  of 
thousands  of  victims. 

"  (Signed)        Clemencbau." 

A  week  later,  on  January  23,  the  Dutch  reply  was  received. 
The  Government  definitely  refused  to  hand  over  the  ex-Emperor. 
The  reply  was  as  follows : — 

"The  Government  of  the  Queen  has  the  honour  to  point 
out,  in  the  first  place,  that  the  obligations  which  are  imposed 
upon  Germany  as  the  result  of  the  Treaty  of  Peace  cannot 
have  weight  in  determining  the  duty  of  the  Netherlands,  which 
are  not  a  party  to  this  Treaty. 

"  The  Government  of  the  Queen,  actuated  also  by  impre- 
scriptible reasons,  can  only  view  the  question  raised  by  the 
demand  of  the  Allies  from  the  point  of  view  of  its  own  duty. 


A 


256]         FOEEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTORY.         peso. 

It  had  absolutely  no  part  in  the  beginnings  of  the  war,  and  it 
maintained,  not  without  dijB&culty,  its  neutrality  to  the  end.  It 
is,  therefore,  placed  in  relation  to  the  events  of  the  war  in  a 
different  position  from  that  of  the  Allied  Powers. 

"  It  energetically  repudiates  any  suggestion  of  covering  with 
its  sovereign  right  and  with  its  moral  authority  the  violations  of 
the  essential  principles  of  the  solidarity  of  nations,  but  it  is 
unable  to  admit  that  it  is  an  international  duty  to  associate 
herself  with  the  act  of  high  international  policy  of  the  Allied 
Powers. 

'*  If  in  the  future  it  was  in  the  intention  of  the  nations  to 
establish  an  international  jurisdiction,  competent  in  the  event 
of  war  to  judge  acts  alleged  to  be  crimes  and  liable  to  be 
punished  by  statutes  passed  previous  to  the  commission  of  the 
acts,  it  would  be  for  Holland  to  associate  herself  with  the  new 
regime. 

**  The  Government  of  the  Queen  can  admit  up  to  the  present 
no  other  duty  than  that  which  is  imposed  upon  it  by  the  laws 
of  the  realm,  and  the  national  traditions. 

"If,  therefore,  the  constituent  laws  of  the  Kingdom  are 
based  upon  the  principle  of  a  universally  recognised  right,  if  the 
expression  of  the  secular  tradition  has  made  of  that  country 
from  all  times  a  land  of  refuge  for  the  vanquished  in  inter- 
national conflicts,  the  Government  of  the  Queen  cannot  defer  to 
the  desire  of  the  Powers  by  withdrawing  from  the  ex-Emperor 
the  benefits  of  its  laws  and  its  traditions.  The  rights  and  the 
honour  of  the  nation,  respect  for  which  is  a  sacred  duty,  are 
opposed  to  such  a  course.  The  people  of  the  Netherlands  cannot 
betray  the  confidence  of  those  who  trusted  themselves  to  their 
free  institutions. 

"  The  Government  of  the  Queen  is  ready  to  beUeve  that  the 
Powers  recognise  the  justice  of  these  considerations,  which  rise 
above  all  personal  pressure,  and  which  seem  to  it  so  decisive 
that  they  ought  not  reasonably  to  give  occasion  to  any  erroneous 
interpretations. ' ' 

The  Dutch  refusal  to  deliver  up  the  ex-Eaiser  was  considered 
very  fully  by  the  meeting  of  the  Allied  Peace  Conference  which 
was  held  in  London  in  February.  After  much  discussion  a 
further  note  was  sent  to  the  Netherlands  Government  on 
February  14.  The  note  suggested  that  in  his  present  situation 
the  ex-Eaiser  remained  a  danger  to  Europe,  and  indicated  that 
by  the  action  it  was  taking  the  Dutch  Government  was  placing 
the  Netherlands  outside  the  comity  of  nations.  It  was  also 
suggested  that  the  peace  of  the  world  would  be  more  secure  if 
the  Kaiser  were  transported  to  some  more  distant  part  of  the 
Dutch  dominions.  The  reply  of  the  Netherlands  Government 
to  this  second  note  said  that  the  decision  of  the  Government  of 
the  Queen  which  had  already  been  given  could  not  be  varied. 
But  the  note  went  on  to  say  that  the  Government  were  alive  to 
their  duties  in  connexion  with  the  presence  of  the  ex-Kaiser  in 


1930.]  T}ie  Netherlahds. .  [257 

Holland.  And  it  was  stated  that  ever^  precaution  would  be 
taken  and  that  the  liberty  of  the  ex-Eaiser  would  be  subjected 
to  the  necessary  limitations. 

In  March  the  Prime  Minister  made  a  statement  in  Parliament 
in  regard  to  the  question  of  the  ex-Kaiser.  He  said  that  the 
ex-Eaiser  had  given  him  an  undertaking  to  refrain  from  all 
political  action  and  to  avoid  compromising  the  Netherlands 
Government. 

In  March  Holland  formally  accepted  the  invitation  which 
she  had  received  to  join  the  League  of  Nations. 

In  June  the  country  experienced  further  trouble  from  the 
extreme  Labour  movement,  which  had  been  active  during  the 
previous  few  years.  Strikes  were  declared  in  Amsterdam, 
Rotterdam,  and  The  Hague,  chiefly  by  way  of  protest  against 
measures  taken  by  the  Government  to  suppress  revolutionary 
disturbances.  The  strikes  obtained  only  partial  support  from 
the  working  classes,  and  failed  within  a  few  days. 

During  the  year  the  Government  appointed  a  Boyal  Com- 
mission to  consider  amendments  in  the  Constitution,  particularly 
in  relation  to  the  Monarchy.  The  Beport  of  the  Boyal  Com- 
mission was  issued  towards  the  end  of  the  year.  The  Beport 
stated  that  in  the  opinion  of  the  Commission  the  Monarchic 
Begime  had  been  a  blessing;  to  the  Netherlands,  and  that  it 
would  continue  to  be  so  as  long  as  a  truly  national  monarchy 
was  possible.  The  Commission  held,  however,  that  the  existing 
provisions  for  succession  to  the  throne  were  too  wide,  and  might 
result  in  persons  coming  to  the  throne,  about  whom  there  was 
a  doubt  of  their  understanding  the  Dutch  people's  national 
feelings.  The  Commission  therefore  proposed  that  the  para- 
graphs in  the  Constitution  whereby  persons  other  than  de- 
scendants of  the  present  reigning  Queen  could  be  called  to  the 
throne  should  be  deleted.  And  it  was  proposed  that  in  case 
male  descendants  of  males  were  lacking,  to  limit  the  succession 
to  the  second  generation  of  the  late  King,  William  IH.  Since 
it  would  then  be  possible  that  under  these  revised  laws  a  legal 
successor  to  the  throne  might  be  altogether  lacking,  it  was 
proposed  to  abolish  the  Constitutional  obligation  to  select  a 
sovereign,  and  to  leave  open  the  possibility  of  adopting  another 
form  of  government  for  the  Netherlands.  The  Commission  also 
proposed  that  the  power  to  make  treaties  with  foreign  Powers 
and  to  declare  war  which  the  present  Dutch  Constitution  gave 
to  the  sovereign  should  be  revised,  and  that  in  future  no  treaties 
should  be  concluded,  nor  should  war  be  declared,  without  the 
previous  sanction  of  both  Houses  of  Parliament.  The  Com- 
mission also  proposed  that  the  principle  of  Woman  Sufi&age 
should  be  emoodied  in  the  Constitution. 

SWITZERLAND. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  year  Swiss  statesmen,  under  the 
leadership  of  the  new  President,  M.  Motta,  were  considering 

B 


258]         FOEEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTOEY.         [1920. 

very  carefully  the  entry  of  Switzerland  into  the  League  of 
Nations.  The  adhesion  of  Switzerland  to  the  League  of  Nations 
was  not  so  simple  a  matter  as  the  entry  of  the  Netherlands  and 
the  Scandinavian  coimtries.  The  perpetual  neutrality  of  Swiss 
territory  was  a  principle  which  the  Swiss  regarded  as  their 
historic  destiny,  and  was  engrained  in  all  the  political  traditions 
of  the  country.  Although,  on  the  face  of.  the  matter,  unqualified 
neutrality  was  inconsistent  with  membership  of  the  League  of 
Nations,  the  Swiss  Parliament  decided  at  the  end  of  1919  to 
join  the  League  only  if  their  military  neutrality  were  recognised 
by  the  League  on  the  ground  that  it  was  quite  an  exceptional 
case,  and  unlike  any  other  neutrality  in  the  history  of  Europe. 
The  Swiss  statesmen  knew  that  the  project  of  joining  the 
League  would  never  be  approved  by  the  plebiscite,  which  was 
constitutionally  necessary,  unless  it  was  possible  for  Switzerland 
to  join  with  this  important  reservation.  There  was  also  a  much 
less  important  difficulty  regarding  the  adhesion  of  Switzerland 
as  an  ''original  member"  of  the  League,  namely,  that  it  was 
hardly  practicable  to  hold  the  plebiscite  within  the  time  limit 
laid  down  by  the  Treaty  of  Versailles.  At  the  beginning  of 
January  a  Swiss  delegation,  including  M.  Ador,  the  ex-President 
of  the  Confederation,  proceeded  to  Paris  to  place  the  views  of 
the  Swiss  Government  upon  these  questions  before  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Powers  represented  on  the  Council  of  the 
League  of  Nations.  The  matter  was  considered  in  full  at  a 
meeting  of  the  Council  of  the  League  of  Nations  held  in  London 
on  February  13.  Mr.  Arthur  Balfour  presided  at  this  meeting. 
The  following  resolution,  which  explains  itself,  was  adopted  by 
the  Council : — 

"  The  Council  of  the  League  of  Nations,  while  affirming 
that  the  conception  of  neutraUtjr  of  the  members  of  the  League 
is  incompatible  with  the  principle  that  all  members  will  be 
obliged  to  co-operate  in  enforcing  respect  for  their  engagements, 
recognises  that  Switzerland  is  in  a  unique  situation,  based  on 
a  tradition  of  several  centuries  which  has  been  explicitly  in- 
corporated in  the  Law  of  Nations,  and  that  the  members  of 
the  League  of  Nations,  signatories  of  the  Treaty  of  Versailles, 
have  rightly  recognised  by  Article  435  that  the  guarantees 
stipulated  in  favour  of  Switzerland  by  the  Treaties  of  1815, 
and  especially  by  the  Act  of  November  20,  1815,  constitute 
international  obligations  for  the  maintenance  of  peace. 

''The  members  of  the  League  of  Nations  are  entitled  to 
expect  that  the  Swiss  people  will  not  stand  aside  when  the  high 
pnnciples  of  the  Lea^e  have  to  be  defended.  It  is  in  this 
sense  that  the  Council  of  the  League  has  taken  note  of  the 
declaration  made  by  the  Swiss  Government  in  its  message  to 
the  Federal  Assembly  of  August  4, 1919,  and  in  its  Memorandum 
of  January  13,  1920,  which  declarations  have  been  confivmed 
by  the  Swiss  delegates  at  the  meeting  of  the  Council,  and  in 
accordance  with  which  Switzerland  recognises  and  proclaims 


1920.]  Sfvitzerland.  [269 

the  duties  of  solidarity  which  membership  of  the  League  of 
Nations  imposes  upon  her,  including  therein  the  duty  of  co- 
operating in  such  commercial  and  financial  measures  as  may 
be  demanded  by  the  League  of  Nations  against  a  Covenant- 
breaking  State,  and  is  prepared  to  make  every  sacrifice  to  de- 
fend her  own  territory  under  every  circumstance,  even  during 
operations  undertaken  by  the  League  of  Nations,  but  will  not 
be  obliged  to  take  part  in  any  military  action  or  to  allow  the 
passage  of  f  orei^  troops  or  the  preparation  of  military  operations 
within  her  temtory. 

"Li  accepting  these  declarations  the  Council  recognises  that 
the  perpetual  neutrality  of  Switzerland  and  the  guarantee  of  the 
inviolability  of  her  territory  as  incorporated  in  the  Law  of 
Nations,  particularly  in  the  Treaties  and  in  the  Act  of  1815,  are 
justified  by  the  interests  of  general  peace,  and  as  such  are  com- 
patible with  the  Covenant. 

''In  view  of  the  special  character  of  the  constitution  of  the 
Swiss  Confederation,  the  Council  of  the  League  of  Nations  is  of 
opinion  that  the  notification  of  the  Swiss  declaration  of  ac- 
cession to  the  League,  based  on  the  declaration  of  the  Federal 
Assembly,  and  to  be  carried  out  within  two  months  from 
January  10,  1920  (the  date  of  the  coming  into  force  of  the 
Covenant  of  the  League  of  Nations),  can  be  accepted  by  the 
other  members  of  the  League  as  the  declaration  re<juired  by 
Article  1  for  admission  as  an  original  member,  provided  that 
confirmation  of  this  declaration  by  the  Swiss  people  and  Cantons 
be  effected  in  the  shortest  possible  time." 

It  will  be  observed  that  although  Switzerland  was  not  pre- 
pared to  abandon  her  military  neutrality,  even  in  respect  of  the 
passage  of  troops  of  the  League  of  Nations,  she  was  prepared 
to  abandon  her  economic  neutrality.  The  Swiss  Government 
expressed  themselves  as  entirely  satisfied  with  the  resolution 
passed  by  the  Council  in  London,  and  the  proposal  which  had 
originally  found  favour  among  the  Swiss,  that  Switzerland 
should  delay  her  adhesion  to  the  League  imtil  the  United  States 
of  America  had  joined,  was  abandoned.  At  the  beginning  of 
March  both  Houses  of  Parliament  passed  by  large  majorities 
the  resolution  declaring  the  adhesion  of  Switzerland  to  the 
League,  only  the  Socialist  Party  opposing  the  resolution.  The 
Government  were  therefore  able  to  announce  the  accession  of 
Switzerland  within  the  two  months  prescribed  for  original 
members  by  the  Treaty  of  Versailles,  although  in  the  case  of 
Switzerland  the  accession  was  subject  to  the  approval  of  a 
plebiscite.  The  referendum  was  held  in  May,  and  resulted  in 
a  small  majority  in  favour  of  the  project.  About  700,000  votes 
were  cast,  slightly  over  400,000  being  in  favour  of  joining  the 
League.  A  majority  of  Cantons  was  also  constitutionaUy 
necessary  and  this  majority  was  obtained,  though  only  by  a 
very  narrow  margin,  since  ten  Cantons  voted  against  the 
project. 

b2 


260]         FOEEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTORY.         [1920. 

In  December,  when  M.  Motta's  tenn  of  office  came  to  an 
end,  the  Legislature  elected  M.  Edmund  Schulthess  President 
of  the  Swiss  Confederation.  M.  Schulthess  had  been  President 
in  1917. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  during  1919  the  small  Austrian 
province  of  Vorarlberg  had  declared  by  plebiscite  its  desire  to 
be  united  to  Switzerland.  The  union  was,  however,  forbidden 
by  the  Supreme  Council  of  the  Allies.  During  the  meeting  of 
the  League  of  Nations  Assembly  at  Geneva  in  November,  M. 
Motta  made  an  important  reference  to  this  question.  He  said 
that  Switzerland  did  not  desire  to  add  in  any  way  to  the  diffi- 
culties under  which  Austria  was  labouring,  but  when  Austria 
was  admitted  to  the  League — which  he  hoped  would  be  very 
shortly — he  trusted  that  the  Austrian  Government  and  the 
League  of  Nations  would  assure  to  the  people  of  Vorarlberg 
the  right  to  decide  their  own  destiny.  It  appeared,  therefore, 
from  this  declaration  of  the  President  that  Switzerland  would 
probably  be  willing  to  admit  Vorarlberg  to  the  Confederation 
as  a  new  Caiuton. 

• 

LIECHTENSTEIN. 

During  the  year  further  steps  were  taken  to  place  the  prin- 
cipality of  Liechtenstein  in  the  relationship  to  Switzerland  that 
it  had  formerly  held  towards  Austria-Hungary.  Liechtenstein 
was  united  to  Switzerland  for  postal  and  telegraphic  purposes. 
In  December  Liechtenstein  applied  to  be  admitted  as  a  member 
of  the  League  of  Nations,  but  ihe  meeting  of  the  Assembly  of 
the  League  at  Geneva  decided  that  the  country  was  too  small 
to  be  given  independent  representation ;  and  it  was  therefore 
proposed  that  Switzerland  should  represent  Liechtenstein  in  the 
Assembly  of  the  League. 

SPAIN. 

During  1919  Spain  suffered  from  constant  changes  of  Govern- 
ment, but  in  December  of  that  year  Senor  Allende  Salazar 
became  head  of  a  Coalition  Government.  The  first  object  of 
the  new  Cabinet  was  to  pass  the  Budget,  which  was  long 
overdue.  During  the  first  three  months  of  the  year  Senor 
Salazar  succeeded  in  piloting  the  Budget  through  both  Houses 
of  Parliament,  and  since  the  purpose  of  the  Coalition  Ministry 
was  thus  fulfilled,  the  Premier  resigned  office  in  April. 

King  Alfonso  then  asked  Senor  Dato,  the  well-known  Con- 
servative leader,  to  form  a  Cabinet.  Senor  Dato's  Government 
was  of  a  moderate  Conservative  complexion,  and  included 
Marquess  Lema  as  Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs,  and  Senor  D. 
Pascual  as  Minister  of  Finance.  Senor  Dato's  programme  was 
of  an  ambitious  character  both  in  foreign  and  domestic  politics. 
The  new  Prime  Minister  stated  that  he  hoped  to  introduce 


1920.]  Spain.  [261 

a  far-reaching  scheme  of  development  in  the  Spanish  zone  in 
Morocco ;  and  in  domestic  affairs  he  intended  to  introduce 
measures  to  establish  a  system  of  working-class  insurance 
against  sickness,  accidents,  and  unemployment.  The  housing 
problem  and  the  agricultural  problem  were  also  to  be  dealt 
with.  Senor  Dato  also  hoped  to  render  the  Navy  and  the 
Army  more  efficient. 

During  the  sunmier  there  were  Labour  troubles  at  Barcelona, 
Saragossa,  Bilbao,  and  elsewhere ;  but  the  agitation  in  Cata- 
lonia was  less  serious  than  in  former  years. 

During  July  the  King  and  Queen  of  Spain  visited  England. 

Senor  Dato  remained  in  power  up  to  the  end  of  the  year. 
A  General  Election  was  held  m  December,  but  the  exact  results 
were  not  known  at  the  end  of  the  year. 

PORTUGAL. 

During  the  year  Portugal  suffered  from  chronic  unrest, 
political,  social,  and  economic.  It  will  be  remembered  that 
Dr.  d' Almeida  had  been  elected  President  in  August,  1919.  In 
January  there  was  a  reconstruction  of  Senhor  D.  Pereira's 
Government,  and  Senhor  M.  Barreto  became  Foreign  Minister, 
in  place  of  Senhor  Z.  Silva.  This  Cabinet  remained  in  power 
until  the  beginning  of  March,  but  then  resigned  owing  to  diffi- 
culties occasioned  by  general  strikes  on  the  railways.  On 
March  6  Senhor  M.  Silva  formed  a  Cabinet,  but  immediately 
resigned  and  was  followed  by  Senhor  A.  de  Castro,  who  also 
remained  in  power  for  only  about  twenty-four  hours.  After  the 
lapse  of  a  few  days  Colonel  A.  M.  Baptista  formed  a  Cabinet, 
with  Senhor  Z.  Silva  again  Minister  for  Foreign  Affiairs.  On 
June  6  Colonel  Baptista  died  suddenly,  and  Dr.  Preto,  who 
had  been  Minister  of  Justice,  then  became  Premier.  Before  the 
end  of  June  Dr.  Preto  resigned  and  was  succeeded  by  Senhor 
A.  M.  Silva.  Senhor  F.  A  Correia  was  the  new  Minister  for 
Foreign  Affiairs.  The  new  Government  presented  their  pro- 
gramme to  Parliament,  which  was  approved  by  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies,  but  was  defeated  in  the  Senate.  The  Government 
then  resigned  and  in  July  Senhor  A.  Granja  became  Premier. 
Senhor  M.  Barreto  became  Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs. 
Senhor  Granja's  term  of  office  was  less  brief  than  that  of  his 
immediate  predecessors.  He  was  Premier  for  four  months, 
and  during  that  time  the  Government  passed  certain  useful 
agrarian  measures,  and  instituted  reforms  in  the  colonial  ad- 
ministrations. In  the  autumn  Senhor  Granja  proposed  to 
issue  an  amnesty  to  the  numerous  Bovalist  rebels  who  had 
been  languishing  in  prison  since  the  reoellion  of  the  previous 
year — most  of  them  never  having  been  tried.  The  Cabinet 
appears  to  have  retained  the  confidence  of  the  Legislature,  but 
in  November  Senhor  Granja  suddenly  retired,  being  apparently 
in  doubt  as  to  whether  the  proposed  amnesty  would  be  tolerated 
by  the  Republican  organisations.    During  the  next  few  weeks 


262]         FOEEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTOKY.         [i92a 

there  were  constant  changes  of  Government,  Senhor  A.  de 
Castro,  General  A.  Hipolito,  and  Senhor  L.  Pinto  being  Premier 
in  succession. 

DENMARK  AND  ICELAND. 

At  the  beginning  of  1920  Mr.  Zahle's  Badical  Government 
were  still  in  power,  though  their  position  was  somewhat  in- 
secure. It  will  be  remembered  that  at  the  General  Election 
of  1918  the  Badical  and  Socialist  parties  had  secured  a  joint 
majority  in  the  Lower,  though  not  in  the  Upper,  House.  Mr. 
Zahle's  plans  were  therefore  liable  to  be  thwarted  by  the 
Landsting,  and  were  so  thwarted  on  more  than  one  occasion  in 
1919.  The  chief  attention  of  the  country  was,  however,  directed 
towards  the  question  of  Schleswig,  rather  than  towards  any 
problem  of  internal  politics.  It  will  be  remembered  that  in  the 
ori^nal  draft  of  the  Treaty  of  Versailles,  Schleswig  had  been 
divided  into  three  zones — northern,  middle,  and  southern — ^in 
all  of  which  plebiscites  were  to  be  held  to  decide  whether  the 
several  zones  should  be  Danish  or  German.  At  the  express 
wish  of  the  Danish  Government,  however,  the  third  (southern) 
zone  had  been  subsequently  excluded  from  the  scheme  altogether, 
since  it  wa&  now  thoroughly  Germanised,  and  had,  indeed,  been 
largely  Germanised  even  before  1864.  The  two  other  plebis- 
cites were,  however,  to  be  held  as  soon  as  the  Treaty  of  Peace 
had  duly  come  into  force.  After  the  final  ratification  of  the 
treaty  in  Paris  on  January  10,  no  time  was  lost  in  making 
preparations  for  the  polls.  Sir  Gha.rles  Marling  was  appointed 
President  of  the  Commission,  which  was  to  superintend  the 
polling,  the  German  troops  were  duly  withdrawn  from  the  two 
areas  concerned,  the  International  troops  of  occupation  arrived 
on  January  25,  and  the  plebiscite  in  the  first  (northern)  zone 
was  fixed  for  February  10. 

The  southern  border  of  the  first  zone  ran  across  the  country 
from  a  point  south  of  Tondem  to  the  north  of  Flensburg.  The 
population  of  the  first  zone  was  in  the  main  Danish  speaking ;  and 
it  was  foreseen  that  it  would  vote  by  a  large  majority  for  reunion 
with  Denmark.  The  second  zone  was  smaller  than  the  first,  but 
was  nevertheless  of  great  importance  because  it  included  the  port 
of  Flensburg,  a  town  with  a  population  of  over  70,000  persons, 
which,  if  it  were  reunited  to  Denmark,  would  be  the  second 
city  of  that  country.  The  voting  in  the  first  zone  took  place  on 
February  10,  as  arranged.  The  total  nimiber  of  persons  en- 
titled to  vote  was  111,191.  The  total  of  the  votes  cast  for 
Denmark  was  75,431,  and  the  total  of  the  votes  cast  for 
Germany  was  25,329.  It  will  be  noted  that  a  very  high  per- 
centage of  the  voters  went  to  the  poll.  The  result  was  naturally 
greeted  with  great  enthusiasm  in  Denmark. 

There  was  great  excitement  both  in  Denmark  and  in  Flens- 
burg when  the  date  of  the  polling  in  the  second  zone  approached. 


1920.]  Denmark,  [263 

The  plebiscite  was  fixed  for  March  14.  From  a  linguistic  point 
of  view  the  second  zone  was  very  mixed.  A  large  proportion 
of  the  population  had  come  to  speak  German  during  the  many 
years  which  the  district  had  been  associated,  first  with  the  German 
State  of  Holstein,  and  then  with  the  HohenzoUem  Empire. 
Another  large  section  still  spoke  Danish.  And  the  people  of  a 
third  considerable  district  along  the  North  Sea  coast  spoke  neither 
Danish  nor  German  but  Frisian.  The  second  zone  also  included 
the  Frisian  Islands  of  Sylt,  Fohr,  and  Amrum. 

In  the  result,  the  second  zone  voted  German  by  a  large 
majority.  The  figures  were  51,820  votes  for  Germany,  and 
12,793  votes  for  Denmark.  In  the  town  of  Flensburg  itself 
about  27,000  votes  were  cast  for  Germany  and  about  9,000  for 
Denmark.  The  majority  in  favour  of  Germany  was  larger  than 
the  most  pessimistic  Danes  had  anticipated.  And  although  the 
wishes  of  the  majority  of  the  existing  inhabitants  of  the  territory 
were  thus  made  plain,  it  was  impossible  for  foreigners  not  to 
feel  some  sympathy  with  Denmark,  since  not  only  this  second 
zone,  but  the  whole  of  Schleswig  (as  distinct  from  Holstein)  was 
historically  Danish. 

The  result  of  the  poll  in  the  second  zone  was  one  of  the  con- 
tributory causes  which  led  to  the  remarkable  political  crisis 
which  occurred  at  the  end  of  March.  So  soon  as  the  result  of 
the  second  plebiscite  was  known,  the  Danes  in  Flensburg,  sup- 
ported by  the  Conservatives  in  Denmark,  and  to  a  lesser  extent 
by  the  Ihuiish  Liberals,  began  to  attack  the  Danish  Government 
for  what  they  held  to  be  the  mismanagement  of  the  Schlesveig 
question  by  Mr.  Zahle's  Ministry.  And  the  Flensburg  Danes 
began  to  agitate  for  the  internationalization  of  the  second  zone. 
A  deputation,  headed  by  a  certain  Mr.  Christiansen,  proceeded 
from  Flensburg  to  Copenhagen  and  sought  interviews  with  the 
Ein^  and  with  the  leaders  of  the  Liberal  Party,  and  incidentally 
earned  out  hostile  demonstrations  outside  the  Prime  Minister's 
house.  As  already  explained  the  Government  had  a  very  small 
majority  in  the  Lower  House,  and  it  appears  that  after  the  loss 
of  the  second  zone  a  few  of  their  supporters  were  reported  to 
have  defected  to  the  Opposition.  The  Liberal  and  Conservative 
Leaders  appear  to  have  had  access  to  the  Sovereign,  and  it  was 
reported  that  the  King  himself  had  strongly  sympathised  with 
the  movement  to  incorporate  Flensburg  in  Denmark,  whether 
by  including  the  port  in  the  first  zone  or  otherwise.  However 
that  may  have  been,  on  March  29  the  King  dismissed  Mr. 
Zahle  from  office,  on  the  ground  that  he  no  longer  possessed 
the  confidence  of  the  Bigsdag.  This  action  on  the  part  of  the 
King  created  an  uproar  in  the  country,  and  the  Badicals  and 
Socialists  declared  loudly  that  the  King's  action  was  unconsti- 
tutional. The  Badicals  abused  what  they  called  ''  the  Court 
Camarilla,"  and  the  Socialists  blamed  the  King  himself  and 
declared  for  a  Bepublic.  The  Socialists  also  declared  that  unless 
Mr.  Zahle  was  immediately  recalled  a  general  strike  would  be 


264]         FOEEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTORY.         [1920. 

proclaimed.  On  the  other  hand,  the  King  had  the  support  of 
the  Conservative  and  Liberal  parties,  and  he  made  his  position 
plain  by  asking  Mr.  0.  Liebe  to  form  a  non-political  Cabinet, 
with  the  object  of  canning  on  the  business  of  the  country,  while 
a  new  Folketing  was  being  elected. 

The  SociaUsts  declared  a  strike ;  and  the  strike  actually 
commenced  in  Copenhagen  and  elsewhere  at  the  beginning  of 
April.  In  the  meantime,  however,  prominent  persons  in  the 
Liberal  and  Radical  parties  worked  for  a  compromise,  and  the 
ardour  of  the  SociaUsts  cooled  when  they  found  that  the  nation 
as  a  whole  was  by  no  means  with  them  on  the  question  of  a 
strike.  The  strike  lasted  for  only  a  few  days,  and  on  April  5 
a  second  non-party  Cabinet  was  formed  by  Mr.  Friis.  The 
strike,  which  had  never  become  general,  was  cancelled,  and  it 
was  agreed  that  the  Folketing  should  be  dissolved,  but  that  an 
electoral  Reform  Bill  should  be  passed  before  the  General 
Election  was  held.  The  crisis  was  thus  settled,  and  the  result 
had  very  largely  justified  the  King's  action. 

The  electoral  Reform  Bill  was  rapidly  passed  by  both  Houses 
of  Parliament,  and  the  General  Election  was  held  on  April  26. 
The  election  resulted  in  a  great  victory  for  the  Liberal  and 
Conservative  Parties,  who  secured  81  seats  between  them. 
The  Radical  supporters  of  Mr.  Zahle  were  routed  and  won 
only  17  seats.  The  Socialists,  however,  were  still  powerful 
and  won  42  seats.  The  Right  obtained  altogether  about 
580,000  votes,  as  against  about  430,000  votes  given  to  the  Left. 
The  King  then  sent  for  the  leader  of  the  Liberal  Party,  Mr. 
Neergaard,  and  that  statesman  succeeded  in  forming  a  Cabinet 
with  Mr.  Scavenius  as  Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs. 

At  the  end  of  April  Sir  Charles  Marling  and  the  International 
Commission  left  Schleswig  and  proceeded  to  Paris  to  make  their 
report  to  the  Supreme  Council.  Sir  Charles  Marling  and  the 
majority  of  the  Commission  j>roposed  that,  with  perhaps  trifling 
modifications,  the  future  frontier  between  Denmark  and  Germany 
should  be  the  boundary  between  the  first  and  second  zones. 
The  French  member  of  the  Commission  appears  to  have  sug- 
gested that  a  portion  of  the  second  zone  (on  the  mainland) 
should  be  given  to  Denmark.  The  former  proposal  was  adopted 
by  the  Supreme  Council.  There  appears  to  have  been  Uttle  to 
recommend  the  French  suggestion ;  but  a  criticism  which  was 
made  in  more  than  one  unofficial  quarter,  that  the  Frisian 
island  of  Sylt  ought  to  have  been  included  in  the  first,  instead 
of  in  the  second  zone,  had  much  reason  in  it.  Danish  troops 
entered  the  first  zone  at  the  beginning  of  May,  and  the  Inter- 
national troops  left  the  second  zone  in  June.  The  German 
troops  then  re-entered  Flensburg.  After  he  came  into  office, 
Mr.  Neergaard  made  it  clear  that  he  could  not  support  the 
agitation  of  the  extreme  Danish  Nationalists ;  but  he  was  ready 
to  endeavour  to  obtain  guarantees  for  the  just  treatment  of  the 
Danish  minority  in  Middle  Schleswig.     The  Liberal  Govern- 


1920.]  Denmark.  [265 

ment  did  not  attempt  to  induce  the  Powers  to  internationalise 
the  second  zone.  A  treaty  between  the  Principal  Allied  Powers 
(Great  Britain,  France,  Italy,  and  Japan)  and  Denmark  was 
drawn  up,  the  agreement  being  necessary  for  the  transfer  of 
Northern  Schleswig  to  Denmark.  The  treaty  was  duly  signed 
in  Paris  on  July  5.  At  about  the  same  time  a  ''  North  Schleswig 
Beunion  Act''  was  passed  through  the  Danish  ParUament  and 
was  signed  by  the  King  on  July  9.  The  King  then  made  a  royal 
progress  through  the  towns  and  villages  of  Northern  Schleswig, 
and  was  received  everywhere  with  great  enthusiasm.  The 
German  minority  in  the  le-annexed  district  appear  to  have 
accepted  the  decision  with  a  good  grace.  And  the  Danish 
Government  on  their  side  immediately  passed  legislation  pro- 
viding that  the  German  peasantry  should  be  able  to  have  their 
children  educated  in  the  German  language  in  special  schools. 
Indeed  the  conciUatory  attitude  adopted  by  both  sides  was  an 
example  to  the  many  other  districts  of  Europe  where  less  happy 
conditions  prevailed. 

After  the  Bill  incorporating  Northern  Schleswig  had  been 
pissed  by  the  Bigsdag,  Parliament  was  immediately  dissolved 
m  order  to  give  the  people  an  opportunity  of  expressing  their 
opinion  on  the  measures  which  had  been  approved.  The  second 
General  Election  was  held  on  July  6  for  the  Folketing  and  on 
July  30  for  the  Landsting.  In  the  Folketing  the  Conservatives 
and  Liberals  won  82  seats  and  the  Badicals  and  Socialists  58. 
The  total  of  the  votes  cast  for  the  Liberals  and  Conservatives 
amounted  to  about  550,000,  and  the  total  cast  for  the  Badicals  and 
Socialists  was  about  395,000.  The  elections  for  the  Landsting 
resulted  in  a  further  strengthening  of  the  Liberal  position  in  the 
Upper  House. 

The  Bill  incorporating  the  territory  was  passed  by  the  new 
Parliament  and  was  then  finally  submitted  to  a  plebiscite  at 
the  beginning  of  September.  The  Plebiscite  resulted  in  the 
Bill  being  approved  by  616,994  votes  to  13,975.  Parliament 
was  then  again  dissolved,  and  a  third  General  Election  was 
held,  this  time  including  North  Schleswig.  The  restored 
territory  returned  9  members  to  the  Lower  House  and  4  to 
the  Upper  House.  The  total  results  for  the  Folketing  were 
as  follows :  Bight  82  (Liberals  52,  and  Conservatives  30) ;  Left 
66  (Badicals  18,  and  Socialists  48);  Schleswig  Germans,  1. 
There  was  a  large  increase  in  the  Socialist  poll,  quite  apart 
from  the  inclusion  of  North  Schleswig.  In  the  elections  for 
the  Landsting,  which  were  concluded  at  the  beginning  of 
October,  the  Bight  won  46  seats  and  the  Left  30. 

Parliament  was  opened  on  October  5,  and  the  King  made  a 
speech  welcoming  the  Schleswig  members  after  the  fifty-six  years 
of  separation,  and  expressing  ms  gratitude  to  the  Allied  Powers 
whose  victory  had  made  the  reunion  possible. 

In  December  the  formal  ratifications  of  the  Schleswig  Treaty 
were  duly  deposited  in  Paris  by  the  representatives  of  Great 
Britain,  France,  Italy,  Japan,  and  Denmark. 


266]         FOEEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTORY.         [1920. 

By  the  re-annexation  of  Northern  Schleswig,  Denmark  be- 
came liable  for  a  certain  small  proportion  of  German  public 
debts ;  namely  (1)  a  portion  of  the  debt  of  the  German 
Empire  as  it  existed  on  August  1,  1914 ;  (2)  a  portion  of  the 
debt  of  Prussia  (of  which  state  Schleswig-Holstein  was  of  course 
a  province)  as  it  existed  on  August  1,  1914 ;  and  (3)  the  value 
of  the  public  property  in  the  ceded  district  belonging  to  Germany 
or  to  Prussia.  The  Allied  Beparations  Commission  made  a 
valuation  of  the  several  liabilities,  and  fixed  the  simi  at 
3,250,000Z.  At  the  end  of  the  year  the  Danish  Government 
paid  over  this  sum  to  the  Beparations  Commission,  and  it  was 
duly  credited  to  the  German  Government. 

Denmark  duly  accepted  the  invitation  to  join  the  League  of 
Nations,  and  sent  six  delegates  to  the  meeting  of  the  Assembly 
at  Geneva. 

During  the  year  further  steps  were  taken  to  give  Iceland 
complete  administrative  independence  of  Denmark.  The 
Damsh  Ministry  for  Iceland  was  abolished,  and  in  its  place  an 
Icelandic  Legation  was  established  in  Copenhagen. 

SWEDEN. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  year  Mr.  Eden's  Liberal  Government 
was  still  in  power  and  still  continued  to  possess  the  support  of 
the  Sociahst  members  of  Parliament.  The  chief  issue  before 
the  country  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  was  the  question  as 
to  whether  Sweden  should  join  the  newly  formed  League  of 
Nations.  At  the  beginning  of  the  year  a  Conference  of  the 
three  Scandinavian  Governments  was  held  at  Christiania,  and 
the  Scandinavians  decided  upon  a  uniform  policy  in  regard  to 
the  League.  It  was  decided  that  the  invitation  to  join  the 
League  should  be  accepted.  Accordingly  towards  the  end  of 
February  the  Prime  Minister  introduced  into  the  Bikstag  a  Bill 
to  enable  Sweden  to  join  the  League.  Mr.  Eden  in  recommend- 
ing the  Bill  to  the  Lower  House  said  that  even  an  incomplete 
League  such  as  that  which  had  just  come  into  existence  was  a 
highly  desirable  development  and  had  a  great  mission  to  fulfil. 
The  Bill  was  opposed  by  the  Conservatives  on  the  ground  that 
a  League  was  useless  unless  it  included  all  civilised  nations ;  and 
the  Opposition  also  urged  that  the  present  League  was  a  mere 
continuation  of  the  War  Alliance,  which  Sweden  had  rightly 
refused  to  join.  The  reader  will  remember  that  the  Conserva- 
tives had  shown  pronounced  Germanophil  sympathies  during 
the  war.  Notwithstanding  the  opposition  of  the  Conservatives 
the  Bill  was  passed  by  a  large  majority. 

At  the  beginning  of  March,  friction  arose  between  the 
Liberals  and  Socialists,  and  Mr.  Eden  resigned  ofiice.  In 
Sweden,  as  in  so  many  other  countries  of  Europe,  the  Socialists 
had  split  since  the  Bussian  Bevolution  into  two  very  distinct 
groups,  who  now  in  truth  possessed  little  or  nothing  in  common. 


1920.]  Sweden.  [267 

The  first  ^oup,  that  of  the  Moderate  Socialists,  was  in  Sweden — 
as  again  m  most  countries  of  Europe — much  the  larger  of  the 
two  ^oups.  These  Moderate  Socialists  carried  on  the  old 
traditions  of  Social  Democracy,  with  perhaps  a  further  modera- 
tion of  the  more  extreme  tenets.  The  other  ^roup  was  entirely 
new  and  consisted  of  extreme  Communists  m  sympathy  with 
Russian  Bolshevism.  The  leader  of  the  Moderate  Socialists  was 
Mr.  Branting,  a  statesman  with  a  European  reputation.  In  the 
crisis  which  had  now  arisen,  the  King  found  that  neither  Mr. 
Eden  nor  any  other  Liberal  statesman  was  able  to  form  a  Cabinet, 
and  he  therefore  asked  Mr.  Branting  to  attempt  that  task.  Mr. 
Branting  succeeded  in  forming  a  Government,  which  included 
Baron  Palmstiema  as  Foreign  Minister  and  Mr.  Thorsson  as 
Minister  of  Finance. 

During  April  the  King  of  Sweden  visited  London. 

During  September  a  General  Election  was  held.  The 
results  were  favourable  to  the  Conservatives.  The  Conserva- 
tives and  the  Agrarians  together  won  98  seats;  the  Liberals 
won  50  seats  and  the  Moderate  Socialists  won  77  seats.  The 
Bolsheviks  won  only  5  seats. 

The  increase  in  the  Conservative  strength  made  it  impossible 
for  the  Socialists  to  carry  on  the  Government.  It  was  equally 
impossible  for  any  one  Party  to  form  a  Ministry.  The  King 
therefore  asked  Baron  L.  de  Geer  to  form  a  non-political 
Cabinet.  Baron  de  Geer  chose  the  Ministers  chiefly  from 
among  persons  outside  Parliament,  and  the  new  Foreign 
Minister  was  Count  Wrangel,  lately  Minister  in  London. 

As  described  elsewhere  (see  Finland)  there  was  a  sharp  con- 
troversy between  Sweden  and  Finland  over  the  question  of  the 
Aaland  Islands.  The  matter  was  brought  before  the  League  of 
Nations  in  London  and  Mr.  Branting  himself  went  to  London 
to  state  the  Swedish  case.  The  Swedes  claimed  that  the 
Aalanders'    right  of  self-determination  was  an  international 

Siestion.  The  Finns  claimed  that  the  problem  was  one  within 
e  domestic  jurisdiction  of  Finland.  The  Council  of  the 
League  decided  to  submit  this  preliminary  contention  to  a 
small  Committee  of  International  Jurists.  Three  International 
Jurists  were  appointed,  namely,  M.  Lamaude  (French),  Herr 
Huber  (Swiss),  and  Mr.  Steruycken  (Dutch).  This  Commission 
of  Jurists  decided  the  initial  question  in  favour  of  the  Swedes 
and  Aalanders,  and  reported  that  the  question  was  essentially 
an  international  one.  This,  however,  was  only  the  preUminary 
point,  and  although  representatives  of  the  League  of  Nations 
proceeded  to  the  Aalands  in  the  autumn,  the  Council  of  the 
League  had  reached  no  decision  up  to  the  end  of  the  year. 

NORWAY. 

In  Norway  as  in  Sweden  a  Badical  Government  was  in 
power  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  and  was  supported  by  the 


268]         FOEEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTOKY.         [1920. 

Socialists.  Mr.  Enudsen  was  Prime  Minister.  The  Parlia- 
mentary position  of  the  Norwegfan  Government  was,  however, 
much  less  strong  than  that  of  the  Cabinet  in  Stockholm,  for  in 
Norway  there  was  a  Liberal  Party,  quite  distinct  from  the 
Badicals ;  and  the  Liberals  in  combination  with  the  Conserva- 
tives made  a  powerful  Opposition. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  in  the  previous  year  the  Principal 
Allied  Powers  had  decided  to  give  Spitsbergen  to  Norway.  On 
February  9  a  treaty  was  signed  in  Paris  between  Norway  and 
the  Allied  Powers  establishing  Norwegian  sovereignty  over  the 
archipelago.  Although  the  land  was  thus  given  to  Norway, 
the  terms  of  the  treaty  carefully  preserved  fishing,  hunting,  and 
mining  rights  to  the  subjects  of  Great  Britain  and  of  the  other 
Allied  Powers,  including  even  the  Eussians. 

In  the  middle  of  June  Mr.  Enudsen's  Cabinet  resigned 
office,  after  a  defeat  in  Parliament  on  a  financial  question. 
Mr.  Halvorsen,  the  Conservative  leader,  then  formed  a  Govern- 
ment, with  the  support  of  Conservatives,  Liberals,  and  some 
Eadicals. 

Norway  joined  the  League  of  Nations. 

In  the  autumn  Norway,  like  Sweden  and  Denmark,  furnished 
a  small  contingent  of  volunteer  troops  to  serve  in  the  Vilna 
district  under  the  League  of  Nations. 

CHAPTEE  VI. 

THE  MIDDLE  BAST  AND  INDIA:  CYPRUS — SYKIA — PALESTINE — 
AZERBAIJAN — ARMENIA — GEORGIA — MESOPOTAMIA — PERSIA 
— AFGHANISTAN — THE    HBDJAZ — ^BOKHARA — INDIA— CEYLON. 

CYPRUS. 

During  the  year  the  Greek  community  in  Cyprus  continued  to 
agitate  for  the  union  of  the  island  with  Greece,  and  a  deputation 
went  to  England  to  press  the  Greek  claims  upon  the  British 
Government.  The  Imperial  Government  again  made  it  plain, 
however,  that  there  was  no  intention  of  ceding  the  island  to 
Greece.  In  the  summer  the  Acting  High  Commissioner,  Mr. 
Malcolm  Stevenson,  was  appointed  definitely  as  High  Com- 
missioner. 

SYRIA. 

As  had  been  foreseen  in  1919,  the  ''mandate"  for  Syria 
under  the  League  of  Nations  was  bestowed  upon  France. 
This  decision  was  announced  definitely  after  the  meeting 
of  the  Supreme  Council  at  San  Bemo  in  April.  It  wifl 
be  remembered  that  in  the  previous  year  an  independent 
or  semi-independent  Arab  State  was  established  at  Damascus 
under  the  Emir  Feisal,  the  famous  son  of  the  King  of  the 


1920.]  Armenia,  [269 

Hedjaz.  Feisal  was  proclaimed  **King  of  Syria"  in  March. 
During  the  summer  serious  friction  arose  between  the  French 
authorities  and  the  Arabs,  and  in  July  hostilities  broke  out. 
The  French  occupied  Damascus  and  reduced  the  Arabs  to  terms. 
The  Arabs  were  compelled  to  recognise  the  French  mandate  for 
Syria. 

PALESTINE. 

As  had  also  been  foreseen  in  1919,  the  mandate  for  Palestine 
was  ^ven  to  Great  Britain.  In  June  Sir  Herbert  Samuel  was 
appomted  High  Commissioner.  The  declared  object  of  the 
British  Government  was  to  establish  a  '*  National  Home  for 
the  Jewish  People/'  although  the  Moslems  were  a  lar^e  majority 
in  the  country.  The  coimtry  progressed  satisfactorily  and  was 
free  from  the  disturbances  which  afflicted  Mesopotamia  and 
Syria. 

AZEBBAIJAK. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  after  the  establishment  of 
Bolshevism  in  Russia,  an  anti-Bolshevik  Tartar  Bepublic  was 
founded  in  the  Bussian  district  of  Azerbaijan,  which  is  to  be 
carefully  distinguished  from  Persian  Azerbaijan.  Azerbaijan 
was  at  first  an  ordinary  Moslem  State,  and  it  was  accorded  de 
facto  recognition  by  the  Powers.  But  in  the  spring  a  revolution 
took  place  and  a  Bolshevik  regime  was  established  at  Baku. 

ABMENIA. 

A  Christian  Armenian  State  was  established  after  the  armis- 
tice, with  Erivan  as  its  capital,  and  the  country  was  given  de 
facto  recognition  by  the  Powera  The  massacres  of  Annenians 
at  Marash  have  already  been  mentioned ;  and  unfortunately 
the  Supreme  Council  found  difficulty  in  discovering  any  Power 
willing  to  undertake  the  protection  of  the  weakly  and  inde- 
fensible country.  The  mandate  was  offered  to  the  League  of 
Nations,  but  was  refused,  on  the  ground  that  it  was  not  the 
object  of  the  League  to  take  up  mandates.  It  was  also  offered 
to  the  United  States,  but  was  refused  by  the  Senate,  contrary 
to  the  wishes  of  President  Wilson.  The  latter  was  asked, 
however,  to  arbitrate  on  the  question  of  the  Armenian  frontiers, 
and  agreed  to  do  so.  In  October  the  Turkish  Nationalists  and 
the  Bolsheviks  made  a  concerted  attack  upon  Armenia.  The 
Armenians  resisted  bravely  for  two  months,  not  without  some 
success  against  the  Turks,  but  at  the  end  of  the  year  the 
Russians  overran  the  country  and  established  a  Bolshevik 
regime  at  Erivan.  The  original  Armenian  Government  asked 
for  admission  to  the  League  of  Nations,  but  was  refused. 
President  Wilson  suggested  that  Armenia's  frontiers  should  be 


270]         FOEEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTORY.         [1920. 

extended  so  as  to  include  Trebizond,  Erzerroum,  Kars,  Mush, 
and  Bitlis.  This,  of  course,  applied  to  the  non-Bolshevik  State, 
which  existed  until  December. 


GEORGIA. 

Of  the  three  Caucasian  Bepublics,  Georgia  was  the  most 
firmly  established  at  the  beginning  of  the  year,  and  was  the 
only  one  of  the  three  which  survived  in  its  existing  anti-Bolshevik 
form  until  the  end  of  the  year.  The  Georgian  Republic  was  ac- 
corded de  facto  recognition  by  the  Powers  in  January,  and  con- 
cluded peace  with  Russia  in  Jime.  In  July  the  British  force 
which  had  been  in  occupation  of  Batum  evacuated  the  port, 
and  handed  it  over  to  the  Georgian  troops.  Geor^a  applied 
for  admission  to  the  League  of  Nations,  but  the  apphcation  was 
refused.  Georgia  did  not  assist  Armenia  when  the  latter  was 
being  overwhelmed  by  the  Turks  and  Russians  at  the  end  of 
the  year. 


MESOPOTAMIA. 

At  the  meeting  of  the  Supreme  Council  at  San  Remo  in 
April,  it  was  decided  that  the  mandate  for  Mesopotamia  should 
be  given  to  Great  Britain,  this  bein^  a  course  of  action  which 
had  long  been  foreseen.  It  was  decided  that  an  Arab  Govern- 
ment and  a  popular  representative  assembly  should  be  established 
under  the  supervision  of  a  British  Commissioner  and  British 
advisers.     Sir  Percy  Cox  was  appointed  High  Commissioner. 

In  the  middle  of  July  a  serious  rising  against  the  British 
authorities  occurred,  possibly  as  a  repercussion  of  the  Franco- 
Arab  conflict  in  Syria.  Fighting  took  place  over  a  wide  area, 
and  was  serious  in  many  places.  At  an  engagement  near  Hilla 
on  July  24,  the  British  sustained  400  casualties.  Kufa  and 
Samawah  were  isolated  by  the  enemy,  and  were  besieged  until 
the  middle  of  October.  Kufa  was  relieved  by  a  column  com- 
manded by  Brigadier-General  Greer,  and  Samawah  by  a  force 
under  Brigadier-General  Coningham.  The  total  Britieii  casual- 
ties in  the  campaign  up  to  September  30  were  416  killed,  1,119 
wounded,  and  632  prisoners  or  missing.  An  incident  of  the 
campaign  was  the  capture  of  a  British  armoured  train  near 
Samawah  on  September  2. 

According  to  statistics  published  during  the  y^ear,  the  total 
population  of  Mesopotamia  was  2,849,000.  Of  this  population, 
all  except  about  200,000  were  Moslems  in  religion. 

At  the  end  of  the  year  the  frontier  between  S3rria  and  Meso- 
potamia was  drawn.  This  ran  from  Jeziret-ibn-Omar  to 
Rumeilan  Eeiu,  thence  to  Abu  Eemal,  and  thence  to  Intar. 
Sinjar  was  left  in  Mesopotamia. 


1920.]  Afghanistan.  [271 

PERSIA. 

The  year  was  less  eventful  in  Persia  than  in  the  neighbour- 
ing countries.  Vossoukh-ed-Dowleh,  who  was  Prime  Minister 
during  the  earUer  part  of  the  year,  did  good  work  in  the  suppres- 
sion of  brigandage.  In  May  the  Bussian  Bolsheviks  seized 
Enzeli,  and  captured  some  small  warships  which  had  belonged 
to  General  Denikin.  In  July  Musmr-ed-Dowleh  became 
Premier;  and  in  the  autumn  there  was  another  change  of 
Government,  the  Sipahdar  Azam  becoming  Prime  Mimster. 
Measures  were  taken  to  put  the  Anglo-Persian  agreement  of 
the  previous  year  into  operation. 

AFGHANISTAN. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  a  short  war  took  place  between 
India  and  Afghanistan  in  1919,  and  although  peace  had  been 
concluded,  relations  remained  strained.  In  the  spring  a  confer- 
ence between  British  and  Afghan  representatives  took  place  at 
MuBsoorie,  which  resulted  in  steps  being  taken  to  re-establish 
more  normal  relations  and  to  settle  outstanding  questions.  No 
further  hostilities  occurred,  though  there  was  reason  to  fear 
that  Bussian  influence  was  penetrating  the  country  to  some 
extent. 

THB  HEDJAZ. 

The  hostilities  between  the  French  and  the  forces  of  the 
Emir  Feisal  (see  above),  who  was  the  son  of  the  King  of  the 
Hedjaz,  had  the  unfortunate  effect  of  disturbing  the  relations  of 
the  Hedjaz  with  the  other  European  Powers  also,  and  the 
Hedjaz  did  not  sign  the  Treaty  of  Peace  with  Turkey. 

BOKHABA. 

As  in  Azerbaijan  and  Armenia,  so  also  in  Bokhara,  the 
Bussian  Bolsheviks  spread  their  new  revolution  by  force  of 
arms.  At  the  end  of  August,  apparently  without  any  provoca- 
tion, a  large  Bussian  Army  was  sent  against  Bokhara,  and  after 
a  valorous  defence  the  capital  was  taken.  The  Emir,  Sayid- 
Mir-Alim  Khan,  was  driven  from  his  throne,  and  a  Bolshevik 
regime  was  established.  The  Emir  was  reported  to  have  fled 
to  Afghanistan. 

INDIA. 

In  December,  1919,  the  British  Imperial  Parliament  passed 
the  Government  of  India  Act,  which  bestowed  a  considerable 
measure  of  representative  government  upon  Hindustan.  The 
Act  was,  of  course,  of  fundamental  importance,  and  it  might 
almost  be  said  that  the  passage  of  the  measure  through  Parlia- 
ment marked  the  beginning  of  a  new  age  in  India.  Hence  the 
principal  duty  of  the  British  bureaucracy  in  India  in  1920  was 


272]         FOBEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTOEY.         [i92a 

to  make  the  necessary  preparations  for  the  application  of  the 
new  constitution. 

The  annual  financial  statement  of  the  Government  of  Lidia 
was  presented  to  the  Viceroy's  Legislative  Council  on  March  1 
by  the  Finance  Minister,  Mr.  W.  M.  Hailey.  At  the  outset  of 
his  speech  Mr.  Hailey  dealt  with  the  question  of  the  rise  in  the 
Exchange  value  of  the  rupee,  and  said  that  this  was  due  to  the 
depreciation  of  sterUng  in  terms  of  gold  and  the  rise  in  the  price 
of  silver.  Dealing  with  the  Imperial  Eevenue  for  the  year 
1919-20  he  said  that  the  total  receipts  were  expected  to  be 
90,300,0002. ;  whilst  the  total  Imperial  Expenditure  was  expected 
to  amount  to  104,600,000Z.  There  was  thus  an  anticipated 
deficit  of  14,300,0002.  instead  of  the  surplus  of  6,000,000Z.  which 
had  been  anticipated  when  the  Budget  for  that  year  had  been 
first  brought  forward.  The  chief  cause  of  this  disturbance  of 
the  original  financial  expectations  had  been  the  Afghan  War, 
which  had  increased  the  military  expenditure  by  no  less  than 
14,750,0002.  In  regard  to  the  year  1920-21  the  total  Imperial 
Expenditure  was  expected  to  be  90,500,000Z.,of  which  40,000,0002. 
was  allotted  to  nuUtary  expenditure,  as  against  57,000,0002. 
spent  on  the  same  object  in  1919-20.  On  the  entire  Imperial 
Revenue  and  Expenditure  for  1920-21  a  surplus  of  2,000,0002. 
was  anticipated.  There  were  to  be  no  serious  modifications  in 
the  existing  scheme  of  taxation.  In  conclusion  the  Minister 
warned  his  hearers  that  the  40,000,0002.  allotted  to  military  ex- 
penditure might  prove  insufficient  if  the  trouble  on  the  frontiers 
of  India  were  to  continue. 

'  At  the  opening  of  the  spring  session  of  the  Legislative 
Council  the  Viceroy,  Lord  Chelmsford,  said  that  he  thought  the 
danger  of  a  Bolshevik  invasion  of  India  was  being  exaggerated 
in  Europe.  The  chief  danger  from  Russia,  was,  he  said,  that 
the  Bolsheviks  might  seek  to  penetrate  by  propaganda  where 
there  was  no  possibility  of  their  penetrating  by  force  of  arms. 
The  Government  of  India  were  alive  to  this  danger  and  were 
setting  up  a  special  staff  of  officials  to  deal  with  the  problem. 

The  last  session  of  the  Legislative  Council  before  the  coming 
into  force  of  the  Government  of  India  Act  was  opened  by  the 
Viceroy  in  the  middle  of  August.  Referring  to  the  military 
operations  which  had  taken  place  in  Waziristan,  Lord  Chelms- 
ford said  that  it  was  proposed  to  keep  a  force  in  the  country 
and  to  construct  roads  suitable  for  mechanical  transport  there. 
It  was  impossible  to  set  a  limit  to  the  occupation  because  it  was 
necessary  to  prevent  the  recurrence  of  outrages  by  the  tribes. 
The  Viceroy  then  referred  to  the  estrangement  of  Indian  opinion 
which  had  arisen  out  of  the  somewhat  severe  repression  of  the 
rising  in  the  Punjab  during  the  previous  year,  especially  at 
Amntsar.  He  said  that  he  hoped  that  the  new  Constitution 
would  be  worked  in  a  spirit  which  disregarded  the  animosities 
of  the  past.  He  hoped  and  thought  that  the  existing  movement 
of  the  extremists  towards  non-cooperation  in  the  working  of 


1990.]  India.  [273 

the  Constitution  would  fail  through  the  common  sense  of  India. 
The  Viceroy  then  referred  to  the  financial  question ;  and  he 
dealt  at  length  with  the  treatment  of  Indian  immigrants  in 
South  Africa  and  the  Kenya  Colony. 

The  session  lasted  only  a  month,  but  several  important 
Bills  were  passed,  inclu£ng  a  measure  creating  an  Indian 
Territorial  Force.  In  closing  the  Legislative  Council  the 
Viceroy  said  that  the  Chamber  was  now  giving  place  to  a 
larger  and  more  representative  Assembly. 

As  already  indicated,  mihtary  operations  of  some  importance 
were  undertaken  during  the  earlier  part  of  the  year  in  Waziris- 
tan,  the  tribes  against  whom  these  punitive  operations  were 
necessary  being  the  Tochi  Wazirs  and  the  Mahsuds.  The 
operations  lasted  from  November,  1919,  until  May,  1920,  and 
were  under  the  direction  of  Major-General  S.  H.  CUmo,  D.S.O. 
The  two  most  severe  actions  were  against  the  Mahsuds  on 
December  21  and  on  January  14.  The  British  casualties  in  the 
first  of  these  engagements  numbered  over  300,  and  very  nearly 
400  in  the  second  engagement.  The  forces  employed  in  the 
campaign  were  almost  entirely  Indian,  the  only  white  troops 
being  a  section  of  the  Boyal  Air  Force  and  a  Battery  of 
mountain  Artillery. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  in  the  spring  of  1919  riots  of  an 
almost  revolutionary  character  broke  out  in  the  Punjab  and 
elsewhere.  The  most  serious  riots  took  place  at  Amritsar,  in 
the  Punjab,  the  military  ofiicer  in  command  at  Amritsar  being 
a  certain  Brigadier-General  Dyer.  A  great  deal  of  discussion 
was  caused  both  in  India  and  m  England  by  the  severity  with 
which  General  Dyer  had  suppressed  the  rioting  in  Amritsar  on 
April  13  (see  English  History).  General  Dyer  had  subse- 
quently b^n  deprived  of  his  command,  and  the  Imperial  Govern- 
ment appointed  a  conmiittee  under  the  Chairmanship  of  Lord 
Hunter  to  investigate  the  whole  question  of  the  disturbances. 
The  incident  which  had  caused  special  criticism  was  the  manner 
in  which  General  Dyer  fired  upon  a  crowd  which  had  collected 
in  a  space  known  as  the  Jallianwala  Bagh  in  Amritsar  on 
April  13.  The  Hunter  Committee  comprised,  besides  the 
Chairman,  four  other  British  members,  and  three  Indian 
members.  The  English  members  presented  a  majority  Beport 
which  condemned  General  Dyer's  actions,  and  the  Indians  pre- 
sented a  minority  Beport  which  condemned  General  Dyer  in 
more  severe  terms.  It  transpired  that  the  crowd  in  the 
JaUianwala  Bagh,  though  very  large  and  riotous  (it  numbered 
about  15,000  persons),  and  although  assembled  contrary  to  a 
pubUc  proclamation,  was  unarmed.  In  order  to  disperse  this 
crowd  General  Dyer,  in  command  of  a  small  force,  fired  ball 
cartridge  into  the  mob  without  giving  the  people  a  preliminary 
warning  to  disperse.  He  continued  to  fire  for  ten  minutes,  and 
about  379  persons  were  killed  and  about  three  times  that 
number  were  wounded.      The  British  Government  and  the 

8 


274]         FOREIGN  AND  COLONIAL  fflSTORY.         [1920. 

Government  of  India  agreed  with  the  Hunter  Committee  in 
holding  that  force  was  used  with  undue  severity.  General. 
Dyer  on  his  side  said  that  in  the  very  critical  situation  then 
existing,  it  was  necessary  to  make  an  impression  not  only  in 
Amritsar  but  in  the  Punjab  generally.  The  impression  made 
in  India  by  the  Amritsar  incident  was  undoubtedly  very  bad, 
and  many  moderate  Indian  politicians  were  estranged  from 
the  ruling  race.  But  among  the  British  community  in  India 
General  Dyer  had  many  sympathisers. 

The  question  of  applying  the  Constitutional  Beform  Scheme 
to  Burma  received  much  attention  during  the  year.  It  will  be 
remembered  that  at  the  end  of  1918  Sir  B.  Craddock,  the 
Lieut. -Governor  of  Burma,  had  made  elaborate  proposals  for 
constitutional  reform  in  the  province,  the  eventual  aim  of 
which  was  the  complete  independence  of  the  country  from 
India.  When  the  Government  of  India  Act  of  1919  was  passed 
it  was  left  optional  as  to  whether  Burma  should  be  included 
or  not.  In  the  spring  the  Government  of  India  made  proposals 
for  the  institution  of  representative  Government  in  Burma. 

This  scheme  did  not  exclude  Burma  from  India,  and  Burma 
was  therefore  to  be  represented  in  the  Legislative  Assembly 
of  Hindustan.  The  autonomy  of  Burma  was,  however,  to  be 
recognised  by  changing  the  title  of  the  Viceroy  to  that  of 
''Governor-General  of  India  and  Burma."  A  Legislature  was 
to  be  established  for  the  province  which  was  to  consist  of 
ninety-two  members,  of  whom  fifty-six  were  to  be  elected.  In 
the  rural  districts  the  method  of  election  was  to  be  indirect  and 
the  franchise  was  to  be  more  limited  than  in  India.  The 
Provincial  Government  was  to  consist  of  the  Governor  and  an 
Executive  Council.  Later  in  the  year  it  was  stated  that  in 
applying  the  Government  of  India  Act  to  Burma,  the  latter 
would  be  constituted  '*  a  new  Governor's  Province." 

The  details  of  the  new  constitutional  scheme  were  worked 
out  and  published  at  intervals  during  the  year.  It  was  stated 
that  of  the  100  elective  seats  in  the  Legislative  Assembly 
17  would  represent  Bengal,  and  that  Bombay,  Madras,  and 
the  United  Provinces  would  each  have  16  seats.  The  other 
provinces  would  have  fewer  seats,  Burma  and  Assam  having 
only  4  each.  It  will  be  remembered  that  some  of  the  con- 
stituencies were  class  or  communal  constituencies,  not  simple 
territorial  constituencies.  There  were  to  be  49  general  con- 
stituencies, the  remainder  being  class  constituencies.  Thus 
the  Mohammedans  were  to  have  29,  the  Sikhs  2,  landowners 
7,  Indian  commerce  4,  and  Europeans  9.  The  electorate  for 
the  Council  of  State  was  to  be  extremely  limited,  and  was  not 
to  consist  of  more  than  2,000  persons  even  in  the  larger 
provinces. 

In  accord  with  the  greater  measure  of  provincial  autonomy 
which  was  to  be  introduced  by  the  Beform  Act,  each  province 
in  which  diarchy  was  to  be  applied  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a 


1920.]  India,  [275 

Governor's  Province,  that  is  to  say,  to  the  same  status  as 
had  hitherto  been  possessed  only  by  Madras,  Bombay,  and 
Bengal.  In  August  the  names  of  the  new  Governors  were 
announced.  Sir  Harcourt  Butler  was  to  go  to  the  United 
Provinces;  Sir  Edward  Maclagan  to  the  Punjab;  Sir  Frank 
Sly  to  the  Central  Provinces ;  Sir  William  Harris  to  Assam ; 
and  Lord  Sinha  to  Bihar  and  Orissa.  It  will  be  remembered 
that  Lord  Sinha  had  served  in  England  as  Under-Secretary  of 
State  for  India.  His  new  appointment  as  Governor  of  Bihar 
and  Orissa  was  particularly  mteresting,  as  he  would  thus  be- 
come the  first  Indian  to  hold  the  highest  post  in  a  province  of 
British  India.  Mr.  A.  F.  Whyte  was  appointed  President  of 
the  new  Legislative  Assembly. 

It  should  be  understood  that  the  Government  of  India  Act 
was  not  put  into  force  until  the  very  end  of  the  year ;  nor  was 
it  put  into  force  simultaneously  in  all  the  provinces.  The 
Act  came  into  force  in  Madras  and  the  Central  Provinces  in 
the  middle  of  December,  and  in  Bihar  and  Orissa  on  December 
29 ;  but  the  Act  was  not  to  be  applied  to  the  other  provinces 
until  January,  1921. 

A  very  unfortunate  development  during  the  year  was  the 
capture  of  the  Indian  National  Congress  by  the  extremist 
politicians,  headed  by  that  notorious  agitator,  Mr.  Ghandi. 
The  extremists  set  in  motion  a  scheme  of  what  they  called  non- 
cooperation,  that  is,  they  endeavoured  to  dissuade  the  Indian 
people  from  taking  any  part  in  the  reformed  institutions. 
Fortunately,  however,  although  the  "  National  Congress " 
passed  resolutions  in  favour  of  non-cooperation,  the  move- 
ment attained  only  limited  success  in  the  new  electorates  as 
a  whole. 

The  Treaty  of  Peace  with  Turkey  was  much  resented  b^ 
Indian  Mohammedans,  the  position  of  the  Sultan  as  Khahf 
making  him  almost  sacred  in  the  eyes  of  Moslems.  Serious 
protests  were  sent  both  to  the  Government  of  India  and  to  the 
Imperial  Government.  Even  the  decision  of  the  Supreme 
Council  to  allow  Constantinople  to  remain  in  Turkish  hands  did 
not  by  any  means  appease  the  anger  of  the  Indian  Moslems. 

It  is  pleasant  to  record  that  the  ''National  Liberal  Federa- 
tion of  India,"  as  the  Indian  moderate  politicians  were  now 
called,  met  at  Bombay  in  the  autumn  and  passed  resolutions 
condemning  the  non-cooperation  movement  of  the  extremists 
and  every  other  agitation  which  was  likely  to  accentuate  racial 
hatred.  The  moderates  called  attention,  however,  to  the 
grievances  of  Indians  in  East  Africa. 

The  mortality  returns  for  1919  showed  that  during  that  year 
20,273  persons  died  from  snake  bites.  Apart  from  these  persons, 
2,637  people  were  killed  by  other  wild  animals,  tigers  alone 
killing  1,162  people.  On  the  other  side  of  the  account,  it  may 
be  recorded  that  over  1,500  tigers,  over  5,000  panthers,  and  over 
2,400  bears  were  destroyed  during  that  year. 

82 


276]         FOKEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTOEY.         [1920. 

CEYLON. 

During  the  year  the  Imperial  Government  decided  that 
amendments  should  be  introduced  into  the  constitution  of 
Ceylon.  It  was  decided  that  the  Legislative  Council  should  be 
reformed  so  that  it  should  include  a  majority  of  unofl&cial 
members,  instead  of  a  majority  of  ofi&cial  members,  as  hitherto. 
It  was  contemplated  that  there  should  be  37  members  of  the 
Legislature,  exclusive  of  the  Governor,  and  that  of  these  23 
should  be  unofficial  members,  19  elected,  and  4  nominated. 
Special  powers  were  to  be  reserved  to  the  Governor,  to  be 
used  in  special  emergencies. 

CHAPTEE  VII. 

THE   FAB  EAST:    CHINA — JAPAN. 

CHINA. 

At  the  beginning  of  1920  the  Chinese  Eepublic  was  still  suffer- 
ing from  the  schism  between  North  and  South,  which  had  ex- 
isted since  1917.  It  will  be  remembered  that  civil  war  broke 
out  in  1917  owing  to  the  conflict  between  the  President,  Li 
Yuan-Hung,  and  the  Parliament  on  one  side,  and  the  Prime 
Minister,  Tuan  Chi-Jui,  and  the  Cabinet  on  the  other  side. 
The  provincial  Governments  in  China  possessed  considerable 
independence,  and  in  the  war  which  broke  out,  the  southern 
provinces  supported  Li  Yuan-Hung,  and  the  northern  pro- 
vinces supported  Tuan  Chi-Jui.  On  the  basis  of  the  con- 
stitution the  Southern  Party  appeared  to  have  the  better 
cause,  but  from  the  military  pomt  of  view  the  North  were 
somewhat  the  stronger,  and  since  they  had  possession  of 
Peking  they  were  recognised  internationally  as  the  Chinese 
Government.  During  1918  a  new  Parliament  had  been 
elected  in  the  North  under  Tuan  Chi-Jui's  influence,  but  the 
South  of  course  refused  to  recognise  these  elections,  and  the 
Parliament  which  had  fled  from  Peking  with  Li  Yuan-Hung 
continued  to  meet  in  Canton.  During  1919  an  armistice  was 
concluded  between  the  two  parties,  the  defection  of  the  great 
province  of  Zechuan  from  the  North  having  rendered  any 
definite  military  decision  impossible.  Negotiations  were  opened 
in  Shanghai,  but  no  definite  settlement  was  attained.  The 
hostility  towards  Tuan  Chi-Jui  remained  as  bitter  as  ever,  but 
the  new  President  in  the  North,  Hsu  Shih-Chang,  and  the 
leader  of  the  Opposition  in  the  Peking  Parliament,  a  well- 
known  statesman  named  Liang  Shih-Yi,  were  both  in  favour  of 
reaching  a  compromise  with  the  Southern  Party.  The  antagon- 
ism to  Japan,  which  became  intensified  during  1919  through  the 
famous  Shantung  clauses  of  the  Treaty  of  Versailles,  tended 
somewhat    to  heal  the  breach   between    North  and   South. 


iwa]  China.  [277 

Chin  Yun-Pen^,  then  one  of  Tnan  Ghi-Jui's  chief  lieutenants, 
was  Prime  Minister,  but  Tuan  Chi- Jui,  who  held  a  high  military 
command,  was  still  virtual  dictator  of  the  North. 

The  chief  development  in  the  year  1920  was  the  outbreak  of 
a  new  civil  war  between  diflferent  protagonists.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  June  an  agreement  was  reached  between  all  the  more 
important  leaders  and  provinces  in  the  South  on  the  one  side 
and  the  more  moderate  or  Opposition  Party  in  the  North.  At 
the  beginning  of  June  Sun  Yat-Sen,  Tang  Shao-Yi,  and  other 
important  Southern  leaders  issued  a  manifesto  stating  that  the 

Erovinces  of  Zechuan,  Shensi,  Hupeh,  Eweichow,  and  Hunan 
ad  seceded  from  the  Canton  administration  and  that  that 
administration  had  therefore  ceased  to  exist.  Negotiations  were 
then  immediately  opened  between  the  Opposition  in  the  North, 
now  known  as  the  Chihli  Party,  and  the  Sun  Yat-Sen  group  in 
the  South.  Probably  the  chief  cause  of  this  reimion  was  to  be 
sought  in  a  common  hostility  to  the  pro-Japanese  policy  of 
Tuan  Chi-Jui  and  the  Ministerial  or  An-Fu  Party  generally. 
The  union  between  the  Opposition  in  the  North  and  the  stronger 
party  in  the  South  naturaUy  led  to  a  very  strained  situation  in 
the  North.  During  June  the  President  seems  to  have  attempted 
to  keep  the  peace  between  the  Ministerialists  and  the  Opposition  ; 
and  Chou  Shu-Mou  became  Prime  Minister  in  place  of  Ghin-Yun- 
Pen^.  Nevertheless,  the  hostility  between  the  two  Northern 
parties  continued  to  grow ;  and  Tsao  Eun,  the  Tuchun  (Military 
Governor)  of  Chihli,  and  General  Wu  Pei-Fu  marched  their 
troops  north  from  Hunan  with  a  view  to  overawing  the  capital. 
At  the  beginning  of  July  the  President  appears  to  have  decided 
in  favour  of  the  An-Fu  Party,  and  accordmgly  he  issued  a  pro- 
clamation dismissing  Tsao  Eun  and  Wu  Pei-Fu  from  the  Arm^. 
At  the  same  time  the  chief  leader  of  the  Chihli  Party  residing  m 
Peking,  Chang  Tso-Lin,  left  the  capital  for  Mukden.  Chang 
Tso-Lm  was  Governor-General  of  Manchuria. 

The  position  now  was  that  the  An-Fu  Party  were  the 
stronger  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Peking,  but  that  the 
Chihh  Party  were  in  possession  of  the  greater  part  of  the  North. 
In  the  middle  of  July  hostilities  broke  out  between  Tuan 
Chi-Jui's  forces  and  Wu  Pei-Fu's  Army  which  had  deployed 
along  the  Hunho  Biver,  west  of  Peking.  The  only  efficient 
section  of  the  Government  troops  was  the  so-called  Frontier 
Defence  Force  which  had  been  organised  by  the  Japanese  and 
had  been  under  the  immediate  command  of  Tuan  Chi-Jui. 
The  hostilities  seem  to  have  been  of  a  somewhat  serious  char- 
acter. When  the  An-Fu  troops  advanced,  Wu  Pei-Fu  executed 
a  clever  strategic  retreat  as  far  as  Eaopeitien,  50  miles  south 
of  Peking.  A  section  of  the  Chihli  troops  were  ordered  to 
march  round  the  left  wing  of  the  advancing  An-Fu  Arm^,  and 
they  thus  succeeded  in  taking  the  Government  troops  in  the 
rear.  A  complete  disaster  to  Tuan  Chi-Jui's  force  followed. 
Several  of  his  divisions  surrendered  without  resistance,  and  the 


278]         FOEEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTOEY.         [1920. 

rest  were  driven  back  in  panic  on  the  Capital.  Tuan  Chi-Jui, 
seeing  that  his  cause  was  lost,  resigned  his  mihtary  appointment, 
and  the  President  issued  a  declaration  ordering  the  immediate 
disbandment  of  the  Frontier  Defence  Force.  The  President 
then  appointed  a  new  Cabinet,  with  Chin  Yun-Peng  again  as 
Prime  Minister. 

Although  the  new  Government  represented  a  compromise 
between  the  North  and  the  South,  they  were  nevertheless  un- 
able to  establish  themselves  as  an  effective  Administration  for 
all  China.  Part  of  the  South  had  never  given  its  consent  to 
the  compromise,  and  within  its  own  sphere  each  provincial 
Government  in  the  South,  and  to  some  extent  even  in  the  North, 
continued  to  act  very  much  as  it  pleased.  The  worst  result  of 
the  civil  war  was  that  the  very  large  numbers  of  troops  main- 
tained by  the  various  Tuchuns  were  a  great  drain  on  the  re- 
sources of  the  unhappy  country. 

In  addition  to  the  troubles  arising  out  of  the  civil  wars, 
a  large  area  of  China  suffered  in  a  most  acute  degree  from 
famine  during  the  later  months  of  the  year.  During  the 
spring  there  was  a  severe  drought  in  Chihh,  Honan,  and 
Shantung,  and  the  harvest  in  the  large  area  affected  was  a 
complete  failure.  It  was  stated  that  15,000,000  persons  were 
reduced  to  the  point  of  actual  starvation. 

JAPAN. 

At  the  opening  of  the  year  the  internal  situation  in  Japan 
had  considerable  interest.  It  will  be  remembered  that  at  the 
end  of  1918  Mr.  E.  Hara  had  become  Prime  Minister,  being 
the  first  commoner  to  hold  that  position.  Mr.  Hara  was  the 
leader  of  the  Seiyukai  Party,  which  had  obtained  a  majority 
in  the  General  Election  of  1917.  During  1919  a  Eeform  Act 
had  been  passed  which  increased  the  number  of  Parliamentary 
voters  from  about  1,500,000  to  about  3,000,000.  The  Govern- 
ment were  opposed  to  any  further  extension  of  the  suffrage, 
but  sections  of  the  Opposition  in  the  Lower  House  continued 
to  clamour  loudly  for  a  truly  democratic  franchise. 

In  February  somewhat  acrimonious  debates  took  place  in 
the  Lower  House  on  the  question  of  universal  suffrage;  but 
before  the  debates  were  concluded,  the  Prime  Minister  unex- 
pectedly announced  that  he  had  advised  the  Mikado  to  dissolve 
Parliament,  so  that  the  country  might  express  its  opinion  upon 
this  question.  Mr.  Hara  pointed  out  that  there  had  as  yet 
been  no  election  on  the  basis  of  the  extended  franchise  as  fixed 
in  the  previous  year.  The  General  Election  was  not  held  until 
May  10.  The  result  was  to  increase  considerably  the  majority 
held  by  the  Seiyukai  Party.  The  electoral  strength  of  the 
Government  was  in  the  rural  districts,  where  the  suffinge 
question  awakened  but  little  interest.  The  Seiyukai  won  about 
280  seats,  and  the  chief  Opposition  Party,  the  Eenseikai,  won 


1920.]  Japan,  [279 

110  seats.  The  smaller  parties  won  76  seats.  The  position  of 
the  Government  in  the  House  of  Bepresentatives  therefore 
became  thoroughly  secure. 

The  Anglo-Japanese  alliance,  which  had  been  renewed  on 
July  13,  1911,  was  due  to  exist  for  a  term  of  ten  years.  If 
either  party  desired  to  terminate  the  alliance  at  the  end  of  the 
ten-year  period,  by  the  terms  of  the  treaty  a  notification  to 
that  effect  would  have  to  be  made  before  July  13, 1920.  Neither 
Great  Britain  nor  Japan  made  any  such  notification.  But  the 
British  and  Japanese  Governments  sent  the  following  note  to 
the  Council  of  the  League  of  Nations,  the  note  being  dated 
Spa,  July  8 : — 

''  The  Governments  of  Great  Britain  and  Japan  have  come 
to  the  conclusion  that  the  Anglo- Japanese  Agreement  of  July 
13,  1911,  now  existing  between  the  two  countries,  though  in 
harmony  with  the  spirit  of  the  Covenant  of  the  League  of 
Nations,  is  not  entirely  consistent  with  the  letter  of  that 
Covenant,  which  both  Governments  earnestly  desire  to  respect. 
They  accordingly  have  the  honour  jointly  to  inform  the  League 
that  they  recognise  the  principle  that  if  the  said  Agreement  be 
continued  after  July,  1921,  it  must  be  in  a  form  which  is  not 
inconsistent  with  that  Covenant." 

The  note  was  signed  by  Lord  Curzon  and  Viscount  Chinda. 

During  the  autumn  particulars  were  published  of  the  pro- 
posed Naval  and  Military  expenditure  of  Japan.  Under  both 
heads  there  had  been  an  enormous  increase  in  latter  years. 
The  Government  proposed  that  two  capital  ships  should  be 
built  per  year.  And  in  the  Budget  for '  1921  a  sum  of  no  less 
than  74,000,0002.  was  set  aside  for  Naval  expenditure.  The  ex- 
penditure on  the  Army  was  expected  to  be  39,000,0002.  The 
other  items  of  the  National  expenditure  were  much  the  same  as 
in  the  previous  year,  and  the  total  expenditure  was  estimated 
at  234,000,000/.  Speaking  in  the  House  of  Bepresentatives  at 
the  end  of  December,  the  Prime  Minister  said  that  the  guiding 
principle  in  framing  the  Budget  had  been  to  increase  the  national 
strength. 

During  the  year  no  final  agreement  with  China  was  reached 
on  the  (juestion  of  the  Japanese  evacuation  of  Shantung. 

During  the  year  the  Japanese  remained  in  occupation  of 
Vladivostok  and  the  surrounding  district ;  but  Japanese  troops 
were  withdrawn  from  all  the  other  parts  of  Siberia,  so  that  all 
Siberia,  except  the  Vladivostok  distnct,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Bussian  Bolsheviks. 


280]         FOREIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTORY.         [1920. 


CHAPTER  Vin. 

AFBICA  :  THE  UNION  OF  SOUTH  AFRICA — RHODESIA — PORTUGUESE 
WEST  AFRICA — PORTUGUESE  EAST  AFRICA — ^BRITISH  EAST 
AFRICA — SOMALILAND — LIBYA — MOROCCO — ^EGYPT — SUDAN. 

THE  UNION  OP  SOUTH  AFRICA. 

The  political  situation  in  South  Africa  at  the  beginning  of  the 
year  was  substantially  the  same  as  that  which  had  existed  since 
the  beginning  of  the  war.  After  the  death  of  General  Botha 
in  the  previous  year,  General  Smuts  had  succeeded  him  as 
Prime  Minister,  and  as  Leader  of  the  South  African  Party; 
but  that  party  were  only  a  minority  of  the  Lower  House,  and 
General  Smuts  owed  his  continuance  in  office  to  the  support 
given  him  by  the  Unionist  (or  British)  Party,  notwithstanding 
the  fact  that  the  Unionists  had  been  formerly  regarded  as  the 
official  Opposition.  The  real  Opposition  was  the  Nationalist 
Party,  the  group  of  Boer  extremists,  led  by  General  Hertzog. 
The  latter  party  had  been  gaining  in  influence  duriilg  the  war, 
and  were  stronger  in  the  country  than  their  membership  (under 
30)  in  the  House  of  Assembly  seemed  to  imply.  The  National- 
ists were  determined  anti-Imperialists,  and  in  the  year  1917 
they  had  definitely  adopted  the  faith  of  republicanism,  and 
sought  to  sever  the  connexion  between  South  Africa  and  the 
British  Empire. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  year  statistics  were  published  re- 
lating to  the  census  of  1918.  It  was  stated  that  the  total  white 
population  of  South  Africa  was  1,418,634.  Slightly  over  half 
the  white  population  was  classed  as  IJrban,  but  the  definition 
of  the  term  Urban  included  every  townlet  with  over  2,000  in- 
habitants. 

On  March  10  a  General  Election  was  held.  The  contest 
was  fraught  with  considerable  interest,  because  the  Nationalists 
claimed  to  have  improved  their  position  in  the  country  during 
the  previous  two  years.  The  Unionists  and  the  South  African 
Party  came  to  no  electoral  agreement,  and  a  large  number  of 
triangular,  or  even  quadrilateral,  contests  took  place.  The  total 
number  of  members  to  be  elected  was  134,  as  against  130  in 
the  old  House  of  Assembly.  In  the  result,  the  South  African 
Party  won  40  seats,  the  Unionists  25,  and  Independent  candi- 
dates 3.  There  was  thus  a  total  of  68  members  who  could  be 
reckoned  in  different  degrees  as  supporters  of  General  Smuts. 
The  Nationalists  won  45  seats,  and  the  Labour  Party  21.  There 
was  thus  a  striking  increase  in  the  Nationalist  strength,  and 
the  rise  of  the  Labour  Party  was  also  very  marked,  because  they 
had  possessed  only  5  representatives  in  the  previous  House. 
The  Prime  Minister  was  therefore  placed  in  a  difficult  position, 
but  he  could  expect  to  be  supported  on  many  issues  by  the 


1930.]  Seuth  Africa,  [281 

Labour  Party,  and  the  latter  were  in  particular  opposed  to 
separation  from  the  British  Empire. 

Parliament  was  opened  for  a  short  session  on  March  19. 
At  the  end  of  April  the  Minister  of  Finance,  Mr.  Henry  Burton, 
made  his  Budget  statement  to  the  House.  He  said  that  in 
the  financial  year,  1919-20,  the  Revenue  had  amounted  to 
26,739,000/..  which  left  a  surplus  of  2,271,000/.,  and  it  was  pro- 

g)8ed  to  apply  the  greater  part  of  this  to  the  Redemption  of 
ebt.  The  Finance  Minister  said  that  the  anticipated  Revenue 
for  the  year  1920-21  was  27,969,000/.  which  would  leave  a  small 
surplus. 

In  the  summer  Lord  Buxton  retired  from  the  post  of 
Governor-General,  and  Prince  Arthur  of  Connaught  was  ap- 
pointed as  his  successor.  Prince  Arthur  arrived  at  Cape  Town 
m  the  middle  of  November  and  was  received  with  great  en- 
thusiasm. 

The  Elections  for  the  Provincial  Councils  were  held  in  the 
autumn,  and  those  in  the  Transvaal  provoked  considerable 
comment,  because  they  revealed  a  remarkable  increase  in  the 
Nationalist  strength  since  the  Parliamentary  Election  early  in 
the  year.  Forty-nine  members  were  elected  on  both  occasions. 
In  the  Parliamentary  Election  the  Nationalists  won  only  12 
seats;  in  this  election  for  the  Provincial  Diet,  they  won  21 
seats.  The  Nationalists  were  also  strong  in  the  Cape  Province 
Diet.  It  was  doubtful,  however,  how  far  these  elections  were 
fought  on  the  same  issues  as  the  Parliamentary  Elections.  The 
Provincial  Diets  had  very  restricted  powers,  and  the  problems 
with  which  they  had  to  deal  were  really  of  a  purely  local  character. 

The  reverses  suffered  by  the  South  African  Party  in  the 
Parliamentary  General  Election  made  it  apparent  that  the 
Ministerial  Party  would  have  to  seek  some  kind  of  definite 
agreement,  either  with  General  Hertzog  and  his  followers  or 
with  the  Unionists.  In  the  circumstances  it  was  perhaps  natural 
that  General  Smuts  should  first  seek  a  reunion  with  his  fellow 
Boers.  It  will  be  remembered  that  when  the  South  African 
Union  was  first  established  the  Boers  had  formed  a  strong  and 
united  party,  which  had  been  disrupted,  partly  indeed  on 
matters  of  principle,  but  also  partly  through  General  Hertzog's 
jealousy  of  General  Botha.  Accordingly,  in  September,  the 
South  African  and  Nationalist  parties  held  a  great  "Hereenig- 
ing  Conference,''  at  Bloemfontem.  Sincere  efforts  appeared  to 
have  been  made  by  both  sides  to  reach  an  agreement,  but  the 
conference  broke  down  on  a  genuine  difference  of  fundamental 
principle.  General  Smuts  and  his  followers  were  entirely  in 
favour  of  preserving  the  Imperial  connexion.  The  Nationalists 
on  the  other  hand  were  quite  determined  that  if  the  two  Dutoh 
parties  were  re-united,  the  programme  should  include  republic- 
anism as  an  ideal,  though  an  ideal  to  be  attained  by  peaceful 
methods  and  the  assertion  of  the  rights  of  majorities,  and  not  by 
force. 


282]         FOKEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTOEY.         [1920. 

The  conference  broke  down  on  this  issue,  and  General 
Smuts  then  turned  to  those  who  had  given  him  such  consistent 
and  self-effacing  support  during  the  war.  Negotiations  were 
opened  for  the  fusion  of  the  South  African  and  Unionist  parties 
to  form  one  great  moderate  Imperiahst  Party.  General  Smuts 
declared  that  the  time  had  come  when  South  Africans  of  both 
races  ought  to  unite  into  one  party  to  preserve  the  Union  Con- 
stitution. Sir  Thomas  Smartt,  the  Leader  of  the  Unionist 
Party,  was  quick  to  respond  to  the  Prime  Minister's  invitation  ; 
he  said  that  he  was  sure  that  British  South  Africans  would  rally 
to  the  support  of  General  Smuts  in  face  of  the  menace  to  South 
Africa  involved  in  the  Nationalist  policy  of  secession. 

Daring  the  year  a  highly  interesting  and  important  project 
was  put  forward  by  Professor  E.  H.  L.  Schwartz  for  the  re- 
watering  of  an  enormous  tract  of  country  in  the  Kalahari  desert. 
Professor  Schwartz  pointed  out  that  South  Africa  had  been 
drying  up  rapidly  in  tiie  last  few  centuries,  and  that  even  within 
the  last  hundred  years  a  very  appreciable  difference  had  taken 
place.  Professor  Schwartz  pointed  out  that  the  waters  of  some 
of  the  rivers  were  lost  to  the  great  dry  plateau  of  South  Africa 
unnecessarily.  In  particular  he  proposed  that  a  great  dam  should 
be  built  across  the  river  Cunene  above  the  cataracts  which  mark 
its  fall  to  the  sea.  In  this  way  an  enormous  quantity  of  water 
could  be  diverted  southwards,  and  the  Etosha  Pan  which  had 
once  been  a  lake  25  feet  deep  would  be  again  filled  with  water. 
A  connexion  with  the  Okavango  might  be  effected.  In  this 
way  it  was  hoped  that  the  climate  of  a  great  part  of  the  Kalahari, 
covering  an  area  twice  that  of  England,  would  be  fundamentally 
changed,  with  the  result  that  vegetation  would  reappear,  and 
the  district  would  become  suitable  for  occupation  by  a  large 
population. 

BHODESIA. 

In  May  a  General  Election  for  the  Legislative  Council  of 
Southern  Bhodesia  was  held.  The  Election  was  of  considerable 
interest,  because  the  question  of  a  change  in  the  constitutional 
position  of  Bhodesia  had  been  discussed  for  some  years,  and  the 
opinion  of  the  white  settlers  upon  the  problem  was  therefore 
awaited  with  interest  both  in  South  Africa  and  Great  Britain. 
It  will  be  remembered  that  there  were  four  possible  alternatives. 
Firstly,  a  continuance  of  the  present  system  of  government 
under  the  British  South  Africa  Company.  Secondly,  the  insti- 
tution of  Crown  Colony  Government.  Thirdly,  the  entrance  of 
Bhodesia  into  the  Union  of  South  Africa  as  a  fifth  province 
thereof.  And  fourthly,  the  granting  of  Besponsible  Government 
to  the  territory  by  the  Imperial  authorities,  a  course  which  would 
place  Southern  Bhodesia  in  the  same  rank  in  the  British  Empire 
as  that  held  by  Newfoundland.  Of  these  possibilities  the  idea 
of  Crown  Colony  Government  was  even  more  unpopular  with 


1920.]  Rhodesia.  [283 

the  colonists  than  a  continuance  of  the  existing  regime.  *  The 
candidates  for  the  Legislative  Council  therefore  favoured  either 
union  with  South  Africa  or  the  policy  of  Besponsible  Govern- 
ment. A  "  Besponsible  Government  Association,"  was  formed 
and  took  an  active  part  in  the  election  campaign.  Thirteen 
candidates  were  to  be  elected,  and  in  the  result  11  of  the  seats 
were  captured  by  candidates  favouring  Besponsible  Government. 
Bhodesians  were  opposed  to  absorption  in  South  Africa  on  much 
the  same  grounds  as  had  caused  Natal  to  incline  to  stand  out 
from  the  union  in  the  past.  The  white  population  of  Bhodesia, 
like  that  of  Natal,  was  predominantly  British  in  extraction; 
whereas  South  Africa  as  a  whole  was  of  course  predominantly 
Dutch.  The  new  Legislative  Assembly  straightway  passed  a 
resolution  by  12  votes  to  5  asking  the  Imperial  Government 
to  bestow  Besponsible  Government  upon  the  Colony.  It  will 
be  noted  that  one  of  the  official  members  of  the  Council  voted 
with  the  elected  majority.  The  Imperial  authorities  decided, 
however,  that  the  time  was  not  yet  ripe  for  such  a  step  to  be 
taken.  It  was  recognised,  on  all  hands,  that  the  problem  of 
Northern  Bhodesia  was  quite  distinct.  Northern  Bhodesia  was 
really  a  tropical  colony.  It  was  obvious  that  the  Zambezi  was 
the  real  dividing  line  between  " South  Africa,"  and  "Central 
Africa." 

PORTUGUESE  WEST  AFRICA. 

According  to  reports  received  during  the  year  conditions  in 
this  Colony  were  somewhat  more  favourable  than  in  the  other 
Portuguese  possessions.  It  was  stated  that  during  the  previous 
few  years  enormous  progress  had  been  made  in  the  construction 
of  roads.  In  1914  the  total  length  of  roads  in  the  country  was 
only  300  kilometers.  In  1920  it  was  12,000  kilometers,  in  the 
same  period  the  foreign  trade  of  the  country  had  trebled.  The 
chief  exports  were  coffee,  cocoanut,  bees-wax,  and  palm-oil. 

PORTUGUESE  EAST  AFRICA. 

On  December  31,  1919,  a  census  of  the  Mozambique  terri- 
tories was  held,  and  the  results  were  published  at  the  end  of 
1920.  It  appeared  that  the  European  population  was  still  ex- 
traordinarily small.  The  native  population  numbered  252,376. 
The  coloured  (half-caste)  population  was  1,665.  The  Asiatic 
settlers  numbered  908.  The  total  of  the  European  population 
was  only  2,233. 

BRITISH  EAST  AFRICA. 

During  the  year  there  was  a  reorganisation  of  the  Allied 
East  African  territories  in  several  respects.  In  the  first  place 
the  British  East  Africa  Protectorate  imderwent  a  change  of 
name  and  a  change  of  status  in  the  Empire.  The  Protectorate 
was  re-named  the  Kenya  Colony  and  became  a  Crown  Colony 


284]         FOREIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTORY.         [i920. 

instead  of  a  Protectorate.  In  the  second  place,  the  partition  of 
what  had  been  German  East  Africa  was  carried  out.  It  will  be 
remembered  that  under  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Versailles, 
Great  Britain  and  Belgium  had  become  mandatories  under  the 
League  of  Nations,  for  two  portions  respectively  of  the  ex- 
German  territory.  The  British  portion  of  the  territory  was  by 
far  the  larger.  The  Belgians  obtained  the  province  of  Urundi, 
and  most  of  the  province  of  Ruanda,  situated  in  the  north-east 
of  the  colony.  The  border  between  the  British  and  Belgian 
spheres  ran  from  the  eastern  shore  of  Lake  Tanganjdka,  at 
Megera,  for  about  150  miles  north-eastwards,  and  tiben  almost 
due  north  to  the  point  where  the  Muvumba  River  cut  the  old 
frontier  between  Uganda  and  German  East  Africa.  The  large 
British  section  of  the  territory  was  not  annexed  to  the  Kenya 
Colony,  which  would  of  course  have  been  impossible  since  the 
territory  was  held  not  as  part  of  the  British  Empire  but  under 
the  authority  of  the  League  of  Nations.  The  British  sphere 
was  named  the  Tanganyika  Territory.  It  will  be  observed  that 
the  Belgian  sphere  was  contiguous  to  the  Belgian  Congo. 
Some  Belgians  made  it  a  case  for  complaint  that  part  of  Ruanda 
had  gone  to  Great  Britain. 

During  the  summer  the  Governor  of  the  Kenya  Colony,  Sir 
Edward  Northey,  visited  England,  and  whilst  he  was  away  Sir 
C.  Bowring  held  the  post  of  Acting-Governor,  and  it  fell  to  him 
to  open  the  first  session  of  the  new  East- African  Legislative 
Council,  which  included  elected  representatives  of  the  white 
population.  The  Acting-Governor  said  that  the  new  Legisla- 
ture marked  an  era  in  the  history  of  the  colony.  On  his  return 
to  East  Africa  in  July,  Sir  E.  Northey  announced  the  details 
of  the  establishment  of  the  Kenya  Colony.  He  said  that  the 
Sultan  of  Zanzibar's  territory  on  the  coast  would  remain  a 
Protectorate  under  the  title  of  the  Kenya  Protectorate. 

During  the  year  serious  charges  were  made  against  the 
white  settlers  in  British  East  Africa  in  regard  to  the  alleged  ill- 
treatment  and  forced-labour  of  the  natives.  The  char|[es  were 
made  among  others  by  the  Bishop  of  Zanzibar  and  Sur  Hany 
Johnston.  The  charges  led  to  a  somewhat  acrimonious  contro- 
versy, and  although  the  charges  may  have  been,  and  probably 
were,  exaggerated,  it  appeared  to  be  desirable  that  an  authori- 
tative investigation  into  the  matter  should  be  instituted. 

Sir  H.  A.  Byatt  became  Governor  of  the  Tanganyika 
Territory. 

BRITISH  SOMALILAND. 

During  January  there  were  brief  hostilities  between  the 
British  Garrison  in  Somaliland  and  the  chief  Mohammed 
Abdulla,  known  as  the  '*  Mad  Mullah. **  The  Royal  Air  Force 
played  an  important  part  in  the  operations,  and  bombed  the 
chiefs  Headquarters  at  Medishi,   200  miles  east  of  Berbera. 


1930.]  Egypt.  [286 

The  tribesmen  were  temporarily  dispersed,  but  the  chief  himself 
escaped,  as  on  many  former  occasions. 

Proposals  were  made  for  the  cession  of  a  small  portion  of 
territory  to  ItaUan  Somaliland,  but  no  final  arrangement  was 
reached  on  this  question. 

LIBYA. 

During  the  year  France  made  certain  territorial  concessions 
to  Italy,  so  that  the  south-western  frontier  of  Libya  could  be 
straightened  out  between  Ghadames  and  Bhat,  and  between 
Bhat  and  Tummo.  On  the  south-eastern  frontier  France  also 
made  certain  small  concessions. 


MOROCCO. 

Bemarkable  statistics  were  pubUshed  during  the  year  re- 
lating to  the  progress  in  the  French  zone  in  Morocco.  It  was 
stated  that  whereas  in  1912  there  were  only  6  miles  of  roads  in 
the  country,  in  1919  the  length  of  the  roads  was  1,500  miles. 
In  the  same  period  the  area  under  cultivation  had  been  increased 
from  2,500,000  acres  to  6,000,000  acres. 

EGYPT. 

The  year  was  a  highly  eventful  one  in  Egypt.  The  revolu- 
tionary agitations  of  the  previous  year  had  subsided,  and  re- 
lations between  the  British  and  the  Egyptians  had  improved. 
At  the  end  of  1919,  Youssef  Wahba  Pasha  was  Prime  Minister ; 
and  the  attention  of  the  country  was  concentrated  upon  the 
activities  of  a  special  commission  which  the  British  Govern- 
ment had  sent  out  to  E^pt  to  investigate  conditions  there,  and 
to  make  recommendations  in  regard  to  the  relations  which 
should  exist  in  future  between  Egypt  and  the  British  Empire. 
Lord  Milner  was  Chairman  of  the  Commission. 

On  February  11  a  son  and  heir  was  bom  to  the  Sultan, 
FuadL 

In  March  Lord  Milner*s  mission  left  Egypt,  but  continued 
its  deliberations  at  great  length  in  London  during  the  spring 
and  summer. 

On  March  25  the  Council  of  Ministers  considered  and  ap- 
proved the  Budget  estimates  for  1920-21.  The  figures  were 
very  high,  since  the  revenue  and  expenditure  were  expected  to 
balance  at  E40,271,000Z.,  which  was  over  E11,000,000Z.  above 
the  estimated  revenue  and  expenditure  of  the  previous  financial 
year. 

In  the  middle  of  May  Wahba  Pasha  resigned  office,  and  was 
succeeded  as  Prime  Minister  by  Tewfik  Nessim  Pasha. 

The  leader  of  the  Egyptian  Nationalists  was  a  certain 
Zaghlul  Pasha,  and  whilst  the  Milner  Mission  were  in  Egypt 
the  relations  between  Zaghlul' s  followers  and  the  mission  were 


286]         FOREIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTORY.         [1920. 

not  very  good.  But  in  June  Zaghlul,  at  the  head  of  a  National- 
ist deputation,  had  long  conferences  with  the  Milner  Mission 
in  London.  Although  some  of  the  Nationalists  had  proclaimed 
the  independence  of  Egypt  in  the  spring,  the  conversations  in 
London  were  fruitful,  and  were  continued  until  the  middle  of 
August.  It  was  then  announced  that  an  agreement  had  been 
reached  between  Lord  Milner  and  Zaghlul  Pasha  and  their 
respective  committee-men;  though  the  details  of  the  agree- 
ment were  not  at  first  made  known.  It  was  stated,  however, 
that  Great  Britain  would  recognise  the  independence  of  Egypt, 
provided  that  a  very  intimate  alliance  were  concluded  between 
the  two  countries.  Zaghlul  returned  to  Egypt  and  recom- 
mended the  agreement  to  his  countrymen,  and  was  able  to 
secure  the  support  of  the  majority  of  his  followers.  The 
Nationalist  delegation  then  again  returned  to  England  in 
October. 

In  November  a  joint  memorandum  was  sent  to  the  Imperial 
Government  by  the  Milner  Mission  and  the  Egyptian  National* 
ist  delegation.  The  memorandum  proposed  that  the  indepen- 
dence of  Egypt  as  a  constitutional  monarchy  should  be  recognised 
by  Great  Britain,  and  that  Egypt  should  enjoy  the  right  to 
representation  in  foreign  countries.  It  was  proposed  that  the 
system  of  capitulations  should  be  modified  or  abolished.  It 
was  proposed  that  Great  Britain  should  have  the  right  to  main- 
tain a  military  force  on  Egyptian  soil  for  the  protection  of  her 
Imperial  communications.  The  rights  hitherto  exercised  under 
the  system  of  capitulations  should  be  transferred  to  Great 
Britain.  ''  On  account  of  the  special  relations  between  Great 
Britain  and  Egypt  created  by  the  Alliance,  the  British  repre- 
sentative will  be  accorded  an  exceptional  position  in  Egypt 
and  will  be  entitled  to  precedence  over  all  other  representatives." 
An  Egyptian  constituent  assembly  was  to  be  called.  Special 
rights  were  to  be  preserved  for  foreigners  in  Egypt,  and 
Great  Britain  was  to  support  an  application  by  Egypt  for  ad- 
mission as  a  member  of  the  League  of  Nations. 

SUDAN. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  at  the  end  of  1919  the  Dinka 
tribe  had  risen  against  the  British  authorities,  and  had  killed, 
among  others,  Major  Stigand,  the  Governor  of  Mongalla.  A 
punitive  force  was  sent  against  the  Dinkas  at  the  end  of  March, 
the  force  being  under  the  command  of  Colonel  Darwell,  of  the 
Boyal  Marines.  The  main  enemy  force  was  taken  by  surprise 
on  May  4,  and  after  a  brief  engagement  it  surrendered  uncon- 
ditionally.    There  were  no  further  disturbances  during  the  year. 


1920.]  United  States.  [287 

CHAPTER  IX. 

AMERICA:    THE    UNITED    STATES    OF   AMERICA    AND    ITS  DBPEN 
DENCIBS — CANADA — NEWFOUNDLAND  —  MEXICO  —  BRAZIL — 
ARGENTINA— CHILI — PERU — BOLIVIA — OTHER  AMERICAN  RE- 
PUBLICS. 

THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  AND  ITS  DEPENDENCIES. 

At  the  opening  of  the  year  the  American  people  were  sharply 
divided  upon  one  of  the  greatest  political  issues  which  had  ever 
been  placed  before  any  nation.  That  issue  was  whether  the 
United  States  should  or  should  not  join  in  the  projected  scheme 
for  a  League  of  Nations  which  had  been  drawn  up  by  President 
Wilson  and  the  leading  European  statesmen  in  Paris  in  the 

Previous  year.     It  will  be  remembered  that  the  Covenant  of  the 
jeague  of  Nations  had  been  inextricably  interwoven  with  the 
substance  of  the  Treaty  of  Versailles.    President  Wilson  had 
been  more  responsible  than  any  other  statesman  for  the  terms 
of  the  Covenant,  and  in  particular  for  the  union  of  the  Covenant 
and  the  Treaty  in  one  document.     The  Treaty,  with  the  in- 
cluded Covenant,  had  been  accepted  by  the  Parliaments  of  the 
leading  European  Powers  and  by  Japan,  and  as  described  else- 
where (see  France)  the  Treaty  was  duly  ratified  and  came  into 
force,  so  far  as  the  European  Powers  were  concerned,  at  the 
beginning  of  January.    In  America,  however,  the  development 
of  events  had  been  quite  otherwise.    President  Wilson  had  gone 
to  Paris  nominally  as  the  representative  of  the  American  nation 
as  a  whole,  but  in  practice  he  had  represented  only  the  Demo- 
cratic Party.    Durmg  1918  and  the  earlier  months  of  1919  the 
President  had  omitted  to  secure  the  support  of,  or  to  come  to 
any  agreement  with,  the  leaders  of  the  Bepublican  Party.     The 
foreign  policy  which  the  President  advocated  involved  many 
conceptions  which  were  new,  not  only  to  America,  but  to  the 
world  at  large.     Hence  it  was  essential,  if  his  policy  was  to  be 
successful,  that  he  should  have  behind  him  very  general  and 
widespread  support  in  his  own  country.    And  apart  altogether 
from  the  novelty  of  Dr.  Wilson's  plans  there  was  a  further  Con- 
stitutional point,  which  bulked  largely  in  the  American  view  of 
the  situation,  namely,  that  the  American  Constitution  gave  the 
Senate  highly  important  powers  in  the  matter  of  foreign  policy. 
And  Dr.  Wilson  had  neglected  to  consult  sufficiently  with  the 
Upper  House  of  his  Legislature.     This  error  of  judgment  was 
the  more  remarkable  in  that  the  Bepublican  Party  had  gained 
a  smaU  majority  in  that  House,  and  there  was  therefore,  of 
course,  an  obvious  risk  that  the  President's  plans  might  be 
vetoed  when  they  came  to  be  submitted  to  the  Legislature. 
During  the  course  of  the  year  1919  the  hostility  of  the  Bepublican 
Party  to  President  Wilson's  foreign  policy  in  general,  and  to 
the  League  of  Nations  in  particular,  grew  rapidly,  and  from  the 


288]         FOBEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTOEY.         [1920. 

tiin§  when  the  Treaty  was  first  brought  before  the  Senate  in  the 
autumn,  it  was  obvious  to  the  onlooker  that  there  was  no  chance 
of  the  Treaty  being  ratified  by  Congress  without  grave  and  im- 
portant amendments.  The  prospects  of  the  Treaty  were  further 
compromised  by  the  sudden  and  serious  breakdown  in  Dr. 
Wilson's  health  early  in  the  autumn. 

During  the  consideration  of  the  Treaty  by  the  Senate  funda- 
mental reservations  were  introduced  by  tiie  Bepublican  leaders, 
and  particularly  by  Senator  Lodge.  Of  these  reservations 
perhaps  the  most  important  was  a  reservation  to  the  essential 
Article  10  of  the  League  Covenant  (see  A.K.,  1919,  p.  [281). 
There  were  several  other  important  reservations  which  the 
Bepublicans  wished  to  introduce  into  the  Treaty,  and  in  particular 
great  opposition  was  shown  to  the  votes  in  the  Assembly  of 
the  League  which  the  Covenant  gave  to  the  British  Overseas 
Dominions — the  opposition  being  based  upon  the  contention 
that  the  British  Empire  was  a  single  state,  and  should  therefore 
possess  only  a  single  vote. 

At  the  end  of  the  debate  in  the  Senate,  which  lasted  for 
many  weeks,  the  Bepublican  leaders  brought  forward  a  resolu- 
tion to  ratify  the  Treaty  with  the  reservations  which  they  wished 
to  see  appended  to  it.  As  has  akeady  been  explained  the 
majority  of  the  Bepubhcan  Party  were  desirous,  or  at  all  events 
willing,  that  the  Treaty  should  be  ratified  with  these  reserva- 
tions. But  there  existed  a  small  extreme  section  of  the  Be- 
publicans in  the  Senate  who  were  opposed  to  the  League  of 
Nations  in  any  form  whatsoever.  And  this  latter  group  of 
Senators  intended  to  vote  against  the  Treaty  no  matter  what 
reservations  might  be  appended  to  it.  It  was  in  this  triangular 
situation  that  the  resolution  to  ratify  the  Treaty  was  finally  put 
to  the  vote  in  the  Upper  House  on  November  19.  The  majority 
of  the  Bepublicans  voted  for  the  resolution ;  but  the  Democrats 
and  the  Bepublican  malcontents  voted  against  it,  the  former 
on  the  ground  that  the  resolution  did  not  commit  the  United 
States  sufficiently  to  the  League  of  Nations,  and  the  latter  on 
the  directly  opposite  ground  that  it  committed  the  United  States 
too  much.  And  in  the  event,  the  malcontent  Bepublican  vote 
was  sufficient  to  produce  an  actual  majority  against  the  Treaty. 
And  the  matter  was  left  in  this  position  at  the  end  of  the  year. 

The  reader  will  understand  that  since  the  American  Senate 
was  opposed  to  the  general  commitment  involved  in  the  League 
of  Nations,  it  followed,  a  fortiori,  that  the  Senate  was  opposed 
to  the  precise  and  particular  comimitment  to  which  President 
Wilson  had  put  his  signature  in  Paris  when  he  had  agreed  to 
the  joint  Anglo-American  Treaty  guaranteeing  French  territory 
against  future  attack  (see  A.B.,  1919,  p.  [182).  There  was 
never  any  serious  prospect  of  this  French  Treaty  being  ratified 
by  the  Senate. 

At  the  beginning  of  January  President  Wilson  made  it  clear 
that  he  personally  was  firmly  opposed  to  any  compromise  on 


1920.]  United  States.  [289 

the  question  of  the  League  of  Nations,  which  he  regarded  as  of 
vital  importance  for  the  welfare  of  mankind.  Some  of  the  other 
Democratic  leaders,  including  Mr.  Hitchcock,  the  Leader  of  the 
Democratic  Party  in  the  Senate,  were,  however,  in  favour  of 
compromise,  thinking  that  the  League  with  reservations  was 
better  than  no  League  at  all.  Mr.  Bryan  was  also  in  favour  of 
compromising  with  the  Republicans,  though  not  on  the  question 
of  Article  10. 

The  refusal  of  President  Wilson  to  compromise  placed  the 
Democrats  in  a  difficult  position,  because  few  of  them  were 
anxious  to  have  the  League  of  Nations  as  an  issue  in  the 
Presidential  Election  which  was  due  in  the  following  autumn. 
On  the  other  hand,  Senator  Lodge  and  the  other  Bepubhcans  were 
pleased  at  this  prospect  for  party  reasons,  as  they  saw  a  possi- 
bility of  representing  the  League  in  an  unpopular  light.  On 
this  point  Mr.  Lodge  declared  himself  plainly.  "The  issue," 
he  said,  "  is  squarely  drawn.  The  reservations  intended  solely 
to  protect  the  United  States  in  her  Sovereignty  and  Indepen- 
dence are  discarded  by  the  President.  The  President  places 
himself  squarely  on  behalf  of  Internationalism  against  Ameri- 
canism." 

During  January  various  conferences  were  held  between  the 
Republican  and  Democratic  Senators  in  order  to  investigate  the 
possibility  of  a  compromise,  but  these  attempts  always  broke 
down  owing  to  the  inability  of  the  Democrats  to  accept  the 
Lodge  reservation  on  Article  10  of  the  Covenant.  Senator 
Hitehcock  himself  proposed  to  substitute  a  much  milder  reserva* 
tion,  merely  assertmg  that  the  United  States  would  not  partici- 
pate in  an  economic  bo^cot  or  in  military  action  in  order  to 
preserve  the  territorial  mtegrity  of  any  other  country  unless 
Congress  passed  an  act  in  each  specific  case ;  but  this  proposal 
did  not  suffice  to  meet  the  views  of  the  Bepublicans. 

On  February  9  the  Treaty  was  once  more  brought  before  the 
Senate,  though  very  little  hopes  were  entertained  that  an  ac- 
commodation between  Mr.  Lodge  and  the  President  would  be 
reached.  However,  the  debate  on  the  Treaty  again  lasted  for 
several  weeks. 

In  the  meantime  a  sensation  was  caused  in  political  circles 
by  a  dispute  between  the  President  and  the  Secretary  of  State, 
Mr.  Bobert  Lansing,  which  led  to  the  resignation  of  the  latter. 
It  appears  that  on  February  7,  Dr.  Wilson  addressed  a  letter  to 
Mr.  Lansing  inquiring  whether  it  were  true  that  the  latter  had 
frequently  (»dled  Conferences  of  the  Heads  of  Executive  De- 

Eirtments  of  the  Government  during  his  (Dr.  Wilson's)  illness, 
r.  Wilson  also  averred  that  "  under  our  constitutional  law  and 
practice,  as  developed  hitherto,  no  one  but  the  President  has  the 
right  to  smnmon  the  Heads  of  the  Executive  Departments  in 
Conference,  and  no  one  but  the  President  and  Congress  has  the 
right  to  ask  their  views,  or  the  views  of  any  one  of  them,  on  any 
public  question." 

T 


290]         FOEEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  KISTOKY.         [1920. 

In  his  reply  dated  February  9,  Mr.  Lansing  said  that  it  was 
true  that  he  had  asked  his  colleagues  to  confer  in  an  informal 
manner  on  inter-departmental  matters,  which  could  not  be  de- 
layed and  to  which  Dr.  Wilson's  ill-health  made  it  impossible 
for  him  to  attend.  Mr.  Lansing  went  on  to  say  that  he  had  no 
intention  whatever  of  acting  unconstitutionally,  but  at  the  same 
time  expressed  his  willingness  to  resign. 

In  reply  to  this  letter  Dr.  Wilson  sent  a  long  and  strongly 
worded — even  petulant — answer,  stating  that  Mr.  Lansing's 
explanations  were  unsatisfactory,  and  that  since  the  Cabinet 
could  not  act  without  the  President,  there  was  no  object  in  hold- 
ing the  inter-departmental  conferences.  The  President  went  on 
to  say  that  he  had  been  conscious  for  some  time  that  there  had 
been  a  divergence  of  opinion  between  them  on  various  matters 
of  foreign  policy.  Dr.  Wilson  also  accepted  Mr.  Lansing's  sug- 
gestion that  he  should  resign. 

Mr.  Lansing's  second  letter,  dated  February  12,  declared  that 
he  also  had.  been  conscious  of  the  divergence  of  view,  and  defi- 
nitely resigned  his  office. 

Public  opinion,  both  Bepublican  and  Democratic,  was  almost 
wholly  sympathetic  to  Mr.  Lansing;  as  it  was  felt  that 
President  Wilson's  complaints  were  unreasonable  in  the  circum- 
stances then  existing.  Dr.  Wilson  appointed  Mr.  B.  Colby  as 
Secretary  of  State  in  succession  to  Mr.  Lansing.  Mr.  Colby 
had  been  regarded  as  a  Bepublican,  and  in  the  past  had  been 
closely  associated  with  Mr.  Theodore  Boosevelt ;  but  during  the 
period  of  the  war  he  had  been  closely  associated  with  the  work 
of  the  Administration. 

On  March  1,  the  Executive  took  important  action  in  returning 
all  the  railroads  of  the  country  to  private  ownership  and  manage- 
ment. The  Government  had  taken  over  control  of  all  the  United 
States  railroads  in  December,  1917. 

Whilst  these  events  were  taking  place,  the  debate  in  the 
Senate  on  the  League  of  Nations  continued,  and  at  the  beginning 
of  March  all  the  important  Bepublican  reservations,  those  relating 
to  Article  10,  the  voting  power  in  the  Assembly,  and  other 
matters,  were  re-adopted  with  but  slight  modifications.  The 
modified  reservation  to  Article  10  read  as  follows : — 

"The  United  States  assumes  no  obligation  to  employ  its 
military  or  naval  forces,  its  resources,  or  any  form  of  economic 
discrimination  to  preserve  the  territorial  integrity,  or  political 
independence,  of  any  other  country,  or  to  interfere  in  contro- 
versies between  nations,  whether  members  of  the  League  or  not, 
under  the  provisions  of  Article  10,  or  to  employ  the  military  or 
naval  forces  of  the  United  States  under  any  Article  of  the  Peace 
Treaty  for  any  purpose  unless,  in  any  particular  case.  Congress 
in  the  exercise  of  its  full  Uberty  of  action,  shall  by  a  joint 
resolution  so  provide." 

And  the  modified  reservation  directed  against  the  votes  of 
the  British  Empire  in  the  League  Assembly  read  as  follows : — 


1920.]  United  States,  [291 

"  Until  Part  I.,  being  the  Covenant  of  the  League  of  Nations, 
shall  be  so  amended  as  to  provide  that  the  United  States  shall 
be  entitled  to  cast  a  number  of  votes  equal  to  that  which  any 
member  of  the  League  and  its  self-governing  Dominions, 
Colonies,  or  parts  of  Empire  in  the  aggregate  shall  be  entitled 
to  cast,  the  United  States  assumes  no  obligation  to  be  bound, 
except  in  cases  where  Congress  has  previously  given  its  con- 
sent, by  any  election,  decision,  report,  or  finding  of  the  Council 
or  Assembly  in  which  any  member  of  the  League  and  its 
self-governing  Dominions,  Colonies,  or  parts  of  Empire  in  the 
aggregate  have  cast  more  than  one  vote.  The  United  States 
assumes  no  obligation  to  be  bound  by  any  decision,  report,  or 
finding  of  the  Council  or  Assembly  arising  out  of  any  dispute 
between  the  United  States  and  any  member  of  the  League,  if 
such  member  or  any  self-governing  Dominion,  Colony,  or  part 
of  Empire  united  with  it  politically,  has  voted." 

Efforts  were  made  by  the  Democrats  themselves,  both  within 
and  without  the  Senate,  to  induce  the  President  to  compromise ; 
but  Dr.  Wilson  again  made  it  clear  that  he  regarded  the  reserva- 
tion to  Article  10  in  particular  as  fatal  to  the  whole  spirit  and 
intention  of  the  Covenant  and  of  the  Treaty  of  Peace  generally. 
After  a  reservation  expressing  sympathy  with  the  aspirations  of 
the  Irish  people  had  been  adopted  at  the  last  minute,  the  Treaty 
with  the  Republican  reservations  was  once  more  put  to  the  House. 
In  the  residt,  49  Senators  voted  for  the  Besolution,  ratifying 
the  Treaty,  and  35  voted  against  the  Besolution.  But  since  the 
Treaty  required  a  two-thirds  majority  for  ratification,  this  voting 
was  in  fact  a  rejection  of  the  Besolution.  The  majority  con- 
sisted of  28  Bepublicans  and  21  Democrats,  and  the  minority 
consisted  of  23  Democrats  and  12  extreme  malcontent  Bepubli- 
cans. The  voting  was  strikingly  different  from  that  in  November, 
when  only  7  Democrats  had  voted  for  the  ratification  of  the 
Treaty  with  the  Lodge  reservations.  Since  the  President  was 
still  determined  not  to  agree  to  the  passage  of  the  Treaty  with 
the  reservations  which  had  been  adopted,  the  Treaty  was  once 
more  shelved. 

At  the  end  of  March,  the  United  States  Government  inter- 
ested itself  in  the  controversy  between  the  French  and  German 
Governments  relative  to  the  sending  of  German  troops  into 
the  Btihr  Basin  in  order  to  deal  with  the  Spartacists.  The 
American  Government  sent  a  note  to  Paris  stating  that  they 
would  have  no  objection  to  the  occupation  of  the  zone  by 
German  troops ;  but  that,  on  the  other  hand,  they  would  regard 
the  occupation  of  the  area  by  Allied  troops  as  inconvenient. 

The  deadlock  with  regard  to  the  Treaty  of  Versailles  left  the 
United  States  still  technically  at  war  with  Germany ;  and  ac- 
cordingly it  was  announced  that  the  Bepublican  leaders  in  the 
Senate  would  introduce  a  resolution  declaring  that  a  state  of 
peace  existed  between  the  United  States  and  Germany.  The 
Peace  Besolution  came  before  the  House  of  Bepresentatives  at 

t2 


292]         FOBEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTOEY.         [i9-a 

the  beginning  of  April,  and  on  April  9  the  House  passed  the 
resolution  by  242  votes  to  150.  Twenty-two  Democrats  voted 
in  favour  of  the  resolution.  There  was  some  delay  in  bringing 
the  resolution  before  the  Senate;  but  on  May  15  the  Upper 
House  passed  the  resolution  by  43  votes  to  38,  only  3  Democrats 
voting  with  the  majority.  The  resolution  having  been  some- 
what modified  by  the  Senate,  it  was  again  sent  back  to  the 
House  of  Bepresentatives,  where  it  was  confirmed.  At  the  end 
of  May  it  was,  however,  vetoed  by  President  Wilson.  The 
House  of  Bepresentatives  then  considered  the  resolution  again, 
and  the  Bepublicans  endeavoured  to  obtain  the  two-thirds 
majority  which  was  necessary  to  over-ride  the  President's  veto. 
When  the  motion  was  put  to  the  House,  however,  it  was  passed 
by  only  219  votes  to  152.  Thus  the  United  States  continued 
to  be  technically  at  war  with  Germany  and  Austria. 

In  May  the  United  States  received  an  invitation  from  the 
Supreme  Coimcil  to  take  up  the  mandate  for  Armenia.  Presi- 
dent Wilson  urged  the  Senate  to  consent  to  take  up  the  mandate, 
which  he  said  it  was  the  duty  of  the  United  States  to  undertake. 
President  Wilson  again  found  himself  faced  by  the  bitter  op- 
position of  the  Bepublican  Party.  And  on  June  1  the  Senate 
rejected  President  Wilson's  proposal  by  62  votes  to  12.  The 
Bepublicans  alleged  that  the  American  Army  necessary  to  police 
and  defend  Armenia  would  cost  150,000,0002.  in  the  first  five 
years  alone. 

The  question  of  woman  suffrage  was  considered  very  fuDy 
by  various  State  Legislatures  during  the  year.  A  majority  of 
three-fourths  of  the  States  was  necessary  in  order  to  give  women 
the  vote  throughout  the  country.  Washington  State  adopted 
woman  suffrage  in  March.  And  after  this  only  one  more  State 
was  required  to  give  women  the  federal  vote.  Shortly  after- 
wards, however,  both  Mississippi  and  Delaware  rejected  woman 
suffrage  proposals.  In  August  the  same  woman  suffrage  amend- 
ment to  the  Federal  Constitution  came  before  the  Legislature  of 
Tennessee.  The  amendment  was  first  passed  by  both  Houses 
of  the  Legislature,  but  was  then  disallowed  on  the  ground  that 
when  the  State  House  of  Bepresentatives  passed  the  motion  a 
quorum  had  not  been  present.  Finally,  however,  the  resolu- 
tion was  passed  by  Connecticut,  so  that  woman  suffrage  was 
thus  embodied  in  the  Federal  Constitution.  The  amendment 
merely  stated  that  **  the  right  of  citizens  of  the  United  States 
to  vote  shall  not  be  denied  or  abridged  by  the  United  States  or 
by  any  State  on  account  of  sex."  It  was  stated  that  about 
26,000,000  women  were  thus  enfranchised. 

Early  in  August  when  the  Busso-Polish  campaign  was  at  its 
height,  the  American  Government  sent  a  long  note  to  the  Italian 
Government,  explaining  at  length  the  grounds  on  which  America 
could  have  no  dealings  with  the  Government  of  Soviet-Bussia. 
The  American  Government  stated,  however,  that  they  thought 
that  Bussia  should  be  allowed  to  establish  herself  within  her  full 


1920.]  United  States.  [293 

boundaries,  which  should  include  the  whole  of  the  former 
Bussian  Empire,  except  Finland  proper,  ethnographic  Poland, 
and  Armenia.  The  United  States  had  therefore  given  no 
recognition  to  Estland,  Lettland,  and  Lithuania ;  nor  to  Azerbai- 
jan and  Georgia. 

The  Presidential  Election  was  held  in  November,  and  dur- 
ing the  smnmer  there  were  the  usual  long-drawn*out  prepara- 
tions by  the  two  great  parties.  The  issue  was  fought  out  mainly 
upon  President  Wilson's  foreign  policy.  The  Democrats  sup- 
ported President  Wilson's  policy  of  the  League  of  Nations. 
The  Bepublicans  advocated  a  return  to  the  historic  American 
tradition  of  isolation.  Owing  to  President  Wilson's  illness  there 
was,  of  course,  no  question  of  his  standing  for  a  third  term. 
There  was  considerable  doubt  during  the  spring  as  to  who  would 
be  the  respective  candidates  of  the  Bepublicans  and  Democrats. 
The  chief  Bepublican  names  mentioned  were  those  of  Senator 
Harding  of  Ohio,  Senator  Borah  of  Idaho,  and  Senator  Johnson 
of  California.  On  the  Democratic  side  Governor  Cox  of  Ohio 
and  Mr.  Bryan  were  specially  mentioned. 

The  BepubUcan  National  Convention  met  at  Chicago  early 
in  June,  and  selected  Senator  Harding  as  candidate  after  an 
exciting  contest  in  which  half  a  dozen  other  names  were  put 
forward. 

At  the  end  of  the  same  month  the  Democratic  Convention 
met  at  San  Francisco,  and  after  a  close  contest  between  Mr. 
McAdoo  and  Governor  Cox  the  latter  was  selected  as  candidate. 
Governor  Cox  was  fifty  years  of  age,  and  as  Governor  of  Ohio 
he  had  an  extremely  good  record.  He  declared  himself  definitely 
in  favour  of  the  League  of  Nations. 

On  the  other  hand,  when  he  was  notified  of  his  nomination 
by  the  BepubUcan  Party,  Senator  Harding  made  it  perfectly 
clear  that  he  was  opposed  to  the  United  States  entering  the 
League.  He  said  that  "The  resumption  of  the  Senate's 
authority  saved  our  Bepubhc  and  its  mdependent  nationality 
when  autocracy  misinterpreted  the  dream  of  a  world  experiment 
to  be  the  vision  of  a  world  ideal.  The  BepubUcan  Senate  halted 
at  the  barter  of  independent  American  eminence  and  influence 
which  it  was  proposed  to  exchange  for  an  obscure  and  unequal 
place  in  the  merged  Government  of  the  world.  Our  party 
means  to  hold  the  heritage  of  American  nationaUty  unimpaired 
and  unsurrendered." 

The  elections  were  held  as  usual  on  the  first  Tuesday  in 
November  (the  2nd).  Besides  the  candidates  of  the  two  great 
parties,  three  other  candidates  were  nominated  by  much  smaller 
organisations.  Mr.  P.  P.  Christenson  stood  as  a  Farmer-Labour 
candidate ;  Mr.  E.  V.  Debs  stood  as  a  SociaUst ;  and  the  Bev. 
A.  S.  Watkins  stood  as  a  ''  Prohibition  "  candidate. 

In  the  result,  the  election  was  an  overwhelming  victory  for 
the  BepubUcans.  Mr.  Harding  secured  404  votes  in  the 
Electoral  College,  as  against  only  127  votes  for  Mr.   Cox. 


294]         FOKEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTOKY.  [1920. 

Except  in  the  old  Southern  States,  the  Bepublicans  had  large 
majorities  almost  everywhere.  The  Republicans  secured  a 
majority  of  22  in  the  Senate.  And  the  strength  of  the 
parties  in  the  new  House  of  Representatives  was  as  follows : 
Republicans  293 ;  Democrats  138 ;  others  4.  Mr.  Harding  was 
bom  in  1865,  and  was  the  son  of  a  medical  practitioner. 

On  September  16  a  powerful  bomb  was  exploded  in  Wall 
Street  in  New  York,  the  criminals  apparently  being  Russian 
anarchists.     Over  30  persons  were  killed  and  200  were  injured. 

In  June  the  Supreme  Court  declared  that  the  Prohibition 
amendment  of  the  Federal  Constitution,  which  had  been  dis- 
puted on  legal  grounds,  was  vahd. 

During  the  year  measures  were  adopted  by  Congress  making 
the  establishment  of  the  regular  Army  280,000  men  and  17,000 
officers.  A  sum  of  87,000,000/.  was  voted  for  Naval  expenditure 
in  the  year  1920-21. 

CANADA. 

At  the  opening  of  the  year  the  political  situation  in  Canada 
was  still  much  the  same  as  it  had  been  since  1917,  when  the 
Liberal  Party  had  been  rent  in  twain,  and  the  section  which 
was  then  in  favour  of  compulsory  service  in  the  overseas  Army 
had  joined  with  the  Conservatives  to  form  the  new  Unionist 
Party.  The  leader  of  the  Conservative  Party,  Sir  Robert 
Borden,  had  remained  Prime  Minister. 

The  spring  session  of  Parliament  was  opened  by  the 
Governor-General,  the  Duke  of  Devonshire,  on  February  26. 
The  occasion  was  notable  in  that  the  ceremony  was  held  in  the 
new  Parliament  House.  It  will  be  remembered  that  the  old 
Dominion  Parliament  building  at  Ottawa  had  been  destroyed 
by  fire  in  February,  1916.  The  speech  from  the  throne  opened 
by  a  reference  to  the  formal  conclusion  of  peace  and  to  the  fact 
that  the  League  of  Nations  was  now  constituted,  the  Canadian 
status  within  the  League  being  established.  The  Duke  con- 
tinued to  say  that  it  was  hoped  that  the  League  would  introduce 
an  effective  beginning  of  a  more  satisfactory  adjustment  of 
international  relations.  The.  Duke  then  drew  attention  to  the 
fact  that  privation  and  suffering  were  prevalent  in  all  parts  of 
the  world,  and  that  the  great  lesson  to  be  learned  from  iliis  was 
the  necessity  of  increased  production  combined  with  rigid 
economy  in  both  individual  and  national  expenditure. 

In  the  debate  which  followed  a  vote  of  no  confidence  in  the 
Ministry  and  calling  for  an  immediate  General  Election  was 
moved  by  Mr.  Mackenzie  King,  the  Leader  of  the  Liberal  Party. 
The  motion  was  defeated  by  112  votes  to  78. 

The  Budget  for  1920-21,  which  was  introduced  by  the 
Finance  Minister,  Sir  Henry  Drayton,  during  March,  showed  a 
most  satisfactory  decrease  in  national  expenditure.  The  total 
expenditure  during  the  previous  year  was  just  over  9900,000,000 ; 
the  estimated  expenditure  for  the  forthcoming  financial  year  was 


1920.]  Canada.  [295 

$537,000,000.  The  greatest  reduction  was  naturally  in  the  ex- 
penditure on  the  MjUQtia ;  but  there  were  also  large  reductions 
on  public  works.  Apart  from  the  Budget,  there  were  few 
important  measures  during  the  session,  but  the  Government 
brought  in  a  Bill  equalismg  the  franchise  throughout  the 
Canadian  provinces  and  giving  the  vote  to  all  British  citizens  of 
both  sexes  and  of  one  year's  residence  and  over  21  years  of  age. 
At  the  end  of  June  Parliament  was  prorogued,  and  it  was 
then  announced  that  Sir  Bobert  Borden,  who  had  been  in  ill- 
health  for  some  time,  would  retire.  Sir  Bobert  Borden  re- 
signed not  only  the  office  of  Prime  Minister  but  his  leadership 
of  the  Conservative  Party.  There  was  but  little  delay  in  the 
selection  of  Sir  Bobert  Borden's  successor.  After  a  few  days' 
discussion,  it  was  announced  that  the  Governor-General  had 
asked  Mr.  Arthur  Meighen,  who  had  been  Minister  of  the 
Interior,  to  form  a  Government.  Mr.  Meighen  succeeded  in 
forming  a  Cabinet,  but  there  were  certain  important  changes  in 
personnel,  and  the  Cabinet  was  by  no  means  the  same  as  that 
led  by  Sir  Bobert  Borden.  In  particular,  Mr.  Bowell,  who  was 
one  of  the  strongest  of  the  Coalition  Liberals,  retired  from  office. 
The  Cabinet  was  made  up  as  follows : — 


Prime  Minister  - 
Hinister  for  Immigration  - 
Minister  of  Trade      • 
Minister  of  the  Interior     • 
Minister  of  Finance  • 
Minister  of  Militia    • 
Secretary  of  State 
Minister  of  Railways 
Minister  of  Labour    - 
Minister  of  Marine    - 
Minister  of  Public  Works  • 
Minister  without  portfolio 
Postmaster-GknenI  - 
Minister  of  Agriculture 


Mr.  A.  Meighen. 
Mr.  J.  A.  Oalder. 
Sir  G.  Foster. 
Sir  J.  Lougheed. 
Sir  H.  Drayton. 
Mr.  H.  Quthrie. 
Mr.  A.  Sifton. 
Dr.  Beid. 

Senator  Robertson. 
Mr.  0.  Ballantyne. 
Mr.  F.  B.  McCurdy. 
Sir  E.  Kemp. 
Senator  Blondin. 
Dr.  Tolmie. 


The  change  of  Prime  Ministers  was  necessarily  a  landmark 
in  Canadian  political  life,  because,  as  will  be  remembered,  Sir 
B.  Borden  had  been  Prime  Minister  for  nine  years.  The  new 
Prime  Minister  was  only  46  years  of  age.  For  a  period  of 
twelve  years  he  had  represented  a  Manitoba  constituency  in  the 
House  of  Conmions.  He  was  a  lawyer  by  profession  and  had 
been  educated  at  Toronto  University. 

After  this  reconstruction  of  the  Ministry  the  name  of  the 
Unionist  Party  was  changed  to  that  of  **  National  Liberal  and 
Conservative  Party."  And  the  party  took  occasion  to  publish 
their  programme  in  full.  It  was  stated  that  the  first  plank  in 
their  pla3orm  was  the  ''  firm  adherence  to  the  British  connexion 
in  the  full  confidence  that  Canada  will  find  its  amplest  scope 
for  the  development  of  its  usefulness  and  influence  as  a  member 
of  the  Britannic  Commonwealth,  with  the  status  of  a  self- 
governing  nation  equal  to  that  of  the  other  members."  The 
Krty  also  stated  that  they  stood  for  the  principle  that  no 
eaty  should  be  concluded  which  committed  the  whole  Empire 
except  after  joint  consultation.     The  party  also  approved  of 


296]         FOKEIGN  AND  COLONIAIj  HISTOEY.         [J92^. 

Canada's  membership  of  the  League  of  Nations,,  and  also  ex- 
pressed its  determination  to  uphold  Canada's  full  status  as 
a  member  of  the  League.  The  united  party  declared  that  in 
regard  to  the  Militia  they  proposed  to  maintain  a  highly  efficient 
force  but  on  a  very  moderate  scale.  The  party  also  favoured 
increased  direct  taxation. 

At  about  the  same  time,  Sir  Lomer  Gouin,  the  Prime 
Minister  of  Quebec,  also  resigned.  He  was  succeeded  by  the 
provincial  Minister  of  Public  Works,  Mr.  L.  A.  Taschereau. 
Mr.  Taschereau  was  a  lawyer  of  53  years  of  age  and  had  been 
educated  at  Leval  University. 

The  new  Prime  Minister  made  his  first  important  speech 
after  assuming  his  new  office  to  ^  large  meeting  of  farmers  in 
Hastings  coimty.  The  speech  was  mainly  devoted  to  a  defence 
of  a  protectionist  policy,  and  a  criticism  of  the  scheme  for  a  low 
tariff  which  the  Agrarians  and  Liberals  were  proposing.  He 
said  that  the  policy  of  the  Government  was  to  increase  the  em- 
ployment of  Canadian  workmen  by  enlarging  the  home  trade. 
The  idea  was  to  make  it  to  the  interest  of  Canadians  to  stay  in 
Canada.  Continuing,  the  Prime  Minister  said:  "I  see  only 
two  classes,  only  two  divisions,  in  the  country.  On  the  one 
side  are  those  who  hold  their  heads  steady  and  walk  firmly  and 
erectly  in  the  middle  of  the  road,  who  learn  from  experience, 
who  believe  in  industry,  order,  and  liberty,  who  still  have  faith 
in  British  institutions  and  principles,  that  have  made  us  what 
we  are  to-day.  And  on  the  other  side  I  see  those  who  have 
surrendered  to  prejudice  and  class  consciousness,  to  passion  for 
change  and  experiment,  whose  minds  are  occupied  in  nurturing 
suspicion  and  hostility  against  other  classes  of  the  State.  On 
the  one  side  I  see  the  builders  of  this  country's  foundations,  tried 
and  true.  On  the  other  side  those  engaged  in  the  cheerful  oc- 
cupation of  tearing  down.  I  put  the  question  to  you.  Are  you 
gomg  to  be  a  nation-builder  or  a  nation- wrecker  ?  " 

Two  provincial  General  Elections  took  place  in  the  autumn. 
On  October  9  there  was  a  General  Election  in  New  Brunswick ; 
the  Liberal  Government  (of  which  Mr.  Foster  was  Prime 
Minister)  lost  7  seats,  being  reduced  from  31  members  to  24, 
which  was  exactly  half  the  House.  This  of  course  produced 
a  very  unstable  position,  but  the  opposing  parties  were  not 
united  among  themselves,  since  they  consisted  of  13  Conserva- 
tives, 9  Agrarians,  and  2  Labourites.  The  provincial  capital, 
St.  John  City,  voted  overwhelmingly  in  favour  of  the  Liberals. 
A  General  Election  in  British  Colimibia  took  place  on  Decem- 
ber 1,  and  resulted  in  an  overwhelming  victory  for  the  Liberal 
Government  led  by  Mr.  J.  Oliver.  The  parties  were  returned 
in  the  following  strength :  Liberals,  21 ;  Conservatives,  9 ;  In- 
dependents, 2 ;  Labour,  2 ;  Socialists,  1.  It  was  reported  that 
in  the  reconstruction  of  the  Government  after  the  elections 
there  had  been  a  novel  and  interesting  departure  from  precedent, 
in  that  a  well-known  woman  politician,  Mrs.  Balph  Smith,  was 
appointed  a  Cabinet  Minister,  with  the  portfolio  of  Education. 


i 


1920.]  Canada.  [297 

In  reference  to  the  great  controversy  in  the  United  States, 
regarding  the  entrance  of  the  British  Dominions  into  the 
League  of  Nations  as  separate  entities,  Canadian  statesmen 
made  the  position  of  Canada  perfectly  plain  early  in  the  year. 
For  instance,  Mr.  Bowell  declared  in  speaking  to  a  political 
meeting  in  February  that  **  stripped  of  all  its  diplcnnatic  verbiage 
the  question  is  '  shall  the  Dominions  be  denied  the  distinction 
of  voting  rights  in  the  League  in  order  that  one  of  the  many 
objections  that  are  urged  by  some  members  of  the  United 
States  Senate  to  the  ratification  of  this  Treaty  may  be  removed  ?  * 
To  that  question  there  is  only  one  possible  reply,  and  that  is  a 
dignified  but  unequivocal  'No.'  '* 

Canadians  alsb  pointed  out  that  although  it  was  true  that 
the  British  Empire  had  six  votes  in  the  Assembly  of  the  League 
against  the  one  vote  of  the  United  States,  yet  it  must  be  re- 
membered that  the  petty  Central  American  republics,  which 
were  largely  under  the  influence  of  the  United  States,  each  had 
one  vote.  So  that  the  inequality  was  not  really  so  great  as 
was  alleged,  and  the  British  Dominions  were  certainly  far  more 
important  countries  than  the  little  republics  in  (question. 

At  the  end  of  the  year  an  interestmg  revelation  also  relating 
to  the  League  of  Nations  was  made  by  Sir  Bobert  Borden.  He 
said  that  when  the  Covenant  of  the  League  of  Nations  was 
being  drawn  up,  he  and  the  other  Canadian  representatives  had 
taken  much  the  same  objection  to  the  famous  Article  10,  as  was 
now  being  urged  by  the  Bepublican  leaders  in  the  United 
States  Congress.  This  revelation  was  interesting  in  that  it 
showed  that  the  objection  to  being  too  closely  involved  in  the 

R>litics  of  Europe  was  to  be  found  in  high  quarters  in  British 
orth  America  as  well  as  in  the  American  Bepublic. 
It  will  be  remembered  that  during  1919  the  Dominion 
Government  had  appointed  a  Commission  to  consider  an  inter- 
esting project  for  increasing  the  resources  of  Canada  as  a  meat- 
producing  country  by  reducing  to  a  state  of  semi-domestication 
the  two  Arctic  ungulates,  the  reindeer  and  the  musk-sheep. 
The  Chairman  of  the  Commission  was  Mr.  V.  Stefansson,  who 
was  indeed  the  author  of  this  novel  idea.  It  was  hoped  that  in 
this  way  the  great  northern  wastes  of  Canada  would  be  turned 
into  economically  productive  areas  by  this  new  form  of  farming. 
Mr.  Stefansson' s  Commission  reported  to  Parliament  in 
March.  The  Commission  suggested  that  a  very  large  area, 
perhaps  50,000  square  miles,  should  be  set  aside  as  a  ^zihg 
area  for  reindeer.  No  revenue  could  be  expected  for  the  nrst  ten 
years,  but  after  that  time  the  new  industry  should  prove  highly 
profitiftble.  Mr.  Stefansson  pointed  out  that  the  North  American 
reindeer,  known  as  the  caribou,  was  the  same  species  as  the 
European  reindeer,  though  usually  called  by  the  different  name. 
He  suggested  that  a  certain  number  of  European  reindeer 
should  be  imported  to  improve  the  breed,  and  good  results 
might  perhaps  also  be  obtained  by  crossing  the  more  southerly 
woodland  caribou  with  the  caribou  of  the  barren  grounds. 


298]         FOEEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTORY.         [i»20. 

Apart  from  breeding  reindeer,  Mr.  Stefansson  thought  that  a 
profitable  industry  could  be  built  up  by  domesticating  yak  and 
musk-sheep  on  a  large  scale.  It  was  estimated  that  the  number 
of  caribou  in  the  North  amounted  to  millions.  Later  in  the 
year  it  was  announced  that  a  large  strip  of  territory  in  Baffin 
Land,  north  of  Lake  Nettilling  (Lake  Kennedy),  had  been 
granted  to  Mr.  Stefansson  by  the  Canadian  Government  for  a 
period  of  thirty  years  in  order  to  carry  out  his  reindeer  experi- 
ment. Southampton,  Mansel,  and  Coats  Islands,  north  of  the 
Hudson  Bay,  were  also  set  aside  for  breeding  the  Northern 
ungulates. 

NEWFOUNDLAND. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  at  the  end  of  1919  there  had 
been  a  General  Election  in  Newfoundland  which  had  resulted 
in  a  somewhat  remarkable  victory  for  the  Fishermen's  Party, 
the  leader  of  which,  Mr.  B.  Squires,  became  Prime  Minister. 
Mr.  Squires  remained  in  power  throughout  1920.  During  the 
year  there  waa  an  important  territorial  dispute  between  New- 
foundland  and  Quebec.  The  western  boundary  of  Labrador 
had  never  been  definitely  demarcated.  Newfoundland  claimed 
for  Labrador  about  250,000  square  miles  in  the  Peninsular  of 
Ungava.  Quebec  claimed  on  the  other  hand  that  Labrador 
ended  at  a  distance  of  20  miles  from  the  coast.  At  the  end  of 
the  year  the  dispute  was  finally  referred  to  the  British  Privy 
Council  for  a  decision.  The  territory  in  dispute  was  said  to 
contain  great  deposits  of  coal,  and  it  also  had  considerable 
wealth  in  timber. 

MEXICO. 

During  the  year  there  was  yet  another  revolution  in  Mexico* 
The  President,  General  Carranza,  had  been  able  to  establish  his 
authority  over  the  greater  part  of  the  country,  but  like  his  pre- 
decessors he  suffered  from  the  extraordinary  inconstancy  of  the 
Mexican  people.  The  new  revolution  began  in  April  in  the 
State  of  Sonora,  which  declared  its  separation  from  the  Mexican 
Bepublic.  Carranza* s  troops  in  Sonora  were  either  defeated  or 
went  over  to  the  rebels.  The  leaders  of  the  rebel  movement 
were  Senor  de  la  Huerta  (Governor  of  Sonora)  and  a  certain 
General  Cejudo.  A  large  number  of  other  States  in  the  west 
and  south  declared  in  favour  of  the  Sonora  movement  before 
the  end  of  April.  The  famous  bandit.  General  Villa,  who  had 
never  been  reduced  by  General  Carranza,  appears  to  have 
assisted  the  revolutionaries.  Senor  de  la  Huerta  was  also  joined 
by  General  Obregon,  a  prospective  presidential  candidate. 
The  State  of  Chihuahua  joined  the  revolutionaries  at  the  be- 
ginning of  May,  and  after  this  the  revolutionaries  gradually 
closed  in  on  the  Capital.  The  revolutionaries  demanded  tha^ 
Carranza  should  resign,  but  the  President  refused  to  do  so.  On 
May  8  he  was  compelled  to  flee  from  Mexico  City.     On  May  16 


1920.]  Mexico.  [299 

Carranza  was  murdered  by  some  of  bis  own  treacberous  followers 
(see  Obituary). 

At  tbe  end  of  May  tbe  Mexican  Congress  appointed  General 
Huerta  as  provisional  President.  Tbe  new  Government  appears 
to  bave  bad  considerable  success  in  re-establisbing  order  in  tbe 
country,  and  in  August  General  Villa  surrendered  and  disbanded 
bis  forces  and  was  given  a  free  pardon  by  tbe  Government.  At 
tbe  beginning  of  September  a  formal  Presidential  Election  was 
beld,  and  General  Obregon  was  elected  President.  He  took 
over  tbe  reins  of  office  on  December  1 ;  and  Senor  de  la  Huerta 
became  bis  Minister  of  Finance.  At  tbe  end  of  tbe  year 
negotiations  proceeded  witb  tbe  United  States  for  tbe  formal 
recognition  of  tbe  new  Mexican  Government. 

BRAZIL. 

Tbe  year  was  a  quiet  and  prosperous  one  in  Brazil.  Almost 
tbe  only  disturbances  of  importance  were  tbe  strikes  wbicb 
occurred  at  tbe  end  of  Marcb.  Tbese  strikes  began  on  tbe 
Leopoldina  Railway,  and  spreading  rapidly  tbey  soon  developed 
into  a  general  strike  of  all  tbe  organised  workmen  tbrougbout 
tbe  country,  but  tbe  strike  was  fortunately  of  sbort  duration. 
Brazil  played  an  important  part  in  tbe  League  of  Nations,  and 
was  represented  not  only  in  iiie  Assembly  but  also  in  tbe  Council 
of  tbe  JJeague. 

ARGENTINA. 

Argentina  was  one  of  tbe  first  of  tbe  neutral  States  to  signify 
its  adbesion  to  tbe  League  of  Nations ;  and  during  tbe  latter 
part  of  tbe  year  tbe  Argentine  Government  took  tbe  lead  in 
endeavouring  to  persuade  the  European  Powers  not  to  attacb 
too  mucb  importance  to  tbe  absence  of  tbe  United  States  from 
tbe  League.  At  tbe  meeting  of  tbe  Assembly  of  tbe  League  of 
Nations  at  Geneva,  tbe  Argentine  Government  were  represented 
by  tbe  Foreign  Minister,  Senor  Pueiyrredon. 

CHILI. 

Tbrougb  tbe  good  offices  of  President  Wilson,  tbe  long- 
standing Tacna  and  Arica  dispute  was  settled  during  tbe  year. 
It  will  be  remembered  tbat  after  tbe  war  of  1879  between  Cbili 
on  tbe  one  side  and  Peru  and  Bolivia  on  tbe  otber  side,  tbe  pro- 
vinces of  Tacna  and  Arica  were  occupied  by  Cbili,  tbougb  it 
was  arranged  tbat  a  plebiscite  sbould  be  beld  later  in  order  to 
decide  tbe  destinies  of  tbose  provinces.  Cbili  and  Peru  bad, 
bowever,  been  unable  to  agree  on  tbe  conditions  under  wbicb 
tbe  plebiscites  sbould  be  beld.  President  Wilson  now  acted  as 
mediator,  and  proposed  tbat  tbe  provinces  sbould  be  definitely 
ceded  to  Cbili,  and  tbat  Cbili  sbould  pay  Peru  a  sum  of  6,000,000Z. 
sterling,  by  way  of  compensation.  It  was  reported  at  tbe  end 
of  tbe  year  tbat  Cbili  and  Peru  bad  agreed  to  President  Wilson's 
suggestion. 


300]         FOEEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTORY.         [1990. 

A  Presidential  Election  took  place  in  September  and  Senor 
A.  AUessandri  was  elected  President.  The  new  President,  who 
was  of  Italian  extraction,  took  office  at  the  end  of  December. 

Chili  joined  the  League  of  Nations. 

PERU. 

The  new  President  of  Peru,  Senor  Leguia,  was  successful  in 
passing  through  the  special  Constituent  Assembly  which  had 
been  elected  in  the  previous  year  the  important  constitutional 
reforms  which  had  been  before  the  country  for  some  time.  It 
will  be  remembered  that  the  reforms  involved  an  extensive 
measure  of  devolution  and  the  establishment  of  three  provincial 
Legislatures  at  Arequipa,  Huncayo,  and  Trujillo.  The  new 
Constitution  was  proclaimed  in  January. 

BOLIVIA. 

During  July  there  was  a  revolution  in  Bolivia.  Senor  G. 
Guerro,  the  Leader  of  the  Liberal  Party,  was  President ;  and  he 
had. made  himself  very  unpopular  with  some  sections  in  the 
country  by  the  claim  which  he  put  forward  to  obtain  a  sea- 
port in  Arica.  It  had  been  rumoured  that  the  Chilian  Govern- 
ment were  prepared  to  grant  this  concession  to  Bolivia ;  but, 
however  that  may  have  been,  the  proposal  was  of  course  keenly 
resented  in  Peru,  and  also  by  the  Bepublican  Party  in  Bolivia, 
who  were  in  favour  of  maintaining  the  traditional  friendship 
between  Bolivia  and  Peru.  The  anxiety  of  the  Bepublicans 
was  not  without  some  basis  in  fact,  because  hostilities  almost 
broke  out  between  BoUvia  and  Peru  in  March.  On  July  12 
there  was  a  coup  d'6tat  and  Senor  Guerra's  Government  was 
driven  from  power,  and  several  Bepublican  leaders,  with  Senor 
Saavedra  at  their  head,  seized  control  of  the  capital  and  of  the 
country.  Senor  Saavedra  became  Provisional  President.  He 
declared  that  he  was  in  favour  of  obtaining  a  Pacific  port  for 
Bolivia,  but  only  through  an  amicable  agreement  with  both 
Chili  and  Peru. 

OTHER  AMERICAN  REPUBLICS. 

During  April  there  was  a  revolution  in  Guatemala.  After 
serious  fighting  President  Cabrera,  who  came  into  power  in 
1917,  was  driven  from  office ;  and  his  place  was  taken  by  Senor 
C.  Herrera.  In  January  Senor  L.  Tamajo  was  elected  Presi- 
dent of  Ecuador.  In  October  Senor  A.  Zayas  was  elected 
President  of  Cuba.  In  December  a  Conference  of  Representa- 
tives of  all  the  Central  American  Bepublics  was  held  at  San 
Jos^,  Costa  Bica,  with  the  purpose  of  endeavouring  to  find  a 
basis  for  the  federation  of  the  five  little  States. 


1990.]  Australia.  [301 

CHAPTER  X. 

AUSTRALASIA:   AUSTRALIA — ^NEW   ZEALAND. 

AUSTRALIA. 

In  December,  1919,  a  General  Election  was  held  in  Australia, 
and  the  corrected  results  of  the  elections,  which  were  somewhat 
different  from  the  preliminary  reports,  were  published  in 
January.  The  elections  for  the  Senate  (or  rather  for  one  half 
of  the  Senate)  were  a  triumph  for  the  Nationalist  Party,  led  by 
Mr.  W.  M.  Hughes,  the  Federal  Prime  Minister.  In  the  old 
Senate  the  NationaUsts  had  held  25  seats  and  the  Labourites  11 
seats.  After  the  elections  it  was  found  that  the  Ministerialists 
had  secured  altogether  no  fewer  than  33  seats,  the  Labourites 
therefore  having  only  3  seats.  Of  the  18  seats  contested  the 
Labourites  won  only  1.  The  elections  for  the  House  of 
Bepresentatives  were  less  favourable  to  Mr.  Hughes.  Before 
the  dissolution  the  Nationalists  had  held  49  seats  m  the  Lower 
House.  At  the  General  Election  they  suffered  some  reverses  at 
the  hands  of  the  new  Farmers*  Party,  and  won  only  40  seats.  The 
Labourites  won  26  seats,  and  the  Farmers'  Party  won  9  seats. 

At  the  same  time  as  the  General  Election,  two  referenda 
were  held  on  the  constitutional  reforms  which  had  been  passed 
by  Parliament  a  few  months  earlier,  this  being  a  legal  necessity, 
lliese  reforms  gave  the  Federal  Government  increased  powers 
over  commerce  and  in  regard  to  the  nationalisation  of  mono- 
polies. The  interest  in  tibese  highly  important  referenda  was 
even  greater  than  in  the  General  Election  results  tJiemselves. 
Both  referenda  resulted  in  the  defeat  of  the  proposed  reforms. 
On  the  question  of  the  increase  of  Federal  Legislative  powers, 
the  proposal  was  defeated  by  about  924,000  votes  against  about 
911,000  votes.  And  in  the  other  referendum  on  the  nationalisa- 
tion of  monopolies,  the  proposal  was  defeated  by  859,000  votes 
against  about  814,000  votes. 

The  General  Election  was  fought  very  largely  on  the  Labour 
proposal  for  the  unification  of  Australia.  In  the  spring  the 
Labour  Organisations  published  a  highly  interesting  programme 
on  this  important  problem.  It  was  apparently  the  intention  of 
the  Labour  Party  to  advocate  an  entire  change  of  the  Australian 
Constitution,  with  the  setting  up  of  a  Constitution  more  com- 
parable to  that  of  the  Union  of  South  Africa.  They  proposed 
that  the  existing  States  should  be  entirely  abolished ;  and  that 
in  the  place  of  the  State  Parliaments  there  should  be  31  district 
councils,  consisting  of  only  10  members  each.  The  partition  of 
Australia  into  these  31  much  smaller  districts,  would  of  course 
involve  the  abolition  of  the  system  of  State  Governors.  And 
indeed  the  proposed  District  Councils  would  be  bodies  with  even 
more  restricted  powers  than  the  provincial  diets  of  South  Africa. 
The  Labour  Party  also  proposed  that  the  Federal  Senate  should 
be  abolished,  and  that  the  National  Parliament  should  therefore 
consist  of  one  House  only,  including  100  members. 


302]         FOBEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTOEY.         [i9ao. 

The  Federal  Parliament  was  opened  by  the  Governor-General 
on  February  26.  In  his  speech  from  the  throne  Sir  B.  Munro- 
Ferguson  referred  to  the  ratification  of  the  Peace  Treaty  with 
Germany  and  the  mandates  in  the  Pacific  which  had  been  be- 
stowed upon  Australia.  The  Governor-General  also  announced 
that  the  Prince  of  Wales  proposed  to  visit  Australia  during  the 
year.  He  said  also  that  the  Government  greatly  regretted  the 
defeat  of  the  constitutional  reforms  by  the  referenda.  The 
Government  hoped  to  carry  through  a  revision  of  the  Federal 
Constitution  by  means  of  conferences  between  State  and  Federal 
authorities.  The  revenue  for  the  past  year  had  been  satisfactory, 
but  a  still  higher  revenue  would  be  necessary  to  meet  the  heavy 
obligations  arising  out  of  the  war.  Now  that  peace  had  been 
concluded,  the  Government  hoped  to  proceed  with  a  plan  for  the 
establishment  of  a  federal  capital. 

During  the  year  Sir  B.  Munro-Ferguson  came  to  the  end  of 
his  period  as  Governor-General.  He  was  succeeded  by  the  Bight 
Hon.  Lord  Forster,  P.C.  During  his  tour  round  the  world  the 
Prince  of  Wales  paid  a  long  and  highly  successful  visit  to 
Australia.  The  Renown,  with  the  Prince  on  board,  arrived  at 
Melbourne  on  May  26,  and  the  heir  to  the  throne  was  welcomed 
in  Australia  by  the  Governor-General  and  Mr.  Hughes.  The 
Prince  visited  every  State  of  the  Commonwealth  in  turn.  He 
stayed  about  three  weeks  in  Victoria  and  then  went  on  to  Sydney 
where  he  arrived  on  June  16.  Next  he  proceeded  to  Western 
Australia,  where  he  arrived — at  the  City  of  Perth — on  July  1. 
On  July  12  he  arrived  at  Adelaide,  and  a  few  days  later  went  on 
to  Tasmania.  He  then  returned  to  the  mainland  and  proceeded 
by  train  to  Brisbane.  He  was  greeted  at  the  Queensland 
border  station  of  Wallangarra  by  the  Lieutenant-Governor,  Mr. 
Lennon,  and  by  the  Prime  Minister,  Mr.  Fihelly.  After  staying 
a  few  days  in  Queensland  the  Prince  once  more  journeyed  south, 
and  his  last  public  engagement  was  a  speech  at  Bathurst.  Be- 
ferring  to  his  visit  to  the  rural  districts  of  Australia,  the  Prince 
said :  "  Had  I  left  Australia  without  seeing  the  country  districts 
of  the  interior  my  tour  would  have  been  indeed  incomplete. 
But  I  have  had  a  glimpse,  at  any  rate,  of  real  Australia.  That 
glimpse  has  taught  me  a  great  deal  in  a  short  time.  I  have 
seen  the  richness  of  the  country,  and  learnt  the  effects  of 
drought  and  floods.  I  trust  that  the  next  few  years  will  be 
years  of  plenty,  and  will  bring  you  all  that  you  desire.  I  need 
not  say  how  sorry  I  am  to  leave  these  shores,  of  which  I  shall 
always  retain  the  pleasantest  memories.'* 

During  August  the  Prince  of  Wales  left  Australia ;  and  at 
the  same  time  Sir  B.  Munro-Ferguson  abandoned  his  post  to  his 
successor. 

During  the  year  provincial  politics  attracted  an  unusual 
amount  of  attention.  A  highly  important  General  Election 
was  held  in  New  South  Wales  in  March.  In  the  outgoing 
Parliament  the  Nationalists  had  been  in  a  strong  majority, 
with  54  seats,  against  32  seats  held  by  Labour  and  4  seats  held 


1990.]  JustrcUia.  [303 

by  Independents.  The  State  Premier  was  the  well-known 
politician,  Mr.  Holman.  The  result  of  the  elections  was  a 
serious  setback  for  the  Nationalists.  The  Labour  Party  was 
returned  in  strength  equal  to  that  of  all  the  other  parties  com- 
bined ;  and  on  April  8  it  was  announced  that  the  Holman 
Government  had  resigned,  and  that  Mr.  Storey,  Leader  of  the 
New  South  Wales  Labour  Party,  had  been  entrusted  with  the 
task  of  forming  a  Labour  Ministry.  The  Portfolios  were  allotted 
by  the  New  South  Wales  Labour  Caucus  to  a  number  of 
politicians  of  whom  only  one,  Mr.  Estell,  had  had  previous 
Cabinet  experience.  While  the  Caucus  was  creating  the  Cabinet 
many  Unions  assembled  in  the  Town  Hall  of  Sydney,  where  the 
city  organist  played  the  "  Bed  Flag.'*  Mr.  Storey  announced  a 
few  days  later  the  policy  of  his  Government.  He  proposed,  he 
said,  to  move  slowly,  and  not  aim  at  the  absurd  idea  of  demolish- 
ing and  then  reconstructing  the  social  structure.  The  object  of 
the  Government  was  to  refashion  the  social  system  by  degrees, 
but  they  would  go  no  farther  than  the  people  desired. 

A  new  Ministry  came  into  power  in  South  Australia  in  the 
second  week  of  April,  Mr.  H.  N.  Barwell  being  Premier  and 
Attorney-General.  Elections  also  took  place  during  the  year 
in  Victoria  and  Queensland.  In  the  former  State  the  Govern- 
ment retained  a  slight  majority.  In  Queensland  the  state  of 
parties  had  been  Ministerialists  (Labour  46),  Opposition  26,  but 
by  now  a  strong  Country  Party  had  been  organised  in  the 
State  and  numbered  17  members  out  of  the  total  Opposition. 
The  term  of  the  existing  Parliament  was  due  to  expire  next 
spring,  but  the  Government  decided  to  force  an  election  which 
was  fixed  to  take  place  on  October  9.  The  result  of  this  election 
was  to  reduce  the  Government  majority  from  20  to  6 ;  the 
Country  Party  won  5  Labour  seats  and  the  Nationalists  2,  and 
the  Minister  for  Mines  was  unseated.  Although  the  Government 
majority  was  smaU,  it  was  quite  sufficient  for  practical  business, 
as  the  Labour  Party  was  so  effectively  disciplined  that  the 
Government  could  always  command  its  full  strength  in  support. 

NEW  ZEALAND. 

Early  in  January  figures  were  officially  published  giving  the 
result  of  the  licensing  referendum  which  had  been  held  the 
previous  year.  The  points  on  which  the  referendum  was  taken 
were  (I)  continuance  of  the  present  liquor  laws;  (2)  State 
piux^hase  and  control;  (3)  Prohibition.  Votes  cast  for  Pro- 
hibition were  larger  than  those  in  either  of  the  other  items,  but 
fell  short  by  nearly  3,000  of  the  absolute  majority  required  to 
carry  any  of  the  three  points.  The  existing  licensing  system 
therefore  continued. 

On  April  17  it  was  announced  that  the  King  had  appointed 
Admiral  of  the  Fleet  Lord  Jellicoe  of  Scapa  to  be  Governor- 
General  and  Commander-in-Chief  of  New  Zealand  in  succession 
to  Lord  Liverpool  who  retired.     Lord  Jellicoe  arrived  in  New 


304]         FOEEIGN  AND  COLONIAL  HISTOKY.         [1920. 

Zealand  on  September  27  and  received  an  enthusiastic  greeting. 
Lord  Liverpoors  period  of  office  had  been  extended  to  cover 
the  time  of  the  Prince  of  Wales's  torn:  in  New  Zealand.  The 
Prince  landed  at  Auckland  on  April  24  and  drove  to  Govern- 
ment House  where  he  was  presented  by  Mr.  Massey  with  a 
large  ornamental  casket  containing  2,000  pieces  of  New  Zealand 
woods.  Further  addresses  were  given  from  the  Harbour  Trust 
and  from  the  Municipalities  of  the  district,  and  although  the 
Labour  members  of  the  Auckland  Council  did  not  attend  the 
Town  Hall  ceremony  the  cordiality  of  the  vast  body  of  the 
people  was  unquestioned. 

Mr.  Massey  presented  the  Budget  in  the  House  of  Bepre- 
sentatives  in  July.  The  revenue  for  1919-20  was  26,000,000^. 
as  against  22,250,0002.  for  the  previous  year.  The  expenditure 
was  23,750,0002.  as  compared  with  19,750,0002. ;  this  showed  a 
surplus  of  2,250,0002.  and  the  accumulated  surplus  amounted 
to  17,500,0002.  Local  redemptions  and  renewals  during  the 
year  amounted  to  3,750,0002.  The  War  Loans  raised  totalled 
80,000,0002.  of  which  53,000,0002.  was  raised  in  New  Zealand. 
The  gross  public  debt  amounted  to  201,000,0002.  and  the  net 
indebtedness  per  head  of  the  population  was  1652.  The  annual 
debt  charges  were  7,250,0002.  The  total  to  be  provided  by 
loans  including  10,000,0002.  for  renewals  was  24,800,0002. 

Mr.  Massey' s  social  proposals  included  the  establishment  of 
Maternity  Homes,  more  nurses  for  the  back  blocks,  increased 
expenditure  on  education,  and  the  establishment  of  a  bureau  of 
infant  welfare.  The  estimated  revenue  for  the  coming  year 
was  27,750,0002.,  and  the  estimated  expenditure  26,750,0002. 

New  Zealand  suffered  from  the  loss  in  September  of  Mr. 
W.  D.  S.  MacDonald,  Leader  of  the  Opposition,  who  had  been 
a  distinguished  member  of  the  National  Cabinet  during  the  war 
and  succeeded  Sir  Joseph  Ward  as  Liberal  Leader  in  1920. 

In  the  House  of  Bepresentatives  a  proposal  was  brought 
forward  in  November  that  the  Dominion  Parliament  should  be 
elected  by  a  system  of  proportional  representation,  but  the  pro- 
posal was  defeated  by  39  votes  to  23. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  year  details  were  published  of  the 
new  Land  Defence  Scheme  which  re-modelled  the  territorial 
training  partly  on  the  lines  followed  in  training  for  the  war. 
The  period  for  training  was  reduced  from  7  to  4  years  in  addi- 
tion to  cadet  work.  From  the  ages  of  14  to  16  cadets  would 
receive  physical  training,  and  from  16  to  18  military  training  ; 
in  the  19th  year  all  would  serve  a  recruit  period  varying  from 
2  to  6  weeks  in  camp  according  to  efficiency.  After  this 
selected  recruits  would  be  drafted  to  the  territorials  for  3  years ; 
all  promotion  would  be  from  the  ranks  by  merit.  The  intention 
was  to  retain  a  skeleton  force  with  the  strength  of  one  division 
with  a  full  establishment  of  officers,  non-commissioned  officers, 
specialists,  and  artificers,  and  a  half  establishment  of  other 
ranks. 


PAET  II. 

CHRONICLE  OF  EVENTS 

IN  1920. 

JANUAEY. 

I.  The  list  of  New  Year  Honours  included  one  earldom,  which  was 
conferred  on  Lord  Midleton;  three  new  barons  were  created:  8ir 
Bertrand  Dawson,  physician.  Sir  Qeorge  Riddell,  who  was  in  charge  of 
the  British  and  Colonial  press  arrangements  during  the  Peace  Con. 
ference  in  Paris,  and  Sir  Albert  Stanley,  M.P.,  late  President  of 
the  Board  of  Trade.  Ten  new  Priyy  Councillors  (three  of  them 
Irish)  were  announced,  including  Sir  Henry  Birchenough,  Sir  Trevor 
Dawson^  Sir  Thomas  Holderness,  Lieut. -Colonel  Sanders,  M.P.,  and 
Sir  Henry  Robinson.  Forty-five  new  knights  included  Mr.  Beck, 
M.P.,  Dr.  Wallis  Budge,  Mr.  Mackinder,  M.P.,  and  Professor  Arthur 
Schuster,  late  Secretary  of  the  Boyal  Society.  Sir  John  Bradbury,  Sir 
David  Harrel,  and  Sir  Bennell  Bodd  were  promoted  Q.C.B.,  and  there 
were  seven  new  K.C.B.'s. 

—  The  Bev.  W.  L.  Lee  was  inducted  as  the  first  Moderator  of  the 
London  Province  of  the  Congregational  Union. 

3.  A  bye-election  at  Spen  Valley  resulted  in  the  return  of  Mr.  Tom 
Myers  (Lab.)  by  a  majority  of  1,718  over  Sir  John  Simon  (Ind.  Lib.)  and 
of  8,828  over  Colonel  Fairfax  (Co-Lib.). 

6.  The  Times  announced  that  British  butter  was  to  be  de-controlled 
on  February  1. 

—  Mr.  Stephen  Gaselee  was  appointed  Librarian  and  Keeper  of  the 
papers  at  the  Foreign  0£Boe. 

—  The  will  of  the  late  Lord  Astor  was  filed ;  in  New  York  City 
alone  the  real  estate  was  assessed  at  160,000,000. 

10.  The  Peace  Treaty  was  ratified  at  4.15  p.m.  at  the  French  Ministry 
for  Foreign  Affairs  at  Quai  d'Orsay. 

—  Official  announcement  that  dairy  products  were  to  be  de-controlled 
at  the  end  of  the  month. 

—  The  steamer  TrevecU  from  Calcutta  to  Dundee  was  wrecked  on 
the  Dorsetshire  coast  with  a  loss  of  36  lives. 

II.  Mr.  Herbert  Samuel  left  England  for  Palestine  to  advise  Lord 
Allenby  on  administration  and  finance. 

A 


2  CHEONICLE.  [Ji.K. 

11.  A  gale  swept  over  the  country^  the  wind  attaining  a  velocity  in 
London  of  60  miles  an  hour,  and  in  the  Scilly  Islands  of  68  miles  an 
hour. 

12.  The  liner  Afrique,  with  599  passengers  on  board,  sank  about  60 
miles  from  La  Bochelle  in  the  Bay  of  Biscay  with  the  loss  of  all  but  43. 

13.  Sir  Harold  Stuart  was  appointed  British  High  Commissioner  on 
the  Bhineland  Commission. 

—  Viscount  Qrey  of  Fallodon  arrived  in  England  on  leave  from 
America. 

14.  Nine  men  were  killed  by  an  explosion  at  the  National  Filling 
Factory  between  Lancaster  and  Morecambe. 

16.  Increased  railway  rates  for  goods  traffic  came  into  operation. 

—  The  Times  announced  that  General  Sir  J.  A.  L.  Haldane,  K.C.B., 
would  shortly  take  over  the  command  of  the  troops  in  Mesopotamia. 

—  Dr.  Karl  Schulte,  Bishop  of  Faderborn,  was  elected  Archbishop 
of  Cologne. 

16.  The  first  meeting  of  the  Council  of  the  League  of  Nations  was 
held  in  Paris  under  the  Presidency  of  Monsieur  L^on  Bourgeois. 

—  Announcement  that  Lieut.-General  Sir  William  Pulteney  had 
been  appointed  <<  Black  Bod  "  in  place  of  the  late  Sir  Henry  Stephenson. 

—  Mr.  C.  Qrant  Robertson  was  appointed  Principal  of  the  University 
of  Birmingham  in  place  of  Sir  Oliver  Lodge  who  had  resigned. 

17.  Prohibition  came  into  legal  effect  in  the  United  States. 

—  M.  Paul  Deschanel  was  elected  President  of  the  French  Bepublic. 

—  Wales  beat  England  in  the  International  Bugby  Union  football 
match  at  Swansea. 

21.  Mr.  Asquith  was  selected  as  Liberal  candidate  for  the  Paisley 
bye-election. 

—  Lord  Haig  was  presented  with  the  Freedom  of  Manchester. 

—  Mr.  T.  B.  Glover  was  elected  public  orator  at  Cambridge  in  suc- 
cession to  Sir  John  Sandys,  resigned. 

22.  The  Prince  of  Wales  was  admitted  a  Fellow  of  the  Boyal  Society. 

23.  The  Duchess  of  Westminster  who  had  divorced  the  Duke  in 
December,  1919,  was  married  to  Captain  J.  F.  Lewis,  late  B.A.F. 

26.  Lord  Haig  was  made  a  Freeman  of  Sheffield. 

—  The  Venerable  H.  Gressford  Jones  was  appointed  Dean  of  Salisbury. 

27.  Announcement  that  Colonel  Weigall,  M.P.,  had  been  appointed 
Governor  of  South  Australia. 

—  Mr.  George  Barnes,  the  only  Labour  member  of  the  Cabinet,  re- 
signed from  the  Government. 

29.  A  heavy  snowfall  occurred  in  Yorkshire,  the  Midlands,  and  Wales, 
involving  an  interruption  of  the  telegraph  and  telephone  services. 

30.  Prince  Arthur  of  Connaught  held  an  Investiture  at  Canterbury  on 
behalf  of  the  King. 


1920.]  CHBONICLE.  3 

FEBRUAEY. 

2.  Price  of  imported  beef  was  redaced  by  2d,  per  lb. 

—  Monsieur  Henri  Jacques  Lebaudy,  who  died  intestate,  left  English 
estate  of  over  1,600,0001. 

—  Lord  Gurson  of  Eedleston  and  Mr.  E.  S.  Montagu,  M.P.,  were 
elected  Trustees  of  the  British  Museum. 

3.  The  Prince  of  Wales  visited  Eton  College  and  spoke  to  the  boys  in 
reply  to  an  address  of  welcome.  He  was  afterwards  admitted  to  the 
office  of  High  Steward  of  Windsor  and  received  fche  Freedom  of  the 
Borough. 

4.  The  purchase  was  completed  of  the  National  shipyard  at  Ohepstow 
by  representatives  of  large  shipowning  and  building  interests. 

—  The  Tifne$  announced  that  between  August,  1914,  and  February, 
1920,  239,126  honours  were  awarded  for  services  in  the  field. 

—  Mr.  Q.  H.  Boberts,  the  Food  Controller,  resigned  his  office. 

7.  In  the  International  Bugby  football  match  at  Inverleith,  Scotland 
beat  Wales  by  9  points  to  5. 

9.  General  Sir  Francis  Lloyd  was  appointed  a  Commissioner  of  the 
Duke  of  York's  Boyal  Military  School. 

10.  The  King  opened  Parliament  accompanied  by  the  Queen. 

11.  The  first  meeting  in  England  of  the  Council  of  the  League  of 
Nations  was  opened  at  St.  James's  Palace  with  Mr.  Arthur  Balfour 
presiding. 

—  A  one-day  strike  of  taxi-cabs  took  place  in  London  as  a  protest 
against  the  increase  of  M.  a  gallon  in  the  price  of  petrol. 

—  The  price  of  silver  reached  its  record  height  of  7«.  5id. 

12.  Sir  Marshall  Beid  resigned  his  membership  of  the  Council  of  India. 

13.  At  a  bye-election  at  Ashton-under-Lyne,  Sir  Walter  de  Frece 
(Co.-U.)  was  elected ;  he  polled  8,864  votes  against  8,127  for  the  Labour 
candidate  and  3,511  for  the  Liberal  candidate. 

—  The  late  Mile  Qaby  Deslys  left  usufruct  of  400,0001.  to  her  mother 
and  sister;  at  their  death  the  money  was  to  go  to  the  town  of  Marseilles 
for  the  assistance  of  the  poor. 

14.  Besignation  of  Mr.  Lansing,  United  States  Secretary  of  State. 

16.  The  Ideal  Home  Exhibition  was  opened  at  Olympia ;  21  nations 
being  represented  at  an  International  Conference  on  housing  and  town 
planning. 

18.  Sir  Bichard  Vassar-Smith  was  appointed  Deputy  Grand  Master  of 
Grand  Lodge  of  Mark  Master  Masons. 

20.  The  Times  announced  that  Lord  d'Abernon  had  resigned  from 
the  Chairmanship  of  the  Central  Control  Board  (Liquor  Traffic). 

—  A  bye-election  in  the  Wrekin  division  of  Shropshire  was  won  by 
Mr.  C.  Fblmer  (Ind.)  who  polled  9,267  votes  against  8^729  for  the  Labour 
candidate  and  4,760  for  the  Coalition  Liberal  candidate. 


4  CHRONICLE.  [mabch 

23.  Announcement  that  an  increase  of  50  per  cent,  was  to  come  into 
force  for  taxi-cabs  on  March  1. 

24.  Five  lives  were  lost  in  a  fire  at  Aston,  Birmingham. 

25.  The  result  of  the  bye-election  at  Paisley  was  announced.  Mr. 
Asquith  (Lib.)  was  returned,  polling  14,746  votes  against  11,902  for  the 
Labour  candidate  and  3,795  for  the  Coalition-Unionist  candidate. 

—  Mr.  E.  R.  Edison  was  appointed  Controller  of  the  Profiteering 
Act  department  in  succession  to  Captain  H.  Hincks  who  had  resigned. 

26.  Mr.  B.  E.  Graves  was  appointed  Chief  Inspector  of  factories  in 
succession  to  Sir  Malcolm  Bobinson  who  was  due  to  retire  on  March  3L 

28.  Field-Marshal  Lord  Methuen  was  appointed  Constable  of  the 
Tower  in  succession  to  Field-Marshal  Sir  Evelyn  Wood,  deceased. 

—  A  general  strike  was  proclaimed  on  the  French  railways. 

29.  The  cost  of  living  continued  to  rise  during  February.  In  respect 
of  45  representative  commodities  prices  had  on  the  average  trebled  since 
1913. 

MAECH. 

1.  The  Times  announced  that  Sir  A.  E.  Garrod  had  been  recommended 
for  appointment  to  the  Begins  Professorship  of  Medicine  at  Oxford 
University  in  succession  to  the  late  Sir  William  Osier. 

—  End  of  the  French  railway  strike. 

—  General  the  Earl  of  Cavan  was  appointed  Lieutenant  of  the 
Tower  of  London  in  succession  to  General  Sir  Ian  Hamilton  who  had 
retired  from  the  Army. 

2.  Sir  Auckland  Geddes  was  appointed  British  Ambassador  at 
Washington. 

—  Convocation  at  Oxford  carried  a  proposal  for  the  abolition  of  com- 
pulsory Greek  in  Besponsions. 

5.  Field-Marshal  Viscount  Allenby,  High  Commissioner  for  Egypt, 
was  appointed  Colonel  of  the  First  Life  Guards. 

8.  Gorges  Carpentier^  boxing  champion  of  Europe,  was  married  to 
Mile  Georgette  Elsasser. 

9.  A  bye-election  for  the  Horncastle  division  of  Lincolnshire  resulted 
in  the  return  of  Captain  S.  V.  Hotchkin  (Co.-U.)  who  polled  8,140  votes 
against  6,727  for  the  Liberal  candidate  and  3,443  for  the  Labour  candidate. 

10.  Sir  Thomas  Chitty  was  appointed  Senior  Master  of  the  Supreme 
Court  and  King's  Remembrancer. 

11.  Mr.  Howard  Morley  left  estate  valued  at  over  3^000.0002. 

13.  Wales  beat  Ireland  at  Cardiff  in  a  Bugby  International  football 
match  by  28  points  to  4. 

15.  Lieut-General  Sir  T.  L.  Napier-Morland  was  appointed  General 
Officer  Commanding-in-Chief,  Army  of  the  Bhine. 

—  Gales  and  heavy  falls  of  snow,  sleet,  or  rain  were  experienced  over 
the  greater  part  of  the  country. 


1930.]  CHEONICLE.  5 

16.  The  Prince  of  Wales  left  England  in  H.M.S.  Befwwn  on  a  tour  to 
Australia  and  New  Zealand. 

—  A  Royal  Commission  was  appointed  to  inquire  into  the  financial 
resources  of  Dublin  University  which  had  asked  for  State  help. 

17.  Queen  Alexandra  unveiled  the  statue  of  Nurse  Edith  Gavell  in 
St.  Martin's  Lane. 

—  A  barony  of  the  United  Kingdom  was  conferred  upon  Sir  Brien 
Gokayne,  K.B.E. 

18.  Sir  Edwin  Lutyens,  A.B.A.,  architect,  and  Mr.  H.  Hughes- 
Stanton,  A.B.A.,  painter,  were  elected  Boyal  Academicians. 

—  Mr.  Charles  Sims,  B.A,  was  elected  Keeper  of  the  Boyal  Academy 
in  the  room  of  the  late  Mr.  Andrew  C.  Gow. 

19.  The  following  ministerial  appointments  were  announced  :  Dr. 
Macnamara  to  be  Minister  of  Labour ;  Sir  Bobert  Home  to  be  President 
of  the  Board  of  Trade ;  Mr.  McCurdy  to  be  Food  Controller ;  Mr.  J. 
Avon  Clyde  to  be  Lord  President  of  the  Court  of  Session. 

22.  The  domestic  sugar  ration  was  increased  from  6  oz.  to  8  oz.  a 
week,  and  the  price  from  lOd.  to  lO^d.  a  lb. 

23.  Announcement  that  Mr.  Morison,  Solicitor-Qeneral  for  Scotland, 
would  succeed  Mr.  Clyde  as  Lord  Advocate,  his  place  being  taken  by 
Colonel  C.  D.  Murray,  KC. 

—  Sir  William  Sutherland  was  re-elected  M.P.  for  Argyllshire  with 
a  majority  of  4,689  as  against  9,237  at  the  last  General  Election. 

—  The  Venerable  H.  K.  Southwell^  Archdeacon  of  Lewes,  was 
appointed  Bishop  Suffragan  of  Lewes. 

26.  The  Prince  of  Wales  arrived  at  Barbados. 

—  The  War  Office  announced  that  the  rank  of  Brigadier-General  was 
to  be  abolished  in  the  Army. 

27.  Cambridge  won  the  University  boat  race  by  four  lengths  in  21 
minutes  11  seconds.    Oxford  won  the  athletic  sports  by  5  events  to  4. 

28.  "Summer-time"  came  into  force  at  2  A.M.,  clocks  and  watches 
being  advanced  one  hour. 

29.  The  Bev.  F.  S.  M.  Bennett  was  appointed  Dean  of  Chester. 

30.  General  Sir  W.  B.  Bobertson  was  promoted  to  be  Field-Marshal. 

—  A  list  of  6,604  promotions  in  and  appointments  to  the  civil 
division  of  the  Order  of  the  British  Empire  was  published  by  the 
London  Qatettt. 

—  Cambridge  beat  Oxford  in  the  annual  golf  match  by  6  matches  to  3. 

APRIL. 

3.  Announcement  that  the  €k)vemment  butter  ration  would  be  in- 
creased from  1  oz.  to  1)  oz.  per  week  from  April  19. 

—  The  following  Ministerial  appointments  were  announced : — 
The  Bight  Hon.  Sir  L.  Worthington -Evans,  Bart.,  M.P.,  to  be 

Minister  without  portfolio  in  succession    to  the  Bight  Hon.  Q.  M. 
Barnes,  M.P.,  resigned. 


6  CHBONICLE.  [apwl 

The  Right  Hon.  J.  I.  MacpherBon^  K.O.,  M.P.,  to  be  liinister  of 
FensionB,  in  suocession  to  Sir  Worthington^Evans. 

Lieut.-Ck>loQel  Sir  Hamar  Greenwood,  K.G.,  M.P.,  to  be  Chief 
Secretary  for  Ireland  in  succession  to  Mr.  J.  I.  Macpherson. 

Mr.  F.  Q.  Keliaway,  M.P.,  to  be  Parliamentary  Secretary  to  the  de- 
partment of  overseas  trade  and  additional  Under-Secretary  to  the  Foreign 
Office  in  succession  to  Sir  Hamar  Greenwood. 

Colonel  Sir  James  Craig,  Bart.,  M.P.,  to  be  Financial  Secretary  to 
the  Admiralty  in  succession  to  Dr.  Macnamara. 

Major  G.  C.  Tryon,  M.P.^  to  be  Under-Secretary  to  the  Ministry 
of  Pensions  in  succession  to  Sir  James  Craig. 

The  Marquess  of  Londonderry,  K.G.,  to  be  Under-Secretary  of 
State  for  Air  in  succession  to  Major  Tryon. 

Sir  Montague  Barlow,  K.B.E.,  M.P.,  to  be  Under-Secretary  to  the 
Ministry  of  Labour  in  succession  to  Mr.  Wardle,  resigned. 

6.  The  greater  part  of  the  National  Portrait  Gallery  was  re-opened  to 
the  public. 

—  The  Independent  Labour  Party  at  a  Conference  at  Glasgow  de- 
cided to  withdraw  from  the  Geneva  International. 

7.  The  Prince  of  Wales  received  an  enthusiastic  greeting  at  San 
Diego  in  California  where  he  addressed  a  crowd  of  20,000  people  through 
a  "  magna  vox  "  instrument. 

—  The  Bishops  of  the  Welsh  province  elected  the  Bishop  of  St. 
Asaph  as  the  first  Archbishop  of  Wales. 

—  The  Freedom  of  Belfast  was  conferred  on  Field-Marshal  Sir  Henry 
Wilson,  Lord  Londonderry,  and  the  Dowager  Lady  Dufferin. 

10.  At  a  bye-election  at  Stockport,  Mr.  W.  Greenwood  (Co.-U.)  and 
Mr.  Henry  Fildes  (Co.-Lib.)  were  elected  by  majorities  of  more  than 
6,000  over  the  first  of  the  five  other  candidates. 

—  At  a  bye-election  at  Dartford  Mr.  J.  Mills  (Lab.)  was  elected, 
polling  more  votes  than  the  other  four  candidates  combined ;  this  in- 
volved the  loss  of  a  seat  to  the  Government. 

12.  Parliament  met  after  the  Easter  recess. 

—  The  price  of  bread  was  raised  to  a  shilling  the  quartern  loaf. 

14.  The  Prince  of  Wales  arrived  at  Hawaii  where  he  was  welcomed 
by  the  natives. 

—  Dr.  T.  J.  Macnamara,  the  new  Minister  of  Labour,  retained  his 
seat  in  N.W.  Camberwell  by  a  majority  of  1,885  over  Miss  Susan 
Lawrence,  the  Labour  candidate. 

—  At  a  bye-election  at  Basingstoke,  Colonel  Sir  Arthur  Holbrook 
(Co.-U.),  was  elected  by  a  majority  of  3,122  over  the  Liberal  candidate. 

16.  Mr.  C.  A.  McCurdy  (Co.-Lib.),  the  new  Food  Controller,  retained 
his  seat  at  Northampton  by  a  majority  of  3^371  over  Miss  Margaret 
Bondfield,  the  Labour  candidate. 

—  The  Bank  rate  was  raised  from  6  per  cent,  to  7  per  cent 

-^  Sir  Howard  Frank  succeeded  Mr.  Keliaway  as  Chairman  of  the 
Disposal  Board  of  the  Ministry  of  Munitions. 


1920.1  CHRONICLE.  7 

15.  Sir  William  RobinsoD,  K.C.B.,  Secretary  for  the  Air  Ministry,  was 
appointed  first  Secretary  of  the  Ministry  of  Health  in  succession  to  the 
late  Sir  Bobert  Morant. 

1ft.  St.  Gteorge's  Hall,  Wolyerhampton,  an  old  building  used  as  a 
billiard  saloon,  collapsed  without  warning,  involving  the  loss  of  two  lives. 

—  Bear- Admiral  F.  L.  Field  was  appointed  a  Lord  Ck>mmissioner  of 
the  Admiralty  in  place  of  Rear- Admiral  Sir  W.  C.  M.  Nicholson. 

17.  Tfu  Times  announced  that  Lord  Jellicoe  would  succeed  Lord 
Liverpool  as  Qovemor-Qeneral  of  New  Zealand. 

19.  The  Supreme  Allied  Council  met  at  San  Bemo. 

—  Sir  Auckland  Qeddes,  Ambassador  to  the  United  States,  arrived 
at  New  York. 

—  Sir  David  Shackleton  and  Sir  James  Masterton-Smith  were 
appointed  joint  permanent  secretaries  to  the  Ministry  of  Labour. 

20.  The  Prince  of  Wales  arrived  at  Hji. 

—  The  Labaw  Chuette  estimated  the  average  increase  in  weekly 
wages  at  about  120  to  130  per  cent,  on  the  pre-war  rates. 

-^  Brigadier43eneral  W.  T.  Horwood^  C.B.,  D.S.O.,  was  appointed 
Commissioner  of  the  Metropolitan  Police  in  succession  to  Qeneral  Sir 
Nevil  Macready. 

—  Sir  William  Mitchell-Thomson,  M.P.,  was  appointed  Parliamentary 
Secretary  to  the  Ministry  of  Food. 

21.  The  Bev.  Neville  Talbot,  Chaplain  of  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  was 
appointed  Bishop  of  Pretoria  in  succession  to  Dr.  Furse,  appointed 
Bishop  of  St.  Albans. 

—  Mr.  H.  0.  Biron  was  appointed  Chief  Magistrate  for  the  Metro- 
politan police  courts  in  succession  to  Sir  John  Dickinson,  retired.  Mr. 
Biron  received  a  knighthood. 

22.  M.  Caillauz  was  found  guilty  by  the  French  Senate,  on  the 
charge  of  correspondence  with  the  enemy.  He  was  sentenced  to  3 
years'  imprisonment,  10  years'  deprivation  of  civil  rights,  and  5  years' 
interdiction  from  residing  in  places  to  be  specified  by  the  Government. 
As  he  had  already  served  practically  the  whole  of  his  term  of  imprison- 
ment he  was  released. 

—  Bye-elections  in  North  and  South  Edinburgh  resulted  in  the 
return  of  Mr.  P.  J.  Ford  (Co.-U.),  and  Mr.  C.  D.  Murray  (Co.-U.),  by 
reduced  majorities. 

—  Mr.  Henry  Poole,  sculptor,  Sir  Bobert  Lorimer,  architect,  and 
Mr.  Walter  W.  Bussell,  painter,  were  elected  Associates  of  the  Boyal 
Academy. 

23.  Sir  William  Llewellyn,  A.R.A.,  K.C.V.O.,  painter,  and  Mr.  F. 
Derwent  Wood,  A.B.A.,  sculptor,  were  elected  Boyal  Academicians,  and 
Mr.  Oliver  Hall,  painter,  was  elected  an  Associate  of  the  Boyal  Academy. 

24.  The  Food  Controller  revoked  control  over  the  retail  price  of  im- 
ported mutton,  but  the  maximum  wholesale  prices  remained  in  force. 

26.  The  Prince  of  Wales  witnessed  a  parade  of  children  at  Auckland. 


8  CHEONICLE.  [hay 

26.  Mr.  Julius  Olsson,  A.R.A.,  painter,  and  Mr.  Richard  Jack,  A.B.A., 
painter,  were  elected  Royal  Academicians. 

27.  Tlie  Prince  of  Wales  visited  Rotorua  where  he  had  an  enthusiastic 
welcome  from  the  Maoris. 

28.  The  light  cruiser  Chatham  was  presented  by  the  Imperial  Gk>vem- 
ment  to  the  Government  of  New  Zealand. 

—  Bishop  Hine,  M.D.,  was  appointed  Suffragan  Bishop  of  Grantham. 

29.  Sir  Theodore  Chambers,  E.B.E.,  and  Sir  William  Schooling, 
K.B.E.,  were  appointed  Vice-Chairmen  of  the  National  Savings 
Committee. 

30.  The  will  of  Mr.  Howard  Morley,  a  principal  partner  in  I.  dk  R. 
Morleyof  Wood  Street,  £.C.,  was  proved  at  1^539,429{.  He  left  about 
80,000^  in  public  and  charitable  bequests. 

MAY. 

I.  General  Lord  Home  was  appointed  Aide-de-camp  General  to  the 
King  vice  General  Sir  William  Robertson  who  was  promoted  to  the  rank 
of  Field-Marshal. 

—  May  day  was  celebrated  in  England  by  peaceful  processions  and 
the  passing  of  resolutions.  In  Paris  there  was  rioting,  and  a  number 
of  people  were  killed  and  injured. 

3.  Sir  Henry  Birchenough  was  appointed  Chairman  of  the  British 
Dyes  Corporation. 

—  In  an  accident  near  Dijon  to  the  Rome  express  to  Paris  one 
person  was  killed  and  17  injured. 

4.  The  Aeronautical  Research  Committee  was  constituted  with 
Professor  Sir  Richard  Glazebrook  as  Chairman. 

7.  The  Prince  of  Wales  received  a  great  welcome  at  Wellington. 

^  Sir  Hamar  Greenwood,  Chief  Secretary  for  Ireland,  was  elected  at 
a  bye-election  at  Sunderland  by  a  majority  of  8,434  over  the  Laboar 
candidate ;  the  Independent  Liberal  candidate  failed  to  poll  one-eighth 
of  the  total  votes  and  forfeited  his  160/.  deposit. 

10.  Announcement  that  all  restrictions  on  the  price  of  fish  would  be 
removed  from  the  17th. 

—  The  will  of  Adeline,  Duchess  of  Bedford,  was  proved,  the  gross 
personalty  being  sworn  at  104,863/. 

—  Beckett  knocked  out  Bombardier  Wells  in  the  third  round  of  the 
fight  for  the  heavy-weight  championship  of  Great  Britain  at  Olympia. 

—  General  Sir  Arthur  Currie  was  appointed  Principal  of  McGill 
University  in  succession  to  Sir  Auckland  Geddes. 

II.  The  King  and  Queen  were  present  at  the  marriage  of  Mr. 
Oswald  Mosley,  M.P.,  and  Lady  Cynthia  Curzon  in  the  Chapel  Royal. 

—  A  new  scale  of  salaries  adopted  for  certificated  assistant  teachers 
in  London  elementary  schools  fixed  the  minimum  for  men  at  200/.  and 
for  women  at  187/.  10«.    Men's  salaries  rose  to  426/.,  women's  to  340/. 


i9ao.]  CHEONICLE.  9 

11.  Convocation  afc  Oxford  passed  the  Statute  admitting  women  to 
degrees. 

12.  The  maximum  price  of  industrial  coal  was  raised  by  49.  2d,  per 
ton  and  that  of  household  coal  by  14*.  2d. 

—  A  gift  was  announced  from  "A.  -M."  of  130,000/.  of  4  per  cent, 
funding  loan  for  cancellation  as  a  contribution  towards  the  reduction 
of  the  National  Debt. 

14.  The  Prince  of  Wales  was  enthusiastically  welcomed  at  Christ 
Church,  New  Zealand. 

—  Lieut.-Colonel  Van  Ryneveld  and  Flight-Iaeutenant  Brand  were 
appointed  K.B.£.'s  in  recognition  of  their  services  to  aviation  by  their 
flight  from  England  to  Cape  Town. 

16.  The  canonisation  of  Joan  of  Arc  took  place  at  St.  Peter's,  Rome, 
in  the  presence  of  the  Pope  and  many  Church  Dignitaries. 

17.  The  price  of  granulated  sugar  was  raised  to  la,  2d,  per  lb.,  an  in- 
crease of  4d. 

—  An  express  air  mail  service  was  opened  between  London  and 
Amsterdam. 

18.  Devonshire  House,  Piccadilly,  was  purchased  for  one  million 
guineas  by  a  London  financier  and  a  Liverpool  shipowner. 

19.  Honorary  degrees  were  conferred  at  Cambridge  on  Lord  Jellicoe, 
Lord  Haig,  Bear- Admiral  Sir  W.  R.  Hall,  M.P.,  Sir  John  Sandys,  and 
the  Abb^  Breuil  of  Paris. 

23.  M.  Deschanel,  President  of  the  French  Republic,  fell  out  of  his 
sleeping  compartment  while  travelling  from  Paris  to  Montvrison,  and 
was  stunned  by  his  fall. 

25.  Seffor  Adolfo  de  la  Huerta  was  elected  President  of  Mexico  ad 
interim, 

—  Mr.  Hugh  Macnaghten  was  elected  Vice-Provost  of  Eton  College. 

28.  M.  Masaryk  was  re-elected  President  of  the  Czecho-Slovakian 
Republic. 

29.  At  Louth,  Lincolnshire,  a  sudden  flood  swept  through  the  town 
causing  the  loss  of  22  lives  and  great  damage  to  property. 

31.  The  Prince  of  Wales  was  enthusiastically  greeted  at  Melbourne 
cricket  ground  by  50,000  people,  and  watched  a  display  of  physical  drill 
by  10,000  school  children. 

JUNE. 

1.  The  new  postage  rates  came  into  operation,  the  lowest  rate  for 
letters  being  raised  from  Hd,  to  2d, 

—  The  Bishop  of  St.  Asaph  was  enthroned  at  St.  Asaph  as  the  first 
Archbishop  of  Wales. 

—  Food  prices  were  officially  estimated  to  have  increased  by  155  per 
cent,  since  1914. 


10  CHEONICLE.  [juhb 

2.  The  Derby  was  won  at  Epsom  by  Spioa  Eop  owned  by  Captain  G. 
Loder ;  Archaic  was  second,  and  Orpheus  was  third  ;  the  betting  against 
Spion  Kop  was  100  to  6. 

3.  Miss  Bonar  Law  was  married  to  Major-General  Sir  Frederick 
Sykes ;  they  left  by  aeroplane  for  their  honeymoon. 

4.  The  Board  of  Trade  annoanced  the  end  of  coal  rationing  as  from 
June  7. 

6.  The  King's  Birthday  Honour  List  was  headed  by  Prince  Albert  on 
whom  the  King  conferred  the  dignity  of  Duke  of  York.  The  Prime 
Minister's  list  included  four  new  Privy  Councillors,  nineteen  baronets, 
and  forty-two  knights. 

6.  F.  P.  Toplis  was  shot  by  the  Penrith  police  while  they  were 
attempting  to  capture  him  with  reference  to  the  murder  of  a  motor 
driver  in  Hampshire. 

8.  The  directors  of  the  Commercial  Union  Assurance  Company 
allotted  165,0002.  for  the  endowment  of  Bio-Chemistry  at  Cambridge. 

9.  The  first  sod  of  the  Daily  MaU  Ideal  Village  of  Welwyn  was  cut 
by  Lord  Hampden,  Lord-Lieutenant  of  Hertfordshire. 

10.  The  King  and  Queen  held  their  first  Court  since  1914  at  Bucking- 
ham Palace. 

11.  Announcement  of  a  gift  of  1,205,0001.  by  the  Rockefeller  Foundation 
to  University  College  Hospital  Medical  School  and  to  University  College 
in  the  interests  of  medical  teaching  and  research. 

—  Mr.  Cyril  Tolly  beat  Mr.  Robert  Gardner  of  Chicago  in  the  final 
round  of  the  Amateur  Golf  Championship  at  Muirfield  on  the  37th  green. 

—  Miss  Wethered  beat  Miss  Cecile  Leitch  in  the  final  round  of  the 
English  Ladies  Golf  Championship  at  Sheringham. 

12.  The  Bishop  of  Hereford  was  translated  to  Durham  and  was 
succeeded  in  the  See  of  Hereford  by  Dr.  Linton  Smith,  Bishop  Suffragan 
of  Warrington.  The  Dean  of  Ohristchurch  was  appointed  Bishop  of 
Ripon,  and  the  Rev.  H.  H.  Williams,  Bishop  of  Carlisle. 

14.  Lord  Forster  was  appointed  to  succeed  Sir  Ronald  Munro- 
Ferguson  as  Governor-General  of  Australia. 

—  Two  thousand  acres  of  woodland  were  destroyed  by  a  forest  fire 
which  broke  out  on  Lord  Glentanar's  Deeside  estate. 

15.  Dame  Melba,  by  means  of  the  wireless  telephone,  sang  at  Chelms- 
ford to  an  audience  spread  over  the  greater  part  of  Europe. 

~  Honorary  degrees  were  conferred  on  Mr.  Lloyd  George  and 
eighteen  others  at  the  Senate  House,  Cambridge. 

16.  The  Prince  of  Wales  arrived  at  Sydney  where  he  was  enthusi- 
astically greeted. 

—  A  bye-election  at  Louth  resulted  in  the  loss  of  a  seat  to  the 
Coalition,  Mr.  Wintringham  (Ind.  L.)  defeating  Mr.  C.  H.  Tumor 
(Co.-U.)  by  2,505  votes. 


19300  CHRONICLE.  11 

16.  The  Food  Controller  annoanoed  that  the  maximum  retail  price 
of  Qovemment  butter  would  be  reduced  from  3<.  to  2s,  8d.  per  lb.  on 
June  28. 

—  The  Qlentanar  forest  fire  covered  an  area  of  25  sq.  miles. 

19.  Sixteen  men  were  injured  in  fighting  which  took  place  at  Hull 
between  coloured  seamen  and  white  men. 

22.  Mr.  Bigby  Swift,  K.C.,  and  His  Honour  Judge  Acton  were 
appointed  Justices  of  the  High  Court  of  Justice,  King's  Bench  Division. 

~  Estate  of  the  gross  value  of  1,147,9262.  was  left  by  Mr.  W.  B. 
Gregoe-Colmore,  a  Birmingham  landowner. 

—  Miss  B.  A.  Clough  was  appointed  Principal  of  Newnham  College 
to  succeed  Miss  Stephen  in  October. 

23.  Announcement  of  the  appointment  of  Prince  Arthur  of  Connaught 
as  Governor-General  and  Commander-in-Chief  of  the  Union  of  South 
Africa  in  place  of  Lord  Buxton  whose  term  of  office  was  due  to  expire 
shortly. 

—  Major-General   Sir  John  Edward  Capper,  E.C.B.,  was  appointed  • 
Lieut.-Ctovemor  of  Guernsey. 

24.  Celebration  of  the  700th  anniversary  of  the  foundation  of  Salis- 
bury Cathedral. 

27.  The  Grand  Prix  at  Longchamps  was  won  by  Comrade,  the  pro- 
perty of  M.  E.  de  Saint-Alary. 

29.  The  Dean  of  Westminster  issued  an  appeal  for  250,0002.  for  the 
preservation  of  Westminster  Abbey.  The  King  headed  the  list  of  sub- 
scribers with  a  gift  of  1,0002. 

30.  The  Prince  of  Wales  arrived  in  Western  Australia. 

—  A  bye-election  for  Nelson  and  Colne  was  won  by  Mr.  R.  Graham 
(Labour)  by  a  majority  of  5,557  over  the  Coalition  candidate. 

JULY. 

1.  Geoige  Duncan  of  the  Hanger  Hill  Club  won  the  open  golf 
championship  at  Deal  with  a  score  for  the  four  rounds  of  303. 

5.  Sir  Henry  Bunbury  was  appointed  Comptroller  and  Accountant- 
General  of  the  Post  Office. 

6.  Governor  Cox  of  Ohio  was  chosen  by  the  Democrats  at  San  Fran- 
cisco as  their  Presidential  candidate. 

—  Poland  recognised  the  Independence  of  Lithuania. 

8.  It  was  officially  estimated  tliat  the  deficit  on  the  working  of  the 
British  Railways  for  the  year  beginning  April  1  last  would  be  54,500,000/. 

9.  TJu  Times  announced  the  following  changes  at  the  War  Office : 
Sir  Charles  Harris,  Assistant  Financial  Secretary,  to  be  Joint  Secretary  of 
the  War  Office,  retaining  his  present  functions ;  Sir  William  Perry,  Sir 
Bertram  Cubitt,  and  Mr.  J.  B.  Orosland  to  be  raised  to  the  grading  of 
Principal  Assistant  Secretary ;  Mr.  J.  A.  Corcoran  to  be  director  of  Army 
Contracts  ;  Mr.  H  Mensforth  to  be  Director-General  of  Factories  in  the 
War  Office. 


12  CHEONICLE.  [jtot 

9.  The  Elcho  Shield  at  Bisley  was  won  by  Scotland. 

10.  Dr.  A.  L.  Lowell,  President  of  Harvard  University,  received  the 
honorary  degree  of  D.Litt.  at  Oxford  University. 

11.  Death  of  the  Empress  Eugenie  [v.  Obit.]. 

12.  Mr.  0.  G.  Stephens,  a  Bristol  hairdresser,  lost  his  life  in  an  attempt 
to  shoot  Niagara  Falls  in  a  barrel. 

—  Lieut. -Colonel  Sir  Matthew  Nathan  was  appointed  Governor  of 
Queensland  in  succession  to  the  late  Sir  Hamilton  Gould  Adams. 

—  Mr.  Ernest  Barker,  of  New  College,  Oxford,  was  appointed  Prin- 
cipal of  King's  College,  London,  in  succession  to  the  late  Dr.  R.  M. 
Burrows. 

—  At  the  Annual  Conference  of  the  United  Methodist  Church  it  was 
stated  that  the  membership  had  diminished  by  9,760  in  the  last  ten  years. 

14.  The  King  and  Queen  with  Princess  Mary  spent  a  few  hours  in  the 
Isle  of  Man  where  they  had  an  enthusiastic  welcome. 

—  The  Rev.  J.  T.  Wardel  Stafford  was  elected  President  of  the 
Wesleyan  Conference. 

—  The  King  of  Spain  opened  the  new  house  of  the  Spanish  Club  in 
Cavendish  Square. 

15.  The  first  race  in  the  contest  for  the  America  Cup  took  place  off 
Long  Island  between  Sir  Thomas  Lipton's  Shamrock  IV,  and  the  American 
boat  Besoluie.    Resolute  broke  her  throat  halyards  and  Shamrock  IV.  won. 

16.  Nine  rooms  of  the  Tate  Gallery  were  re-opened  to  the  public. 

—  Beckett  beat  Tom  Bums,  once  champion  of  the  world,  in  a  contest 
for  the  Heavy  Weight  Boxing  Championship  of  the  British  Empire  at 
the  Albert  Hall. 

17.  Prince  Joachim  of  Prussia,  the  youngest  son  of  the  ex-Kaiser, 
shot  himself  at  Potsdam  \y.  Obit.]. 

—  The  second  contest  for  the  America  Cup  ended  in  a  declaration  of 
*^  no  race  "  owing  to  failure  of  wind. 

—  Three  persons  were  killed  and  a  number  of  others  seriously 
wounded  in  a  collision  on  the  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  railway  near 
Bolton. 

19.  The  following  Admiralty  changes  were  announced  to  date  from 
September  22 : — 

Vice-Admiral  Sir  Richard  Phillimore  to  be  Vice-Admiral  com- 
manding the  reserve  fleet ;  Vice-Admiral  Sir  Henry  Oliver  to  be  Second 
Sea  Lord  ;  Admiral  Sir  Montague  Browning  to  be  Commander-in-Chief 
at  Plymouth. 

20.  The  funeral  of  the  ex-Empress  Eugenie  took  place  at  her  Abbey 
Church  at  Famborough  in  the  presence  of  the  Kings  and  Queens  of 
England  and  Spain,  members  of  the  princely  houses  of  Europe,  and 
representatives  of  the  Powers. 

—  Mr.  A.  F.  Buxton  resigned  the  Chairmanship  of  the  L.C.C.  finance 
Committee  after  having  held  the  office  for  nearly  twenty  years. 

—  Shamrock  IV.  won  another  race  for  the  America  Cup. 


1920.]  CHEONICLE.  la 

21.  The  Be9oluie  won  the  third  race  for  the  America  Gup  on  her  time 
allowance. 

23.  The  fourth  race  in  the  contest  for  the  America  Cup  was  won  by 

Resolute. 

* 

24.  Mr.  C.  H.  Sampson  was  elected  Principal  of  Brasenose,  Oxford, 
in  succession  to  Dr.  Heberden. 

26.  The  Prince  of  Wales  arrived  at  Brisbane  and  was  received  with 
great  enthusiasm. 

—  The  fifth  race  for  the  America  Cup  was  abandoned  when  it  was 
seen  that  neither  the  Shamrock  nor  the  Reeolute  could  finish  in  the  time 
limit. 

27.  Resolute  won  the  final  contest  for  the  America  Cup. 

29.  The  Times  announced  that  Mr.  Walter  Morrison  had  given 
60,000i.  to  the  Bodleian  Library. 

30.  Sir  Archibald  Bodkin  was  appointed  Director  of  Public  Prose- 
cations. 

3L  The  Times  stated  that  Dr.  G.  C.  Simpson  would  succeed  Sir  Napier 
Shaw  as  Director  of  the  Meteorological  Office. 

AUGUST. 

1.  Celebration  of  the  tercentenary  of  the  Bermuda  Parliament. 

2.  Opening  of  the  Welsh  National  Eisteddfod  at  Barry. 

3.  Mr.  D.  Lynch,  Sinn  Fein  M.P.  for  South-East  Cork,  resigned  his 
seat  as  a  member  of  Parliament. 

4.  The  Prince  of  Wales  concluded  his  visit  to  Queensland  and 
returned  to  New  South  Wales. 

6.  Increases  in  railway  fares  came  into  operation ;  passenger  tickets 
were  increased  75  per  cent,  on  pre-war  fares.  The  increase  of  60  per 
cent,  had  existed  since  January  1, 1917,  and  the  new  addition  established 
a  rate  of  lid.  per  mile  for  ordinary  tickets. 

—  Viscount  Buxton  was  appointed  Chancellor  of  the  Order  of  St. 
Michael  and  St.  George  in  succession  to  the  Marquis  of  Lansdowne  who 
had  resigned  that  position  on  the  ground  of  ill-health. 

7.  The  Times  announced  a  new  alliance  between  the  London  County 
A  Westminster  &  Parr's  Bank,  the  National  Provincial  A  Union  Bank 
of  England,  and  the  Standard  Bank  of  South  Africa.  Each  bank  sub- 
scribed in  equal  proportions  for  100,000  new  shares  of  1(U.  each  (4Z.  paid) 
in  the  bank  of  British  West  Africa  at  the  price  of  6/.  6«.  per  share. 

9.  A  bye-election  in  South  Norfolk  resulted  in  the  return  of  Mr. 
G.  Edwards  (Labour)  by  a  majority  of  2,118  over  the  Coalition  Liberal. 
This  involved  the  loss  of  a  seat  to  the  Government. 

10.  Peace  with  Turkey  was  signed  at  Sevres,  eleven  Allied  Powers 
being  represented. 

—  Lord  Montagu  of  Beaulieu  was  married  at  St.  Margaret's,  West- 
minster, to  Miss  Pearl  Craik. 


14  CHEONICLE.  [auq. 

10.  Mr.  A.  E.  Lawley  of  Hilston  Park,  Monmouth,  who  had  died 
intestate,  left  estate  of  the  gross  value  of  over  360,000/. 

—  A  bye-election  in  the  Woodbridge  division  of  Suffolk  resulted  in 
the  return  of  Sir  A.  Churchman  (Co.-U.)  by  a  majority  of  191  over  the 
Labour  candidate. 

12.  The  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  announced  two  gifts,  one  of 
12,000/.  4  per  cent,  funding  loan  and  the  other  of  5,000/.  war  loan  and 
national  war  bonds  towards  the  cost  of  the  war  and  debt  reduction. 

13.  The  Minister  of  Labour  appointed  Captain  F.  £.  McClelian 
Controller  of  the  Appointments  Department  in  succession  to  Sir  fiobert 
Gillan. 

14.  Viscount  Finlay  was  appointed  British  member  of  the  permanent 
Court  of  Arbitration  at  the  Hague. 

15.  Baron  Frankenstein,  the  newly  appointed  Austrian  Minister, 
arrived  in  London. 

16.  The  Vindictive  was  successfully  refloated  and  towed  into  her 
berth  at  Ostend. 

17.  The  King  and  Queen,  accompanied  by  Princess  Mary,  arrived  at 
Balmoral  Castle. 

—  Captain  Fryatt's  ship  the  BnuseU  was  sold  to  Mr.  T.  B.  Stott,  a 
Liverpool  shipowner,  at  the  Baltic  Exchange  for  3,100/. 

19.  The  average  cost  of  houses  in  tenders  being  approved  by  the 
Ministry  of  Health  was  900/.,  as  compared  with  700/.  a  year  previously. 

—  Lord  Jellicoe  left  England  to  take  up  the  duties  of  Governor- 
General  of  New  Zealand. 

20.  Mr.  W.  F.  Denning  of  Bristol  discovered  a  new  star  in  the  con- 
stellation Cygnus. 

21.  Mr.  W.  C.  Bridgeman,  M.P.,  formerly  Parliamentary  Secretary 
to  the  Board  of  Trade,  was  appointed  Secretary  of  Mines. 

—  Major  Sir  P.  Lloyd-Greame,  M.P.,  was  appointed  Parliamentary 
Secretary  to  the  Board  of  Trade. 

23.  General  Lord  Rawlinson  was  appointed  to  succeed  General  Sir 
Charles  Monro  as  Commander-in-Chief  in  India,  when  the  latter  vacated 
his  command  in  October. 

—  Mrs.  Lloyd  George  was  created  a  Dame  Grand  Cross  of  the  Order 
of  the  British  Empire  in  recognition  of  her  services  in  the  war. 

24.  The  Times  announced  that  the  Earl  of  Stradbroke  had  been 
appointed  Governor  of  Victoria  in  succession  to  Sir  Arthur  Stanley  who 
had  recently  vacated  that  appointment. 

—  The  meeting  of  the  British  Association  opened  at  Cardiff  when 
Professor  W.  A.  Herdman  delivered  his  Presidential  Address  on  Oceano- 
graphical  research. 

25.  Dr.  H.  J.  White  of  King's  College,  London,  was  appointed  Dean 
of  Christ  Church,  Oxford. 

—  Sir  Herbert  Guy  Dering,  High  Commissioner  at  Sofia^  was  ap- 
pointed British  Minister  to  Bumania. 


1920.]  CHEONICLE.  15 

26.  Sir  Percy  Cox  left  London  to  take  up  his  duties  as  High  Com- 
missioner for  Mesopotamia. 

27.  The  Prince  of  Wales  visited  Samoa. 

—  Colonel  Commandant  Lewis  Conway-Gordon  was  appointed 
A.D.C.  to  the  King. 

30.  The  Prince  of  Wales  arrived  at  Honolulu  from  Samoa. 

—  An  inquest  was  held  on  an  English  hunger-striker  who  had  died 
in  Birmingham  Prison  hospital. 

SEPTEMBER. 

L  The  Prince  of  Wales  left  Honolulu  for  Acapulco  on  the  Mexican 
coast. 

—  Increases  took  place  in  the  cost  of  inland  telegrams,  newspaper 
postage,  railway  goods  rates,  workmen's  fares,  coal,  and  various  stamp 
duties. 

3.  The  Times  announced  the  amalgamation  of  Messrs.  C.  J.  Hambro 
&  Son  with  the  British  Bank  of  Northern  Commerce,  under  the  title  of 
Hambro's  Bank  of  Northern  Commerce. 

6.  Mr.  E.  A.  (lowers,  C.B.,  was  appointed  Permanent  Under-Secretary 
for  Mines. 

—  Public  celebrations  were  held  in  Plymouth  to  celebrate  the  sailing 
of  the  Mayflower  with  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  on  board  300  years  ago. 

7.  Severe  earthquake  shocks  were  felt  in  Italy ;  damage  to  property 
and  much  loss  of  life  were  reported  in  Tuscany. 

—  The  Prime  Minister  returned  to  London  from  Switzerland. 

—  The  Times  announced  the  appointment  of  Lord  Hardinge  of 
Penshurst  to  succeed  Lord  Derby  as  British  Ambassador  in  Paris. 

8.  The  St.  Leger  Stakes  was  won  by  Mr.  Goculdas's  Caligula ;  Sir 
E.  Hulton's  Silvern  was  second,  and  Lady  J.  Douglas's  Manton,  third. 

9.  The  Sopwith  Aviation  &  Engineering  Company,  Ltd.,  decided  to 
close  their  works  at  Kingston-on-Thames  and  go  into  voluntary 
liquidation. 

10.  The  Victoria  Cross  was  awarded  posthumously  to  Captain  H.  J. 
Andrews  and  Lieutenant  W.  D.  Kenny  for  devoted  gallantry  in  the 
fighting  in  Waziristan  the  previous  winter. 

—  At  a  meeting  of  the  House  of  Bishops  of  the  Church  of  Ireland, 
Dr.  J.  A.  F.  Gregg,  Bishop  of  Ossory,  Ferns,  and  Leighlin,  was  elected 
Archbishop  of  Dublin  in  succession  to  Dr.  D*Arcy,  who  had  recently 
been  elected  Primate  of  All  Ireland. 

11.  M.  Kameneff  left  England  for  Russia. 

—  In  a  motor  cycling  race  at  Brooklands,  V.  E.  Horsman  covered 
over  71  miles  in  an  hour,  thereby  beating  the  world's  record. 

13.  The  Prince  of  Wales  arrived  at  Colon. 

—  It  was  announced  that  the  Cabinet  had  decided  to  appoint  an 
additional  Assistant  Under-Secretary  for  Ireland  who  would  have  an 
office  in  Belfast  and  deal  with  all  problems  in  the  six  counties  area  of 
Ulster. 


16  CHEONICLE.  [bbpt. 

14.  Yice-Admiral  Sir  Richard  Phillimore  succeeded  Vice-Admiral 
Sir  Henry  Oliver  at  Portsmouth  in  command  of  the  Beserve  Fleet. 

—  The  Dairymen's  Federation  fixed  the  winter  milk  prices  varying 
from  lOd.  to  lid.  a  quart. 

—  Marshal  P^tain  was  married  to  Mile  Harden. 

15.  Announcement  that  M.  Paul  Deschanel,  the  French  President,  had 
decided  to  resign,  as  he  was  unable  to  conduct  affairs  owing  to  ill-health. 

—  Sir  Ernest  Clark,  G.B.E.,  a  Deputy  Commissioner  of  income  tax, 
was  appointed  Assistant  Under-Secretary  for  Ireland. 

—  A  new  aerial  mail  was  inaugurated  from  Copenhagen  to  Hamburg, 
Amsterdam,  and  London. 

16.  A  big  explosion  occurred  near  the  Morgan  building  in  the  financial 

district  of  New  York,  in  which  about  30  people  were  killed  and  200 
injured. 

17.  Bear- Admiral  Henry  L.  Mawbey,  C.B.,  was  appointed  to  the  new 
post  of  Bear-Admiral  at  Bombay. 

18.  The  late  Mr.  J.  J.  Ford  of  Edinburgh  left  estate  valued  at  nearly 
500,0002. 

—  The  Food  Controller  estimated  that  the  average  working  class 
family's  weekly  budget  during  the  coming  Christmas  would  be  9*.  6d, 
more  than  it  was  the  previous  year. 

20.  Sir  William  Meyer  was  appointed  High  Commissioner  for  India 
in  London  to  take  up  his  duties  on  October  1. 

21.  Dr.  O.  S.  Sinnett  was  appointed  to  the  Professorship  of  Aero- 
nautical Science  at  the  B.A.F.  Cadet  College,  Cranwell. 

22.  The  Prince  of  Wales  landed  at  Georgetown,  British  Guiana. 

—  Lord  Lytton  was  appointed  to  succeed  Lord  Sinha  as  Under- 
Secretary  of  State  for  India. 

23.  M.  Millerand  was  elected  President  of  the  French  Bepublic  in 
succession  to  M.  Deschanel 

24.  The  Prince  of  Wales  spent  a  day  at  Granada. 

—  M.  Georges  Leygues  accepted  the  position  of  Prime  Minister  and 
Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs  in  France. 

—  It  was  announced  that  "summer-time"  which  would  normally 
have  ended  on  September  27  would  be  continued  until  October  25  in  view 
of  the  possibility  of  a  coal  strike. 

—  The  International  Congress  of  Philosophy  was  opened  at  Oxford. 

25.  Lord  Cavan  was  appointed  to  the  Aldershot  command ;  Sir  Charles 
Harington  to  the  command  of  the  army  of  the  Black  Sea,  and  Sir  Philip 
Chetwode,  Deputy  Chief  of  the  Imperial  General  Staff. 

—  Five  persons  were  killed  and  one  was  seriously  injured  in  an  aero- 
plane accident  near  Hayes,  Middlesex. 

26.  The  Prince  of  Wales  visited  the  island  of  Dominica. 

—  Increased  fares  came  into  force  on  the  London  Underground  Bail- 
ways,  tramways,  and  omnibuses. 


J 


1920.]  CHRONICLE.  17 

27.  The  price  of  milk  was  raised  from  Bd.  to  lOd.  a  quart. 

28.  The  Gordon  Bennett  air  race  of  about  188  miles  was  won  by  Sadi- 
Lecointe  in  the  record  time  of  1  hour  6  minutes  8  seconds. 

29.  Mr.  Alderman  James  Boll  was  elected  Lord  Mayor  of  London  for 
the  ensuing  year. 

30.  War-time  legislation  on  the  control  of  wages  came  to  an  end. 

—  Sir  Eyre  Crowe  was  appointed  permanent  Under-Secretary  for 
Foreign  Affairs  in  succession  to  Lord  Hardinge. 

OCTOBER. 

I.  Major-General  Sir  £dward  Northey  was  appointed  Governor  and 
Commander-in-Chief  of  the  Colony  of  Kenya. 

4.  The  price  of  Government  butter  was  raised  to  Sa.  4d.  per  lb. 

—  Announcement  that  Dr.  Knox,  Bishop  of  Manchester,  would 
resign  his  See  at  the  end  of  the  year. 

6.  The  estate  of  the  late  Lord  Fisher  was  sworn  at  23,767Z. 

—  The  Treasury  received  from  an  Edinburgh  firm  the  gift  of  25^000/. 
in  the  form  of  the  cancellation  of  five  years'  interest  on  100,000^.  war  stock. 

—  Sir  W.  Graham  Greene,  Permanent  Secretary  of  the  Ministry  of 
Munitions,  retired  and  was  succeeded  by  Sir  S.  Dannreuther  and  Mr.  D. 
Neylan  as  Joint  Secretaries. 

7.  Women  were  for  the  first  time  admitted  to  membership  of  the 
University  of  Oxford ;  110  women  undergraduates  were  presented. 

8.  The  bye-election  at  Ilford  resulted  in  the  return  of  Mr.  Frederic 
Wise  (Co.-U.)  by  a  majority  of  9,036  over  the  Labour  candidate  who 
polled  almost  the  same  as  the  Liberal  candidate. 

—  Mr.  Chamberlain  announced  that  the  Gkxvernment  proposed  to 
grant  an  extra  600,0001.  a  year  to  the  Universities  for  a  term  of  years. 

9.  Forty.five  people  were  killed  and  over  a  hundred  injured  in  a 
railway  accident  at  Houilles,  just  outside  Paris. 

—  One  miner  was  killed  and  30  injured  through  the  collapse  of  a 
bridge  near  Stoke-on-Trent. 

II.  The  Prince  of  Wales  in  the  Renown  arrived  at  Portsmouth  and 
travelled  to  London. 

—  The  price  of  petrol  was  reduced  by  3<i  a  gallon. 

12.  The  legal  year  opened  with  the  customary  services  in  Westminster 
Abbey  and  Westminster  Cathedral  and  the  procession  of  judges  at  the 
Law  Courts. 

13.  The  estate  of  the  late  Mr.  Charles  Combe  of  Cobham,  brewer, 
was  sworn  at  over  1,000,000/.  This  was  the  tenth  millionaire  estate 
proved  during  the  year. 

—  The  Cesarewitch  stakes  at  Newmarket  was  won  by  Mr.  G.  Robin- 
son's Bracket.  Mr.  J.  P.  Walen's  Front  Line  was  second,  and  Mr. 
W.  T.  de  Pledge's  Greek  Scholar  third. 

14.  Degrees  were  conferred  for  the  first  time  on  women  at  Oxford. 

B 


18  CHEONICLE.  [oct, 

15.  The  Duke  of  York  opened  the  Daily  Mail  Exhibition  of  village 
signs. 

18.  Increased  prices  for  bread  came  into  force.  In  London  U.  4<2. 
was  charged  for  the  quartern  loaf. 

—  Mr.  F.  L.  C.  Floud  was  appointed  Permanent  Secretary  to  the 
Ministry  of  Agriculture  and  Fisheries. 

—  Vice-Admiral  Sir  Frederick  Tudor  was  appointed  President  of 
the  Royal  Naval  College,  Greenwich. 

19.  The  Dairy  Show  opened  at  the  Royal  Agricultural  Hall,  Islington. 

—  Parliament  reassembled  after  the  recess. 

20.  The  King  conferred  an  earldom  on  Lord  Buxton  in  recognition  of 
his  services  as  Governor-General  of  South  Africa. 

—  Mr.  J.  £.  G.  de  Montmorency  was  appointed  to  the  Quain  Chair 
of  Comparative  Law  at  University  College^  London. 

—  The  Senate  of  London  University  decided  to  accept  the  site 
offered  by  the  Government  at  Bloomsbury. 

—  A  fire  broke  out  at  the  London  Hop  Exchange  causing  extensive 
damage.  One  of  the  walls  fell  on  to  the  railway  and  blocked  the  line 
between  London  Bridge  and  Waterloo. 

22.  The  Times  announced  that  Lord  Onslow  was  to  be  appointed 
Civil  Lord  of  the  Admiralty  in  succession  to  Lord  Lytton,  the  new 
Under-Secretary  for  India.  The  announcement  was  officially  confirmed 
on  the  26th. 

—  Commodore  J.  S.  Dumaresq  was  appointed  a  naval  A.D.C.  to  the 
King. 

23.  Mr.  Francis  Ricardo  left  estate  valued  at  676,362/. 

—  M.  Stancioff  was  appointed  Bulgarian  Minister  in  London. 

25.  Death  of  the  King  of  the  Hellenes  [v.  Obit.]. 

—  "  Summer-time ''  came  to  an  end  at  2  a.m.,  clocks  and  watches 
being  put  back  one  hour. 

26.  Major-General  W.  D.  Smith  was  appointed  Lient.-Governor  of 
the  Island  of  Jersey  as  from  October  29. 

29.  Prince  and  Princess  Arthur  of  Connaught  with  Lord  Macduff, 
left  Southampton  for  South  Africa. 

—  Honorary  degrees  were  conferred  at  Cambridge  on  the  Archbishop 
of  Wales,  Lord  Allenby,  and  Sir  George  A.  Grierson. 

—  Lieut. -General  Lord  Cavan  was  appointed  Aide-de-Camp  to  the 
King  in  succession  to  General  Sir  Archibald  Hunter. 

30.  Mr.  Lloyd  George  was  elected  Lord  Rector  of  Edinburgh  Uni- 
versity  by  a  majority  of  1,255  votes  over  Professor  Gilbert  Murray. 

—  Dr.  Hensley  Henson  was  enthroned  as  Bishop  of  Durham. 

31.  Three  firemen  were  killed  by  an  explosion  at  a  wharf  fire  at 
Wapping. 


1920.]  CHRONICLE.  19 

NOVEMBER 

1.  Lieut. -Generals  Sir  H.  Hudson  and  Sir  W.  P.  Braithwaite  were 
appointed  to  two  newly  formed  commands  in  India. 

2.  Sir  Campbell  Stuart  was  appointed  Managing  Director  of  The  Times, 

—  A  K.B.£.  was  conferred  upon  Mr.  Paul  Dukes. 

3.  Local  veto  polling  in  Scotland  resulted  in  the  great  majority  of 
the  towns  concerned  deciding  to  remain  *'  wet."  In  Glasgow  out  of 
thirty-seven  areas  only  four  voted  in  favour  of  prohibition. 

4.  Mr.  William  Brace,  M.P.,  was  appointed  Labour  Adviser  to  the 
Department  of  Mines. 

5.  Lord  Knutsford  announced  that  the  London  Hospital  would  close 
on  January  1,  as  it  would  not  be  able  to  pay  its  bills  after  that  date. 

6.  Lieut.-General  Sir  Alexander  Gobbe,  V.C.,  was  appointed  to 
succeed  Lieut.-General  Sir  H.  Vaughan  Cox  as  Military  Secretary  of  the 
India  Office. 

8.  The  domestic  sugar  ration  was  restored  to  12  oz.  white  sugar. 

9.  EEarold  Greenwood,  after  seven  days'  trial  at  Carmarthen  Assizes  on 
the  charge  of  murdering  his  wife,  was  found  Not  Guilty.  The  case  had 
attracted  widespread  public  attention. 

—  The  Lord  Mayor's  show  was  celebrated,  but  the  usual  pageantry 
was  abandoned  on  account  of  the  coal  strike. 

—  The  Duchess  of  Marlborough  obtained  a  divorce  from  the  Duke. 

10.  The  Bev.  G.  B.  Allen  was  appointed  Principal  of  St.  Edmund 
Hall,  Oxford. 

11.  Celebration  of  Armistice  Day  [v.  Eng.  Hist.]. 

12.  A  Viscounty  was  conferred  on  Sir  R.  Munro-Ferguson,  the 
retiring  Governor-General  of  Australia. 

16.  The  first  assembly  of  the  League  of  Nations  began  its  sittings  at 
Geneva.  M.  Hymans,  former  Belgian  Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs,  was 
elected  President. 

17.  Prince  Arthur  of  Connaught,  the  new  Governor-General  of  South 
Africa,  landed  at  Cape  Town,  and  received  a  civic  welcome. 

—  Mr.  Charles  Shannon,  A.R.A.,  was  elected  a  Boyal  Academician. 

19.  Canon  P.  H.  Eliot  was  appointed  Bishop-Suffragan  of  Buckingham. 

22.  At  the  bye-election  in  the  Wrekin  division  of  Salop,  Major-General 
Sir  C.  Townshend  (Ind.)  was  elected  by  a  majority  of  3,9d5  over  the  Labour 
candidate. 

24.  The  personal  estate  of  the  late  Mr.  F.  A.  Dubs  was  sworn  at 
122,9382. 

25.  Mr.  A.  R.  Dickinson  was  appointed  Commissioner  for  Nauru  Island. 

26.  The  Ministry  of  Food  issued  orders  that  all  district  Food  Offices 
throughout  the  country  should  be  closed  on  December  31. 

—  The  first  of  a  series  of  meetings  took  place  at  10  Downing  Street, 
between  the  Ministers  of  France  and  Great  Britain. 

B2 


20  CHEONICLE.  [dec. 

27.  Two  men  were  killed  and  much  damage  was  done  to  property  by 
the  explosion  of  a  French  mine  which  was  washed  ashore  at  Sandgate. 

—  Lord  Hardinge,  the  new  British  Ambassador  to  France,  arrived  in 
Paris  to  take  up  his  duties. 

—  The  Treaty  of  Rapallo  was  ratified  by  the  Italian  Chamber. 

29.  Sugar  rationing  was  abolished  and  the  price  reduced  by  2d.  a  lb. 

—  The  International  Advertising  Exhibition  was  opened  by  Sir 
Robert  Home  at  the  White  City. 

30.  The  King  and  Queen  of  Denmark  arrived  in  London  on  a  visit  to 
Buckingham  Palace. 

—  The  Freedom  of  Brighton  was  conferred  on  Lord  Haig. 

—  Convocation  at  Oxford  passed  a  statute  establishing  a  final 
Honour  School  in  Philosophy,  Politics,  and  Economics. 

—  Sir  Gerald  Goodman  was  appointed  Chief  Justice  of  the  Strait 
Settlements. 

DECEMBER 

I.  Admiral  Sir  Hugh  Evan-Thomas  was  appointed  to  succeed  Admiral 
Sir  Doveton  Sturdee  as  Commander-in-Chief  at  the  Nore  when  his  term 
expired  on  March  1, 1921. 

3.  A  violent  gale  swept  over  the  North  of  Britain  and  Ireland,  squalls 
of  72  miles  an  hour  being  recorded  in  Scotland  and  of  60  miles  an  hour 
at  Liverpool. 

4.  Polling  under  the  Temperance  Act  in  Edinburgh  resulted  in  a 
heavy  defeat  of  the  Prohibitionist  Party. 

7.  The  Prince  of  Wales  received  an  address  of  welcome  in  the  City  on 
his  return  from  his  Australian  tour. 

8.  Cambridge  University  Senate  rejected  proposals  for  the  admission 
of  women  students  to  full  membership. 

9.  The  late  Miss  Anne  Haworth  of  Aocrington  left  the  bulk  of  her 
fortune  of  146,0002.  to  Baptist  Charities. 

10.  In  a  heavy-weight  boxing  contest  at  the  Albert  Hall,  Frank 
Moran  of  Pittsburg,  U.S. A.,  knocked  out  Joe  Beckett  of  Southampton  in 
the  second  round. 

II.  Professor  J.  C.  Irvine  was  appointed  Principal  of  the  University 
of  St.  Andrews. 

—  Mr.  Arthur  Watson  was  appointed  General  Manager  of  the  London 
&  North- Western  Railway. 

12.  A  fire  occurred  at  The  Times  Office,  Printing  House  Square,  doing 
some  damage. 

13.  New  silver  coins  became  legal  tender  containing  only  600  parts  of 
fine  silver  to  600  parts  of  alloy. 

14.  Four  lives  were  lost  in  an  aeroplane  accident  near  Cricklewood, 
when  a  Handley-Page  machine  crashed  into  a  tree  and  the  back  of  a 
house  and  caught  fire.  The  pilot  and  -mechanic  and  two  of  the  six 
passengers  were  burnt  to  death. 


1920J  CHRONICLE.  21 

16.  Austria  was  admitted  to  the  League  of  Nations. 

—  Sir  John  TiUey,  K.C.M.O.,  was  appointed  British  Ambassador  to 
BraziL 

16.  The  cost  of  living  on  December  1  was  estimated  at  169  per  cent. 
above  that  of  July,  1914,  as  compared  with  176  per  cent,  on  November  1. 

17.  *'  Airoo,"  the  pioneers  of  daily  flights  to  the  Continent  and  the 
holders  of  the  Paris  Air  Mail  contract,  closed  down. 

18.  Opening  of  the  ex-service  men's  carnival  at  the  White  City. 

20.  Farrow's  Bank  suspended  payment 

2L  Mr.  Thomas  Farrow,  Chairman  of  Furrow's  Bank,  was  arrested 
at  St.  Leonards  and  brought  to  London. 

—  The  Hon.  Ronald   C.  Lindsay,  CV.O.,  was   appointed  Under- 
Secretary  (additional)  at  the  Foreign  Office. 

22.  Forty-five  thousand  Bhondda  Valley  miners  struck  work. 

—  Bye-elections  for  Abertillery  and  West  Rhondda  resulted  in  both 
cases  in  the  return  of  the  Labour  candidate  by  large  majorities. 

23.  Prorogation  of  Parliament. 

24.  An  order  of  the  Food  Controller  prohibited  the  importation  of 
hops  as  from  December  28  except  under  license. 

25.  The  temperature  in  London  on  Christmas  day  was  the  hi^est 
since  December,  1882. 

28.  A  notable  collection  of  pictures  and  prints  was  bequeathed  to  the 
National  Qallery  of  Scotland  under  the  will  of  the  late  Mr.  John  Eirkhope. 

—  The  date  of  the  Oxford  and  Cambridge  boat  race  for  1921  was 
fixed  for  March  30. 

29.  Prince  Geoige  was  appointed  as  a  midshipman  to  H.M.S.  Iron  Ihtke, 

30.  Mr.  Bonar  Law  appointed  Sir  Malcolm  Fraser  as  principal  agent 
of  the  Unionist  Party. 

3L  The  Food  Controller  revoked  the  order  fixing  maximum  prices 
for^ggs. 

—  Sir  Milne  Cheetham  was  appointed  His  Majesty's  Minister  Pleni- 
potentiary in  Paris. 

—  The  sales  of  London  Housing  Bonds  up  to  the  end  of  the  year 
amounted  to  3,216,010/. 


RETROSPECT 


OF 

LITERATURE,  SCIENCE,  AND  ART  IN  1920. 

LITERATURE. 

The  number  of  books  published  during  1920  in  the  United  Kingdom 
was  11,004,  being  an  increase  of  2,382  over  the  preceding  year.    The 
increase  in  fiction  was  specially  notable.    Travels,  science,  history,  and 
law  all  showed  increases,  while  religion  showed  a  decrease  of  87.      A 
new  quarterly  review  was  started    in   October,  called    The  Pilgrim, 
described  as  a  review  of  Christian  Politics  and  Religion.    It  was  edited 
by  Canon  Temple,  and  made  a  successful  debut.    The  publishing  world 
suffered  the  loss  of  a  distinguished  member  in  the  death  of  Mr.  William 
Heinemann.    Subject  to  certain  bequests  he  left  half  of  his  estate  as  a 
gift  to  the  Royal  Society  of  Literature  for  the  establishment  of  a  founda- 
tion or  scholarship  fund,  to  be  called  "  The  Heinemann  Foundation  for 
Literature."    The  object  of  this  foundation  was  to  help  in  the  production 
of  literary  work  of  real  value.    No  kind  of  literary  work  was  excluded  ; 
but  it  was  Mr.  Heinemann's  desire  that  the  Royal  Society  of  Literature 
should  award  the  prizes  mainly  to  the  least  remunerative  departments 
of  literature — poetry,  criticism,  biography,  and  history. 

We  note  below  a  selection  from  the  works  published  during  the  year 
which  attracted  most  public  interest. 

British  Mammals,  written  and  illustrated  by  A.  Thorburn,  F.Z.S., 
Vol.  I.  (Longmans,  Green  &  Co.),  is  a  very  fine  work  of  coloured  illustra- 
tions, in  the  same  style  as  the  author's  "  British  Birds  "  and  "  Naturalist's 
Sketchbook."  The  illustrations  are  of  unsurpassed  beauty,  and  admir- 
ably true  to  life.  Notwithstanding  the  great  difficulty  of  observing 
British  Mammals  in  their  natural  haunts,  Mr.  Thorburn  has  contrived 
in  these  water-colour  drawings*  to  convey  a  wonderful  picture  of  the  wild 
life  of  this  country.  The  present  volume  is  the  first  of  two,  and  com- 
prises the  bats,  insectivores,  carnivores,  and  two  of  the  rodents.  The 
remainder  of  the  rodents,  together  with  the  ruminants  and  cetaceans, 
are  reserved  for  the  second  volume,  to  be  published  in  the  spring  of  next 
year.  Most  of  the  animals  described  are  illustrated  on  a  plate  to  them- 
selves ;  and  in  addition  to  the  coloured  illustrations,  there  is  added  a 
number  of  pen-and-ink  drawings  of  many  species,  which  are  supple- 
mentary to  the  plates,  and  of  great  assistance  in  giving  a  life-like  idea  of 
the  animal  concerned. 

The  first  animals  to  be  dealt  with  are  the  bats,  of  which  the  twelve 

22 


1920.]  LITERATURE.  23 

British  species  are  figured  on  half  a  dozen  plates.  It  is  hard  to  single 
out  one  more  than  another  from  these  striking  drawings,  but  perhaps 
one  of  the  most  successful  is  that  of  the  serotine,  about  to  seize  a  cock- 
chafer. Following  the  bats  come  the  insectivores,  represented  in  this 
country  by  the  hedgehog,  mole,  and  three  species  of  shrews.  But 
probably  the  section  of  greatest  general  interest  is  that  dealing  with  the 
carnivores.  There  is  an  exceptionally  fine  drawing  of  the  wild  cat, 
supplemented  by  a  pen-and-ink  sketch  of  the  animal  in  a  typical  attitude. 
This  most  formidable  of  British  mammals  has  long  been  extinct  in  Eng- 
land^ though  it  may  still  be  found  in  various  remote  parts  of  Scotland. 
It  is  sad  to  reflect  upon  the  impending  extinction  of  this  as  of  other  of 
our  mammals^  such  as  the  polecat  and  the  pine  marten,  both  admirably 
depicted  in  the  present  volume.  The  polecat  still  exists  in  England, 
Wales,  and  Scotland ;  its  scarcity  is  due  to  the  introduction  of  steel 
traps,  in  which  it  is  very  readily  caught.  The  pine  marten  may  also 
still  be  found  in  suitable  localities,  but  as  far  as  Qreat  Britain  is  con- 
cerned, it  is  a  dying  species.  The  wolf,  wild  boar,  giant  fallow  deer,  etc., 
are  already  extinct,  and  are  not  figured  by  Mr.  Thorburn.  Included  in 
the  present  volume  are  the  British  Pinnipeds,  consisting  of  six  species  of 
seals,  and  also  the  walrus  which  occasionally  wanders  into  British 
waters.  Of  our  fourteen  rodents,  only  the  squirrel  and  dormouse  come 
into  this  volume,  the  rest  being  postponed  to  the  second  volume. 

As  in  Mr.  Thorburn's  previous  works,  the  pictures  are  accompanied 
by  letterpress,  which,  though  not  going  into  much  detail,  is  entirely 
adequate  for  the  needs  of  those  who  wish  to  know  something  of  the 
habits  and  distribution  of  each  species.  For  purposes  of  identification 
by  the  amateur,  Mr.  Thorburn 's  "  Mammals  "  will  rank,  like  his  "  Birds," 
as  the  standard  authority  and  of  unrivalled  excellence. 

A  Naturalist  in  Himalaya,  by  B.  W.  G.  Hingston,  M.C.,  M.B.  (li.  F. 
&  Q.  Witherby),  is  a  record  of  observations  on  animals  in  the  Hima- 
layan valley  of  Hazara  between  the  years  1914  and  1916.  The  author 
first  describes  the  valley  itself.  He  then  goes  on  to  describe  the  habits 
and  instincts  of  certain  species  of  ants  found  in  the  valley.  From  ants 
he  passes  to  spiders,  paying  special  attention  to  the  geometrical  principles 
on  which  they  construct  their  snares.  After  further  chapters  dealing 
with  insect  life  (to  which  indeed  the  book  is  chiefly  devoted)  there 
follow  a  chapter  on  mammals,  one  on  birds,  and  one  on  the  geological 
features  of  the  district.  As  regards  mammals,  the  local  fauna  is  poor ; 
none  are  dealt  with  except  the  flying  squirrel,  monkeys,  and  the  leopard. 
The  latter  is  described  entirely  from  the  point  of  view  of  expression  of 
emotion,  a  number  of  plates  being  included  showing  the  appearance 
of  the  animal  when  under  the  influence  of  different  emotions.  The 
book  is  interesting  and  useful,  notwithstanding  the  limited  area  with 
which  it  deals.  The  observations  are  made  at  first-hand ;  the  inferences 
drawn  from  them  by  the  author  appear  to  be  just  and  sensible ;  so  that 
while  the  book  is  in  no  respect  a  complete  treatise  or  textbook,  it  ranks 
as  a  reliable  first-hand  document  from  which  such  treatises  may  be 
compiled.  Being  fired  by  genuine  enthusiasm  from  the  author,  it  is 
interesting  reading  to  a  wider  circle  than  that  of  naturalists  alone. 

Life  of  Lord  Kitchener,  by  Sir  George  Arthur  (Macmillan  &  Co.,  Ltd.), 


24  LITEEA.TUEE.  [1920. 

is  the  official  biography  of  the  greatest  soldier  of  the  time.  It  is  in  three 
volumes  :  the  first  of  which  carries  the  story  of  Kitchener's  life  down  to 
the  year  1900,  when  he  became  Commander-in-Chief  in  South  Africa. 
The  second  deals  with  his  conduct  of  the  South  African  War,  and  his 
subsequent  career  to  1914;  the  third  opens  with  his  appointment  as 
Secretary  of  State  for  the  new  Great  War^  and  gives  the  full  story  of  the 
last  crowded  years  of  his  life.  Such  a  biography  cannot  fail  to  be  deeply 
interesting,  for  Kitchener  was  closely  involved  with  the  leading  events  o^ 
history  during  his  generation.  Although  he  figured  so  largely  in  the 
public  eye,  his  character  was  never  really  known  to  the  public  :  for  his 
work  lay  in  the  sphere  of  action,  and  not  that  of  speaking.  In  many 
respects  the  revelation  of  the  man  comes  as  a  surprise.  He  was  not,  as 
generally  imagined,  the  pure  soldier  and  nothing  more.  There  was  a  deep 
artistic  leaning  at  the  bottom  of  his  mind  :  he  was  a  first-rate  admini- 
strator, and  endowed  with  a  power  of  wide  outlook.  Especially  interest- 
ing is  Sir  George  Arthur's  account  of  his  efEorts  to  end  the  Boer  War, 
which  he  clearly  thought  might,  with  a  little  tact  and  consideration, 
have  been  terminated  more  than  a  year  before  it  was.  He  would 
have  conceded  more  in  the  direction  of  form,  while  retaining  in  full 
the  substance  of  victory.  But  the  British  Government  laid  much  stress 
on  form,  and  his  recommendations  were  not  always  accepted.  It  is 
probably  due  in  no  small  part  to  Kitchener's  personality  and  influence 
that  Boers  and  British  were  so  successful  in  burying  the  hatchet  of  past 
discord;  and  his  premature  death  was  a  profound  misfortune  to  the 
country  which  he  had  served  so  well. 

The  Life  of  Benjamin  Disraeli,  Earl  of  Beacons! ield,  by  George  Earle 
Buckle,  Vols.  V.  and  VI.  (John  Murray),  is  the  conclusion  of  one  of  the 
most  important  biographies  of  recent  times.  These  two  volumes  carry 
the  life  of  Disraeli  from  the  year  1868  down  to  his  death  in  1881,  and 
cover  therefore  the  period  of  his  gpreatest  triumphs,  as  also  of  his  greatest 
misfortunes.  The  feature  which  has  attracted  most  attention  in  the  new 
volumes  has  been  the  publication  in  them  of  Disraeli's  correspondence 
with  Lady  Bradford  and  Lady  Chesterfield,  two  sisters,  the  former  of 
whom  was  married  and  'the  latter  a  widow.  Disraeli  had  been  deeply 
attached  to  his  wife  during  her  lifetime  ;  and  her  death  near  the  end  of 
1872  was  one  of  the  most  grievous  afflictions  of  his  life.  His  need  for 
female  companionship,  however,  led  him  into  the  closest  possible  friend- 
ship with  these  two  sisters.  To  Lady  Chesterfield  he  actually  proposed, 
and  she  refused  him ;  with  Lady  Bradford  he  was  no  doubt  warmly  in 
love.  Another  interesting  feature  of  the  book  is  Disraeli's  correspond- 
ence with  the  Queen,  who  held  him  in  high  regard  and  showed  him 
every  favour.  Few  ministers  have  ever  been  so  intimate  with  their 
sovereign  as  was  Disraeli :  a  fact  that  will  be  readily  understood,  both 
through  his  felicitous  mode  of  address,  and  also  through  the  general 
agreement  of  the  Queen  with  his  political  outlook,  and  her  dislike  for 
his  great  antagonist,  Mr.  Gladstone. 

Mr.  Buckle  is  warmly  to  be  congratulated  on  the  conclusion  of  the 
task  which  he  has  so  brilliantly  carried  out.  If  anything  were  capable 
of  dissolving  the  atmosphere  of  mystery  surrounding  Disraeli,  it  would 
be  Mr.  Buckle's  admirable  presentation  of  the  man.    It  is  not  often 


1990.]  LITEKATURE.  25 

that  an  author  Bucceeds  in  rising  so  completely  to  the  height  of  so  great 
a  task.  If  the  mystery  still  remains,  it  is  due  to  the  accuracy  of  por- 
trayal of  a  man  essentially  mysterious. 

Lord  Qrey  of  the  Reform  BUI,  being  the  Life  of  Charles^  Second  Earl 
Grey,  by  George  Macaulay  Trevelyan  (Longmans,  Green  &  Co.).  It  is 
a  remarkable  circumstance  that  no  complete  biography  of  so  famous  a 
Prime  Minister  had  ever  before  been  published ;  but  the  deficiency  has 
now  been  made  good  with  unrivalled  ability  and  success  by  Mr.  G^rge 
Trevelyan.  The  only  previous  attempt  at  a  biography  was  published  in 
1861,  and  brought  the  story  down  only  to  the  year  1817.  The  climax  of 
Grey's  power  and  influence  were  of  course  attained  in  1830  to  1832^ 
culminating  in  the  passage  of  the  great  Beform  Bill.  Mr.  Trevelyan,  as 
usual  with  him,  does  not  restrict  himself  as  regards  historical  comment : 
so  excellent  a  writer  can  well  afford  to  disregard  some  of  the  conventions 
of  pure  biography ;  and  the  work  gains  greatly  in  its  living  interest  by 
the  course  which  he  has  adopted.  It  is  divided  into  three  parts :  the 
formation  of  parties :  the  stagnation  of  parties :  and  the  Beform  Bill. 
All  three  are  deeply  interesting,  and  the  final  part  details  with  admir- 
able vividness  the  circumstances  which  led  up  to  the  greatest  political 
change  of  last  century.  Mr.  Trevelyan  remarks:  "Grey  had  not  the 
genius  of  Fox  or  of  Gladstone ;  yet  it  was  given  to  him  to  accomplish 
the  work  of  Fox,  and  to  succeed  more  completely  than  Gladstone.  No 
man  mediocre  in  mind  or  character  could  have  achieved  that.  And 
while  he  lacked  the  highest  qualities  of  his  predecessor  and  successor^ 
he  lacked  also  their  faculty  for  making  mistakes."  While  many  of  Mr. 
Trevelyan's  political  convictions  can  be  seen  through  his  narrative,  they 
in  no  way  diminish  the  value  of  the  book.  A  historian  is  bound  to  have 
convictions,  if  he  is  of  any  value,  and  they  are  certain  to  affect  his  work. 
It  is  better  that  they  should  do  so  consciously  and  overtly  than  behind 
a  mask  of  apparent  indifference.  It  is  a  great  biography,  and  an  im- 
portant contribution  to  history. 

Life  of  Qoethe,  by  P.  Hume  Brown  (John  Murray),  is  a  detailed 
biography  in  two  volumes,  the  author  of  which,  unhappily,  died  in  the 
winter  of  1918,  leaving  the  work  very  nearly  completed.  In  a  prefatory 
note^  Lord  EEaldane  tells  us  that  he  and  Professor  Hume  Brown  had 
been  in  the  habit  of  going  to  Germany  every  year  from  1898  to  1912 
inclusive,  to  collect  materials  for  a  life  of  Goethe.  Prolonged  research 
and  high  industry  are  apparent  throughout  the  work,  which  must  un- 
questionably rank  in  future  as  the  standard  life  of  Goethe  in  the  English 
language.  There  are  some  small  inaccuracies  :  for  instance,  we  are  told 
in  one  place  that  Frau  von  Stein  was  five  years  older  than  Goethe,  and 
in  another,  that  she  was  eight  years  older ;  but,  in  general,  the  book  is 
admirable,  not  only  for  its  amplitude  of  material,  but  for  the  author's 
careful  critical  estimate  of  Goethe's  work  and  personality.  Some 
favourite  traditions  are  demolished ;  the  story  of  Goethe's  last  words— 
*'  More  Light " — is  only  doubtfully  true,  and  in  any  case  has  not  the 
symbolic  meaning  attached  to  it  by  later  tradition.  Professor  Hume 
Brown  convincingly  portrays  Goethe  as  a  man  of  strong  and  impetuous 
passions,  which  he  was  unable  to  control.  His  life  was  a  succession  of 
crises  connected  with  the  women  with  whom  he  fell  in  love ;  and  he 


26  LITEEATUEE.  [1920. 

was  unable  to  master  his  own  feelings.  The  work  is  important,  and 
makes  interesting  reading. 

The  Harrow  Life  of  Henry  Montagu  Butler,  D.D.,  by  Edward 
Graham,  with  an  introductory  chapter  by  Sir  George  0.  Trevelyan,  Bart.^ 
O.M.  (Longmans,  Green  &  Co.),  deals  with  the  first  half  of  Dr.  Montagu 
Butler's  life,  t,e,,  down  to  1885,  when  he  resigned  the  headmastership  of 
Harrow.  The  account  of  his  early  life  is  remarkably  interesting  and 
well  done,  but  the  story  becomes  fuller,  when,  after  an  exciting  contest* 
he  was  appointed  Head  Master  of  Harrow,  at  the  early  age  of  26.  Several 
chapters  record  the  main  incidents  of  his  career  there.  They  consist 
largely  of  letters  written  to  and  by  Dr.  Butler,  and  are  naturally  of  special 
interest  to  Harrovians.  His  distinguished  career  as  a  Head  Master  caused 
many  speculations  as  to  the  probability  of  his  being  offered  a  Bishopric, 
but  the  offer  was  never  made.  Twice  he  refused  a  Deanery  proposed  to 
him  by  Mr.  Gladstone,  but  at  length,  in  1885,  he  accepted  a  third  offer  and 
resigned  his  position  at  Harrow,  to  become  Dean  of  Gloucester.  He 
held  this  appointment  only  fifteen  months  before  Lord  Salisbury  ap- 
pointed him  Master  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  remained 
till  his  death  early  in  1918.  The  later  chapters  of  the  book  contain 
discerning  estimates  of  Dr.  Butler  as  a  teacher  and  a  man,  his  position 
in  Church  and  State,  etc.  The  impression  remains  of  a  man  of  remark- 
able personality,  not  always  popular,  but  always  respected.  Few  names 
in  the  academic  world  were  more  widely  known,  and  the  second  volume 
of  the  biography  will  be  awaited  with  interest. 

The  Life  and  Work  of  Sir  Jagadis  C.  Bose,  M.A.,  D.Sc.,  LL.D., 
F.R.S.,  C.I.Em  C.S.L,  by  Patrick  Geddes  (Longmans,  Green  &  Co.),  is 
an  interesting  account  of  a  very  remarkable  career.  Bom  in  1858,  Bose 
suffered  from  almost  every  natural  disadvantage,  except  for  the  fact  that 
his  parents  were  of  strong  character  and  admirable  disposition.  His 
mother  sold  her  jewellery  to  pay  for  his  journey  to  England,  where  he 
took  a  science  degree  at  Cambridge.  Fighting  against  ill-health,  he 
made  up  for  all  wants  by  enthusiasm  and  force  of  character.  He  re- 
turned to  India,  and  soon  threw  himself  into  the  study  of  science,  for 
which  he  had  a  strong  natural  aptitude.  For  long  he  struggled  against 
adversity  and  lack  of  recognition ;  but  the  value  of  his  work  was  ulti- 
mately recognised,  first  by  Government  honours,  and  afterwards  by  ad- 
mission to  the  Royal  Society.  A  great  part  of  Professor  Geddes'  book  is 
devoted  to  an  account  of  his  scientific  work:  his  best-known  achieve- 
ment is  the  invention  of  an  instrument  for  exhibiting  the  growth  of 
plants,  by  immense  magnification  of  the  infinitesimal  movements  of 
growth.  The  book  is  of  great  interest,  not  only  as  the  story  of  an  extra- 
ordinary career,  but  for  its  account  of  the  unique  scientific  devices  and 
astonishing  results  obtained  by  Sir  Jagadis. 

Tlie  Autobiograpliy  of  Margot  Asquitli  (Thornton  Butterworth,  Ltd.) 
was  probably  the  most  talked  of  book  published  during  the  year,  its 
wide  notoriety  being  due  to  the  fact  that  the  authoress  was  the  wife  of 
the  last  Prime  Minister.  It  was  also  one  of  the  most  criticised  books  of 
the  year :  the  ground  of  objection  being  that  it  divulged  private  letters 
and  conversations,  which  should  not  have  been  given  to  the  public.  The 
book  is  a  very  lively  narration  of  the  life  of  the  authoress,  mainly  in  her 


1920.]  LITEBATURE.  27 

earlier  years  before  her  marriage.  She  reproduces  many  conversations 
with  well-known  persons,  often  of  much  interest,  and  writes  in  a  direct 
and  challenging  style,  markedly  free  from  reticence.  It  is  this  circum- 
stance which  gives  the  book  most  of  its  vitality,  though  furnishing  the 
ground  of  attack  for  hostile  critics.  It  nevertheless  presents  a  remark- 
ably clear  picture  of  a  certain  section  of  English  society.  Mrs.  Asquith 
had  the  advantage  of  an  acquaintance  with  many  of  the  most  prominent 
men  of  the  time,  and  succeeds  in  portraying  them  in  a  truer  light  than 
would  have  otherwise  been  possible.  In  her  youth  she  defied  the  con- 
ventions, and  the  description  of  her  flirtations  fills  up  a  considerable 
space  in  the  book.  None  of  them  seem  to  have  been  deep ;  if  they  had 
been,  she  could  not  have  exposed  them  with  the  lightness  of  heart  evident 
in  her  writing ;  nor  perhaps  would  any  of  them  be  considered  worth 
recalling,  if  it  were  not  for  the  social  position  which  she  subsequently 
came  to  occupy.  The  book  is  of  merely  ephemeral  interest,  but  deserves 
mention  as  being  one  of  the  most  successful  publishing  ventures  of  the 
year. 

The  First  World  War,  1914-1918,  Personal  Experiences  of  Lieut.-Gol. 
G.  k  Court  Repington,  C.M.Q.  (Constable  &  Co.,  Ltd.),  is  a  diary  of  the 
war  in  two  large  volumes.  The  part  played  in  the  war  by  Col.  Beping- 
ton  was  that  of  military  correspondent,  first  to  The  Times  and  afterwards 
to  the  Morning  Post  He  was^  therefore,  in  an  exceptionally  good  posi- 
tion to  hear  what  was  going  on ;  and  the  book  is  an  excellent  record  of 
what  was  known  about  the  prospects  of  the  war  during  its  progress. 
The  diary  further  includes  a  very  large  number  of  items  of  purely 
social  and  fashionable  interest ;  and  it  is  not  very  clear  for  what  purpose 
this  comparatively  irrelevant  matter  has  been  introduced.  The  mingling 
of  the  lighter  social  entertainments  with  the  serious  problems  of  the 
war  seems  somewhat  incongruous,  and  was  the  occasion  of  much  criti- 
cism. The  book,  however,  attracted  wide  attention,  and  was  much 
talked  of  during  the  summer. 

The  Mirrors  of  Downing  Street*  Some  Political  Reflections,  by  a 
Gentleman  with  a  Duster  (Mills  &  Boon,  Ltd.),  is  a  collection  of  short 
sketches  of  prominent  politicians,  written  in  a  somewhat  cynical  vein  by 
an  anonymous  author.  "There  is  too  much  dust  on  the  mirrors  of 
Downing  Street  for  our  public  men  to  see  themselves  as  others  see 
them."  So  the  author  declares  in  his  preface,  and  he  proceeds  in  his 
own  language  to  take  a  literary  duster  and  polish  the  mirrors,  so  that 
politicians  who  read  his  sketches  of  them  may  no  longer  remain  in  doubt 
as  to  how  they  appear  to  others.  Of  politicians  as  a  whole,  the  author 
has  a  poor  opinion :  the  essays  are  very  outspoken,  they  betray  personal 
knowledge  of  most  of  the  subjects,  and  nothing  is  toned  down  in  these 
character-sketches.  Some  of  the  statesmen  selected,  as  for  instance 
Lord  Fisher,  are  greatly  admired  by  the  writer :  others  are  less  fortunate. 
The  very  considerable  reputation  achieved  by  this  book  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  intimate  characters  of  politicians  are  revealed  very  much  as 
they  were  supposed  to  be  by  the  better-informed  of  the  general  public. 
Not  that  the  author  always  agrees  with  the  point  of  view  of  the  public : 
his  vigorous  defence  of  Lord  Haldane  is  enough  to  dispose  of  that  sug- 
gestion.   There  was  much  speculation  as  to  the  authorship  of  the  volume. 


26  LITEEATURE.  [1920. 

was  unable  to  master  his  own  feelings.  The  work  is  important,  and 
makes  interesting  reading. 

The  Harrow  Life  of  Henry  Montas:u  Butler,  D.D.«  by  £dward 
Graham,  with  an  introductory  chapter  by  Sir  George  O.  Trevelyan,  Bart.^ 
O.M.  (Longmans,  Green  &  Co.),  deals  with  the  first  half  of  Dr.  Montagu 
Butler's  life,  i,e,,  down  to  1885,  when  he  resigned  the  headmastership  of 
Harrow.  The  account  of  his  early  life  is  remarkably  interesting  and 
well  done,  but  the  story  becomes  fuller,  when,  after  an  exciting  contest* 
he  was  appointed  Head  Master  of  Harrow,  at  the  early  age  of  26.  Several 
chapters  record  the  main  incidents  of  his  career  there.  They  consist 
largely  of  letters  written  to  and  by  Dr.  Butler,  and  are  naturally  of  special 
interest  to  Harrovians.  His  distinguished  career  as  a  Head  Master  caused 
many  speculations  as  to  the  probability  of  his  being  offered  a  Bishopric, 
but  the  offer  was  never  made.  Twice  he  refused  a  Deanery  proposed  to 
him  by  Mr.  Gladstone,  but  at  length,  in  1885,  he  accepted  a  third  offer  and 
resigned  his  position  at  Harrow,  to  become  Dean  of  Gloucester.  He 
held  this  appointment  only  fifteen  months  before  Lord  Salisbury  ap- 
pointed him  Master  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  remained 
till  his  death  early  in  1918.  The  later  chapters  of  the  book  contain 
discerning  estimates  of  Dr.  Butler  as  a  teacher  and  a  man,  his  position 
in  Church  and  State,  etc  The  impression  remains  of  a  man  of  remark- 
able personality,  not  always  popular,  but  always  respected.  Few  names 
in  the  academic  world  were  more  widely  known,  and  the  second  volume 
of  the  biography  will  be  awaited  with  interest. 

The  Life  and  Work  of  Sir  Jagadis  C.  Bose,  M.A.,  D.Sc.,  LL.D.» 
P.R.S.,  C.I. Em  C.S.i.»  by  Patrick  Geddes  (Longmans,  Green  &  Co.),  is 
an  interesting  account  of  a  very  remarkable  career.  Bom  in  1858,  Bose 
suffered  from  almost  every  natural  disadvantage,  except  for  the  fiact  that 
his  parents  were  of  strong  character  and  admirable  disposition.  His 
mother  sold  her  jewellery  to  pay  for  his  journey  to  England,  where  he 
took  a  science  degree  at  Cambridge.  Fighting  against  ill-health,  he 
made  up  for  all  wants  by  enthusiasm  and  force  of  character.  He  re- 
turned to  India,  and  soon  threw  himself  into  the  study  of  science,  for 
which  he  had  a  strong  natural  aptitude.  For  long  he  struggled  against 
adversity  and  lack  of  recognition ;  but  the  value  of  his  work  was  ulti- 
mately recognised,  first  by  Grovemment  honours,  and  afterwards  by  ad- 
mission to  the  Royal  Society.  A  great  part  of  Professor  Geddes'  book  is 
devoted  to  an  account  of  his  scientific  work:  his  best-known  achieve- 
ment is  the  invention  of  an  instrument  for  exhibiting  the  growth  of 
plants,  by  immense  magnification  of  the  infinitesimal  movements  of 
growth.  The  book  is  of  great  interest,  not  only  as  the  story  of  an  extra- 
ordinary career,  but  for  its  account  of  the  unique  scientific  devices  and 
astonishing  results  obtained  by  Sir  Jagadis. 

The  Autobi<^8Tapby  of  Marmot  Asquith  (Thornton  Butterworth,  Ltd.) 
was  probably  the  most  talked  of  book  published  during  the  year,  its 
wide  notoriety  being  due  to  the  fact  that  the  authoress  was  the  wife  of 
the  last  Prime  Minister.  It  was  also  one  of  the  most  criticised  books  of 
the  year :  the  ground  of  objection  being  that  it  divulged  private  letters 
and  conversations,  which  should  not  have  been  given  to  the  public.  The 
book  is  a  very  lively  narration  of  the  life  of  the  authoress,  mainly  in  her 


1920.]  LITEEATURE.  27 

earlier  years  before  her  marriage.  She  reproduces  many  conversations 
with  well-known  persons,  often  of  much  interest,  and  writes  in  a  direct 
and  challenging  style,  markedly  free  from  reticence.  It  is  this  circum- 
stance which  gives  the  book  most  of  its  vitality,  though  furnishing  the 
ground  of  attack  for  hostile  critics.  It  nevertheless  presents  a  remark- 
ably clear  picture  of  a  certain  section  of  English  society.  Mrs.  Asquith 
had  the  advantage  of  an  acquaintance  with  many  of  the  most  prominent 
men  of  the  time,  and  succeeds  in  portraying  them  in  a  truer  light  than 
would  have  otherwise  been  possible.  In  her  youth  she  defied  the  con- 
ventions, and  the  description  of  her  flirtations  fills  up  a  considerable 
space  in  the  book.  None  of  them  seem  to  have  been  deep ;  if  they  had 
been,  she  could  not  have  exposed  them  with  the  lightness  of  heart  evident 
in  her  writing ;  nor  perhaps  would  any  of  them  be  considered  worth 
recalling,  if  it  were  not  for  the  social  position  which  she  subsequently 
came  to  occupy.  The  book  is  of  merely  ephemeral  interest,  but  deserves 
mention  as  being  one  of  the  most  successful  publishing  ventures  of  the 
year. 

The  First  World  War,  I9i4-i9i8»  Personal  Experiences  of  Lieut.-Col. 
C.  k  Ck)nrt  Repington,  C.M.Q.  (Constable  &  Co.,  Ltd.),  is  a  diary  of  the 
war  in  two  large  volumes.  The  part  played  in  the  war  by  Col.  Beping- 
ton  was  that  of  military  correspondent,  first  to  The  Times  and  afterwards 
to  the  Morning  Po»L  He  was^  therefore,  in  an  exceptionally  good  posi- 
tion to  hear  what  was  going  on ;  and  the  book  is  an  excellent  record  of 
what  was  known  about  the  prospects  of  the  war  during  its  progress. 
The  diary  further  includes  a  very  large  number  of  items  of  purely 
social  and  fashionable  interest ;  and  it  is  not  very  clear  for  what  purpose 
this  comparatively  irrelevant  matter  has  been  introduced.  The  mingling 
of  the  lighter  social  entertainments  with  the  serious  problems  of  the 
war  seems  somewhat  incongruous,  and  was  the  occasion  of  much  criti- 
cism*  The  book,  however,  attracted  wide  attention,  and  was  much 
talked  of  during  the  summer. 

The  Mirrors  of  Downlnic  Street,  Some  Political  Reflections,  by  a 
Gentleman  with  a  Duster  (Mills  &  Boon,  Ltd.),  is  a  collection  of  short 
sketches  of  prominent  politicians,  written  in  a  somewhat  cynical  vein  by 
an  anonymous  author.  ''There  is  too  much  dust  on  the  mirrors  of 
Downing  Street  for  our  public  men  to  see  themselves  as  others  see 
them."  So  the  author  declares  in  his  preface,  and  he  proceeds  in  his 
own  language  to  take  a  literary  duster  and  polish  the  mirrors,  so  that 
politicians  who  read  his  sketches  of  them  may  no  longer  remain  in  doubt 
as  to  how  they  appear  to  others.  Of  politicians  as  a  whole,  the  author 
has  a  poor  opinion :  the  essays  are  very  outspoken,  they  betray  personal 
knowledge  of  most  of  the  subjects,  and  nothing  is  toned  down  in  these 
character-sketches.  Some  of  the  statesmen  selected,  as  for  instance 
Lord  Fisher,  are  greatly  admired  by  the  writer :  others  are  less  fortunate. 
The  very  considerable  reputation  achieved  by  this  book  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  intimate  characters  of  politicians  are  revealed  very  much  as 
they  were  supposed  to  be  by  the  better-informed  of  the  general  public. 
Not  that  the  author  always  agrees  with  the  point  of  view  of  the  public : 
his  vigorous  defence  of  Lord  Haldane  is  enough  to  dispose  of  that  sug- 
gestion.   There  was  much  speculation  as  to  the  authorship  of  the  volume. 


28  LITEKATURE.  [1920. 

but  the  secret  was  well  kept.  It  is  scarcely  likely  that  the  author  will 
achieve  what  he  professes  to  be  his  main  object — the  raising  of  the  tone 
of  public  life:  for  it  is  probable  that,  notwithstanding  its  wide  popularity, 
the  book  has  not  been  taken  quite  so  seriously  as  was  hoped. 

HiSTOKY  OF  THE  GREAT  War,  based  on  official  documents,  by  direction 
of  the  historical  section  of  the  Committee  of  Imperial  Defence :  Naval 
Operations,  Vol.  I.,  by  Sir  Julian  S.  Gorbett  (Longmans,  Green  &  Co.). 

This  first  volume  of  the  Naval  History  of  the  War  goes  down  to  the 
Battle  of  the  Falklands  in  December,  1914.  It  is  accompanied  by 
eighteen  very  elaborate  maps  and  charts,  comprised  in  a  separate  case 
made  to  match  the  volume  of  letterpress,  while  the  latter  also  contains 
a  considerable  number  of  maps,  plans,  and  diagrams.  Sir  Julian  Corbett 
is  to  be  warmly  congratulated  on  this  product  of  monumental  industry. 
He  begins  with  an  account  of  the  period  of  strained  relations  preceding 
the  war,  and  the  preparations  which  were  made  for  notifying  the  Fleet 
instantaneously  of  every  step  towards  the  outbreak.  Then  follows  an 
interesting  account  of  the  opening  movements  and  the  passage  of  the 
expeditionary  force.  The  outlines  of  the  war  after  the  commencement 
have  already  been  made  familiar  to  the  public  by  a  number  of  books, 
which  we  have  from  time  to  time  noticed  in  the  Annual  Segisteb.  Sir 
Julian  writes  in  a  different  strain :  his  principal  object  is  not  so  much 
to  arouse  interest,  as  to  give  complete  insight  into  the  actual  events  and 
the  reasons  which  brought  them  about.  The  vast  wealth  of  detail  often 
appeals  rather  to  the  scholar  than  to  the  superficial  reader,  though  the 
story  is  full  of  live  interest  all  through.  Technicalities  are  avoided,  and 
the  low  price  of  the  book  (17«.  6d.  net  for  volume  of  text  and  case  of 
maps)  is  suited  to  a  work  of  national  importance.  Sir  Julian  is  very 
chary  of  uttering  blame  for  any  of  the  unfortunate  incidents  which 
occurred.  He  refers  to  the  escape  of  the  Goehen  as  ^'  a  shadow  in  our 
naval  history,"  but  adds  that  "  it  will  perhaps  be  judged  most  leniently 
by  those  whose  wisdom  and  knowledge  are  the  ripest."  Blame  must 
indeed  be  hard  to  allocate :  the  confusion  and  misunderstandings  occur- 
ring in  this  and  other  cases  seem  almost  inevitable.  The  fact  that  the 
book  is  an  official  history  naturally  renders  it  liable  to  suspicion  of  being 
too  favourably  disposed  towards  Government  departments.  We  are  glad 
to  note  little  sign  of  this  defect,  however,  except  perhaps  in  Appendix  D, 
containing  two  minutes  of  Mr.  Churchill,  inserted  apparently  for  the 
express  purpose  of  justifying  that  statesman.  Sir  Julian  has  fulfilled 
his  difficult  task  with  admirable  discernment  and  success. 

A  Naval  History  of  the  War,  1914*1918,  by  Sir  Henry  Newbolt 
(Hodder  &  Stoughton),  furnishes  the  most  complete  story  hitherto 
published,  for  the  official  history  by  Sir  Julian  Corbett  is  a  work  which 
cannot  be  completed  for  some  years.  The  most  notable  feature  of  the 
book  is  its  defence  of  the  British  tactics  in  the  Battle  of  Jutland,  the 
moral  result  of  which  Sir  Henry  declares  to  be  absolutely  final  **  The 
oontrol  of  the  sea  was  now  unassailably  ours.  The  High  Sea  Fleet,  even 
when  patched,  could  never  again  be  ordered  to  meet  the  Grand  Fleet 
until  it  met  it  to  surrender  without  a  blow."  Sir  Henry  proceeds  to 
meet  the  criticisms  of  Admiral  Reinhold  Scheer  on  the  German  side, 
and  of  Commander  Bellairs  on  the  British.    The  German  Admiral  had 


1920.]  LITERATURE.  29 

claimed  that  he  never  broke  off  the  action ;  but  this  contention  is  easily 
disposed  of  by  Sir  Henry.  He  had  further  claimed  that  on  the  balance 
of  loss  the  Grermans  were  victorious,  to  which  Sir  Henry  replies  that  at 
the  end  of  the  action  the  British  had  a  larger  margin  of  superiority  than 
they  had  had  at  the  beginning.  Finally,  the  German  Admiral  had 
claimed  that  after  the  battle  the  £nglish  Navy  had  lost  its  boasted 
irresistibility,  a  statement  which  Sir  Henry  controverts  by  a  quotation 
from  Captain  Persius  to  the  opposite  effect.  New  light  is  also  thrown 
in  this  book  on  the  reverse  at  Coronel.  Sir  Henry  defends  the  Admiralty, 
stating  that  they  appreciated  the  situation^  but  that  Admiral  Cradock 
took  on  himself  the  responsibility  of  departing  from  his  instructions. 
The  book  is  authoritative  and  eminently  readable. 

Qalllpoli  Diary*  by  General  Sir  Ian  Hamilton^  G.C.B.  (Edward 
Arnold),  is  the  Diary  kept  by  Sir  Ian  Hamilton  when  he  was  command- 
ing the  Dardanelles  Expeditionary  Force  during  the  war.  Of  the 
numerous  books  on  the  war  written  by  leading  Admirals  and  Generals, 
this  is  no  doubt  the  best  that  has  appeared,  from  the  purely  literary 
point  of  view.  Sir  Ian  Hamilton  is  not  only  a  distinguished  soldier, 
but  has  the  capacity,  somewhat  rare  among  soldiers,  of  vivid  and  easy 
expression.  The  book  is  of  great  interest,  and  illustrates  the  enormous 
difficulties  which  the  Expeditionary  Force  met  with  after  their  landing. 
It  would  be  very  hard  to  affix  blame  to  any  particular  individuals  for 
the  failure  of  the  expedition  :  certainly  Sir  Ian  affixes  none.  It  is  clear 
that  he  was  severely  handicapped  by  the  urgency  of  the  demand  for  men 
and  material  on  the  Western  Front :  so  that  to  some  extent  he  was 
starved  as  regards  his  resources.  This,  however,  was  almost  inevitable, 
and  indeed  had  been  foreseen  by  many  who  opposed  the  policy  of  sending 
out  a  force  at  all.  Sir  Ian  Hamilton's  book  is  one  that  nearly  all 
readers  will  appreciate:  literary  capacity  together  with  interest  of 
subject-matter  is  none  too  common  a  combination  :  and  the  work 
takes  high  rank  among  the  great  war  books  published  during  1919  and 
1920. 

Secrets  of  Crewe  House,  by  Sir  Campbell  Stuart,  KB.E.  (Hodder  & 
Stoughton),  describes  the  work  of  the  Department  of  the  Director  of 
Propaganda,  during  the  last  nine  months  of  the  war.  The  Department 
was  instituted  in  February,  1918,  with  Lord  Northcliffe  as  Director,  and 
Sir  Campbell  Stuart  as  Deputy-Director.  They  began  to  work  first 
upon  Austria,  with  a  view  to  increasing  the  breach  that  existed  between 
the  various  sections  of  the  Austrian  Army  and  the  Hapsburg  Monarchy. 
Millions  of  leaflets  were  printed  and  disseminated  among  the  hostile 
troops  by  various  methods.  They  were  dropped  from  aeroplanes  :  they 
were  fired  off  in  rockets  constructed  to  hold  about  thirty  pamphlets 
each,  and  they  were  further  distributed  by  means  of  grenades  and 
contact  patrols.  Gramophones  even  were  set  up  to  promote  sedition  in 
the  enemy's  trenches  by  the  reproduction  of  nationalist  songs.  The 
proximity  of  the  lines  of  trenches  made  this  comparatively  easy. 
Similar  methods  were  next  adopted  against  the  morale  of  the  German 
army,  among  whom  leafiets  were  distributed  by  the  million — 5,600,000 
in  a  month.  In  all  this  propaganda  work,  the  principle  was  adhered  to 
that  nothing  should  be  told  but  the  truth.    Lying  could  only  be  a  short- 


30  LITEBATUEE.  [1920. 

flighted  policy :  nor  towards  the  end  of  the  war  was  there  any  occasion 
for  it.  The  truth  was  sufiBciently  depressing  for  the  Germans  to  render 
unnecessary  any  tampering  with  the  facts.  The  book  is  interesting  as 
the  record  of  a  totally  new  form  of  warfare,  aiming  to  undermine 
insidiously  the  morale  of  the  enemy.  As  far  as  could  be  judged,  the 
methods  adopted  met  with  conspicuous  success. 

International  Law  and  the  World  War,  by  James  Wilford  Gamer, 
two  volumes  (Longmans,  Green  &  Co.),  is  an  important  work  issued  aa 
one  of  the  "  Contributions  to  International  Law  and  Diplomacy,"  edited 
by  L.  Oppenheim.  Its  object  is  to  examine  the  conduct  of  the  belligerents 
during  the  late  war,  in  its  relations  to  International  Law.  The  first 
volume  opens  with  an  account  of  the  status  of  International  Law  at  the 
beginning  of  the  war.  Then  follows  an  interesting  account  of  the  treat- 
ment of  enemy  diplomatic  representatives  on  the  outbreak  of  war — the 
departure  of  ambassadors  from  the  capitals  where  they  were  accredited. 
In  this  respect,  as  in  nearly  every  other  matter  of  international  law 
or  courtesy  throughout  the  book,  the  author  finds  that  the  German 
behaviour  was  far  inferior  to  that  of  the  French  and  British.  The  treat- 
ment of  enemy  aliens  in  the  different  countries  is  next  described.  The 
use  of  forbidden  weapons,  the  treatment  of  hostages,  submarine  warfare, 
aerial  warfare,  bombing  of  undefended  towns,  etc.,  are  the  subjects  of 
various  chapters,  in  all  of  which  the  evidence  goes  to  show  the  inhu- 
manity and  illegality  of  German  actions.  The  second  volume  deals  with 
the  treatment  meted  out  to  prisoners,  questions  of  contraband,  neutrality, 
etc.,  and  above  all  with  the  legal  aspects  of  the  German  invasion  of 
Belgium.  Professor  Garner  admits  that  the  rules  of  war  may  be 
broken  where  necessary  for  the  continued  existence  of  the  State,  but  he 
finds  that  they  were  continually  broken  by  the  Germans  under  entirely 
unjustifiable  circumstances,  as,  for  instance,  in  order  to  obtain  mere 
strategical  or  tactical  advantages.  The  book  is  by  far  the  weightiest 
compendium  hitherto  issued  on  the  illegalities  of  the  war;  and  it  is 
equally  interesting  to  read,  whether  describing  the  actual  events,  or 
criticising  them  in  the  light  of  international  law. 

Qermany  and  the  French  Revolution,  by  G.  P.  Gooch  (Longmans, 
Green  &  Co.),  attempts  to  describe  the  effects  of  the  French  Bevolution 
on  the  German  mind.  Mr.  Gooch  devotes  his  study,  not  only  to  the 
practical  results  of  the  Bevolution  on  German  political  development, 
but  also  to  the  opinions  held  of  it  at  the  time  by  the  leading  German 
men  of  letters.  The  latter  account  is  particularly  interesting ;  for  the 
last  decade  of  the  eighteenth  century  comprises  some  of  the  greatest 
names  in  German  Literature — ^Goethe,  Schiller,  Wieland,  Herder, 
Klopstock  and  the  Romantics,  Gentz,  Humboldt,  Kant,  and  Fichte. 
On  all  these  writers,  Mr.  Gooch  has  much  that  is  interesting  to  relate. 
Of  all  of  them  Humboldt  alone  appeared  to  adopt  an  attitude  of  philo- 
sophic detachment,  standing  as  a  calm  spectator  high  "above  the 
battle."  The  rest  for  the  most  part  warmly  welcomed  the  outbreak  in 
1789,  and  were  keenly  sympathetic  during  what  Mr.  Gooch  calls  the 
honeymoon  period.  But  an  extreme  revulsion  of  feeling  took  place, 
when  the  later  atrocities  occurred.  The  execution  of  the  King  and  the 
Reign  of  Terror  forcibly  struck  the  imagination  of  Europe,  and  were 


1920.]  LITEEATURE.  31 

regarded  with  universal  horror.  As  regards  the  political  effects  Mr. 
Gooch  argues  that  the  Revolution  had  quite  different  results  in  Germany 
from  those  observed  in  England.  In  England  "  the  reform  'movement 
was  thrown  back  forty  years."  In  G^ermany  '*it  was  strengthened 
and  accelerated."  ''The  constitutional  ideas  of  the  Revolution 
everywhere  struck  root  on  German  soil."  "  The  political  unification 
of  the  nation  was  deferred  for  a  couple  of  generations  ;  but  the 
signal  for  its  deliverance  from  the  thraldom  of  mediaeval  institutions  and 
antiquated  ideas  was  sounded  by  the  tocsin  which  rang  out  in  1789." 
Mr.  €k)och  writes  with  great  ability  and  wide  knowledge,  though  mainly 
for  those  who  have  some  previous  acquaintance  with  this  historical 
period.    The  book  is  of  much  importance  and  value. 

The  Evolution  of  Parliament,  by  A.  F.  Pollard  (Longmans,  Green 
A  Co.),  is  described  by  its  author  as  being  "  less  a  history  of  Parliament 
than  a  suggestion  of  the  lines  upon  which  it  should  be  written." 
Professor  Pollard's  estimate  of  his  own  book  is  a  great  deal  too  modest ; 
for  we  have  here  not  only  an  admirable  account  of  the  origins  and  de- 
velopment of  Parliament,  but  also  a  work  of  high  literary  merit,  no  less 
interesting  perhaps  to  the  general  reader  than  to  the  professional 
historian.  In  many  respects  Professor  Pollard's  account  dissipates 
popular  ideas  as  to  the  origin  of  Parliament.  He  repudiates,  for  instance, 
the  doctrine  that  the  foundation  of  Parliament  was  purely  financial. 
"Its  earliest  function  was  judicial,"  and  in  early  Parliaments  no 
financial  supply  was  either  asked  for  or  granted.  The  last  two  chapters 
of  the  book  are  not  historical.  In  the  last  of  all  Professor  Pollard 
makes  an  interesting  suggestion  for  the  reconstitution  of  the  second 
chamber.  '*  Second  chambers,"  he  says,  ^  are  the  political  failure  of  the 
British  Empire  '* :  an  important  feature  of  the  second  chamber  should 
at  all  events  be  that  it  is  very  different  from  the  first.  Throughout  the 
book,  it  is  made  clear  how  widely  our  views  of  the  origin  of  Parlia- 
mentary institutions  have  been  falsified  by  legends  which  grew  up  in  the 
seventeenth  and  later  centuries.  Four  illustrations  of  Parliament  in 
the  sixteenth,  seventeenth,  and  eighteenth  centuries  contribute  greatly 
to  the  formation  of  a  concrete  picture  as  to  what  Parliament  looked 
like,  and  how  its  appearance  altered  from  one  century  to  another.  The 
weakest  part  of  the  book  is  the  index,  which  is  scarcely  adequate  for  a 
work  of  this  kind. 

The  Outline  of  History,  by  H.  G.  Wells  (Cassell  &  Co.,  Ltd.),  is  a 
history  of  the  world  from  the  origin  of  our  globe  down  to  the  year  1920 
▲.D.  Book  I.  describes  the  situation  of  the  Earth  in  time  and  space, 
the  beginnings  of  life,  the  age  of  reptiles^  the  age  of  mammals,  culminat- 
ing in  the  appearance  of  man.  Book  II.  deals  with  the  various  extinct 
races  of  men :  in  both  of  these  books  the  admirable  illustrations  add 
materially  to  the  interest  of  the  contents.  Having  passed  from  geology 
to  archaeology,  Mr.  Wells  arrives  at  the  dawn  of  history  proper,  and 
gives  an  excellent  account  of  the  earliest  known  civilisations  of  man. 
And  so  he  carries  on  his  story,  becoming  always  fuller  as  he  approaches 
the  present  time,  until  he  reaches  the  last  war  to  which  is  devoted  an 
entire  chapter.  Even  then  Mr.  Wells  seems  unwilling  to  break  off,  for 
yet  another  book  follows,  dealing  with  *<The  Next  Stage  in  History." 


32  LITEEATUEE.  [1920. 

The  whole  work  is  intended  for  the  general  reader,  and  embodies  a  mine 
of  information  in  very  simple  and  pleasant  form.  It  is  indeed  a  great 
achievement :  so  comprehensive  a  survey  of  human  life  and  progress  is 
not  likely  to  be  rivalled  for  some  time  to  come ;  and  the  distinguished 
authorities  whose  advice  was  obtained  by  Mr.  Wells  are  sufficient 
guarantee  of  the  accuracy  of  the  record.  Naturally,  Mr.  Wells  does  not 
go  very  deep :  he  does,  however,  present  modem  views  as  a  whole  in 
an  attractive  and  readable  form. 

The  Idea  of  Progress,  an  inquiry  into  its  origin  and  growth,  by  J.  B. 
Bury  (Macmillan  &  Co.,  Ltd.),  is  a  historical  work,  describing  the  gradual 
progress  of  an  idea  which  now  exists  so  universally,  as  almost  to  appear 
a  natural  part  of  the  mind.  But  Professor  Bury  shows  that  this  is  not 
so.  In  ancient  times,  there  was  virtually  no  history  showing  the  gradual 
advance  of  civilisation,  and  the  corresponding  idea  had  not  come  into 
existence.  During  the  Middle  Ages,  also,  mankind  were  more  concerned 
with  the  destiny  of  their  souls  in  a  future  life,  than  with  the  amelioration 
of  their  conditions  in  the  present.  It  was  only  with  the  coming  of  the 
Benaissance  that  the  ideal  of  progress  began  to  captivate  the  mind,  and 
finally  to  dominate  it  altogether.  Professor  Bury  devotes  very  special 
attention  to  the  share  of  French  philosophers  in  bringing  about  this 
result.  He  does  not  enter  into  the  question  whether  there  has  taken 
place  an  actual  progress  of  mankind — whether  the  state  of  man  is  happier 
or  better  now  than  it  was  in  past  history.  That  is  a  question  which  it 
would  be  very  hard  to  judge  in  the  absence  of  all  standards  of  comparison. 
Material  wealth  has  increased  enormously  no  doubt:  but  happiness 
does  not  depend  upon  material  wealth,  nor  upon  education,  nor  upon 
any  of  the  features  specially  associated  with  civilisation.  Human 
passions  are  little  altered  in  the  state  of  civilisation.  They  are  disguised 
only,  and  work  their  effects  in  slightly  different  ways,  but  essentially 
they  are  the  same  as  they  always  have  been.  Professor  Bury  treats  the 
subject  from  the  purely  historical  point  of  view,  and  his  book  is  of  the 
high  standard  which  was  to  be  expected  from  him. 

Freethinkers  of  the  Nineteenth  Century,  by  Janet  £.  Courtney, 
O.B.E.  (Chapman  &  Hall,  Ltd.),  consists  of  seven  essays  on  well-known 
Victorians  —  Frederick  Denison  Maurice,  Matthew  Arnold,  Charles 
Bradlaugh,  Thomas  Henry  Huxley,  Leslie  Stephen,  Harriet  Martineau, 
and  Charles  Kingsley.  For  each  of  these  a  portrait  is  supplied.  The 
selection  may  seem  curious,  but  the  essays  are  graceful  and  well-written, 
summing  up  in  a  short  space  the  main  facts  concerning  the  lives  of  the 
seven  subjects  dealt  with.  The  chief  bond  of  connexion  between  them 
seems  to  be  rather  in  their  palpable  Victorianism  than  in  any  com- 
munity of  opinion.  They  none  of  them  could  have  lived  in  any  other 
age  than  that  in  which  they  did  live,  unless  indeed  they  had  been  very 
different  persons  from  what  they  were.  Each  in  his  own  way  calls  for 
some  admiration.  Each  did  his  best  to  advance  what  he  believed  to  be 
the  truth,  and  several  did  very  valuable  work  in  re-forming  public  ideas 
on  fundamental  subjects.  But  they  were  all  typical  of  their  century  : 
none  is  likely  to  last :  the  farther  we  go  from  them,  the  more  certainly 
will  they  be  forgotten.  Mrs.  Courtney  has  at  all  events  successfully 
fultilled  the  task  which  she  set  for  herself,  and  assisted  in  the  com- 


IMO.]  LITERATUBE.  88 

memoiatioD  at  individuals  from  whom  she  has  derived  profit  Many 
others  at  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  have  learnt  much  from 
the  same  persons,  and  they  will  welcome  a  volume  which  fittingly 
describes  the  life-work  of  each. 

Bconomic  Liberty,  by  Harold  Cox  (Longmans,  Green  A  Co.),  consists 
of  a  dozen  essays,  most  of  which  have  been  previously  published  in 
reviews.  They  set  forth  the  well-known  political  creed  of  the  author, 
whose  guiding  principle  is  that  of  individual  liberty.  Mr.  Oox's  belief 
in  liberty  is  not  merely  limited  to  a  condemnation  of  collectivism,  but 
also  to  a  condemnation  of  protection,  which  has  been  defined  as  the 
rich  man's  socialism.  In  point  of  fact,  free  trade  and  individual  liberty 
are  two  branches  of  the  same  philosophy,  and  Mr.  Cox's  combination  of 
the  two  makes  a  very  complete  system  of  political  belief.  In  both 
departments  there  is  no  writer  in  existence  of  greater  knowledge  or 
authority  than  Mr.  Cox.  Not  only  is  he  thoroughly  conversant  with  his 
subject,  but  he  writes  with  singular  fluency  and  effect ;  and  the  book  is 
by  far  the  most  important  exposition  of  the  true  individualistic  point  of 
view  that  has  appeared  for  many  years  past.  Indeed  no  politician  can 
claim  to  be  properly  informed  and  equipped,  unless  he  has  both  read 
and  carefully  studied  this  book. 

Anyone  who  adopts  the  belief  in  economic  liberty  must  very  soon  find 
himself  in  antagonism  to  the  doctrine  of  equality.  Equality  is  so  un- 
natural a  condition  that  no  approximation  towards  it  can  be  achieved 
save  by  severe  legal  restrictions  and  ordinances.  The  motto  of  the 
French  Revolution  endeavoured  to  combine  two  incompatible  ideals  : 
and  the  choice  now  lying  before  the  democracies  of  Europe  and  America 
is  whether  they  will  have  liberty  or  whether  they  will  have  equality. 
Mr.  Cox  answers  the  question  with  no  uncertain  voice.  He  is  for 
liberty— -an  equal  liberty  for  rich  and  poor-^nd  he  furnishes  arguments 
in  support  of  his  view,  which  present  a  poweriul  challenge  to  his  op- 
ponents.   It  is  greatly  to  be  hoped  that  the  challenge  will  be  taken  up. 

A  Constltutloo  for  the  Socialist  Commonwealth  of  Great  Britain, 
by  Sidney  and  Beatrice  Webb  (Longmans,  Green  &  Co.),  is  a  concrete 
picture  of  the  kind  of  government  which  would,  in  the  authors'  opinion, 
be  likely  to  prevail  under  a  Socialist  Ministry  with  a  Socialist  majority 
in  Parliament.  They  begin  with  a  survey  of  the  ground,  pointing  out 
many  defects  in  the  so-called  "Capitalist  system,"  and  leading  to  the 
conclusion  that  constitutional  reform  is  urgently  needed.  The  nature 
of  that  reform  is  indicated  in  the  succeeding  chapters.  The  authors 
would  retain  the  Monarchy  for  purely  ceremonial  purposes,  and  deriv- 
ing its  authority  by  Act  of  Parliament,  which  like  all  other  Acts  can  be 
repealed.  But  their  most  novel  suggestion  is  that  there  should  be  two 
Parliaments,  a  political  and  a  social  Parliament.  The  political  Parlia- 
ment would  deal  with  foreign  affairs  and  the  administration  of  justice : 
the  social  Parliament  would  control  the  economic  and  social  activities 
of  the  nation.  Both  would  be  elected  on  a  popular  basis ;  and  questions 
concerning  the  personal  liberty  of  citizens  and  also  concerning  finance 
would  have  to  be  submitted  to  both.  The  reorganisation  of  local  govern- 
ment is  studied  in  detail.  The  authors  have  neglected  no  point  in  their 
endeavour  to  show  how  a  moderate  and  constitutional  form  of  socialism 

C 


86  LITEBATURE.  [iwo. 

eyes  of  a  child  raised  from  the  gutter.    The  book  is  full  of  detightful 
humour,  wit,  and  acute  observation. 

Lttcinda,  by  Anthony  Hope  (Hutchinson  &  Co.),  is  a  very  good  story 
whose  incidents  carry  the  reader  from  Devon  to  Venice,  Paris,  and  the 
Biviera.  The  hero  does  not  discover  his  love  for  Ludnda  until  the  last, 
and  his  rival,  Arsenic  Valdez,  is  a  very  lovable  quaint  villain. 

The  Mills  of  the  Qods,  by  Elizabeth  Robins  (Thornton  Butterworth), 
is  a  series  of  seven  stories  written  with  Miss  Robins's  power  and  keen 
dramatic  sense.  They  seem  to  deal  with  life  as  it  was  years  ago  before 
there  had  been  a  war ;  the  human  qualities  which  are  emphasised  have 
been  exchanged  for  other  qualities  that  we  are  now  getting  used  ta 

Queen  Lucia,  by  £.  F.  Benson  (Hutchinson  A  Co.).  This  latest 
book  of  Mr.  Benson's  is  full  of  amusing  situations  and  sparkling  wit. 
Biseholme  is  a  busy  little  village  which  next  to  gossip  adopts  culture 
as  its  chief  occupation,  and  Mr.  Benson  has  many  amusing  things  to  tell 
about  the  saintly  Brahmin  instructor  whom  Queen  Lucia  allows  the 
community  to  consult. 

Autumn  Crocuses,  by  Anne  Douglas  Sedgwick  (Martin  Seeker).  In 
this  book  of  short  stories  Miss  Sedgwick  has  chosen  a  flower  to  represent 
certain  characteristics  in  human  beings,  and  three  of  them — Daffodils, 
Autumn  Crocuses,  and  Christmas  Boses — must  be  singled  out  for  their 
exquisite  charm  and  originality. 

Awakenlnsr*  by  John  Galsworthy  (Heinemann),  is  one  of  the 
tenderest  stories  that  Mr.  Galsworthy  has  written.  It  is  an  episode  in 
the  life  of  little  Jon  Forsyte,  a  younger  member  of  the  family  of  Forsyte 
who  appear  in  "  The  Man  of  Property  "  and  "  In  Chancery."  It  tells  how 
the  wonder  and  mystery  of  beauty  suddenly  comes  to  this  healthy  and 
delightful  boy. 

The  Imperfect  Mother,  by  J.  D.  Beresford  (Collins,  Sons  db  Co.,  Ltd.). 
The  imperfect  mother  is  Cecilia  Kirkwood,  a  lady  of  rebellious  tempera- 
ment, who  has  made  a  mistaken  marriage.  She  leaves  her  husband 
when  her  son  is  seventeen  years  old ;  telling  the  boy  beforehand  her 
motives  for  doing  so.  After  seven  years  Stephen  seeks  out  his  mother 
and  finds  that  Dr.  Threlfall,  her  lover,  has  transferred  his  affections 
to  a  young  and  beautiful  girl,  Margaret.  Stephen  marries  Margaret 
through  the  guidance  of  his  mother.  The  story  is  developed  through 
the  boy's  intense  sensitiveness. 

Potterlsnit  by  Rose  Macaulay  (Collins,  Sons  Sc  Co.,  Ltd.).  This  new 
book  of  Miss  Macaulay's  is  not  a  story,  but  she  intends  it  to  be  a  cynical 
study  of  certain  types  of  present-day  English  character.  Potterism,  the 
English  habit  of  thinking  and  talking  nonsense,  makes  an  excellent 
subject  for  Miss  Macaulay's  lively  humour  and  satire. 

Night  and  Day,  by  Virginia  Woolf  (Duckworth).  In  this  new  novel 
Mrs.  Woolf  has  created  a  wonderful  heroine  in  Katherine  Hilberry,  who  is 
almost  too  great  for  the  people  she  lives  amongst.  Ralph  Denham  with 
his  love  for  Katherine  is  very  real  and  very  convincing.  Mrs.  Woolfs 
landscape  scenes  are  described  with  extraordinary  delicacy  and  freshness. 

The  Twillgfit  of  the  Souls :  Dr.  Adrlaan,  by  Louis  Couperas  (Heine- 
mann). The  people  of  M.  Couperus's  creation  in  these  books  are  a 
masterful  study  of  nervous  temperaments.    They  feel  and  see  things 


1990.1  LITERATUBE.  37 

differently  from  ordinary  people,  their  lives  are  more  intense.  The 
author  has  depicted  his  scenes  with  the  utmost  simplicity,  and  so  has 
emphasised  their  greatness. 

The  Tall  Villa,  by  Lucas  Malet  (Collins,  Sons  &  Co.,  Ltd.),  is  a  weird 
story  of  how  the  ghost  of  Lord  Oxley  haunted  a  certain  ''tall  villa" 
in  Primrose  Hill  where  Mrs.  Frances  Copley,  the  wife  of  a  rich  stock- 
broker, is  staying.  How  she  met  her  visitor  and  what  happened  are 
told  with  great  ingenuity  and  skill. 

The  Qay-Dombeys,  by  Sir  Harry  Johnston,  with  an  introduction  by 
G.  H.  Wells  (Chatto  &  Windus).  This  novel  deals  with  the  growth  of 
the  Empire,  and  Sir  Harry  Johnston  makes  it  plain  that  the  solid  work 
of  settlement  in  the  dependencies  of  Africa  was  done,  not  by  the  politi- 
cians and  officials,  but  by  scientists  and  enthusiasts.  Woman,  too,  plays 
a  great  part,  and  Suzanne  Gay-Dombey,  with  her  frankness  and  inconse- 
quence but  withal  her  great  ability,  shows  that  woman  must  take  a  high 
place  in  the  new  scheme  of  things. 

Shepherd's  Wamin^,  by  Eric  Leadbitter  (Allen  A  Unwin).  The 
theme  of  this  story  is  English  rural  life,  and  centres  round  an  old 
labourer— Bob  Garrett — ^who  lives  amongst  the  fruits  of  his  labour.  The 
old  man  is  proud  of  his  skill  and  proud  of  the  power  that  his  skill  gives 
him ;  but  the  new  order  of  things  does  not  appeal  to  him :  the  increase 
of  material  prosperity  means  to  him  a  loss  of  individuality  and  of 
power. 

The  Merchant  at  Arms,  by  Bonald  Oakeshott,  with  a  preface  by 
Jeffery  Famol  (Longmans,  Green  &  Co.).  The  story  centres  round  the 
valiant  and  manly  deeds  of  the  youth  George  Nuttman,  a  merchant's 
son,  during  and  after  Bosworth  Field.  George  b^ns  as  a  page  in  Sir 
Widter  Dale's  service,  and  they  are  called  to  serve  on  King  Bichard's 
side  at  Bosworth.  After  the  defeat  they  take  to  flight  and  are  forced  to 
undergo  many  privations  during  which  stirring  adventures  are  related. 

A  Tale  that  is  Told*  by  Frederick  Niven  (Collins,  Sons  &  Co.,  Ltd.). 
In  this  work  Mr.  Niven's  gift  for  character  study  is  brought  to  great 
perfection.  The  study  of  the  narrator  of  '*  A  Tale  that  is  Told,"  and 
the  people  he  describes  are  very  fine  indeed.  The  people  are  Scotch, 
and  Mr.  Niven  has  dealt  with  a  side  of  their  life  that  is  seldom  written 
about. 

The  Stranc^r,  by  Arthur  Bullard  (Macmillan  db  Co.,  Ltd.).  The 
scenes  are  laid  in  New  York  amongst  interesting  people.  '*The 
Stranger"  has  lived  in  Mohammedan  countries,  and  his  philosophical 
and  religious  outlook  on  life  is  in  direct  opposition  to  the  feverish 
tendencies  of  modem  America. 

MainwarlQf,  by  Maurice  Hewlett  (Collins,  Sons  db  Co.,  Ltd.),  is  a 
story  of  modem  life ;  Mainwaring  is  an  Irishman  of  passionate  beliefs 
whose  life  is  told  by  the  narrator  of  the  story.  The  reader  is  taken 
through  scenes  of  political  strife,  through  scenes  of  love,  passion,  and 
grief,  and  finally  to  triumph. 


86  LITERATURE-  [1920. 

eyes  of  a  child  raised  from  the  gutter.    The  book  is  full  of  detightful 
humour,  wit,  and  acute  observation. 

Lttclnda,  by  Anthony  Hope  (Hutchinson  A  Co.),  is  a  very  good  story 
whose  incidents  carry  the  reader  from  Devon  to  Venice,  Paris,  and  the 
Biviera.  The  hero  does  not  discover  his  love  for  Lucinda  until  the  last, 
and  his  rival,  Arsenic  Valdez,  is  a  very  lovable  quaint  villain. 

The  Mills  off  the  Qods,  by  Elizabeth  Robins  (Thornton  Butterworth), 
is  a  series  of  seven  stories  written  with  Miss  Robins's  power  and  keen 
dramatic  sense.  They  seem  to  deal  with  life  as  it  was  years  ago  before 
there  had  been  a  war ;  the  human  qualities  which  are  emphasised  have 
been  exchanged  for  other  qualities  that  we  are  now  getting  used  ta 

Queen  Lucia,  by  E.  F.  Benson  (Hutchinson  A  Ck>.).  This  latest 
book  of  Mr.  Benson's  is  full  of  amusing  situations  and  sparkling  wit. 
Biseholme  is  a  busy  little  village  which  next  to  gossip  adopts  culture 
as  its  chief  occupation,  and  Mr.  Benson  has  many  amusing  things  to  tell 
about  the  saintly  Brahmin  instructor  whom  Queen  Lucia  allows  the 
community  to  consult. 

Autumn  Crocuses,  by  Anne  Douglas  Sedgwick  (Martin  Seeker).  In 
this  book  of  short  stories  Miss  Sedgwick  has  chosen  a  flower  to  represent 
certain  characteristics  in  human  beings,  and  three  of  them — Daffodils, 
Autumn  Crocuses,  and  Christmas  Boses — must  be  singled  out  for  their 
exquisite  charm  and  originality. 

Awaicening,  by  John  Galsworthy  (Heinemann),  is  one  of  the 
tenderest  stories  that  Mr.  Gkilsworthy  has  written.  It  is  an  episode  in 
the  life  of  little  Jon  Forsyte,  a  younger  member  of  the  family  of  Forsyte 
who  appear  in  "  The  Man  of  Property  "  and  **  In  Chancery."  It  tells  how 
the  wonder  and  mystery  of  beauty  suddenly  comes  to  this  healthy  and 
delightful  boy. 

The  Imperfect  Mother,  by  J.  D.  Beresford  (Collins,  Sons  db  Co.,  Ltd.). 
The  imperfect  mother  is  Cecilia  Eirkwood,  a  lady  of  rebellious  tempera- 
ment, who  has  made  a  mistaken  marriage.  She  leaves  her  husband 
when  her  son  is  seventeen  years  old ;  telling  the  boy  beforehand  her 
motives  for  doing  so.  After  seven  years  Stephen  seeks  out  his  mother 
and  finds  that  Dr.  Threlfall,  her  lover,  has  transferred  his  affections 
to  a  young  and  beautiful  girl,  Margaret.  Stephen  marries  Margaret 
through  the  guidance  of  his  mother.  The  story  is  developed  through 
the  boy's  intense  sensitiveness. 

Potterism,  by  Rose  Macaulay  (Collins,  Sons  A  Co.,  Ltd.).  This  new 
book  of  Miss  Macaulay's  is  not  a  story^  but  she  intends  it  to  be  a  cynical 
study  of  certain  types  of  present-day  English  character.  Potterism,  the 
English  habit  of  thinking  and  talking  nonsense,  makes  an  excellent 
subject  for  Miss  Macaulay's  lively  humour  and  satire. 

Night  and  Day,  by  Virginia  Woolf  (Duckworth).  In  this  new  novel 
Mrs.  Woolf  has  created  a  wonderful  heroine  in  Katherine  Hilberry,  who  is 
almost  too  great  for  the  people  she  lives  amongst.  Ralph  Denham  with 
his  love  for  Katherine  is  very  real  and  very  convincing.  Mrs.  Woolfs 
landscape  scenes  are  described  with  extraordinary  delicacy  and  freshness. 

The  Twiligfit  of  the  Souls :  Dr.  Adriaan,  by  Louis  Coupems  (Heine- 
mann).  The  people  of  M.  Couperus's  creation  in  these  books  are  a 
masterful  study  of  nervous  temperaments.    They  feel  and  see  things 


1M0.1  LITERATUEE.  87 

differently  from  ordinary  people,  their  lives  are  more  intense.  The 
author  has  depicted  his  scenes  with  the  utmost  simplicity,  and  so  has 
emphasised  their  greatness. 

The  Tall  Villa,  by  Lucas  Malet  (Collins,  Sons  &  Co.,  Ltd.),  is  a  weird 
story  of  how  the  ghost  of  Lord  Oxley  haunted  a  certain  ''tall  villa" 
in  Primrose  Hill  where  Mrs.  Frances  Copley,  the  wife  of  a  rich  stock- 
broker, is  staying.  How  she  met  her  visitor  and  what  happened  are 
told  with  great  ingenuity  and  skill. 

The  Qay-Dombeys,  by  Sir  Harry  Johnston,  with  an  introduction  by 
G.  H.  Wells  (Chatto  &  Windus).  This  novel  deals  with  the  growth  of 
the  Empire,  and  Sir  Harry  Johnston  makes  it  plain  that  the  solid  work 
of  settlement  in  the  dependencies  of  Africa  was  done,  not  by  the  politi- 
cians and  officials,  but  by  scientists  and  enthusiasts.  Woman,  too,  plays 
a  great  part,  and  Suzanne  Gay-Dombey,  with  her  frankness  and  inconse- 
quence but  withal  her  great  ability,  shows  that  woman  must  take  a  high 
place  in  the  new  scheme  of  things. 

Shepherd's  Warning,  by  Eric  Leadbitter  (Allen  <fe  Unwin).  The 
theme  of  this  story  is  English  rural  life,  and  centres  round  an  old 
labourer— Bob  Garrett — who  lives  amongst  the  fruits  of  his  labour.  The 
old  man  is  proud  of  his  skill  and  proud  of  the  power  that  his  skill  gives 
him ;  but  the  new  order  of  things  does  not  appeal  to  him :  the  increase 
of  naaterial  prosperity  means  to  him  a  loss  of  individuality  and  of 
power. 

The  Merchant  at  Arms*  by  Bonald  Oakeshott,  with  a  preface  by 
Jeffery  Famol  (Longmans,  Green  &  Co.).  The  story  centres  round  the 
valiant  and  manly  deeds  of  the  youth  George  Nuttman,  a  merchant's 
son,  during  and  i^ter  Bosworth  field.  George  begins  as  a  page  in  Sir 
Walter  Dale's  service,  and  they  are  called  to  serve  on  King  Bichard's 
side  at  Bosworth.  After  the  defeat  they  take  to  flight  and  are  forced  to 
undergo  ouiny  privations  during  which  stirring  adventures  are  related. 

A  Tale  that  is  Told*  by  Frederick  Niven  (Collins,  Sons  <fe  Co.,  Ltd.). 
In  this  work  Mr.  Miven's  gift  for  character  study  is  brought  to  great 
perfection.  The  study  of  the  narrator  of  ''  A  Tale  that  is  Told,"  and 
the  people  he  describes  are  very  fine  indeed.  The  people  are  Scotch, 
and  Mr.  Niven  has  dealt  with  a  side  of  their  life  that  is  seldom  written 
about. 

The  Straoger,  by  Arthur  Bullard  (Macmillan  &  Co.,  Ltd.).  The 
scenes  are  laid  in  New  York  amongst  interesting  people.  "The 
Stranger "  has  lived  in  Mohammedan  countries,  and  his  philosophical 
and  religious  outlook  on  life  is  in  direct  opposition  to  the  feverish 
tendencies  of  modem  America. 

Malnwariog,  by  Maurice  Hewlett  (Collins,  Sons  A  Co.,  Ltd.),  is  a 
story  of  modem  life ;  Main  waring  is  an  Irishman  of  passionate  beliefs 
whose  life  is  told  by  the  narrator  of  the  story.  The  reader  is  taken 
through  scenes  of  political  strife,  through  scenes  of  love,  passion,  and 
grief,  and  finally  to  triumph. 


SCIENCE  OF  THE  YEAR. 

No  single  event  of  outstanding  importance  characterised  the  year  1920, 
as  had  been  the  case  in  1919.  Scientific  laboratories  throughout  the 
country  had  now  resumed  their  normal  work  of  peace-time  :  the  number 
of  scientific  books  published  considerably  exceeded  that  of  the  preceding 
year.  Pure  science  was  once  more  pursued  for  its  own  sake^  apart  from 
its  possible  applications  to  the  purposes  of  war  or  industry. 

In  astronomy,  the  main  event  of  public  interest  during  the  year  was 
the  discovery  of  a  new  star  in  the  constellation  Cygnus.  It  was  first 
seen  by  Mr.  W.  F.  Denning  of  Bristol  in  the  evening  of  August  20,  and 
was  then  of  magnitude  3).  Three  days  later  it  was  estimated  to  be  of 
magnitude  2*2,  but  by  August  26  it  had  fallen  again  to  2*8,  and  on 
August  29  it  was  3*8.  The  maximum  was  on  August  24,  after  which 
date  it  steadily  subsided.  As  in  the  case  of  nearly  all  novsB,  its  site 
was  in  the  Milky  Way.  The  discovery  of  this  star  was  made  unusually 
early,  for  novae  generally  escape  observation  until  they  have  already 
attained  or  passed  their  maximum. 

Becent  conclusions  on  the  "Internal  Constitution  of  the  Stars" 
became  more  definite,  thanks  largely  to  the  work  of  Professor  Eddington. 
According  to  his  view,  stars  were  divide.!  into  two  groups  :  those  which 
were  increasing  in  brightness,  and  those  which  were  decreasing.  The 
former  were  the  giant  stars ;  the  latter  were  the  dwarfs.  All  stars 
began  their  existence  as  giants,  and  then  slowly  contracted,  while  their 
temperature  consequently  increased.  After  reaching  a  certain  density, 
however,  the  temperature  rose  no  further,  but  began  to  fall ;  so  that  ail 
stars  passed  through  the  same  temperature  twice  in  the  course  of  their 
existence.  The  source  of  their  heat  was  not  only  the  molecular  motion 
within  them,  but  also  the  radiant  energy  locked  among  their  molecules 
and  escaping  only  by  slow  degrees. 

The  new  researches  in  physics  were  the  cause  of  a  great  change  in 
the  astronomical  estimates  of  the  age  of  the  Sun.  The  contraction 
theory  of  Helmholtz  set  the  birth  of  the  Sun  at  not  more  than 
20,000,000  years  ago— a  period  of  time  altogether  insufficient  to  account 
for  the  evolution  of  life  and  the  facts  presented  by  geology.  It  became 
necessary,  therefore,  to  postulate  some  new  source  of  energy  in  addition 
to  that  supplied  by  mere  contraction.  This  energy,  of  course,  is  the  sub- 
atomic energy,  of  whose  existence  physics  had  only  recently  become 
aware.  It  is  now  assumed  that  during  the  early  life  of  a  star,  the 
complexity  of  the  elements  increases,  energy  being  absorbed  in  the 
process.  In  very  early  stages,  none  but  the  lighter  atoms  would  be 
present.    If  during  certain  stages  energy  is  thus  absorbed,  it  does  not 

88 


1930.]  SCIENCE.  39 

seem  unlikely  that  there  may  be  other  stages  in  which  that  same  energy 
is  liberated. 

In  the  sphere  of  philosophical  physics,  the  Principle  of  Belativity 
remained  the  dominating  subject  of  interest;  and  many  important 
books  and  pamphlets  were  issued^  in  the  attempt  at  popular  exposition 
of  the  new  doctrine.  Specially  noteworthy  was  Professor  Eddington's 
'*  Space,  Time,  and  Gravitation :  An  Outline  of  the  General  Relativity 
Theory,"  published  by  the  Cambridge  University  Press :  this  work 
furnishes  the  most  complete  popular  treatment  published,  though 
portions  of  it  are  still  somewhat  technical.  Professor  Einstein  himself 
published  a  book,  the  English  translation  of  which— "  Belativity :  the 
Special  and  the  General  Theory  "—was  published  by  Messrs.  Methuen 
A  Co.  Less  comprehensive  than  Professor  Eddington's  book,  it  is,  how- 
ever, equally  lucid.  The  nature  of  the  subject  is  such  as  to  render  it 
almost  impossible  to  understand  except  for  a  trained  mathematician  or 
philosopher ;  and  during  the  year  the  general  reading  public  realised 
this  fact,  and  to  a  great  extent  gave  up  trying  to  understand  the  theory. 
Notwithstanding  its  paradoxical  character,  it  steadily  gained  prestige 
during  the  year,  and  its  position  was  more  securely  established  at  the 
end  of  it  than  it  was  at  the  beginning. 

In  experimental  physics,  the  constitution  of  the  atom  continued  to 
be  one  of  the  principal  subjects  of  research.  During  the  year  final 
confirmation  was  provided  of  the  fact  that  the  positively  charged  atom 
of  hydrogen  is  one  of  the  constituents  of  the  nitrogen  atom.  Hydrogen 
atoms  were  obtained,  not  only  from  nitrogen  itself,  but  from  the  nitrides 
of  boron,  sodium,  and  titanium,  and  also  from  para-cyanogen.  Not  only 
were  hydrogen  atoms  thus  obtained,  but  in  one  or  two  cases  they  were 
obtained  in  greater  quantity  than  was  theoretically  to  be  expected :  a 
conclusion  which  might  have  been  due,  either  to  an  imperfect  exclusion 
of  hydrogen  at  the  start,  or  else  to  the  production  of  hydrogen  atoms  by 
boron  or  the  other  non-nitrogenous  constituent  of  the  compounds  tested. 

The  nucleus  of  the  nitrogen  atom  was  shown  to  contain  other  com- 
ponents in  addition  to  the  hydrogen  atom  and  in  much  greater  quantity. 
These  other  components  had  a  mass  greater  than  hydrogen  and  less  than 
helium,  and  were  produced  alike  either  from  nitrogen  or  oxygen.  It 
has  now  been  established  that  they  are  fragments  of  disintegrated 
atoms,  which  are  common  to  both  oxygen  and  nitrogen,  and  are  from 
five  to  ten  times  as  numerous  in  these  elements  as  the  hydrogen  atom. 
The  general  conception  gained  progress  that  the  nuclei  of  all  atoms  are 
made  up  of  hydrogen  nuclei  in  combination  with  electrons.  The  helium 
nucleus  would  thus  consist  of  four  hydrogen  nuclei  and  two  electrons  : 
and  the  helium  atom  would  consist  of  the  nucleus  with  two  planetary 
electrons  neutralising  the  charge. 

Further  research  was  also  conducted  on  the  isotopes  of  the  lighter 
elements.  It  had  hitherto  been  among  the  radio-active  elements  that 
the  existence  of  isotopes  had  been  established:  t.6.,  of  elements. of 
identical  chemical  properties  but  different  atomic  weights.  Several 
varieties  of  lead,  for  instance,  had  been  produced,  altogether  indistin- 
guishable except  by  their  different  atomic  weights.  This  fact  was 
accounted  for  on  the  supposition  that  the  mass  of  an  atom  resides  in 


40  SCIENCE.  [iMO. 

the  nucleaB,  whereas  the  chemical  properties  depend  upon  the  planetary 
electrons.  An  alteration  may  occur  in  the  constitution  of  the  nncleua 
without  affecting  the  surrounding  electrons,  and  thus  variations  of 
atomic  weight  would  occur  without  any  corresponding  variations  in 
chemical  properties.  The  existence  of  isotopes  among  the  lighter 
elements  was  first  demonstrated  in  the  case  of  neon,  which  was  proved 
to  be  a  mixture  of  at  least  two  separate  isotopes.  The  theory  was  then 
applied  to  other  elements^  whose  atomic  weights  are  fractional,  and 
especially  to  chlorine,  of  which  the  recognised  atomic  weight  is  36*46. 
It  -was  found  to  consist,  like  neon,  of  isotopes  whose  masses  were 
represented  by  whole  numbers,  as  far  as  experimental  accuracy  could 
reach,  and  especially  by  the  numbers  35  and  36.  Argon  has  also  been 
the  subject  of  experiment :  and  the  conclusion  has  been  drawn  that  its 
atomic  weight  of  39*88  may  be  due  to  one  constituent  of  mass  40,  and  a 
secondary  constituent  of  mass  36,  present  to  the  extent  of  3  per  cent« 
Experiments  on  krypton  and  xenon  indicated  that  they  also  are  com- 
plex elements,  consisting  in  each  case  of  as  many  as  five  or  six  isotopes. 
The  study  of  other  elements  yielded  similar  results  :  so  as  to  give  rise  to 
the  generalisation  that  all  atomic  masses  are  ultimately  whole  numbers 
on  the  oxygen  scale.  The  elements  therefore  appear  to  be  immensely 
more  complex  than  used  to  be  supposed.  Their  complexity,  however,  is 
of  no  great  practical  importance,  since  the  various  isotopes  of  which 
they  are  made  up  are  identical  in  chemical  properties.  The  ancient 
theory  thus  seems  about  to  come  into  its  own^the  theory  that  all  the 
elements  are  built  up  out  of  one  common  unit,  that  unit  being  according 
to  modern  ideas  a  positively  charged  atom  of  electricity  in  close  com- 
bination with  a  negatively  charged  atom  of  electricity. 

The  Beport  of  the  Royal  Commission  on  Decimal  Coinage  was 
published  in  March.  The  Commission  had  been  appointed  on  August 
26,  1918,  under  the  chairmanship  of  Lord  Emmott,  and  their  report 
decided  against  any  change  in  the  existing  system.  There  was  agree- 
ment that  in  any  scheme  for  reducing  the  existing  system  to  a  decimal 
basis  the  pound  should  be  retained.  This,  however,  would  necessarily 
involve  an  alteration  in  the  value  of  the  penny ;  and  no  such  alteration 
could  be  made  without  causing  great  practical  inconvenience.  The 
Commission  regarded  the  pound  and  mil  scheme  as  the  best  avaUable, 
but  did  not  consider  that  the  greater  facilities  which  it  offered  as  regards 
keeping  accounts  were  commensurate  with  the  loss  of  convenience  in 
other  ways.  A  minority  report  was  signed  by  four  members  of  the 
Commission,  who  thought  that  the  advantages  of  a  decimal  coinage  were 
so  great  as  to  outweigh  the  practical  inconveniences  which  they  admitted 
must  come  from  the  change.  Among  the  general  public  little  interest 
was  taken  in  the  question. 

The  findings  of  the  Commission  were  controverted  by  Mr.  H.  Allcock 
in  the  section  of  Economic  Science  at  the  British  Association.  Mr. 
Allcock  advocated  dividing  the  pound  into  200  instead  of  240  penniee, 
which,  he  thought,  would  accelerate  the  reduction  of  prices  by  the  in- 
troduction of  a  new  coin  worth  about  l^d,  in  present  money.  He  argued 
further  that  such  a  step  would  relieve  the  prevailing  shortage  of  copper 
coins. 


IMX]  SCIENCfi.  41 

An  invention  which  made  great  progress  during  the  year  was  that  of 
the  wireless  telephone,  the  main  installation  of  which  was  established 
at  Chelmsford.  In  Febroary,  messages  were  sent  from  Chelmsford  to 
Burlington  House  in  London,  where  a  eonvermunoru  of  the  Royal  Society 
was  taking  place.  By  means  of  a  loud-speaking  receiver,  every  one  in 
the  hall  at  Burlington  House  could  hear  plainly  what  was  being  said  at 
Chelmsford,  the  apparatus  being  very  simple  and  standing  upon  an 
ordinary  table.  In  December,  a  still  greater  achievement  was  carried 
out,  messages  being  sent  from  Chelmsford  to  Qeneva,  and  being  perfectly 
audible  there.  In  this  case,  however,  some  diflSculty  was  experienced 
owing  to  interference  by  other  high-tension  currents  from  Heleingfors 
and  elsewhere.  An  interesting  development  of  wireless  telephony  was 
the  attempt  to  hear  sounds  in  the  depths  of  space.  The  experiments 
led  to  the  conclusion  that  deep  and  absolute  stillness  prevails,  when  out 
of  range  of  noises  on  the  Earth. 

In  biology  no  new  problems  of  importance  arose.  Discussion  con- 
tinued sporadically  to  break  out  on  the  **  Inheritance  of  Acquired  Char- 
acters," in  which  a  few  men  of  science  still  professed  belief.  No  fact 
could  indicate  more  plainly  the  slow  progress  made  by  biology  towards 
the  solution  of  fundamental  problems.  Another  controversy  that  aroused 
discussion  was  whether  evolution  proceeded  continuously  by  infini- 
tesimal steps,  or  discontinuously  by  sudden  leaps.  Opinion  seemed  to 
lean  towards  the  theory  that  evolution  might  at  all  events  be  continu- 
ous. The  evidence  of  fossils  indeed  is  such  as  appears  to  indicate  sudden 
alterations  in  the  form  of  a  species :  but  this  fact  is  more  likely  due  to 
the  interruptions  in  the  palseontological  records  than  to  any  real  discon- 
tinuity of  evolution.  In  point  of  fact  palasontologists  were  the  chief  up- 
holders of  the  Darwinian  theory  of  continuous  evolution.  Wherever 
a  continuous  series  of  fossils  was  available  for  examination,  it  seemed 
to  show  that  evolution  had  taken  place  by  small  and  gradual  steps. 
Moreover,  the  direction  of  evolutionary  change  often  seemed  to  corre- 
spond with  the  alteration  in  the  structure  of  individuals  as  they  advance 
from  youth  to  old  age.  In  short,  a  species  develops  like  an  individual 
from  birth  to  death,  and  on  lines  that  in  certain  respects  are  parallel. 

The  chief  opponents  of  the  theory  of  continuous  evolution  were  the 
Mendelians,  whose  doctrine  comprised  the  cardinal  feature  that  an  in- 
dividual was  a  bundle  of  **  nnit-charactere,"  which  were  either  present  or 
absent  as  a  whole,  but  were  not  capable  of  being  partially  present.  This 
doctrine  necessarily  implies  a  discontinuity  of  evolution,  for  there  is  no 
halting-plaoe  between  the  presence  or  absence  of  a  "  unit*character."  A 
step  in  evolution  must  involve  at  least  one  entire  character,  and  must, 
tlierefore,  present  the  appearance  of  discontinuity.  Some  Mendelians 
went  so  far  as  to  reject  the  theory  of  natural  selection  altogether ;  but 
they  remained  in  a  small  minority.  Biologists  as  a  whole  entertained 
tittle  doubt  that  by  some  process  or  other,  direct  or  more  likely  Indirect, 
the  evolution  of  species  was  affected  and  controlled  by  the  environ- 
ment. 

Further  reeearches  on  the  protozoa  seemed  to  strengthen  the  argu* 
mente  in  favour  of  the  infloeiice  of  the  environment  in  determining 
structure.     Ibe  dliates  and  flagellates  were  shown  to  exhibit  definite 


4i2  SCIENCB.  ti920. 

structural  regions  corresponding  to  the  nerves  and  muscles  of  higher 
animals ;  and  the  view  was  expressed  that  this  development  of  structure 
was  necessarily  due  to  the  motions  of  the  animals.  Even  bilateral  sym- 
metry was  held  to  originate  in  this  manner. 

In  physiology^  experiments  were  conducted  to  find  the  effects  of 
reducing  the  amount  of  oxygen  in  the  blood.  Several  physiologists  sub- 
mitted to  experiments,  which  showed  that  a  deficiency  of  oxygen  had  an 
injurious  effect  on  the  mental  powers.  The  question  then  arose  as  to 
whether  this  effect  was  due  to  reduced  oxygen  pressure  or  actual  lack  of 
oxygen,  and  reasons  were  given  for  the  opinion  that  the  former  factor 
had  at  all  events  much  to  do  with  the  result.  The  symptoms  to  some 
extent  resembled  alcoholic  poisoning. 

Further  research  was  also  published  on  the  mental  effects  of  alcohol. 
The  general  conclusion  was  that  alcohol  is  deleterious  to  the  powers  of 
attention  and  memory,  except  in  certain  states  of  fatigue,  when  it  may 
be  advantageous.  The  toxic  effects  of  alcohol  were  less  marked  when 
taken  in  dilute  solution,  and  also  when  taken  at  the  same  time  as  food. 
Milk  was  found  to  constitute  a  good  preventive  against  alcoholic  intoxi- 
cation. 

Considerable  public  interest  was  taken  in  an  invention  of  an  Indian 
scientist,  Sir  J.  C.  Bose,  F.B.S.,  whereby  the  slow  growth  and  move- 
ments of  plants  could  be  rendered  visible.  The  instrument  was  known 
as  the  crescograph,  and  was  capable  of  magnifying  movements  up  to 
several  million  times.  Some  doubt  was  thrown  in  the  early  part  of  the 
year  on  the  reliability  of  Professor  Bose's  work,  and  on  April  23  a  test 
demonstration  was  carried  out  in  the  physiological  laboratory  of  Uni- 
versity College,  London,  the  result  of  which  was  generally  held  to  be 
satisfactory,  a  number  of  eminent  professors  expressing  their  conviction 
that  the  crescograph  correctly  recorded  the  growth  of  plant  tissues,  and 
at  a  magnification  of  from  one  to  ten  million  times.  Scepticism,  how- 
ever, was  not  wholly  banished  by  this  test  experiment,  and,  at  a  subse- 
quent meeting  of  the  Boyal  Society,  a  discussion  took  place,  the  result  of 
which  was  somewhat  inconclusive.  Professor  Bose  was  the  first  Indian 
to  be  admitted  to  Fellowship  of  the  Royal  Society. 

The  normal  work  of  the  Geological  Survey  was  resumed  during  the 
year.  A  very  important  memoir  was  published  on  the  Qeology  of 
Anglesey,  by  Mr.  Edward  Qreenly,  accompanying  the  new  series  map  of 
that  district.  Progress  continued,  however,  as  before  the  war,  to  be 
exceedingly  slow. 

In  the  sphere  of  medicine  two  official  publications  were  issued, 
especially  deserving  of  notice.  The  first  gave  a  very  comprehensive 
account  of  the  great  influenza  outbreak  of  1918,  and  was  published  as  a 
Supplement  to  the  Annual  Report  of  the  Local  Qovemment  Board.  Dr. 
Camwath,  the  writer  of  the  report,  found  evidence  pointing  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  disease  had  originated  in  China,  and  spread  from 
there,  first  to  America,  and  thence  to  Europe.  It  appears  that  the  first 
onslaught  of  it  in  this  country  fell  upon  the  Grand  Fleet  in  April, 
reaching  its  height  on  May  10.  The  Army  in  France  was  attacked  about 
the  same  time.  In  the  First  Army  alone,  between  May  18  and  June  8, 
36,473  patients  were  admitted  to  casualty  clearing  stations.    Among 


1920.1  SCIENCE.  48 

civilianB,  the  disease  first  broke  out  in  Glasgow,  but  reached  London  in 
June  and  attained  its  height  there  during  the  second  week  of  July. 

A  far  more  serious  outbreak  occurred  in  the  autumn,  reaching  its 
height  in  most  localities  between  three  and  four  months  after  the 
climax  of  the  first  wava  In  London  alone  in  eight  weeks  the  total 
number  of  deaths  from  all  forms  of  influenza  and  pneumonia  amounted 
to  13,744,  or  a  rate  of  341  per  100,000  of  the  population,  a  figure  consider- 
ably exceeded  in  many  towns  of  the  United  States.  During  the  summer 
wave,  the  persons  principally  attacked  were  those  in  the  prime  of  life. 
In  the  autumn,  the  mortality  was  specially  high  among  young  children  ; 
the  disease  being  contracted  by  30  per  cent,  of  breast-fed  infants  and  M 
per  cent,  of  artificially-fed  infants.  In  Cheshire,  a  special  investigation 
showed  that  of  expectant  mothers  affected,  over  25  per  cent,  died,  while 
out  of  118  expectant  lives  only  67  survived.  There  appeared  to  be 
several  strains  of  infiuenza  about,  so  that  one  attack  did  not  necessarily 
afford  protection  against  another. 

The  second  official  publication  to  be  noticed  is  the  First  Annual 
Beport  of  the  Ministry  of  Health.  It  dealt  among  other  matters  with 
Venereal  Disease  and  with  tuberculosis.  As  regards  the  former, 
82,500  fresh  cases  were  reported  in  1919,  while  attendances  at  the 
centres  numbered  over  a  million,  as  compared  with  less  than  half  a 
million  the  preceding  year.  The  disease  was  growing  in  extent,  and  the 
expenditure  of  the  Ministry  of  Health  on  its  cure  mounted  up  towards 
a  quarter  of  a  million  sterling.  Much  comment  was  aroused  by  the  fact 
that  a  disease  so  easily  preventible  should  be  allowed  to  involve  so  great 
an  expenditure  of  money,  and  to  wreck  so  many  lives. 

Tuberculosis  accounted  for  a  still  larger  expenditure.  Here,  however, 
tbmn  was  a  decline  in  the  number  of  cases  notified,  as  well  as  in  the 
Biimber  of  deaths,  during  1919  as  compared  with  the  previous  year,  both 
as  raguds  pulmonary  and  other  forms  of  tuberculosis.  The  number  of 
fresh  notifications  in  1919  was  84,898,  and  the  number  of  deaths  46,312. 

The  story  of  the  triumph  of  medical  science,  over  tetanus  during  the 
war  was  recorded  by  Sir  David  Bruce,  Chairman  of  the  War  Office 
Committee  on  Tetanus,  in  an  important  pamphlet  published-  by  the 
Beeeaich  Defence  Society.  At  the  beginning  of  the  war,  the  incidence 
of  the  disease  among  wounded  men  was  9  per  1,000.  The  routine 
practice  was  then  introduced  of  inoculating  anti-tetanus  serum  im- 
madiatdy  after  a  wound,  with  the  result  that  in  a  month  the  incidence 
had  tiHen  to  7  per  1,000,  and  by  the  end  of  1914  bad  dwindled  to  1'4  per 
1,00Ql  When  the  war  ended,  and  the  technique  bad  been  perfected,  the 
incideace  had  faUen  stiO  lower,  to  0*7  per  1,000 ;  and  among  the  small 
minority  who  did  become  infected,  the  disease  was  of  a  far  less  falsi 
character  than  usually  prevails  whore  no  serum  has  been  used. 

A  special  report  was  published  by  the  Fud  Besearch  Board  on  lbs 
effieiency  of  coal  fires  for  heating  purposes,  and  the  results  oMainsd  by 
the  investigstor.  Dr.  Maigaret  fishendeo,  were  far  more  imwaanMB  to 
the  eoal  fire  than  bad  been  genemOy  anticipated.  The  waste  of  hsat 
ooeorring  in  acoal  fire  was  shown  to  be  due,  partly  to  radiaiioa  frMn 
the  outer  wall  of  the  house  into  the  sorrouiiding  air,  and  partly  to  the 
of  hoi  gMSt  up  the  dmnney.    The  former  dsflcieney  is  to  a  great 


44  SCIENCE.  ti9«. 

extent  remedied  by  building  fireplaces  on  the  inner  and  not  the  outer 
walls  of  houses;  the  latter,  by  preventing  the  upward  draught  from 
exceeding  what  would  in  any  case  be  necessary  for  purposes  of  hygiene. 
When  these  two  conditions  are  realised,  the  efficiency  of  a  coal  fire  leaves 
little  to  be  desired.  Experiments  were  conducted  with  many  different 
forms  of  grates,  including  those  commonly  reputed  to  be  the  most 
economical  and  the  least  economical  respectively.  Very  little  difference 
was  found  in  their  radiant  efficiency.  Apart  from  the  position  of  fire- 
places, the  saving  of  waste  seems  likely  to  be  achieved  only  in  two 
directions:  first,  by  regulation  of  the  upward  draught,  and  secondly, 
by  the  admixture  of  coke  with  coal ;  for  coke  appears  to  have  a  some- 
what higher  radiant  efficiency  than  ordinary  coal. 

In  the  sphere  of  anthropology,  Professor  Eugene  Dubois,  the  discoverer 
of  Pithecanthropus,  published  in  May  an  account  of  two  fossilised  human 
skulls,  which  he  had  discovered  in  Java  in  1889  and  1890.  One  of  these 
was  that  of  a  woman,  and  was,  moreover,  of  exceptional  size,  its  cranial 
capacity  being  estimated  at  1,550  cc,  or  more  than  200  c.c.  greater  than 
that  of  an  average  Englishwoman  of  the  present  time.  The  other  was 
inferred  to  be  that  of  a  man,  and  disclosed  a  jaw  and  palate  of  dimen- 
sions exceeding  those  of  any  race  of  men  now  living.  A  great  part  of 
the  interest  in  these  fossil  remains  arose  from  the  comparison  of  them 
with  the  skull  found  at  Talgai,  Queensland,  by  Dr.  Stewart  A.  Smith  in 
1918.  This  skull  indicates  a  youth  of  Australoid  characteristics,  though 
the  cranial  capacity  is  unusually  large,  and  the  palate  also  approximates 
to  that  of  the  Javanese  find.  Hence  it  is  inferred  that  a  race  of  men 
inhabited  Java  and  Australia  in  Pleistocene  times,  characterised  by  large 
brains  and  massive  jaws.  Professor  Keith  supposes  them  to  have  been 
the  ancestors  of  the  Tasmanians,  though  differing  from  their  descend- 
ants in  the  respects  indicated. 

These  remains  were  compared  with  the  skull  discovered  at  Boskop 
in  the  Transvaal  in  1913,  and  also  believed  to  be  of  Pleistocene  age* 
Here  again  the  cranial  capacity  is  immense — being  estimated  at  1,832  c.c, 
or  350  c.c.  above  the  average  for  Englishmen  of  the  present  time.  The 
jaws  on  the  contrary  appear  to  be  no  larger  than  in  modern  types :  and 
there  is  a  wide  difference  between  this  skull  and  those  of  Java  and 
Australia.  The  closest  affinities  of  the  Boskop  skull  are  with  the  Hot- 
tentots and  Bushmen,  of  whom  accordingly  it  is  regarded  as  an  ancestral 
type.  Thus  Java,  Australia,  and  South  Africa  are  found  to  have  been 
peopled  in  Pleistocene  times  with  races  of  men  similar  to  the  known 
aborigines  of  those  countries,  though  more  primitive  in  type.  It  is  a 
curious  circumstance  that  in  all  three  cases,  the  advance  of  evolution 
has  implied  a  diminution  in  the  size  of  the  brain.  It  can  scarcely  bo 
doubted  that  the  beginning  steps  of  civilisation — ^the  discovery  and  utili- 
sation of  fire,  the  acquirement  of  speech,  etc. — ^were  far  higher  intellectual 
achievements  than  almost  any  of  the  comparatively  minor  discoveries  of 
civilisation. 

As  regards  travel  and  exploration,  the  most  interesting  event  was  the 
attempt  of  Captain  Amundsen  to  reach  the  North  Pole.  He  left  Ohria- 
tiania  in  the  MoMd  in  June,  1918,  with  the  intention  of  drifting  with  the 
ice-pack  across  the  Polar  Sea,  and  provided  for  an  absence  of  five  years. 


I9aa]  SCIENCE.  45 

Sailing  along  the  north  coast  of  Asia,  he  soon  fell  in  with  very  severe 
weather,  and  was  compelled  to  winter  at  Cape  Chelyuskin,  the  most 
northerly  point  of  Asia,  where  he  met  with  extremely  hard  and  heavy 
ice.  New  land  was  discovered  near  Tsar  Nicholas  II.  Land,  and  scienti- 
fically explored.  Several  adventures  were  reported,  in  one  of  which 
Captain  Amundsen  broke  his  arm  in  an  encounter  with  a  Polar  bear. 
From  Cape  Chelyuskin  two  members  of  the  crew  set  out  in  the  winter 
of  1918  to  1919  to  travel  overland  to  Russia,  but  no  news  of  their  where- 
abouts has  been  received. 

The  Maud  was  unable  to  leave  her  winter  quarters  till  September  12, 
1919,  being  obliged  to  force  her  way  out  through  over  a  mile  of  thick 
unbroken  ice.  Shortly  afterwards  Captain  Amundsen  endeavoured  to 
begin  his  drift  towards  the  Pole  ;  but  he  found  the  currents  moving  in 
the  wrong  direction,  and  was  obliged,  therefore,  to  cast  loose  again,  and 
take  np  winter  quarters  for  the  second  time  on  the  northern  coast  of 
Asia.  He  was  unable  to  penetrate  farther  than  the  Island  of  Aion, 
where  he  remained  locked  in  the  ice  till  July  6,  1920.  He  then  con- 
tinned  his  journey  to  Nome  in  Alaska,  where  he  arrived  on  July  27. 
He  left  Nome  on  August  8,  steering  for  Wrangell  Island,  from  whence 
he  intended  to  start  his  drift  with  the  Arctic  Ice-pack.  Nothing  further 
has  been  heard  of  the  expedition,  which,  according  to  Captain  Amundsen's 
estimate,  will  probably  take  five  years  to  accomplish. 

In  the  sphere  of  exploration,  it  is  noteworthy  that  plans  were  being 
projected  during  the  year  for  climbing  Mount  Everest,  the  highest  moun- 
tain peak  in  the  world.  In  this  project  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  and 
the  Alpine  Club  worked  in  conjunction.  A  deputation  waited  upon  the 
Secretary  for  India,  and  Colonel  Howard  Bury  paid  a  visit  to  India  to 
try  to  make  the  necessary  arrangements.  After  some  difficulties  had 
been  experienced  in  overcoming  political  obstacles,  it  was  arranged  that 
a  preliminary  reconnaissance  of  the  ground  should  take  place  in  1921, 
and  that  the  actual  attempt  on  the  summit  should  be  made  in  1922. 

The  88th  meeting  of  the  British  Association  was  opened  at  Cardiff 
on  August  23,  the  attendance  being  comparatively  small.  The  President, 
Dr.  W.  A.  Herdman,  F.RS.,  devoted  his  address  to  the  subject  of 
Oceanography.  He  mentioned  that  the  greatest  depth  of  the  ocean  was 
about  six  miles,  somewhat  greater  than  the  highest  mountains  on  land, 
and  referred  to  the  calculation  that  if  all  the  land  were  washed  down 
into  the  sea,  the  entire  globe  would  be  covered  by  an  ocean  of  the  average 
depth  of  two  miles.  The  extraordinary  complexity  of  the  subject  was 
illustrated  by  the  life-history  of  eels.  Eels  have  never  been  found  to 
spawn  on  land,  and  for  long  the  method  of  their  reproduction  was  a 
complete  mystery.  At  length,  however,  it  was  discovered  that  when 
they  are  ripe  for  breeding,  they  travel  down  the  rivers  into  the  sea,  and 
thence  far  out  into  the  deepest  portions  of  the  Atlantic,  where  the  young 
are  then  born,  and  start  forth  upon  their  long  journey  to  land.  The 
precise  breeding  ground  of  eels  is  the  subject  of  an  investigation  now 
being  conducted.  Dr.  Herdman  laid  emphasis  on  the  immense  poten- 
tialities of  the  sea  as  regards  food-productivity,  and  suggested  that  in 
the  future  it  would  be  necessary  to  institute  a  system  of  aquiculture 
corresponding  to  the  system  of  agriculture  adopted  on  land. 


54  ABT,  DRAMA,  AND  MUSIC.  pMO. 

called  in  the  adaptation,  "The  Naughty  Princess/'  was  snmptnonsly 
staged  at  the  Adelphi.  It  contained  some  very  pretty  music  by  Charles 
Guvillier,  and  effective  parts  for  Lily  St.  John  and  W.  H.  Berry.  From 
Germany— albeit  the  fact  was  not  disclosed— came  '*A  Little  Dutch 
Girl,"  produced  at  the  Lyric,  but  its  music,  by  Emmerich  Kalman, 
though  tuneful  enough^  was  hardly  worthy  of  so  charming  a  singer  as 
Maggie  Teyte,  who  took  the  principal  rdle.  At  the  Gaiety  there  was  a 
bright  and  lavish  revival,  in  a  new  version,  of  ''The  Shop  Girl,"  with 
Alfred  Lester  as  leading  comedian,  while  at  the  Alhambra  George  Bobey 
was  the  chief  star  in  a  nondescript  piece  called  "  Johnny  Jones,"  with 
music  by  Cuvillier.  An  attractive  revue  was  Arthur  Wimperis  and 
Herman  Darewski's  **  London,  Paris,  and  New  York,"  at  the  London 
Pavilion,  Nelson  Keys  appearing  therein  very  successfully  as  the 
principal,  and  highly  versatile,  comedian,  while  the  two  collaborators 
named  furnished  the  Vaudeville  with  a  cheery  little  revue  of  the  more 
intimate  type,  entitled  '*  Just  Fancy."  It  had  a  jolly  successor  towards 
the  end  of  the  year  in  "  Jumble  Sale,"  by  J.  Hastings  Turner  and  Philip 
Braham.  For  the  benefit  of  the  future  theatrical  historian  it  may  be 
added  that  at  His  Majesty's,  on  December  29,  **  Ghu  Chin  Chow "  beat 
all  the  records  of  stageland  by  achieving  its  2000th  performance. 

Ernest  Kuhs. 

IIL  MUSIC. 

Yet  once  again,  as  in  1919^  so  1920  was  in  music  an  operatic  year  in 
London.  Opera  on  a  large  scale  began  as  early  as  February  when 
**  Parsifal  "  was  revived,  but  now  in  English.  Albert  Coates  was  the  con- 
ductor  as  when  that  drama  was  first  produced  here  in  the  spring  of  1914, 
and  it  is  worthy  of  record,  so  important  was  this  English  production  re- 
garded as  being,  that  Walter  Hyde  was  Parsifal,  Norman  AUin,  Gumemans, 
and  Gladys  Ancrum,  Eundry.  A  few  weeks  later  in  the  same  season  Wag- 
ner's '*  Mastersingers  "  was  given  once  again  in  English  also,  Sir  Thomas 
Beecham  conducting — all  this  at  Covent  Garden.  Frederick  Banalow  was 
Hans  Sachs,  Webster  Millar  Walter,  Edmund  Burke  Pogner,  Herbert 
Langley  a  most  excellent  Beckmesser,  Miriam  Licette  was  Eva,  and  the 
performances  were  magnificent.  Further,  Delius's  curiously  interesting 
opera^  **  A  Village  Bomeo  and  Juliet,"  which  had  failed  to  hold  its  posi- 
tion when  originally  given  in  1910,  was  repeated  with  Walter  Hyde  and 
Miriam  Licette  in  the  name  parts.  Isidore  de  Lara's  "  Nail "  was  gtven 
again  with  much  the  same  cast  of  principals  as  in  the  preceding  year, 
while  among  other  operas  in  the  repertory  in  this  particular  season  were 
Bizet's  "  Djamileh  "  and  '<  The  Fair  Maid  of  Perth,"  *'  The  Magic  Flute  " 
and  "  Seraglio,"  '*  Tristan  and  Isolda  "  with  Agnes  NichoUs  and  Frank 
MuUings  in  the  name  parts,  *'  Tannhi&user,"  and  "  Faust"  This  seaaon 
came  to  an  end  early  in  April.  On  it  there  followed  in  May  (till  Jn^ 
31)  an  international  season  in  the  same  theatre  which  disappointed  to 
most  ways.  The  repertory  was  very  limited,  and  far  too  many  oC  tfeK 
operas  given  showed  in  performance  insufficient  rehearsal.  In  po**^^ 
fact  it  is  hardly  saying  too  much  to  add  that  had  it  not  been  f<^~ 
formances  of  the  Bussfan  pallet  und^r  Piaghileff's  manage 


AET,  DRAMA,  AND  MUSIC. 

I.  ART. 

Imfobtant  alterations  in  the  laws  of  the  Royal  Academy  were  made  in 
1920 ;  changes,  little  noticed  by  the  Press  or  the  general  public^  that  con- 
cerned the  admission  to  the  schools  and  the  status  of  the  Associates. 
Both  have  been  burning  questions  in  controversies  of  past  years,  in 
which  critics  of  the  teaching  at  the  Academy  have  objected  to  the  nature 
of  the  works  that  it  was  obligatory  on  candidates  for  admission  to  the 
schools  to  submit.  Particular  objection  has  been  taken  to  the  highly 
finished  chalk  study  of  a  figure  from  the  antique  which  has  been  de- 
manded of  every  painter  candidate  since  the  eighteenth  century  days, 
and  on  the  strength  of  which  Lawrence  and  Constable,  and  in  later 
times  Millais,  gained  admission.  Last  year  all  the  obligations  were 
swept  away,  and  candidates  were  invited  to  send  in  works  of  any  kind 
that  represented  them  best. 

This  showed  a  remarkable  change  in  the  Academic  outlook,  but  it 
was  less  interesting  than  the  alteration  in  the  status  of  the  Associates, 
who  were  regarded  as  persons  of  slight  importance  when  the  institution 
was  young,  and  were  long  denied  the  smallest  voice  in  its  affairs.  This 
was  remarked  by  the  Royal  Commission  that  examined  the  constitution 
of  the  Academy  in  1863,  with  the  result  that  Associates  were  afterwards 
permitted  to  vote  at  elections.  The  innovation  was  resented  by  some  of 
the  older  Academicians,  but  they  were  compelled  to  accept  it  because 
the  question  of  a  new  site  for  the  galleries  was  then  being  considered 
by  the  Qovernment  that  had  appointed  the  Royal  Commission.  "  If  we 
hadn't  agreed  to  give  the  Associates  the  vote  we  shouldn't  have  got 
Burlington  House,"  Sir  Francis  Qrant,  P.R.A.,  afterwards  told  one  of 
the  objectors.  The  power  of  the  Associate  class  has  since  gradually  in- 
creased, and  last  year  an  amendment  of  the  laws  permitted  one  of  its 
members  to  invade  for  the  first  time  that  inner  sanctuary,  the  Hang- 
ing Committee,  a  profanation  sufficient  to  make  the  early  Victorian 
Academicians  turn  in  their  graves. 

The  Associate  thus  honoured  was  Mr.  William  Strang,  who  hung  the 
miniatures  and  works  in  black  and  white  exhibited  at  the  Academy,  and 
assisted  Sir  R.  Blomfield,  Mr.  S.  J.  Solomon,  Mr.  W.  K.  Colton,  Mr.  Sey- 
mour Lucas,  Mr.  H.  S.  Tuke,  Mr.  Q.  Clausen,  Mr.  F.  Dicksee,  Mr.  D.  Y. 
Cameron,  and  Mr.  F.  D.  Wood,  to  examine  all  the  pictures,  sculptures, 
drawings,  and  engravings  submitted  by  non-members.  These  were  more 
numerous  in  1920  than  in  1919,  but  the  sum-total  of  submitted  works  did 
not  approach  the  extravagant  figures  of  14,000  or  16,000  mentioned  by 
some  of  the  newspapers  about  the  time  the  exhibition  was  opened.    The 

47 


48  AET,  DEAMA,  AND  MUSIC.  [vm 

actual  number  was  9,640  of  which  more  than  7,000  were  rejected  out- 
right at  the  first  examination.  The  oil  paintings  and  water  colours  were 
hung  by  Messrs.  Solomon,  Tuke,  Dicksee,  Clausen,  and  Cameron ;  and  the 
architectural  drawings  by  Sir  R.  Blomfield.  Messrs.  Colton  and  Wood 
arranged  the  sculpture. 

Only  three  pictures  were  bought  by  the  Chantrey  Trustees  ;  two  from 
the  Academy  exhibition,  "  Epsom  Downs — City  and  Suburban  Day,"  by 
Mr.  A.  J.  Munnings,  A.B.A.  (700/.)}  &iid  ''Shap  Moors,"  by  Mr.  Oliver 
Hall  (316Z.) ;  and  one  from  the  Leicester  Galleries,  **  Feeding  the  Fowls," 
by  Mr.  Mark  Fisher,  B.A.  (194Z.  5«.)- 

Other  principal  works  disposed  of  included  "  Spring''  (1,000{.),  by  Mr. 
Tom  Mostyn;  "  The  Wise  and  Foolish  Virgins  "  (5252.),  by  Mr.  Charles 
Shannon ;  '*  Peter  the  Qreat  Studying  Naval  Architecture  in  Evelyn's 
House  at  Deptford  "  (500/.),  by  Mr.  A.  D.  McCormick  ;  <'  A  Bomance  of 
the  Sicilian  Vespers  "  (535/.),  by  Mr.  John  B.  Wilmer ;  "  Scapa  Flow, 
June  21st,  1919  "  (500/.),  by  Mr.  Bernard  F.  Gribble ;  "  The  Three  Wise 
Kings  "  (500/. ),  by  Mr.  G.  Spencer  Watson ;  "  The  Waking  Child  "— statu- 
ette, bronze  (400/ ),  by  Mr.  B.  Whitney  Smith ;  "  Mated  "  (460/.),  by  Mr. 
E.  Blair  Leighton  ;  "  The  Shepherd  Boy :  Sunrise  "  (315/. ),  by  Mr.  George 
Clausen  ;  "  The  Mouth  of  the  Biver "  (350/.),  by  Mr.  Araesby  Brown ; 
*'His  Majesty's  Mail"  (315/.),  and  "A  Suffolk  Valley"  (315/.),  by  Mr. 
Bertram  Priestman  ;  "  Meadow  and  Stream "  (315/.),  by  Mr.  Harry 
Watson  ;  "The  Forerunner"  (315/.),  by  Miss  Eleanor  Fortescue-Brick- 
dale;  "Landscape"  (250/.),  by  Mr.  Charles  Sims;  "A  Woodcarver's 
Shop "  (262/.  10«.),  by  Mr.  F.  W.  Elwell ;  "  Bepose "  (250/.),  by  Mr.  J. 
Blair  Leighton ;  «  Tennyson's  Beech,  New  Forest "  (250/.),  by  Mr.  Hugh 
Wilkinson  ;  and  two  water  colours,  "On  the  Wye,  Evening  "  (250/.),  by 
Mr.  Sutton  Palmer,  and  "  Evening  Time  "  (210/.),  by  Mr.  J.  Henry  Hen- 
shall.  Many  of  the  pictures  sold  were  not  priced  in  the  catalogue,  and 
these  included  all  Mr.  B.  W.  Leader's  landscapes,  and  five  out  of  the  six 
exhibited  by  Mr.  Joseph  Farquharson. 

Sales  at  the  Academy  were  good,  all  things  considered,  and  fairly 
brisk  business  was  done  at  most  of  the  spring  and  summer  exhibitions^ 
which  were  but  little  affected  by  the  depression  in  trade  that  over- 
shadowed the  autumn  season.  In  fact,  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  a 
picture  was  sold  at  the  Boyal  Institute  for  what  is  probably  a  record 
price  in  England  for  a  water  colour,  disposed  of  at  an  exhibition  of  modem 
work.  A  thousand  pounds  was  paid  for  Mr.  F.  Matania's  *'  Triclinium/' 
a  representation  of  a  dancing  girl  performing  for  the  amusement  of  the 
guests  after  a  dinner  party  in  ancient  Bome.  Mr.  Matania's  picture 
was  sold  at  the  inaugural  banquet  held  on  the  eve  of  the  opening  of  the 
spring  exhibition. 

In  some  aspects  the  Spanish  Exhibition,  held  at  Burling^ton  House 
in  the  autumn,  was  the  most  important  event  of  the  year.  It  was  divided 
into  two  sections,  the  first  including  examples  of  Spanish  painting  from 
the  fourteenth  century  to  the  death  of  Goya  (1828) ;  and  the  second  pic- 
tures by  Spanish  artists  from  1828  to  the  present  day.  For  the  first,  and 
the  only  really  important  of  the  sections,  rumour  had  promised  gresi 
things,  but  those  who  expected  to  see  half  the  treasures  of  the  Prado  at 
Burlington  House  were  disappointed.     Velasquez,  the  supreme  artist  of 


IMOO  ABT,  DEAMA,  AND  MUSIC.  4d 

the  Peninsula,  was  by  no  means  well  represented  among  the  contri. 
butions  sent  from  Spain.  The  most  perfect  example  of  his  crafty  the 
superb  portrait  of  his  Moorish  servant,  Juan  de  Pareja,  came  not  from 
Madrid  but  from  Lord  Badnor's  collection  at  Longford  Castle.  Of  the 
Spanish  contributions  the  most  valuable  were  the  pictures  by  El  Greco 
and  Qoya.    The  modem  work,  collectively,  was  respectable  but  no  more. 

At  Christie's  the  spring  and  summer  seasons  were  not  remarkable, 
though  there  appeared  to  be  plenty  of  money  about  when  any  important 
works  of  art  came  under  the  hammer.  But  it  was  not  a  year  for  great 
sales,  and  the  autumn  season,  though  of  unexampled  interest  in  1919, 
was  dull  in  1920.  In  the  summer,  eighteenth-century  British  masters 
maintained  their  popularity,  but  the  highest  price  paid  for  a  Sir 
Joshua  was  11,340/. ;  for  the  full-length  portraits  on  one  canvas  of 
the  Earl  and  Countess  of  Ely,  painted  walking  in  a  landscape,  from  the 
collection  of  M.  Zygomalis.  This  was  sold  on  July  2,  and  on  the 
same  day  Baebum's  group  of  the  three  Macdonald  boys  (formerly  at 
Bedleaf,  Penshurst),  on  a  canvas  less  than  five  feet  by  four,  fetched  20,000 
guineas.  Many  other  portraits  by  the  Scottish  artist  were  sold  during 
the  season  for  excellent  prices ;  one  of  them,  that  of  Lady  Belhaven,  for 
9,975Z.  A  well-known  group  by  Bomney,  the  full  length  of  Sir  Christo- 
pher and  Lady  Sykes,  disappointed  the  expectations  of  the  crowd  at 
Christie's  when  the  hammer  fell  on  a  last  bid  of  28,360i.  Another 
Bomney,  the  portrait  group  of  the  Kent  children,  realised  9,660f. 

The  immense  price  of  £2,162  lOt.  was  given  for  a  mexsotint  of 
Beynolds'  group  of  the  three  Ladies  Waldegrave,  by  Valentine  Qreen. 
It  is  curious  to  think  that  it  was  Qreen  who  declared  that  he  lost  money 
over  the  engraving  of  many  of  Sir  Joshua's  portraits — that  the 
contemporary  sale  of  the  prints  did  not  cover  the  cost  of  preparing  the 
plates. 

At  Sotheby's  the  year  witnessed  the  sale  of  many  treasures  from  two 
ancient  country  seats,  Wilton  House  and  Parham ;  and  of  the  large  and 
interesting  collection  of  drawings  and  miniatures  formed  by  Mr.  Francis 
Wellesley.  The  most  important,  however,  of  all  the  sales  was  that  of  a 
further  instalment  of  the  famous  collection  of  illuminated  manuscripts 
formed  by  Mr.  Yates  Thompson,  of  which  the  first  portion  was  disposed 
of  in  1919  when  one  item,  the  **  Hours  of  Jeanne  II.  of  Navarre," 
realised  11,800  guineas.  This  price  was  not  approached  at  the  dispersal 
of  the  second  portion,  but  the  sum  total  was  higher,  and  half  a  dozen  of 
the  manuscripts  found  purchasers  at  prices  ranging  from  6,000/.  to 
nearly  9,000/.  each. 

Exhibitions  were  held  at  all  the  galleries  with  the  exception  of  the 
Qroevenor,  the  continued  closing  of  which  prevented  the  International 
Society  from  showing  the  work  of  its  members.  The  newly  founded 
Society  of  Wood  Engravers  held  its  first  exhibition  at  the  Chenil 
Gallery ;  and  at  Knightsbridge  the  first  exhibition  of  Modem  Crafts  and 
Manufactures,  arranged  under  the  joint  authority  of  the  Board  of  Trade 
and  the  Board  of  Education,  was  open  from  June  to.September.  In  the 
spring  the  portraits  shown  by  Mr.  Augustus  John  at  the  Alpine  Qallery 
caused  considerable  discussion,  and  differences  of  opinion  among 
crilics;  and  other**  one  man"  exhibitions  included  those  of  Mr.  Sert, 

D 


t6  AtlT,  DBAMA,  AKD  music.  [imO. 

Mr.  Harrington  Mann,  and  Mrs.  Clare  Sheridan  at  Agnews' ;  Mrs.  Laura 
Knight,  and  Mr.  Edmond  Dulac  at  the  Leicester  Galleries ;  Mr.  Roger 
Fry  at  the  Independent  Gallery ;  M.  Forain  at  Golnaghi's ;  Mr.  A.  J. 
Mannings  at  Messrs.  James  Connell's ;  and  Miss  Anna  Airy^  and  Mr. 
Tom  Mostyn  at  the  Fine  Art  Society's,  where  also  memorial  exhibitions 
were  held  of  the  work  of  the  late  Arthur  Hacker  and  Andrew  C.  Gow. 
At  the  Goupil  Gallery  the  '*  Salon "  was  revived  after  an  interval 
of  several  years.  The  autumn  exhibition  at  Messrs.  Agnews,  in  Gld 
Bond  Street,  was  composed  as  usual  of  British  Old  Masters,  and 
included  a  curious,  and  very  large  painting  by  Gainsborough  of  a 
visionary  mother  looking  down  from  Heaven  at  her  daughters  on 
earth. 

At  the  public  galleries  and  museums  considerable  progress  was  made 
towards  the  restoration  of  pre-war  conditions.  More  rooms  were  opened 
at  the  National  Gallery,  where  the  new  pictures  placed  on  view  included 
"  The  Agony  in  the  Garden,"  by  El  Greco ;  a  capital  example  of  the  art 
of  George  Stubbs,  B.A.,  '*  Lady  and  Gentleman  in  a  Curricle,"  presented 
by  Miss  H.  S.  Hope ;  and  a  full  length,  by  Daniel  Mytens,  of  James, 
Marquis  of  Hamilton,  presented  by  Mr.  Colin  Agnew  and  Mr.  C.  Bomer 
Williams.  The  National  Portrait  Gallery,  painfully  overcrowded,  was 
opened  in  the  summer ;  as  well  as  part  of  the  National  Gallery  of 
British  Art,  where  a  new  departure  was  made.  Before  the  war  none 
but  modern,  or  relatively  modern,  works  were  shown  at  this  gallery ; 
but  now  portraits  or  pictures  by  Hogarth,  Beynolds,  Gkunsborough  and 
Bomney  hang  among  those  of  the  artists  of  the  nineteenth  and  twentieth 
centuries.  Late  in  the  autumn  Hertford  House  was  re-opened,  and 
with  the  exception  of  the  pictures  in  three  or  four  of  the  galleries,  the 
Wallace  Collection  was  once  more  accessible  to  the  public. 


William  T.  Whitlby. 


IL  DRAMA. 


If  it  still  left  considerable  room  for  improvement,  yet  the  state 
of  the  Drama  during  1920  was,  on  the  whole,  decidedly  healthien 
artistically  speaking,  than  it  had  been  in  the  previous  year,  when  the 
London  theatres,  or  many  of  them,  at  any  rate,  were  still  suffering  from 
an  aftermath  of  the  flimsy  and  frivolous  products  with  which,  for  all  too 
long,  a  war-weary  community  had  been  satisfied.  There  was  no  lack, 
certainly,  of  "  musical  glasses,"  but  Shakespeare  did  not  knock  in  vain  at 
the  doors  of  our  theatre  managers,  while  not  a  few  of  the  latter  listened 
sympathetically  to  the  voice  of  the  "  serious  "  dramatist,  as  distinct  from 
the  mere  purveyor  of  light-hearted  entertainment  Let  us  glance,  for  a 
moment,  at  some  of  the  year's  Shakespearian  revivals.  First  in  the 
field  in  this  connexion  was  Henry  Ainley,  with  a  version,  at  the  St. 
James's,  of  ''Julius  Cesar,"  which,  while  hardly  epoch-making,  yet 
contained  features  that  dwell  pleasantly  in  the  memory — not  least  his 
own  finely  vigorous,  yet  not  wholly  satisfying,  Mark  Antony.  Basil  Gill'A 
Brutus  was  notably  impressive,  and,  viewed  as  a  "production,"  this 
revival  of  the  play  was  singularly  effective  and  artistic    The  autumn 


im]  ART,  DRAMA,  AND  MUSIC.  51 

season  introduced  us,  at  the  Aldwych,  to  the  Macbeth  of  James  K. 
Hackett,  a  well-known  American  actor,  whose  reading  of  the  part  was 
undeniably  that  of  a  thoughtful  and  finely-endowed  player ;  while  at  a 
renovated  and  redecorated  Court  Theatre  J.  M.  Fagan  gave  Shakespeare- 
lovers  a  well-nigh  wholly  delightful  revival  of  "  A  Midsummer  Night's 
Dream,"  distinguished  for  almost  all-round  excellence  on  the  part  of  a 
company  which  included,  as  a  youthful  and  promising  debutante, 
Elisabeth  Irving  (a  granddaughter  of  the  famous  actor),  who  appeared  as 
Titonia. 

Turning  to  modern  plays  of  a  serious  complexion,  it  is  significant 
that  one  of  the  most  successful  productions  of  the  year  should  have 
been  a  piece  by  John  Qalsworthy,  *'  The  Skin  Game  "  (St.  Martin'St 
April  21),  which,  as  one  naturally  expected  of  a  work  from  that  author, 
proved  to  be  quite  outside  the  category  of  the  conventional,  more  or  less 
machine-made  play.  True,  it  had  in  it  a  certain  element  of  theatricality ; 
but  the  theme  unfolded,  the  vitality  shown  in  its  handling  as  in  the 
dialogue,  and  the  cleverness  of  the  character-drawing,  made  the  piece 
a  notable  addition  to  the  list  of  those  running.  In  the  leading  parts 
admirable  performances  were  given  by  Edmund  Qwenn  (as  a  rough, 
over-bearing  type  of  the  nouveau  riehe),  Athole  Stewart,  Maggie  Albanesi, 
and  Helen  Haye.  The  little  Ambassadors',  next  door,  also  achieved  a 
well«deserved  success  with  H.  M.  Harwood's  semi-political  play,  curiously 
entitled  '^The  Grain  of  Mustard  Seed,"  the  comedy  scenes  in  which 
carried  an  agreeable  flavour  of  the  ironic.  The  principal  characters  were 
in  the  excellent  keeping  of  Norman  McEinnel,  Fred.  Kerr,  Jack  Hobbs, 
Grace  Lane,  and  Gathleen  Nesbitt.  The  week  that  saw  the  production  of 
these  two  novelties  was  notable,  also,  for  the  coming  of  a  new  Barrie 
play— the  much-discussed  **  Mary  Rose,"  which  for  several  months  fllled 
the  Haymarket,  partly,  no  doubt,  because  of  the  pure  "  Barrie  charm  " 
of  the  play's  lighter  scenes,  but  in  laiger  measure  because  of  an  element 
of  the  supernatural  that  gave  to  his  story— based  upon  an  old  Scottish 
legend-^  touch  of  the  eerie,  the  nature  of  which  reflected  current  thoughts 
and  controversies  in  the  domain  of  the  psychical.  The  extraordinarily 
beautiful  performance  by  Fay  Compton  in  the  title-part  made  a  profound 
appeal ;  while  other  prominent  rdles  were  assigned  to  Bobert  Loraine 
(whose  part  was  afterwards  taken  up  by  Leon  Quartermaine),  Mary 
Jerrold,  Norman  Forbes,  and  Arthur  Whitby. 

A  feature  to  note  in  relation  to  the  year's  crop  of  more  serious  plays 
was  a  growing  tendency  on  the  part  of  dramatists  to  deal  with  subjects 
engaging  contemporary  thought  and  discussion.  The  psychic  element  in 
Barrie's  woik  has  been  mentioned.  But  the  tendency  referred  to  was 
illustrated  still  more  forcibly  and  frankly  in  **The  Crossing,"  a  play  by 
Algernon  Blackwood  and  Bertram  Forsyth  (Comedy,  Sept.  29),  in  which 
an  attempt  was  made  to  bring  the  *'  life  hereafter  "  within  the  range  of 
stage  themes.  But  the  play  was  too  much  lacking  in  dramatic  substance 
to  hold  an  audience's  attention,  and  it  was  withdrawn  after  a  few  nights. 
Nor  was  success  achieved  with  another  play^  an  adaptation  from  a 
drama  by  the  Hungarian  author,  Franz  Molnar,  in  whi<di  the  mysteries 
of  the  ^  Beyond  "  formed  part  *  of  the  dramatist's  scheme.  The  English 
TOrdon,  called  "  The  Daisy,"  a  title  by  no  means  suggestive  of  the  solema 


52  AET,  DBAMA,  AND  MUSIC.  [19«. 

underlying  idea  upon  which  the  story  was  based,  obtained  only  a  short 
run  at  the  Eingsway.  A  greater  measure  of  approval  was  extended  to 
Somerset  Maughan's  "The  Unknown''  (Aldwych,  Aug.  9),  wherein 
questions  of  religious  belief  were  discussed  with  a  freedom  that  might 
easily  have  disconcerted  playgoers  of  an  earlier  generation.  The  piece, 
which  was  well  acted  by  C.  N.  France,  Basil  Bathbone,  Clarence  Blakis. 
ton,  Lady  Tree,  Haidee  Wright  and  others,  excited  an  amount  of  con- 
troversy disproportionate  to  its  actual  dramatic  value.  Considered  as 
drama,  a  far  more  satisfying  piece  of  work,  which  was  topical  in  relation 
to  a  very  different  phase  of  public  discussion,  namely,  the  prevalent 
strife  in  the  industrial  world,  was  "The  Bight  to  Strike,"  a  play  by 
Ernest  Hutchison,  which  on  its  production  at  the  Cktrrick,  on  September 
28,  created  at  one  moment  almost  an  uproar  in  a  house  "  divided  against 
itself  '*  in  its  sympathies  with  the  point  of  view  expounded  by  the  author. 
But  the  play  did  not  secure  a  long  career,  despite  its  strong  situations 
and  some  very  effective  acting  in  prominent  parts  by  Holman  Clark, 
Charles  Eenyon,  Lauderdale  Maitland,  and  Leon  M.  Lion  (as  a  strike 
agitator). 

Dramas  and  Comedies. 

Lovers  of  melodramatic  fare  were  more  than  adequately  provided  for 
during  the  year,  and  among  plays  in  the  category  implied  that  achieved 
success  mention  may  be  made  of  an  American  importation,  "  The  Man 
Who  Came  Back,"  in  which  an  actress  from  the  States,  Mary  Nash, 
created  a  strong  impression  at  the  Oxford ;  and  A.  E.  W.  Mason's  "  At  the 
Villa  Bose,"  a  murder-mystery  play  founded  by  the  author  upon  one  of 
his  novels,  and  staged  at  the  Strand,  with  Arthur  Bourchier  and  Kyrle 
Bellew  in  the  chief  parts.  Drury  Lane  rose  above  Jts  ordinary  melodra- 
matic level  in  '<  The  Garden  of  Allah,"  an  adaptation  by  Bobert  Hichens 
and  Mary  Anderson  from  the  former's  widely-known  novel,  and  afford- 
ing opportunities  for  a  picturesque  Oriental  setting  of  which  full 
advantage  was  taken  on  the  big  stage  of  our  "  National "  theatre. 
Godfrey  Tearle,  ably  supported  by  Madge  Titheradge  and  Basil  Gill, 
added  considerably  to  his  reputation  by  his  fine  acting  as  the  conscience- 
harassed  priest,  and  the  piece  obtained  such  a  firm  hold  of  the  public 
that  its  run  was  continued  over  Xmas,  and  the  projected  Drury  Lane 
pantomime  staged  at  Covent  Garden— an  unprecedented  break  with 
tradition.  To  a  picturesque  order  of  theatrical  production  belonged  two 
other  notable  successes — a  dramatisation,  by  Norman  MacOwan  and 
Charlton  Mann,  of  De  Vere  Stacpoole's  charming  "  Blue  Lagoon  "  at 
the  Prince  of  Wales' ;  and  a  version  by  Temple  Thurston  of  **  The 
Wandering  Jew,"  at  the  New,  this  piece  enabling  Matheson  Lang,  as 
the  protagonist^  to  make  effective  display  of  his  powers.  As  a  play  of 
more  or  less  serious  interest  one  may  add  to  the  foregoing  list  Budolf 
Bensier  and  May  Edginton's  *'  The  Prude's  Fall "  (Wyndham's,  Sept.  IX 
which,  as  acted  by  Gerald  du  Maurier,  Franklin  Dyall,  Gilbert  Hare, 
Emily  Brooke,  Lilian  Braithwaite,  and  Nina  Boucicault,  proved  one  of 
the  notable  hits  of  the  autumn  season. 

From  A.  A.  Milne  we  had  two  of  the  pleasantest  of  the  year's  light 


iMO.]  ART,  DRAMA,  AND  MUSIC.  63 

comedies^*' Mr.  Pirn  Passes  By"  and  *<The  Bomantic  Age.*'  The 
former,  produced  by  Dion  fioucicault  and  Irene  Vanbrugh  at  the  New, 
in  January,  was  evolved  from  a  whimsically  diverting  idea,  and  its 
author's  characteristic  light  touch  and  delicate  vein  of  humour  made 
it  a  delightful  thing.  Although  hardly  up  to  the  same  level,  '^The 
Bomantic  Age "  was  a  happy  mingling  of  charm  and  laughter,  uncon- 
ventional both  in  idea  and  treatment,  and  started  Arthur  Wontner 
auspiciously  on  his  career  as  an  actor-manager.  Another  very  agree- 
able comedy  of  the  lightest  texture  was  Qertrude  £.  Jennings's,  "  The 
Young  Person  in  Pink,"  which  found  more  than  one  home  and  was 
exceedingly  well  played  by  Donald  Galthrop,  Miss  Ellis  Jeflfreys,  and 
Miss  Sydney  Fairbrother ;  while  a  newcomer  to  the  ranks  of  dramatists, 
Beginald  Berkeley,  scored  a  decided  success  with  a  very  amusing 
comedy,  "French  Leave,"  which,  despite  its  war  background,  was 
wholly  innocent  of  any  serious  element.  Great  popularity  was  achieved 
also  by  a  comedy  entitled  *'  Paddy  the  Next  Best  Thing  "  (Savoy,  April 
5),  and  by  its  chief  exponent,  Peggy  O'Neill,  a  clever  Irish-American 
actress.  In  the  way  of  farcical  pieces  America  sent  us  "  His  Lady 
Friends,"  wherein  Charles  Hawtrey  found  a  congenial  r61e  at  the  St. 
James's,  and  '*  Wedding  Bells,"  which  was  seen  at  the  Playhouse,  with 
Owen  Nares  and  Gladys  Cooper  in  the  two  chief  parts. 

Among  the  year's  revivals  that  call  for  passing  mention  were  those 
of  Barrie's  **  The  Admirable  Crichton "  and  Knoblock  and  Arnold 
Bennett's  "  Milestones  " — both  at  the  Royalty ;  and  also  of  two  Sardou 
plays — "Tosca,"  with  Ethel  Irving  in  the  name  part,  and  "Fedora," 
with  Marie  Lbhr  as  the  heroine,  but  both  these  revivals,  apart  from 
skilful  acting  of  the  emotional  type  on  the  part  of  the  players  mentioned, 
only  served  to  show  how  old-fashioned  and  mechanical  the  ingenious 
methods  of  the  famous  French  dramatist  now  seem. 

Musical  Pboductions  and  Bevues. 

The  most  notable  theatrical  event  of  the  year  in  the  musical  line  was 
a  quaintly-charming  revival  of  Gay's  two-century-old  "  Beggar's  Opera," 
in  a  version  which  proved  sufiSciently  attractive  to  draw  "  all  London  ** 
to  the  Lyric,  Hammersmith,  for  several  months.  Of  notable  excellence 
were  the  performances  of  Frederick  Ranalow  and  Sylvia  Nelis,  as  Mac- 
beath  and  Polly  respectively.  Among  native  musical  plays  the  best  of 
the  year's  novelties  was  '*  A  Southern  Maid "  (Daly's,  May  15),  written 
by  Dion  Clayton  Calthrop  and  Harry  Graham,  and  composed  by  H. 
Fraser-Simon,  whose  music,  however,  hardly  reached  quite  the  same 
melodious  level  throughout  as  that  which  helped  to  win  such  longevity 
for  the  same  composer's  "  Maid  of  the  Mountains."  In  the  leading  rdle 
Joe^  Collins  sang  with  all  her  accustomed  skilL  A  bright  American 
musical  comedy,  '^  Irene,"  owed  not  a  little  of  its  popularity  at  the 
Empire  to  the  engaging  vivacity  of  its  chief  exponent,  Edith  Day,  who 
had  created  the  title-part  in  New  York,  and  to  the  humours  of  Bobert 
Hale.  Founded  on  a  French  farce,  *'  A  Night  Out "  (music  by  Willie 
Bedstone)  brought  success  to  the  Winter  Gardens,  and  further  triumphs 
for  that  nimble  comedian,  Leslie  Senson;  while  a  French  operetta , 


54  AKT,  DBAMA,  AND  MUSIC.  \wo. 

called  in  the  adaptation,  ''The  Naughty  Princess/'  was  BumptnouBly 
staged  at  the  Adelphi.  It  contained  some  very  pretty  music  by  Charles 
Guvillier,  and  effective  parts  for  Lily  St.  John  and  W.  H.  Berry.  From 
Germany — albeit  the  fact  was  not  disclosed-— came  '*A  Little  Dutch 
Girl/'  produced  at  the  Lyric,  but  its  music,  by  Emmerich  Kalman, 
though  tuneful  enough^  was  hardly  worthy  of  so  charming  a  singer  as 
Maggie  Teyte,  who  took  the  principal  rdle.  At  the  Gaiety  there  was  a 
bright  and  lavish  revival,  in  a  new  version,  of  "The  Shop  Girl,"  with 
Alfred  Lester  as  leading  comedian,  while  at  the  Alhambra  Geoi^e  Bobey 
was  the  chief  star  in  a  nondescript  piece  called  "  Johnny  Jones,"  with 
music  by  Cuvillier.  An  attractive  revue  was  Arthur  Wimperis  and 
Herman  DarewsM's  "  London^  Paris,  and  New  York,"  at  the  London 
Pavilion,  Nelson  Keys  appearing  therein  very  successfully  as  the 
principal,  and  highly  versatile,  comedian,  while  the  two  coUaborators 
named  furnished  the  Vaudeville  with  a  cheery  little  revue  of  the  more 
intimate  type,  entitled  "  Just  Fancy."  It  had  a  jolly  successor  towards 
the  end  of  the  year  in  "  Jumble  Sale,"  by  J.  Hastings  Turner  and  Philip 
Braham.  For  the  benefit  of  the  future  theatrical  historian  it  may  be 
added  that  at  His  Majesty's,  on  December  29,  '*  Ohu  Chin  Chow "  beat 
all  the  records  of  stageland  by  achieving  its  2000th  performance. 

Ebnest  Kuhb. 

III.  MUSIC. 

Yet  once  again,  as  in  1919^  so  1920  was  in  music  an  operatic  year  in 
London.  Opera  on  a  large  scale  began  as  early  as  February  when 
*'  Parsifal  "  was  revived,  but  now  in  English.  Albert  Coates  was  the  con- 
ductor as  when  that  drama  was  first  produced  here  in  the  spring  of  1914, 
and  it  is  worthy  of  record,  so  important  was  this  English  production  re- 
garded as  being,  that  Walter  Hyde  was  Parsifal,  Norman  Allin,  Gurnemans, 
and  Gladys  Ancrum,  Kundry.  A  few  weeks  later  in  the  same  season  Wag- 
ner's '*  Mastersingers  "  was  given  once  again  in  English  also,  Sir  Thomas 
Beecham  conducting — all  this  at  Covent  Garden.  Frederick  Ranalow  was 
Hans  Sachs,  Webster  Millar  Walter,  Edmund  Burke  Pogner,  Herbert 
Langley  a  most  excellent  Beckmesser,  Miriam  Licette  was  £va»  and  the 
performances  were  magnificent.  Further,  Delius's  curiously  interesting 
opera^ ''  A  Village  Bomeo  and  Juliet,"  which  had  failed  to  hold  its  posi- 
tion when  originally  given  in  1910,  was  repeated  with  Walter  Hyde  and 
Miriam  Licette  in  the  name  parts.  Isidore  de  Lara's  "  NaQ  "  was  given 
again  with  much  the  same  cast  of  principals  as  in  the  preceding  year, 
while  among  other  operas  in  the  repertory  in  this  particular  season  were 
Bizet's  "  Djamileh  "  and  "  The  Fair  Maid  of  Perth,"  "  The  Magic  Flute" 
and  "  Seraglio,"  **  Tristan  and  Isolda  "  with  Agnes  IHcholls  and  Frank 
Mullings  in  the  name  parts,  *<  Tannhftuser,"  and  "  Faust."  This  season 
came  to  an  end  early  in  April.  On  it  there  followed  in  May  (tiU  July 
31)  an  international  season  in  the  same  theatre  which  disappointed  in 
most  ways.  The  repertory  was  very  limited,  and  far  too  many  of  the 
operas  given  showed  in  performance  insufficient  rehearsal.  In  point  of 
fact  it  is  hardly  saying  too  much  to  add  that  had  it  not  been  for  the  per- 
formances of  the  Russian  Qallet  und^r  Plaghileffs  management  in  th9 


I9i0.]  ART,  DRAMA,  AND  MUSIC.  55 

later  part  of  the  season,  that  season  would  have  been  almost  entirely  un- 
worthy of  more  than  barest  record.  Stilly  we  did  hear  for  the  first  time 
the  Triptych,  as  it  was  quite  wrongly  called,  the  three  operas  of  Puccini, 
'<  II  Tabarro,"  "  Suor  Angelica,"  and  ''Qianni  Schicchi "  which  had  been 
first  seen  and  much  discussed  at  New  York  some  two  years  previously. 
Of  the  three  it  seems  probable  that  the  last-named  alone  is  likely  to  sur- 
vive, and  that  in  virtue  of  its  capital  humour ;  but  as  the  humour  is  very 
Italian,  even  this  may  be  denied  to  an  opera  that  has  a  certain  relation- 
ship,  however  thin  the  blood,  to  the  **  Falstafi  "  of  Verdi.  Record  should 
be  made  of  the  practical  debut  on  the  opera  stage  of  Dame  Clara  Butt, 
who  had  appeared  there  only  once  before  in  her  student  days  but  in  the 
same  opera,  ''Orfeo."  An  admirable  revival  was  that  of  '*  Pell^as  et 
M61isande,"  with  Edvina  and  Maguenat,  but'  beyond  this  there  is  little 
to  recount.  Of  the  new  singers  Badini  made  an  excellent  impression  in 
"  Gianni  Schicchi,"  and  in  other  days  there  is  no  doubt  that  Graziella 
Fftreto  would  have  been  made  more  of  than  circumstances  permitted 
last  year,  for  she  was  a  richly  gifted  soprano.  Marie  Kouznetzova 
sang  Mimi  in  ''  La  Boh^me  "  quite  early  in  the  season,  and  looked  the 
part  better  than  most  prima  donnas,  but  disappeared  after  a  week  or 
two.  A  fine  impression  was  made  by  Joseph  Hislop,  a  Scottish  tenor 
who  had  been  engaged  for  some  years  at  Stockholm.  Ansseau,  the 
Belgian  tenor,  Riccardo  Martin,  Thomas  Burke,  and  Lappas  all  appeared 
with  success. 

Of  course  the  Russian  Ballet  reproduced  many  of  their  old  successes, 
but  also  they  produced  several  new  things  that  had  a  distinct  flavour  of 
their  own  in  the  opera-ballets  "Le  Astusie  Femminili "  by  Cimarosa,  and 
Pergolesi's  *'  Pulcinella,"  as  revised  by  Stravinski,  two  remarkable  sur- 
vivals of  a  long-gone  age.    Nevertheless  they  were  most  interesting. 

Further,  a  choreographic  version  of  Stravinski's  "Le  Chant  du 
Roesignol "  was  given.  The  operatic  repertory  otherwise  was  very  much 
as  usual  in  other  years  ;  Karsavina  and  Miassin  were  the  outstanding 
dancers  of  the  Ballet,  and  the  conductors  of  the  season  were  Beecham, 
Bavagnoli,  Coates,  Pitt,  and  Ansermet,  who  hailed  from  Geneva.  London 
was  visited  also  by  Mme  Pavlova,  who  began  a  lengthy  season  at  Drury 
Lane  in  April  wfiich  she  afterwards  continued  at  the  Prince's  Theatre, 
when  Drury  Lane  was  required  for  another  production. 

But  besides  this  operatic  activity  there  was  much  elsewhere.  For 
example,  the  old  Surrey  Theatre  was  re-opened  by  a  new  company  or- 
ganised by  Messrs.  Fairbaim  A  Miln.  Here  the  repertory  was  very  wide, 
extending  as  it  did  from  <<  Faust "  to  '« The  Valkyrie  "  with  "  Orfeo  "  and 
**  Don  Giovanni,"  and  in  addition  J.  E.  Barkworth's  "  Romeo  and  Juliet," 
a  simple,  frankly  melodious  affair,  and  Nicholas  Gatty's  "  The  Tempest " 
were  given  for  the  first  time  on  any  stage.  The  Royal  Carl  Rosa  Co. 
produced  a  new  English  opera  during  their  summer  season  at  the  Lyceum 
in  Alec.  Maclean's  '^Quentin  Durward,"  and  they  also  added  to  their 
repertory  Wolf-Ferrari's  very  popular  opera  "The  Jewels  of  the 
Madonna."  A  long  promise  had  been  given  by  Sir  Thomas  Beecham  for 
a  season  of  opera  in  English  at  Covent  Garden  during  the  autumn,  but 
adverse  drcunutanoes  prevented  the  fulfilling  of  the  promise.  Where- 
tom  the  Oari  Rosa  Co.  stepped  into  the  breach  and  gave  a  month's  season* 


56  AET,  DRAMA,  AND  MUSIC.  [im 

But  the  most  astounding  operatic  success  of  the  year,  if  it  may  be 
described  as  operatic,  was  that  which  befel  Gay's  "  The  Beggar's  Opera  " 
at  the  Lyric  Theatre,  Hammersmith.  The  opera,  though  two  hundred 
years  of  age,  was  revived  on  June  6  and  at  the  moment  of  writing  this, 
seven  months  later,  was  still  filling  the  theatre  nightly.  Moreover,  a 
second  company  had  taken  it  to  New  York  where  the  success  appeared 
to  be  similar  to  that  obtained  here.  Not  the  least  interesting  feature  of 
the  production  was  its  entire  difference  from  any  art  form  of  to-day.  It 
was  extremely  well  played  and  sung  by  a  number  of  singers  who  had 
served  their  apprenticeship  with  Sir  Thomas  Beecham's  Opera  Co. 
Their  names  should.be  recorded:  Sylvia  Nelis,  Frederick  Banalow, 
Alfred  Heather,  and  Frederick  Austin.  Opera  was  continued  during  the 
usual  six  months  of  the  winter  at  the  Royal  Victoria  Hall,  better  known 
as  the  Old  Vic,  an  institution  which  has  become  a  good  deal  of  a 
National  Theatre. 

In  the  concert  room  the  activity  was  certainly  equally  great  with  that 
of  the  various  opera  houses.  The  Boyal  Philharmonic  Society  gave  its 
108th  season  with  Albert  Ooates,  Geoffrey  Toye,  Adrian  G.  Boult,  and 
Landon  Bonald  as  orchestral  conductors,  and  Charles  Kennedy  Scott  as 
conductor  of  the  newly-formed  Philharmonic  Choir.  Two  new  works  of 
native  origin  were  given  a  first  hearing,  namely,  Gustav  Hoist's  "  Hymn 
of  Jesus  "  and  Delius's  "  Song  of  the  High  EUlls  " ;  the  former  decidedly 
added  to  the  credit  of  the  composer,  whose  later  work  "  The  Planets," 
created  subsequently  something  of  a  furore.  Debussy's  Fantasie  for 
piano  and  orchestra  and  Malipiero's  *^Le  pause  del  Silenzio"  were  two 
foreign  productions.  New  works  also  by  Rimsky-Korsakoff,  Holbrooke 
Scryabin  and  Percy  Grainger— new  to  the  Philharmonic,  that  is,  were 
given  at  these  concerts,  and  among  the  soloists  who  appeared  were  Olga 
Haley,  Nielka,  Carmen  Hill,  singers,  and  Murdoch,  Sammons,  Cortot, 
Suggia,  instrumentalists.  The  Queen's  Hall  symphony  concerts  began 
the  second  half  of  their  season  in  January,  and  though  nothing  ab- 
solutely new  in  the  way  of  a  symphony  was  produced,  yet  Strauss'i 
"Don  Juan"  was  restored  to  its  old  place  in  the  repertory  for  the 
first  time  since  the  war.  Delius's  violoncello  concerto,  Bantock'fl 
"Sea  Reivers,"  and  Julius  Harrison's  "Worcestershire  Pieces"  were 
novelties  in  the  smaller  forms  by  native  composers,  Debussy's  "  Bercease 
H6roique,"  and  Roger  Ducasse's  Suite  for  a  small  orchestra  were  new 
foreign  works.  The  Promenade  Concerts  began  in  August  under  the 
direction,  as  always  before,  of  Sir  Henry  Wood,  and  the  London  Sym- 
phony Orchestra  gave  a  number  of  interesting  concerts  under  the 
direction  of  Beecham,  Coates,  and  Boult :  Landon  Ronald  conducted  the 
Albert  Hall  Sunday  concerts.  In  the  summer  there  was  what  was 
described  as  an  American  Invasion.  Of  this  the  chief  part  was  that  of 
the  New  York  Symphony  Orchestra  under  the  direction  of  Walter 
Damrosch.  It  gave  some  performances  of  splendid  efficiency,  but  fault 
was  more  or  less  generally  found  with  the  playing  because  it  was  thought 
to  be  efficient  and  marvellously  accurate  in  detail,  but  deficient  in  the 
more  moving  characteristics  of  orchestral  plaj^ing.  This,  too,  was 
generally  felt  to  be  the  defect  of  the  singing  of  many  American  singers 


1920.]  ART,  DRAMA,  AND  MUSIC.  57 

who  visited  us  in  the  same  period,  as  of  the  violin  playing  of  Heifetz,  an 
amazing  executant,  and  of  Josef  Hofmann,  another. 

The  Handel  Festival  was  revived  in  June,  Sir  Frederic  Cowen  con- 
ducting. The  soloists  were  Agnes  Nicholls^  Carrie  Tubb,  Esta  D'Argo, 
Phyllis  Lett,  Kirkby  Lunn,  Ben  Davies,  Frank  Mullings,  Walter  Hyde, 
Ranalow,  Radford,  and  Norman  Allin.  Sir  Frederick  Bridge  still  con- 
tinued to  direct  the  concerts  of  the  Royal  Choral  Society  at  the  Albert 
Hall  which  never  left  the  beaten  path  as  to  their  programmes.  The 
most  interesting  choral  concerts  were  those  given  by  travelling  societies 
such  as  the  Ukrainian  Choir,  Guldberg's  Academic  Choir  from  Norway. 
Arthur  Fagge  revived  the  London  Choral  Society,  and  Vincent  Thomas 
did  well  with  the  recently  founded  Westminster  Choral  Society. 
Chamber  music  was  prolific.  In  its  performance  pride  of  place  belongs 
to  the  London  String  Quartet,  who^  during  the  year,  spent  some  time  in 
travelling  and  playing  on  the  Continent  and  in  the  U.S  A.  The  London 
Chamber  Music  Society,  the  British  String  Quartet,  the  Henkel  and 
Robinson  Quartets  also  played,  and  the  South  Place  Institute  Sunday 
concerts  were  a  greater  success  than  ever.  The  Bohemian  Quartet 
visited  us  again,  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  they  have  lost  some  of  their 
primitive  lustre.  On  the  other  hand,  the  American  Flonzaley  Quartet 
were  magnificent.  Concerts  of  various  sorts  were  given  by  Melba, 
Tetraszini,  Anna  Case,  Mabel  Garrison,  Sophie  Braslau,  Reinald  Werren- 
rath,  Marcia  van  Dresser,  Calv6,  D* Alvarez,  Clara  Butt,  who  was  created 
during  the  year  a  Dame  B.E.,  Gina  Sadero,  a  delightful  folk-song  singer, 
Qervase  Elwes,  whose  death  by  railway  accident  when  on  a  visit  to  the 
U.S.A.  early  in  January,  1921,  cast  a  heavy  cloud  over  the  whole  musical 
world.  Among  pianists  were  Lamond,  Busoni,  Siloti,  Murdoch,  E.  S. 
Mitchell ;  among  violinists  were  the  D'Aran3ri  sisters,  Sammons,  Isolde 
Menges,  Sybil  Eaton,  Murray  Lambert,  Rivarde. 

Robin  H.  Leoob. 


FINANCE  AND  COMMERCE  IN  1920. 

In  finance  and  commerce  1920  was  much  more  remarkable  than  1919 ; 
indeed  its  events  distinguished  it  greatly  from  any  of  recent  years.  It 
opened  with  sentiment  in  trade  and  commerce  extraordinarily  bullish, 
and  it  closed  in  the  midst  of  a  great  depression.  In  the  early  part  of 
the  year  prices  of  commodities  rose  to  extraordinary  heights;  there 
seemed  no  limit  to  buying  power,  despite  the  fall  in  the  value  of  foreign 
currencies ;  the  activity  and  strength  of  markets  was  not  confined  to 
trade  and  industry ;  it  spread  to  those  for  securities  which  became  ex- 
ceptionally active.  Then,  very  gradually,  in  the  early  spring,  it  began 
to  dawn  upon  the  business  world  that  there  was  something  unreal  and 
ghostly  about  this  six-year-old  boom,  and  that  it  rested  upon  insecure 
foundations.  The  continued  depreciation  in  foreign  currencies  seemed 
ominous,  and  it  gradually  became  apparent  to  people  that  the  thousands 
of  millions  in  which  they  had  been  thinking  since  1914  were  diflBcull  to 
account  for.  The  prosperity  of  the  war  and  post-war  periods  seemed 
like  an  Arabian  Night's  entertainment,  pretty,  wonderful,  and  unreal. 
But  in  a  night  almost  the  whole  thing  came  to  an  end ;  confidence 
vanished,  it  seemed  as  if  the  business  world  had  seen  a  vision,  and  in 
that  vision  had  learned  that  Europe  in  five  years  of  war  had  destroyed 
a  very  large  part  of  that  which  really  constituted  her  wealth.  Her 
factories  were  destroyed  or  damaged  in  great  part ;  her  raw  materials 
were  exhausted,  and  her  people's  morale  gravely  weakened.  The  con- 
stant changes  in  the  unit  of  value  resulting  from  the  use  of  the  printing 
press  disturbed  labour  and  made  it  discontented.  Beports  from  starv- 
ing Austria  and  devastated  Russia,  and  other  areas  of  great  population 
persistently  referred  to  the  privations  of  great  masses  of  the  people. 
The  vision  was  confirmed.  Everybody  began  to  talk  of  Europe's  grave 
impoverishment ;  they  realised  that  the  cause  of  "  war  prosperity  "  was 
that  Europe  had  been,  and  was  still  printing,  huge  masses  of  small  pieces 
of  money,  and  making  them  legal  tender  of  the  same  nominal  amount 
as  the  gold  coin  they  had  replaced.  This  paper  money  it  was  perceived 
was  issued  not  against  production  of  wealth,  but  against  Government 
debt,  and  as  the  year  progressed  the  consequences  of  monetary  inflation 
became  more  and  more  manifest. 

The  definite  break  of  the  long  boom  was  the  outstanding  feature  of 
the  year.  Late  in  the  spring  orders  began  to  fall  off  from  abroad,  owing 
to  the  steady  rise  in  sterling  prices,  and  the  gradually  rising  cost  of 
sterling  itself  in  foreign  currencies.  As  the  summer  progressed  the 
slackening  of  business  became  more  and  more  obvious,  and  though  prices 
yrere  fairly  well  inaintained  there  were  indications  that  a  sharp  reactioQ 


1990.] 


FINANCE  AND  COMMERCE. 


59 


was  in  sight.  In  the  autumn  this  became  a  certainty;  certain  diflS- 
culties  which  had  shown  themselves  in  the  canned  goods,  produce,  and 
fur  trades  were  intensified,  and  compulsory  liquidation  broke  out  in 
various  directions.  But  it  was  not  until  November  that  a  really  big 
break  in  prices  occurred.  This  was  due  to  the  fact  that  the  holders  of 
commodities  hung  on  to  them  in  the  hope  of  a  recovery  enabling  them 
to  realise  without  loss,  but  as  retailers  refused  to  reduce  prices,  and  con- 
sumers refused  to  buy,  wholesalers  could  not  move  their  goods,  and 
when  the  loans  with  which  the  commodities  were  financed  fell  due, 
forced  liquidation  became  inevitable.  Casualties  in  the  business  world 
increased  rapidly  to  pre-war  numbers,  but  the  sums  involved  in  the 
failures  were  larger  than  in  pre-war  years.  The  fall  in  prices  continued 
without  interruption  until  the  end  of  the  year.  The  decline  brought 
the  average  level  of  prices  down  to  the  armistice  level,  and  in  the  case 
of  some  commodities,  notably  that  of  rubber,  prices  fell  below  the  pre- 
war level  The  course  of  wholesale  prices  during  the  past  two  years  are 
shown  in  The  Times  index  number  subjoined :— 


Food. 

MaterialA. 

Total. 

1920. 

1919. 

1920. 

1919. 

1920. 

1919. 

Juiiuiry 

291-9 

257-4 

885-0 

209*0 

818-4 

282-2 

February 

294-2 

256-9 

856-0 

205-4 

825-1 

281-1 

MftTch 

809-8 

255-5 

848-7 

198-0 

829-0 

224-8 

April  -       -       - 
May    •       •       • 

818-5 

256-0 

889-9 

199-2 

829-2 

227-6 

8291 

254-2 

817-6 

227-2 

828-4 

240*7 

June    - 

824-1 

254-8 

290-5 

284-6 

807-4 

244-7 

July    - 

816-6 

255-8 

295-2 

247-5 

805-8 

252-0 

August 

804-7 

260-8 

298-1 

252-1 

2981) 

266-6 

September  - 

8101 

266-5 

280-1 

247-8 

2961 

256-9 

October       -       • 

809-8 

291-0 

270-4 

268-7 

290-1 

277-4 

NoTember 

286-6 

286-0 

228-9 

2780 

257-7 

282-0 

December    • 
ATenge 

272-9 

286-1 

207-8 

807-8 

240-8 

296-9 

859-8 

2651 

296-9 

288-7 

801-8 

2520 

The  basis  of  the  calculation  is  the  prices  ruling  on  December  31, 1913, 
which  are  taken  as  100. 

At  the  end  of  November,  1918,  just  after  the  armistice,  prices  were 
140  per  cent,  above  December  31,  1913^  level.  The  rise  in  prices  by  April 
1990,  had  undoubtedly  taxed  severely  the  purchasing  power  in  existence, 
with  the  result  that  a  general  restriction  of  purchases  developed,  and  at 
the  end  of  1920  the  prices  of  American  cotton,  crossbred  wood,  hides,  and 
copper  were  not  much  above  pre-war  prices.  It  is  important  to  note, 
however,  that  the  fall  in  prices  in  the  United  States  preceded  the  fall  in 
this  country  by  about  a  month. 

National  finance  was  an  absorbing  and  contentious  subject  through- 
out the  year.  In  the  year  ended  March  31, 1920,  the  National  Debt  had 
been  increased  from  7,435,000,00W.  to  7,829,000,000i.,  and  the  States'  toUl 
capital  liabilities  from  7,481,000,0001  to  7,876,000,0001.,  the  annual  service 
Of  which  was  estimated  at  346,000,0001,  for  tde  year  ending  March  31, 


60  FINANCE  AND  COMMEECE.  [1920. 

1921.  In  the  year  ended  March  31,  1920,  the  amount  of  revenue  ex- 
ceeded the  previous  year's  total  by  460,560,5662. ,  the  aggregate  receipts 
being  1,339,671,3812.  As  expenditure  decreased  by  913,428,2602.  to 
1,666,772,9282.,  the  year's  deficit  was  reduced  from  1,690,280^3632.  to 
326,201,6472.  Income  tax  yielded  369,099,0002. ,  an  increase  of  67,913,0002. ; 
Excess  Profits  Duty  290^045,0002.,  an  increase  of  6,017,0002. ;  Customs 
149,360,0002.,  an  increase  of  46,680,0002. ;  Excise  133,663,0002.,  an  increase 
of  74,223,0002.,  and  miscellaneous  receipts  amounted  to  280,829,4692.,  an 
increase  of  no  less  than  228,526,5622.  This  exceptional  increase  in  mis- 
cellaneous receipts  was  due  to  sales  of  surplus  war  stores,  etc.  On  the 
expenditure  side  of  the  accounts,  the  debt  charge  was  332,033,7082. 
against  269,964,6602.,  the  interest  on  War  Debt  being  308,260,6562. 
against  246,326,5672.  Supply  services  absorbed  1,317,568,0002.  against 
2,679,301,1882. 

The  year's  deficit  was  covered  by  receipts  from  the  Funding  Loan 
and  Victory  Bond  issue  of  1919,  and  on  March  31, 1920,  the  floating  debt 
amounted  to  1,312,206,0002.  against  1,412,228,0002.  on  March  31,  1919. 

In  his  Budget  speech  in  April,  Mr.  Austen  Chamberlain,  Chancellor 
of  the  Exchequer,  estimated  the  total  revenue  at  1,418,300,0002.,  of  which 
1,036,150,0002.  would  be  tax  revenue,  and  383,100,0002.  non-tax  revenue. 
Expenditure  was  estimated  at  1,233,642,0002.  (including  supplementary 
estimates),  leaving  a  balance  of  184,658,0002.  available  for  debt  redemption 
against  an  original  estimate  of  234,198,0002.  Debt  service  was  estimated 
to  require  345,000,0002.  and  supply  services  857,440,0002.  Thus  the 
Budget  provided  not  only  for  the  restoration  of  an  equilibrium  of  income 
and  expenditure  but  also  for  a  substantial  repayment  of  debt.  This 
was  a  noteworthy  achievement,  for  Great  Britain  was  the  only  ex- 
belligerent  to  attempt  an  equation  of  its  Budget  in  1920.  Indeed  of 
twelve  European  countries.  Great  Britain  was  the  only  one  to  make  its 
accounts  balance  on  the  right  side.  The  increase  in  revenue  was 
provided  for  by  increased  taxation  and  by  budgeting  for  a  receipt  of  no 
less  than  302,000,0002.  from  the  sale  of  surplus  stores. 

The  Excess  Profits  Duty  was  raised  from  40  to  60  per  cent,  and  a  new 
tax  was  imposed,  called  the  Corporation  tax.  This  was  at  the  rate  of 
6  per  cent,  and  applied  not  to  private  partnerships  but  only  to  limited 
liability  companies.  Very  strong  opposition  was  offered  to  the  increase  in 
Excess  Profits  Duty,  but  no  reduction  was  made.  Beer  and  spirit  duties 
were  further  increased,  and  made  staggering  in  their  proportions  to  the 
price  of  both  commodities,  and  the  minimum  letter  postage  was  raised 
to  2(2.  with  a  maximum  weight  of  three  ounces.  The  Finance  Act,  1920, 
adopted  certain  recommendations  of  the  Royal  Commission  on  Income 
Tax.  This  brought  into  operation  a  radical  alteration  of  the  method  of 
granting  relief  in  favour  of  earned  income,  and  of  the  method  of  graduat- 
ing the  burden  of  the  tax.  Exemption  from  tax  was  granted  to  single 
persons  up  to  1362.  (and  up  to  1602.  in  the  case  of  earned  income),  and  to 
married  persons  (without  children)  to  2252.  (and  up  to  2602.  if  wholly 
earned). 

In  calculating  the  assessable  income,  a  person  was  allowed  to  deduct 
one-tenth  of  his  earned  income,  with  a  limit  of  2002.  On  the  first  22M. 
of  taxable  income  (arrived  at  after  deducting  the  various  allowance* 


1930.] 


FINANCE  AND  COMMERCE. 


61 


provided  for)  tax  was  imposed  at  Ss.  in  the  £,  and  at  6«.  on  each  £  in 
excess  of  226^.  Thus  the  various  rates  of  tax  previously  in  use  were 
abandoned,  and  two  rates  of  tax  only  put  in  their  place,  namely,  the 
standard  rate  (6a.)  and  half  the  standard  rate  (3«.).  Super-tax  was 
stiffened  and  regraduated,  and  the  limit  of  income  exempt  from  it 
reduced  to  2,0002.  As  the  depression  in  trade  developed  the  agitation, 
begun  in  1919,  for  reduction  of  expenditure  grew  in  volume,  and  on 
several  occasions  attempts  were  made  to  force  the  Government  to 
economise,  but  no  revision  of  expenditure  was  made. 

The  Money  Market  was  again  dominated  largely  by  the  needs  of 
Qovemment  finance,  for  although  the  British  Government  established  an 
equilibrium  between  income  and  expenditure,  with  a  big  mai^n  for 
debt  redemption,  the  existence  of  a  floating  debt  exceeding  1,000,000,000{. 
had  the  effect  of  putting  the  Government  under  the  necessity  of  con- 
stantly renewing  large  amounts  of  Treasury  Bills.  During  the  year  the 
demand  for  credit  was  insistent,  and  in  the  early  part  of  the  year  the 
demand  was  so  great  that  the  Treasury  found  it  difficult  to  renew 
Treasury  Bills,  and  was  constantly  compelled  to  borrow  on  Ways  and 
Means  advances  from  the  Bank  of  England,  which  involved  the  further 
inflation  of  the  cash  position  and  the  basis  of  credit  expansion.  Hence 
the  Bank  of  England  on  April  16  raised  its  discount  rate  to  7  per  cent. ; 
and  at  the  same  time  Treasury  Bill  rates  were  raised  to  6)  per  cent. 
Bankers  raised  their  deposit  rate  to  5  per  cent.  In  the  subjoined  table 
are  shown  the  average  of  money  rates  in  1920,  comparison  being  made 
with  the  previous  six  years  : — 


1914. 

1915. 

1916. 

1917. 

1918. 

1919. 

Bank  Rati. 

£   s,    d. 
4    0    9 

£   $.   d. 
5    0    0 

£  t.  d. 
5    9    3 

£   $.   d. 

5    8    0 

£  a.   d. 
5    0    0 

£   9.   d. 
5    8    0 

1920. 


£  s.    d, 
6  14    8 


DmoonHT  Rati  (8  HoirrHB'  Bou). 
2  17    8    18  14    1154814162181191818101     680 

Bavkb'  Bifosr  Rati. 
224|2  12    0|8  14    4|400I818I88  10    1     4  14    3 

Short  Loav  Rati. 
248|2  18    4|4  12    8|488|856|897l     4  10    0 


At  the  time  of  the  raising  of  Bank  Bate  there  were  loud  protestations 
against  the  action  of  the  banks  in  restricting  credit ;  but  as  a  matter  of 
fact  there  had  been  no  restriction,  but  undue  expansion,  and  many 
dangerous  speculative  positions  had  in  consequence  been  erected.  The 
reaction  in  trade  and  industry  was  popularly  ascribed  to  deflation ;  this 
was  an  entire  illusion,  for  in  fact  no  monetary  deflation  was  effected 
during  the  year ;  on  December  31  deposits  in  the  banks  were  larger 
than  they  had  ever  been,  and  the  floating  debt  amounted  to  l,406^081,000i. 
against  1,349,324,000/.  on  December  31, 1919.    Profit  margins  in  banking 


62  FINANCE  AND  COMMEECE.  [vM. 

were  very  satisfactory,  and  as  the  demand  for  credit  was  enormous  the 
banks  made  very  large  profits.  But  the  expansion  in  profits  was  of  no 
direct  use  to  them,  as  high  money  rates  had  contributed  to  the  deprecia- 
tion of  investments.  The  following  amalgamations  and  affiliations  in 
banking  took  place  during  the  year :  The  British  Linen  Bank,  the  Union 
Bank  of  Manchester,  and  the  Anglo-Egyptian  Bank  became  affiliated  to 
Barclay's  Bank,  which  purchased  control.  Barclay's  Bank  also  absorbed 
Messrs.  Tubbs  Bank  of  Bicester.  The  London  Joint  City  and  Midland 
Bank  purchased  control  of  the  Clydesdale  Bank,  and  the  National 
Provincial  absorbed  the  Northamptonshire  Union  Bank,  Eichaids  &  Co., 
and  Shilson,  Coode  &  Go.  The  London  County,  Westminster,  and  Fto*'s 
Bank  absorbed  Beckett  &  Co.'s  Bank  of  Leeds  and  York,  leaving  only 
one  English  bank  of  issue  in  existence,  Messrs.  Fox,  Fowler  &  Co. 

In  December  Farrow's  Bank,  an  institution  with  4^000,0001.  of 
deposits  mostly  obtained  from  persons  of  small  means,  suspended 
payment,  and  the  depositors  were  not  expected  to  get  more  than  8«.  in 
the  pound.  This  position  was  not  due  to  general  credit  conditions,  but 
to  other  causes. 

The  turnover  of  money  in  the  shape  of  cheques,  bills,  etc.,  was  enor- 
mous, and  greatly  exceeded  all  previous  records.  The  statement  of  the 
London  Bankers'  Clearing  House- showed  that  the  total  of  bills,  cheques, 
etc.,  cleared  in  1920  was  39,018,903,000{.,  an  increase  of  10,603,521,0001. 
on  1919.  The  total  for  1920  actually  exceeded  that  for  1918  by  no  less 
than  22,500,000,0002.  The  great  expansion  in  the  turnover  at  the  Bankers' 
Clearing  House  commenced  in  the  latter  half  of  1919  and  progressed 
during  1920,  especially  during  the  first  half  of  the  year.  Several  factors 
operated  to  account  for  this  enormous  development,  among  which  may 
be  cited  the  continual  maturing  and  renewal  of  laige  amounts  of 
Treasury  Bills,  the  very  large  increase  in  industrial  issues,  the  continuous 
increase  from  the  beginning  of  the  year  to  April  in  the  price  of  all  com- 
modities and  services,  the  activity  of  industry  during  the  first  six  months 
of  the  year,  and  also  the  great  development  of  foreign  exchange  transac- 
tions during  the  period  under  review.  The  rapid  expansion  of  the  foreign 
exchange  business  was  one  of  the  chief  features  of  British  banking  in 
1920.  Industrial  unrest  without  doubt  made  its  sinister  infiuence  felt  on 
the  figures,  especially  during  the  fourth  quarter  of  the  year.  The  follow- 
ing was  an  abstract  of  records  of  the  London  Bankers'  Clearing  House  to 
date :  Record  day— Friday,  December  31,  1920,  229,396,000{. ;  Record 
week— week  ended  May  5,  1920,  900,374,0002. ;  Record  month— March, 
1920,  3,661,969,0001 ;  Record  year— 1920,  39,018,903,000L 

The  turnover  of  the  New  York  Clearing  House  for  the  twelve  months 
ended  November  30,  1920  (the  dollar  being  taken  at  4f.  for  comparison's 
sake),  was  approximately  48,895,067,0002.,  showing  an  increase  of 
8,298,699,000{.,  as  compared  with  the  year  ended  November  30,  1919. 

The  legal  maximum  for  1920  of  the  fiduciary  issue  of  currency  notes 
was  fixed  at  320,600,0002.  The  highest  figure  actually  attained  was 
317,555,2001.  in  the  week  ended  December  22,  and  this  is  the  legal  maxi* 
mum  for  the  current  year.  In  the  table  subjoined  the  currency  position 
is  shown  as  existing  at  the  end  of  the  past  three  years  :^ 


1990.] 


FINANCE  AND  COMMEBCE. 


6S 


Currency  Notei. 

End  December, 
1920. 

End  December, 
1919. 

End  December, 
1918. 

laeued  total         .... 

Reflerre:— 

Gold 

Bank  of  England  notes     • 
Reaenre  ratio    .... 

Fidndary  issue    .       -       .        . 

£ 
864,924,800 

28,600,000 
19,460,000 
18*1  per  cent. 
816,974,800 

£ 
866,162,000 

28,600,000 

4,000,000 

9*1  per  cent. 

828,662,000 

£ 
828,240,600 

28,600,000 
nil. 
8*8  per  oent 
294,740,600 

Daring  the  year  the  gold  held  by  the  joint  stock  banks,  estimated  at 
40,000,000<. ,  was  transferred  to  the  Bank  of  England.  The  policy  of 
strengthening  the  gold  and  Bank  of  England  note  cover  of  the  currency 
note  issue,  by  raising  the  ratio  from  9*1  per  cent,  to  13*1  per  cent,  had  the 
effect  of  weakening  the  Bank  of  England's  reserve  position  as  is  shown 
in  the  following  table.  The  increase  in  the  note  circulation  was  chiefly 
due  to  the  transfer  of  Bank  of  England  notes  to  the  currency  note 
redemption  account. 


Bank  of  England. 

December,  1920. 

December,  1919. 

December,  1918. 

Obin  and  bollion 
Note  oirenlation  • 
Pnblio  depodti    - 
Other  dejxMiti     • 
Reserye  (Notes  and  Coin)    • 
Ratio   -        -                - 

£ 
128,267,000 
182.861,100 

14,804,800 
176,664,600 

18,866,600 

7*8  per  cent. 

107.864,806 

86,028,200 

£ 
91,842,200 
91,860,000 
19,218,200 

180.687,900 
18,442,200 

9*2  per  cent. 
92,469,200 

106.777,600 

£ 
79,110,800 
70,806,^00 
28,642,700 
149.087,0  0 
27,268,800 
16*8  per  oent. 
71,106,700 
92,140,100 

AHMftV       -                 .                 .                 .                 ■ 

Govemment  securities 
Other  securities  - 

At  one  period  the  Bank  of  England's  ratio  of  reserve  to  liabilities  fell 
to  7i  per  cent.^  the  lowest  proportion  on  record. 

The  chaotic  condition  of  the  foreign  exchanges  was  one  of  the  domi- 
nating features  of  the  year.  The  value  of  European  currencies  fluctuated 
in  the  most  extraordinary  manner ;  at  times  the  market  was  completely 
demoralised.  Austrian  kronen,  for  instance,  moved  400  points  in  four 
days ;  and  the  extraordinary  character  of  the  fluctuations  had  the  effect 
of  reducing  international  commerce  to  a  gamble  in  paper  currencies. 
Generally  speaking,  the  value  of  European  currencies,  expressed  in  gold 
and  sterHng,  continued  to  decline  throughout  the  year,  and  the  closing 
quotations  of  the  year  were  very  little  above  the  lowest  points  touched 
during  the  year.  In  the  early  part  of  the  year  the  pound  fell  steadily 
until  on  February  4  the  American  Exchange  touched  $3*20} ;  it  recovered 
to  |4*02i  in  Aprils  largely  as  a  result  of  the  British  Qovemment's  declara- 
tion that  it  would  repay  the  American  Loan  of  50,000,0002.,  issued  in 
New  York,  in  1915,  in  the  following  October.  With  the  approach  of  the 
harvest  period  the  rate  fell  to  13*33}  (in  November),  but  it  rallied  to  93*54| 
against  $3*76  at  the  close  of  1919.  In  relation  to  all  other  currendes, 
however,  the  pound  sterling  was  of  higher  value  at  the  end  of  the  year. 
This  recovery  in  the  pound  was  the  outstanding  feature,  for  it  showed 
that  national  finance  is  chiefly  responsible  for  the  movement  of  exchange. 


64 


FINANCE  AND  COMMEBCE. 


[1920. 


Great  Britain  was  the  only  European  country  of  importance  to  equate  its 
Budget  in  1920,  and  stop  the  use  of  the  printing  press.  The  extraordinary 
condition  of  the  Exchanges,  reflecting  the  disorganisation  of  Europe,  led 
to  the  holding  of  a  conference  of  financial  experts  of  thirty-nine  nations 
at  Brussels  in  December.  This  conference  was  a  notable  event ;  it  was 
the  first  of  its  kind,  and  established  a  precedent  of  great  importance  in 
the  history  of  nations.  The  conference  was  a  great  success  in  that  it 
helped  to  clear  the  atmosphere  in  which  nationcd  finance  had  been  dis- 
cussed. It  laid  down  certain  principles  of  guidance;  but  its  only 
practical  result  was  the  adoption  of  a  scheme  for  giving  credit  to  distressed 
countries,  on  certain  conditions  which  provided  for  the  mortgage  of 
assets  in  the  importing  country.  This  scheme  was  put  forward  by  M. 
Ter  Meulen,  a  Dutch  banker,  but  at  the  end  of  the  year  it  was  not  in 
operation.  The  following  table  is  reproduced  from  The  Timet^  Annual 
Financial  Review : — 


During  1920. 

Parity. 

Dec.  31. 
1920. 

Deo.  81, 
1919. 

Highest 

Lowest 

New  York     - 

$4-M| 

8-54) 

8-761 

4-02) 

8-20) 

Montreal 

$4-8«f 

4-10) 

4*13 

4-59 

8-65 

PariB     - 

26f.  22)0. 

6970 

41-09 

68-80 

40*75 

Briusels 

25122I0. 

56-85 

40-40 

68-65 

40-40 

Borne    • 

251r.  22A0. 

101-50 

50-12) 

106-00 

60-00 

Bukareet 

261ei.  22)0. 

288-50 

s 

825-00 

120-00 

Belgrade 

25d.  22)0. 

127-60 

.. 

... 

— 

Madrid - 

26p.22|c. 

26-48 

19-68 

28-90 

18*98 

Berne    - 

2&f.22Jc. 

28*16 

2112 

28-88 

19*40 

Athens  - 

26dr.22)o. 

48-12) 

25-^ 

49*50 

25*40 

Hekingfors    - 

25m.  22)pf. 
98r.  87) 

116-50 

126*50 

108-00 

6900 

Petxograd 

— 

— 

4051 

110 » 

Lisbon   - 
Amsterdam   - 

SSfd. 
1211. 10c 

1^ 

20 
10-13 

20 
11*50 

8% 

Berlin    - 

20m.  48pf. 
24kr.0£s. 

268-00 

187-60 

865-00 

120-00 

Vienna  - 

1,626 

665 

1,600 

480 

Prague  • 

24kr.  02o. 

907-60 

^_ 

460 

180 

Warsaw 

20m.  48pf. 
18kr.  16; 

2,260 

_ 

2,800 

870 

Cbristiania    - 

28-66 

19-80 

26-78 

18-57 

Stockholm     - 

18kr.  16 

17-69 

18-60 

18-51 

17*07 

Copenhagen   - 

18kT.  16 

28-12 

17-60 

25-91 

19*60 

Alexandria    - 

T 

97A 

97| 

— 

Bombay 

]m 

2/4A 

2/9) 

i/4i 

Calcntto 

2s. 

mi 

2/4A 

2/M 

VH 

Madras - 

2a. 

l'^ 

2/*A 

2/9) 

l/4f 

Hongkong     - 

— 

S'^ 

4A0) 

_ 

Yokohama     - 

2H4. 

2/8i 

2/8J 

8/0) 

2/4 

Shanghai 

— 

^-JA 

8A 

9/6 

tivn 

Singapore 
Manila  - 

24  06(2. 

3/6 

2/4) 

2^ 

Rio  de  Janeiro 

27d 

m 

17J  ' 

X 

Buenos  Aires  - 

47'bSd. 

6IA 

62) 

U 

Valparaiso 

IStL 

^ 

1? 

l«A 

Montevideo   • 

61d 

7i%dis. 

78 

49) 

Lima 
Mexico  - 

Par. 
24'68d. 

17^du. 

S04Xdit. 
86| 

l^dis. 

1  During  the 

war. 

1920.] 


FINANCE  AND  COMMEECE. 


65 


The  year  1920  witnessed  an  extraordinarily  large  output  of  new 
capital.  The  emission  of  new  capital  reached  its  climax  in  March  (at  the 
top  of  the  trade  boom) ;  during  the  summer  the  output  was  steady  but 
of  less  volume,  but  towards  the  end  of  the  year  it  began  to  increase  in 
volume  once  more.  In  part  it  was  but  a  reflection  of  the  enormous 
demand  for  credit  by  traders.  Bankers  pressed  traders  and  manu- 
facturers for  the  repayment  of  overdrafts,  and  they  obtained  the  money 
to  do  so  from  the  public.  Heavy  tax  payments  were  also  made  by 
means  of  a  new  issue  of  capital.  Excluding  British  Government 
loans  the  total  for  1920  was  greater  than  in  any  previous  year.  The 
figure  was  S67,549^600{.  against  211,424,1001.  in  1919.  A  remarkable 
feature  of  the  year's  flotations  was  that  the  bulk  of  the  money  was 
intended  for  employment  in  the  United  Kingdom,  and  not  as  before  the 
war  outside  these  islands.  The  destination  of  the  new  capital  was  as 
follows : — 


1020. 

1918. 

1912. 

1911. 

United  Kingdom    • 
British  Ponesnons 
Foreign  coantries  - 

ToUl 

£ 
828,021,400 
81,689,800 
7,888,400 

£ 
85,951,200 
76,187,200 
84,448,600 

£ 
45,885,800 
72,642,400 
92,872,800 

£. 

26,145,900 

64,994,800 

100,618,700 

867,549,600 

196,587,000 

210,850,000 

191,759,400 

At  the  beginning  of  the  year  Stock  Exchange  markets  were  boom- 
ing ;  and  extraordinary  activity  marked  the  industrial  and  speculative 
sections.  The  oil  market  roared  ceaselessly,  and  other  markets  with  the 
same  speculative  attractions  roared  in  sympathy.  Membership  nomina- 
tions rose  in  price  to  660L,  and  there  was  a  great  congestion  of  work  in 
brokers'  offices  which  were  nightly  kept  open  until  late  in  the  evening. 
The  introduction  of  the  Budget,  with  its  unpleasant  reminder  of  the 
burden  of  taxation,  administered  the  first  check  to  the  buoyancy  of 
markets ;  the  collapse  of  the  foreign  exchanges  later  caused  a  steady 
stream  of  liquidation,  which  was  increased  when  the  heavy  fall  in 
wholesale  prices  and  the  unsaleability  of  many  commodities  forced 
traders  to  realise  securities  in  a  steadily  growing  volume.  The  pressure 
for  money  to  pay  excess  profits  duty,  and  to  finance  production  and 
distribution  also  caused  a  steady  stream  of  liquidation  in  the  gilt-edged 
market,  and  British  Government  securities  fell  to  a  level  giving  a  return 
of  well  over  6  per  cent,  per  annum.  In  the  third  week  of  December 
some  of  the  leading  gilt-edged  stocks  touched  the  lowest  points  on 
record ;  Consols  marked  down  to  4St>  the  Five  Per  Cent.  War  Loan  to 
81A,  Victory  Bonds  to  70},  and  Funding  Loan  to  65A.  The  BanJeen^ 
Magazine  calculations  showed  that  387  representative  securities  decreased 
in  value  during  1920  by  nearly  315,000,0001.,  namely,  from  2^634,484,000{. 
to  2,319,777,000{.  This  decrease  of  315,000,000i.  followed  a  decrease  of 
166,600,000^.  in  1919,  and  is  the  heaviest  fall  ever  recorded  in  one  year. 
British  and  Indian  funds  fell  in  value,  during  1920  by  11*9  per  cent. ; 
foreign  Qovemment  stocks  by  18*8  per  cent.,  Home  Railway  stocks  by 

B 


66  FINANCE  AND  COMMEECE.  [1920. 

17  *3  per  cent. ,  and  Foreign  Railway  stocks  by  23*5  per  cent.  Commercial 
and  industrial  securities  declined  in  value  by  no  less  than  40-9  per  cent., 
against  a  rise  in  1919  of  12*1  per  cent.  Iron  and  Steel  shares  suffered  a 
depreciation  of  33*7  percent.,  shipping  securities  of  21*7  percent.,  and 
South  African  mining  shares  of  39*2  per  cent.  The  year  closed  with  a 
slight  recovery  in  some  markets,  but  on  the  whole  it  was  a  disappointing 
year  for  members  and  a  disastrous  period  for  the  investing  public. 
Indeed  the  losses  of  the  investor  caused  him  to  lose  all  interest  in 
speculative  stocks  and  to  turn  once  more  to  gilt-edged  stocks. 

Despite  the  great  slackening  of  trade  in  the  last  part  of  the  period, 
1920  witnessed  a  large  increase  in  British  Overseas  trade,  which,  in  fact, 
established  a  new  **  record  "  in  value.  The  increase  in  the' value  of  trade 
has  indeed  been  described  as  marvellous.  Exports  of  home  produce 
and  manufactures  increased  in  much  greater  ratio  than  imports.  The 
total  value  of  the  year's  trade  was  3,494,717,000{.,  an  increase  of 
905,176,0002.  over  1919,  which  held  the  previous  highest  record.  Imports 
were  valued  at  1,936,742,0002.,  an  increase  of  310,586,0002.  ;  and  British 
exports  at  1,335,569,0002.,  an  increase  of  536,931,0002.  Be-exports  rose  by 
57,660,0002.  to  222,456,0002.  Thus  the  total  of  exports  increased  by  61} 
per  cent,  against  an  increase  of  19  per  cent,  in  import?.  Higher  prices 
accounted  for  large  part  of  the  increase,  but  the  weight  of  trade,  though 
only  about  80  per  cent,  of  the  1913  total,  was  much  larger  than  in  1919. 
The  apparent  adverse  balance  of  trade  was  387,750^0002.  against 
662,750,0002.  in  1919.  But  as  our  invisible  exports  were  estimated 
at  about  400,000,0002.,  the  year  1920  witnessed  the  restoration  as  far  as 
this  country  is  concerned,  of  a  favourable  trade  balance. 

The  world's  production  of  new  shipping  diminished  considerably  in 
1920  as  compared  with  1919.  The  tonnage  decreased  from  7,144,500  tons 
to  5,861,600  tons.  Nevertheless  the  latter  total  shows  an  increase  of 
more  than  2,500,000  tons  on  the  output  for  1913,  which  was  the  highest 
pre-war  figure.  But  in  spite  of  the  decrease  in  the  world's  total  the 
output  of  ships  in  the  United  Kingdom  was  higher  than  in  1919,  the 
total  being  2^055,600  tons,  an  increase  of  435,000  tons.  This  total  ex- 
ceeded the  1913  output  by  142,300  tons,  or  26  per  cent.  The  bulk  of  the 
decrease  in  the  world's  production-— 92  per  cent,  in  fact — was  accounted 
for  by  a  decrease  in  the  output  of  American  yards.  The  decrease  in  the 
United  States  was  no  less  than  1,599,100  tons,  the  total  being  2,746^200 
tons,  which  exceeded  the  British  figure  by  420,600  tons.  The  United 
States  output  was  nine  times  greater  than  in  1913,  and  represented  42 
per  cent,  of  the  world's  combined  output  for  1920.  At  the  close  of  the 
year  the  outlook  in  industry  was  by  no  means  favourable.  Many 
contracts  had  been  cancelled  owing  to  high  costs,  and  the  fall  in 
freights. 

Production  of  pig  iron  fell  off  considerably  on  account  of  a  strike  of 
coal-miners  in  the  autumn.  The  year's  output  was  approximately 
8,000,000  tons  against  7»398,000  tons  in  1919,  and  10,260,000  tons  in  1913. 
Production  of  steel  ingots  and  castings,  however,  eclipsed  the  1913 
record  ;  the  tonnage  was  9,000,000  tons  of  steel  against  7,894,000  tons  in 
1919,  and  7,665,000  tons  in  1913.  The  history  of  the  coal  trade  was  de- 
scribed as  a  record  of  industrial,  commercial,  financial,  and  administrative 


1980.]  FINANCE  AND  COMMEECE.  67 

chaos.  The  outstanding  feature  was  the  decline  in  output,  which  pre- 
sented a  grave  problem  in  the  first  part  of  the  year.  In  1913  the  output 
was  287,600,000  tons ;  in  1918,  227,760,000,  in  1919,  229,600,000,  and  in 
1920,  228,911,141  tons.  On  October  16  a  strike  began  and  lasted  until 
November  i,  when  work  was  resumed  on  the  basis  of  an  immediate 
concession  of  2$.  per  week  up  to  December  31,  wages  being  adjusted 
after  that  date  according  to  output,  miners  continuing  to  receive  the 
extra  2«.  on  a  production  ranging  from  246,000,000  to  260,000,000  tons  per 
annum.  But  though  the  wages  were  liable  to  increase  with  a  rise  in 
output,  no  reduction  was  provided  for  if  the  price  of  coal  fell,  and  this 
makes  certain  a  deadlock  sooner  or  later,  which  will  compel  a  fresh  ad- 
justment of  wages  to  prices  and  output.  The  inland  price  of  coal  was 
kept  below  the  net  cost  of  production  and  the  revenue  was  really  ob- 
tained from  export  and  bunkering  coal,  the  f.o.b.  price  of  which  ranged 
from  68<.  Bd.  per  ton  up  to  89«.  9(2.  per  ton. 

The  insurance  industry  enjoyed  a  big  increase  in  business  owing  to 
the  rise  in  prices,  but  the  cotton  and  woollen  industries  after  a  period  of 
great  activity  relapsed  into  a  state  of  almost  complete  stagnation.  The 
year  1920  closed  amidst  a  state  of  great  depression  with  the  majority  of 
merchants  in  difficulties  owing  to  the  fall  in  prices.  But  the  fall  was 
like  the  previous  rise,  overdone,  and  it  was  obvious  that  though  the 
number  of  unemployed  had  reached  1,260,000,  the  period  of  depression 
would  be  relatively  short.  At  the  same  time  it  was  obvious,  also,  that 
costs  of  production  would  have  to  be  reduced  to  enable  the  country  to 
maintain  its  foreign  trade  in  competition  with  other  countries.  The 
period  of  acute  shortage  had  passed,  and  competition  was  reviving  and 
giving  promise  of  progress  towards  more  stable  conditions. 


E2 


PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS. 

Text  of  the  Agreement  Between  France,  Kussia,  Great 
Britain,  and  Italy,  Signed  at  London  on  April  26, 
1915,  ON  THE  Eve  of  the  Entrance  op  Italy  into 
THE  War. 

The  text  is  as  follows : — 

By  Order  of  bis  Government  the  Marquis  Imperiali,  Ambassador  of 
His  Majesty  tbe  King  of  Italy,  bas  tbe  bonour  to  communicate  to  the 
Bt.  Hon.  Sir  Edward  Grey,  His  Britannic  Majesty's  Principal  Secretary 
of  State  for  Foreign  Affairs,  and  to  their  Excellencies  M.  Paul  Oambon, 
Ambassador  of  tbe  French  Bepublic,  and  to  Count  de  Benckendorff, 
Ambassador  of  His  Majesty  tbe  Emperor  of  All  the  Eussias,  tbe  follow- 
ing memorandum  : — 

Article  1. — A  military  convention  shall  be  immediately  concluded 
between  tbe  General  Staffs  of  France,  Great  Britain^  Italy,  and  Russia. 
This  convention  shall  settle  tbe  minimum  number  of  military  forces  to 
be  employed  by  Russia  against  Austria-Hungary  in  order  to  prevent  that 
Power  from  concentrating  all  its  strength  against  Italy,  in  tbe  event  of 
Russia  deciding  to  direct  her  principal  effort  against  Germany. 

This  military  convention  shall  settle  question  of  armistices,  which 
necessarily  comes  within  tbe  scope  of  the  Commanders-in-chief  of  the 
Armies. 

Article  2. — On  her  part,  Italy  undertakes  to  use  her  entire  resources 
for  the  purpose  of  waging  war  jointly  with  France,  Great  Britain,  and 
Russia  against  all  their  enemies. 

Article  3.— The  French  and  British  fleets  shall  render  active  and 
permanent  assistance  to  Italy  until  such  time  as  the  Austro-Hungarian 
fleet  shall  have  been  destroyed  or  until  peace  shall  have  been  concluded. 

A  naval  convention  shall  be  immediately  concluded  to  this  effect 
between  France,  Great  Britain,  and  Italy. 

Article  4.— Under  tbe  Treaty  of  Peace,  Italy  shall  obtain  the 
Trentino,  Cisalpine  Tyrol  with  its  geographical  and  natural  frontier 
(tbe  Brenner  frontier),  as  well  as  Trieste,  tbe  counties  of  Gorizia  and 
Gradioca,  all  Istria  as  far  as  the  Quamero  and  including  Volosca  and 
tbe  Istrian  Islands  of  Cberso  and  Lussin,  as  well  as  tbe  small  islands 
of  Plavnik,  Unie,  Canidole,  Palazzuoli,  San  Pietro  di  Nembi,  Asinello, 
Gruica,  and  tbe  neighbouring  islets. 

Note. — Tbe  frontier  required  to  ensure  execution  of  Article  4  hereof 
shall  be  traced  as  follows : — 

68 


1920.]  PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS.  69 

From  the  Piz  Umbrail  as  far  as  north  of  the  Stelvio,  it  shall  follow  the 
crest  of  the  Bhetian  Alps  up  to  the  sources  of  the  Adige  and  the  Eisach, 
then  following  the  Beschen  and  Brenner  mountains  and  the  Oetz  and 
Ziller  heights.  The  frontier  shall  then  bend  towards  the  south,  cross 
Mt.  Toblach  and  join  the  present  frontier  of  the  Camic  Alps.  It  shall 
follow  this  frontier  line  as  far  as  Mt.  Tarvis  and  from  Mt.  Tarvis  the 
watershed  of  the  Julian  Alps  by  the  Fredil  Pass,  Mt.  Mangart,  the 
Tricomo  (Terglu),  and  the  watersheds  of  the  Podberdo,  Podlaniscam,  and 
Idria  passes.  From  this  point  the  frontier  shall  follow  a  south-easterly 
direction  towards  the  Schneeberg,  leaving  the  entire  basin  of  the  Save 
and  its  tributaries  outside  Italian  territory.  From  the  Schneeberg, 
the  frontier  shall  come  down  to  the  coast  in  such  a  way  as  to  include 
Gastua,  Mattuglia  and  Volosca  within  Italian  territory. 

Abticls  6. — Italy  shall  also  be  given  the  province  of  Dalmatia 
within  its  present  administrative  boundaries,  including  to  the  north 
Lisarica  and  Tribania ;  to  the  south  as  far  as  a  line  starting  from  Cape 
Planka  on  the  coast  and  following  eastwards  the  crests  of  the  heights 
forming  the  watershed,  in  such  a  way  as  to  leave  within  Italian 
territory  all  the  valleys  and  streams  flowing  towards  Sebenico — ^such  as 
the  Cicola,  Kerka,  Butisnica,  and  their  tributaries.  She  shall  also  obtain 
all  the  islands  situate  to  the  north  and  west  of  Dalmatia,  from 
Premuda,  Solve,  Ulbo,  Scherda,  Maon,  Pago,  and  Patadura  to  the  north, 
up  to  Meleda  to  the  south  including  Sant'  Andrea,  Busi,  Lissa^  Lesina, 
Tercola,  Ourzola,  Cazza,  and  Lagosta,  as  well  as  the  neighbouring  rocks 
and  islets  and  Pelagosa,  with  the  exception  of  Greater  and  Lesser  Zirona, 
Bua,  Solta,  and  Brazza. 

To  be  neutralised : — 

(1)  The  entire  coast  from  Cape  Planka  on  the  north  to  the  southern 
base  of  the  peninsula  of  Sabbioncello  in  the  south,  so  as  to  include  the 
whole  of  that  peninsula ;  (2)  the  portion  of  the  coast  which  begins  in 
the  north  at  a  point  situated  10  kilometres  south  of  the  headland  of 
Bagusa  Yecchia  extending  southward  as  far  as  the  Biver  Voiussa,  in 
such  a  way  as  to  include  the  gulf  and  ports  of  Cattaro,  Antivari, 
Dulcigno,  St.  Jean  de  Medua,  and. 'Durazzo,  without  prejudice  to  the 
rights  of  Montenegro  consequent  on  the  declarations  exchanged  between 
the  Powers  in  April  and  May,  1909.  As  these  rights  only  apply  to  the 
present  Montenegrin  territory,  they  cannot  be  extended  to  any  territory 
or  ports  which  may  be  assigned  to  Montenegro.  Consequently  neutral- 
isation shall  not  apply  to  any  part  of  the  coast  now  belonging  to 
Montenegro.  There  shall  be  maintained  all  restrictions  concerning  the 
port  of  Antivari  which  were  accepted  by  Montenegro  in  1909 ;  (3)  finally, 
all  the  islands  not  given  to  Italy. 

Note. — The  following  Adriatic  territory  shall  be  assigned  by  the 
four  Allied  Powers  to  Croatia,  Serbia,  and  Montenegro  : — 

In  the  Upper  Adriatic,  the  whole  coast  from  the  bay  of  Volosca  on 
the  borders  of  Istria  as  far  as  the  northern  frontier  of  Dalmatia,  includ- 
ing the  coast  which  is  at  present  Hungarian  and  all  the  coast  of  Croatia, 
with  the  port  of  Fiume  and  the  small  ports  of  Novi  and  Carlopago,  as 
well  as  the  islands  of  Veglia,  Pervichio,  Gregorio,  Goli,  and  Arbe.  And, 
in  the  Lower  Adriatic  (in  the  region  interesting  Serbia  and  Montenegro) 


70  PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS.  [i920. 

the  whole  coast  from  Cape  Flanka  as  far  as  the  River  Drin,  with  the 
important  harboars  of  Spalato,  Bagusa,  Cattaro,  Antivari^  Dulcigno,  and 
St.  Jean  de  Medua  and  the  islands  of  Greater  and  Lesser  Zirona,  Bua, 
Solta,  Brazza,  Jaclian,  and  Calamotta.  The  port  of  Durazzo  to  be 
assigned  to  the  independent  Moslem  State  of  Albania. 

Abticle  6. — Italy  shall  receive  full  sovereignty  over  Valona,  the 
island  of  Saseno,  and  surrounding  territory  of  sufficient  extent  to  assure 
defence  of  these  points  (from  the  Voiussa  to  the  north  and  east 
approximately  to  the  northern  boun  lary  of  the  district  of  Chimara  on 
the  south). 

Article  7. — Should  Italy  obtain  the  Trentino  and  Istria  in  accord- 
ance with  the  provisions  of  Article  4,  together  with  Dalmatia  and  the 
Adriatic  islands  within  the  limits  specified  in  Article  5,  and  the  Bay  of 
Valona  (Article  6),  and  if  the  central  portion  of  Albania  is  reserved  for 
the  establishment  of  a  small  autonomous  neutralised  State^  Italy  shall 
not  oppose  the  division  of  Northern  and  Southern  Albania  between 
Montenegro,  Serbia,  and  Greece,  should  France,  Great  Britain,  and 
Russia  so  desire.  The  coast  from  the  southern  boundary  of  the 
Italian  territory  of  Valona  (see  Article  6)  up  to  Cape  Stylos  shall  be 
neutralised. 

Italy  shall  be  charged  with  the  representation  of  the  State  of  Albania 
in  its  relations  with  foreign  Powers. 

Italy  agrees,  moreover,  to  leave  sufficient  territory  in  any  event  to 
the  east  of  Albania  to  ensure  the  existence  of  a  frontier  line  between 
Greece  and  Serbia  to  the  west  of  Lake  Ochrida. 

Article  8. — Italy  shall  receive  entire  sovereignty  over  the  Dode- 
canese Islands  which  she  is  at  present  occupying. 

Article  9.— Generally  speaking,  France,  Great  Britain,  and  Russia 
recognise  that  Italy  is  interested  in  the  maintenance  of  the  balance  of 
power  in  the  Mediterranean  and  that,  in  the  event  of  the  total  or 
partial  partition  of  Turkey  in  Asia,  she  ought  to  obtain  a  just  share  of 
the  Mediterranean  region  adjacent  to  the  province  of  Adalia,  where 
Italy  has  already  acquired  rights  and  interests  which  formed  the  subject 
of  an  Italo-British  convention.  The  zone  which  shall  eventually  be 
allotted  to  Italy  shall  be  delimited,  at  the  proper  time,  due  account 
being  taken  of  the  existing  interests  of  France  and  Great  Britain. 

The  interests  of  Italy  shall  also  be  taken  into  consideration  in  the 
event  of  the  territorial  integrity  of  the  Turkish  Empire  being  maintained 
and  of  alterations  being  made  in  the  zones  of  interest  of  the  Powers. 

If  France,  Great  Britain,  and  Russia  occupy  any  territories  in  Turkey 
in  Asia  during  the  course  of  the  war,  the  Mediterranean  region 
bordering  on  the  Province  of  Adalia  within  the  limits  indicated  above 
shall  be  reserved  to  Italy,  who  shall  be  entitled  to  occupy  it. 

Article  10.— All  rights  and  privileges  in  Libya  at  present  belonging 
to  the  Sultan  by  virtue  of  the  Treaty  of  Lausanne  are  transferred  to 
Italy. 

Article  11. — Italy  shall  receive  a  share  of  any  eventual  war 
indemnity  corresponding  to  her  efforts  and  her  sacrifices. 

Article  12. — Italy  declares  that  she  associates  herself  in  the  declara 
tion  made  by  France,  Great  Britain,  and  Russia  to  the  effect  that 


1930.]  PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS.  71 

Arabia  and  the  Moslem  Holy  Places  in  Arabia  shall  be  loft  under  the 
authority  of  an  independent  Moslem  Power. 

Article  13. — In  the  event  of  France  and  Great  Britain  increasing 
their  colonial  territories  in  Africa  at  the  expense  of  Germany,  those  two 
Powers  agree  in  principle  that  Italy  may  claim  some  equitable  com- 
pensation, particularly  as  regards  the  settlement  in  her  favour  of  the 
questions  relative  to  the  frontiers  of  the  Italian  colonies  of  Eritrea, 
Somaliland,  and  Libya  and  the  neighbouring  colonies  belonging  to 
France  and  Great  Britain. 

Article  14. — Great  Britain  undertakes  to  facilitate  the  immediate 
conclusion,  under  equitable  conditions,  of  a  loan  of  at  least  60,000,OOOL 
to  be  issued  on  the  London  market. 

Article  16. — France,  Great  Britain,  and  Russia  shall  support  such 
opposition  as  Italy  may  make  to  any  proposal  in  the  direction  of  intro- 
ducing a  representative  of  the  Holy  See  in  any  peace  negotiations 
or  negotiations  for  the  settlement  of  questions  raised  by  the  present 
war. 

Article  16.— The  present  arrangement  shall  be  held  secret.  The 
adherence  of  Italy  to  the  Declaration  of  September  6, 1914,  shall  alone 
be  made  public,  immediately  upon  declaration  of  war  by  or  againet 
Italy. 

After  having  taken  act  of  the  foregoing  memorandum^  the  repre- 
sentatives of  France,  Great  Britain,  and  Russia,  duly  authorised  to  that 
effect,  have  concluded  the  following  agreement  with  the  representative 
of  Italy,  also  duly  authorised  by  his  Government : — 

France,  Great  Britain,  and  Russia  gave  their  full  assent  to  the 
memorandum  presented  by  the  Italian  Government. 

With  reference  to  Articles  1,  2,  and  3  of  the  memorandum  which 
provide  for  military  and  naval  co-operation  between  the  four  Powers, 
Italy  declares  that  she  will  take  the  field  at  the  earliest  possible  date 
and  within  a  pariod  not  exceeding  one  month  from  the  signature  of 
these  presents. 

In  faith  whereof  the  undersigned  have  signed  the  present  agreement 
and  have  affixed  thereto  their  seals. 

Done  at  London,  in  quadruplicate,  the  26th  day  of  April,  1916. 

(L.8.)  B.  GREY. 

(L.8.)  IMPERIAL!  , 

(L.S. )  BENCKENDORFF. 

(L.S.)  PAUL  CAMBON. 

Text  of  the  Declaration  of  the  Supreme  Council  of 
THE  Peace  Conference  on  the  Economic  Conditions 
OF  THE  World. 

(Appboved  by  thb  Council  on  Mabch  8.) 

The  Supreme  Council  of  the  Peace  Conference  has  taken  into  considera- 
tion the  causes  which  combine  to  produce  the  present  high  cost  of  living, 
and  now  thinks  it  (Jesirable  to  publish  the  following  declaration : — 


72  PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS.  [1920. 

1.  The  war  which  the  democracies  of  Western  Europe  were  forced  to 
undertake  in  defence  of  their  liberties  and  which  they  have  carried  to  a 
triumphant  conclusion  has  necessarily  entailed  the  disorganisation  of  the 
whole  economic  position  of  Europe. 

This  disorganisation  is  reflected  in  the  rise  of  prices  which  is  at 
present  the  source  of  universal  discontent  among  the  peoples,  belligerent 
and  neutral  alike.  History  shows  that  high  prices  are  the  invariable  re- 
sult of  war,  and  in  comparison  with  most  wars  the  present  situation  is 
far  from  abnormal.  In  the  Napoleonic  wars  prices  in  England  rose  76 
per  cent.,  and  took  eight  years  to  become  normal  again.  In  the  Ameri- 
can Civil  War  American  prices  rose  100  per  cent,  and  took  twelve  years 
or  more  to  become  normal.  As  the  result  of  this  war,  the  most  gigantic 
of  all  in  the  history  of  the  world,  general  wholesale  prices  (as  distinct 
from  the  cost  of  living)  have  advanced  since  1913  approximately  as 
follows : — 

The  United  States 120  per  cent. 

Great  Britain 170      „ 

France 300      „ 

Italy 300      „ 

Belgium 300      „ 

Many  causes  contribute  to  this  rise  in  prices,  but  they  may  all  be 
regarded  as  directly  or  indirectly  the  consequences  of  war.  For  nearly 
five  years  the  energies  of  the  people  have  been  diverted  from  the  work  of 
production  to  the  work  of  destruction ;  for  nearly  five  years  the  creation 
of  new  resources  has  been  stopped,  and  the  resources  of  past  generations 
consumed  or  destroyed.  To  feed  and  equip  the  nations  engaged  in  this 
struggle,  their  Governments  had  to  mortgage  the  prospective  wealth  of 
their  countries  in  the  form  of  credits  or  paper  money.  The  excessive 
creation  of  these  tokens  of  prospective  wealth,  as  compared  with  the 
volume  of  real  wealth,  is  indicated  by  the  rise  in  prices. 

Nothing  but  the  hard  necessities  of  war  could  have  justified  or  ex- 
cused this  procedure.  Its  dangers  are  obvious.  Public  appreciation  of 
the  necessity  of  maintaining  a  strict  balance  between  normal  revenue 
and  expenditure  is  weakened,  and  the  ordinary  individual  is  misled  by 
the  illusion  of  prosperity  to  believe  that  there  is  an  increase  in  real 
wealth  and  an  abundance  of  available  supplies,  and  is  encouraged  in 
habits  of  extravagance. 

Government  action  may  mitigate  or  disguise  some  of  the  effects  of 
the  rise  in  prices,  but  it  cannot  remove  the  root  cause,  which  is  the  de- 
struction of  wealth.  This  loss  of  wealth  is,  after  all^  but  a  small  matter 
compared  with  the  sacrifice  of  life  which  was  freely  given  during  the 
war  to  overthrow  militarism  and  re-establish  national  liberty  in  Europe. 
But  its  effects  can  only  be  healed  by  the  passage  of  time,  and  the  people 
of  Europe,  if  they  wish  to  expedite  the  process,  must  contribute  to  the 
works  of  peace  the  same  ardour  and  devotion  as  they  gave  to  the  prose- 
cution of  the  war.  In  the  subjoined  review  of  the  position  the  Con- 
ference indicates  the  lines  on  which  it  considers  that  a  solution  of  the 
problem  can  best  be  found  ;  but  it  is  vain  to  expect  that  the  results  of 
the  war  can  be  eliminated  by  a  stroke  of  the  pen. 


1920J  PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS.  73 

2.  At  present  Europe  is  far  from  having  returned  to  the  conditions 
of  complete  peace.  Russia  is  stated  to  have  in  the  field  armies  of 
1,600,000  men  or  more,  and  the  disbandment  of  these  armies  is,  of 
course,  a  primary  condition  of  European  peaca  But  many  also  of  the 
countries  which  have  been  created  or  enlarged  as  the  outcome  of  the 
war  have  still  the  appearance  of  armed  camps;  and  not  fewer  than 
1,000,000  men  are  still  under  arms  in  Poland,  Rumania,  and  the  new 
States  created  out  of  Austria-Hungary.  Moreover,  although  armed  con- 
flict has  ceased,  the  mutual  rivalries  and  antipathies  which  are  the 
natural  legacy  of  war  still  dominate  many  of  the  nations  of  Europe,  and 
are  leading  to  the  erection  of  artificial  economic  barriers  which  must 
seriously  hamper,  if  they  do  not  entirely  prevent,  the  restoration  of  the 
common  prosperity. 

The  first  step  to  the  reconstruction  of  Europe  is  to  complete  the  pro- 
cess of  demobilisation  in  all  countries,  to  resume  the  full  employment  in 
peaceful  pursuits  of  the  whole  of  the  able-bodied  population,  and  to  en- 
courage by  every  means  the  normal  interchange  of  their  products.  Un- 
til peaceful  conditions  have  thus  been  resumed  in  every  branch  of  life, 
Europe,  which  has  suffered  so  terribly  during  the  past  years  of  strife, 
will  continue  to  suffer  from  the  restlessness  and  lack  of  confidence 
which  is  the  natural  consequence  of  the  upheaval  through  which  she  has 
passed. 

3.  Liberty  has,  indeed,  been  preserved  to  Europe,  and  the  threat  of 
military  domination  is  gone.  This  great  achievement  has,  however,  left 
victors  and  vanquished  alike  impoverished  and  enfeebled.  Death  or 
disablement  has  removed  from  the  work  of  production  millions  of  men 
in  the  prime  of  life ;  and  millions  more  have  had  their  efficiency  im- 
paired by  sufferings  on  the  field  of  battle,  or  through  pestilence,  or 
privations  at  home.  Instead  of  having  the  assistance  of  these  sons, 
each  country  has  to  provide,  in  the  most  generous  measure  possible,  for 
the  maintenance  of  the  maimed,  and  for  the  families  of  the  fallen,  and 
this  must  for  many  years  to  come  be  the  first  charge  on  the  national  in- 
come. Meanwhile,  those  who  remain  have  not  yet  recovered  the  former 
habit  of  industry,  and  have  not  yet  re-adjusted  their  standard  of  output 
to  compens'ate  for  the  reduction  of  hours  which  public  opinion  in  all 
countries  has  demanded  and  is  securing.  At  the  same  time,  of  the 
machinery  which  might  have  made  good  these  deficiencies  much  has 
been  destroyed,  and  more  has  been  worn  out,  no  adequate  renewals 
being  possible  during  the  war.  In  particular,  all  means  of  transport 
have  been  disorganised,  and  the  efficiency  of  the  railway  systems  has 
been  universally  impaired. 

To  these  general  losses  must  be  added  the  special  disturbances  of 
production  in  each  country.  For  example,  a  large  portion  of  the  most 
fertile  territory,  more  especially  in  France  and  in  the  North  of  Italy,  has 
been  devastated ;  while  in  France  also  industrial  centres  and  mining 
areas,  of  vital  importance  to  her  industries,  have  been  completely  de- 
stroyed, and  will  not  be  able  to  resume  production  for  years  to  come. 
In  Belgium,  similarly,  the  national  industries  suffered  greatly  during 
the  period  of  occupation.  Germany,  on  the  other  hand,  has  its  in- 
dustrial establishments  intact  but  is  paralysed  by  lack  of  capital  and 


74  PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS.  [1920. 

credit  and  by  the  disorganisation  bred  of  defeat ;  while  in  the  case  of 
Austria  these  conditions  have  led  to  the  complete  breakdown  of  her 
economic  life.  Bussia  has  passed  through  all  the  throes  of  civil  strife^ 
and  is  still  the  victim  of  confusion  and  anarchy.  Each  country  suffers 
from  a  different  difficulty,  but  each  contributes  its  share  to  the  common 
deficit. 

In  agriculture,  Russia,  which  before  the  war  was  the  most  important 
granary  of  Europe,  and  of  whose  products  Europe  is  in  such  need,  either 
has  not  been  producing  at  all  or  has  not  been  able  to  exchange  with  her 
neighbours  such  products  as  she  has.  Bumania,  which  before  the  war 
exported  annually  over  6,000,000  quarters  of  wheat,  has  altered  her 
system  of  land  tenure  and  is  now  ceasing  to  produce  more  than  suffices 
for  the  immediate  needs  of  her  own  population ;  indeed,  on  December  1 
last  it  was  stated  that  only  530,000  hectares  had  been  sown,  as  compared 
with  an  annual  average  before  the  war  of  1,900,000  hectares,  though 
some  improvement  has  since  taken  place.  Other  countries  again,  such 
as  France  and  Germany^  which  were  largely  self-supporting,  are  unable 
at  the  present  moment,  owing  to  the  devastation  of  the  land,  the  de- 
struction of  buildings  and  machinery,  or  the  lack  of  capital  and  fer- 
tilisers, to  produce  more  than  a  fraction  of  what  is  required  for  their 
own  needs,  and  have  been  increasingly  driven  to  compete  in  the  world 
market  for  the  limited  supplies  now  available. 

Again,  in  regard  to  coal,  production  in  every  country  has  been  de- 
creased^ the  approximate  figures  of  output  in  metric  tons  for  1913  and 
1919  respectively  being  as  follows  : — 

1918.  1910. 

United  Kingdom 292,000,000       234,000,000 

France  (including  Lorraine)        -        -  44,000,000         22,000,000 

Germany  ^  (excluding  Saar  and  Lorraine)  -  173,000,000  109,000,000 
United  States 517,000,000       495,000,000 

Although  detailed  statistics  are  not  available,  such  information  as 
we  have  goes  to  show  that  the  output  of  factories  and  manufacturing  in- 
dustries throughout  the  world  is  below  the  standard  which  prevailed 
before  the  war,  and  far  below  the  demands  now  made  upon  thenL  The 
net  result  of  under-production  arising  from  these  various  causes  is  an 
acute  shortage  of  the  essential  supplies  on  which  the  economic  life  of 
Europe  depends. 

This  situation  requires  to  be  met  with  the  same  courage  as  was  dis- 
played on  both  sides  during  the  war.  The  energy  which  was  then 
thrown  into  the  production  of  food-stuffs  must  be  revived  and  re-doubled 
in  order  to  restore  the  situation.  It  must  be  made  a  point  of  honour 
with  the  tillers  of  the  soil  in  every  country  to  show  that  peace  can  ex- 
tract from  nature  more  than  war.  Europe  must  take  measures  to  pro- 
vide herself  more  largely  with  the  food  she  requires  in  order  that  she 
may  resume  her  full  activities,  and  much  can  be  effected  if  the  neces- 
sary preparations  are  made  without  delay. 

In  regard  to  industry  generally,  each  Government  must  take  steps 
to  impress  on  its  people  that  the  limitation  of  production  directly  assists 
the  upward  movement  of  prices,  and  that  it  is  by  increasing  production 

^  Eiolosiye  of  lignite. 


1920.]  PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS.  75 

that  they  can  best  help  to  solve  the  problem.  Every  proposal  which 
may  assist  in  this  direction  deserves  the  closest  attention. 

Governments  must  co-operate  in  the  reconstruction  of  the  common 
economic  life  in  Europe,  which  is  vitally  inter-related^  by  facilitating 
the  regular  interchange  of  their  products  and  by  avoiding  arbitrary  ob- 
struction of  the  natural  flow  of  European  trade. 

The  Powers  represented  at  the  Conference  reaffirm  their  determina- 
tion to  collaborate  with  a  view  to  the  execution  of  these  aims. 

4.  Meanwhile,  instead  of  restricting  the  standard  of  consumption, 
in  view  of  this  shortage  of  supplies,  there  is  a  general  tendency  to  make 
heavier  and  heavier  demands  for  the  limited  quantities  of  goods  that  are 
available.  The  increase  of  consumption  takes  the  form  of  an  intensified 
demand  for  commodities  of  every  description.  The  demand  not  only 
for  food-stuffs,  but  for  clothing,  boots,  and  other  manufactured  articles 
is  in  most  countries  far  in  excess  of  the  supply,  while  luxuries  of  every 
kind  command  a  readier  sale  than  at  almost  any  previous  period. 

The  general  extravagance  now  observable  throughout  the  world  is  a 
phenomenon  which  has  almost  invariably  followed  in  the  footsteps  of 
every  great  human  catastrophe.  It  is  well  known  to  those  who  have 
lived  in  a  district  which  has  suffered  from  earthquake,  and  the  history 
of  the  great  plagues  of  Europe  amply  illustrates  it ;  and  the  results  have 
always  been  economically  disastrous  for  the  populations  affected.  It 
must  be  one  of  the  first  aims  of  each  Government  to  take  such  measures 
as  appear  appropriate  to  the  circumstances  of  its  own  people  to  bring 
home  to  every  citizen  the  fact  that  for  the  time  being,  until  supplies  are 
increased,  it  is  by  diminished  consumption  and  unselfish  denial  that 
they  are  best  able  to  help  themselves  and  the  world,  and  that  extrava- 
gance increases  the  national  difficulties  and  perils. 

6.  The  immense  increase  in  the  spending  power  of  Europe  which  is 
reflected  in  this  extravagance  has  been  brought  about  by  credit  and  cur- 
rency inflation  during  the  war.  Broadly  speaking,  the  general  level  of 
prices  may  be  said  to  be  the  expression  of  the  ratio  between  spending 
power  on  the  one  hand  and  the  volume  of  purchasable  goods  and  services 
on  the  other.  In  order  to  prosecute  the  war,  particularly  in  European 
countries,  every  Government  found  it  necessary  to  increase  the  amount 
of  currency  in  circulation.  Unable  to  raise  sufficient  funds  by  taxation 
and  by  loans  from  real  savings,  they  were  compelled  to  resort  to  borrow- 
ing from  the  banks  and  the  use  of  the  printing  press.  Additional  spend- 
ing power  was  thus  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  public  at  a  time  when  the 
volume  of  purchasable  goods  was  being  reduced.  For  example,  the  note 
circulation  has  grown  approximately.as  follows : — 

In  the  United  Kingdom  from  30,000,000{.  in  1913  to  nearly  450,000,000{. 
at  the  end  of  1919. 

(About  120,000,000{.  of  the  latter  figure  takes  the  place  of  gold  coins 
in  circulation  in  1913.) 

In  France  >  from  230,000,000/.  in  1913  to  1,600,000,000{.  in  1919. 

In  Italy  ^  from  110,000,000^  in  1913  to  700,000,0002.  in  1919. 

In  Belgium  1  from  40,000,000(.  in  1913  to  200,000,000^.  in  1920. 

1  The  national  cnnendet  have  in  each  caw  been  canyerted  into  sterling  at  approximately 
par  of  exchange. 


76  PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS.  [1920. 

While  the  war  debts  (which  are  closely  connected  with  inflation) 
amount,  in  the  case  of  the  United  Kingdom,  to  over  7,000^000,000<. 

In  France^  to  6,750,000,000Z. 

In  Italy  1  to  2,750,000,000?. 

In  Germany  ^  (apart  from  liabilities  for  reparation)  to  9,600,000,0001. 

In  the  United  States  ^  to  5,000,000,000?. 

The  total  war  debt  of  the  world  is  approximately  40,000,000,000?. 

Throughout  Europe  prices  at  present  are  with  few  exceptions  paper 
prices.  But  gold  prices  have  also  risen,  that  is  to  say,  gold  has  a  lower 
purchasing  power  than  it  had  before  the  war.  This  is  the  inevitable  re- 
sult of  the  many  economies  which  have  been  effected  in  the  use  of  gold 
for  monetary  purposes  and,  on  the  other  hand,  of  the  dispersal  of  stocks 
of  gold  previously  held  in  Europe  and  their  excessive  accumulation  in 
other  countries.  Thus,  in  the  United  States,  although  the  gold  standard 
remains  effective,  prices  have  advanced  120  per  cent,  over  the  pre-war 
level.  As  the  purchasing  power  of  gold  is  ultimately  the  measure  of 
price,  it  must  be  obvious  that  this  change  is  itself  responsible  for  much 
of  the  increase  in  the  price  of  commodities,  when  expressed  in  terms  of 
the  currencies  of  all  countries. 

A  considerable  part  of  the  rise  in  prices  in  Europe  is  due  to  this  de- 
preciation of  gold,  but  there  is  an  additional  depreciation  due  to  exces- 
sive issues  of  paper  currency.  The  continual  expansion  of  paper  issues, 
with  its  necessary  consequence  of  continuously  depreciating  exchange, 
prevents  the  grant  of  the  commercial  credits  required  by  the  situation 
And  thus  fatally  hampers  the  resumption  of  international  commerce. 

It  is  essential  to  the  recovery  of  Europe  that  the  manufacture  of 
Additional  paper  money  and  Government  credits  should  be  brought  to 
an  end  and  this  must  be  effected  as  soon  as  the  war  expenditure  has 
been-  terminated. 

6.  Excessive  profit-making,  commonly  known  as  profiteering,  has  re- 
sulted from  the  scarcity  of  goods.  Deflation  and  a  check  upon  the  con- 
tinuous rise  of  prices  will  do  much  in  itself  to  end  the  conditions  that 
make  profiteering  possible.  But  it  is  essential,  in  order  to  obtain  the 
co-operation  of  all  classes  in  the  increase  of  production,  that  each  Govern- 
ment should  take  such  steps  as  are  appropriate  to  the  circumstances  of 
its  own  people  to  assure  and  guarantee  to  the  workers  that  the  burdens 
that  they  are  called  upon  by  their  efforts  to  remedy  are  not  aggravated 
by  those  who  would  exploit  the  economic  difficulties  of  Europe  for  their 
own  personal  ends. 

7.  Demobilisation  has  been  effected  by  the  Powers  represented  at 
the  Conference  at  a  far  speedier  rate  than  could  have  been  anticipated, 
but  heavy  abnormal  expenditure  resulting  from  the  war  still  requires  to 
be  met  (particularly  in  connexion  with  the  restoration  of  the  devastated 
areas).  Such  charges  must  be  regarded  as  part  of  the  war  burden,  but 
in  order  to  stop  the  process  of  inflation  and  to  start  the  process  of  de- 
flation the  necessary  measures  must  be  initiated  by  every  country  to 
balance  recurrent  Government  expenditure  with  national  income  and  to 

^  The  national  coirencies  have  in  emch  case  been  oonverted  into  sterling  at  approximately 
par  of  exchange. 


1930.]  PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS.  77 

begin  at  the  earliest  possible  moment  the  reduction  of  the  floating  debts. 
The  best  remedy  of  all  is  that  debts  should  be  reduced  out  of  revenue, 
but  in  so  far  as  this  is  not  possible,  floating  debts  should  be  consolidated 
by  means  of  long  term  loans  raised  out  of  the  savings  of  the  people,  and 
it  is  out  of  the  savings  of  the  people  that  any  fresh  capital  expenditure 
must  be  provided.  The  Governments  here  represented  have  undertaken 
the  consideration  of  the  measures  required  for  this  purpose. 

8.  But  private  economy  is  not  less  urgent  than  economy  in  Govern- 
ment expenditure.  It  is  only  by  means  of  frugal  living  on  the  part  of  all 
classes  of  the  nation  that  the  capital  can  be  saved  which  is  urgently  re- 
quired for  the  repair  of  war  damage,  and  for  restoring  efficiency  to  the 
equipment  of  industry  upon  which  future  production  depends.  It  is  of 
the  utmost  importance  that  it  should  be  brought  home  to  every  citizen 
in  each  country  that  just  as  in  the  war  their  private  savings  made  avail- 
able for  the  Government  goods  and  services  urgently  needed  for  the 
prosecution  of  hostilities,  so  in  the  period  of  reconstruction  economy  by 
individuals  will  reduce  the  cost  of  essential  articles  both  for  themselves 
and  for  their  fellows,  and  will  set  free  capital  for  the  reconstruction  of 
their  country  and  the  restoration  of  the  machinery  of  industry  through- 
out the  world. 

9.  Commercial  intercourse,  on  the  resumption  of  which  the  recovery 
of  the  world  depends,  is  governed  by  the  foreign  exchanges,  and  most  of 
the  foreign  exchanges  have  been  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  disorganised 
during  the  past  year.  The  discount  of  European  currencies  on  New 
York  approximately  stands  as  follows : — 

Pound  Sterling 30  per  cent. 

Franc  (Paris) W       ,» 

Franc  (Brussels) 62       „ 

Lira 72       „ 

Mark -       -       -       -  96       „ 

The  state  of  the  exchanges  does  not  reflect  the  true  financial  situa- 
tion of  the  countries  concerned,  provided  their  industrial  life  can  be  re- 
sumed. It  is  in  part  the  result  of  depreciation  in  the  purchasing  power 
of  the  several  currencies,  but  in  part  it  results  from  the  failure  of  exports. 
Many  countries  are  temporarily  dependent  on  the  importation  of  food,  raw 
material,  and  other  necessaries,  and  are  not  in  a  position  to  export 
nearly  sufficient  to  furnish  the  requisite  means  of  payment.  The  result 
has  been  severe  competition  for  the  very  limited  supply  of  bills  of  ex- 
change, which  has  forced  down  the  rate  of  exchange  beyond  the  point 
which  properly  represents  the  purchasing  power  of  currencies  in  the 
buying  and  selling  countries.  In  the  degree  in  which  rates  of  exchange 
are  so  forced  down,  the  prices  of  imports  are  forced  up,  and  the  prices 
of  food  and  raw  material  increased.  The  ultimate  cure  is  to  raise  ex- 
ports to  the  requisite  amount,  and  this  should  be  impressed  on  the 
trading  communities  affected,  but  it  is  not  immediately  possible  to  in- 
crease exports  sufficiently,  and  unless  steps  are  taken  to  furnish  a  sub- 
stitute the  situation  will  rapidly  become  worse.  It  is  therefore  urgent 
to  obtain  a  temporary  balance  of  trade  by  means  of  commercial  credits 


78  PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS.  [1920. 

accompanied  by  the  reduction  of  all  non-essential  imports  to  an  absolute 
minimum. 

10.  Attempts  to  manipulate  the  exchanges  by  Government  action 
will  only  retard  ultimate  recovery.  Meanwhile  means  must  be  found 
to  prevent  the  breakdown  of  trading  operations.  Ai  the  present  moment, 
the  Gk>vernments  of  Europe  are  not  in  a  position  to  furnish  more 
Gk>vemment  loans  except  to  a  very  limited  extent  for  the  purpose  of  re- 
lieving extreme  distress,  and  State  aid  in  this  matter  would  be  at  the 
best  entirely  inadequate.  It  is  from  the  resumption  of  commercial 
credits  that  the  necessary  means  must  be  found  for  securing  the  inter- 
change of  the  resources  of  the  world,  and  the  Conference  is  assured  that 
such  credits  will  be  forthcoming  as  soon  as  Governments  have  taken 
steps  to  strengthen  confidence  in  their  commercial  and  financial  policy. 

The  Powers  represented  ^t  the  Conference  recognise,  however,  the 
necessity  of  continued  collaboration  in  this  matter,  and  they  will  con- 
tinue to  consult  together  regarding  the  provision  and  distribution  of  the 
necessary  raw  materials  and  food-stuffs  with  a  view  to  the  early  resump- 
tion of  normal  conditions. 

They  recognise  further  the  special  position  of  the  devastated 
countries,  and  particularly  of  France,  having  regard  to  the  widespread 
devastation  which  her  territory  has  suffered,  the  consequent  diminution 
of  her  immediate  resources,  and  the  heavy  capital  expenditure  which  she 
must  incur  in  restoring  the  damaged  areas.  The  restoration  of  the 
devastated  areas  is  of  primary  importance  to  the  reconstruction  of  Europe. 

They  have  also  had  under  consideration  the  special  position  of 
Germany,  where  enterprise  is  at  present  paralysed  and  the  possibility  of 
obtaining  commercial  credit  closed,  by  reason  of  the  fact  that  her  obliga- 
tions for  reparation  are  still  totally  unknown.  It  is  most  desirable, 
therefore,  in  the  interests  of  the  Allied  countries,  no  less  than  in  that  of 
Germany,  that  at  the  earliest  possible  moment  the  total  of  the  repara- 
tion payments  to  be  made  by  Germany  under  the  Treaty  of  Versailles 
should  be  fixed,  and  that  in  accordance  with  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  and 
the  reply  of  the  Allied  and  Associated  Powers  to  the  German  delegates, 
dated  June  16, 1919,  she  should  be  enabled  to  obtain  essential  food-stuffs 
and  raw  materials,  and,  if  necessary,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Beparation 
Commission,  should  be  allowed  to  raise  abroad  a  loan  to  meet  her 
immediate  needs,  of  such  amount  and  with  such  priority  as  the  Bepara- 
tion Commission  may  deem  essential.  In  the  case  of  Austria,  the 
Powers  here  represented  recognise  that  even  more  active  assistance  may 
require  to  be  given. 

11.  The  Review  which  the  Conference  has  made  of  the  situation  in- 
dicates that  the  process  of  recovery  of  Europe  must  necessarily  be  a  slow 
one,  which  cannot  be  expedited  by  short  cuts  of  any  description.  It 
can,  however,  be  most  seriously  hampered  by  the  dislocation  of  produc- 
tion by  strikes,  lockouts,  and  interruptions  of  work  of  all  kinds.  The 
civilisation  of  Europe  has  indeed  been  shaken  and  set  back,  but  it  is  far 
from  being  irretrievably  ruined  by  the  tremendous  struggle  through 
which  she  has  passed.  The  restoration  of  her  vitality  now  depends  on 
the  whole-hearted  co-operation  of  all  her  children,  who  have  it  in  their 
own  power  to  delay  or  to  accelerate  the  process  of  reconstruction.     It  is 


1920.]  PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS.  79 

the  hope  of  every  Qoyernment  that  improved  conditions  of  livelihood 
and  of  employment  may  be  assured  to  the  workers.  To  secure  this  re- 
sult, each  individual  must  contribute  his  best  efforts  to  the  restoration 
of  his  country.  Taking  the  Allied  countries  as  a  whole,  the  recovery  of 
industry  has  been  remarkable.  Nearly  eighteen  months  have  passed 
since  hostilities  terminated  ;  and  the  reaction  which  necessarily  followed 
the  tense  strain  of  the  war  is  gradually  passing.  The  citizens  of  every 
country  are  once  again  resuming  the  normal  occupations  of  home  life, 
and  in  their  renewed  labours  the  Conference  sees  a  clear  sign  of  renewed 
prosperity. 

12.  In  view  of  the  above  considerations,  the  Supreme  Council,  after 
a  careful  survey  of  this  vitally  urgent  problem  in  all  its  aspects,  agree 
upon  the  following  recommendations,  with  a  view  to  the  amelioration  of 
the  present  economic  difficulties  of  Europe  :— 

(1)  It  is  of  paramount  importance  that  peace  conditions  should  be 
fully  and  completely  restored  at  the  earliest  possible  moment  throughout 
the  world.    In  order  to  achieve  this  object,  it  is  desirable — 

(a)  That  peace  and  normal  economic  relations  should  be  re-established 
as  soon  as  possible  throughout  Eastern  Europe. 

(b)  That  armies  should  everywhere  be  reduced  to  a  peace  footing, 
that  armaments  should  be  limited  to  the  lowest  possible  figure  com- 
patible with  national  security,  and  that  the  League  of  Nations  should  be 
invited  to  consider,  as  soon  as  possible,  proposals  to  this  end. 

(e)  That  the  States  which  have  been  created  or  enlarged  as  the  result 
of  the  war  should  at  once  re-establish  full  and  friendly  co-operation,  and 
arrange  for  the  unrestricted  interchange  of  commodities,  in  order  that 
the  essential  unity  of  European  economic  life  may  not  be  impaired  by 
the  erection  of  artificial  economic  barriers. 

(2)  Not  only  the  Government  of  each  country,  but  all  those  engaged 
in  the  task  of  production  in  every  land,  should  give  immediate  attention 
to  the  execution  of  all  measures  which  will  contribute  to  the  full  re- 
sumption of  peaceful  industry,  to  the  encouragement  of  better  output 
on  the  part  of  the  workers  in  every  country,  to  the  improvement  of 
machinery  and  means  of  transportation,  and  the  removal  of  such  dis- 
turbing factors  as  profiteering. 

(3)  Each  Government  should  at  once  consider  means  for  urging  upon 
its  nationals  in  every  rank  of  life  the  vital  necessity  of  suppressing  ex- 
travagance and  reducing  expenditure,  so  as  to  bridge  the  gap  which 
must  for  some  years  exist  between  the  demand  for  and  the  supply  of 
essential  commodities. 

(4)  It  is  eRsential  that  early  steps  be  taken  to  secure  the  deflation  of 
credit  and  currency — 

(a)  By  the  reduction  of  recurrent  Government  expenditure  within  the 
limits  of  revenue. 

(6)  By  the  imposition  of  such  additional  taxation  as  is  necessary  to 
secure  this  result. 

(c)  By  the  funding  of  short-term  obligations  by  means  of  loans  sub- 
scribed out  of  the  savings  of  the  people,  and 

(d)  By  the  immediate  limitation  and  gradual  curtailment  of  the  note 
circulation. 


80  PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS.  [1920. 

(5)  The  provision  of  raw  materials  being  essential  to  the  restoration 
of  industry,  means  should  be  found  by  which  the  countries  which  are  in 
present  conditions  of  international  exchange  unable  to  purchase  in  the 
world  markets,  and  so  are  unable  to  restart  their  economic  life,  can 
obtain  commercial  credits.  It  will  be  possible  to  achieve  this  when  the 
countries  have  made  the  reforms  indicated  in  the  foregoing  paragraphs. 

(6)  The  Powers  represented  at  the  Conference  recognise  the  necessity 
for  continued  co-operation  between  the  Allies  and  for  removing  obstacles 
to  the  easy  interchange  of  essential  commodities.  They  will  continue  to 
consult  together  regarding  the  provision  and  distribution  of  necessary 
raw  materials  and  food-stuffs  with  a  view  to  the  early  restoration  of 
normal  conditions. 

(7)  The  Powers  represented  at  the  Conference  have  given  careful  at- 
tention to  the  special  case  of  the  devastated  regions,  and  more  particularly 
of  Northern  France.  The  restoration  of  these  areas  is  of  primary  im- 
portance for  the  re-establishment  of  the  economic  equilibrium  of  Europe 
and  the  resumption  of  normal  trade  conditions.  It  is  evident  that  the 
large  sums  required  for  this  purpose  cannot  be  provided  out  of  current 
revenue,  nor  can  the  work  of  restoration  be  postponed  until  the  repara- 
tion due  from  Qermany  under  the  Treaty  of  Peace  has  been  received. 
Under  these  circumstances  the  Powers  represented  at  the  Conference 
recognise  that  the  capital  sums  required  for  this  restoration  may 
properly  be  raised  by  market  loans  in  anticipation  of  the  reparation 
payments  provided  by  the  Treaty,  and  that  the  restrictions  which  they 
desire  to  see  placed  on  new  borrowing  do  not  apply  to  loans  and  credits 
raised  for  the  purpose  of  meeting  this  abnormal  capital  expenditure. 

(8)  The  Powers  represented  at  the  Conference  have  taken  under  con- 
sideration Article  235  and  cognate  articles  of  the  Treaty  of  Yersaiiles, 
and  the  passages  in  the  letter  addressed  on  June  16^  1919,  by  the 
Supreme  Council  to  the  Gterman  Peace  Delegates  which  contemplate 
that  Germany  shall  make  proposals  for  fixing  the  total  of  the  payments 
to  be  made  by  her  by  way  of  reparation,  and  that  facilities  may  be  given 
her  to  obtain  necessary  food-stuffs  and  raw  materials  in  advance  of  pay- 
ments being  made  by  way  of  reparation.  The  Powers  are  agreed  that 
it  is  desirable  in  the  interest  alike  of  Germany  and  of  her  creditors  that 
the  total  to  be  paid  by  her  for  reparation  should  be  fixed  at  an  early 
date.  They  observe  that  under  the  Protocol  to  the  Treaty  a  period  of 
four  months  from  the  signature  of  the  Treaty  was  provided  during 
which  Germany  should  have  the  right  to  make  proposals  of  the  kind  re- 
ferred to,  and  they  are  agreed  that  in  the  circumstances  as  they  exist 
to-day  such  period  should  be  extended. 

Text  of  Draft  Trade  Agreement  Between  His  Britannic 
Majesty's  Government  and  the  Eussian  Soviet 
Government. 

(Published  October  5.) 

WuEBEAS  it  is  desirable  in  the  interest  both  of  Russia  and  of  the 
United  Kingdom  that  peaceful  trade  and  commerce  should  be  resumed 


1920.]  PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS.  81 

forthwith  between  these  countrieB,  and  whereas  for  this  purpose  it  is 
necessary  pending  the  conclusion  of  a  formal  treaty  between  the  Govern- 
ments of  these  countries,  by  which  their  permanent  economic  and 
political  relations  shall  be  regulated,  that  a  preliminary  agreement 
should  be  arrived  at  between  the  Qovemment  of  the  United  Kingdom 
and  the  Bussian  Soviet  Government. 

The  aforesaid  parties  have  accordingly  entered  into  the  following 
agreement,  without  prejudice  to  the  view  which  either  of  them  may 
hold  as  to  the  legal  status  of  the  other,  and  subject  always  to  the  fulfil- 
ment of  the  conditions  specified  in  the  British  Note  dated  June  30^  1920, 
and  accepted  in  the  telegram  from  the  Russian  Soviet  Government, 
dated  July  7, 1920,  with  regard  to  the  mutual  cessation  of  hostilities  and 
propaganda  directed  against  the  institutions  or  interests  of  the  other 
party,  and  the  repatriation  of  prisoners. 

1.  Both  parties  agree  to  remove  forthwith  all  obstacles  hitherto 
placed  in  the  way  of  the  resumption  of  trade  between  the  United 
Kingdom  and  Russia  in  any  commodities  (other  than  arms  and 
ammunition)  which  may  be  legally  exported  from  or  imported  into 
their  respective  territories  to  or  from  any  foreign  country,  and  not  to 
exercise  any  discrimination  against  such  trade  as  compared  with  that 
carried  on  with  any  other  foreign  country. 

Nothing  in  this  provision  shall  be  construed  as  over-riding  the 
provisions  of  any  international  convention  which  is  binding  on  either 
party,  by  which  the  trade  in  any  particular  article  is  regulated. 

2.  British  and  Russian  merchant  ships,  their  masters,  crews,  and 
cargoes  shall  in  ports  of  Russia  and  of  the  United  Kingdom  respectively, 
receive  in  all  respects  the  treatment,  privileges,  facilities,  immunities, 
and  protection  which  are  usually  accorded  by  the  established  practice 
of  commercial  nations  to  foreign  merchant  ships,  their  masters,  crews, 
and  cargoes,  visiting  their  ports. 

Provided  that  nothing  in  this  Article  shall  impair  the  right  of  either 
party  to  take  such  precautions  as  are  authorised  by  their  respective 
laws  with  regard  to  the  admission  of  aliens  into  their  territories. 

3.  Each  party  may  nominate  such  number  of  its  nationals  as  may 
be  agreed  from  time  to  time  as  being  reasonably  necessary  to  enable 
proper  effect  to  be  given  to  this  agreement,  having  regard  to  the  con- 
ditions under  which  trade  is  carried  on  in  its  territories,  and  the  other 
party  shall  permit  such  persons  to  enter  its  territories,  and  to  reside 
and  carry  on  trade  there,  provided  that  either  party  may  restrict  the 
admittance  of  any  such  persons  into  any  specified  areas,  and  may 
refuse  admittance  to  or  sojourn  in  its  territories  to  any  individual  who 
is  persona  non  grcUa  to  itself,  or  who  does  not  comply  with  this  agree- 
ment, or  with  the  conditions  precedent  thereto. 

Persons  admitted  in  pursuance  of  this  Article  into  the  territories 
of  either  party  shall,  while  residing  therein  for  purposes  of  trade,  be 
exempted  from  all  compulsory  service  whatsoever,  whether  civil,  naval, 
military,  or  other,  and  from  any  contributions,  whether  pecuniary  or  in 
kind,  imposed  as  an  equivalent  for  personal  service,  and  shall  have  right 
of  egress. 

Persons  admitted  into  Russia  under  this  arrangement  shall  be  per- 

F 


82  PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS.  [i920. 

mitted  freely  to  import  commodities  destined  solely  for  their  household 
use  or  consumption. 

4.  Either  party  may  appoint  one  or  more  official  agents  to  reside  and 
exercise  their  functions  in  the  territories  of  the  other,  who  shall  enjoy  all 
the  rights  and  the  privileges  set  forth  in  the  preceding  article,  and  also 
immunity  from  arrest,  provided  that  either  party  may  refuse  to  admit 
any  individual  as  an  official  agent  who  is  persona  non  grata  to  itself,  or 
may  require  the  other  party  to  withdraw  him  should  it  find  it  necessary 
to  do  so  on  grounds  of  public  interest  or  security.  Such  agents  shall 
have  access  to  the  authorities  of  the  country  in  which  they  reside  for 
the  purpose  of  facilitating  the  carrying  out  of  this  agreement  and  of 
protecting  the  interests  of  their  nationals. 

Official  agents  shall  be  at  liberty  to  receive  and  despatch  couriers 
with  sealed  bags  subject  to  a  limitation  of  three  kilogrammes  per  week, 
which  shall  be  exempt  from  examination. 

The  Official  Agents  shall  be  the  competent  authorities  to  visa  the 
passports  of  persons  seeking  admission,  in  pursuance  of  the  preceding 
Article,  into  the  territories  of  the  parties. 

5.  Each  party  undertakes  to  ensure  generally  that  persons  admitted 
into  its  territories  under  the  last  two  Articles  shall  enjoy  all  protection, 
rights,  and  facilities  which  are  necessary  to  enable  them  to  carry  on 
trade. 

They  shall  be  at  liberty  to  communicate  freely  by  post,  telegraph,  and 
wireless  telegraphy,  and  to  use  telegraph  codes  and  ciphers,  under  the 
conditions  and  subject  to  the  regulations  laid  down  in  the  International 
Telegraph  Convention  of  S.  Petersburg  1875  (Lisbon  Bevision  of  1908). 

Each  party  undertcJces  to  account  for  and  to  pay  all  balances  due  to 
the  other  in  respect  of  terminal  and  transit  telegrams  in  accordance  with 
the  provisions  of  the  said  International  Telegraph  Convention  and 
Eegulations. 

6.  Passports,  documents  of  identity.  Powers  of  Attorney,  and  similar 
documents  issued  or  certified  by  the  competent  authorities  in  either 
country  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  trade  to  be  carried  on  in  pursuance 
of  this  Agreement,  shall  be  treated  in  the  other  country  as  if  they  were 
issued  or  certified  by  the  authorities  of  a  recognised  foreign  Government. 

7.  The  preceding  Articles  shall  continue  in  force  until  the  expiration 
of  six  months  from  the  date  on  which  either  party  shall  have  given 
notice  to  the  other  of  its  intention  to  terminate  them.  The  parties 
mutually  undertake  even  in  the  event  of  such  notice  having  expired,  to 
continue  to  afford  all  the  necessary  facilities  for  the  completion  or 
winding-up  of  any  transactions  entered  into  in  pursuance  of  such 
Articles. 

8.  The  Russian  Soviet  Government  hereby  declares  that  it  recognises 
its  liability  to  pay  compensation  to  British  subjects  in  respect  of  goods 
supplied  or  services  rendered  to  it  or  to  the  former  Government  of  Russia, 
or  to  Russian  citizens,  for  which  payment  has  not  been  made  owing  to 
the  Russian  Revolution.  The  detailed  mode  of  discharging  this  liability, 
together  with  all  other  questions  with  regard  to  the  liability  of  each  of 
the  parties  towards  the  other  party  or  its  nationals,  shall  be  regulated  by 

I  the  Treaty  referred  to  in  the  preamble. 


1920.]  PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS.  83 

The  British  Government  makes  a  corresponding  declaration. 

9.  In  consideration  of  the  declaration  in  the  preceding  Article  the 
British  Government  hereby  declare  that  they  will  not  take  or  encourage 
any  steps  with  a  view  to  attach  or  to  take  possession  of  any  gold, 
securities,  or  commodities  (not  being  articles  identifiable  as  the  property 
of  the  British  or  of  any  Allied  Government)  which  may  be  exported  by 
Bussia  in  payment  for  imports  or  as  security  for  such  payment,  on  the 
ground  of  any  claim  against  Russian  citizens,  or  against  the  Bussian 
Soviet  Government,  or  against  the  former  Governments  of  Bussia. 

10.  The  Bussian  Soviet  Government  undertakes  to  make  no  claim  to 
dispose  in  any  way  of  the  funds  of  the  late  Bussian  Government  in 
London.  The  British  Government  gives  a  corresponding  undertaking  as 
regards  British  Government  funds  in  Petrograd.  This  Article  is  not  to 
prejudice  the  inclusion  in  the  formal  Treaty  referred  to  in  the  preamble 
of  any  provision  dealing  with  the  subject-matter  of  this  Article. 

Tbxt  op  the  Mbmobandum  on  the  Futubb  op  Egypt,  re- 
sulting PROM  Conversations  between  Lord  Milner's 
Mission  and  Zaghlul  Pasha  and  his  Colleagues. 

(Published  Novbmbbr  6.) 

L  In  order  to  establish  the  independence  of  Egypt  on  a  secure  and 
lasting  basis,  it  is  necessary  that  the  relations  between  Great  Britain 
and  Egypt  should  be  precisely  defined,  and  the  privileges  and  immunities 
now  enjoyed  in  Egypt  by  the  capitulatory  Powers  should  be  modified 
and  rendered  less  injurious  to  the  interests  of  the  country. 

2.  These  ends  cannot  be  achieved  without  further  negotiations  between 
accredited  representatives  of  the  British  and  Egyptian  Governments 
respectively  in  the  one  case,  and  between  the  British  Government  and 
the  Governments  of  the  capitulatory  Powers  in  the  other  case.  Such 
negotiations  will  be  directed  to  arriving  at  definite  agreement  on  the 
following  lines : — 

3.  (I.)  As  between  Egypt  and  Great  Britain  a  Treaty  will  be  entered 
into,  under  which  Great  Britain  will  recognise  the  independence  of  Egypt 
as  a  constitutional  monarchy,  with  representative  institutions,  and  Egypt 
will  confer  upon  Great  Britain  such  rights  as  are  necessary  to  safeguard 
her  special  interests,  and  to  enable  her  to  furnish  the  guarantees  which 
must  be  given  to  foreign  Powers  to  secure  the  relinquishment  of  their 
capitulatory  rights. 

(II.)  By  the  same  Treaty,  an  Alliance  will  be  concluded  between 
Great  Britain  and  Egypt,  by  which  Great  Britain  will  undertake  to 
support  Egypt  in  defending  the  integrity  of  her  territory,  and  Egypt  will 
undertake,  in  case  of  war,  even  when  the  integrity  of  Egypt  is  not  affected, 
to  render  to  Great  Britain  all  the  assistance  in  her  power  within  her 
own  borders^  including  the  use  of  her  harbours,  aeiodromes,  and  means 
of  communication  for  military  purposes. 

4.  This  Treaty  will  embody  stipulations  to  the  following  effect  :— 
(I.)  Egypt  will  enjoy  the  right  to  representation  in  foreign  countries. 

In  the  absence  of  any  duly  accredited  Egyptian  representative,  the 

Fa 


84  PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS.  [1920. 

Egyptian  Government  will  confide  its  interests  to  the  care  of  the  British 
representative.  Egypt  will  undertake  not  to  adopt  in  foreign  countries 
an  attitude  which  is  inconsistent  with  the  Alliance,  or  will  create  diffi- 
culties for  Qreat  Britain,  and  will  also  undertake  not  to  enter  into  any 
agreement  with  a  foreign  Power  which  is  prejudicial  to  British  interests. 

(II.)  Egypt  will  confer  on  Great  Britain  the  right  to  maintain  a 
military  force  on  Egyptian  soil  for  the  protection  of  her  Imperial  com- 
munications. The  Treaty  will  fix  the  place  where  the  force  shall  be 
quartered,  and  will  regulate  any  subsidiary  matters  which  require  to 
be  arranged.  The  presence  of  this  force  shall  not  constitute  in  any 
manner  a  military  occupation  of  the  country,  or  prejudice  the  rights  of 
the  Government  of  Egypt. 

(III.)  Egypt  will  appoint,  in  concurrence  with  his  Majesty's  Govern- 
ment, a  Financial  Adviser,  to  whom  shall  be  entrusted  in  due  course  the 
powers  at  present  exercised  by  the  Commissioners  of  the  Debt,  and  who 
will  be  at  the  disposal  of  the  Egyptian  Government  for  all  other  matters  on 
which  they  may  desire  to  consult  him. 

(IV.)  Egypt  will  appoint,  in  concurrence  with  his  Majesty's  Govern- 
ment, an  ofiicial  in  the  Ministry  of  Justice,  who  shall  enjoy  the  right  of 
access  to  the  Minister.  He  shall  be  kept  fully  informed  on  all  matters 
connected  with  the  administration  of  the  law  as  affecting  foreigners,  and 
will  also  be  at  the  disposal  of  the  Egyptian  Government  for  consultation 
on  any  matter  connected  with  the  efficient  maintenance  of  law  and  order. 

(V.)  In  view  of  the  contemplated  transfer  to  his  Majesty's  Govern- 
ment of  the  rights  hitherto  exercised  under  the  regime  of  the  Capitulations 
by  the  various  foreign  Governments,  Egypt  recognises  the  right  of  Great 
Britain  to  intervene,  through  her  representative  in  Egypt,  to  prevent  the 
application  to  foreigners  of  any  Egyptian  law  now  requiring  foreign  con- 
sent, and  Great  Britain  on  her  side  undertakes  not  to  exercise  this  right 
except  in  the  case  of  laws  operating  inequitably  against  foreigners. 

Alternative : 

In  view  of  the  contemplated  transfer  to  his  Majesty's  Government  of 
the  right  hitherto  exercised  under  the  r^ime  of  the  Capitulations  by  the 
various  foreign  Governments,  Egypt  recognises  the  right  of  Great  Britain 
to  intervene  through  her  representative  in  Egypt,  to  prevent  the  applica- 
tion to  foreigners  of  any  Egyptian  law  now  requiring  foreign  consent, 
and  Great  Britain  on  her  side  undertakes  not  to  exercise  this  right 
except  in  the  case  of  laws  inequitably  discriminating  against  foreigners 
in  the  matter  of  taxation,  or  inconsistent  with  the  principles  of  legislation 
common  to  all  the  capitulatory  Powers. 

(VI.)  On  account  of  the  special  relations  between  Great  Britain  and 
Egypt  created  by  the  Alliance,  the  British  representative  will  be 
accorded  an  exceptional  position  in  Egypt  and  will  be  entitled  to  pre- 
cedence over  all  other  representatives. 

(VII.)  The  engagements  of  British  and  other  foreign  officers  and  ad- 
ministrative officials  who  entered  into  the  service  of  the  Egjrptian  Govern- 
ment before  the  coming  into  force  of  the  Treaty,  may  be  terminated,  at 
the  instance  of  either  the  officials  themselves  or  the  Egyptian  Govern- 
ment, at  any  time  within  two  years  after  the  coming  into  force  of  the 
Treaty.    The  pension  or  compensation  to  be  accorded  to  officials  retiring 


1930.]  PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS.  85 

under  thia  provision,  in  addition  to  that  provided  by  the  existing  law, 
shall  be  determined  by  the  Treaty.  In  cases  where  no  advantage  is 
taken  of  this  arrangement,  existing  terms  of  service  will  remain  un- 
affected. 

6.  This  Treaty  will  be  submitted  to  the  approval  of  a  Constituent 
Assembly,  but  it  will  not  come  into  force  until  after  the  agreements  with 
foreign  Powers  for  the  closing  of  their  Ck>nsular  Ck>urts  and  the  decrees 
for  the  reorganisation  of  the  Mixed  Tribunals,  have  come  into  operation. 

6.  This  constituent  Assembly  will  also  be  charged  with  the  duty  of 
framing  a  new  Organic  Statute,  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of 
which  the  Government  of  India  will  in  future  be  conducted.  The  Statute 
will  embody  provisions  for  the  Ministers  being  responsible  to  the  Legis- 
lature. It  will  also  provide  for  religious  toleration  for  all  persons  and  for 
the  due  protection  of  the  rights  of  foreigners. 

7.  The  necessary  modifications  in  the  rigime  of  the  Capitulations  will 
be  secured  by  agreements  to  be  concluded  by  Great  Britain  with  the 
various  capitulatory  Powers.  These  agreements  will  provide  for  the 
closing  of  the  foreign  Consular  Courts,  so  as  to  render  possible  the  re- 
organisation and  extension  of  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Mixed  Tribunals  and 
the  application  to  all  foreigners  in  Egypt  of  the  legislation  (including 
legislation  imposing  taxation)  enacted  by  the  Egyptian  Legislature. 

8.  These  agreements  will  provide  for  the  transfer  to  his  Majesty's 
Government  of  the  rights  previously  exercised  under  the  rigime  of  the 
Capitulations  by  the  various  foreign  Governments.  They  will  also  con- 
tain stipulations  to  the  following  effect  :— 

(a)  No  attempt  will  be  made  to  discriminate  against  the  nationals  of  a 
Power  which  agrees  to  close  its  Consular  Courts,  and  such  nationals  shall 
enjoy  in  Egypt  the  same  treatment  as  British  subjects. 

(&)  The  Egyptian  Nationality  Law  will  be  founded  on  the  jus  sanguinis, 
so  that  the  children  bom  in  Egypt  of  a  foreigner  will  enjoy  the  nationality 
of  their  father  and  will  not  be  claimed  as  Egyptian  subjects. 

(c)  Consular  officers  of  the  foreign  Powers  shall  be  accorded  by  Egypt 
the  same  status  as  foreign  Consuls  enjoy  in  England. 

(d)  Existing  Treaties  and  Conventions  to  which  Egypt  is  a  party  on 
matters  of  commerce  and  navigation,  including  postal  and  telegraphic 
Conventions,  will  remain  in  force.  Pending  the  conclusion  of  special 
agreements  to  which  she  is  a  party,  Egypt  will  apply  the  Treaties  in  force 
between  Great  Britain  and  the  foreign  Powers  concerned  on  questions 
affected  by  the  closing  of  the  Consular  Courts,  such  as  extradition 
Treaties,  Treaties  for  the  surrender  of  seamen  deserters,  etc.,  as  also 
Treaties  of  a  political  nature,  whether  multilateral  or  bilateral,  e.g,, 
arbitration  Conventions  and  the  various  Conventions  relating  to  the  con- 
duct of  hostilities. 

(c;)  The  liberty  to  maintain  schools  and  to  teach  the  language  of  the 
foreign  country  concerned  will  be  guaranteed,  provided  that  such  schools 
are  subject  in  all  respects  to  the  laws  applicable  generally  to  European 
schools  in  Egypt. 

(/)  The  liberty  to  maintain  or  organise  religious  and  charitable 
foundations,  such  as  hospitals,  etc.,  will  also  be  guaranteed. 

The  Treaties  will  also  provide  for  the  necessary  changes  in  the 


86  PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS.  [1920. 

Commission  of  the  Debt  and  the  elimination  of  the  international  element 
in  the  Alexandria  Board  of  Health. 

9.  The  legislation  rendered  necessary  by  the  aforesaid  agreements 
between  Great  Britain  and  the  foreign  Powers,  will  be  effected  by  decrees 
to  be  issued  by  the  Egyptian  Gk)vemment. 

A  decree  shall  be  enacted  at  the  same  time,  validating  all  measures, 
legislative,  administrative,  or  judicial,  taken  under  Martial  Law. 

10.  The  decrees  for  the  reorganisation  of  the  Mixed  Tribunals  will 
provide  for  conferring  upon  these  Tribunals  all  jurisdiction  hitherto 
exercised  by  the  foreign  (Consular  (Courts,  while  leaving  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  Native  Courts  untouched. 

11.  After  the  coming  into  force  of  the  Treaty  referred  to  in  Article  3, 
Great  Britain  will  communicate  its  terms  to  foreign  Powers  and  will 
support  an  application  by  Egypt  for  admission  as  a  member  of  the 
League  of  Nations. 

Summary  of  the   Ebcommendations  of  the  Eoyal  Com- 
mission ON  THE    InCOMB-TaX,  PRESIDED    OVER  BY    LORD 

CoLWYN  [Cmd.  615]. 

(Published  March  17.) 

Non-Tbade  Income  Abisino  Abroad. 

In  regard  to  income  from  an  employment  exercised  abroad  by  a 
British  resident  under  a  British  employer,  if  the  employee's  absence 
from  this  country  does  not  extend  over  a  continuous  period  of  twelve 
months,  or  if  his  employment  cannot  be  shown  to  be  in  the  nature  of  a 
permanent  employment  abroad,  he  should  be  deemed  to  be  exercising 
his  employment  in  the  United  Kingdom,  whether  or  not  he  technically 
maintains  a  residence  in  this  country,  and  liability  to  tax  should  extend 
to  the  whole  of  his  remuneration.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  employee 
is  abroad  for  a  continuous  period  of  more  than  twelve  months,  or  if  his 
employment  can  be  shown  from  the  first  to  be  permanently  abroad,  only 
that  portion  of  his  remuneration  which  is  remitted  to  this  country 
should  be  liable  to  taxation  here. 

Income  from  an  employment  exercised  abroad  under  a  foreign  em- 
ployer should  be  liable  to  tax  only  to  the  extent  that  remittances  are 
made  to  this  country. 

The  full  income  arising  abroad  from  all  foreign  and  colonial  securities 
or  possessions  (not  being  trading  undertakings)  should  be  assessable  ex- 
cept when  they  belong  to  a  person  domiciled  abroad  or  to  a  British  sub- 
ject not  ordinarily  resident  in  the  United  Kingdom. 

All  remittances  from  a  husband  abroad  to  his  wife  in  this  country, 
whether  they  are  made  from  earned  or  unearned  income,  should  be 
chargeable ;  and,  as  regards  all  other  remittances  of  a  regular  character 
(whether  regular  in  amount  or  not),  made  to,  or  on  behalf  of,  a  resident 
in  the  United  Kingdom  (whether  of  full  age  or  not),  the  sums  remitted 
from  abroad,  from  whatever  source  they  may  be  derived,  should  be 
treated  as  the  income  of  the  recipient  and  be  chargeable  to  income  tax. 


1920.]  PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS.  87 

The  remittances  in  question  should  be  directly  taxable  only  to  the  ex- 
tent to  which  they  are  made  from  funds  not  already  taxed  in  this 
country. 

Trade  Income  Arising  Abroad. 

Except  for  the  specific  reliefs  proposed  under  the  sections  headed 
Double  Income-Tax  there  should  be  no  change  in  the  present  law  which 
renders  British  resident  persons  or  companies  liable  to  be  assessed  on 
the  whole  of  their  trading  profits  irrespective  of  what  proportion  of  their 
profits  arises  abroad,  and  irrespective  (in  the  case  of  companies)  of  the 
nationality  or  residence  of  their  shareholders.  If  we  had  felt  that  there 
was  any  necessity  to  recommend  a  change,  then  out  of  the  forms  of  re- 
lief that  might  possibly  be  adopted  we  should  have  inclined  to  choose  as 
the  one  to  which  recourse  should  first  be  had  that  British-controlled 
companies  should  be  taxed  at  a  lower  rate  on  that  portion  of  their  profits 
(whether  earned  in  England  or  abroad)  which  is  distributed  to  non-resi- 
dent foreign  shareholders. 

The  present  well-established  doctrine  in  regard  to  control  should  not 
be  weakened.  Even  where  the  trading  operations  of  British-registered 
companies  are  carried  on  abroad  by  a  foreign  board  of  directors  or  by 
means  of  a  subsidiary  company  abroad,  the  company  (and  its  subsidiary) 
should  still  be  deemed  to  be  controlled  from  within  the  United  Kingdom, 
if  the  majority  of  the  voting  power  of  the  company  can  be  exercised  in 
this  country.  In  other  words,  no  distinction  should  be  drawn  between 
provable  active  control  and  complete  potential  control. 

There  is  at  present  some  diversity  of  practice  in  assessing  the  income 
of  a  British  resident  who  is  a  sleeping  partner  in  a  foreign  firm  con- 
trolled and  carrying  on  business  entirely  abroad.  No  distinction  should 
be  drawn  between  a  sleeping  partner  in  these  circumstances  and  a 
British  shareholder  in  a  foreign  company,  and  the  partner  should  pay 
tax  upon  the  full  amount  of  his  share  in  his  firm's  profits.  If  the  law 
does  not  impose  liability  to  this  extent  the  necessary  alteration  should 
be  made. 

Where,  in  default  of  any  other  method  of  calculating  profits,  it  is 
necessary  to  make  an  estimate  of  profits  based  on  turnover,  the  per- 
centage adopted  should  be  fixed  by  reference  to  the  results  shown  by 
British  resident  traders  in  the  same  class  of  business. 

The  existing  law  with  regard  to  regular  resident  agents  should  be 
extended  so  as  not  to  exclude  the  case  of  a  broker  who  is  really  acting  as 
a  regular  agent. 

We  desire  to  restrict  the  application  of  our  recommendations  so  as 
to  ensure  that  the  entrepot  trade  of  the  United  Kingdom  is  not 
endangered. 

Where  a  British  resident  agent  purchases  goods  in  this  country  for  a 
foreign  principal  and  exports  those  goods  to  his  principal  abroad  in  the 
condition  in  which  they  were  purchased,  no  taxable  profit  should  be 
deemed  to  have  arisen  from  the  transaction  of  mere  purchase  conducted 
in  this  country. 

Where  a  British  resident   agent  having   purchased   goods  in  this 


88  PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS.  [1920. 

country  subjects  those  goods  to  processes  akin  to  the  processes  of  manu- 
facture, or  substantially  alters  the  condition  of  the  goods  from  the  state 
in  which  they  were  purchased,  a  taxable  profit  should  be  deemed  to  have 
arisen. 

Where  the  conditions  are  as  in  the  preceding  paragraph,  but  the 
resident  agent  has  not  himself  subjected  the  purchased  goods  to  any 
processes  akin  to  the  processes  of  manufacture,  but  has  sent  the  goods  to 
a  British  resident,  or  to  a  number  of  British  residents,  for  the  purpose  of 
such  processes,  a  taxable  profit  has  arisen.  The  foreign  principal  should 
be  taxed  in  the  name  of  his  agent  on  the  basis  of  the  profits  which  might 
reasonably  be  expected  to  have  been  earned  by  a  British  resident  who 
supervised  and  directed  the  particular  processes  which  have  been  applied 
to  those  goods  between  the  stages  of  first  purchase  and  export. 

Non-Residents'  Relief. 

Foreigners  resident  abroad  should  continue  to  be  liable  on  their 
British  income  at  the  full  standard  rate  without  allowances  or  reUefs. 

Any  relief  that  would  be  granted  to  a  British  subject  resident  in  the 
United  Kingdom  should  equally  be  granted  to  a  British  subject  residing 
abroad. 

Double  Income-Tax. 

In  respect  of  income  taxed  both  in  the  United  Kingdom  and  in  a 
Dominion,  in  substitution  for  the  existing  partial  reliefs  there  should  be 
deducted  from  the  appropriate  rate  of  the  United  Kingdom  income-tax 
(including  super-tax)  the  whole  of  the  rate  of  the  Dominion  income-tax 
charged  in  respect  of  the  same  income,  subject  to  the  limitation  that  in 
no  case  should  the  maximum  rate  of  relief  given  by  the  United  Kingdom 
exceed  one-half  of  the  rate  of  the  Unit^  Kingdom  income-tax  (including 
super- tax)  to  which  the  individual  taxpayer  might  be  liable;  and  any 
further  relief  necessary  in  order  to  confer  on  the  taxpayer  relief  amount- 
ing in  all  to  the  lower  of  the  two  taxes  (United  Kingdom  and  Dominion^ 
should  be  given  by  the  Dominion  concerned. 

In  the  present  circumstances  we  cannot  recommend  any  change  in 
the  existing  situation  as  to  double  taxation  of  the  same  income  by  the 
United  Kingdom  Government  and  by  the  Government  of  a  foreign 
State. 

Casual  Profit. 

Any  profit  made  on  a  transaction  recognisable  as  a  business  transaction 
—I.e.,  a  transaction  in  which  the  subject-matter  was  acquired  with  a  view 
to  profit-seeking — should  be  brought  within  the  scope  of  the  income-tax, 
and  should  not  be  treated  as  an  accretion  of  capital.  Any  such  charge- 
ability  should  extend  to  the  profits  of  joint  ventures.  Profit  arising  by 
way  of  remuneration  or  consideration  for  services  rendered  or  to  be 
rendered  should  be  made  liable  in  all  cases,  and  employers  and  other 
persons  should  be  required  to  make  a  return  of  any  such  payments. 

For  the  purpose  of  deciding  principles  and  of  obtaining  uniformity  in 
decisions,  a  board  of  referees  should  undertake  certain  additional  duties, 


1990.]  PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS.  89 

should  be  entrusted  with  the  power  of  determining  whether  particular 
classes  of  transactions  should  be  excluded  from  the  scope  of  the  tax  as  so 
enlarged. 

Future  profits  arising  from  the  sale  of  assets,  such  as  plant  or 
machinery,  in  respect  of  which  the  vendor  has  received  income-tax  allow- 
ances for  depreciation,  and  profits  arising  under  a  contract  of  insurance 
or  indemnity  should,  where  the  asset  sold  or  insured  is  replaced,  be 
taken  into  account  in  determining  capital  values  for  the  purpose  of 
calculating  future  income-tax  allowances  for  depreciation. 


Miscellaneous  Receipts. 

On  a  consideration  of  both  Easter  offerings  and  overtime  payments, 
we  are  satisfied  that  any  attempt  to  measure  taxable  capacity  by  a 
system  that  is  not  based  upon  the  amount  of  the  income — by  a  system 
that  looks  to  the  way  in  which  an  income  is  earned,  to  the  circumstances 
in  which  it  is  received,  to  the  hours  of  labour,  or  to  the  conditions  under 
which  the  work  is  performed — would  cause  great  injustice  as  between 
one  taxpayer  and  another  and  would  lead  to  indefensible  results. 

Receipts  not  in  Money. 

An  attempt  should  be  made  to  charge  income-tax  on  the  true 
remuneration  of  employment,  including  subsidiary  benefits  arising  out 
of  the  employment,  although  these  may  not  be  capable  of  being  turned 
into  money. 

The  provisions  at  present  in  force  for  the  taxation  of  income  from 
foreign  and  colonial  dividends  should  be  made  expressly  applicable  to 
dividends  paid  in  any  form  other  than  cash,  and  the  paying  agent  should 
be  required  either  to  transfer  the  appropriate  proportion  of  distributable 
securities  to  the  Revenue  or,  at  his  option,  to  make  a  cash  payment  based 
on  a  valuation  of  the  securities  distributed  ;  further,  he  should,  if  required 
by  the  Revenue,  and  in  any  case  if  the  foregoing  options  are  impi*acticable, 
furnish  a  list  of  the  names  and  addresses  of  the  recipients. 

Incidence  of  the  Tax. 

The  present  differentiation  against  small  unearned  incomes  is  too 
great,  and  should  be  materially  diminished.  There  is  good  reason  for 
diminishing  the  present  differentiation  in  the  case  of  larger  incomes, 
though  not  to  so  great  an  extent. 

Earned  income  should  be  diminished  by  one-tenth  for  the  purposes 
of  assessment,  and  the  income  so  diminished  should  be  charged  at  the 
rate  of  tax  applicable  to  unearned  income. 

However  large  the  earned  income,  not  more  than  2,000/.  earned  in- 
come should  rank  for  differential  relief ;  and  the  relief  should  apply, 
with  that  limitation,  to  incomes  of  all  sizes,  but  for  the  purposes  of  in- 
come-tax only — not  for  super-tax.  The  maximum  deduction  for  differen- 
tial relief  would  therefore  be  200/. 


98  PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS.  [1920. 

German  ships  possess  a  speed  much  in  excess  of  that  for  which  they  are 
nominally  designed. 

5.  When  Sir  David  Beatty  sighted  the  enemy  battle-cruisers  he 
adopted  the  correct  and  only  possible  course  in  engaging  and  endeavour- 
ing to  keep  between  the  enemy  and  his  base.  Whether  the  First  Scouting 
Group  was  supported  or  not,  his  duty  would  be  to  engage  and  keep  touch 
with  the  enemy  vessels  of  similar  class  to  his  own,  so  long  as  he  was  not 
in  manifestly  inferior  force.  In  this  case  he  had  a  great  superiority,  and 
there  could  be  no  question  as  to  his  action. 

6.  The  disturbing  feature  of  the  battle-cruiser  action  is  the  fact  that 
five  German  battle-cruisers  engaging  six  British  vessels  of  this  class, 
supported  after  the  first  twenty  minutes,  although  at  great  range,  by  the 
fire  of  four  battleships  of  the  Queen  Elizabeth  class,  were  yet  able  to  sink 
the  Queen  Mary  and  Indefatigable.  It  is  true  that  the  enemy  suffered 
very  heavily  later,  and  that  one  vessel,  the  Liitzow,  was  undoubtedly 
destroyed,  but  even  so  the  result  cannot  be  other  than  unpalatable. 

The  facts  which  contributed  to  the  British  losses  were,  firetf  the 
indifferent  armour  protection  of  our  battle-cruisers,  particularly  as 
regards  turret  armour  and  deck  plating,  and,  second,  the  disadvantage 
under  which  our  vessels  laboured  in  regard  to  the  light.  Of  this  there 
can  be  no  question. 

But  it  is  also  undoubted  that  the  gunnery  of  the  German  battle- 
cruisers  in  the  early  stages  was  of  a  very  high  standard.  They  appeared 
to  get  on  to  their  target^  and  establish  hitting  within  two  or  three  minutes 
of  opening  fire  in  almost  every  case,  and  this  at  very  long  ranges  of 
18,000  yards.  The  German  vessels  appear  to  use  some  such  system  of 
fire  as  the  Fetravic  method,  as  the  guns  do  not  go  off  exactly  together 
and  it  unquestionably  gives  excellent  results.  The  ''spread"  for  both 
direction  and  elevation  is  very  small  and  the  rapidity  of  fire  very  great. 

7.  Once  we  commence  hitting  the  Grerman  gunnery  falls  off,  but — as 
shown  by  the  rapidity  with  which  the  Invincible  was  sunk  at  a  later  stage 
— their  ships  are  still  able  to  fire  with  great  accuracy  even  when  they 
have  received  severe  punishment. 

8.  The  fact  that  the  gunnery  of  the  German  battle-fleet  when  engaged 
with  our  battle-fleet  did  not  show  the  same  accuracy  must  not,  I  think^ 
be  taken  as  showing  that  the  standard  is  not  so  high  as  with  their  battle- 
cruisers,  as  I  am  inclined  to  the  opinion  that  we  then  had  some  advantage 
in  the  way  of  light,  although  it  was  very  bad  for  both  sides. 

9.  The  Grerman  organisation  at  night  is  very  good.  Their  system  of 
recognition  signals  is  excellent.  Ours  is  practically  nil.  Their  search- 
lights are  superior  to  ours,  and  they  use  them  with  great  effect.  Finally, 
their  method  of  firing  at  night  gives  excellent  results.  I  am  reluctantly 
compelled  to  the  opinion  that  under  night  conditions  we  have  a  good  deal 
to  learn  from  them. 

10.  The  German  tactics  during  the  action  were  those  which  have 
always  been  anticipated,  and  for  which  provision  has  been  made  so  far  as 
is  possible  in  my  Battle  Orders.  The  ''  turn  away  "  of  the  enemy  under 
cover  of  torpedo-boat  destroyer  attacks  is  a  move  most  difficult  to 
counter,  but  which  has  been  closely  investigated  on  the  Tactical  Board. 
Yice-Admiral  Sir  Doveton  Sturdee  has  rendered  me  much  assistance  in 


1930.1  PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS.  99 

the  study  of  this  particular  movement,  and  in  devising  a  counter  to  it. 
There  is  no  real  counter.  Nothing  but  ample  time  and  superior  speed 
can  be  an  answer,  and  this  means  that  unless  the  meeting  of  the  fleets 
takes  place  fairly  early  in  the  day  it  is  most  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to 
fight  the  action  to  a  finish.  In  this  particular  case,  thanks  to  the  fact 
that  the  enemy  did  not,  as  far  as  can  be  seen,  expect  to  find  our  whole 
fleet  present,  there  was  no  time  for  him  to  lay  a  prepared  mine  area,  and 
not  much  time  to  place  his  submarines,  although  many  submarines  were 
present.  It  is  unlikely  that  in  future  operations  we  shall  be  so  favoured 
in  this  respect,  and  the  element  of  time  will  therefore  be  still  more 
important.  I  foreshadowed  in  my  letter  of  October  30,  1914,  No. 
339/HF/0034,  in  which  their  Lordships  expressed  concurrence,  A.L.  of 
November  7, 1914,  M.03177/14,  the  possibility  of  it  being  actually  neces- 
sary purposely  to  delay  bringing  the  Fleet  to  close  action  for  some  time  on 
account  of  the  possibilities  which  the  mine  and  submarine  give  for 
preparing  a  trap  on  a  large  scale,  and  it  should  be  understood  that  this 
possibility  still  exists  and  will  be  increased  as  the  enemy  gets  stronger  in 
submarines. 

11.  It  was  unnecessary  for  me  to  give  any  special  orders  to  the  flag 
officers  during  the  action.  Events  followed  the  course  that  was  expected. 
All  squadrons  and  flotillas  took  up  their  stations  as  directed  in  the  Battle 
Orders  with  most  commendable  accuracy  under  very  difficult  circum- 
stances. The  torpedo  attacks  launched  by  the  enemy  were  countered  in 
the  manner  previously  intended,  and  practised^  during  exercises,  and  the 
fleet  was  manoeuvred  to  close  again  after  these  attacks  by  the  method 
which  had  been  adopted  for  this  purpose.  The  handling  of  the  large  fleet 
was  immensely  facilitated  by  the  close  co-operation  and  support  afforded 
me  by  the  flag  officers. 

12.  One  of  the  features  of  the  action  was  the  large  number  of  torpedoes 
that  crossed  our  line  without  taking  effect  on  any  ship  except  the  MwrU 
borough.  Sir  Cecil  Bumey  estimates  that  at  least  twenty-one  torpedoes 
were  seen  to  cross  the  line  of  his  squadron.  All  were  avoided  by  skilful 
handling,  except  that  single  one,  and  it  is  notable  that  the  Marlborough 
herself  evaded  seven.  Similarly  the  Fifth  Battle  Squadron,  in  rear  of 
the  First  Battle  Squadron,  avoided  a  considerable  number,  and  other 
squadrons  had  similar  experiences. 

It  is  of  supreme  importance  to  keep  from  the  knowledge  of  the  enemy 
the  fact  that  ships  were  able  to  avoid  torpedoes  by  seeing  the  track,  as  it 
would  not  be  beyond  the  ingenuity  of  the  Germans  to  devise  a  means  of 
preventing;  any  track  being  left. 

13.  The  experience  and  results  of  the  action,  particularly  the  know- 
ledge we  now  have  of  the  speed  of  the  enemy's  Third  Squadron,  must 
exercise  considerable  influence  on  our  future  dispositions  and  tactics.  It 
will,  for  instance,  not  be  advisable  in  future  to  place  our  Fifth  Squadion 
in  a  position  removed  from  support.  I  have  these  questions  under  con- 
sideration and  will  submit  my  conclusions  to  their  Lordships, 

14.  A  narrative  of  the  action  is  enclosed. 

I  am.  Sir,  your  obedient  servant, 

J.  B.  Jbllicoe.  Admiral. 
The  Secretary  of  the  Admiralty. 


90  PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS.  [1990. 

The  following  examples  illustrate  the  effect  of  the  proposals : — 
X  (single)  earns  51  per  week  and  has  no  other  income. 

X's  actual  income  is 2602. 

Deduct  1/lOth  because  it  is  earned  -       .       -       -         261, 


Income  for  taxation  purposes 234/. 

The  personal  allowance  is  150L  of  earned 

income 1501. 

Deduct  1/lOth  of  1602.  because  the  income  V       135{. 

is  reduced  by  1/lOth      .       -        -        -         15|. 


Tax  is  chargeable  on 99/. 

Y  is  assessed  on  300/.  in  respect  of  his  business  and  on  100/.  in  respect 
of  his  investment  income.    He  is  a  married  man  without  children. 

Y*s  total  income  is 400/. 

Deduct  1/lOth  of  300/.  because  the  300/.  is  earned  -         30/. 

Income  for  taxation  purposes 370/. 

The  allowance  for  a  married  couple  is 

250/.  of  earned  income  -        -        -        -        250/. 
Deduct  1/lOth  of  250  because  the  earned  Y       225/. 

income  is  reduced  by  1/lOth  -       -         25/. 


Tax  is  chargeable  on 145/. 

Z  is  employed  at  a  remuneration  of  3,000/.  per  annum.  He  receives 
also  1,000/.  per  annum  from  dividends  on  investments.  He  is  a  smgle 
man. 

Z*8  actual  income  is 4,000/. 

Deduct  200/. ,  being  1/lOth  of  2000/.,  the  maximum 

differential  allowance 200/. 


Income  for  income-tax  purposes      ....     3,800/. 
Personal    allowance  of   150/.  of   earned 

income 150/.^ 

Deduct  1/lOth  of  1502.  because  the  150/.  I        1352. 

is  expressed  in  terms  of  earned  income  15/.  I 


Income-tax  is  chargeable  on 3,6652. 

Graduation. 

From  all  incomes  (for  the  purposes  of  income-tax  as  distinct  from 
super-tax)  there  should  be  deducted  a  personal  abatement  equal  to  the 
exemption  limit,  and  graduation  by  reference  to  the  size  of  an  income 
should  be  effected  solely  by  a  variation  of  the  real  effective  rate  of  tax 
chargeable  on  that  income. 

In  all  ranges  of  income  some  regard  should  be  had  to  the  taxpayer's 
marital  and  family  responsibilities. 

From  the  assessable  income  (which  is  the  actual  investment  inoome, 
formerly  called  "  unearned  "  income,  or  the  earned  inoome  reduced  by 


IMO.]  PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS.  91 

one-tenth)  should  be  deducted  the  allowances  for  the  taxpayer  himself^ 
his  wife,  children,  dependent  relatives,  etc.,  in  order  to  arrive  at  the  tax- 
able income.  This  taxable  income,  where  it  does  not  exceed  226/.  should 
be  charged  at  half  the  standard  rate  of  tax.  If  the  taxable  income  ex- 
ceeds 2261,  J  the  first  225/.  should  be  charged  at  half  the  standard  rate  of 
tax  and  the  excess  over  226/.  at  the  full  standard  rate  of  tax. 

Owing  to  the  deductions  made  for  earned  income,  and  for  personal, 
marital,  and  family  allowances,  226/.  of  taxable  income  is  equivalent  to 
400/.  of  earned  income  in  the  case  of  a  bachelor,  to  600/.  of  ecuned  in- 
come in  the  case  of  a  married  couple  without  children,  and  to  600/.  of 
earned  income  in  the  case  of  a  married  couple  with  three  children. 

A  statement  of  real  effective  rates  of  tax  and  of  tax  payable  on  speci- 
fied incomes  in  various  circumstances  should  form  part  of,  or  accompany, 
all  income-tax  notices,  including  notices  to  pay. 

Graduation  on  incomes  over  2,000/.  can  best  be  effected  by  means  of 
super-tax  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  income-tax,  which  should  continue 
in  its  present  form,  a  tax  graduated  solely  by  reference  to  the  amount  of 
the  income  without  other  considerations. 

Taxation  at  thb  Soubcb. 

Subject  to  certain  considerations,  all  British  Government  and  muni- 
cipal loans  should  in  future  be  made  subject  to  deduction  of  income-tax 
on  payment  of  the  interest. 

The  "accruing  rate"  should  apply  to  all  payments  which  have  a 
known  period  of  accrual ;  and  the  **  time  of  payment  rate  "  only  whea 
the  accruing  period  is  unknown. 

Income  taxed  by  deduction  should,  for  the  purposes  of  any  statement 
of  total  income,  be  treated  as  the  income  of  the  year  in  which  it  is  re- 
ceivable. 

All  dividend  warrants  should  show  (a)  the  gross  amount  of  the  dis- 
tribution ;  (b)  the  income-tax  applicable  thereto ;  and  (c)  the  net  amount 
payable  by  the  company  to  the  shareholder. 

Where  a  fee  or  remuneration  is  paid  '^  free  of  tax,"  the  income-tax 
assessment  should  be  based  on  the  gross  sum  represented  by  the  net 
payment  actually  made.  All  exemptions  from  income-tax  other  than 
those  conferred  by  Income-Tax  Acts  should  be  abolished  without  pre- 
judice to  claims  for  compensation  for  existing  rights. 

Wasting  Assets. 

No  allowance  should  be  made  where  the  life  of  the  wasting  asset  is 
estimated  to  be  thirty-five  years  or  longer.  Assets  with  a  shorter  life 
should  receive  an  allowance  dependent  on  the  time  by  which  their  life 
falls  short  of  thirty-five  years.  As  regards  wastage  of  capital  the  allow- 
ance should  be  the  sinking  fund  payment  necessary  to  amortise  the 
capital  cost  of  the  asset  over  its  agreed  life,  less  that  sinking  fund  pay- 
ment which  would  be  necessary  to  amortise  the  capital  cost  if  the  life  of 
the  asset  were  thirty-five  years. 

Subject  to  certain  exceptions  no  allowance  should  be  granted  to  any 
asset  other  than  an  inherently  wasting  material  asset  which  has  been 


92  PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS.  [i92a 

created  by  the  expenditure  of  capital.  The  allowance  mast  not  be 
granted  in  respect  of  a  right  to  the  income  derived  from  any  asset ;  it  is 
the  asset  itself  and  not  the  fact  of  its  possession  by  any  particular  pro- 
prietor that  should  be  considered  when  the  allowance  is  in  question. 

No  allowance  should  be  granted  to  incomes  arising  from  wasting 
assets  which  consist  of  the  proprietorship  of  natural  resources  in  this 
country. 

Subject  always  to  the  limitation  that  their  life  falls  short  of  thirty-five 
years  an  allowance  should  be  given  in  respect  of  all  inherently  wasting 
material  assets  created  by  the  expenditure  of  capital,  such  as  buildings 
and  foundations,  surface  works,  permanent  way  and  equipment  of  rail- 
ways and  tramways,  docks,  and  shaft-sinkings,  and  initial  work  on  de- 
velopment. 

Depreciation. 

Depreciation  should  continue  to  be  allowed  on  the  written-down 
value  of  plant  and  machinery,  subject  to  the  taxpayer's  right,  if  he  has 
the  necessary  records,  to  have  his  depreciation  calculated  by  the  reference 
to  the  original  cost  of  the  asset.  The  allowance  should  no  longer  be  re- 
stricted to  traders. 

The  obsolescence  allowance  should  be  given  in  the  case  of  machinery 
or  plant  disused  for  any  reason,  whether  replaced  or  not,  except  where 
the  disuse  is  the  result  of  the  discontinuance  of  a  business.  In  future 
any  ordinary  depreciation  allowance  and  any  obsolescence  allowance 
should  be  regarded  as  trade  expenses  of  the  year  whose  profits  are  being 
calculated.  If  they  are  so  treated,  the  necessity  for  carrying  forward  un- 
exhausted depreciation  allowances  will  no  longer  exist. 

The  allowance  for  renewals  should  be  calculated  by  reference  to  the 
cost  of  price  of  machinery  replaced. 

The  allowance  for  depreciation  of  mills  and  factories  should  not  be 
extended  to  other  classes  of  buildings  ;  it  should  be  subject  to  the  general 
conditions  governing  all  allowances  for  wasting  assets,  and  should  not  be 
a  fixed  percentage  of  the  annual  value. 

Repairs  to  Property. 

The  present  allowances  of  one-sixth  and  one-eighth  of  the  annua! 
value  should  be  retained  as  the  normal  flat  rates. 

The  present  restrictions  as  to  value  (702.  in  the  Metropolis,  eOL  in 
Scotland,  and  522.  elsewhere)  should  be  removed,  subject  to  a  provision 
that  improvements  should  not  be  treated  as  repairs  or  maintenance. 

For  a  period  of  five  years  an  allowance  of  one-fourth  should  be  made 
for  houses  not  exceeding  20/.  in  annual  value,  and  one-fifth  for  houses 
not  exceeding  402.  in  annual  value,  such  increased  allowances  to  be  with- 
held if  it  is  proved  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  Commissioners  that  proper 
repairs  have  not  been  effected.  These  increased  allowances  should  be 
granted  only  for  a  limited  number  of  years. 

As  soon  as  conditions  as  to  rental  and  cost  of  repairs  have  become 
stabilised,  a  Departmental  inquiry  should  be  made  with  the  object  of 


1990.]  PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS.  93 

finding  what  are  the  appropriate  flat  rates  which  should  be  granted  in 
equity  for  difiEerent  classes  of  property. 

Expenses  and  Deductions  (for  Schedule  D  Purposes). 

The  cost  of  removing  plant  as  well  as  stock  should  be  allowed  as  a 
trade  expense. 

Property-owning  companies  should  be  granted  an  allowance  for  their 
management  expenses  to  the  same  extent  as  financial  companies. 

The  owner  of  minerals  or  mineral  rights  should  be  allowed  the  ex- 
penses of  management  or  supervision. 

Allowance  for  the  annual  value  of  business  premises  used  partly  for 
residence.  The  general  limitation  to  a  sum  not  exceeding  two-thirds  of 
the  annual  value  or  rent  should  be  retained,  but  the  Commissioners 
should  be  empowered  to  grant  a  larger  allowance  in  special  circumstances 
of  hardship. 

Allowances  for  Expenses  (Schedule  £). 

Te<»eken. — Allowances  should  be  made  (a)  to  the  extent  of  the  tax  on 
102.  (as  a  maximum)  for  scholastic  agents'  fees  paid ;  and  (6)  to  the  ex- 
tent of  the  tax  on  20/.  (as  a  maximum)  for  the  cost  of  necessary  books. 

Clergymen, — The  annual .  instalments  repayable  to  Queen  Anne's 
Bounty  in  respect  of  loans  granted  to  an  incumbent's  predecessor  for  the 
purpose  of  the  repair  or  the  restoration  of  the  incumbent's  dwelling-house 
should  be  allowed.  Payments  made  to  lay  assistants  and  certified  by 
the  Bishop  of  the  diocese  as  necessarily  incurred  by  an  incumbent  in 
carrying  out  the  duties  of  his  ofBce  should  be  allowed  as  deductions. 

Travelling  ^rpetwe«.— Travelling  expenses  incurred  by  a  taxpayer  in 
going  from  his  place  of  residence  to  his  business  should  not  be  allowed. 

Bishops. — The  expenses  of  Bishops  on  necessary  hospitality,  oiganisa- 
tion,  charity,  etc.,  should  not  be  allowed  as  a  deduction  in  arriving  at 
assessable  income,  but  the  income  of  a  Bishop  should  be  so  divided  that 
that  part  of  it  which  is  necessarily  and  customarily  applied  to  the  ex- 
penses of  the  office  is  clearly  indicated,  and  the  amount  paid  to  the 
Bishops  in  respect  of  expenses  determined  by  statute. 

The  Exemption  Limit. 

The  exemption  limit  for  the  bachelor  should  be  150/.,  and  for  a 
married  couple  without  children  2602.  These  limits,  should  be  main- 
tained until  there  is  a  substantial  change  in  the  cost  of  living,  and  should 
be  altered  only  at  considerable  intervals. 

The  aggregation  of  the  incomes  of  wife  and  husband  should  continue 
to  be  the  rule. 

Family  allowances  should  be  treated  as  deductions  from  the  gross 
income,  so  as  to  reduce  that  income  for  all  purposes,  and  the  rate  of  tax 
should  be  determined  by  reference  to  the  amount  of  income  left  after 
those  allowances  have  been  made.  Family  allowances  should  apply  to 
ail  incomes,  of  whatever  amount,  but  should  be  calculated  by  reference 
to  the  ordinary  income-tax  rate,  excluding  the  super-tax  rate. 


94  PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS.  [1920. 

The  wife  allowance,  under  that  name,  will  disappear,  and  be  merged 
in  the  married  couple's  exemption  allowance. 

For  the  first  child  the  allowance  should  be  40{.,  and  for  each  younger 
child  30i. 

A  taxpayer  maintaining  his  widowed  mother  should  receive  the  **  de- 
pendent relative's  '*  allowance,  even  if  the  mother  be  not  aged  or  infirm  ; 
and  the  8001.  limitation  should  be  abolished. 

Life  Iksubange  Allowances. 

The  following  changes  only  should  be  made  in  the  life  insurance 
allowances  authorised  by  the  Income  Tax  Act  of  1918 : — 

(a)  In  respect  of  policies  effected  since  June  22,  1916,  the  allowance 
for  life  insurance  premiums  should  be  made  at  one-half  the  standard 
rate  of  tax ; 

(b)  In  respect  of  policies  effected  on  or  before  June  22,  1916^  the 
allowance  should  be  made  (i)  for  incomes  not  exceeding  1,0001.,  at  half 
the  standard  rate  ;  (ii)  for  incomes  exceeding  1,000{.,  but  not  exceeding 
2,000{.,  at  three-fourths  of  the  standard  rate ;  (iii)  for  incomes  exceeding 
2^0002.,  at  the  standard  rate.  This  recommendation  is  dependent  upon 
the  recommendations  on  graduation,  and  if  the  graduation  scheme  pro- 
posed should  not  be  adopted,  or  should  be  varied,  this  question  should 
be  reconsidered. 

(c)  Subject  to  the  conditions  governing  other  allowances  for  life  in- 
surance, an  allowance  should  be  made  for  premiums  paid  by  a  wife  oat 
of  her  separate  income  in  respect  of  an  insurance  on  the  hfe  of  her  hus- 
band. 

(d)  Subject  to  all  the  restrictions  imposed  on  annual  premiums,  an 
allowance  should  be  made  for  single  premium  payments. 

Friendly  Societies. 

The  existing  exemption  of  registered  friendly  societies  should  remain  ; 
that  of  unregistered  friendly  societies  should  be  withdrawn. 

Charities. 

'< Charities"  should  be  specially  re-defined  by  Parliament.  Mean- 
while premises  owned  and  occupied  by  a  charitable  body  should  be 
exempt  from  tax  under  Schedule  A,  and  profits  of  a  trade  carried  on 
mainly  by  and  for  the  benefit  of  the  inmates  or  beneficiaries  of  a  charity 
should  not  be  assessable  to  income-tax. 

Provident  Funds. 

When  an  employer  makes  an  irrecoverable  contribution  to  a  recog- 
nised fund  for  the  benefit  of  his  workpeople  his  contribution  should  be 
allowed  as  a  deduction  in  computing  his  profits.  The  contributions  of 
the  employee  which  are  made  to  secure  a  future  pension  should  be 
allowed  as  a  deduction  from  income.  The  income  arising  from  the  in- 
vestments of  the  funds  should  also  be  exempted  from  tax.    All  pensions 


1920.]  PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS.  95 

should  be  regarded  as  income  and  assessed  in  the  hands  of  the  recipi- 
onts. 

The  employers'  (non-returnable),  but  not  the  employees'  (returnable 
with  interest),  contributions  towards  provident  and  thrift  funds,  should 
foe  exempted. 


Administration. 

Inspectors  of  Taxes  should  in  future  be  appointed  by  the  Board  of 
Inland  Bevenue,  not  by  the  Treasury. 

The  General  Commissioners'  functions  should  be  practically  confined 
to  hearing  appeals. 

The  Additional  Commissioners  should  be  retained  as  an  advisory  body 
which  may  be  consulted  by  the  inspector  in  the  case  of  any  Schedule  D 
assessment,  and  as  the  authority  for  making  Schedule  D  assessments  in 
cases  where  the  inspector  proposes  an  assessment  greater  than  (i)  the 
amount  returned  for  assessment  (ii)  the  profits  shown  by  the  taxpayer's 
accounts,  and  (iii)  the  amount  of  the  assessment  for  the  preceding  year ; 
otherwise  the  power  of  making  assessments  under  Schedule  D  should 
be  transferred  to  the  inspectors  of  taxes ;  there  should  be  twelve  Addi- 
tional Commissioners  for  each  division  ;  and  future  appointments  should 
be  made  by  the  Treasury. 

The  Special  Commissioners  should  become  practically  an  appellate 
body  and  little  else. 

A  Central  Assessing  Authority  should  be  set  up,  composed  of  senior 
Revenue  officials  nominated  by  the  Board  of  Inland  Revenue.  This 
body  should  take  over  the  assessing  duties  of  the  Special  Commissioners. 
Any  appeal  from  an  assessment  made  by  the  Central  Assessing  Authority 
should  be  heard  by  the  Special  Commissioners. 

The  right  to  appeal  to  the  Special  Commissioners  should  extend  to 
assessments  under  ail  schedules  except  Schedule  A. 

The  clerical  duties  now  performed  by  the  Clerk  to  the  Commissioners 
should  be  transferred  to  the  Inspector  of  Taxes. 

The  office  of  assessor  should  be  abolished  and  his  duties  should  de- 
volve on  the  Inspector  of  Taxes,  subject  to  the  delegation  to  the  collector 
of  minor  functions. 

All  collectors  throughout  the  United  Kingdom  should  be  appointed 
by  the  Board  of  Inland  Revenue ;  the  general  management  of  the  col- 
lection of  the  tax  should  be  placed  under  the  control  of  the  Board ;  in 
suitable  areas,  and  as  soon  as  possible,  collectors  of  taxes  should  become 
wholetime  Civil  Servants. 

The  areas  of  income-tax  divisions  should  be  re-arranged.  The  areas 
of  administration  should  be  made  completely  independent  of  those  of  the 
old  Land  Tax  ;  and  all  powers  relating  to  the  transfer,  union^  grouping, 
division,  and  assigning  of  areas  should  be  vested  in  the  Board  of  Inland 
Revenue. 

Steps  should  be  taken  to  prepare  a  Bill  containing  the  whole  law  on 
income-tax  in  the  most  modern  form. 


96  PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS.  [1920. 

Co-oPEBATivE  Societies. 

Any  part  of  the  net  proceeds  of  a  distributive  co-operative  society 
which  is  not  actually  returned  to  members  as  "  dividend  "  or  "  discount " 
is  a  profit  chargeable  to  income-tax.  The  income  derived  from  invested 
reserves  should  be  subject  to  tax,  irrespective  of  the  mode  of  investment. 
In  effect  a  society  should  be  treated  exactly  as  a  limited  liability  company 
trading  in  similar  circumstances  and  under  similar  conditions,  and  the 
law  should  be  amended  in  so  far  as  it  confers  special  exemption  on  co- 
operative societies.  Wholesale  and  productive  societies  should  be  treated 
on  the  same  basis  as  distributive  societies. 

Agricultural  co-operative  societies  should  not  continue  to  have  special 
treatment  under  the  income-tax  law,  and  no  regard  should  be  had  to  the 
fact  that  they  are  registered  under  the  Industrial  and  Provident  Societies 
Acts. 

There  will  probably  be  very  little  difference  between  the  liability  of 
co-operative  societies  under  these  proposals  and  under  the  existing  legal 
position  which  has  given  rise  to  so  great  an  amount  of  feeling. 


Super-tax. 

The  present  basis  of  liability  to  super-tax  should  remain  unchanged. 
Assessing  authorities  should  be  empowered  to  roquire  super-tax  returns 
from  husband  and  wife  separately  and  to  make  separate  assessments. 


Appeals. 

All  Commissioners'  decisions  involving  a  point  of  law  should  be  sub- 
ject to  appeal  to  the  High  Court. 


Pksvsntino  Evasion. 

The  existing  time  limit  of  three  years  within  which  proceedings  may 
be  taken  to  recover  penalties  should  be  extended  to  six  years ;  the  penalties 
recoverable  in  the  High  Court  should  be  increased. 

The  penalty  for  a  false  rotum  by  a  limited  company  should  be  recover- 
able from  the  company  itself  or  from  its  directors  or  secretary,  and  the 
penalty  for  a  false  return  by  a  firm  should  be  recoverable  either  from  the 
partnership  as  a  whole  or  from  the  precedent  acting  partner  or  any 
partner  who  in  fact  made  the  return ;  provided  that  no  penalty  shall  be 
recoverable  personally  from  a  person  who  is  proved  to  have  had  no  know- 
ledge of  the  falsity  of  the  rotum. 

The  offence  of  making  an  incorrect  rotum  should  not  be  capable  of 
being  purged  by  the  belated  rendering  of  a  correct  rotum  if  the  taxpayer 
is  not  able  to  show  that  the  error  in  the  original  return  was  due  to  a  bona- 
fide  mistaka 

The  penalty  for  aiding  and  abetting  should  be  made  more  severe. 


1920.]  PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS.  97 

OFFiciAii  Despatches  on  the  Battle  op  Jutland.    [Cmd. 

1068.] 

(Published  December  17.) 

Despatch  fbom  Admiral  Jellicob. 

**Ibon  Duke/* 
Juns  18,  1916. 

Sir,— Be  pleased  to  inform  the  Lords  Commissioners  of  the  Admiralty 
that  in  accordance  with  the  instructions  contained  in  their  Lordships' 
telegram  No.  434  of  May  30,  Ckxle  time  1740,  the  Grand  Fleet  proceeded  to 
sea  on  May  30, 1916. 

2.  The  instructions  given  to  those  portions  of  the  fleet  that  were  not 
in  company  with  my  flag  at  Scapa  Flow  were  as  follows  : — 

To  Vice- Admiral  Sir  Thomas  Jerram,  with  Second  Battle  Squadron  at 
Invergordon :  "  Leave  as  soon  as  ready.  Pass  through  Lat.  68»  15'  N., 
Long.  2^  0'  £.,  meet  me  2.0  p.m.  to-morrow  31st,  Lat.  67°  46',  Long.  4''  15' 
£.  Several  enemy  submarines  known  to  be  in  North  Sea.  Acknowledge. 
1930  (Code  time)." 

To  Vice-Admiral  Sir  David  Beatty,  Commanding  the  Battle-cruiser 
Fleet  at  Bosyth,  with  the  Fifth  Battle  Squadron,  Bear-Admiral  Hugh 
Evan-Thomas  in  company  :— 

"Ui^ent,  Priority.  Admiralty  telegram  1,740.  Available  vessels. 
Battle-cruiser  Fleet,  Fifth  Battle  Squadron  and  T.B.D.'s  including 
Harwich  T.B.D.'s  proceed  to  approximate  position  Lat.  56°  40'  N.,  Long. 
6°  O'  £.  Desirable  to  economise  T.B.D.'s  fuel.  Presume  you  will  be 
there  about  2.0  p.m.  to-morrow  31st.  I  shall  be  in  about  Lat.  57°  45'  N., 
Long.  4°  15'  £.  by  2.0  p.m.  unless  delayed  by  fog.  Third  Battle-cruiser 
Squadron,  Chester  and  Canterbury  will  leave  with  me.  I  will  send  them 
on  to  your  rendezvous.  If  no  news  by  2.0  p.m.  stand  towards  me  to  get 
in  visual  touch.  I  will  steer  for  Horn  Reef  from  position  Lat.  67''  45'  N., 
Long.  4°  15'  £.    Repeat  back  rendezvous.    1937  (Code  time)." 

3.  I  felt  no  anxiety  in  regard  to  the  advanced  position  of  the  force 
under  Sir  David  Beatty,  supported  as  it  was  by  four  ships  of  the  Fifth 
Battle  Squadron,  as  this  force  was  far  superior  in  gun  power  to  the  First 
Scouting  Qroup,  and  the  speed  of  the  slowest  ships  was  such  as  to  enable 
it  to  keep  out  of  range  of  superior  enemy  forces. 

4.  The  operation,  however,  showed  that  the  ships  of  the  Third 
Squadron  of  the  High  Sea  Fleet  possess  an  unexpected  turn  of  speed  for 
at  any  rate  a  short  period.  The  Queen  Elizabeth  class  are  nominally 
25  knot  vessels.  The  official  Quarterly  Return  of  British  and  Foreign 
War  Vessels  gives  the  KOnig  and  Kaiser  classes  a  designed  speed  of  20'5 
knots.  I  have  always  expected  that  they  might  reach  22  knots  for  a 
short  distance,  but  the  fact  that  the  Fifth  Battle  Squadron  was  unable 
to  increase  its  distance  from  the  German  ships  when  steaming  at  their 
utmost  speed  comes  as  an  unpleasant  surprise  and  will  have  considerable 
effect  on  the  conduct  of  future  operations.    It  is  quite  evident  that  all 

G 


98  PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS.  [1920. 

Grerman  ships  possess  a  speed  much  in  excess  of  that  for  which  they  are 
nominally  designed. 

6.  When  Sir  David  Beatty  sighted  the  enemy  battle-craisers  he 
adopted  the  correct  and  only  possible  course  in  engaging  and  endeavour- 
ing to  keep  between  the  enemy  and  his  base.  Whether  the  First  Scouting 
Group  was  supported  or  not,  his  duty  would  be  to  engage  and  keep  touch 
with  the  enemy  vessels  of  similar  class  to  his  own,  so  long  as  he  was  not 
in  manifestly  inferior  force.  In  this  case  he  had  a  great  superiority,  and 
there  could  be  no  question  as  to  his  action. 

6.  The  disturbing  feature  of  the  battle-cruiser  action  is  the  fact  that 
five  German  battle-cruisers  engaging  six  British  vessels  of  this  class, 
supported  after  the  first  twenty  minutes,  although  at  great  range,  by  the 
fire  of  four  battleships  of  the  Qiteen  Elizabeth  class,  were  yet  able  to  sink 
the  Queen  Mary  and  Indefatigable,  It  is  true  that  the  enemy  suflFered 
very  heavily  later,  and  that  one  vessel,  the  LiUzow,  was  undoubtedly 
destroyed,  but  even  so  the  result  cannot  be  other  than  unpalatable. 

The  facts  which  contributed  to  the  British  losses  were,  first,  the 
indifferent  armour  protection  of  our  battle-cruisers,  particularly  as 
regards  turret  armour  and  deck  plating,  and,  second,  the  disadvantage 
under  which  our  vessels  laboured  in  regard  to  the  light.  Of  this  there 
can  be  no  question. 

But  it  is  also  undoubted  that  the  gunnery  of  the  German  battle- 
cruisers  in  the  early  stages  was  of  a  very  high  standard.  They  appeared 
to  get  on  to  their  target^  and  establish  hitting  within  two  or  three  minutes 
of  opening  fire  in  almost  every  case,  and  this  at  very  long  ranges  of 
18,000  yards.  The  German  vessels  appear  to  use  some  such  system  of 
fire  as  the  Fetravic  method,  as  the  guns  do  not  go  off  exactly  together 
and  it  unquestionably  gives  excellent  results.  The  "  spread "  for  both 
direction  and  elevation  is  very  small  and  the  rapidity  of  fire  very  great 

7.  Once  we  commence  hitting  the  German  gunnery  falls  off,  but — as 
shown  by  the  rapidity  with  which  the  Invincible  was  sunk  at  a  later  stage 
— their  ships  are  still  able  to  fire  with  great  accuracy  even  when  they 
have  received  severe  punishment. 

8.  The  fact  that  the  gunnery  of  the  German  battle-fleet  when  engaged 
with  our  battle-fleet  did  not  show  the  same  accuracy  must  not,  I  think, 
be  taken  as  showing  that  the  standard  is  not  so  high  as  with  their  battle- 
cruisers,  as  I  am  inclined  to  the  opinion  that  we  then  had  some  advantage 
in  the  way  of  light,  although  it  was  very  bad  for  both  sides. 

9.  The  German  organisation  at  night  is  very  good.  Their  system  of 
recognition  signals  is  excellent.  Ours  is  practically  nil.  Their  search- 
lights are  superior  to  ours,  and  they  use  them  with  great  effect,  finally, 
their  method  of  firing  at  night  gives  excellent  results.  I  am  reluctantly 
compelled  to  the  opinion  that  under  night  conditions  we  have  a  good  deal 
to  learn  from  them. 

10.  The  German  tactics  during  the  action  were  those  which  have 
always  been  anticipated,  and  for  which  provision  has  been  made  so  far  as 
is  possible  in  my  Battle  Orders.  The  "  turn  away  "  of  the  enemy  under 
cover  of  torpedo-boat  destroyer  attacks  is  a  move  most  difllcult  to 
counter,  but  which  has  been  closely  investigated  on  the  Tactical  Board. 
Yice-Admiral  Sir  Doveton  Sturdee  has  rendered  me  much  assistance  in 


1990.]  PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS.  99 

the  stady  of  this  particular  movement,  and  in  devising  a  counter  to  it. 
There  is  no  real  counter.  Nothing  but  ample  time  and  superior  speed 
can  be  an  answer,  and  this  means  that  unless  the  meeting  of  the  fleets 
takes  place  fairly  early  in  the  day  it  is  most  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to 
fight  the  action  to  a  finish.  In  this  particular  case,  thanks  to  the  fact 
that  the  enemy  did  not,  as  far  as  can  be  seen,  expect  to  find  our  whole 
fleet  present,  there  was  no  time  for  him  to  lay  a  prepared  mine  area,  and 
not  much  time  to  place  his  submarines,  although  many  submarines  were 
present.  It  is  unlikely  that  in  future  operations  we  shall  be  so  favoured 
in  this  respect,  and  the  element  of  time  will  therefore  be  still  more 
important.  I  foreshadowed  in  my  letter  of  October  30,  1914,  No. 
339/HF/0084,  in  which  their  Lordships  expressed  concurrence,  A.L.  of 
November  7, 1914,  M.03177/14,  the  possibility  of  it  being  actually  neces- 
sary purposely  to  delay  bringing  the  Fleet  to  close  action  for  some  time  on 
account  of  the  possibilities  which  the  mine  and  submarine  give  for 
preparing  a  trap  on  a  large  scale,  and  it  should  be  understood  that  this 
possibility  still  exists  and  will  be  increased  as  the  enemy  gets  stronger  in 
submarines. 

11.  It  was  unnecessary  for  me  to  give  any  special  orders  to  the  flag 
officers  during  the  action.  Events  followed  the  course  that  was  expected. 
All  squadrons  and  flotillas  took  up  their  stations  as  directed  in  the  Battle 
Orders  with  most  commendable  accuracy  under  very  difficult  circum- 
stances. The  torpedo  attacks  launched  by  the  enemy  were  countered  in 
the  manner  previously  intended,  and  practised,  during  exercises,  and  the 
fleet  was  manoeuvred  to  close  again  after  these  attacks  by  the  method 
which  had  been  adopted  for  this  purpose.  The  handling  of  the  large  fleet 
was  immensely  facilitated  by  the  close  co-operation  and  support  afforded 
me  by  the  flag  officers. 

12.  One  of  the  features  of  the  action  was  the  large  number  of  torpedoes 
that  crossed  our  line  without  taking  effect  on  any  ship  except  the  Marl- 
borough, Sir  Cecil  Bumey  estimates  that  at  least  twenty-one  torpedoes 
were  seen  to  cross  the  line  of  his  squadron.  All  were  avoided  by  skilful 
handling,  except  that  single  one,  and  it  is  notable  that  the  Marlborough 
herself  evaded  seven.  Similarly  the  Fifth  Battle  Squadron,  in  rear  of 
the  First  Battle  Squadron,  avoided  a  considerable  number,  and  other 
squadrons  had  similar  experiences. 

It  is  of  supreme  importance  to  keep  from  the  knowledge  of  the  enemy 
the  fact  that  ships  were  able  to  avoid  torpedoes  by  seeing  the  track,  as  it 
would  not  be  beyond  the  ingenuity  of  the  Germans  to  devise  a  means  of 
preventing. any  track  being  left. 

13.  The  experience  and  results  of  the  action,  particularly  the  know- 
ledge we  now  have  of  the  speed  of  the  enemy's  Third  Squadron,  must 
exercise  considerable  influence  on  our  future  dispositions  and  tactics.  It 
will,  for  instance,  not  be  advisable  in  future  to  place  our  Fifth  Squadron 
in  a  position  removed  from  support.  I  have  these  questions  under  con- 
sideration and  will  submit  my  conclusions  to  their  Lordships. 

14.  A  narrative  of  the  action  is  enclosed. 

I  am,  Sir,  your  obedient  servant, 

J.  B.  JsLLicoB.  Admiral. 
The  Secretary  of  the  Admiralty. 

(73 


100  PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS.  [i9ao. 

Report  of  Captain  Dbbyer,  of  the  '*  Iron  Duke,"  to  the 

Commander-in-Chief. 

The  attached  notes  on  the  action  by  the  following  officers  aie  for- 
warded as  they  are  of  interest,  not  only  in  describing  events,  but  also  any 
difficulties  they  had  to  cope  with:  Commander  (G)  Geoffrey  Blake, 
B.N.  (in  Gun  Control  Tower— Principal  Control  Officer);  Lieut. -Com- 
mander Thomas  F.  P.  Calvert,  RN.  (in  "  B  "  Turret)  ;  Lieutenant  Bichard 
Shelley,  B.N.  (in  13*6  in.  Transmitting  Station — In  Charge) ;  Mr.  Her- 
bert D.  Jehan,  Gunner,  B.N.  (in  6  in.  Control  Top,  aloft,  6  in.  Control 
Officer)  ;  Mr.  Francis  W.  Potter,  Gunner,  B.N.  (in  13-5  in.  Director  Tower, 
aloft — 13 '5  in.  Director-Gunner). 

All  times  given  are  G.M.T.  All  courses  magnetic.  I  was  in  the 
conning  tower  with  Captain  Oliver  E.  Leggett,  Master  of  the  Fleet,  and 
Lieut. -Commander  (T)  Edward  W.  MacKichan,  B.N.,  throughout  the 
action,  and  had  a  very  good  view  of  the  whole  situation.  The  com- 
munications worked  very  welL  The  navyphones  were  noticeably  better 
than  voicepipes,  the  former  requiring  no  shouting,  but  it  is  fully  realised 
that  voicepipes  possess  the  great  advantage  of  reliability — in  fact,  they 
have  to  be  blown  away  before  being  out  of  action.  The  light  was  bad, 
the  weather  being  misty,  the  visibility  varying  during  the  actual  firing 
from  10,000  to  about  16,000  yards. 

At  4.0  P.M. — **  Action  "  was  sounded,  the  hands  having  had  tea,  and 
the  decks  having  been  cleared  upK  All  preparations  for  immediate  action 
were  then  made. 

At  6.0  P.M.— Course  was  S.E. — 20  knots. 

At  6.2  P.M.— Altered  course  by  9  pendant  to  S.— 18  knots. 

At  6.5  P.M.— Altered  course  by  9  pendant  to  S.E. 

At  6.14  P.M. — Formed  line  of  battle  to  port  by  equal  speed  pendant. 
Co.  S.E.  by  E.  Iron  Duke  being  "  straddled  *'  at  this  time  by  two  enemy's 
heavy  projectiles,  with  large  "  spread." 

Our  battle-cruisers,  which  had  shortly  before  come  in  sight  on  a 
southerly  bearing,  firing  to  south-westward,  rapidly  cleared  the  battle 
line,  disclosing  a  German  3-funnelled  cruiser  somewhat  like  the  Kolberg 
Class,  but  with  larger  funnels ;  she  was  apparently  stopped  and  on  fire. 

6.23  P.M. — Opened  fire  with  the  turrets  on  the  3-funnelled  cruiser. 
Bearing  about  80  green.  Bange,  11,000.  Fall  of  shot  very  easy  to  ob- 
serve.   The  3rd  salvo  '^  straddled."    After  the  4th  salvo— ceased  fire. 

6.25  P.M.— Speed  15  knots. 

6.30|  P.M.— Opened  fire  on  a  battleship  of  K5nig  class.  Bearing  70 
green.  Kange,  12,000.  The  2nd,  3rd,  and  4th  salvoes  hitting  her,  with  a 
total  of  at  least  6  hits.  Enemy  steaming  in  the  same  direction  as  Iran 
Duke  on  a  slightly  converging  course. 

6.33  P.M.— Course  S.  7V  E.  17  knots.  The  bearing  of  the  enemy  was 
now  S.  14°  W.  The  bearing  of  the  sun  was  N.  54°  W.  The  enemy  was 
lit  up  by  the  sun^  whereas  Iron  Duke  was  probably  invisible  to  them  in 
the  mist.  However  that  may  be,  the  KOnig  battleship  did  not  return 
Iron  Duke^9  fire,  although  heavily  hit.  9  salvoes,  comprising  total  of  4S 
rounds,  were  fired  at  her  in  4  minutes  50  seconds. 


1930.]  PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS.  101 

At  6.40  p.M.^Course  S.  Se""  £. 

At  6.44  P.M.— Course  8.  46''  £. 

At  6.61  P.M.— Course  S.  S"*  £. 

At  7.06  P.M.— Course  8.W.  by  S. 

At  7.07  P.M.— Course  8. 

7.11  P.M.— 6-in.  Opened  fire  on  enemy  T.B.D.'8  attacking  the  battle- 
fleet.  Green,  63°.  About  10,000  yards,  and  sank  one  enemy  T.B.D.,  and 
fired  on  another. 

7.13  P.M. — Opened  fire  with  turrets  on  enemy  battleship,  green,  74. 
Bange,  15,400  yards.  Enemy  steaming  nearly  directly  away.  4  salvoes 
fired,  no  hits  were  observed. 

7.18  P.M.— Ceased  fire,  as  enemy  was  hidden  by  a  very  good  smoke 
screen  made  by  his  destroyers. 

7.20  P.M. — ^Trained  turrets  on  enemy  battle-cruiser  bearing  99  green, 
but  before  fire  could  be  opened  she  also  was  hidden  by  a  smoke  screen 
made  by  attending  enemy's  T.B.D.'s. 

At  7.23  P.M.— Course  8.  19°  £. 

At  7.24  P.M. — 6-in.  Opened  fire  on  enemy's  T.B.D.'s  attacking 
battle-fieet.    Green,  115.    Bange,  10,000. 

At  7.27  P.M.— Turrets  opened  fire.  Green^  110.  Bange,  9,600  yards,  on 
enemy's  T.B.D.'s  which  were  attacking  the  battle-fleet.  1  salvo  fired, 
which  the  director-gunner  states  blew  up  an  enemy  T.B.D. 

At  7.31  P.M.— Ceased  firing. 

Total  ammunition  fired — 13*6  in. — ^90  rounds  ;  6  in. — 50  rounds. 

H.M.S.  Oak  reports  that  '*  at  about  7.36  p.m.  the  track  of  a  torpedo  was 
observed  to  cross  the  track  of  our  ships,  about  200  yards  ahead  of  Iran 
Duke.  Torpedo  was  travelling  slowly.  Track  finished  about  2,000  yards 
on  the  port  side  of  the  line,  and  the  torpedo  sank.  Direction  of  the  track 
was  8.£." 

Another  torpedo  was  also  reported  by  Benbaw,  which  was  4th  ship 
astern  of  Iran  Dvke^  at  8.31  p.m.  "  It  is  believed  that  the  torpedo  passed 
ahead  of  Iran  Duke"  but  this  was  not  seen  by  Iron  Duke,  although  two 
signalmen  were  specially  stationed  under  a  signal  o£Bcer  aloft,  to  look  out 
for  torpedoes.  It  is  quite  possible  that  this  is  due  to  the  difllcult  light 
conditions  rendering  the  track  invisible  from  Iran  Duke. 

During  the  night,  in  view  of  the  proximity  of  heavy  enemy's  ships,  the 
hands  remained  at  action  stations,  the  gun's  crews  at  their  guns,  but  being 
allowed  to  sleep  in  turn.  The  corned  beef  and  biscuits  provided  at  the 
quarters  were  served  out.  Cocoa  was  provided  from  9-30  p.m.  onwards, 
and  breakfast  brought  to  the  quarters  at  7.30  a.m. 

The  turrets  were  fired  throughout  by  director,  which  system  possesses 
enormous  advantages  over  any  other  in  action. 

The  close  study  which  has  been  made  of  the  silhouettes  of  German 
ships  enabled  those  sighted  to  be  recognised,  except  a  battle-cruiser  with 
very  large  square  funnels,  which  might  have  been  the  Lutzow.  The 
range-finders  obtained  very  good  results,  notwithstanding  the  bad  light, 
and  were  of  the  greatest  assistance  in  keeping  the  range.  The  range- 
takers  reported  that  the  enemy's  pole  masts  were  easier  to  range  on  than 
those  of  our  own  ships. 

No  torpedoes  were  fired  as  the  large  number  of  our  own  ships  which 


102  PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS.  [1920. 

from  time  to  time  crossed  the  space  between  the  battle-fleets  rendered  it 
inadvisable  to  fire  the  slow  E.R.  torpedoes  and  the  enemy  were  out  of 
range  for  the  30-knot  setting.  The  engine  room  department  experienced 
no  difficulties  during  the  action. 

Fred  C.  Dreyer,  Captain. 

The  notes  of  the  four  officers  mentioned  by  Captain  Dreyer  are  repro- 
duced in  the  report.  They  are  mostly  of  a  highly  technical  nature.  Mr. 
Jehan's  notes  conclude  with  the  following  observations : — 

When,  eventually,  the  remaining  destroyers  turned  away  and  formed 
a  smoke  screen,  range  was  increased  the  same  way,  and  check  fire  was 
ordered  when  extreme  gun  range  was  reached.  Transmitting  station  re- 
ported that  range  went  as  low  as  7,600  to  extreme  12,000. 

During  the  first  attack  spotting  was  fairly  easy,  but  during  the  second 
it  was  most  difficult. 

No  submarines  were  sighted,  although  on  several  occasions  the  wash 
from  the  light  cruisers  and  destroyers  looked  like  the  feather  of  a  sub- 
marine. 

Report  of  Sir  Cecil  Burney,  Vice-Admiral  Commakdinq  the 
First  Battle  Squadron,  to  the  Commander-in-Chief,  Grand  Fleet. 

"  Royal  Oak," 

June  10.  1916. 

Sir,— I  have  the  honour  to  report  that  the  First  Battle  Squadron  and 
Bellona  left  the  northern  base  in  accordance  with  your  orders  at  9.30  p.m.. 
May  30, 1916,  my  flag  being  in  Marlborough^  and  proceeded  in  company 
with  your  flag  to  the  south-eastward. 

2.  The  first  intimation  of  the  enemy  being  at  sea  was  received  in 
Marlborough  about  2.30  p.m..  May  31,  a  signal  being  intercepted  from 
Oaiatea  to  senior  officer.  Battle-cruiser  Fleet,  reporting  enemy  cniiserB 
bearing  E.S.E.  Further  enemy  reports  were  received  from  various  units 
of  the  Battle-cruiser  Fleet,  and  at  3.55  a  signal  was  made  by  senior  officer. 
Battle-cruiser  Fleet,  that  he  was  engaging  the  enemy. 

At  4  P.M.  senior  officer,  2nd  Light-cruiser  Squadron,  reported  enemy 
battle-fleet  in  sight  steering  east,  and  at  5  p.m.  that  they  had  altered 
course  to  north.  The  situation  as  it  developed  was  reported  by  visual 
signal  from  time  to  time  to  the  ships  under  my  command. 

At  5.30  P.M.  heavy  gun  firing  was  heard  on  the  starboard  bow,  and 
a  little  later  flashes  were  clearly  seen.  At  5.45  p.m.  Lton,  Priticess  Royal^ 
Tiger,  and  New  Zealand  were  sighted  on  starboard  bow  heavily  engaged 
with  the  enemy,  whose  flashes  could  now  be  seen  to  the  southward,  this 
being  reported  to  flag  at  6  p.m.  at  which  time  our  battle-cruisers  were 
bearing  S.S.W.  3  to  4  miles  steering  east.  Lion  the  leading  ship.  The 
5th  Battle  Squadron  then  came  in  sight  bearing  S.W.,  also  heavily  engaged. 

3.  At  6.2  P.M.  Marlborough's  position  was  Lat.  57 '04  N.,  Long.  5*29  E., 
course  being  altered  by  9  pendant  to  south,  speed  18  knots,  and  at  6.6  p.m. 
course  was  again  altered  to  S.E.  by  9  pendant.  6.15  p.m.,  signal  was  re- 
ceived to  form  line  of  battle  S.E.  by  E.  by  equal  speed  pendant,  enemy 
bearing  E.S.E.  from  Barham. 


1920.]  PUBLIC  DOCUMENT&  103 

4.  About  this  time  the  battle-craiserB,  who  appeared  to  be  ahead  of 
the  leading  division,  turned  to  starboard  as  if  to  cross  the  enemy's  T. 

6.  One  of  our  armoured  cruisers,  probably  Warrior,  was  observed 
passing  down  the  engaged  side,  making  for  her  position  in  rear  of  the 
line.  When  near  the  end  of  the  line  she  turned  up  parallel  to  it  and 
engaged  the  enemy  at  short  range.  Heavy  enemy  salvoes  were  observed 
to  fall  all  round  her ;  she  then  turned  about  14  points  to  port,  a  salvo 
struck  her  and  a  large  flame  was  seen  to  burst  from  her  quarter  deck 
and  she  then  passed  astern. 

G.  A  salvo  of  five  shots  fell  ahead  of  the  HereiUes  about  6.16  p.m.  As 
the  battle-cruisers  drew  ahead  and  their  smoke  cleared,  the  German 
line  could  be  more  easily  seen  and  four  Kaisers  and  four  Heligolands 
could  be  dimly  made  out  Marlborough  opened  fire  at  6.17  p.m.  at  a 
battleship  of  the  Kaiser  class.  Range,  13,000  yards,  about  green  110. 
Marlborough  fired  seven  salvoes  and  hits  were  observed  in  fifth  and 
seventh  salvoes,  the  remAinder  of  the  squadron  opening  fire  as  a 
taiget  became  visible. 

7.  At  6u20  P.M.,  speed  of  14  knots  was  ordered  by  general  signal. 
Shortly  after  this  there  was  much  bunching  up  of  ships  in  the  rear  of 
the  line.  Marlborough  and  other  ships  had  to  reduce  to  8  knots  and 
St.  VincerU  had  to  stop  for  a  short  time.  Owing  to  haze  and  the  enemy's 
smoke  organised  distribution  of  fire  was  out  of  the  question  ;  individual 
ships  selected  their  own  targets. 

8.  As  the  action  developed  and  disabled  ships  of  both  sides  passed 
down  between  the  lines,  great  difficulty  was  experienced  in  distinguish- 
ing the  enemy's  from  our  own  ships. 

9.  Marlborough  now  shifted  fire  to  a  three-funnelled  ship,  and  at  6.34 
P.M.  formed  up  astern  of  the  line  and  opened  fire  on  a  battleship  of  the 
Kaiser  class. 

10.  At  6.45  P.M.  Marlborough  altered  course  to  avoid  a  torpedo.  At 
6.64  P.M.  a  heavy  explosion  was  experienced  under  the  fore  bridge,  the 
ship  taking  up  a  list  of  8  degrees  to  starboard.  The  torpedo  had  struck 
the  ship  abreast  of  No.  1  dynamo  room  and  hydraulic  room,  both  of 
which  were  fiooded,  the  two  men  stationed  in  the  former  being  killed. 
Water  was  also  reported  up  to  the  floor  plates  in  "  A  *'  boiler  room  and  it 
was  considered  necessary  to  draw  the  fires  in  that  boiler  room,  but  as  a 
speed  of  17  knots  could  be  maintained  I  decided  that  Marlborough  should 
maintain  her  position  in  the  line  and  continue  to  lead  her  division.  The 
list  remained  steady  and  it  was  reported  in  less  than  an  hour  that  the 
water  was  being  kept  under. 

11.  Shortly  after  being  struck,  Marlborough  opened  fire  on  an  enemy 
cruiser  passing  down  the  line  which  was  suspected  of  having  fired  the 
torpedo.  The  third  and  fourth  salvoes  both  hit  and  appeared  to  open  up 
her  side,  as  a  deep  red  flame  could  be  seen  inside  her  hull.  A  torpedo 
was  fired  at  her  at  7.10  p.m.  During  this  time  the  Acasta  was  passed  dis- 
abled on  the  port  side,  and  Marlborough  avoided  three  more  torpedoes  by 
the  use  of  the  helm. 

12.  Marlborough  then  engaged  a  ship  of  the  KOnig  class,  firing  fourteen 
salvoes.  Distinct  hits  were  seen  in  four  salvoes.  (The  gunnery  difficulties 
experienced  by  the  ship  after  she  was  torpedoed  are  reported  in  the  ship's 


104  PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS.  [1920. 

gunnery  report.)  This  ship  finally  turned  out  of  the  line,  very  low  in  the 
water  aft,  and  was  apparently  sinking.  A  destroyer  was  observed  to  place 
herself  on  her  engaged  side,  and  make  a  dense  smoke  in  order  to  screen 
her. 

13.  Shortly  after  this  a  heavy  smoke  screen  was  observed  at  what 
appeared  to  be  the  head  of  the  enemy  battle-fleet,  and  it  was  soon  apparent 
that  the  destroyers  were  attacking  under  its  cover.  I  inmiediately  hoisted 
the  signal  "  NM,"  informing  our  flotillas  astern  that  the  enemy  flotillas 
were  making  an  attack.  At  the  same  time  the  preparative  was  hoisted, 
and  I  turned  my  division  away.  As  far  as  I  could  judge  the  whole 
squadron  opened  fire  on  the  attacking  destroyers  with  the  whole  of  the 
secondary  and  some  of  the  main  armament,  and  the  attack  was  checked 
and  they  turned  away,  but  not  before  they  were  able  to  fire  some  of  their 
torpedoes,  which,  however,  were  avoided.  Two  of  the  enemy's  destroyers 
were  observed  to  be  hit  by  Marlborough's  6-inch  gunfire  alone,  and  there 
must  have  been  others  as  the  fire  was  so  intense. 

14.  As  the  destroyer  attack  developed  the  enemy  battle-fleet  in  sight 
were  observed  to  turn  at  least  eight  points  until  their  stems  were  towards 
our  line.  They  ceased  fire,  declined  further  action,  and  disappeared  into 
the  mist.  Our  destroyers  in  rear  of  the  line  proceeded  out  to  attack  the 
enemy  destroyers  and  sink  any  disabled  craft. 

15.  During  the  action  at  one  period  the  enemy  appeared  to  be  firing 
steady,  well  drilled  salvoes,  by  some  form  of  director  such  as  the  Petravic 
system,  but  their  range-finding  and  range-keeping  appear  to  have  been  at 
fault  when  they  were  hit,  although  the  firing  on  our  armoured  cruisers 
was  remarkable  for  its  accuracy.  Many  of  their  salvoes  were  seen  to  fall 
over,  and  it  was  not  till  late  in  the  action  that  they  apparently  found  the 
range  when  the  Colossus  was  straddled  by  four  successive  salvoes,  correct 
for  elevation. 

10.  As  the  action  progressed  their  fire  became  more  feeble.  A  certain 
number  of  shell  of  4-inch  or  6-inch  calibre  were  seen  to  burst  on  the  water 
just  short  of  Marlborough  and  other  ships  of  the  First  Battle  Squadron, 
some  leaving  a  cloud  of  light  green  vapour,  and  others  a  heavy  g^y  vapour 
which  spread  over  the  surface  of  the  water. 

17.  During  the  action  many  reports  of  submarines  were  made,  some 
being  undoubtedly  authentic  and  course  was  altered  to  attack  them  and 
avoid  their  torpedoes.  Shortly  before  Marlborough  was  torpedoed  a 
heavy  shock  was  felt  on  board  Bevenge  in  the  transmitting  room  and 
other  places,  and  two  independent  oflScer  witnesses  saw  quantities  of  ml 
fioat  to  the  surface  and  wreckage  come  up  astern. 

18.  The  tracks  of  torpedoes  approaching  the  ship  were  clearly  seen 
from  the  top  and  reported  in  good  time  so  that  they  were  avoided,  with 
the  exception  of  the  one  which  struck  the  ship,  and  therefore  it  is 
considered  to  be  probable  that  it  came  from  a  submarine. 

19.  It  is  estimated  that  at  least  twenty-one  torpedoes  passed  through 
the  First  Battle  Squadron,  only  one  taking  effect. 

20.  Before,  during,  and  after  the  action  the  wireless  telegraphy  com- 
munication throughout  the  squadron  was  entirely  satisfactory  and 
invaluable  for  manoeuvring  and  action  signals,  especially  in  the  case  of 
the  repeating  ship  (Bellona),  who  was  often  unable  to  distinguish  the  flag 


191W.]  PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS.  105 

signals.  No  damage  to  aerials  or  instraments  was  sustained  except  in 
Marlbaroughf  whose  auxiliary  aerial  was  partially  shot  away,  and  an 
intermittent  earth  on  the  main  aerial  feeder,  which  could  not  be  traced 
for  three-quarters  of  an  hour,  interrupted  the  reception  of  distant  signals. 
In  Colasnu  the  internal  buzzer  communication  between  main  office  and 
signal  tower  was  shot  away.  No  enemy  signalling  was  heard  on  auxiliary, 
and  though  they  continually  attempted  to  jamb  the  main  installation 
signals  from  ships  in  company  were  easily  overread. 

21.  After  the  enemy  disappeared  in  the  haze  the  First  Battle  Squadron 
conformed  to  the  movements  of  your  flag,  but  though  Marlborough  went 
the  revolutions  for  17  knots,  I  estimate  the  speed  over  the  ground  was 
only  approximately  16*8  owing  to  the  damage.  Consequently  the  6th 
division  fell  some  way  astern  during  the  night. 

22.  Four  night  attacks  were  observed  during  the  night,  the  first  on  the 
starboard  beam,  the  others  taking  place  in  succession  towards  the  stern. 
Several  explosions  were  heard  and  two  very  large  ones  with  flames  shoot- 
ing up  into  the  sky  were  seen ;  star  shells  were  seen. 

23.  About  midnight,  smoke  was  observed  ahead  of  Marlborough, 
which  crossed  from  starboard  to  port  and  back  again  from  port  to  star- 
board, and  then  came  down  the  starboard  side.  It  appeared  to  be  a  large 
ship  and  was  challenged  by  Revenge,  who  was  answered  by  two  letters, 
though  they  were  not  the  correct  ones.    She  then  disappeared. 

24.  At  2.30  A.M.,  June  1,  it  was  reported  to  me  that  the  bulkhead  in 
"  A  "  boiler  room  of  Marlborough  would  not  stand  the  speed,  namely, 
revolutions  for  17  knots,  and  that  it  was  advisable  to  reduce  to  10  or  12 
knots.  In  consequence  of  this  Marlborough  was  hauled  out  of  line  and 
the  remainder  of  the  division  continued.  I  signalled  Fearieee,  who  was 
observed  to  be  astern  of  Agincourt,  to  come  alongside  Marlborough,  and  I 
and  my  staff  transferred  to  Revenge,  in  her,  and  then  sent  her  back  to 
escort  Marlboroughy  who  was  subsequently  ordered  to  Bosyth,  via  "  M " 
Channel. 

26.  Shortly  after  arriving  in  Revenge  a  zeppelin  was  sighted,  evidently 
scouting.  Fire  was  opened  on  her,  which  caused  her  to  dip,  and  she 
quickly  disappeared.  She  looked  a  remarkably  easy  target  if  shrapnel 
had  been  available. 

26.  At  daylight,  owing  to  the  very  low  visibility  and  to  the  fact  that 
the  division  had  dropped  so  far  astern  during  the  night  (as  explained 
above)  and  also  to  the  transfer  of  my  flag  to  Revenge,  the  remainder  of 
the  fleet  was  out  of  sight.  I  shaped  course  as  necessary  to  effect  a 
junction. 

At  3.40  A.M.  Faulknor  with  Obedient  and  Marvel  joined  my  flag  and 
reported  the  12th  Flotilla  had  attacked  a  division  of  the  Gterman  Battle- 
fleet  during  the  night,  and  that  one  battleship  had  been  blown  up. 

27.  At  5.16  A.M.  Revenge  passed  through  the  wreckage  of  a  German 
battleship  or  battle-cruiser,  judging  from  the  size  of  the  floating  powder 
cases. 

At  6.30  A.M.  what  appeared  to  be  the  wreckage  of  the  Black  Prince 
was  passed  through,  and  a  little  later  two  rafts  were  observed  with  three 
men  on  them.  I  ordered  Obedient  to  take  them  off,  but  she  reported  on 
rejoining  that  before  she  got  there  they  had  been  taken  off  by  a  Dutch 


106 


PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS. 


[1920. 


eteamer,  whose  captain  protested  against  their  being  taken  off  his  steamer, 
and  so  the  captain  of  Obedient  left  them. 

28.  At  8.35  A.M.  passed  Sparrowhawk  abandoned  with  Marksman  close 
to.  Marksman  reported  she  was  unable  to  tow  her.  She  had  attempted 
to  do  so,  but  the  hawsers  had  parted.  I,  therefore,  ordered  her  to  sink  her. 
She  did  so  and  then  joined  my  flag.  Nothing  else  of  interest  occurred 
and  I  rejoined  your  flag  that  evening. 

29.  The  following  ammunition  was  fired  by  the  First  Battle 
Squadron : — 


— 

Main 
Armament. 

Secondary 
Armament. 

Torpedoes. 

Marlborough         -        .        -       - 

Revenge 

HercM^ 

Agineowrt     -  ,     - 

Colossus 

OoUingwood 

Neptune 

St,  Vincent 

162 
102 
98 
144 
93 
84 
48 
98 

60 
87 

111 
16 
S5 
48 

2 
1 

829 

857 

8 

30.  I  would  like  to  bring  to  your  notice  the  conduct  of  the  crew  of  the 
Acasta,  as  mentioned  in  the  report  from  the  captain  of  Hercules ;  although 
badly  damaged  and  apparently  in  a  hopeless  state,  they  cheered  the 
Hercules  as  the  latter  passed. 

I  have  the  honour  to  be.  Sir, 

Your  obedient  servant, 

Cecil  Burnby, 
Vice-Admiral  Commanding  First  Battle  Squadron. 

Report  of  Sir  T.  H.  M.  Jerram,  Vice-Admiral  Commakdino  the 

Second  Battle  Squadron. 

**  Kino  Gbobob  Y.,** 
June  6,  1916. 

Sir, — I  have  the  honour  to  forward  herewith  a  summary  of  the  events 
occurring  during  the  recent  action,  compiled  from  reports  made  by  ships 
of  the  Second  Battle  Squadron,  accompanied  by  plans  sent  in  by  King 
Oeorge  F.,  Erin,  Orion,  Monarch,  and  Thunderer,  and  a  diary  of  events 
before,  during,  and  after  the  action,  kept  on  board  King  Oeorge  V, 

2.  I  am  unable  to  supply  much  detail  from  personal  observation^  as  it 
was  impossible  to  gather  any  general  idea  of  the  action,  only  momentary 
glimpses  of  the  enemy  being  obtained.  As  leading  ship,  in  addition  to 
the  hazy  atmosphere,  I  was  much  hampered  by  what  I  imagine  to  have 
been  cordite  fumes  from  the  battle-cruisers  after  they  passed  as,  and 
from  other  cruisers  engaged  on  the  bow  ;  also  by  funnel  gases  from  small 
craft  ahead,  and,  for  a  considerable  time,  by  dense  smoke  from  Duke  of 
Edinburgh,  who  was  unable  to  draw  clear. 

3.  There  is  some  evidence  that  submarines  were  close ;  Duke  of  Edin- 
burgh  three  times  made  the  signal  of  their  presence,  and  my  flag  lieut.- 


1920.]  PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS.  107 

commander  is  certain  that  he  saw  the  two  periscopes  of  one  vessel.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  was  obvious  to  me  that  a  good  deal  of  Duke  of  Edin- 
burgh's fire  was  directed,  not  at  a  submarine,  but  at  the  wake  of  vessels 
ahead.  The  right  gunlayer  and  trainer  of  "  Y  "  turret  in  King  George  V. 
state  that  they  saw  a  torpedo  break  surface  400  yards  short  of  King 
George  V, 

4.  I  should  like  to  mention  specially  that  about  9  p.m.  I  negatived  an 
attack  with  Whitehead  torpedoes  ordered  by  Caroline  as  I  was  certain 
that  the  vessels  seen  on  our  starboard  beam  were  our  own  battle-cruisers. 
The  navigating  officer  of  my  flagship,  who  has  just  come  from  the  Battle- 
cruiser  Fleet,  was  also  certain  that  they  were  ours,  and  saw  them  suffici- 
ently clearly  to  give  their  approximate  course,  which  I  reported  to  you* 
Shortly  afterwards,  I  told  Caroline  to  attack  if  he  was  quite  certain  they 
were  enemy  ships,  as  he  was  in  a  better  position  to  see  them  than  I  was, 
but  I  do  not  know  whether  an  attack  was  made.  If  they  were  enemy 
ships  and  no  attack  was  made,  the  fault  is  mine,  and  not  that  of  Caroline, 

I  have  the  honour  to  be,  Sir, 

Your  obedient  servant, 

T.  H.  M.  Jerkam, 
Vice- Admiral,  Ck)mmanding  Second  Battle  Squadron. 

Bbpobt  of  Captain  Sib  Alfbed  Chatfisld,  Captain  in  Lord 

Beatty's  Flagship,  *'the  Lion." 

H.M.S.  •*  LioH," 

June  4, 1916. 

Sir, — 1  have  the  honour  to  report  that  on  May  31, 1916,  H.M.  Ship 
under  my  command,  flying  your  flag,  was  in  action  with  the  enemy  under 
the  following  circumstances : — 

At  3.25  P.M.,  Q.M.T.  enemy  ships  were  reported  on  the  starboard  bow, 
bearing  E.  by  N. 

At  3.30  P.M.  enemy  ships  were  in  sight  from  Lien  and  a  range  of 
23,000  yards  obtained. 

At  3.44  p.M;  the  enemy,  who  were  rapidly  closing,  were  identified  as 
6  German  battle-cruisers. 

2.  Enemy  opened  fire  at  3.47  p.m.,  Lion  replying  half  a  minute  later, 
the  range  being  18,600,  course  E.S.E.  Lion  was  twice  hit  by  heavy  shell 
at  3.51  P.M.  At  4.0  P.M.  a  shell  disabled  "  Q  '*  turret,  and  shortly  after- 
wards Inde/atigaMe  was  seen  to  be  blown  up,  evidently  by  a  magazine 
explosion. 

3.  At  4.2  P.M.  the  range  was  14,600  and  as  the  enemy  appeared  to  have 
our  range,  course  was  altered  on  two  or  three  occasions  to  1  point  to  throw 
him  out.  The  enemy  appeared  to  be  hit  several  times  by  our  shell.  Lion 
was  firing  at  the  leading  ship,  which  was  either  Liilzow  or  Derfflinger, 

4.  At  4.12  P.M.  our  course  was  S.S.E.  and  range  21,000  and  course 
was  altered  to  S.E.  to  close  the  enemy.  At  this  period  more  than  one 
enemy  ship  was  firing  at  Lion  and  she  was  hit  several  times,  but  no  im- 
portant damage  was  done,  though  several  fires  were  started,  and  there 
was  a  large  number  of  killed  and  wounded,  chiefly  from  a  shell  that  ex- 
ploded on  the  mess  deck  in  the  canteen  flat. 


108  PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS.  [1920. 

6.  At  4.26  P.M.  a  very  great  explosion  was  seen  in  the  Q^een  Mary  and 
she  entirely  disappeared. 

6.  At  4.38  P.M.  the  enemy  battle-fleet  was  sighted  ahead,  and  course 
was  altered  16  points  to  north,  enemy  battle-cruisers  responding  so  as  to 
take  station  ahead  of  their  battle-fleet. 

7.  Lion  reopened  fire  at  4.38  p.m.,  re-engaging  enemy  leading  ship 
{Von  Der  Tann  f) ;  shortly  after  we  passed  wreckage  of  Queen  Mary^  ¥rith 
survivors  in  water,  and  a  destroyer.  The  ship  was  now  hit  several  times, 
the  range  being  16,000  yards.  The  ship  had  fires  in  several  places,  in- 
cluding a  cordite  case  in  the  starboard  4-in.  battery,  which  I  ordered  the 
4-in.  crews  to  extinguish,  but  this  could  not  immediately  be  done  owing 
to  their  extent  and  to  the  pressure  on  the  fire  mains  being  lost  from  per- 
forations.   All  fires  were  eventually  got  under. 

8.  About  this  time  a  fire,  which  had  been  smouldering  in  "  Q  "  turret 
ignited  the  charges  still  in  the  trunks :  this  killed  all  the  magazine  and 
shell-room  parties  and  reached  to  the  mess  deck,  where  it  burnt  some  of 
the  ship's  company.  The  magazine  doors  being  shut,  however,  saved  a 
more  serious  explosion.  A  fire  was  also  reported  in  **  X  "  magazine,  but  this 
proved  to  be  an  error  due  to  smoke  penetrating  down  from  a  heavy 
shell  burst  in  the  Sick  Bay,  which  killed  a  large  number  of  men  in  the 
vicinity. 

9.  At  6.1  P.M.  fire  was  shifted  to  Lutzow  class  again,  range,  16,000 
yards.  Lion  was  hit  twice  by  big  shell,  one  of  which  wrecked  the  ship's 
galley  compartment.  At  6.12  p.m.  Lion  ceased  fire  owing  to  enemy  being 
obscured,  and  did  not  reopen  until  6*41  p.m.  The  visibility  at  this  time 
was  decreasing,  and  when  fire  was  reopened  on  a  ship  that  appeared  to 
be  of  the  X5nig  class  battleship,  the  range  was  14,000  yards,  the  enemy 
being  just  visible.    Ship's  course  was  now  N.£.  by  N. 

10.  At  6.46  P.M.  the  range  was  14,000  yards  and  the  enemy  was  ob- 
served to  be  hit  by  two  salvoes  causing  him  to  alter  course  to  starboard 
and  to  cease  fire. 

11.  At  6.66  P.M.  the  battle-fleet  was  in  sight  on  the  port  bow.  Altered 
course  to  N.E.  by  E.,  and  at  6.4  p.m.  to  east,  the  enemy  battle-cruisen 
bearing  S.E. 

12.  Defence  and  WarrioT  now  crossed  Lion* 9  bow  and  were  engaging  a 
light  German  cruiser,  who  was  seriously  injured  by  them.  This  caused 
Lion  to  cease  fire  and  to  lose  touch  with  the  enemy. 

13.  At  6.21  P.M.  the  Third  Battle-cruiser  Squadron  was  sighted,  and  took 
station  ahead,  and  Lion  reopened  at  distant  ships  on  the  starboard  beam 
<KOnig  class  P).  At  6.29  p.m.  course  was  E.  and  S.  and  at  6.32  p.m.  enemy 
heavy  ships  again  came  into  view  and  opened  fire  on  the  3rd  B.G.S.  At 
6.36  P.M.  Invincible  blew  up. 

14.  Course  was  continued  to  be  altered  to  starboard  to  close  the  enemy, 
and  at  6.37  p.m.  was  altered  to  E.S.E. ;  at  6.44  to  S.E.,  and  6.48  p.m.  to 
S.S.E.  At  6.63  P.M.  speed  was  reduced  to  18  knots  to  keep  station  on  the 
battle-fleet,  who  were  leading  away  to  port  owing  to  a  destroyer  attack. 
Lion  continued  to  engage  the  leading  ship  of  enemy,  occasionally  ceasing 
fire  when  he  became  invisible.  Very  few  hits  were  made  on  the  ship 
subsequent  to  this,  the  enemy's  fire  appreciably  slackening. 

16.  The  ship  continued  to  circle  to  starboard.    At  7.3  p.m.  our  coane 


1920.]  PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS.  109 

was  altered  to  S.S.E.^  and  at  7.6  p.m.  to  south  ;  at  7.9  p.m.  to  S.S.W.,  and 
at  7.11  P.M.  to  S.W.  by  8. 

16.  Fire  was  reopened  on  the  leading  ship  of  the  enemy  at  15,000 
yards  at  7.16  p.m.  and  speed  was  increased  to  22  knots ;  at  7.26  p.m.  to  24 
knots. 

At  7.19  P.M.  the  enemy's  leading  destroyers  made  a  heavy  screen  of 
black  smoke  to  protect  tbeir  ships  from  our  gunfire. 

At  7. 32  P.M.  course  was  S.W.,  and  7.60  p.m.  W.8.W.  The  enemy  was 
still  not  su£Sciently  visible  to  open  fire,  and  this  continued  until  8.21  p.m. 
when  the  flashes  of  his  guns  were  again  seen  on  our  starboard  beam. 

At  8.23  P.M.  Lion  opened  fire  with  rapid  salvoes  on  .his  leading  ship, 
either  LUtsow  or  KOnig  class.  Our  shooting  appeared  to  be  very  effective, 
and  the  enemy  appeared  on  fire  at  8.27  p.m. 

17.  The  enemy  now  turned  away  more  to  starboard,  and  the  light  was 
failing.    Lion  ceased  fire  at  8.30  p.m.  our  course  then  being  N.  36**  W. 

18.  At  8.40  P.M.  a  heavy  bump  was  felt  on  the  starboard  side.  This 
appeared  to  me  like  a  heavy  hit  on  the  water-line,  but  this  was  not  the 
case,  and  it  has  not  yet  been  ascertained  what  was  the  cause.  It  is 
possible  Lion  may  have  run  over  a  sunken  ship,  and  divers  are  examining 
her  bottom. 

Shortly  afterwards,  Indomitable  hauled  out  of  line  and  reported  she 
had  been  torpedoed,  which  was  subsequently  negatived,  which  seems  to 
imply  that  she  had  the  same  experience  as  Lion. 

19.  The  enemy  was  not  sighted  again. 

Damage. 

20.  The  damage  to  the  ship  is  not  serious,  except  that  "  Q  "  turret  is 
wrecked,  but  is  reparable.  The  ship  was  hit  altogether  twelve  times  by 
enemy  heavy  shell,  but  the  damage,  which  I  have  already  reported  to 
you  separately,  does  not  seriously  affect  our  seaworthiness  or  fighting 
efficiency,  and  the  ship  is  now  ready  for  sea. 

Conduct  of  Officers  and  Men. 

21.  The  conduct  of  the  officers  and  ship's  company  was  in  every  detail 
magnificent.  The  ship  has  been  in  commission  for  so  long,  and  the  men 
are  so  highly  trained,  and  have  such  a  fine  spirit,  that  even  in  action  they 
can  do  almost  anything  without  their  officers. 

The  unnerving  sights  that  occurred,  with  the  heavy  casualties,  which 
amounted  to  ninety-five  killed  and  forty-nine  wounded,  mostly  in  the  first 
two  hours  of  the  action,  were  a  tremendous  strain  on  the  strongest 
discipline,  yet  there  was  never  the  least  sign  of  wavering  in  the  least 
degree  from  their  duty. 

On  visiting  the  mess  deck  twice  during  the  action  while  the  ship  was 
temporarily  disengaged,  I  observed  nothing  but  cheerful  determination, 
xeal  to  succour  the  wounded,  and  thoughtf ulness  for  the  good  safety  of  the 
ship  to  keep  her  efficient. 

I  have  the  honour  to  be.  Sir, 
Your  obedient  servant, 

A.  £.  M.  Ghatfibld,  Captain. 


110  PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS.  [i920. 

Report  of  Midshipman  J.  L.  Storey,  Senior  Uninjured  Survivor 

OF  THE  "Queen  Mary." 

Sir, — I  deeply  regret  to  report  that  H.M.S.  Qvsen  Mary,  commanded 
by  Captain  C.  I.  Prowse,  R.N.,  was  completely  destroyed  when  in  action 
with  the  German  Fleet  at  5.25  p.m.  on  Wednesday,  May  31.  The  total 
number  of  officers  and  men  saved  was  eighteen.^ 

The  circumstances  of  the  loss  of  the  ship  are,  as  far  as  I  know,  as 
follows  :  At  4.20  p.m.  the  Qvsen  Mary  was  third  ship  in  the  line  of  the  1st 
B.C.S.,  and  action  was  sounded,  and  at  4.45  the  order  was  given  "  load  all 
guns."  At  4.53  fire  was  opened  on  the  third  ship  of  the  enemy's  line,  the 
range  being  about  17,000  yards. 

The  fire  was  maintained  with  great  rapidity  till  5.20,  and  during  this 
time  we  were  only  slightly  damaged  by  the  enemy's  fire.  At  5.20  a  big 
shell  hit  <*  Q  "  turret  and  put  the  right  gun  out  of  action,  but  the  left  gun 
continued  firing.  At  5.24  a  terrific  explosion  took  place  which  smashed 
up  "  Q  "  turret  and  started  a  big  fire  in  worknig  chamber,  and  the  gun 
house  was  filled  with  smoke  and  gas.  The  officer  on  the  turret,  Lieu- 
tenant-Commander Street,  gave  the  order  to  evacuate  the  turret.  All  the 
unwounded  in  the  gun  house  got  clear  and,  as  they  did  so,  another 
terrific  explosion  took  place  and  all  were  thrown  into  the  water.  On 
coming  to  the  surface  nothing  was  visible  except  wreckage,  but  thirty 
persons  appeared  to  be  floating  in  the  water. 

At  5.55  H.M.S.  Laurel  saw  the  survivors  in  the  water  and  lowered  a 
whaler  and  rescued  seventeen.  When  this  number  had  been  picked  up, 
H.M.S.  Laurel  received  orders  to  proceed  at  full  speed,  being  in  grave 
danger  of  the  enemy's  ships.  All  officers  and  men  were  treated  with  the 
greatest  kindness  by  the  officers  and  men  of  H.M.S.  Laurel,  and  were 
landed  at  Bosyth  at  about  8  p.m.,  June  1.^ 

I  have  the  honour  to  be.  Sir, 
Your  obedient  servant, 

J.  L.  Storey,  Midshipman,  R.N. 

Report  from  Commander  H.  £.  Dannreuther,  Senior  Surviving 

Officer  of  the  "Invincible." 

H.M.S.  "Cbbbcbxt/* 
Juns  2, 1916. 

Sir, — I  deeply  regret  to  report  that  H.M.S.  Invincible^  commanded  by 
Captain  A.  L.  Cay,  B.N.,  and  flying  the  flag  of  Rear-Admiral  the  Hon. 
Horace  L.  Hood,  Rear-Admiral  commanding  the  Third  Battle-cruiser 
Squadron,  was  blown  up  and  completely  destroyed  when  in  action  with 
the  enemy  at  6.34  p.m.  on  Wednesday,  May  31. 

The  total  number  of  officers  and  men  on  board  at  the  time  was  1,03L 
Of  these  only  six  survived.  The  names  of  the  survivors  are  as  follows : 
Commander  H.  E.  Dannreuther^  R.N.,  Lieutenant  C.  S.  Sanford,  R.N., 

ipart  omitted  here,  referring  aolely  to  personnel  reoommencUitio]i»^i.e.,  in  no  way 
bearing  on  the  course  of  the  action. 

'  It  will  be  noted  that  the  abore  times  are  **  Sommer  time  "  and  not  G.M.T. 


X920.]  PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS.  Ill 

Chief  P.O.  (P.T.I.)  Thompson,  Yeo.  Signals  Pratt  (Walter  Maclean), 
216963,  Able  Seaman  Dandridge  (Ernest  George),  239478,  Gunner  Gasson, 
R.M.A. 

Of  the  above,  all  are  free  from  injury  with  the  exception  of  Gunner 
Gasson,  who  was  severely  burnt  about  the  head  and  arms.  They  are  now 
accommodated  in  this  ship  except  Gunner  Gasson,  who  is  in  the  hospital 
ship  Plassey, 

The  circumstances  of  the  destruction  of  the  ship  are  briefly  as 
follows : — 

The  Invincihle  was  leading  the  3rd  B.C.S.  and  at  about  5.46  p.m.  first 
came  into  action  with  an  enemy  light  cruiser  on  the  port  bow.  Several 
torpedoes  were  seen  coming  towards  the  ship,  but  were  avoided  by  turn- 
ing away  from  them.  Invincible'a  fire  was  efiEective  on  the  light  cruiser 
engaged,  and  a  heavy  explosion  was  observed.  A  dense  cloud  of  smoke 
and  steam  from  this  explosion  appeared  to  be  in  the  same  position  some 
minutes  later. 

Invineible  then  turned  and  came  into  action  at  about  6.16  p.m.  with 
the  leading  enemy  battle-cruiser,  which  was  thought  to  be  the  Derfflinger, 
Fire  was  opened  at  the  enemy  at  about  8^000  yards,  and  several  hits  were 
observed. 

A  few  moments  before  the  Invincible  blew  up  Admiral  Hood  hailed 
the  control  ofiBcer  in  the  control  top  from  the  fore  bridge  :  "  Your  firing  is 
very  good ;  keep  at  it  as  quickly  as  you  can,  every  shot  is  telling."  This 
was  the  last  order  heard  from  the  admiral  or  captain,  who  were  both  on 
the  bridge  at  the  end. 

The  ship  had  been  hit  several  times  by  heavy  shell,  but  no  appreciable 
damage  had  been  done  when  at  6.34  p.m.  a  heavy  shell  struck  '*  Q  " 
turret  and,  bursting  inside,  blew  the  roof  off.  This  was  observed  from 
the  control  top.  Almost  immediately  following  there  was  a  tremendous 
explosion  amidships,  indicating  that  ^'  Q  "  magazine  had  blown  up.  The 
ship  broke  in  two  and  sank  in  10  or  16  seconds. 

The  survivors  on  coming  to  the  surface  saw  the  bow  and  stem  of  the 
ship  only,  both  of  which  were  vertical  and  about  60  ft  clear  of  the  water. 
The  survivors  were  stationed  as  follows  prior  to  the  sinking  of  the  ship : 
Commander  Dannreuther  (Gun  Control  Officer),  C.P.O.  Thompson  and 
A.B.  Danbridge,  Fore  Control  Top ;  Yeo.  Signals  Pratt,  Director-Tower 
platform  ;  Lieutenant  (T.)  Sanford,  Fore  Conning  Tower  (hatch  of  which 
was  open) ;  Gunner  Gasson,  ''  Q  "  turret  at  the  range-finder. 

There  was  very  little  wreckage ;  the  six  survivors  were  supported  by  a 
target  raft  and  floating  timber  till  picked  up  by  H.M.S:  Badger  shortly 
after  7  p.m.  Only  one  man  besides  those  rescued  was  seen  to  come  to  the 
surface,  after  the  explosion,  and  he  sank  before  he  could  reach  the  target 
raft.  The  Badger  was  brought  alongside  the  raft  in  a  most  expeditious 
and  seamanlike  manner,  and  the  survivors  were  treated  with  the  utmost 
kindness  and  consideration  by  the  officers  and  men. 

I  have  the  honour  to  be.  Sir, 

Your  obedient  servant, 

H.  £.  Dannbeutheb,  Commander. 


112  PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS.  [1920. 

Despatch  fbom  Adiaibal  Jeilicoe  to  the  Secbetaby  of  the 

Admibalty. 

'*Ibon  Duke," 
October  30, 1914. 

Sib, — The  experience  gained  of  German  methods  since  the  com- 
mencement of  the  war  makes  it  possible  and  very  desirable  to  consider 
the  manner  in  which  these  methods  are  likely  to  be  made  use  of  tactically 
in  a  fleet  action. 

2.  The  Germans  have  shown  that  they  rely  to  a  very  great  extent  on 
submarines^  mines,  and  torpedoes,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  whatever 
that  they  will  endeavour  to  make  the  fullest  use  of  these  weapons  in  a 
fleet  action,  especially  since  they  possess  an  actual  superiority  over  us 
in  these  particular  directions. 

3.  It  therefore  becomes  necessary  to  consider  our  own  tactical  methods 
in  relation  to  these  forms  of  attack. 

4.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  evident  that  the  Germans  cannot  rely  with 
certainty  upon  having  their  full  complement  of  submarines  and  mine- 
layers present  in  a  fleet  action  unless  the  battle  is  fought  in  waters 
selected  by  them,  and  in  the  southern  area  of  the  North  Sea.  Aircraft, 
also,  could  only  be  brought  into  action  in  this  locality. 

6.  My  object  will  therefore  be  to  fight  the  fleet  action  in  the  northern 
portion  of  the  North  Sea,  which  position  is  incidentally  nearer  our  own 
bases,  giving  our  wounded  ships  a  chance  of  reaching  them,  whilst  it 
ensures  the  final  destruction  or  capture  of  enemy  wounded  vessels,  and 
greatly  handicaps  a  night  destroyer  attack  before  or  after  a  fleet  action. 
The  northern  area  is  also  favourable  to  a  concentration  of  our  cruisers  and 
torpedo  craft  with  the  battle  fleet :  such  concentration  on  the  part  of  the 
enemy  being  always  possible  since  he  will  choose  a  time  for  coming  oat 
when  all  his  ships  are  coaled  and  ready  in  all  respects  to  fight. 

6.  Owing  to  the  necessity  that  exists  for  keeping  our  cruisers  at  sea,  it 
is  probable  that  many  will  be  short  of  coal  when  the  opportunity  for  a 
fieet  action  arises,  and  they  might  be  unable  to  move  far  to  the  south- 
ward for  this  reason. 

7.  The  presence  of  a  large  force  of  cruisers  is  most  necessary,  for 
observation  and  for  screening  the  battle-fleet,  so  that  the  latter  may 
be  manoeuvred  into  any  desired  position  behind  the  cruiser  screen.  This 
is  a  strong  additional  reason  for  fighting  m  the  northern  area. 

8.  Secondly,  it  is  necessary  to  consider  what  may  be  termed  the 
tactics  of  the  actual  battle-field. 

The  German  submarines,  if  worked  as  is  expected  with  the  battle-fleet, 
can  be  used  in  one  of  two  ways : — 

(a)  With  the  cruisers,  or  possibly  with  destroyers. 

(6)  With  the  battle-fleet. 

In  the  flrst  case,  the  submarines  would  probably  be  led  by  the  croiaera 
to  a  position  favourable  for  attacking  our  battle-fleet  as  it  advanced  to 
deploy,  and  in  the  second  case  they  might  be  kept  in  a  position  in  rear, 
or  to  the  flank,  of  the  enemy's  battle-fleet,  which  would  move  in  the 
direction  required  to  draw  our  own  fleet  into  contact  with  the  sub- 
marines. 


1920.]  PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS.  113 

9.  The  first  move  at  (o)  should  be  defeated  by  our  own  cruisers, 
provided  we  have  a  sufficient  number  present,  as  they  should  be  able  to 
force  the  enemy's  cruisers  to  action  at  a  speed  which  would  interfere  with 
submarine  tactics. 

The  cruisers  must,  however,  have  destroyers  in  company  to  assist  in 
dealing  with  the  submarines,  and  should  be  well  in  advance  of  the  battle- 
fleet  ;  hence  the  necessity  for  numbers. 

10.  The  second  move  at  (6)  can  be  countered  by  judicious  handling  of 
our  battle-fleet,  but  may,  and  probably  will,  involve  a  rofusal  to  comply 
with  the  enemy's  tactics  by  moving  in  the  invited  direction.  If,  for 
instance,  the  enemy  battle-fleet  were  to  turn  away  from  an  advancing 
fleet,  I  should  assume  that  the  intention  was  to  lead  us  over  mines  and 
submarines,  and  should  decline  to  he  so  drawn. 

11.  I  desire  particularly  to  draw  the  attention  of  their  Lordships  to 
this  point,  since  it  may  be  deemed  a  refusal  of  battle,  and,  indeed,  might 
possibly  result  in'failuro  to  bring  the  enemy  to  action  as  soon  as  is 
expected  and  hoped. 

12.  Such  a  result  would  be  absolutely  ropugnant  to  the  feelings  of  all 
British  Naval  Officers  and  men,  but  with  new  and  untried  methods  of 
warfare  new  tactics  must  be  devised  to  meet  them. 

I  feel  that  such  tactics,  if  not  understood,  may  bring  odium  upon  me, 
but  so  long  as  I  have  the  confidence  of  their  Lordships  I  intend  to  pursue 
what  is,  in  my  considered  opinion,  the  proper  course  to  defeat  and 
annihilate  the  enemy's  battle-fleet,  without  regard  to  uninstructed  opinion 
or  criticism. 

13.  The  situation  is  a  difficult  one.  It  is  quite  within  the  bounds  of 
possibility  that  half  of  our  battle-fleet  might  be  disabled  by  under- water 
attack  before  the  guns  opened  fire  at  all^  if  a  false  move  is  made,  and  I 
feel  that  I  must  constantly  bear  in  mind  the  great  probability  of  such 
attack  and  be  prepared  tactically  to  prevent  its  success. 

14.  The  safeguard  against  submarines  vnll  consist  in  moving  the 
battle-fleet  at  very  high  speed  to  a  flank  before  deployment  takes  place  or 
the  gun  action  commences. 

This  will  take  us  off  the  ground  on  which  the  enemy  desires  to  fight, 
but  it  may,  of  course,  result  in  his  refusal  to  follow  me. 

If  the  battle-fleets  remain  within  sight  of  one  another,  though  not  near 
the  original  area,  the  limited  submerged  radius  of  action  and  speed  of  the 
submarines  will  prevent  the  submarines  from  following  without  coming 
to  the  surface,  and  I  should  feel  that  after  an  interval  of  high-speed 
manoeuvring,  I  could  safely  close. 

15.  The  object  of  this  letter  is  to  place  my  views  before  their  Lordships, 
and  to  direct  their  attention  to  the  alterations  in  pre-conceived  ideas  of 
battle  tactics  which  are  forced  upon  us  by  the  anticipated  appearance  in 
a  fleet  action  of  submarines  and  minelayers. 

16.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  fullest  use  will  also  be  made  by 
the  enemy  of  surface  torpedo  craft. 

This  point  has  been  referred  to  in  previous  letters  to  their  Lordships, 
and,  so  long  as  the  whole  of  the  First  Fleet  Flotillas  are  with  the  fleet, 
the  hostile  destroyers  will  be  successfully  countered  and  engaged. 

The  necessity  for  attaching  some  destroyers  to  cruiser  squadrons, 

H 


A 


114  PUBLIC  DOCUMENTS.  [i92a 

alluded  to  in  paragraph  9,  emphasises  the  necessity  for  the  junction  of  the 
Ist  and  3id  Flotillas  with  the  fleet  before  a  fleet  action  takes  place. 

17.  It  will,  however,  be  very  desirable  that  aU  available  ships  and 
torpedo  craft  should  be  ordered  to  the  position  of  the  fleet  action  as  soon 
as  it  is  known  to  be  imminent,  as  the  presence  of  even  Third  Fleet  Vessels 
after  the  action  or  towards  its  conclusion  may  prove  of  great  assistance 
in  rendering  the  victory  shattering  and  complete. 

The  Channel  Fleet  should  be  accompanied  by  as  many  destroyers^ 
drawn  from  the  Dover  or  Coast  patrols,  as  can  be  spared. 

I  trust  that  their  Lordships  will  give  the  necessary  orders  on  the 
receipt  of  information  from  me  of  an  impending  fleet  action. 

18.  In  the  event  of  a  fleet  action  being  imminent  or,  indeed,  as  soon 
as  the  High  Sea  Fleet  is  known  to  be  moving  northward,  it  is  most 
desirable  that  a  considerable  number  of  our  oversea  submarines  should 
proceed  towards  the  fleet,^getting  first  on  to  the  line  between  the  Germans 
and  Heligoland  in  order  to  intercept  them  when  returning.  The  German 
Fleet  would  probably  arrange  its  movements  so  as  to  pass  Heligoland  at 
dusk  when  coming  out  and  at  dawn  when  returning,  in  order  to  minimise 
submarine  risk.  The  opportunity  for  submarine  attack  in  the  Heligoland 
Bight  would  not  therefore  be  very  great,  and  from  four  to  six  submarines 
would  be  the  greatest  number  that  could  be  usefully  employed  there.  The 
remainder,  accompanied  by  one  or  two  light  cruisers,  taken,  if  necessary, 
from  the  Dover  patrol,  should  work  up  towards  the  position  of  the  fleet, 
the  light  cruisers  keeping  in  wireless  touch  with  me. 

I  have  the  honour  to  be,  Sir, 
Your  obedient  servant, 

J.  R.  Jellicob,  Admiral. 

The  Secretary 

of  the  Admiralty. 
M.08177/14. 

ADiaaAiAT, 
Nov&mber  7, 1914. 

Sir, — I  have  laid  before  My  Lords  Commissioners  of  the  Admiralty 
your  letter  of  the  30th  ultimo.  No.  339/H.F.  0034,  and  I  am  commanded 
by  them  to  inform  you  that  they  approve  your  views,  as  stated  therein, 
and  desire  to  assure  you  of  their  full  confidence  in  your  contemplated 
conduct  of  the  fleet  in  action. 

2.  My  Lords  will,  as  desired,  give  orders  for  all  available  ships  and 
torpedo  craft  to  proceed  to  the  position  of  the  fleet  action  on  learning 
ffom  you  that  it  is  imminent. 

I  am,  Sir, 

Your  obedient  servant, 

W.  Graham  Grisnb. 


OBITUARY 

or 

EMINENT  PERSONS  DECEASED  IN  1920. 

JANUARY. 

2.  The  Right  Hon.  Sir  Prank  Lascelles,  O.C.B.,  Q.C.M.Q.»  Q.C.V.O., 

who  was  78  years  of  age,  was  son  of  the  Bt.  Hon.  W.  8.  8.  Lascelles, 
M.P.,  his  mother  being  a  daughter  of  the  6th  Earl  of  Carlisle.  He 
entered  the  Diplomatic  Service  in  his  youth.  As  a  Secretary  of  Lega- 
tion in  1867-68  he  was  in  Berlin,  and  his  next  appointment  was  to  Paris 
where  he  remained  through  the  Siege  and  the  Commune.  After  short 
periods  of  service  in  Bome,  Washington,  Athens,  and  Egypt,  he  went  to 
Sofia,  where  he  stayed,  during  Prince  Alexander  of  Battenberg's  reign 
from  1879  to  1886.  The  following  year  he  went  to  Bukarest,  and  m 
1891  he  was  appointed  to  Teheran,  where  he  became  very  popular. 
From  1894  to  1895  he  was  Ambassador  at  Petersburg,  and  he  formed 
a  favourable  impression  of  the  Tsar,  Nicholas  II.,  while  deploring  the 
confusion  which  prevailed  in  Bussian  Government  Departments.  Sir 
Frank  was  appointed  Ambassador  to  Berlin  in  October,  1896,  and  was 
thus  in  office  at  the  time  the  Kaiser's  tele^ra  to  President  Eruger 
roused  the  ire  of  the  British  nation.  The  situation  was  dealt  with  by 
the  Ambassador  in  a  level-headed  manner,  and  he  was  subsequently  on 
excellent  terms  with  William  II.,  despite  the  occasional  strange  out- 
breaks of  temper  to  which  that  monarch  was  subject.  Sir  Frank 
seemed  to  know  how  to  distinguish  between  mere  eccentricity  and 
deliberate  scheming  on  the  part  of  the  Kaiser  in  political  matters,  and 
his  career  in  Berlin  was  distinguished  by  tact  and  moderation.  He 
remained  there  until  1908. 

Sir  Frank  married,  in  1867,  the  eldest  daughter  of  Sir  J.  Olliffe,  and 
he  had  two  sons  and  a  daughter. 

3.  The  Rev.  Frederick  Qeorge  Dutton,  5th  Baron  Sherborne,  who 

was  in  his  80th  year,  was  educated  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  He  was 
ordained  in  1869,  became  Vicar  of  Sherborne  with  Windrush  in  1870, 
and  from  1874  to  1916  was  Vicar  of  Bibur^.  In  1901  he  became  an 
Honorary  Canon  of  Gloucester,  and  he  resigned  his  benefice  in  1916. 
Lord  Sherborne  succeeded  his  brother  in  1919,  and  was  himself  suc- 
ceeded by  his  nephew,  Lieut. -Colonel  James  Huntley  Dutton,  D.S.O. 

—  Thomas  Hart-DavieSb  who  was  73  years  of  age^  represented  North 
Hackney  as  a  Liberal  in  the  House  of  Commons  from  1906  to  1910.  He 
was  a  son  of  Archdeacon  Hart-Davies,  and  was  educated  at  Marlborough 
and  Pembroke  College,  Oxford,  where  he  was  an  exhibitioner.  From 
1867,  when  he  entered  the  Indian  Civil  Service,  he  held  posts  in  the 
Bombay  Presidency  for  twenty-eight  yeans,  becoming  eventually  Judge 
of  the  Karachi  District,  and  Acting  Judicial  Commissioner.  Mr.  Hart- 
Davies  was  a  supporter  of  the  Morlev-Minto  reforms  in  Indian  Govern- 
ment, and  he  was  also  a  great  traveller  and  a  linguist  of  considerable 
attainments.    In  1913  he  married  Mrs.  Wauhope. 

116  J7a 


116  OBITUAKY.  [Jan. 

4.  Don  Benito  Perez  Oaldos,  the  eminent  Spanish  novelist,  was  born 
in  the  Canary  Islands  in  1845.  He  abandoned  the  study  of  law  in 
Madrid  for  a  journalistic  career,  and  in  1870  he  began  his  life's  work  of 
novel  writing.  His  great  series  of  historical  novels,  the  ''Episodios 
Nacionales,"  were  widely  read  and  extremely  popular  all  over  Spain, 
and  his  works  dealing  with  modern  times,  some  of  which  were  concerned 
with  questions  of  religion  and  politics,  influenced  the  thoughts  of  his 
contemporaries  to  a  marked  degree. 

As  a  politician  Galdos  was  also  well  known^  being  from  1885  for 
many  years  Deputy  for  the  district  of  Guyama  in  Porto  Rico,  and  later 
he  became  chief  of  the  Socialist  Party. 

His  gifts  as  a  novelist  were  brilliancy  and  a  forcible  style.  His 
*'  Fortunate  y  Jacinta,"  ''  Gloria,"  and  **  La  Familia  de  Leon  Roch  "  were 
striking  instances  of  his  genius,  to  which  indeed  the  contemporary 
revival  of  Spanish  fiction  may  be  largely  attributed. 

—  Robert  Etheridge,  who  was  73  years  of  age,  was  the  son  of  a  well- 
known  geologist  and  palaeontologist,  formerly  ]%rector  to  the  Geolo^cal 
Survey  of  England.  He  followed  his  father's  profession,  working  in 
early  life  as  a  member  of  the  first  Greological  Survey  of  Victoria,  after 
which  he  returned  to  England  and  became  paleeontologist  to  the  Geo- 
logical Survey  of  Scotland.  He  subsequently  worked  with  his  father  on 
the  staff  of  the  Geological  Department  of  the  Natural  History  Museum 
in  London. 

Mr.  Etheridge,  however,  maintained  his  interest  in  Australia,  and  in 
1887  he  returned  to  that  country  as  palesontologist  to  the  Geological 
Survey  of  New  South  Wales,  and  to  the  Australian  Museum  in  Sydney, 
of  which  he  became  Director  in  1895. 

His  work  for  the  Museum  and  for  the  cause  of  science  generally 
in  Australia  was  very  great.  His  arrangement  of  the  collections,  in- 
cluding that  of  a  remarkable  series  of  ethnological  exhibits  from  the 
Pacific  Islands,  extended  the  usefulness  of  the  Museum. 

Mr.  Etheridge  also  founded  a  library  at  the  Mines  Department,  and 
the  *' Records  of  the  Australian  Museum,"  and  arranged  for  public 
lectures  on  scientific  subjects. 

Among  the  honours  he'  received  were  the  Clarke  Memorial  Medal 
from  the  Royal  Society  of  New  South  Wales  in  1895,  and  the  Mueller 
Memorial  Medal  from  the  Australian  Association  for  the  Advancement 
of  Science  in  1911,  and  his  name  was  given  to  an  Antarctic  glacier,  a 
peak  on  the  Kosciusko  Plateau,  and  a  goldtield  in  North  Queensland. 

Among  Mr.  Etheridge's  published  works  was  included  *<The  Geology 
and  Palaeontology  of  Queensland  and  New  Guinea,"  in  which  he  colla- 
borated with  Mr.  R.  Logan  Jack. 

5.  Sir  Thomas  Fraser,  P.R.S.,  Sc.D.,  M.D.,  etc.,  Emeritus  Professor 
of  Materia  Medica  in  Edinburgh  University^  was  born  in  1841.  He  was 
the  son  of  Mr.  John  Fraser  of  Urailing  Hall,  Roxburghshire,  and  of  Gal- 
cutta,  and  took  his  degree  in  Medicine  at  Edinburgh  in  1862.  Eight  years 
later  he  became  Lecturer  in  Materia  Medica  in  the  Extra-mural  School 
of  that  city,  resigning  his  post  in  1874  to  take  up  that  of  Medical  OflBcer 
of  Health  for  Cheshire.  He  was,  however,  recalled  to  Edinburgh  three 
years  later  when  he  was  appointed  the  successor  of  Sir  Robert  Christison, 
the  Professor  of  Materia  Medica  in  the  University. 

Both  by  his  teaching  and  his  research  work  Sir  Thomas  left  his  mark 
on  the  medical  world  of  his  generation. 

His  great  aim  was  the  acquisition  and  imparting  of  knowledge  con- 
cerning the  action  of  drugs  on  the  body,  and  in  this  branch  of  medical 
science  he  gained  the  highest  renown.  He  discovered  the  uses  of  the 
drug  physostigmine,  and  demonstrated  its  action  and  effect  upon  the 
eye,  and  his  other  researches,  including  those  upon  the  drug  stropanthus 
in  its  relation  to  heart  affections,  and  his  investigations  into  the 
causes  of  plague  in  India  in  1898,  proved  of  great  value. 


1920.]  OBITUARY.  117 

Sir  Thomas  was  famous  as  a  teacher,  and  although  an  unfortunate 
accident  caused  him  to  break  his  leg  at  a  somewhat  advanced  age,  he 
retained  his  post  until  1918. 

He  was  knighted  in  1902,  and  was  the  recipient  of  many  honours, 
including  that  of  Honorary  Physician  in  Onlinary  to  the  King  in 
Scotland,  and  Laureate  of  the  Institute  of  France.  He  was  married 
and  had  a  family. 

6.  Walter*  ist  Baron  Cunliffe,  who  was  Crovemor  of  the  Bank  of 
England  from  1913  to  1918,  was  a  member  of  a  family  of  City  bankers, 
and  was  born  in  1856.  He  was  educated  at  Harrow  and  Cambridge, 
where  his  athletic  achievements  were  considerable,  and  in  1880  he  went 
into  the  City,  and  ten  years  later  he  established  the  merchant  banking 
firm  of  Cunliffe  Brothers  of  Cornhill. 

In  1895  he  became  a  director  of  the  Bank  of  England,  and  was 
elected  Deputy  Governor  in  1911. 

As  Governor  during  the  Great  War  Lord  Cunliffe  (he  was  raised  to 
the  Peerage  in  December,  1914)  occupied  a  position  of  immense  re- 
sponsibility. His  decision  in  1914  to  discount  pre-moratorium  bills  was 
productive  of  great  relief  to  the  money  market,  and  was  received  with 
general  approval.  On  other  occasions  his  policy  was  subjected  to  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  adverse  criticism,  as,  for  instance,  when  he  raised 
the  Bank  rate  in  July,  191d,  and  maintained  it  longer  than  was  necessary. 
But  he  was  always  admired  for  his  high  integrity,  and  his  services  to 
his  country  were  great. 

Lord  Cunliffe  went  on  missions  to  France,  Bussia,  Italy,  and  the 
United  States,  during  his  period  as  Governor  of  the  Bank,  and  he 
became  a  financial  adviser  to  the  Government  at  the  Peace  Conference. 

He  received  various  foreign  distinctions,  and  shortly  before  his  death 
was  made  an  Honorary  Freeman  of  the  Goldsmiths'  Company.  Lord 
Cunliffe  was  twice  married,  and  left  five  children,  being  succeeded  by 
his  son,  the  Hon.  Rolf  Cunliffe,  who  was  born  in  1899. 

—  Professor  Helnrich  Lammasch,  the  international  jurist  and 
politician,  was  born  in  1853.  In  1899  he  became  Professor  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Vienna,  and  likewise  a  member  of  the  Austrian  Upper  House. 
In  1900  he  was  nominated  to  the  International  Tribunal  at  the  Hague, 
and  he  subsequently  sat  on  various  important  committees.  Professor 
Lammasch  spoke  in  favour  of  peace  without  annexations,  and  with 
equal  rights  for  all  nations  in  the  Upper  House  in  June,  1917,  and  in 
October,  1918,  he  was  for  a  short  period  Prime  Minister  of  Austria. 
But  the  Emperoi^s  abdication  caused  the  downfall  of  his  Government. 

—  Sir  Edmund  Barton,  Q.C.iVLQ.,  the  first  Prime  Minister  of  Aus- 
tralia, was  born  in  1849  in  Sydney^  and  was  the  son  of  middle-class 
parents.  He  was  educated  in  his  native  city,  gaining  scholarships  and 
classical  distinction  at  the  University,  where  he  graduated  B.A.  in  1868. 

In  1871  he  was  called  to  the  New  South  Wales  Bar,  becoming  a  Q.C. 
in  1889. 

From  1879  onwards  he  was  engaged  in  politics,  holding  alternately 
seats  in  the  Legislative  Assembly  and  in  the  Legislative  Council,  and 
in  1889  he  reached  Cabinet  rank  as  Attorney-General,  with  Sir  George 
Dibbs  as  Premier.  Sir  Edmund  had  previously  been  Speaker  of  the 
Assembly  from  1883  to  1887  and  was  known  as  a  convinced  Protectionist. 
On  the  death  of  Sir  Henry  Parkes  in  1896  Sir  Edmund  Barton  succeeded 
him  as  leader  of  the  Federation  movement,  and  in  1900  he  went  to 
London  at  the  head  of  the  Delegation  which  presented  the  Common- 
wealth Constitution  Bill  to  the  British  Parliament. 

The  following  year  he  became  Australia's  first  Prime  Minister,  and 
was  confronted  with  the  immensely  difficult  task  of  controlling  and 
leading  a  Government  which  was  composed  of  men  who  were  described 
as  forming  a  "Cabinet  of  Captains,''  and  with  that  of  dealing  with  a 
Parliament  which  reflected  many  of  these  characteristics. 


118  OBITUAEY.  [Jan. 

Sir  Edmund's  great  mental  powers  and  foresight,  reinforced  by  wide 
learning,  were  thus  employed  in  the  elucidation  of  problems  affecting 
Imperial  Unity.  In  1902  he  attended  the  Colonial  Conference  in 
London,  and  then  became  a  Puisne  Judge  of  the  High  Court  where  his 
powers  as  an  Empire  Builder  were  still  exercised  for  the  good  of  the 
country  to  which  his  life  had  been  devoted. 

6.  Ueut -Colonel  Manners-Smith,  V.C.,  C.V.O.,  C.I.E.,  was  in  his 

56th  year.  He  gained  the  Victoria  Cross  on  the  Gilgit  Frontier  in  the 
Hunza-Nagar  Campaign  of  1891-92,  and  he  held  in  succession  the  posts 
of  Besident  in  Nepal,  Resident  in  Kashmir,  and  Governor-Generars 
Agent  in  Raj  pu tana. 

8.  Sir  Henry  Meredytli  Plowden,  who  was  in  his  80th  year,  was  a 
member  of  a  distinguished  Anglo-Indian  family.  He  was  educated 
at  Harrow  and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  was  well  known  as 
a  cricketer,  being  captain  for  two  years  of  the  Cambridge  eleven,  and 
also  winning  the  University  Challenge  Rackets  in  1862,  and  the  Oxford 
and  Cambridge  Rackets  in  1863. 

He  was  celled  to  the  Bar  by  Lincoln's  Inn  in  1866  and  subsequently 
served,  first  as  Government  Advocate,  and  later  as  Judge  at  the  Chief 
Court  of  the  Punjab.  In  1888  he  was  knighted,  and  he  retired  six  ^eara 
later.  Sir  Henry  married  a  daughter  of  Sir  Cecil  Beadon,  Lieut- 
Governor  of  Bengal,  and  had  two  daughters. 

10.  Sir  Jolin  McCallum,  M.P.  for  Paisley,  was  72.  He  was  Chairman 
of  Messrs.  Isdale  <&  McCallum,  Ltd.,  soapmakers,  and  had  represented 
Paisley  as  a  Liberal  since  1906. 

11.  The  Rev.  John  Nepomucene  Strassmaler^  S^J.,  the  well-known 
Assyriologist,  was  born  in  Bavaria  in  1846.  In  early  life  he  showed 
a  marked  capacity  for  Hebrew  and  Oriental  study,  but  his  studies  were 
interrupted  by  ambulance  work  in  the  Franco-Prussian  War.  He  came 
to  England  in  1872,  took  his  doctorate  with  honours,  and  in  1878  he 
settled  in  London  where  he  had  every  opportunity  of  continuing  his 
research  work.  From  1882  to  1900  Fr.  Strassmaier  published  codifica- 
tions and  elucidations  of  Assyrian  inscriptions  belonging  to  the  British 
Museum,  and  later  he  dealt  with  the  famous  tablets  which  were  sent 
to  him  from  Berlin.  In  1889  he  published,  in  collaboration  with 
Fr.  Epping,  S.  J.,  a  great  work  on  ancient  astronomy.  Unfortunately 
some  of  Fr.  Strassmaier's  formulae  were  erroneously  applied,  which  de- 
tracted from  the  value  of  this  publication. 

—  Mrs.  Margaret  Dunlop  Qibson,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  D.Litt.,  was,  like 
her  twin  sister  Mrs.  Agnes  Lewis,  a  famous  Oriental  scholar.  In  1883 
she  married  the  Rev.  J.  Y.  Gibson,  the  translator  of  the  poems  of  Cer- 
vantes.   Her  husband  died  in  1886. 

Mrs.  Gibson,  with  her  sister,  travelled  extensively  in  Syria  and 
Palestine,  visiting  Sinai  no  less  than  six  times.  In  1892  they  published 
the  photograph  of  the  Syriac  palimpsest  of  the  Gospels,  and  in  1896  the 
first  leaf  of  the  Hebrew  Ecclesiasticus. 

In  1897  the  sisters  gave  the  site  of  Westminster  Theological  College. 
Cambridge,  to  which  institution  they  presented  an  endowment  or 
20,0002.  Mrs.  Gibson's  published  works  included  '*  How  the  Codex  was 
Found,"  and  Commentaries  in  Syriac  and  English  on  the  Holy 
Scriptures. 

16.  Major-Qeneral  Sir  Philip  Geoffrey  Twining,  KX.M.Q.t  CB., 
M.V.O.»  was  Director  of  Fortifications  and  Works  at  the  War  Office,  lo 
which  post  he  was  appointed  in  April,  1918.  He  was  in  his  67th  year, 
and  was  bom  at  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia.  He  was  educated  at  Kingstone, 
Canada,  entered  the  Army  in  1886,  and  served  in  India,  Canada,  Africaa^ 
and  China.  He  was  promoted  Colonel  in  1916  and  Major-General  in 
1917.    He  did  much  useful  work  for  the  transport  system  in  France. 


1920.]  OBITUAEY.  119 

16.  Alfred  Parsons,  R.A.,  P.R.W.S.,  was  born  in  1847.  He  started 
life  as  a  clerk  in  the  Qeneral  Post  OfiBce,  but  he  soon  turned  his  attention 
to  the  art  of  painting,  and  became  well  known  as  an  exhibitor  before 
he  was  30.  His  picture  '*  When  Nature  Painted  all  Things  G^y " 
was  bought  by  the  Chantrey  Fund  in  1887.  Mr.  Parsons'  great  sift 
was  for  painting  flowers  and  gardens,  and  in  the  development  of  this 
branch  of  art  he  studied  unremittingly.  His  work  both  in  oils  and 
water-colours  became  a  delight  to  all  who  cared  for  horticulture,  and  he 
was  also  noted  as  a  designer  of  gardens.  His  illustrations  showed  his 
gifts  almost  at  their  highest  point,  and  his  work  for  Harper's  Mc^gazine 
and  for  Mr.  Austin  Dobson's  poems  proved  this.  He  was  President 
of  the  Royal  Water-colour  Society  for  six  years. 

18.  Vice-Admlral  Noel  S.  P.  Dl^by  was  born  in  1839,*  and  entered  the 
Navy  in  1862.  He  was  present  at  the  bombardment  of  Seb^topol 
in  1854,  and  at  the  bombardment  of  Sveaborg  the  next  jear,  and  in 
1861  he  served  as  lieutenant  on  the  first  British  sea-gomg  ironclad, 
the  Warrior,  He  was  promoted  Commander  in  1872,  served  in  the 
Ashanti  War,  receiving  the  medal,  and  became  Captain  in  1879,  after 
which  he  served  as  flag-captain  to  various  Admirals. 

In  1889  he  was  appointed  to  the  charge  of  the  training-ship  Britannia 
and  retained  this  post  until  1892,  retiring  from  the  Navy  in  1893. 
Admiral  Digby  was  twice  married,  and  left  a  son  and  daughter. 

21.  The  Right  Rev.  Bernard  Ward,  D.D.,  Roman  Catholic  Bishop  of 
Brentwood,  who  died  very  suddenly,  was  in  his  63rd  year.  He  was  the 
youngest  son  of  William  George  Ward,  well  known  as  a  pioneer  of  the 
Oxfonl  Movement,  and  was  bom  when  his  father  was  Professor  of 
Theology  at  St.  Edmund's  College,  Ware,  the  institution  where  he  was 
destined  to  play  so  important  a  part. 

He  was  educated  partly  there,  and  partly  at  Oscott,  was  ordained  by 
Cardinal  Manning  in  1882,  and  became  "  Prefect "  at  St.  Edmund's  for 
three  years.  In  1890  he  was  made  Vice-President,  and  from  1893  to 
1916  he  was  President  of  the  College,  receiving  the  honour  of  being 
appointed  Domestic  Prelate  to  Pope  Leo  XIII.  in  1895,  and  becoming  a 
C^non  of  the  Diocese  of  Westminster  in  1903. 

For  a  short  time,  after  ill-health  compelled  his  resignation  of  the 
Presidency  of  the  Colle^  in  1916,  Dr.  Ward  was  Missionary  Rector  of 
Holy  Trinity  Church,  Hammersmith,  and  in  1917  he  was  consecrated 
Bishop. 

His  great  life-work  was  that  which  he  accomplished  for  the  students 
at  Ware.  He  was  devoted  to  their  interests,  and  his  scholarly  attain- 
ments and  gifts  of  geniality  and  humour  were  of  the  greatest  benefit  to 
those  over  whom  he  presided. 

Bishop  Ward's  published  works  include  several  volumes  on  the 
*'  History  of  Roman  Catholicism  in  England  during  the  18th  and  19th 
Centuries,"  the  *'  History  of  St.  Edmund's  College,"  and  a  volume  on 
"  The  Priestly  Vocation." 

22.  The  Rev.  Edmond  Warre,  D.D.,  D.C.L.,  C.V.O.,  C.B.,  formerly 
Head  Master  and  Provost  of  Eton  College,  was  82  years  of  age.  He  was 
a  member  of  an  old  Somerset  familv^  and  was  educated  first  at  Eton, 
where  he  had  a  distinguished  career  from  1849  to  1854,  both  as  a  scholar 
and  an  athlete,  and  in  1856  he  became  a  Scholar  of  Balliol  College,  Oxford. 
In  1866  he  took  a  First  in  Moderations,  and  in  1869  a  First  in  lit.  Hum., 
and  became  a  Fellow  of  All  Souls.  Among  his  other  claims  to  dis- 
tinction were  the  facts  that  he  rowed  in  the  University  eight  in  1867-68- 
59,  and  became  President  of  the  O.U.B.C.  He  also  founded  the  Oxford 
Volunteer  Rifle  Corps.  From  1860  to  1884  Dr.  Warre  was  an  Assistant 
Master  at  Eton,  and  from  1884  until  1906,  Head  Master.  He  then  lived 
in  retirement  for  four  years,  after  which  he  was  appointed  Provost  of 
Eton  by  King  Edward  Yll. 

Dr.  Warre's  work  for  Eton  was  great  and  many-sided.     As  an 


120  OBITUAEY.  [Jan. 

organiser^  whether  of  school  work  or  games,  or  in  the  planning  of  new 
buildings,  his  capacity  for  detail  and  his  thoroughness  were  remarkable 
to  a  high  degree.  His  fame  as  an  oarsman  and  a  coach  were  world-wide, 
and  his  work  for  the  Eton  Bifie  Corps  left  an  indelible  mark  on  that 
department  of  the  life  of  the  school. 

As  a  scholar  Dr.  Warre  was  extremely  accurate,  and  possessed  a 
peculiarly  retentive  memory.  He  was  more  effective  as  a  writer  than 
as  a  speaker,  though  he  had  the  gift  of  a  magnificent  voice.  He  was  en- 
tirely devoted  to  the  bovs  and  all  that  made  for  the  honour  of  the  school, 
and  in  return  he  gained  from  those  over  whom  he  ruled  such  a  measure 
of  affection  and  respect  that  his  wishes  were  obeyed  loyally,  with  the 
result  that  the  whole  standard  of  Eton  life  and  work  was  raised. 

Dr.  Warre  married,  in  1861,  a  daughter  of  Colonel  Malet  of  Fontmell 
Parva,  Dorset,  and  left  five  sons  and  two  daughters. 

He  was  the  recipient  of  many  honours,  and  was  Honorary  Chaplain 
to  Queen  Victoria,  King  Edward  VII.,  and  King  George  V. 

The  spirit  of  patriotism  which  Dr.  Warre  called  forth  at  Eton  bore 
its  first  fruits  in  his  day  during  the  South  African  War,  and  the  great 
memorial  buildings,  to  the  erection  of  which  he  devoted  so  much  of  his 
power  and  energy,  were  the  fitting  and  visible  mark  of  his  high  achieve- 
ments on  the  moral  plane. 

22.  Sir  Robert  PoUett  Synge,  K.C.M.O.,  M.V.O.,  H.M.  Deputy- 
Marshal  of  the  Ceremonies,  was  born  in  1853  and  was  educated  at 
Charterhouse.  He  became  a  clerk  in  the  Treaty  Department  of  the 
Foreign  Office  in  1884,  and  was  in  attendance  on  various  Royal  Person- 
ages who  came  on  visits  to  England.  He  became  a  Staff  Officer  in  the 
Treaty  Department  in  1896,  having  been  for  two  years  Assistant  to 
the  Master  of  the  Ceremonies.  In  1897  he  was  made  a  C.M.G.,  and  in 
1899  was  appointed  Assistant-Marshal  of  the  Ceremonies  to  Queen 
Victoria.  Besides  his  many  duties  in  England  Sir  Robert  was  frequently 
attached  as  Secretary  to  Special  Missions  abroad,  and  during  the  war 
he  was  greatly  interested  in  the  London  Special  Constabulary,  himself 
holding  high  rank  in  the  force.    He  was  made  a  K.C.M.G.  in  1919. 

Sir  Robert  married  a  daughter  of  Mr.  J.  C.  Fletcher  of  Dale  Park, 
Arundel. 

—  Sir  Michael  Nethersole,  C.S.I.,  who  was  61  years  of  age,  passed 
from  the  Royal  Indian  En^neering  College,  Cooper's  Hill,  into  the 
Public  Works  Department  in  1880,  and  served  for  many  years  in  the 
United  Provinces  and  in  Kashmir,  becoming,  in  1912,  Inspector-Qeneral 
of  Irrigation  in  India.  In  1914  he  received  the  O.S.I.,  and  on  his  retire- 
ment in  1917  he  was  knighted. 

Sir  Michael  subsequently  became  chief  hydro-electric  engineer  to 
the  Tata  Company,  and  accomplished  important  work  in  the  Andhra 
Valley.  He  died  in  Bombay  before  the  undertaking  was  finished.  He 
married  a  daughter  of  Sir  E.  N.  C.  Braddon  and  had  a  family. 

23.  James  Munro,  C.B.,  whose  age  was  81,  was  educated  at  Edin- 
burgh and  Berlin.  In  1858  he  entered  the  Indian  Civil  Service  and 
held  various  posts  in  Bengal,  until,  in  1877,  he  was  made  Inspector- 
Greneral  of  Police.  In  1884  he  was  appointed  Commissioner  of  the 
Presidency  Division.  On  his  retirement  from  this  position  he  became 
Assistant  Commissioner  of  the  Metropolitan  Police,  and  being  in  charge 
of  the  Criminal  Investigation  Department  he  accomplished  much  useful 
work  in  connexion  with  the  suppression  of  Fenian  plots  in  1885.  In 
1388  he  received  the  C.B.,  and  was  made  Chief  Commissioner.  After 
eighteen  months  he  resided  his  post  owing  to  the  fact  that  various 
reforms  suggested  by  him  were  not  acceptable  to  the  then  Home 
Secretary. 

Mr.  Munro  then  returned  to  India  where  he  became  the  chief  founder 
and  supporter  of  the  Ranaghat  Hospital,  40  miles  from  Calcutta,  where 
free  treatment  was  accorded  to  natives. 


1920.]  OBITUAEY.  121 

24.  William  Lee,  5th  Baron  Plunket,  was  bom  in  December,  1864, 
And  succeeded  bis  father  in  1897.  He  was  for  some  years  in  the 
Diplomatic  Service,  and  served  at  Borne  and  at  Constantinople.  He 
was  Governor  of  New  Zealand  from  1904  to  1910.  In  1894  he  married 
Ladv  Victoria  Alexandrina,  youngest  daughter  of  the  1st  Marquess  of 
Dufierin  and  Ava.  He  had  three  sons  and  five  daughters,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  eldest  son,  the  Hon.  Terence  Conyngham  Plunket,  of 
the  Rifle  Brigade. 


FEBBUABY. 

1.  Andrew  Canick  Qow,  R.A.,  Keeper  of  the  Boyal  Academy  since 
1911,  was  72  years  of  age.  He  was  well  known  as  a  historical  painter 
of  great  dignity,  and  had  exhibited  at  the  Boyal  Academy  regularly 
for  fifty  years.    He  became  an  A.B.A.  in  1881,  and  R  A.  in  1891. 

2.  Qeorgiana,  Lady  Burne-Jones,  who  was  in  her  80th  year,  was  a 
daughter  of  a  Wesleyan  Minister,  the  Bev.  G.  B.  Macdonald.  She 
married  Sir  Edward  Burne-Jones  in  1860,  and  was  for  thirty-eight  years 
both  the  sympathetic  companion  of  her  husband  and  a  remarkable 
figure  in  their  highly  intellectual  and  artistic  circle.  After  Sir  Edward's 
death,  in  1898,  Lady  Burne-Jones  lived  quietly  in  the  country,  and  in 
1904  she  published  the  Memorials  of  her  husband  which  were  recognised 
as  a  model  of  what  a  work  of  the  kind  should  be.  She  was  herself  an 
artist  of  no  small  skill  in  the  fields  of  pen-and-ink  drawing,  wood- 
engraving,  and  embroidery,  and  also  in  that  of  painting. 

4.  Kald  Sir  Harry  Aubrey  Maclean,  K.C.M.Q.,  who  was  72  years  of 
age,  was  a  member  of  the  family  of  the  Macleans  of  Drimnin,  and  in  his 
youth  entered  the  Army^  and  served  with  the  69th  Foot.  In  1876  he 
visited  Morocco,  and  was  requested  by  the  Sultan  Mulai  Hussan  to  be- 
come instructor  to  the  Moroccan  Army.  For  thirty  years  he  lived  in 
magnificent  surroundings  in  his  adopted  country,  peiiorming  his  duties 
to  the  satisfaction  of  the  Sultan  with  whom  he  was  a  great  favourite. 
Mulai  Hussan  died  in  1894,  and  during  the  reign  of  his  successor, 
Abd-el-Aziz,  unsuccessful  attempts  were  made  to  get  rid  of  Kaid 
Maclean's  influence  at  Court.  In  1907  he  was  captured  by  the  bandit 
Baisuli,  and  all  attempts  to  rescue  him  having  failed,  the  British  Legation 
intervened,  and  secured  his  release  at  a  ransom  of  20,000{. 

Mulai  Hafid  next  became  Sultan,  and  owing  to  the  fact  that  in  his 
reign  French  influence  was  predominant  at  Court,  Kaid  Maclean's  ofBcial 
connexion  with  the  country  came  to  an  end.  His  liking,  however,  for 
Oriental  life  and  for  the  Moors  led  him  to  spend  most  of  his  time  among 
them,  and  it  was  in  Morocco  that  he  died. 

Sir  Harry  Maclean  was  a  man  of  great  physical  prowess  and  daring, 
and  many  tales  were  told  of  his  adventures.  He  once  drove  a  hansom 
cab  from  Tangier  to  Fez  in  the  days  when  Moroccan  ''  roads  "  were 
mere  rough  tracks,  and  he  formed  a  bagpipe  unit  from  among  bis 
soldiery.  He  was  made  a  C.M.G.  in  1898,  and  promoted  K.C.M.G.  three 
years  later.  Sir  Harry  was  twice  married,  on  the  second  occasion  to 
the  daughter  of  General  Sir  Henry  Prendergast,  V.C. 

6.  Vincent  Arthur  Smith,  CLE.,  D.Lltt.,  i.CS.,  was  bom  in  1848, 
and  was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin.  In  1871  he  married,  and 
entered  the  Indian  Civil  Service,  being  appointed  to  the  North- West 
Provinces  and  Oudh  (afterwards  the  United  Provinces).  In  1895  he 
became  a  District  Judge  ;  he  was  also  Chief  Secretary  to  the  Govern- 
ment, and  in  1898  was  made  a  Commissioner^  retiring  in  1900.  After 
some  years'  residence  at  Cheltenham  Dr.  Smith  went  to  Oxford  where 
he  became  a  member  of  St.  John's  College  and  a  Curator  of  the  Indian 
Institute. 


122  OBITUAEY.  [Feb. 

He  was  an  eminent  Sanscrit  scholar,  and  published  many  articles 
on  the  antiquities  of  India,  as  well  as  in  1904^  his  famous  "  Early  History 
of  India  from  600  B.C.  to  the  Mohammedan  Conquest."  A  third  re- 
vised and  enlarged  edition  of  this  work  was  issued  in  1914,  and  Dr. 
Smith's  other  publications  included  the  "  History  of  Fine  Art  in  India 
and  Ceylon^"  and  an  '*  Oxford  History  of  England  for  Indian  Students.'^ 

He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Council  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society 
in  1916,  and  received  its  gold  medal  three  years  later.  He  left  a  widow, 
two  sons,  and  a  daughter. 

7.  Admiral  Koltchak,  who  was  46  years  of  age,  had  for  long  been  a 
distinguished  officer  in  the  Eussian  Navy.  In  1903  he  led  a  party  which 
went  to  the  Arctic  regions  to  endeavour  to  discover  the  fate  of  the  Tolle 
Expedition,  and  his  services,  both  in  the  defence  of  Port  Arthur,  and  in 
the  organisation  of  the  new  Russian  Navy^  were  of  great  importance. 

He  distinguished  himself  still  further  after  the  outbreak  of  the 
European  War,  becoming  in  April,  1916,  Bear-Admiral,  and  in  Auffust 
of  the  same  year,  Vice-Admiral,  and  Commander-in-Chief  of  the  Black 
Sea  Fleet. 

After  the  Revolution  of  1917  the  Admiral  threw  in  his  lot  with  the 
Moderate  Party,  and  the  beginning  of  1918  found  him  in  Siberia  where 
he  held  the  post  of  Minister  of  War  in  the  "  All  Bussian  Government  '^ 
which  was  formed  in  opposition  to  Bolshevism.  In  November  he 
became  dictator,  with  the  title  of  Supreme  Buler,  but  he  declared  that 
his  assumption  of  this  r61e  was  against  his  own  wishes,  and  was  only 
rendered  necessary  by  the  disorganised  state  of  affairs  in  the  country. 
Koltchak's  aim  was  to  establish  a  constitutional  government,  and  in 
this  he  received  a  certain  amount  of  support  from  the  Entente  Powers, 
though  not  all  that  encouragement  for  which  he  had  hoped. 

In  December,  1918,  the  Siberian  Armies,  which  had  relieved  the 
Czecho-Slovak  troops  who  had  previously  held  the  Ural  front,  began 
their  advance  against  the  Bolsheviks.  Their  campaign  was  highly 
successful  until,  in  May,  1919,  the  force  of  their  great  effort  was  spent^ 
and  they  were  beaten  back  by  the  enemy,  who  entered  Siberia  in 
August.  During  the  autumn  the  Siberians  offered  some  resistance  to 
the  Bolsheviks,  but  in  November  Omsk  fell.  Koltchak  then  formed  a 
new  Government  with  M.  Victor  Pepelaieff  as  Prime  Minister,  and  with 
Irkutsk  as  its  headquarters,  but  at  the  end  of  December  this  ministry  was 
overthrown  by  Social  Bevolutionaries,  and  Koltchak  retreated  with  what 
remained  of  his  Army  to  the  Czech  troops  who  were  stationed  along  the 
Siberian  Railway.  He  telegraphed  his  resignation  of  his  position  in 
favour  of  General  Denikin,  and  after  some  preliminary  negotiations 
with  the  Bolsheviks  the  treacherous  Czech  troops  surrender<Ml  him  to 
the  Social  Revolntionarv  Government  at  Irkutsk.  This  Government 
was  succeeded  by  a  Bolshevik  one  soon  afterwards,  and  at  2  A..if.  on 
February  7  the  Revolutionary  Military  Committee  decided  to  shoot  both 
Admiral  Koltchak  and  M.  repelaieff,  on  the  ground  that  a  plot  to  re- 
instate the  former  had  been  discovered.  The  sentence  was  carried  out 
three  hours  later,  before  any  protest  could  be  made  by  foreigners  in 
Irkutsk. 

A  Memorial  Service  was  held  at  the  Russian  Church  in  Welbeck 
Street,  London. 

—  Randolph  Henry  Stewart,  nth  Earl  of  Qalloway,  who  was  83 

years  of  age,  was  the  second  son  of  the  9th  Earl  and  of  Lady  Harriet 
Blanche,  daughter  of  the  6th  Duke  of  Beaufort.  He  was  educated  at 
Harrow,  and  joining  the  42nd  Royal  Highlanders  in  1866,  he  served 
before  Sevastopol,  and  subsequently  during  the  Indian  Mutiny,  when 
he  was  present  at  the  siege  of  Lucknow  and  its  capture. 

Later,  having  left  the  Army,  he  took  up  journalistic  work,  and  acted 
as  the  Oloht't  special  correspondent  in  Pans  during  the  Franco-Prassian 
war. 


1920.]  OBITUAEY.  12a 

He  married,  in  1891,  Amy  Mary  Pauline,  daughter  of  Anthony  John 
Cliffe  of  Bellevue,  Co.  Wexford,  and  in  1901  he  succeeded  his  brother 
the  10th  £arl.  Lord  Galloway  had  two  sons,  the  elder  of  whom,  Lord 
Garlies,  born  in  1892,  succeeded  him  ;  his  younger  son,  the  Hon.  Keith 
Stewart,  was  killed  in  action  in  1915. 

8.  Sir  Thomas  Ralels:h,  K.C.S.I.,  D.C.L.,  was  born  in  Edinburgh  in 
1850,  and  was  educated  at  the  Academy  of  that  city,  at  Tubingen,  and  at 
Balliol  College,  Oxford,  where  he  was  an  Exhibitioner.  In  1872  he  took 
a  Second  Class  in  Classical  Moderations,  and  he  won  the  Marquess  of 
Lothian's  prize  the  following  year  with  an  essay  on  the  "  History  of  the 
University  of  Paris."  He  took  a  First  Class  in  Lit.  Hum.  in  1875,  and 
became  a  Fellow  of  All  Souls  in  1876.  He  also  distinguished  himself  at 
the  Union,  of  which  he  was  Treasurer  in  1874-75,  and  President  in  thfr 
latter  year. 

In  1877  he  was  called  to  the  Bar  by  Lincoln's  Inn,  but  his  professional 
career  was  not  so  successful  as  had  been  anticipated  by  those  who  knew 
his  ability.  In  1884  he  returned  to  Oxford  where  he  became  Reader  in 
English  Law,  and  Law  Tutor  at  Balliol,  and  he  was  also  a  member  of 
the  Hebdomadal  Council,  a  Curator  of  the  Chest,  and  a  Delegate  of  the 
Press. 

In  1885  he  attempted  to  enter  Parliament,  contesting  South  Edin- 
burgh^ but  he  was  defeated  both  on  that  occasion,  and  again  in  188S 
when  he  contested  the  Western  Division.  He  was  originally  a  Liberal 
in  politics,  but  the  split  on  the  Home  Eule  question  made  him  & 
Liberal-Unionist. 

From  1896  to  1899  he  was  Registrar  of  the  Privy  Council,  and  he  was 
then  induced  by  Lord  Curzon  to  go  to  India  with  him  as  Legal  Member 
of  the  Viceregal  Council,  and  in  the  following  year  he  became  Vice- 
Chancellor  of  Calcutta  University.  His  strenuous  work,  however, 
affected  his  health,  and  in  1904  he  returned  to  England,  becoming- 
Deputy  Steward  of  the  University  of  Oxford  in  1905,  and  he  served  as  a 
Member  of  the  Council  of  India  from  1909  to  1913. 

Sir  Thomas  was  made  a  K. C.S.I,  in  1904. 

9.  John  Varley  Roberts*  Mus.  Doc.,  P.R.C.O.,  was  born  in  1841  and 
was  a  native  of  Yorkshire.  In  spite  of  family  opposition  he  insisted 
upon  making  the  musical  profession  his  own,  and  became,  in  1869,. 
organist  of  the  Parish  Church  of  Halifax.  He  took  his  degree  of  Mus. 
Bac.  at  Oxford  in  1871,  and  his  doctorate  in  1876,  and  in  1882  he  was 
appointed  organist  of  Magdalen  College.  Dr.  Varley  Roberts  held  thia 
post  until  1918,  when  failing  health  compelled  his  retirement.  He  was 
a  fine  player,  and  a  sound  composer  of  Church  music,  but  his  highest 
work  was  that  which  he  accomplished  in  the  realm  of  Choir-Training. 
He  published,  in  1895,  "A  Practical  Method  of  Training  Choristers" 
which  explained  his  technical  system  ;  but  his  own  personal  ma^etism 
counted  for  much  in  his  pre-eminent  success  in  this  branch  of  his  work. 

He  was  the  recipient  of  various  honours,  including  that  of  a  pres- 
entation of  plate  from  members  of  his  College  on  Gaudy  Day,  1915, 
and  the  conferring  upon  him  of  the  degree  of  Hon.  M.A.  in  1916.  Dr. 
Varley  Roberts  also  held  with  distinction  the  posts  of  organist  of  the 
Sheldonian  Theatre  and  of  St.  Giles's  Church,  and  was  the  first  conductor 
of  the  University  Glee  and  Madrigal  Society.  In  1866  he  married  Miss 
Elizabeth  Maning,  by  whom  he  had  a  daughter. 

—  Rotand,  13th  Baron  Dormert  who  was  in  his  58th  year,  was  the 
head  of  an  ancient  Roman  Catholic  family.  His  father  was  Lieut.- 
General  the  Hon.  Sir  James  Charlemagne  Dormer,  K.C.B.,  who  was  at 
one  time  Commander-in-Chief  of  the  Madras  Army.  Lord  Dormer 
succeeded  his  uncle,  the  12th  Baron  in  1900,  and  he  left  a  widow  but  no 
children,  his  successor  being  his  brother,  Captain  the  Hon.  Charles 
Dormer,  R.M.,  C.B.E. 


124  OBITUARY.  [Feb. 

11.  The  Rev.  Qeors:e  Wllkins,  whose  age  was  61,  was  a  Follow  of 
Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  had  been  Professor  of  Hebrew  at  Dublin 
University  since  1900.     He  was  well  known  as  a  classical  scholar. 

14.  The  Rlsrht  Hon.  Christopher  Palles,  P.C,  LL.D.,  the  last  Lord 
Chief  Baron  of  the  Court  of  Exchequer  in  Ireland,  was  born  in  1831, 
and  was  educated  at  Clongowes  Wood  College,  and  at  Trinity  College. 
He  graduated  at  Dublin  University  in  1851^  and  was  subsequentlv 
called  to  the  Bar,  practising  chiefly  in  the  Chancery  Division.  He  took 
silk  in  1865,  became  a  Law  Officer  in  1872,  and  was  appointed  Chief 
Baron  of  the  Court  of  Exchequer  in  1874.  When,  in  1898,  the  Exchequer 
Division  became  merged  in  the  King's  Bench  Division  of  the  High 
Court  of  Justice  in  Ireland,  he  sat  as  a  Judge  of  that  Court,  and  also 
in  the  Appellate  Court. 

Mr.  Palles  retired  from  the  Bench  in  1916  with  unimpaired  powers, 
and  it  was  not  until  his  87th  year  that  his  health  began  to  fail.  He 
was  one  of  the  greatest  of  Irish  lawyers  and  judges,  being  possessed  of 
a  wide  knowledge  both  of  Common  Law  and  of  Equity,  and  while  he 
showed  at  all  times  the  deepest  respect  for  judicial  authority,  where 
his  independence  of  mind  and  his  great  learning  caused  him  to  differ 
from  his  predecessors,  he  did  not  hesitate  to  do  so.  His  expositions  of 
the  Common  Law  became  universally  recognised  as  being  authoritative 
in  a  high  degree,  and  his  statements  were  quoted  frequently  wherever 
that  Law  was  being  propounded. 

As  a  judge  of  criminal  cases  he  was  severe,  and  strictly  technical  as 
to  form.  But  his  absolute  impartiality  brought  him  the  respect  of  all 
classes  and  creeds  in  Ireland. 

The  scheme  of  the  constitution  of  the  Irish  National  University  was 
in  the  main  the  work  of  Mr.  Palles  (then  nearly  80  years  of  age),  who 
was  Chairman  of  the  Commission  formed  to  frame  its  statutes,  and 
his  work  for  education  generally^  and  also  in  connexion  with  public 
charities  was  far-reaching  and  vigorous.  In  private  life  he  was  much 
loved  for  his  kindliness  and  simplicity,  and  his  great  sense  of  humour. 
He  was  a  devout  member  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 

18.  Dr.  James  Emerson  Reynolds,  P.R.S.,  was  born  in  Ireland  in 
1844.  In  early  life  he  qualified  for  the  practice  of  medicine,  but  his 
real  interest  was  in  chemical  research.  After  a  period  during  which  he 
was  Keeper  of  Minerals  at  the  National  Museum  at  Dublin,  he  was 
appointed,  in  1870,  Professor  of  Analytical  Chemistry  to  the  Dublin 
Royal  Societv.  Three  years  later  he  became  Professor  of  Chemistry  to 
the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  in  Ireland,  and  from  1875  to  1903  he  held 
the  Chair  of  Chemistry  and  Chemical  Philosophy  in  Dublin  University. 
Professor  Reynolds  made  various  important  discoveries,  including  that  of 
a  new  group  of  colloid  bodies  containing  mercury,  which  he  announced 
in  1871. 

He  published  various  works,  including  one  on  *'  General  Experimental 
Chemistry  "  in  1886,  and  he  served  on  several  public  bodies  in  connexion 
with  his  branch  of  science.  He  married  Miss  Finlayson  of  Dublin  in 
1875. 

19.  Admiral  Robert  Edwin  Peary,  the  discoverer  of  the  North  Pole, 
was  born  in  Pennsylvania  in  1856,  and  was  of  Franco-British  descent. 
Early  in  life  he  lost  his  father,  and  he  was  educated  at  the  High  School 
at  Portland,  Maine,  and  at  Bowdoin  College,  Brunswick.  He  showed 
capacity  for  mathematics  and  applied  science,  and  was  devoted  to  out- 
door pursuits,  especially  to  rowing.  Peary  started  his  career  as  an 
independent  land  surveyor  in  undeveloped  country  on  the  Saco  River, 
and  subsequently  became  a  draughtsman  in  the  United  States  Coast 
and  Geodetic  Survey.  An  opportunity,  however,  presented  itself  of 
entry  into  the  Corps  of  Civil  Engineers  of  the  United  States  Navy  by 
a  competitive  examination,  and  of  this  Peary  was  quick  to  take  ad- 
vantage.    Ho  obtained  his  commission  in  1881. 


1920.]  OBITUAEY.  125 

As  assistant  to  the  Superintendent  of  Construction  in  Washington, 
Peary  became  engaged  in  important  work.  He  was  responsible  for  the 
erection  of  an  iron  pier  at  Key  West^  Florida,  assisted  on  the  survey  for 
the  Nicaragua  ship  canal,  and  invented  a  new  type  of  lock-gate. 

His  first  Arctic  expedition  was  made  in  the  company  of  the  Danish 
Lieutenant  Maigaard,  with  whom,  in  1886,  he  penetrated  the  inland  ice- 
cap of  Greenland  for  about  120  miles  from  Disko.  This  expedition  re- 
ceived little  public  support ;  but  on  his  return  Peary  was  stationed  at 
Philadelphia,  and  while  there  he  contrived  to  arouse  interest  in  his 
plans  among  the  leading  members  of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences, 
including  Angelo  Heilprin.  His  two  next  journeys  to  Greenland,  in 
1891  and  in  1893-95,  enabled  him  to  acquire  important  topographical 
knowledge  of  that  country,  and  also  to  bring  home  valuable  specimens 
of  meteorites  from  the  region  of  Gape  York. 

Peary  had  now  become  famous,  and  was  in  a  position  to  make  his 
preparations  for  an  attempt  to  reach  the  North  Pole.  In  1898  he 
obtained  five  years'  leave,  and  set  out  in  the  Windward  (the  vessel  of  the 
Jackson  expedition)  which  he  obtained  from  Lord  Northcliffe,  and  with 
the  support  of  the  Peary  Arctic  Club,  whose  President  was  Mr.  Morris 
K.  Jesup. 

This  expedition,  which  lasted  until  1902,  served  to  confirm  the  in- 
sularity of  Greenland,  and  proved  the  mistake  of  trying  to  use  it  as  a 
jumping-off  place  for  an  attempt  to  reach  the  Pole.  In  1905,  therefore, 
reary  again  made  his  venture  in  the  Roosevelt,  a  ship  built  for  him. 
Ho  succeeded,  indeed,  in  reaching  the  "  farthest  north  "  which  had 
been  attained,  but  was  compelled  to  return  in  1906,  with  his  great 
object  still  to  be  achieved. 

This  he  accomplished  on  his  next  expedition,  which  started  in  1908. 
He  reached  the  Pole  on  April  6  of  the  following  year,  and  the  public 
enthusiasm  over  the  event  was  immense. 

From  a  more  scientific  point  of  view  Peary's  general  observations 
and  deep-sea  soundings  during  his  years  of  Arctic  exploration  were  of 
very  great  value.  He  was  the  recipient  of  numerous  honours,  including 
the  Cullum  medal  of  the  American  Geographical  Society,  and  the  ^old 
medal  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  of  Great  Britain.  He  retired 
from  the  United  States  Navy  in  1911  with  the  rank  of  Rear-Admiral. 

His  wife,  whom  he  married  in  1888,  was  Miss  Josephine  Diebitsch 
of  Washington.  On  the  1891-92  and  1893-94  expeditions  she  accom- 
panied her  husband  as  far  as  winter  quarters  in  Greenland,  and 
also  on  his  Arctic  expedition  in  1897,  and  she  wintered  with  him  in 
1900.  They  had  two  children,  the  elder,  a  girl,  being  the  most  northerly- 
born  white  child  in  the  world. 

19.  The  Right  Rev.  Herbert  Edward  Jones,  D.D.,  Bishop  Suffragan 
of  Lewes,  was  68  years  of  age.  He  was  a  son  of  Sir  Willoughby  Jones, 
Bart.,  of  Cranmer  Hall,  Norfolk,  and  was  educated  at  Eton  and  at 
Trinity  College.  Cambridge.  In  1882  he  took  a  third  class  in  the  History 
Tripos,  and  after  his  onlination  in  1884  he  first  served  a  curacy  in 
London.  He  subsequently  held  in  succession  the  benefices  of  Knebworth, 
Petworth,  and  Hitchin,  and  was  appointed  Archdeacon  of  Chichester  in 
1914,  and  nominated  Suffragan  Bishop  of  Lewes  the  same  year.  Dr. 
Jones  was  known  as  an  extremely  capable  organiser,  and  was  very 
popular  with  both  clergy  and  laity.  Me  was  Lecturer  in  Pastoral  Theology 
for  the  year  1907  at  Kings  College,  London. 

—  Ernest  Hartley  Coleridge,  who  was  in  his  74th  year,  was  the 
grandson  of  the  poet,  Samuel  Taylor  Coleridge,  a  nephew  of  Hartley 
Coleridge,  and  a  kinsman  of  the  first  Lord  Coleridge,  Lord  Chief  Justice 
of  England,  to  whom  he  was,  for  a  short  period  in  1894,  secretary. 

Mr.  Coleridge,  who  was  educated  at  Sherborne  School,  and  at  Balliol 
College,  Oxford,  was  engaged  for  many  years  in  tutorial  work.  In 
later  life  he  turned  his  attention  to  literature,  and  he  edited  the  "  Letters 
of  Samuel  Taylor  Coleridge  "  published  in  1895,  and  the ''  Anima  Poetse  " 


126  OBITUAEY.  [Feb. 

a  selection  from  the  poet's  unpublished  note-books,  the  same  year.  He 
also  published  biographies  of  Lord  Chief  Justice  Coleridge,  and  of  Thomas 
Ooutts  the  great  banker,  and  he  edited  and  annotated  the  complete 
poetical  works  of  Byron.  Mr.  Coleridge  also  published  a  collection  of 
his  own  poems. 

20.  Edward,  ist  Baron  Russell  of  Liverpool,  was  in  his  86th  year. 
He  was  originally  a  clerk  in  a  London  bank,  but  his  love  of  writing  in- 
duced him  to  send  articles  to  the  newspapers.  In- course  of  time  these 
were  accepted,  and  he  was  appointed  editor  of  the  Islington  Oazette,  In 
this  work  he  met  with  some  success,  but  his  vigorous  attack  on  what  he 
regarded  as  local  abuses  resulted  in  a  libel  action,  and  he  had  to  seek 
employment  elsewhere. 

For  some  years  he  was  assistant  editor  of  the  Liverpool  Daily  Post  and 
then  he  returned  to  London  to  take  up  an  appointment  on  the  staff  of 
the  Morning  Star,  Liverpool,  however,  claimed  him  again,  and  he 
became  editor  of  the  Daily  Post  and  a  leading  man  in  that  city  for  forty 
years. 

Lord  Russell  was  a  keen  Liberal  politician,  and  an  ardent  admirer  of 
Mr.  Gladstone,  whose  leadership  of  the  party  he  suggested  quite  early  in 
his  journalistic  career.  In  1885  he  entered  Parliament  as  member  for 
one  of  the  Glasgow  Divisions  ;  but  his  career  in  the  House  of  Commons 
lasted  less  than  two  years.    He  was  a  convinced  advocate  of  Home  Bule. 

One  of  Lord  Kussell's  greatest  interests  was  in  theatrical  matters. 
The  dramatic  criticisms  in  the  Daily  Post  were  for  many  years  from 
his  pen,  and  his  appreciation  of  the  powers  of  Sir  Henry  Irving  con- 
tributed very  largely  to  the  fame  of  that  great  actor.  The  criminal  libel 
action  brought  against  the  Daily  Post  for  its  severity  towards  the  conduct 
of  the  Conservative  magistrates  of  Liverpool  in  connexion  with  the 
efforts  made  to  reduce  the  number  of  public-houses  in  the  city,  brought 
Lord  Bussell  a  triumph.  Sir  Eufus  Isaacs  (afterwards  Lord  Heading) 
was  counsel  for  the  defence,  and  the  case  was  won  amidst  public 
acclamations. 

Lord  Russell's  knighthood  came  to  him  in  1893,  and  his  barony  in 
1919.  He  published  a  volume  of  reminiscences  entitled  ''  That  Reminds 
Me,"  and  many  pamphlets  of  a  literary  and  philosophical  nature.  He 
was  twice  married,  but  the  two  sons  of  his  first  marriage  predeceased 
him.    His  successor  was  Captain  Langley  Russell,  his  grandson. 

22.  Spencer  Leisrh  Hughes,  M.P.,  was  61  years  of  age.  He  was  well 
known  as  a  journalist  whose  contributions  to  the  Morning  Leader  on 
current  topics  under  the  title  of  '*  Sub  Rosa  "  were  greatly  appreciated  for 
their  witty  style.  When  the  Morning  Leader  was  amalgamated  with  the 
Daily  News  Mr.  Hughes  continued  to  write  his  articles  which  reflected 
among  other  things  his  strong  liberal  sympathies. 

He  tried  unsuccessfully  to  enter  Parhament  in  1907  when  he  con- 
tested Jarrow,  and  again  m  1910  when  he  was  beaten  at  Bermondsey. 
He  was  subsequently  returned  for  Stockport. 

Mr.  Hughes*  well-known  powers  as  an  after-dinner  speaker  did  not 
at  first  cause  him  to  speak  much  in  the  House  of  Commons.  In 
March,  1918,  however,  he  made  a  brilliant  speech  in  reply  to  an  attack 
by  Mr.  Austen  Chamberlain  on  the  relations  existing  between  the  Prime 
Minister  and  the  Press.  Mr.  Hughes'  reputation  was  assured,  and  his 
return  to  Parliament  at  the  next  General  Election  was  unopposed 

29.  Arthur  Henry  Bullen,  the  founder  of  the  Shakespeare  Head 
Press,  was  63  years  of  age.  He  was  the  son  of  Dr.  George  Bullen,  CB., 
LL.D.,  who  was  for  many  years  Keeper  of  the  Printed  Books  at  the 
British  Museum. 

Mr.  Bullen  was  educated  at  the  City  of  London  School,  and  at  Oxford, 
and  at  a  very  early  age  he  began  his  work  as  an  editor  of  the  less  known 
Elizabethan  dramatists. 

His   publications   included    editions  of  the  works  of   John    Day, 


iwo.)  OBITUARY.  127 

Christopher  Marlowe,  Thomas  Ifiddleion,  George  Peele,  and  John 
Marsion.  He  also  brouf^ht  oat  the  '^  Collection  of  Old  English  Plajrs," 
and  '*  Lyrics  from  the  Elizabethan  Song  Books,"  and  he  rediscovered  the 
works  of  Thomas  Campion,  and  many  valuable  lyrics  in  the  original 
manuscripts  at  the  Bodleian  and  Christ  Church  Libraries. 

In  1906  Mr.  BuUen  became  editor  of  the  revived  OentlematCs 
Magazine, 

ICABGH. 

1.  Charles  Qarvice,  the  popular  novelist,  was  for  manv  years  engaged 
in  journalistic  work.  His  first  novel,  entitled  "Just  a  Girl "  was 
published  in  1898,  and  from  that  time  he  continued  to  write  stories  of  a 
pleasant  nature  which  appealed  to  an  immense  public  He  also  pro- 
duced  **  Eve,"  a  volume  of  poems^  and  *'  The  Fisherman's  Daughter,"  a 
play  which  was  acted  in  London. 

—  James  Rowlands*  M.P.9  was  in  his  70th  year.  He  received  his 
education  partly  at  the  Working  Men's  College,  and  became  apprenticed 
to  the  trade  of  watch-case  making.  From  1886  to  1895  he  sat  in  the 
House  of  Commons  as  Badical  member  for  Kast  Finsbury,  and  from 
1906  until  the  time  of  his  death  (with  the  exception  of  ten  months  in 
1910)  he  represented  the  Dartford  Division.  At  the  latter  end  of  his  life 
he  sat  as  a  Coalition-Liberal. 

Mr.  Rowlands  was  a  man  greatly  interested  in  local  government 
matters,  and  an  ardent  advocate  of  reform.  He  held  office  on  various 
public  bodies,  and  was  veir  popular  in  the  House  of  Commons.  He 
married  in  1879,  and  his  wife  predeceased  him  by  some  years. 

2.  Sir  Thomas  Anderson  Stuart,  who  was  bom  in  1866  in  Scotland, 
was  Professor  of  Physiologyin  the  University  of  Sjrdney,  and  Dean  of 
the  Facultv  of  Medicine.  Me  was  also  twice  President  of  the  Boyal 
Society  of  Kew  South  Wales,  was  President  of  the  Board  of  Health,  and 
Trustee  of  the  Australian  Museum.  Sir  Thomas  was  the  organiser  of 
the  expedition  to  the  Funafuti  Island  in  the  Ellice  group,  which  was 
initiated  by  the  Roja\  Society  of  London.  The  boring  of  the  coral  reef 
which  was  accomphshed  by  the  expedition  tended  to  prove  the  soundness 
of  Darwin*s  theory  of  reef  formation.  Sir  Thomas  also  accomplished 
valuable  work  in  the  promotion  of  health  legislation  in  Australia. 

13.  Sir  Robert  Laurie  Morant,  who  was  Chief  Permanent  Secretary 
to  the  Minister  of  Health,  and  a  former  Chairman  of  the  National 
Health  Insurance  Commission,  and  Permanent  Secretary  to  the  Board 
of  Education,  was  bom  in  1863. 

He  was  educated  at  Winchester,  and  at  New  College,  Oxford,  where 
he  took  a  First  Class  in  the  Final  School  of  Theology.  Shortly  after 
leaving  Oxford  he  was  appointed  tutor  to  the  Boyal  Family  of  Siam,  and 
the  opinion  formed  of  his  ability  by  the  King  was  so  high,  that  he  was 
asked  to  undertake  the  organisation  of  public  education  in  that  country. 
The  subsequent  illness  of  the  Monarch,  and  his  consequent  loss  of 
power,  caused  Morant  to  return  to  England  where  he  became  engaged 
m  work  of  a  social  and  educational  nature  in  East  London. 

In  1895  he  was  appointed  Assistant  Director  of  the  "  Office  of  Special 
Enquiries  and  Reports"  in  the  Education  Department,  and  while 
occupying  this  post  he  drew  up  a  report  on  French  Primary  Schools 
which  brought  him  into  notice  by  its  excellence. 

He  next  became  private  secretary  to  Sir  John  Gorst,  at  a  time  when 
the  Unionist  Government  was  involved  in  new  legislation  on  education, 
and  the  drafting  of  the  Bill  which  passed  in  19012  owed  much  to  his 
constractive  powers.  This  led  to  his  appointment  as  Permanent 
Secretary  of  the  Education  Board. 

Morant's  gifts  of  oiiganisation  in  this  difficult  position,  and  through 


128  OBITUAET.  [March 

all  the  controversy  aroused  by  the  Act  in  the  realm  of  Elementary 
Education,  as  well  as  in  his  dealing  with  questions  affecting  Secondary 
and  Higher  Education,  were  so  marked  that  he  was  called  upon  by 
Mr.  Lloyd  George  to  undertake  the  onerous  work  of  Chairman  of  the 
Insurance  Commission.  Here  again  he  won  the  respect  and  confidence 
of  all  with  whom  he  had  to  deal,  including  those  members  of  the 
medical  profession  to  whom  the  Act  was  at  first  anathema. 

Morant's  crowning  work  was  that  which  he  accomplished  in  connexion 
with  the  establishment  of  the  Ministry  of  Health.  He  persevered 
through  many  years,  and  in  spite  of  numerous  disappointments,  the 
position  he  held,  in  the  Ministry  at  his  death  was  a  just  tribute  to  a 
great  and  self-sacrificing  public  servant. 

13.  Professor  Charles  Lapworth  was  77  years  of  age.  He  was  one  of 
the  most  famous  geologists  of  the  time.  His  most  important  work  was 
in  connexion  with  the  stratigraphy  of  the  Older  Palaeozoic  Bocks,  and 
some  of  his  best  field  work  was  done  in  the  Lowlands  of  Scotland.  He 
worked  out  in  detail  the  succession  of  these  earlier  strata^  and  the  name 
"  Ordovician,"  now  universally  applied  to  the  rocks  intermediate  between 
the  Cambrian  and  the  true  Silurian,  was  coined  by  him.  Having 
previously  held  an  appointment  at  St.  Andrews  University,  Lapworth 
subsequently  held  for  many  years  the  Professorship  of  Geology  in 
Birmingham  University,  but  he  retired  from  his  active  duties  in  1913. 
He  was  the  author  of  numerous  papers  on  Geology,  and  of  an  excellent 
and  well-known  text-book  of  that  science.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the 
Boyal  Society. 

14.  Sedey  Taylor  was  born  in  1834,  and  was  educated  at  University 
College  School,  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  In  1869  he  took  his 
degree^  and  he  was  elected  a  Fellow  two  years  later.  In  1863  he  was 
ordained  and  for  a  short  time  he  served  «  curacy  near  Birmingham, 
returning,  however,  before  long  to  Cambridge  where  he  settled  down  for 
Ufe.  He  was  at  one  time  Librarian  and  Junior  Bursar  of  Trinity 
College,  and  he  was  an  active  supporter  of  the  higher  education  of 
women  as  expressed  in  the  founding  of  Girton  College.  Mr.  Taylor  was 
a  writer  on  many  different  subjects,  scientific,  theological,  and  musical. 
He  was  twice  President  of  the  University  Musical  Society,  and  for 
many  years  he  was  acting  President  of  the  University  Musical  Club. 
He  also  endowed  the  Dental  Institute  of  the  town  of  Cambridge. 

19.  Sir  Oeorge  Errlngrton,  Bart.,  who  was  81,  was  a  member  of  a 
Yorkshire  family,  his  mother  being  an  Irishwoman.  He  was  educated 
at  Ushaw  College  and  at  the  Roman  Catholic  University  in  Dublin. 
He  joined  the  Home  Rule  movement  in  1873,  and  became  member  of 
Parliament  for  Co.  Longford  in  the  following  year.  In  1881  he  was 
deputed  by  Mr.  Gladstone  to  be  the  beiurer  to  the  Vatican  of  papers 
asking  for  the  support  of  the  Pope  in  dealing  with  rebellious  leaders 
both  lay  and  clencal,  in  Ireland.  Public  opposition  was  aroused,  and 
the  whole  object  of  the  negotiations  was  abandoned  by  the  Prime 
Minister.  Mr.  Errington  was,  however,  created  a  baronet  for  his  services, 
and  was  made  a  Knight  of  Justice  of  the  Sovereign  Order  of  Malta.  In 
1886  he  retired  from  Parliament,  and  in  1892  he  married  the  widow  of 
Mr.  John  Shuldham.    Sir  George  left  no  heir  to  the  baronetcy. 

24.  Mrs.  Humphry  Ward,  the  famous  novelist  and  social  worker, 
was  born  in  1851,  and  was  the  daughter  of  Thomas  Arnold,  the  second 
son  of  Dr.  Arnold  of  Rugby.  At  the  time  of  her  birth  Mary  Arnold's 
father  was  an  inspector  of  schools  in  Tasmania,  and  her  mother  was  the 
daughter  of  William  Sorell,  Registrar  of  Deeds.  When  she  was  about 
17,  the  future  novelist  was  taken  to  Oxford,  and  during  the  four  years 
which  she  passed  there  before  her  marriage,  she  developed  the  inherited 
intellectual  gifts,  which  were  her  portion,  under  the  influence  of  Mark 
Pattison  and  his  wife,  T.  H.  Green,  Jowett,  and  many  other  leaders  of 
thought. 


1920.]  OBITUAEY.  129 

From  her  marriage,  in  1872,  to  Mr.  Humphry  Ward,  Fellow  aud  Tutor 
at  Brasenose,  uutil  1880,  the  life  in  Oxford  which  made  so  deep  an  im- 
pression upon  her  was  continued,  and  she  and  her  husband  then  moved 
to  London. 

Mrs.  Ward  contributed  several  valuable  articles  to  Dr.  Wace's 
"Dictionary  of  Christian  Biography,"  and  wrote  an  introduction  to 
AmiePs  "  Journal  Intime,''  and  she  also  published  a  work  of  fiction 
"  Milly  and  Oily  "  in  1881 ;  but  her  first  great  success  as  a  novelist  was 
the  excitement  called  forth  by  "Robert  Elsmere'*  which  appeared  in 
1888.  In  this  work  the  religious  controversies  of  the  daj,  the  struggle 
of  the  upholders  of  traditional  Christianity  to  contend  with  the  results 
of  Higher  Criticism  as  applied  to  the  Scriptures,  were  portrayed  in  a 
masterly  manner.  Nor  was  this  all.  Mrs.  Ward's  theories  of  social 
service  were  propounded  in  a  way  which  roused  eager  attention  and  even 
imitation,  and  in  the  novels  "The  History  of  David  Grieve"  and 
"  Marcella "  which  quickly  followed  her  first  success,  the  same  notes 
were  insistently  struck,  in  her  later  books  Mrs.  Ward  confined  herself 
more  exclusively  to  the  telling  of  a  story,  though  a  serious  purpose  was 
always  apparent  in  the  background  of  her  work.  The  social  and  political 
aims  which  she  had  at  heart  reappeared  in  "Sir  George  Tressaay  "  and 
her  religious  beliefs  were  expressed  in  "Helbeck  of  Bannisdale."  In 
such  of  her  novels  as  '*  The  Marriage  of  William  Ashe,"  "  Lady  Rose's 
Daughter"  and  "  Eltham  House  "  the  author  adopted  the  plan  of  taking 
historical  characters  from  one  period  and  re-telling  their  story  in  a 
different  time  and  setting. 

Her  first  great  novel  was  pronounced  by  Gladstone  to  be  a 
"  tremendous  book,"  and  was  commended  by  Tolstoy,  and  translated 
into  most  European  languages.  Mrs.  Ward  was  at  her  best  in  dealing 
with  serious  subjects  either  in  home  life,  religion  or  politics. 

Her  social  activities  were  far-reaching  and  benevolent.  She  founded 
the  Children's  Play  Centres  and  the  Passmore  Edwards  Settlement,  and 
she  was  also  known  as  a  woman  who  possessed  strong  domestic  affections 
and  a  genius  for  friendship. 

Mrs.  Humphry  Ward  opposed  woman  suffrage,  but  she  became  one 
of  the  first  woman  magistrates,  and  her  work  in  the  war  added  to  her 
fame. 

She  was  survived  by  her  husband,  her  son  and  daughters,  who  re- 
ceived the  sympathy  of  the  King  and  Queen  at  her  death,  and  her  funeral 
at  Aldbury  was  attended  by  a  large  number  of  distinguished  persons  who 
united  in  mourning  the  loss  of  a  great  and  noble-hearted  woman. 

24.  Sir  John  Qlover,  who  was  in  his  91st  year,  was  senior  partner  in 
the  g^reat  shipping  firm  which  bore  his  name,  and  was  a  great  authority 
on  all  matters  affecting  the  shipping  industry.  He  served  on  many 
committees  and  on  the  Royal  Commission  of  1880  on  the  Tonnage  Laws, 
and  in  1899  he  was  elected  Chairman  of  Lloyd's  Register  of  British 
and  Foreign  Shipping. 

Sir  John  was  a  Liberal  until  the  split  on  Home  Rule  occurred  in 
1886,  when  he  became  a  I4beral  Unionist.  He  had  previously  unsuccess- 
fully contested  Scarborough  in  1885.    He  was  knighted  in  1^. 

APRIL. 

1.  Sir  Henry  Stephen*  late  Acting  Chief  Justice  of  New  South  Wales, 
was  in  his  92nd  year,  and  was  the  son  of  Sir  Alfred  Stephen,  at  one  time 
Cbdef  Justice  of  New  South  Wales.  He  was  educated  at  Sydney  Colleee 
and  in  England,  and  was  called  to  the  Bar  in  1860.  He  subsequently 
practised  in  Sydnev,  becomin^^,  in  1879,  the  first  Q.C.  under  Australian 
Law.  After  declimng  three  times  the  position  of  Solicitor-General  he 
was  raised  to  the  Bench  of  the  Supreme  Court  in  1887.  He  held  for  a 
short  time  a  seat  in  the  Legislative  Assembly.  He  retired  from  the 
Bench  in  1903.    Sir  Henry  was  twice  married. 

I 


130  OBITUAEY.  [AprU 

7.  Caroline  Alice,  Lady  Elgar,  was  the  dauffhter  of  Major-General 
Henry  Qee  Roberts,  K.C.B.  She  married  Sir  Edward  (then  Mr.)  Elgar 
in  1889,  and  he  owed  much  of  his  sub8e<]|uent  fame  to  her  help  and 
sympathy.  In  early  days  she  *'  laid  out  *'  his  scores,  and  copied  in  voice 
parts,  and  her  suggestions  proved  of  great  value  to  him.  Lady  Elgar 
was  a  fine  linguist,  and  possessed  considerable  literary  gifts.  She 
published  a  novel  *'  Marchcrof  t  Manor,"  and  a  translation  of  Hoflbnann's 
"Bitter  Gliick,*'  and  wrote  many  of  the  words  of  songs  set  to  music  by 
her  husband. 

10.  Tlie  Dowa^r  Viscoantess  Wolseley,  widow  of  the  famous  Field- 
Marshal,  was  the  daughter  of  Mr.  Alexander  Erskine,  and  was  married 
in  1867.  She  left  one  daughter,  who  had  succeeded  to  the  Viscounty  by 
special  remainder. 

11.  The  Most  Rev.  Joiin  Baptist  Crozier,  D.D.,  Arcliblsliop  off 
Armagli,  and  Primate  of  All  Ireland,  was  bom  in  1863,  and  was  the  son 
of  the  Bev.  B.  B.  Crozier.  He  graduated  as  a  moderator  and  medallist  in 
Logic  and  Ethics  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  in  1872,  and  he  took  a  First 
Class  in  the  Divinity  Testamonium  Examination.  He  also  gained  dis* 
tinction  as  a  member  of  the  Bugby  Football  Club. 

Id  1876  he  was  ordained,  and  after  serving  two  curacies  in  Belfast  he 
became,  in  1880,  Vicar  of  Holywood,  Co.  Down,  and  held  that  benefice  for 
seventeen  years,  during  which  period  he  filled  various  diocesan  posts. 
He  was  Examining  Chaplain  to  his  Bishop,  Treasurer  of  Down  Cathedral, 
Chaplain  (in  1893)  to  the  Lord-Lieutenant  of  Ireland,  Honorary  Secretary 
of  the  General  Synod  of  the  Church  of  Ireland  in  1896,  and  in  the  same 
year  he  was  appointed  Frebendarv  of  Wicklow  and  Canon  of  St.  Patrick's 
Cathedral.  He  was  elected  Bisnop  of  Ossory,  Ferns,  and  Leighlin  in 
1897,  and  was  translated  to  the  See  of  Down,  Connor,  and  Dromore  ten 
years  later,  and  became  Archbishop  of  Armagh  in  1911. 

Dr.  Crozier  was  distinguished  chiefly  for  his  broad-minded  sympathy 
with  all  sections  of  his  fellow-countrymen,  and  his  ministry  in  the 
Church  of  Ireland  did  much  to  alloy  the  bitterness  of  feeling  with  which 
she  was  re^rded  in  some  quarters.  In  politics  he  was  always  courteous 
and  conciliatory,  and  his  influence  made  for  peace  during  ttie  Home 
Bule  Bill  controversy^  in  1914,  and  in  the  proceedings  of  the  Irish  Con- 
vention in  1917.  His  wife  was  Miss  Alice  Hackett,  and  he  left  a 
daughter  and  two  sons,  one  of  whom  served  with  distinction  in  the 
Boyal  Artillery  during  the  war^  while  the  other  acted  as  a  Military 
Chaplain. 

Dr.  Crozier's  funeral  took  place  in  Armagh  Cathedral,  his  grave  being 
in  the  Cathedral  Cemetery. 

—  Sir  John  Tanlcerville  Ooldney,  who  was  73  years  of  age,  was  a 
member  of  an  old  Wiltshire  family.  He  was  educated  at  Harrow  and 
Cambridge,  was  called  to  the  Bar  in  1869,  and  later  served  successively 
as  Attorney-General,  and  Acting  Chief  Justice  of  the  Leeward  Islands. 
Subsequently  he  filled  judicial  posts  in  British  Guiana  and  the  Straits 
Settlements,  and  in  1892  he  was  appointed  Chief  Justice  of  Trinidad. 
Sir  John,  who  was  knighted  in  1893,  was  twice  married,  his  second  wife 
surviving  him. 

12.  Adeline  Marie,  Ductless  of  Bedford,  was  the  second  daughter  of 
the  third  Earl  Somers,  and  she  married  the  Marquess  of  Tavistock  in 
1876.  In  1891  her  husband  succeeded  the  9th  Duke  of  Bedford,  and  two 
years  later  he  died,  leaving  no  children.  His  widow,  who  had  for  many 
years  been  identified  with  religious  and  charitable  work,  devoted  most  of 
her  time  to  such  causes  as  the  higher  education  of  women,  prison  reform 
for  female  prisoners^  and  rescue  work. 

During  the  war  she  served  on  the  Joint  Committee  of  the  British 
Bed  Cross  Society  and  the  Order  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  and  during 
the  last  year  of  her  life  she  took  a  great  interest  in  the  establishment  of 
the  "  Sunshine  Home  "  for  blind  babies  at  Chorleywood. 


1930.]  OBITUAEY.  131 

The  Duchess  was  never  a  supporter  of  the  Woman  Suffrage  move- 
ment in  spite  of  the  leading  part  she  played  in  questions  affecting  the 
lives  and  work  of  those  of  her  sex.    She  was  a  good  speaker,  and  in 

Erivate  life  a  cultured  woman  of  artistic  tastes  with  a  great  love  of 
orticulture,  and  she  was  a  devout  member  of  the  Ohurch  of  England. 
She  was  buried  at  Chenies. 

13.  Francis  Hay  Rawlins,  M.A.,  Vice-Provost  of  Eton  College,  was 

bom  in  1860.  His  mother  was  a  member  of  the  Donaldson  family, 
famous  for  their  scholarship.  In  1862  he  went  to  Eton  as  a  colleger, 
and  distinguished  himself  highly,  winning  the  Tomline  Prize  for  Mathe- 
matics in  1868^  and  after  being  twice  in  the  "  Select "  for  the  Newcastle 
he  became  medallist  in  1869  and  scholar  the  following  year.  He  became 
captain  of  the  school,  was  a  member  of  the  Eton  Society,  and  he  played 
in  the  College  Wall  eleven. 

Mr.  Bawlins'  career  at  Cambridge  was  also  highly  successful.  He 
entered  King's  College  as  an  Eton  Scholar  in  1870,  was  Browne  Medal- 
list in  1871  and  the  two  following  years,  and  in  1874  was  bracketed  with 
Dr.  Walter  Leaf  as  Senior  Classic,  and  again  for  the  Chancellor's  Medals. 

In  1875  Mr.  Bawlins  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  icing's,  and  that  same 
year  he  went  to  Eton  as  an  Assistant  Master,  becoming  later  a  House 
Master,  and  in  1906,  when  Dr.  Warre  resigned  the  Head  Mastership, 
Mr.  Bawlins  stood  for  the  post,  to  which,  however.  Dr.  Lyttelton  suc- 
ceeded. The  new  Head  Master  offered  the  Lower  Mastership  to  Mr. 
Eawlins,  and  he  accepted  this  post  which  he  filled  with  conspicuous 
ability.  Three  years  later  he  resigned  his  House  Mastership  and  went 
to  live  at  *'  Weston's,"  and  in  1916  he  was  appointed  Vice-Provost.  He 
then  gave  up  teaching,  and  removed  to  an  official  house  in  the  Cloisters 
where  he  passed  the  remaining  years  of  his  life. 

Mr.  Bawlins  was  an  able  classical  scholar,  accurate  and  painstaking. 
He  wrote  in  conjunction  with  Dr.  Inge  an  ''Advanced  Eton  Latin 
Grammar,"  and  was  responsible  for  certain  editions  of  Livy.  As  a  teacher 
he  was  most  successful,  and  was  greatly  liked  by  his  pupils.  He  possessed 
great  gifts  of  organisation,  and  was  a  member  of  the  governing  bodies  of 
Badley,  the  Boyal  HoUoway  College,  and  the  Imperial  Service  College. 
He  was  unmarried. 

—  Francis  Herman  Lucas,  C.B.,  C.V.O.,  financial  Secretary  to  the 
India  Office,  was  42  years  of  age.  He  was  a  scholar  of  Winchester  School 
and  of  Trinity  College,  Canibridge,  and  was  a  distinguished  athlete, 
representing  his  University  in  the  lonff  jump.  He  took  double  honours 
at  Cambrid^,  and  in  1901  he  entered  the  India  Office,  being  appointed 
assistant  Private  Secretary,  first  to  Lord  Georffe  Hamilton,  and  subse- 
quently to  Lord  Midleton  (then  Mr.  St.  John  Brodrick).  In  1909  he 
became  principal  Private  Secretary  to  Lord  Morley,  and  he  held 
the  same  post  under  Lord  Crewe  and  Mr.  Chamberliun.  In  1911  he 
accompanied  Lord  Crewe,  who  acted  as  Minister  in  Attendance  on  the 
King  ouringthe  Durbar  Tour.  Mr.  Lucas  was  made  Financial  Secretary 
in  1917,  and  his  tenure  of  office  was  marked  by  his  great  ability  in  dealing 
with  exchange  and  currency  matters,  especially  in  connexion  with  Sir 
Babington  Smith's  Committee.  He  was  the  recipient  of  the  C.B.  in 
1911,  and  the  C.V.O.  in  1917.  Mr.  Lucas  married  in  1903  and  left  three 
children. 

—  Sir  Httgii  Adcodc,  C.M.O.,  who  was  71,  was  from  1888  to  1897 
Chief  Phvsidan  to  Mouzaffer-e-Din  who  ascended  the  Persian  Throne 
during  the  latter  year.  Sir  Hugh  remained  the  Shah's  Consulting 
Physician-in-Chief,  and  was  also  at  one  period  Persian  Consul  in  Florence. 
He  was  made  a  C.M.G.  in  1897,  and  was  knighted  in  1901,  and  he  was 
also  the  recipient  of  numerous  foreign  decorations.  He  was  married 
twice  and  had  two  sons. 

—  Professor  J.  A.  McCleliand,  P.R.S.,  who  held  the  Chair  of  Experi- 
mental Physics  in  University  Coll^ge^  Dublin,  was  educated  at  Coleraine, 

l2 


132  OBITUAEY.  [April 

his  native  town,  and  at  Queen's  College,  Gal  way.  He  held  a  Fellowship 
in  the  Boyal  University  of  Ireland  in  1895,  took  a  research  degree  at 
Cambridge  in  1897^  and  subsequently  became  a  Commissioner  of 
National  Education,  a  member  of  the  Senate  of  the  National  University 
and  was  from  1907  Secretary  to  the  Royal  Irish  Academy.  His  work 
during  the  war  as  a  member  of  the  Inventions  Committee,  and  of  the 
Committee  for  Organisation  of  Industrial  Besearch,  and  the  school  of 
research  which  he  developed  at  his  University  entitled  him  to -rank  as 
one  of  his  country's  most  eminent  scientists. 

14.  Sir  Edmund  Qiles  Loder,  Bart.,  who  was  70  years  of  i^e,  was 
well  known  as  a  traveller,  sportsman^  and  naturalist.  He  was  educated 
at  Eton  and  Cambridge  where  he  did  remarkably  well  both  in  the  fields 
of  scholarship  and  athletics.  He  was  a  brilliant  shot  with  the  rifle,  repre- 
senting England  at  Wimbledon  and  Bisley,  and  he  won  the  "  Running 
Deer  "  and  Martin-Smith  Competitions  more  than  once.  The  first  of  his 
big  game  shooting  expeditions  took  place  in  1871,  and  for  many  years 
following  he  continued  tl^is  pursuit,  visiting  India,  Western  America, 
Algeria^  and  East  Africa.  He  brought  back  many  specimens  of  animals 
for  his  well-known  museum  at  Leonardslee,  Sussex,  and  in  his  park  he 
had  a  beaver  colony,  and  numerous  specimens  of  deer  from  distant  lands. 

Sir  Edmund  was  learned  as  a  zoologist  and  botanist,  and  was  re- 
markable for  the  accuracy  of  his  observations  in  these  sciences,  though 
he  seldom  published  any  results  of  his  labours. 

He  succeeded  his  father  as  second  baronet,  and  married,  in  1876,  Miss 
Marion  Hubbard.  His  only  son  was  killed  in  the  war,  and  his  successor 
was  his  grandson^  Giles  Rolls  Loder,  who  was  born  in  1914. 

16.  Theodore  N.  Vail  was  for  ten  years  President  of  the  American 
Telephone  and  Telegraph  Company,  and  during  his  period  of  office  the 
number  of  '*  Bell "  telephone  stations  in  the  United  States  was  increased 
from  below  6,000,000  to  nearly  12,000,000.  He  was  a  man  who  recognised 
the  importance  both  of  scientific  research,  and  of  commercial  organisa- 
tion in  telephonic  communication,  and  he  saw  his  efforts  crowned  with 
success. 

17.  Professor  Alfred  Kirby  Huntington,  A.R.S.M.,  MAnsL  M.M., 
P.I.C.,  was  the  occupant  of  the  Chair  of  Metallurgy  at  King's  Collej^e, 
London,  from  1879  to  1919.  His  specialised  work  in  connexion  with 
high  explosives  during  the  war  was  of  very  great  service  to  the  Admiralty, 
and  he  was  one  of  the  pioneers  of  the  science  of  aviation.  Having,  as  a 
younger  man,  been  an  accomplished  balloonist,  he  was  in  the  forefront 
of  the  movement  for  heavier-than-air  flying,  and  became  a  noted  member 
of  the  Royal  Aero  Club.  Notwithstanding  his  age,  he  built  and  flew 
his  own  aeroplane  when  the  science  was  in  its  infancy,  and  his  demon- 
strations of  his  theories  made  a  deep  impression  on  the  scientific  aviation 
world.  His  numerous  benefactions  to  the  University  of  London,  and 
his  devotion  to  his  work  gained  for  him  the  gratitude  of  students. 

—  Leonard  Boyne,  the  well-known  actor,  was  68  years  of  age.  He 
made  his  first  appearance  at  Liverpool  in  1870,  and  four  years  later  he 
came  to  London^  playing  in  '*  Progress  "  at  the  St.  James's  Theatre.  He 
was  an  extremely  versatile  and  popular  actor,  and  retained  his  youthfal 
appearance  in  a  remarkable  manner.  He  was  seen  probably  at  his  best 
in  *' General  John  Regan"  and  in  '^ Caroline"  at  the  New  Theatre  in 
1916. 

—  Vice- Admiral  Joseph  Edward  Maltland  Wilson,  whose  age  was  87, 
entered  the  Navy  in  1848  and  served  during  the  Crimean  War,  being 
present  at  the  bombardments  of  Odessa  and  Sebastopol,  and  also  serving 
in  the  trenches.  Later  he  was  in  command  of  the  training  ship  Ganges^ 
and  after  attaining  the  rank  of  Captain  he  served  as  Flag  Captain  to 
Rear-Admiral  the  Hon.  A.  A.  L.  P.  Cochrane.    In  1888  he  retired,  and 


1920.]  OBITUARY.  133 

he  was  promoted  Bear-Admiral  on  the  retired  list  in  1889.  and  Vioe- 
Admiral  in  1894. 

For  his  services  in  the  Crimea  he  received  the  Crimean  and  Turkish 
medals,  the  Sehastopol  Clasp,  and  the  6th  class  of  the  Medjidie,  and  from 
1886  to  1888  he  was  the  recipient  of  the  Captain's  Good  Service  Pension. 
He  married  in  1860,  and  left  three  daughters. 

17.  Lady  Russell  Cotes,  who  was  horn  in  1835,  married  Sir  Merton 
Russell  Cotes  in  I860,  and  joined  with  him  in  presenting  to  the  town  of 
Bournemouth,  of  which  he  was  at  one  time  Mayor,  an  Art  Gallery  and 
Museum.  She  was  also  a  benefactress  of  the  Shaftesbury  Society's  work 
for  poor  children,  and  was  a  great  traveller  and  a  Fellow  of  the  Boyal 
Society  of  Literature. 

18.  Professor  Lucius  Trant  O'Shea,  who  was  a  specialist  in  the  study 
of  the  chemistry  of  fuel,  was  educated  at  Owens  College,  Manchester. 
In  1880  he  went  to  Sheffield  where  he  held  for  many  years  the  Chair  of 
Applied  Chemistry.  During  the  South  African  War  he  served  in  com- 
mand of  the  1st  West  York  Boyal  Engineer  Volunteers,  and  he  com- 
manded the  Sheffield  University  O.T.C.  during  the  Eurof^n  War. 

—  Sir  John  Boraston,  J.P.,  who  was  Joint  Principal  Agent  of  the 
Unionist  Party,  was  born  in  1861.  He  became  a  Solicitor,  and  through- 
out his  life  he  was  connected  with  politics,  beginning  his  career  by  holdmg 
the  post  of  Liberal  Agent  for  Southampton  when  he  was  23  years  of  age. 
After  the  Home  Bule  split  in  1886^  he  threw  in  his  lot  with  the  Liberal- 
Unionist  Party,  which  owed  much  to  his  gifts  of  organisation,  particularly 
in  London  where  in  1888  he  became  Secretary  to  the  L.U.  Federation, 
and  he  was  also  the  Manager  of  the  Publication  Department  of  the  L.U. 
Association.  Three  years  later  he  was  appointed  Secretary  and  Chief 
Agent  to  the  Association,  a  post  which  he  held  until  1912,  when  the 
Party  joined  forces  with  the  Conservatives. 

Sir  John  rendered  services  to  his  cause  in  Ireland,  both  at  the  times 
of  General  Elections  and  by  assisting  in  the  formation  of  the  Unionist 
Joint  Committee.  He  became  Principal  Agent  to  the  Unionist  Party  in 
1912,  and  aided  in  recruiting  work  during  the  war.  He  was  knighted 
in  1916. 

—  Rear-Admlral  John  Parry  Jones-Parry,  who  was  90  years  of  age, 
entered  the  Navy  in  1845.  He  served  in  H.M.S.  Terrible  in  the  Black 
Sea  during  the  Bussian  War,  and  was  present  at  the  bombardments  of 
Odessa  and  Sehastopol.  Later  he  commanded  successively  the  ^n 
vessels,  Steady  at  Devonport,  and  SpeedweU  on  the  West  Coast  of  Africa. 
He  was  promoted  Captain  in  1871,  and  retired  in  1873,  being  subse- 
quently promoted  Bear- Admiral  on  the  retired  list. 

He  was  twice  married  and  had  three  sons  and  one  daughter. 

20.  Briton  Riviere,  R.A.,  who  was  born  in  1840,  was  a  member  of  a 
famil^r  of  Huguenot  origin.  His  father,  who  was  himself  an  artist,  be- 
came in  1848  drawing  master  at  Cheltenham  College  where  the  lad  was 
one  of  his  pupils.  In  1868  the  family  moved  to  Oxford,  and  Briton 
Biviere  in  due  course  matriculated  at  St.  Mary  Hall,  taking  his  degree 
in  1867,  during  which  year  he  married  Miss  Mary  Alice  Dobell  by  whom 
he  had  a  large  family. 

Briton  Biviere  began  to  paint  at  a  very  early  age,  two  of  his  pictures 
being  exhibited  at  the  British  Institution  before  he  was  12,  and  three  at 
the  &oyal  Academy  when  he  was  17.  As  a  youns  man  he  became 
enamoured  of  Pre-Baphaelite  theories,  but  these  did  not  hold  him  for 
long.  In  1865  he  exhibited  the  first  of  his  famous  animal  pictures,  '*  The 
Sleeping  Deerhound,"  which  was  followed  in  due  course  by  *'  The  Empty 
Chair,"  •*  The  Last  of  the  Garrison,"  and  •'  Charity,"  while  "  Daniel,"  in 
1872,  made  a  deep  impression  both  on  the  public  and  on  the  artistic 
world.  Mr.  Biviere's  work  was  extremely  popular  and  widely  known, 
and  though  he  painted  occasional  portraits  ana  landscapes,  it  was  upon 
his  great  skill  in  presenting  the  relations  existing  between  the  animal 


138  OBITUAEY.  [May 

Modern  History.    His  election  to  a  Fellowship  at  Lincoln  College  fol- 
lowed, and  he  became  in  1889  Lecturer  in  Modern  History. 

Sir  Owen  became  Liberal  M.P.  for  Merionethshire  on  the  death  of 
his  friend  Tom  Ellis  in  1889.  He  published  a  ''  History  of  Wales,"  edited 
Welsh  classics,  and  himself  wrote  books  in  his  native  language.  He  also 
edited  several  Welsh  magazines.  He  became  Chief  Inspector  of  the 
Welsh  Department  of  the  Board  of  Education  in  1907,  and  received 
later  the  honour  of  knighthood. 

16.  Levi  P.  Morton,  who  was  bom  in  the  State  of  Vermont  in  1824, 
became  a  New  York  banker  of  great  international  importance.  He  was 
a  Republican  Member  of  Congress  from  1879  to  1881,  and  U.S.  Am- 
bassador in  Paris  from  1881  to  1886.  Three  years  later  he  became 
Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  and  from  1889  to  1893  he  acted  as 
Chairman  of  the  Senate,  gaining  high  commendation  for  his  dignity 
and  fairness.  Later  he  became  Gk)vemor  of  New  York  for  a  one-year 
term. 

—  Miss  Mars^aret  Anne  Courtney,  who  was  the  sister  of  the  late  Lord 
Courtney  of  Penwith,  was  86  years  of  age.  In  1880  she  published  "  A 
Glossary  of  Words  in  use  in  Cornwall,"  printed  by  the  English  Dialect 
Society. 

17.  Major-Qeneral  Sir  Colerids:e  Qrove,  K.C.B.,  who  was  born  in 
1839,  was  a  son  of  the  Right  Hon.  Sir  W.  R.  Grove,  a  Puisne  Judge  of 
the  old  Court  of  Common  Pleas.  He  became  an  Exhibitioner  at  Balliol 
College,  Oxford,  and  took  a  First  Class  both  in  Mathematical  Moderations 
and  in  the  Final  School.  In  1863  he  joined  the  15th  Regiment,  and 
subsequently  passed  through  the  Staff  College,  becoming,  in  1882,  A.D.C. 
to  the  Viceroy  of  Ireland.  He  held  Staff  appointments  in  Egypt,  and 
was  present  at  the  Battle  of  Tel-el-Kebir,  and  he  also  served  on  the  Staff 
during  the  Sudan  Expedition  of  1884-85.  Later  he  became  Military 
Secretary  to  the  Commander-in-Chief  in  Effypt,  and  A.A.  and  Q.M.G. 
at  Gibraltar.  He  was  Private  Secretary  to  three  Secretaries  of  State  for 
War  in  succession,  Mr.  Campbell -Bannerman,  Mr.  W.  H.  Smith,  and 
Mr.  Stanhope,  and  from  1888  to  1894  he  was  A.A.G.  at  Armv  Head- 
quarters,  and  was  Military  Secretary  at  the  War  Office  from  1896  to  1901, 
when  he  became  Colonel  of  the  East  Yorkshire  Regiment.  In  1898  he 
was  created  a  K.C.B. 

—  Charies  Edward  Hastings  Abney-Hastlns:s,  eieventli  Eari  of 
Loudoun,  who  was  bom  in  1855,  was  the  son  of  Lady  Edith  Abney- 
Hastings,  who  was  Countess  of  Loudoun  in  her  own  right.  His  father 
was  Charles  Frederick  Clifton  who  assumed  the  names  of  Abney- 
Hastings,  and  was  raised  to  the  Peerage  as  Baron  Donington  in  1880.  He 
succeeded  to  the  Earldom  in  1874  and  to  his  father's  title  in  1895.  From 
his.  mother  he  also  inherited  the  Scottish  titles  of  Lord  Campbell,  Baron 
of  Loudoun,  Baron  Tarrinzean  and  Mauchline,  and  the  English  titles  of 
Baron  Botreaux,  Baron  Molines,  Baron  Hungerford,  and  Baron  Hastings. 

Lord  Loudoun,  who  married,  in  1880,  the  Hon.  Alice  Mary  Elizabeth 
Fitzalan-Howard,  daughter  of  the  first  Lord  Howard  of  Glossop,  left  no 
children.  His  successor  in  the  Scottish  Earldom  was  his  next  and  late 
brother's  daughter,  Edith  Maud  Abnejr-Hastings,  while  his  father's  title 
went  to  his  second  brother,  the  Hon.  Gilbert  Clifton-Hastings-Campbell. 

20.  Sir  Dennis  PiUpatricIc,  Q.C.S.I.,  was  the  son  of  a  Dublin 
physician,  and  was  born  in  1837.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  and  passing  into  the  Indian  Civil  Service  in  1858^  he  joined  the 
Punjab  Commission  the  next  year.  He  became  a  magistrate  at  Delhi, 
and  after  occupying  this  post  for  seven  years  he  was  placed  on  special 
duty  to  prepare  the  defence  of  the  Government  in  the  case  of  the  con- 
flscation  of  the  estates  of  the  Begum  Samru  of  Sirdhana  after  the 
Mutiny.  He  returned  home  in  connexion  with  this  work  in  1809  and  in 
1872  he  was  called  to  the  Bar  by  the  Inner  Temple. 


1920.]  OBITUAEY.  139 

For  the  next  twenty  years  Sir  Dennis  held  various  important  offices 
in  India.  He  was  successively  a  Judge  of  the  Chief  Court  of  Lahore, 
Secretary  of  the  Legislative  Department  of  the  Supreme  Government, 
and,  after  a  few  months  as  Secretary  of  the  Home  Department  in  1886, 
he  became  Acting  Chief  Commissioner  of  the  Central  Provinces.  In 
1887  he  became  a  member  of  the  Public  Services  Commission,  and  was 
made  a  C.S.I.  He  then  became  Resident  in  Mysore  and  Chief  Com- 
missioner of  Coorg  for  a  short  time,  proceeding  before  the  end  of  the 
year  to  Assam  to  take  up  the  post  of  Chief  Commissioner  there.  In 
1889  he  became  Resident  at  Hyderabad  where  he  was  responsible  for 
the  initiation  of  many  reforms  in  administration.  During  his  period  of 
service  there  he  received  the  K.C.S.I. 

In  1892  Sir  Dennis  became  Iieut.-Governor  of  the  Punjab  where  he 
remained  until  1897.  While  he  occupied  this  position  he  maintained 
the  high  standard  of  efficiency  in  administration  of  Sir  James  Lyall 
his  predecessor,  and  he  also  advanced  the  latter's  irrigation  schemes. 
At  the  end  of  this  period  Sir  Dennis  returned  home  to  join  the  Council 
of  India,  and  he  retired  ten  years  later,  receiving  in  1911  the  rare  honour 
for  a  civilian  of  the  Q.C.S.I. 

Sir  Dennis  married,  in  1862,  Miss  Mary  Buller,  who  survived  him, 
together  with  two  daughters  and  two  sons.  Several  other  children  pre- 
deceased him.  Sir  Dennis  was  a  Roman  Catholic,  and  a  Requiem  Mass 
for  him  was  celebrated  at  the  Brompton  Oratory. 

20.  Sir  Frederick  Lucas  Coolc,  Bart.,  was  75  years  of  age.  He  had 
been  connected  for  half  a  century  with  the  drapery  business  which  bore 
his  name  in  St.  Paul's  Churchyard.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Coaching 
Club,  and  owned  a  large  house  in  Richmond  and  an  estate  in  Portugal. 
He  was  Conservative  M.P.  for  Kennington  for  ten  years,  but  was  de- 
feated in  1906.  He  was  the  second  Baronet^  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Herbert. 

21.  Qenenil  Venustiano  Camrnza,  President  of  Mexico,  was  60  years 
of  age,  and  was  born  in  the  State  of  Coahuila  where  he  owned  a 
large  property.  During  the  earlier  part  of  his  career  he  lived  a  private 
life  cultivating  his  own  extensive  farms.  In  early  middle  life  he  made 
several  attempts  to  enter  Parliament,  but  met  with  the  opposition  of 
President  Diaz,  who  was  then  all-powerful.  At  the  time  of  the  Revolu- 
tion in  1911  he  joined  President  Madero,  and  was  shortly  afterwards 
elected  Governor  of  Coahuila.  Two  years  later  when  General  Huerta 
seized  the  Presidency,  General  Carranza  declared  war  against  him,  and 
after  a  prolonged  civil  war,  in  which  more  than  two  parties  were  engaged. 
General  Carranza  was  recognised  as  President  in  October,  1915,  by  the 
United  States.  In  December,  1916,  he  was  formally  elected  President  by 
his  own  people. 

He  carried  on  his  administration  successfully  for  more  than  three 
years,  but  in  1920  a  new  revolutionary  movement  broke  out,  and  after 
the  defeat  of  his  adherents,  Carranza  was  killed  by  the  Revolutionaries 
near  the  town  of  Tlaxcala-Tongo  in  the  State  of  Puebla. 

26.  Major-Qeaeral  Sir  Alexander  Bruce  Tuliocli,  K.C.B.,  C.M.G., 
was  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1838,  and  was  the  son  of  Lieutenant-Colonel 
J.  G.  D.  TuUoch.  He  joined  the  Army  in  1855,  and  before  he  was  20 
years  of  age  saw  service  during  the  Indian  Mutiny.  He  subsequently 
served  in  Canada,  Gibraltar,  and  the  Egyptian  Expedition  of  1882.  Some 
years  later  he  was  sent  to  Australia  where  he  did  important  work  in 
connexion  with  the  organisation  of  the  Defence  Force.  Much  to  his 
disappointment  he  was  not  accepted  for  service  in  the  South  African 
War  owing  to  his  advanced  age.  He  was  the  author  of  several  books,  of 
which  perhaps  the  best  known  was  one  on  the  Jacobite  Rising  of  1745. 

—  Cecil  Clay  was  73  years  of  age,  and  had  long  been  a  well-known 
figure  in  London  society.    He  was  educated  at  Harrow  and  Oxford  and 


140  OBITUARY.  [May-Janc 

had  some  success  as  a  playwright,  his  best-known  work  being  perhaps 
'''A  Pantomime  Behearsal." 

28.  The  Rev.  Canon  Hardwick  Drummond  Rawnsley,  who  was  69 

years  of  age,  came  of  a  well-known  Lincolnshire  family^  and  was  edu- 
cated at  Uppingham  and  Balliol  College,  Oxford.  He  was  ordained  in  1875, 
and  was  for  a  long  period  Vicar  of  Wray  on  Lake  Windermere.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  considerable  number  of  books,  of  which  "Literary 
Associations  of  the  English  Lakes,"  and  several  others,  related  to  the 
English  Lake  District.    He  was  an  Honorary  Canon  of  Carlisle  Cathedral. 

29.  Dr.  Qeorge  Ernest  Morrison  was  born  in  the  Colony  of  Victoria, 
Australia,  in  1862.  He  was  educated  at  Melbourne  University  and  be- 
came a  great  traveller  and  journalist.  One  of  his  most  notable  achieve- 
ments as  a  traveller  was  accomplished  in  1882,  when  he  crossed  Australia 
on  foot  from  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria  to  Melbourne,  a  distance  of  over 
2,000  miles.  He  also  explored  in  Papua,  voyaged  in  the  Pacific  Islands, 
and  travelled  to  almost  every  province  of  China,  where  he  did  important 
work  as  Correspondent  of  The  Times. 

—  Colonel  Alfred  Stowell  Jones,  V.C,  was  born  in  1831^  and  was 
descended  from  a  Welsh  farming  family.  When  he  was  19  years  of  age 
he  obtained  a  Commission  in  the  9th  Queen's  Royal  Lancers,  and  he  was 
on  duty  at  the  funeral  of  the  great  Duke  of  Wellington.  He  served  with 
<ii8tinction  during  the  Indian  Mutiny,  and  was  granted  the  V.C.  for  the 
courageous  part  which  he  played  in  the  capture  of  a  gun  near  Delhi  on 
June  8, 1857. 

—  Admiral  Sir  Robert  Swinburne  Lowry,  E.C.B.,  was  bom  in  1864 
and  entered  the  Navy  in  1867.  In  1873,  whilst  serving  on  the  Invincible,  he 
received  the  medal  of  the  Ro^al  Humane  Society  for  gallantly  rescuing 
from  drowning  a  boy  belonging  to  the  crew  of  that  ship.  He  became 
Bear-Admiral  m  1906 ;  and  from  1913  to  1916  he  was  in  command  of  the 
great  naval  base  of  Rosyth. 

30.  Sir  Henry  Sutton  was  75  years  of  age,  and  was  the  son  of  Mr. 
James  Sutton  of  Shardlow  Hall,  Derby.  He  was  educated  at  Rugby  and 
Christ's  College,  Cambridge.  He  was  called  to  the  Bar  by  Lincoln's  Inn 
in  1870,  and  worked  on  the  Midland  and  North-Eastern  Circuits.  At  the 
end  of  1890  he  was  made  Junior  Counsel  to  the  Treasury,  and  in  1905  he 
became  a  Judge  of  the  King's  Bench.  Durine  the  four  years  that  he 
held  this  position  he  suffered  much  from  ill  health. 

JUNE. 

5.  Alfred  Clayton  Cole,  who  was  Governor  of  the  Bank  of  England 
from  1911  until  his  death,  was  born  in  1854.  He  was  educated  at  Eton, 
where  he  was  captain  of  the  Oppidans  in  1874,  and  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge.  In  1880  he  was  called  to  the  Bar  by  the  Inner  Temple,  and 
in  1907  he  married  Mrs.  Herbert  Chamberlain.  Mr.  Cole  published 
an  excellent  paper  on  banking  and  the  credit  system. 

—  The  Rev.  the  Hon.  John  Stafford  Northcote,  Prebendary  of  Ox- 
gate  in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  was  bom  in  1850,  and  was  the  third  son  of 
the  first  Earl  of  Iddesleigh.  He  was  educated  at  Eton  and  at  King^s 
College,  London,  where  he  became  a  Fellow  in  1913.  He  started  ma 
career  as  an  engineer,  but  in  1878  he  was  ordained,  and  served  a  curacy 
at  St.  Margaret's,  Westminster.  In  1881  he  became  Rector  of  Upton 
I^ne,  Devon,  and  in  1889  he  was  appointed  to  St.  Andrew's,  Westminster, 
where  he  remained  until  1916.  Prebendary  Northcote  was  extremely 
interested  in  education,  and  held  amon^  other  important  positions  those 
of  Honorary  Secretary  to  the  London  Diocesan  Church  Schools  Associa- 
tion, and  Chairman  of  the  Girls'  Public  Day  School  Trust.  He  took  part 
as  a  member  of  the  Secondary  Schools  Association  in  the  deputation  to 


1920.]  OBITUARY.  141 

the  President  of  the  Board  of  Edacation  in  1919  in  respect  of  those 
schools.  In  1881  he  married  Hilda,  daughter  of  Dean  Farrar,  by  whom 
he  had  several  children.    He  lost  two  sons  in  the  war. 

5.  Miss  Rhoda  Brousrhton,  the  well-known  novelist,  was  born  in 
1840,  and  was  the  daughter  of  a  squire-rector  in  Staffordshire.  She 
published  her  first  novel,  "  Cometh  up  as  a  Flower,"  in  1867,  and  it  was 
followed  by  a  long  series  of  volumes  dealing  for  the  most  part  with  the 
lives  of  well-bred  people  in  English  country  surroundings.  Miss  Brough- 
ton  was  an  acute  observer  and  her  characters  were  well  drawn.  Her 
heroines  were  considered  somewhat  '* advanced"  in  manners  for  their 
day.  The  authoress  lived  in  Oxford  and  also  at  Eichmond,  but  paid  a 
visit  of  some  length  to  London  each  year.  She  was  a  brilliant  companion^ 
with  a  keen  sense  of  humour  and  a  great  knowledge  of  the  world. 

6.  Sir  Charles  William  Mathews,  K.C.B.,  Director  of  Public  Prose- 
cutioos,  was  born  in  New  York  in  1860,  and  was  the  son  of  Mrs.  Daven- 
port, the  actress,  who  subsequently  married  Charles  Mathews  the 
Comedian.  Her  son  took  the  name  of  his  stepfather,  and  after  leaving 
Eton  he  went  to  Mr.  Montagu  Williams  as  a  pupil.  He  was  called  to 
the  Bar  by  the  Middle  Temple  in  1872^  and  soon  became  known  for  his 
remarkably  able  work  in  criminal  cases.  He  was  made  a  revising 
barrister  by  Lord  Coleridge,  C.  J.,  in  1884,  and  two  years  later,  he  became 
(with  Mr.  F.  Mead  as  joint  holder)  Junior  Counsel  to  the  Treasury  at  the 
Old  Bailey.  In  1888  the  two  colleagues  became  Senior  Prosecuting  Counsel 
in  succession  to  Mr.  Poland,  Q.C.  In  this  capacity  he  served  under 
seven  successive  Attorney-Generals,  and  had  also  many  important  civil 
briefs.  He  took  part  in  the  trial  of  the  "  Jameson  Raiders,''  and  in  that 
of  "  Colonel  **  Lynch,  and  on  the  opening  of  the  new  Central  Criminal 
Court  by  the  Kmg  and  Queen  in  1907  he  was  knighted  as  representing 
the  Bar. 

In  1908  Sir  Charles  became  Director  of  Public  Prosecutions,  and  was 
soon  afterwards  made  a  E.C.B.  He  married  the  daughter  of  Mr. 
Lindsay  Sloper,  but  had  no  family. 

11.  The  Very  Rev.  Sir  John  Herkless,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Principal  and 
Vice-chancellor  of  St.  Andrews  University,  was  in  his  66th  year.  He 
was  the  son  of  a  Glasgow  engineer  and  was  educated  in  that  city,  at 
the  High  School  and  College.  He  became  a  minister  of  the  Church  of 
Scotland,  and  from  1883  for  some  years  was  in  charge  of  the  country 
parish  of  Tannadice,  Forfarshire.  In  1894  he  became  Begius  Professor 
of  Ecclesiastical  Historv  at  St.  Andrews,  where  he  succeeded  to  the 
Principalship  in  1915.    He  was  knighted  in  1917. 

Sir  John  was  a  great  scholar,  and  the  leisure  he  enjoyed,  both  in  the 
country  and  during  his  years  as  a  Professor  at  St.  Andrews,  he  employed 
in  writing  a  number  of  books  on  Church  history,  chiefly  biographical  in 
character.  His  largest  work,  one  in  which  he  collaborate  with  Mr. 
B.  Kerr  Hannay,  was  on  the  lives  of  the  pre-Beformation  Archbishops 
of  St.  Andrews,  a  work  of  five  volumes.  He  was  a  Liberal,  both  m 
politics  and  in  Theology,  and  his  occupation  of  the  Principalship  of  St. 
Andrews  showed  him  to  be  a  man  of  affairs,  and  an  academic  pioneer. 

Under  his  rule  the  University  expanded  and  was  consolidated^  and 
he  gave  of  his  best  to  the  encouragement  of  the  growth  of  the  affiliated 
Institution  at  Dundee. 

Sir  John  married  a  Canadian  lady,  Bliss  Caie,  who  survived  him. 

13.  Essad  Pasha,  the  Albanian  Chief,  who  was  assassinated  b^  one  of 
his  fellow-countrymen  in  Paris,  was  the  head  of  the  Toptani  family,  who 
came  under  the  suspicions  of  the  Sultan  Abdul  Hamid  of  Turkey.  After 
the  murder  of  his  brother  (which  was  supposed  to  have  been  committed 
at  the  instigation  of  the  Monarch)  Essad  became  bent  on  vengeance,  but 
he  was  made  a  Brigadier-General  and  Commandant  of  the  Gendarmerie  at 
Janina,  and  subsequently  at  Scutari.  He  then  joined  the  Young  Turks. 
After  the  abdication  of  the  Sultan,  Essad  Pasha  strove  to  gain  complete 


142  OBITUAEY.  [June 

independence  for  Albania,  but  he  came  to  see  that  his  country  was  too 
weak  to  stand  alone.  During  the  Balkan  War  he  assisted  in  the  defence 
of  Scutari  against  the  Montenegrins,  but  he  was  starved  out,  and  forced 
to  surrender.  Early  in  1914  Essad  became  Minister  of  War  and  of  the 
Interior  under  Prince  William  of  Wied^  Mpret  of  the  Shkipetars  at 
Durazzo.  He  was  suspected  of  rebellion  and  deported,  but  became 
President  of  an  Albanian  Provisional  Government  in  1914.  He  sided 
with  the  Entente  during  the  war. 

14.  Vesey  Dawson,  second  Earl  of  Dartrey,  was  78  years  of  age. 
From  1865  to  1868  he  represented  Monaghan  in  the  House  of  Commons  as 
Lord  Cremome,  and  he  served  in  the  Coldstream  Guards,  retiring  with 
the  rank  of  Lieut.-Colonel  in  1876.  He  married,  in  1882,  Julia,  daughter 
of  the  late  Sir  Qeorge  Wombwell,  and  had  two  daughters.  He  succ^ded 
his  father,  the  first  Earl,  in  1897.  His  successor  was  his  brother,  the 
Hon.  Edward  Stanley  Dawson. 

—  Surgeon-Qeneral  James  Cleghom,  M.D.,  C.S.I.,  Honorary  Surgeon 
to  H.M.  the  King,  was  79  years  of  age.  He  was  educated  at  Edinburgh 
University,  and  entered  the  Indian  Medical  Service  in  1865.  In  1891  he 
became  Inspector-General  of  Civil  Hospitals  in  the  Punjab,  and  in  1895 
was  appointed  Director-General  of  the  Medical  Service  and  Sanitary 
Commissioner  in  the  Government  of  India.  He  held  these  offices  for 
three  and  a  half  years,  and  represented  his  Government  at  the  Venice 
Plague  Conference  in  1897.  He  was.  appointed,  on  his  retirement. 
Honorary  Surgeon  to  Queen  Victoria,  and  was  reappointed  to  the  same 
post  by  King  Edward  and  King  George.  He  married  Miss  Barrow  in 
1877. 

15.  Caroline  Inez,  Countess  of  Cavan,  was  the  daughter  of  Mr.  G^rge 
Baden  Crawley,  and  married  Lord  Cavan  in  1893.  She  was,  as  a  keen 
horsewoman,  associated  with  her  husband  in  all  he  did  for  the  Hertford- 
shire Hunt  of  which  he  was  Master,  and  during  the  war  when  he  held 
important  commands  on  the  Western  and  subsequently  on  the  Italian 
front,  she  nursed  the  wounded  at  St.  Thomas's  Hospital,  and,  later  on, 
gave  much  time  to  the  organisation  of  Bed  Cross  work  in  Hertfoidshire. 
Lady  Cavan  had  no  children. 

18.  Herbert  Hardy,  Lord  Cozens- Hardy,  formerly  Master  of  the  Rolls, 
was  born  in  1838,  and  was  the  son  of  a  solicitor  at  Norwich.  He  was 
educated  at  Amersham  School  and  took  the  degree  of  LL.B.  at  London 
University  in  1863,  having  been  called  to  the  Bar  by  Lincoln's  Inn  the 
previous  year.  He  had  the  advantage  of  a  large  connexion  in  Dissent- 
ing and  Liberal  circles,  and  his  practice  flourished  from  the  first.  In 
1882  he  took  silk,  and  in  due  course  he  became  a  "  special,"  appearing 
almost  entirely  in  Chancery  actions.  Among  the  most  famous  of  these 
was  that  of  the  '*  Earl  of  Sheffield  t;.  London  Joint  Stock  Bank,"  which 
went  to  the  Lords. 

In  December,  1885,  he  entered  the  House  of  Commons  as  Liberal 
member  for  one  of  the  Norfolk  Divisions,  and  he  remained  a  follower  of 
Mr.  Qladstone  when  the  Home  Rule  split  took  place. 

Four  vears  later  he  was  raised  to  the  Bench,  and  he  subsequently 
succeeded  Lord  Justice  Bigby  in  the  Court  of  Appeal. 

In  1907  he  was  made  Master  of  the  Bolls,  and  became  ex  officio  Chair- 
man of  the  Boyal  Commission  on  Historical  Manuscripts.  Bfe  was  a  very 
progressive  member  of  the  Senate  of  the  University  of  London,  and  took 
a  keen  interest  in  promoting  the  enlargement  of  the  sphere  of  its  activi- 
ties. He  was  raised  to  the  peerage  in  1914  with  the  title  of  Baron 
Cozens-Hardy  of  Letheringsett  in  the  County  of  Norfolk,  and  resigned 
the  Mastership  of  the  Bolls  in  1918. 

Lord  Cozens-Hardy  was  an  extremely  sound  lawyer,  his  speeches  were 
concise  and  clear  and  he  worked  rapidly.  His  judgments  on  certain  dis- 
puted points  which  came  up  under  the  Workmen's  Compenaatioft  Act 
were  particularly  valuable  to  those  who  followed  him. 


1920.]  OBITUAEY.  143 

He  married  Miss  Maria  Hepburn  in  1866,  and  his  successor  in  the 
peerage  was  his  eldest  son,  the  Hon.  William  Hepburn  Oozens-Hardy, 
K.O. 

26.  Rachel,  Countess  of  Dudley,  who  was  drowned  off  the  Connemara 
Coast  while  bathing,  was  the  younger  daughter  of  Mr.  G.  H.  Gumey  of 
Keswick  Hall,  and  was  from  early  girlhood  brought  up  by  her  cousin 
Adeline,  Duchess  of  Bedford.  She  was  married  to  Lord  Dudley  in  1891, 
and  her  husband  owed  much  to  her  zeal  for  public  work,  and  her  high 
ideals.  As  Vicereine  of  Ireland  from  1902  to  1905  she  was  distinguished 
for  her  great  interest  in  the  needs  of  the  country,  which  she  did  her 
best  to  serve,  and  on  her  husband's  appointment  as  Governor-General  of 
Australia  she  again  exercised  her  great  powers  for  good  with  the  utmost 
earnestness.  Sne  promoted  schemes  for  the  establishment  of  District 
Nurses  both  in  Ireland  and  in  Australia,  and  during  the  war  she 
established  many  clubs  for  officers  at  the  bases  in  Northern  France. 
She  was  made  a  Commander  of  the  Order  of  the  British  Empire  in 
1918,  and  received  the  decoration  of  the  Boyal  Red  Cross. 

Lady  Dudley  was  survived  by  her  husband  and  seven  children,  and 
the  deepest  regret  was  felt  in  all  quarters  at  her  untimely  death. 

JULY. 

1.  Lleut.-Colonel  Sir  Edward  Law  Durand,  Bart.,  C.B.,  was  74  years 
of  age.  His  father  was  Major-General  Sir  Henry  Durand,  who  died  when 
he  was  Lieut.-Govemor  of  the  Punjab  in  1871. 

Sir  Edward,  who  received  his  education  at  Bath,  Repton,  and  Guildford, 
entered  the  96th  Regiment  in  1866.  He  was  transferred  to  the  Bengal 
Staff  Corps  in  1868,  and  after  serving  his  father  as  A.D.O.  and  private 
secretary,  he  acted  as  Resident  in  different  States  in  Rajputana  and 
Central  India.  He  was  placed  in  charge  of  the  ex-Ameer  of  Kabul  from 
1881  to  1886,  was  appointed  an  Assistant  Commissioner  in  the  delimitation 
of  the  Afghan  boundary,  and  he  held  the  post  of  Resident  at  Khatmundu. 
In  1887  he  received  the  (civil)  C.B.,  and  was  created  a  baronet  in  1893, 
during  which  year  he  retired. 

Sir  Edward  published  a  sporting  work  ''Rifle,  Spear,  and  Rod  in  the 
East,"  and  a  historical  study  ''Cyrus,  the  Great  King."  He  married,  in 
1880,  Miss  Maude  Ellen  Heber-Percy,  by  whom  he  nad  three  sons  and 
three  daughters,  and  his  successor  was  his  son,  Captain  Edward  P.  M. 
Durand^  Indian  Army. 

•—  Major-Qeneral  Sir  David  Merser,  K.C.Bm  Adlutant-Qeneral, 
Royal  Marine  Forces*  was  66  years  of  age.  He  had  served  for  over  37 
years  in  the  Boyal  Marines,  having  entered  the  Royal  Marine  Light 
Infantry  in  1883.  He  served  in  Bermuda,  at  Portsmouth,  and  in  China, 
and  then  held  several  Staff  appointments  at  home.  During  the  war  he 
commanded  the  First  Brigade  of  the  Royal  Naval  Division  at  the  Darda- 
nelles, was  mentioned  in  despatches,  and  received  the  C.B.^  and  in  1916 
he  became  Adjutant-General  and  was  promoted  K.C.B.  two  years  later. 

2.  William  Hayes  Fisher,  First  Baron  Downham,  who  was  the  son 

of  the  Rector  of  Downham,  l.W.,  was  bom  in  1863.  He  was  educated 
at  Haileybury^  and  at  University  College,  Oxford,  where  he  graduated 
with  honours  m  classics  and  law  in  1876.  He  was  called  to  the  Bar  by 
the  Inner  Temple  three  years  later. 

In  1886  he  became  Private  Secretary  to  Sir  Michael  Hicks  Beach,  and 
filled  the  same  post  in  Mr.  Balfour's  service  from  1887  to  1892,  in  which 
year  he  entered  Parliament  as  Conservative  Member  for  Fulham.  He 
represented  this  constituency  uninterruptedly  until  1910,  except  for  an 
interval  in  1906.  In  1896  he  became  Junior  Lord  of  the  Treasury,  and 
from  1902  until  the  following  year  he  was  Financial  Secretary  there.  In 
1904  he  became  Chairman  of  the  Royal  Patriotic  Commission,  and  from 
1907  onwards  he  accomplished  much  valuable  work  on  the  L.C.C.,  as 


142  OBITUAEY.  [June 

independence  for  Albania,  but  he  came  to  see  that  his  country  was  too 
weak  to  stand  alone.  During  the  Balkan  War  he  assisted  in  the  defence 
of  Scutari  against  the  Monten^ins,  but  he  was  starved  out,  and  forced 
to  surrender.  Early  in  1914  Essad  became  Minister  of  War  and  of  the 
Interior  under  Prince  William  of  Wied^  Mpret  of  the  Shkipetars  at 
Durazzo.  He  was  suspected  of  rebellion  and  deported,  but  became 
President  of  an  Albanian  Provisional  Qovemment  in  1914.  He  sided 
with  the  Entente  during  the  war. 

14.  Vesey  Dawson,  second  Earl  of  Dartrey,  was  78  years  of  age. 
From  1865  to  1868  he  represented  Monaghan  in  the  House  of  Commons  as 
Lord  Cremome,  and  he  served  in  the  Coldstream  Guards,  retiring  with 
the  rank  of  Lieut.-Colonel  in  1876.  He  married,  in  1882,  Julia,  daughter 
of  the  late  Sir  George  Wombwell,  and  had  two  daughters.  He  succeed 
his  father,  the  first  Earl,  in  1897.  His  successor  was  his  brother,  the 
Hon.  Edward  Stanley  Dawson. 

— Surgeon-Qeneral  James  Cleghom,  M.D.,  C.S.I.,  Honorary  Surgeon 
to  H.M.  the  Kins:,  was  79  years  of  age.  He  was  educated  at  Edinburgh 
University,  and  entered  the  Indian  Medical  Service  in  1865.  In  1891  he 
became  Inspector-General  of  Civil  Hospitals  in  the  Punjab,  and  in  1895 
was  appointed  Director-General  of  the  Medical  Service  and  Sanitary 
Commissioner  in  the  Government  of  India.  He  held  these  offices  for 
three  and  a  half  years,  and  represented  his  Government  at  the  Venice 
Plague  Conference  in  1897.  He  wast  appointed,  on  his  retirement. 
Honorary  Surgeon  to  Queen  Victoria,  and  was  reappointed  to  the  same 
post  by  King  Edward  and  King  George.  He  married  Miss  Barrow  in 
1877. 

15.  Caroline  Inez,  Countess  of  Cavan,  was  the  daughter  of  Mr.  George 
Baden  Crawley,  and  married  Lord  Cavan  in  1893.  She  was,  as  a  keen 
horsewoman,  associated  with  her  husband  in  all  he  did  for  the  Hertford- 
shire Hunt  of  which  he  was  Master,  and  during  the  war  when  he  held 
important  commands  on  the  Western  and  subsequently  on  the  Italian 
front,  she  nursed  the  wounded  at  St.  Thomas's  Hospital,  and,  later  on, 
gave  much  time  to  the  organisation  of  Bed  Cross  work  in  Hertfordshire. 
Lady  Cavan  had  no  children. 

18.  Herbert  Hardy,  Lord  Cozens-Hardy,  formerly  Master  of  the  Bolls, 
was  born  in  1838,  and  was  the  son  of  a  solicitor  at  Norwich.  He  was 
educated  at  Amersham  School  and  took  the  degree  of  LL.B.  at  London 
University  in  1863^  having  been  called  to  the  Bar  by  Lincoln's  Inn  the 
previous  year.  He  had  the  advantage  of  a  large  connexion  in  Dissent- 
ing and  Liberal  circles,  and  his  practice  flourished  from  the  first.  In 
1882  he  took  silk,  and  in  due  course  he  became  a  "  special/'  appearing 
almost  entirely  in  Chancery  actions.  Among  the  most  famous  of  these 
was  that  of  the  "  Earl  of  Sheffield  v.  London  Joint  Stock  Bank,"  which 
went  to  the  Lords. 

In  December,  1886,  he  entered  the  House  of  Commons  as  Liberal 
member  for  one  of  the  Norfolk  Divisions,  and  he  remained  a  follower  of 
Mr.  Gladstone  when  the  Home  Bule  split  took  place. 

Four  vears  later  he  was  raised  to  the  Bench,  and  he  subsequently 
succeeded  Lord  Justice  Bigby  in  the  Court  of  Appeal. 

In  1907  he  was  made  Master  of  the  Bolls,  and  became  ex  officio  Chair- 
man of  the  Boyal  Commission  on  Historical  Manuscripts.  £fe  was  a  very 
progressive  member  of  the  Senate  of  the  University  of  London,  and  took 
a  keen  interest  in  promoting  the  enlargement  of  the  sphere  of  its  activi- 
ties. He  was  raised  to  the  peerage  in  1914  with  me  title  of  Baron 
Cozens-Hardy  of  Letheringsett  in  the  County  of  Norfolk,  and  resigned 
the  Mastership  of  the  Bolls  in  1918. 

Lord  Cozens-Hardy  was  an  extremely  sound  lawyer,  his  speeches  were 
concise  and  clear  and  he  worked  rapidly.  His  judgments  on  certain  dis- 
puted points  which  came  up  under  the  Workmen's  Compensation  Act 
were  particularly  valuable  to  those  who  followed  him. 


1920.]  OBITUABY.  143 

He  married  Miss  Maria  Hepbam  in  1866,  and  his  successor  in  the 
peerage  was  his  eldest  son,  the  Hon.  William  Hepburn  Cozens-Hardy, 
E.O. 

26.  Rachel,  Couotess  of  Dudley,  who  was  drowned  off  the  Connemara 
Coast  while  bathing,  was  the  younger  daughter  of  Mr.  G.  H.  Gumey  of 
Keswick  Hall,  and  was  from  early  girlhood  brought  up  by  her  cousin 
Adeline,  Duchess  of  Bedford.  She  was  married  to  Lord  Dudley  in  1891^ 
and  her  husband  owed  much  to  her  zeal  for  public  work,  and  her  high 
ideals.  As  Vicereine  of  Ireland  from  1902  to  1905  she  was  distinguished 
for  her  great  interest  in  the  needs  of  the  country,  which  she  did  her 
best  to  serve,  and  on  her  husband's  appointment  as  Qovemor-General  of 
Australia  she  again  exercised  her  great  powers  for  good  with  the  utmost 
earnestness.  She  promoted  schemes  for  the  establishment  of  District 
Nurses  both  in  Ireland  and  in  Australia,  and  during  the  war  she 
established  many  clubs  for  officers  at  the  bases  in  Northern  France. 
She  was  made  a  Commander  of  the  Order  of  the  British  Empire  in 
1918,  and  received  the  decoration  of  the  Boyal  Red  Cross. 

Lady  Dudley  was  survived  by  her  husband  and  seven  children,  and 
the  deepest  regret  was  felt  in  all  quarters  at  her  untimely  death. 

JULT. 

1.  Lieut.-Colonel  Sir  Edward  Law  Durand,  Bart.,  C.B.,  was  74  years 
of  age.  His  father  was  Maior-Qeneral  Sir  Henry  Durand,  who  died  when 
he  was  lieut-Govemor  of  the  Punjab  in  1871. 

Sir  Edward,  who  received  his  education  at  Bath,  Bepton,  and  Guildford, 
entered  the  96th  Begiment  in  1865.  He  was  transferred  to  the  Bengal 
Staff  Corps  in  1868,  and  after  serving  his  father  as  A.D.C.  and  private 
secretary,  he  acted  as  Resident  in  different  States  in  Raj  pu tana  and 
Central  India.  He  was  placed  in  charge  of  the  ex-Ameer  of  Kabul  from 
1881  to  1885,  was  appointed  an  Assistant  Commissioner  in  the  delimitation 
of  the  Afghan  boundary,  and  he  held  the  post  of  Resident  at  Khatmundu. 
In  1887  he  received  the  (civil)  C.B.,  and  was  created  a  baronet  in  1893, 
during  which  year  he  retired. 

Sir  Edwara  published  a  sporting  work  "Rifle,  Spear,  and  Rod  in  the 
East,"  and  a  historical  study  "Cyrus,  the  Great  King."  He  married,  in 
1880,  Miss  Maude  Ellen  Heber-rercy,  by  whom  he  had  three  sons  and 
three  daughters,  and  his  successor  was  his  son.  Captain  Edward  P.  M. 
Durand^  Indian  Army. 

—  Major-Oeneral  Sir  David  Mener,  K.C.B.,  Adjutant-Oeneral, 
RcytLl  Marine  Forces*  was  56  years  of  age.  He  had  served  for  over  37 
years  in  the  Boyal  Marines,  having  entered  the  Royal  Marine  Light 
Infantry  in  1883.  He  served  in  Bermuda,  at  Portsmouth,  and  in  China, 
and  then  held  several  Staff  appointments  at  home.  During  the  war  he 
commanded  the  First  Brigade  of  the  Royal  Naval  Division  at  the  Darda- 
nelles, was  mentioned  in  despatches,  and  received  the  C.B.^  and  in  1916 
he  became  Adjutant-General  and  was  promoted  K.C.B.  two  years  later. 

2.  Wllllain  Hayes  Fisher,  First  Baron  Downham,  who  was  the  son 

of  the  Rector  of  Downham,  I.W.,  was  bom  in  1853.  He  was  educated 
at  Haileybury^  and  at  University  College,  Oxford,  where  he  graduated 
with  honours  m  classics  and  law  in  1876.  He  was  called  to  the  Bar  by 
the  Inner  Temple  three  years  later. 

In  1886  he  became  Private  Secretary  to  Sir  Michael  Hicks  Beach,  and 
filled  the  same  post  in  Mr.  Balfour's  service  from  1887  to  1892,  in  which 
year  he  entered  Parliament  as  Conservative  Member  for  Fulham.  He 
represented  this  constituency  uninterruptedly  until  1910,  except  for  an 
interval  in  1906.  In  1895  he  became  Junior  Lord  of  the  Treasury,  and 
from  1902  until  the  following  year  he  was  Financial  Secretary  there.  In 
1904  he  became  Chairman  of  the  Boyal  Patriotic  Commission,  and  from 
1907  onwards  he  accomplished  much  vialuable  work  on  the  L.C.C.,  as 


144  OBITUAEY.  [July 

Alderman,  Chairman  of  the  Finance  Committee,  and  in  1909-10  as  Leader 
of  the  Municipal  Reform  Party.  In  1915-17  he  was  Secretary  to,  and 
for  another  year  was  President  of  the  Local  Government  Board.  He  was 
raised  to  the  Peerage  in  1918,  and  was  made  Chancellor  of  the  Dachy  of 
Lancaster,  which  post  he  resigned  in  1919.  Lord  Downham  married  his 
cousin,  Miss  Florence  Fisher,  in  1895,  and  he  left  a  daughter,  but  no 
successor  to  the  Barony. 

5.  John  Shuter,  the  famous  cricketer,  was  in  his  66th  year.  He 
played  for  Kent  in  1875,  and  for  Surrey  two  years  later,  becoming 
shortly  afterwards  captain  of  the  team,  which  be  brought  to  a  high 
degree  of  efficiency,  and  which  he  continued  to  lead  until  1893.  In  1888 
he  played  for  England  against  Australia  in  a  match  which  was  won  by 
the  representatives  of  the  Mother-Country.  Mr.  Shuter  was  a  brilliant 
batsman  and  a  true  sportsman,  being  entirely  lacking  in  personal  vain- 
glory, and  only  concerned  with  the  winning  of  the  game  for  his  side. 

—  Surgeon-Qeneral  William  Crawford  Qorgas,  K.C.M.O.,  D.S.M., 

the  eminent  American  who  succeeded  in  stamping  out  yellow  fever  and 
malaria  in  Havana  and  Cuba  generally,  and  rendered  possible  the  con- 
struction of  the  Panama  Canal,  was  born  in  Alabama  in  1854.  He  was 
a  member  of  an  old  Southern  family,  his  father  being  a  General  in  the 
Confederate  Army.  After  completing  his  medical  education  at  the 
Southern  University,  Sewanee,  Tennessee,  and  at  the  Bellevue  Hospital, 
University  of  New  York,  he  became  a  surgeon  in  the  U.S.  Army.  He 
served  in  Cuba  in  the  war  with  Spain,  and  was  present  at  the  capture  of 
Havana,  where  he  was  afterwards  made  chief  sanitary  officer.  While 
holding  this  ix)st  he  enforced  the  carrying  out  of  the  recommendations  of 
the  Commission  appointed  to  examine  Dr.  Charles  Finlay's  theory  as 
to  the  origin  of  yellow  fever.  This  was  done  so  thoroughly  that  in  1902 
the  disease  had  ceased  to  originate  in  Havana,  and  eight  years  later  Cuba 
was  declared  to  be  free  of  it. 

In  1904  General  Gorgas  became  chief  sanitary  officer  of  the  Panama 
Canal.  There,  again,  he  was  so  successful  that  by  1908  the  deaths  from 
all  causes  in  that  region  were  reduced  to  ten  per  thousand. 

Subsequently  General  Gorgas  became  Director  of  the  International 
Health  Board  of  the  Rockefeller  Institution,  and  he  went  to  Serbia  early 
in  the  war  with  the  Rockefeller  Anti-Typhus  Mission. 

He  was  the  recipient  of  many  honours,  including  that  of  the  E.C.M.G. 
personally  conferred  on  him  by  King  George  a  few  weeks  before  hit 
death  in  the  Queen  Alexandra  Military  Hospital,  Millbank.  He  was 
accorded  an  imposing  military  funeral  at  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  his 
remains  being  afterwards  conveyed  to  America  for  interment. 

General  GK>rgas  married,  in  1885,  Miss  Doughty  of  Cincinnati.  She 
and  one  daughter  survived  him. 

9.  Sir  Qilbert  King,  Bart,  was  74  years  of  age.  He  was  the  only 
son  of  the  third  baronet  whom  he  succeeded  in  1895.  He  was  educated 
at  Blackheath  and  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  where  he  took  his  degree 
in  1869.  Sir  Gilbert  had  been  High  Sheriff  of  Roscommon,  of  Lei  trim, 
and  of  Sligo.  His  first  marriage  was  to  Miss  Charlotte  Heard  by  whom 
he  had  one  daughter,  his  second  wife  was  Miss  Louisa  Sweet.  His 
successor  was  his  cousin,  Mr.  Gteorge  Adolphus  King,  who  was  bom  in 
1864. 

10.  Admiral  of  tlie  Pieet  Sir  John  Arbutimot*  Lord  PIsiior  off 
Kilverstone,  Q.C.B.,  Q.C.V.O.,  was  born  in  1841  at  Barbodde  in  Ceylon, 
and  was  the  son  of  Captain  W.  Fisher  of  the  78th  Highlanders  and 
95th  Foot,  by  his  marriage  with  Miss  Lambe,  daughter  of  Mr.  A. 
Lambe  of  New  Bond  Street.  Captain  Fisher  was  for  many  years  A.D.C. 
to  Sir  William  Horton,  Governor  of  Ceylon,  and  to  General  Sir  Bobert 
Arbuthnot. 

In  July,  1854,  the  future  admiral  entered  the  Navy  on  board  the 


1920.]  OBITUAEY.  145 

Victory,  having  been  given  a  nomination  by  the  last  of  Nelson's  captains, 
Admiral  Sir  William  Parker.  He  served  with  the  Baltic  Fleet  m  the 
war  with  Russia,  and  subsequently  in  the  China  War,  being  present  at 
the  capture  of  Canton,  and  the  attacks  on  the  Peiho  Forts.  He  received 
the  China  medal  with  the  Canton  and  Taku  clasps  for  his  services.  He 
won  the  Beaufort  Testimonial  in  passing  for  lieutenant,  and  in  1863, 
having  qualified  in  gunnery,  he  joined  the  first  British  sea-going  ironclad, 
the  Warriarf  as  Gunnerv  Lieutenant.  Three  years  later  he  was  appointed 
to  the  staff  of  the  Excellent,  gunnery  schoolship,  being  advanced  to  Com- 
mander in  1869. 

After  a  period  of  service  in  the  China  flagship  he  was,  in  1872,  ap- 
pointed to  the  Excellent  "  for  torpedo  service,"  and  during  this  period  he 
was  instrumental  in  starting  the  Vernon  as  a  torpedo  schoolship  at 
Portsmouth.  He  was  promoted  Captain  in  1874  and  in  1876  was  sent 
to  North  America  and  to  the  Mediterranean  where  he  commanded  in 
succession  the  Belleraphon,  Hercules,  and  PcUUu.  He  next  commanded 
the  Inflexible  at  the  bombardment  of  Alexandria  in  1882,  and  durinff 
the  Egyptian  Campaign  he  fitted  out  and  commanded  the  **  armoured 
train,"  for  which  services  he  received  the  C.B.,  and  the  British  and 
Egyptian  medals. 

From  1883  to  1885  he  commanded  the  Excellent,  the  Naval  Qunnery 
School,  and  in  1884  Fisher's  intimate  friend,  Mr.  W.  T.  Stead,  published  at 
his  instigation  "The  Truth  about  the  Navy."  The  five  millions  sterling 
that  were  at  once  voted  for  the  Fleet,  and  the  Naval  Defence  Act  of  1889 
were  the  direct  outcome  of  this  proceeding. 

Fisher  became  Director  of  Naval  Ordnance  and  Torpedoes  in  1886, 
Rear-Admiral  in  1890,  and  Admiral-Superintendent  of  Portsmouth  Dock- 
yard in  1891.  In  1892  he  was  made  Comptroller  of  the  Navy,  and  held  that 
post  for  five  and  a  half  years,  becoming  a  K.C.B.  in  1894  and  being  ad- 
vanced to  the  rank  of  Vice- Admiral  in  1896.  In  August,  1897,  he  hoisted 
his  flag  in  the  Benovm,  and  took  command  of  the  North  American  and 
West  £idies  Station.  During  this  period  he  succeeded  in  bringing  about 
very  cordial  relations  with  the  United  States,  and  he  was  also  one  of  the 
keenest  promoters  of  the  Entente  Cordiale  with  France. 

As  Director  of  Naval  Ordnance  Fisher  never  rested  in  his  efforts  to 
obtain  for  the  Navy  exclusive  control  of  its  own  guns,  and  this  object  he 
achieved.  Lord  Salisbuty  appointed  him  Naval  Delegate  to  the  first 
Peace  Conference  at  The  Hague  where  he  was  a  popular  figure. 

From  Julv,  1899,  for  three  years  he  held  the  Mediterranean  Com- 
mand, and  during  that  anxious  time  of  the  South  African  War  he 
directed  all  his  powers  to  the  preparation  of  the  Fleet  for  immediate  use 
in  case  of  emergency,  maintaining  the  strictest  discipline,  and  lecturing 
his  officers  on  strategy. 

In  1902  Fisher  became  Second  Sea  Lord  of  the  Admiraltv,  and  re- 
ceived the  G.C.B.,  and  this  period  was  marked  by  the  complete  re -or- 
ganisation of  the  training  given  to  officers  and  men  of  the  Boyal  Navy 
and  of  officers  of  the  Boyal  Marines.  This  scheme  was  initiated  by 
Fisher  who  in  August,  1903,  became  Commander-in-Chief  at  Portsmouth. 
He  returned  to  the  Admiralty  as  First  Sea  Lord  in  October,  1904,  and 
remained  there  for  five  years,  during  which  period  many  reforms  were 
introduced  by  him  in  the  administration,  organisation,  disposition,  and 
e()uipment  of  the  Navy.  He  had  always  in  mind  the  possibility  of  a  war 
with  Germany,  and  made  his  plans  with  the  object  of  being  prepared  for 
that  event.  He  was  made  a  G.C.Y.O.  in  1908,  and  was  raised  to  the 
Peerage  on  November  9,  1909,  the  last  birthday  of  King  Edward,  who 
always  treated  him  as  a  close  friend. 

In  January,  1911,  he  was  placed  on  the  retired  list,  but  in  1912  he 
was  requested  to  act  as  President  of  a  Boyal  Commission  on  oil  fuel 
and  engines. 

On  the  outbreak  of  war  his  advice  was  sought  by  Mr.  Winston 
Churchill,  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty,  and  when  in  October,  1914,  Prince 


146  OBITUABY.  [July 

Louis  of  Battenberg  resigned  his  post  as  First  Sea  Lord,  it  was  generally 
recognised  that  Lord  Fisher  was  par  excellence  the  man  to  succeed  him. 
He  had  a  great  plan  prepared  for  an  invasion  of  the  Baltic,  but  the  un- 
fortunate Gallipoli  undertaking  caused  this  scheme  to  be  abandoned. 
Further  opposition  to  his  advice  led  to  his  retirement,  but  he  was  soon 
recalled  to  organise  the  Board  of  Invention  and  Research. 

In  1919  he  came  to  the  fore  in  the  Economy  Campaign,  and  he  pub- 
lished his  "  Memories/'  which  had  such  an  instant  success  that  his 
*'  Becords  "  appeared  shortly  afterwards. 

Lord  Fisher  married,  in  1866,  Miss  Frances  Katharine  Josepha 
Broughton,  by  whom  he  had  one  son,  the  Hon.  Cecil  Vavasseur  Fisher, 
bom  m  1868,  who  succeeded  him,  and  three  daup^hters.  Lady  Fisher, 
who  died  in  1918,  was  a  true  helpmeet  to  her  distinguished  husband. 
Lord  Fisher^s  funeral  service  at  the  Abbey,  which  was  attended  by  repre- 
sentatives of  the  King  and  Boyal  Family  and  distin^ished  persons  in 
the  Navy  and  all  walks  of  life,  was  followed  by  a  simple  interment  at 
Kilverstone,  his  country  home. 

10.  Miss  Elizabeth  Lee,  who  was  62  years  of  age,  was  a  sister  of  Sir 
Sidney  Lee,  for  many  years  editor  of  "  The  Dictionary  of  National  Bio- 
graphy," to  which  she  contributed  many  valuable  lives  of  women.  She 
was  educated  at  Queen's  College,  Harley  Street,  and  became  a  teacher 
of  English  at  Secondary  Schools  for  Girls.  She  was  an  authority  on 
questions  of  Secondary  Education,  was  for  five  years  Secretary  of  the 
English  Association,  and  published  several  educational  volumes,  a  hfe  of 
"  Ouida,"  and  "  Lives  of  the  Wives  of  Queen  Victoria's  Prime  Ministers." 
She  was  greatly  interested  in  current  French  literature,  on  which  sub- 
ject she  contributed  critical  articles  to  the  "Library."  In  1909  she  was 
made  Officier  d' Academic  by  the  French  Minister  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion. 

11.  The  Empress  Eugenia,  widow  of  Napoleon  III.  of  Prance,  was 

born  in  1826  at  Xjranada,  and  was  the  daughter  of  the  Count  de  Teba^  a 
Grandee  of  Spain,  who  had  married  a  lady  who  was  the  child  of  a  Scottish 
father  and  a  Spanish-Dutch  mother.  When  the  future  Empress  was 
about  8  years  old,  her  father  succeeded  to  the  title  and  fortune  of  his 
brother,  and  became  the  Count  de  Monti  jo.  He  was  a  firm  friend  to 
France,  and  in  1834  during  the  political  troubles  in  Madrid,  which  was 
also  at  that  time  the  seat  of  an  outbreak  of  cholera,  he  sent  his  wife  and 
children  to  Paris.  In  1837  Eug6nie  became  a  pupil  at  the  Convent  of 
the  Sacr^  CoBur.  After  leaving  school  she  lived  with  her  mother  and 
sister  sometimes  in  Paris  and  sometimes  in  Madrid.  The  Countess  was 
for  a  time  First  Lady-in -Waiting  to  Queen  Isabella,  and  her  elder 
daughter  married  the  buke  of  Alba.  The  end  of  the  Revolution  of  1848 
found  the  mother  and  her  younger  daughter  established  in  Paris,  and  at 
the  balls  held  at  the  Elys^e  the  Prince  President  became  much  attracted 
by  the  beautiful  Spanish  girl  who  entered  into  his  political  schemes  with 
enthusiasm.  In  November,  1852,  Napoleon  III.  became  Emperor  of  the 
French,  and  two  months  later  his  forthcoming  marriage  to  Mile  de 
Monti]  o  was  announced.  The  Emperor  had  to  defend  this  action  to  the 
members  of  the  official  world,  who  clung  to  the  ideas  of  the  ancien 
regime,  by  declaring  himself  to  be  a  parvenu,  but  the  majority  of  the 
French  people  welcomed  the  marriage.  The  young  Empress  became  the 
brilliant  leader  of  a  brilliant  Court,  but  she  was  also  intensely  interested 
in  public  affairs  and  in  foreign  politics.  During  the  Crimean  War  her 
courage  never  failed,  and  she  was  even  urgently  desirous  that  her  hus- 
band should  go  to  the  seat  of  war.  The  Prince  Imperial  was  bom  just 
before  its  close  in  March,  1866^  and  during  the  absence  of  the  Emperor 
in  the  Italian  Liberation  Campaign  she  acted  as  his  Begent  in  Paris. 
Her  sympathies  in  this  war  were  somewhat  divided,  for  as  a  Spaniard  she 
was  a  devoted  adherent  of  the  Papac^r,  and  in  her  opinion  the  Italian 
Independents  went  too  far  in  depriving  the  Vatican  of  all  temporal 
power. 


1920.]  OBITUAEY.  147 

The  Empress,  unfortunately,  encouraged  her  husband  in  his  ill- 
advised  interference  in  Mexico^  and  when  the  Franco-Prussian  War 
broke  out  she,  as  well  as  Napoleon  himself,  was  misled  as  to  the  pre- 
paredness of  the  French  Army  to  resist  the  enemy. 

She  acted  once  more  as  Begent  while  the  Emperor  was  at  the  front, 
and  even  after  the  collapse  of  the  French  at  Sedan,  when  he  was  taken 

grisoner  and  a  Republic  had  been  proclaimed  in  Paris,  she  remained  at 
er  post.  At  last,  however,  she  was  compelled  by  the  desertion  of  all 
save  a  few  faithful  friends  to  make  her  escape  to  England  where  in  a 
few  days  she  was  joined  by  her  son. 

They  settled  at  Chislehurst,  where  in  1871  they  were  joined  by 
Napoleon,  broken  alike  in  health  and  fortunes.  He  survived  only  until 
January,  1873,  and  1879  brought  the  Empress  the  crowning  sorrow  of  her 
life  in  the  death  on  the  South  African  battlefield  of  her  young  son,  who 
fell  fighting  the  Zulu  enemies  of  his  adopted  country. 

The  grief-stricken  mother  went  herself  to  South  Africa  to  bring  back 
his  remains,  and  she  erected  a  large  mausoleum  where  the  coffins  of  her 
husband  and  son  were  placed  in  1887,  and  near  which  she  resided  every 
summer  until  the  close  of  her  long  life. 

The  friendship  of  Queen  Victoria,  which  dated  from  the  days  when  the 
young  Empress  and  her  husband  came  to  Windsor  in  the  height  of  their 
prosperity,  was  one  of  the  greatest  consolations  of  her  years  of  exile. 
Princess  Beatrice  and  her  young  daughter,  afterwards  Queen  of  Spain, 
were  also  united  by  ties  of  friendship  to  the  Empress  who  had  a  wonder- 
ful power  of  interestinff  herself  in  the  lives  of  others. 

She  died'  in  Madrid  at  the  Palace  of  her  nephew,  the  Duke  of  Alva, 
and  her  remains  were  brought  through  Paris  to  England  where  they 
were  laid  beside  those  of  her  husband  and  son. 

The  King  and  Queen  and  members  of  the  Boyal  Family  of  Great 
Britain  as  well  as  the  King  and  Queen  of  Spain  attended  the  funeral  at 
Farnborough.  The  Bequiem  was  sung  by  the  Abbot  of  St.  Michael's 
Benedictine  Community,  and  the  Absolution  was  given  by  Cardinal 
Bourne. 

12.  Cliaries  H.  Mackle,  R.S.A.,  was  bom  in  1862,  and  educated  in 
Edinburgh.  He  studied  painting  at  the  life  school  of  the  Boyal  Scottish 
Academy,  was  made  A.B.S.A.,  in  1902  and  B.S.  A.  in  1917,  and  was  also 
a  member  of  the  Boyal  Scottish  Water  Colour  Society.  He  was  a  notable 
colourist.  He  regarded  colour  as  a  language  which  expressed  emotional 
feeling,  the  sense  of  relationship  of  things  to  each  other,  the  physical 
qualities  of  things  such  as  weight,  etc,  and  their  significance.  He 
painted  pastoral  landscapes  and  a  fine  series  of  pictures  of  Venice  and 
Itome,  as  also  figure  subjects,  and  in  earlier  years  did  mural  decora- 
tion.   He  also  tried  his  hand  at  sculpture  and  wood-block  colour  printing. 

He  exhibited  at  Munich,  Venice,  Berlin,  Buda-Pesth,  Dresden,  and 
Amsterdam  International  Exhibitions,  and  was  awarded  a  gold  medal  at 
Amsterdam  in  1912. 

He  is  represented  by  five  works  in  the  B.S.A.  Diploma  Qallery  in 
Edinburgh. 

—  Sir  James  Dick,  K.C.B.,  Inspector-Oeneral  of  Hospitals  mod 
Fleets,  and  an  Honorary  Surgeon  to  H.M.  the  King,  was  89  vears  of  age. 
From  1863  to  1891  he  served  on  the  active  list  of  the  Boval  Navy,  seeing 
service  in  the  war  with  Bussia,  the  Abyssinian  War,  the  Civil  War  in 
Spain,  and  the  Egyptian  Oampaign,  when  he  was  principal  officer  at 
Malta  Hospital.  In  1887  he  was  given  the  G.B.,  and  was  promoted 
K.G.B.  in  1895.  He  was  Director*Qeneral  of  the  Medical  Department 
of  the  Navy  from  1888  to  1898,  and  held  his  appointment  as  Honorary 
Surgeon  to  the  Sovereign  for  twenty-seven  years.  He  married  Miss 
Elizabeth  Beveridge  in  1868. 

13.  Walter  Httsrh  Heplninie-Scott,  eighth  Baron  Polwarth,  was  bom 

in  1838.    He  succeeded  his  father  in  1887,  and  was  a  Scottish  Bepre- 


148  OBITUAEY.  [July 

sentative  Peer  from  1882  to  1900  when  he  resigned.  He  was  Lord- 
Lieutenant  of  Selkirkshire  and  a  Deputy  Lieutenant  of  Boxburghshire. 
In  1863  he  married  Lady  Mary  Hamilton  Gordon,  daughter  of  the  fifth 
Earl  of  Aberdeen,  and,  after  her  death,  he  married  ICatharine  Grisell, 
daughter  of  the  Bev.  the  Hon.  John  Baillie.  He  left  five  sons  and  five 
daughters,  and  his  successor  was  his  eldest  son,  the  Master  of  Polwarth. 

17.  Prince  Joachim  of  Prussia,  youngest  son  of  the  ex-Kaiser,  who 
shot  himself  at  Potsdam,  was  born  in  1890.  He  studied  at  Strassburg 
and  entered  the  Army  in  1911.  He  took  part  in  the  war  and  was  slightly 
wounded  in  1914,  and  in  1916  he  married  Princess  Marie  Augusta  of 
Anhalt  by  whom  he  had  a  son. 

—  Sir  Edmund  Harry  Blton,  Bart.,  was  in  his  75th  year.  He  was 
educated  at  Bradfield  and  Cambridge,  and  succeeded  his  uncle  as  eighth 
baronet  in  1883.  He  originated  and  designed  the  Elton  Ware  pottery 
which  brought  him  several  national  and  international  medals,  and  was 
at  one  time  High  Sheriff  of  Somerset.  His  successor  was  his  son 
Ambrose. 

20.  Sir  John  Qilmour,  Bart.,  was  bom  in  1845,  and  was  educated  at 
Glasgow  and  Edinburgh.  After  receiving  a  business  training  in  his 
father's  shipping  office,  and  spending  a  year  or  two  in  travel,  he  settled 
in  Fife  as  an  agriculturist.  Me  started  in  1879  the  famous  Montrave 
stud  of  pedigree  horses,  and  he  was  also  well  known  as  a  cattle-breeder^ 
and  a  member  of  the  Royal  Commission  on  Horse  Breeding.  He  was 
Master  of  the  Fife  Foxhounds,  and  a  keen  commander  of  the  Fife  Light 
Horse.  He  contested  East  Fife  as  a  Conservative  three  times,  his 
opponent  on  the  two  last  occasions  being  Mr.  Asquith.  In  1897  he  was 
created  a  baronet.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son,  and  was 
survived  by  his  wife  and  two  other  sons  and  two  daughters. 

21.  Mrs.  Comwallis-West,  who  was  born  in  1854,  was  the  daughter 
of  the  Bev.  F.  Fitzpatrick,  Bector  of  Mohill,  Co.  Leitrim.  She  married 
Colonel  Cornwallis-West  in  1872,  and  had  a  son  and  two  daughters,  the 
elder  of  whom  married  Prince  Henry  of  Pless  and  the  younger  the  Duke 
of  Westminster.    She  was  herself  a  famous  beauty. 

25.  The  Rev.  Delaval  Shafto  Ingram,  whose  age  was  79,  was  educated 
at  Giggleswick  School,  where  he  won  an  Exhibition  at  St.  John's  College, 
Cambridge.  He  took  a  First  Class  in  the  Classical  Tripos  of  1862.  After 
acting  as  an  Assistant  Master  at  Tonbridge  and  Blunaell's^  Tiverton,  he 
became  Head  Master  of  Felstead  School,  and  latterly  was  Bector  of  Great 
O^ley,  Essex.  He  married  a  daughter  of  Dr.  Welldon,  his  Head 
Master  at  Tonbridge. 

28.  William,  Lord  de  Blaquiere,  who  was  64,  succeeded  to  the  title 
in  1889.  He  had  lived  previously  in  Canada,  and  his  wife  was  Mile 
Marie  Desbarats.  They  resided  in  Bath,  and  were  interested  in  many 
charitable  works.  Both  Lord  de  Blaquiere*s  sons  were  killed  in  the  war 
and  he  left  one  daughter.    His  title  became  extinct  at  his  death. 

30.  Vice- Admiral  Sir  Trevylyan  D.  W.  Napier,  K.C.B.,  Commander- 
in-Chief  of  the  North  America  and  West  indies  Stations,  was  born  in 
1867.  He  was  the  son  of  Admiral  G.  J.  Napier,  and  entered  the  Navy 
in  1880.  He  served  with  distinction  in  the  Egyptian  War,  was  Captain 
of  the  Boyal  Yacht  in  1903,  and  from  1914  to  1917  was  in  command  of  light 
cruiser  squadrons  in  the  war.  From  1917  to  1919  he  was  Vice-Admiral  of 
the  Light  Cruiser  Force.  He  was  A.D.C.  to  the  King  in  1913,  was 
created  a  C.B.  in  1916,  and  promoted  K.C.B.  in  1919.  His  wife  was  a 
daughter  of  Admiral  Sir  Michael  Culme-Seymour. 

31.  Bal  Qangadhar  Tiiak,  the  noted  Indian  extremist,  was  a  member 
of  the  Brahman  caste  of  Chitpavans.  He  graduated  with  honours  at 
the  Deocan  College  in  1876  and  took  an  LL.S.  degree  in  1879.  He  was 
the  founder  of  the  newspapers  the  Mahraitat  and  the  Kesari,    He  was  a 


1920.]  OBITUABY.  149 

bigoted  opponent  of  British  rule,  and  his  opposition  to  regulations  for 
the  suppression  of  the  plague  in  1897,  when  he  was  a  member  of  the 
Bombay  Legislature,  led  to  his  imprisonment  for  sedition.  In  1908  he 
was  again  sentenced  for  the  condonation  of  murder,  but  was  released  in 
1914,  and  expressed  his  sympathy  with  the  British  Government  in  the 
war. 

He  joined  in  the  extreme  Home  Bule  movement,  however,  engaged 
in  1918  in  anti-recruiting  work,  and  finally  came  to  England  to  prosecute 
a  case  for  defamation  of  character  against  Sir  Valentine  Chirol,  who  had 
published  extracts  from  Tilak's  own  journals  in  support  of  his  allegations 
a^inst  him.  Tilak  lost  his  case,  and  he  returned  to  India,  where  he 
died. 


AUOUST. 

1.  Percy  Sholto  Douglas,  ninth  Marquess   of   Queensberry,  was 

bom  in  1868.  In  his  youth  he  served  as  a  Midshipman  in  the  Navy,  but 
after  a  few  years  he  went  to  learn  ranching  in  North-West  Canada.  His 
next  undertaking  was  the  management  of  a  roadside  house  on  the 
borders  of  Alberta  and  Montana,  and  he  then  returned  to  England  and 
for  a  short  time  held  a  commission  in  the  Militia  battalion  of  the  King's 
Own  Scottish  Borderers. 

Soon  afterwards  he  went  to  Australia,  and  joined  in  the  Coolgardie 
gold  rush,  where  he  made  a  fortune  with  which  he  returned  to  London, 
and  engaged  in  financial  undertakings,  in  the  course  of  which  he 
appeared  more  than  once  in  the  Bankruptcy  Court. 

In  1911  he  went  to  America  where  he  took  up  reportin^^  work  for 
Chicago  and  New  York  journals.  Lord  Queensberry  married,  in  1893,  the 
daughter  of  the  Bev.  T.  Walters,  Vicar  of  Boyton,  Cornwall^  by  wtiom 
he  had  two  sons  and  a  daughter.  His  successor  was  his  eldest  son 
Viscount  Drumlanrig.  In  1918  Lord  Queensberry  contracted  a  second 
marriage  with  Mrs.  Mary  Louise  Morgan. 

4.  Professor  John  Perry,  D.Sc,  LL.D.,  P.R.S.,  Emeritus  Professor 
of  Mechanics,  Royal  College  of  Science,  London,  and  Oeneral  Treasurer 
of  the  British  Association,  was  bom  in  Ulster  in  1860.  He  was  educated 
at  the  Modem  School  and  Queen's  College,  Belfast,  where  he  was  a 
Whitworth  Scholar,  and  Peels  Prizeman,  and  won  numerous  other 
distinctions,  including  the  gold  medal  when  he  took  his  B.En.  decree. 

At  20  years  of  age  he  b^me  a  master  at  Clifton  College,  and  in  1874 
he  was  assistant  to  Lord  Kelvin.  He  then  worked  for  four  years  as  a 
Professor  of  Engineering  in  Japan,  returning  to  England  in  1879,  when 
he  set  up  as  a  consulting  electncal  engineer  with  Professor  Ayrton. 

In  1881  he  became  Professor  of  Engineering  and  Mathematics  at  the 
City  and  Quilds  of  London  Technical  College,  Innsbury,  and  he  accepted 
in  1896  the  Chair  of  Mathematics  and  Mechanics  at  the  Boyal  College 
of  Science  which  he  held  until  1914. 

In  1913  he  helped  to  draw  up  the  scheme  for  the  foundation  of  the 
South  African  University.  Professor  Perry  married  Miss  Alice  Jowitt 
who  died  in  1904.    He  left  no  children. 

9.  Sir  Samuel  Griffith,  formerly  Chief  Justice  of  the  Federal  High 
Court  of  Australia,  was  75  years  of  age.  He  was  a  native  of  Wales,  but 
was  taken  at  an  early  age  to  Australia  where  he  was  educated  at  Sydney 
University.  In  1867  he  was  called  to  the  Bar,  and  in  1874  he  became 
Attorney-General  of  Queensland,  and  in  1883,  Premier.  Subsequently 
he  became  Chief  Justice,  and  on  the  establishment  of  the  High  Court  of 
Australia  he  was  appointed  first  Chief  Justice,  a  post  which  he  held 
until  1919.  He  was  one  of  those  who  drafted  the  Federal  Constitution, 
and  he  was  also  known  as  being  the  author  of  a  translation  of  Dante's 
'*  Inferno." 


150  OBITUAEY.  [Aag. 

9.  Sir  Lewis  Mclver,  Bart.,  whose  age  was  74,  was  the  son  of  a 

Madras  banker.  He  was  educated  at  Bonn  University,  and  entered  the 
Indian  Civil  Service  in  1868.  He  served  with  distinction  in  Madras  and 
Burma,  and  retired  in  1885,  when  he  came  to  England,  and  represented 
Torquay  in  the  House  of  Commons  as  a  Liberal.  The  following  year  he 
broke  away  from  Mr.  Gladstone  on  the  Home  Rule  question  and  was 
not  re-elected.  After  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  capture  the  South 
Edinburgh  seat  in .1892  he  was  returned  as  a  Liberal-Unionist  by  West 
Edinburgh  in  1895.  In  1896  he  was  created  a  baronet  and  he  held  his 
seat  in  Parliament  for  more  than  ten  years. 

Sir  Lewis  married  Miss  Montefiore  in  1885,  but  left  no  heir. 

—  Walter  Charles  Warner,  thirteenth  Viscount  Arinithnott,  was 

bom  in  1847,  and  was  the  son  of  Captain  the  Hon.  Walter  Arbuthnott. 
the  second  son  of  the  eighth  Viscount.  In  1869  he  entered  the  Royal 
Artillery,  and  retired  with  the  rank  of  Lieut. -Colonel  in  1892.  He  saw 
service  in  the  Afghan  War  of  1880.  In  1917  Lord  Arbuthnott  succeeded 
his  cousin,  the  twelfth  Viscount.  He  had  four  children  by  his  marriage 
with  the  daughter  of  the  Rev.  J.  H.  Parlby,  of  Manadon,  Plymouth,  and 
his  successor  was  his  elder  son,  the  Hon.  John  Ogilvy,  Master  of  Arbuth- 
nott, who  was  bom  in  1892. 

—  Harriet,  Lady  Wantage  was  83  years  of  age.  Her  father  was  the 
great  Victorian  banker.  Lord  Overstone,  and  she  married  the  future 
Lord  Wantage,  then  a  young  officer  in  the  Scots  Fusiliera,  in  1868. 
Lord  Overstone  settled  the  estate  of  Lockinge,  Berkshire,  on  his  dau|^ter, 
and  her  husband  left  the  Army,  and  together  thev  developed  their  estatea, 
and  took  part  in  various  movements  for  good  in  their  county.  They  were 
associated  in  the  or^nisation  of  the  Red  Cross  Societ3r  in  England,  and 
in  adding  to  Lord  Overstone's  fine  art  collections  which  his  daughter 
inherited. 

Lady  Wantage  was  of  an  extremely  retiring  disposition,  and  her 
charitable  works  both  before  and  after  the  death  of  her  husband  were 
always  hidden  as  much  as  possible  from  the  public  eye.  She  published 
a  life  of  Lord  Wantage  a  few  years  after  his  death  in  1901.  She  had  no 
children,  and  her  heir  was  her  cousin  Mr.  Arthur  Thomas  Loyd. 

11.  Sir  Peter  Qriggs,  M.P.,  was  67  years  of  age.  He  started  life  in 
very  poor  circumstances,  but  saved  enough  money  as  a  lad  to  buy  a 
hATge  which  he  worked  himself  on  the  Thames.  He  subsequently  be- 
came Governing  Director  of  Messrs.  W.  P.  Griggs  &  Co.,  Ltd.,  and  took 
part  in  the  development  of  building  in  Ilford.  He  took  much  interest 
in  Essex  county  affairs  and  was  knighted  in  1916. 

After  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  enter  Parliament  in  1910,  he  was 
returned  as  Coalition  Unionist  member  for  Ilford  in  1918. 

12.  Waiter  Winans,  who  was  famous  both  as  a  revolver  shot  and  a 
horse-breeder,  was  68  years  of  age.  He  was  an  American  by  birth  but 
spent  most  of  his  life  in  Europe.  One  of  the  finest  shots  of  his  day, 
either  with  revolver  or  rifle,  his  exploits  at  Wimbledon  and  Bisley,  even 
down  to  the  year  of  his  death,  were  renowned. 

His  reputation  as  a  breeder  of  trotting  horses  was  world-wide,  and  he 
exhibited  regularly  at  the  Richmond  and  International  Horse  Shows. 

Mr.  Winans  was  also  well  known  on  the  Continent  before  the  war 
as  the  owner  of  a  stud-farm  and  stables  at  Vienna,  and  as  Master  of  the 
Spa  draghounds  which  he  also  took  to  hunt  to  Paris  Plage  and  Chantilly. 
He  was  an  accomplished  linguist,  and  a  sculptor  and  painter,  more  than 
one  of  his  statues  being  exhibited  at  the  Royal  Academy.  He  was  made 
a  Chevalier  of  the  Imperial  Order  of  St.  Stanislas  of  Russia,  and  was  a 
member  of  the  Imperial  St.  Petersburg  Yacht  Club. 

Mr.  Winans  died  from  heart  failure  while  driving  in  a  trotting  match 
at  Parsloe  Park.    He  was  unmarried. 

—  Lieut-Colonel  Leaciinian»  CI.Bm  D.S.Om  who  was  shot  by  the 
orders  of  the  Chief  of  the  Zoba  tribe  between  Baghdad  and  Feluja, 


iMOj  OBITUAET.  151 

had  diatingaished  himself  highly  in  the  war,  both  in  the  advance  on 
Baghdad  and  in  the  final  operations  against  the  Turks  in  Mesopotamia 
when  he  served  with  Cassels'  Cavalry.  He  wielded  great  influence  over 
the  Arabs,  and  after  the  armistice  was  first  appointed  Political  Officer 
in  Mosul,  and  subsequently  Political  Officer  of  the  Dulaim  division. 

16.  Sir  Joseph  Norman  Lockyer,  P.R.S.,  KXfB.,  was  bom  at  Bugby 
in  1836,  and  was  the  son  of  a  scientific  father,  one  of  the  early  workers 
on  the  electric  telegraph.  He  was  educated  at  private  schools,  and  on 
the  Continent  and  in  1857  was  given  a  War  Office  appointment.  Eight 
years  later  he  became  editor  of  the  Army  Begulations,  and  in  1870  he 
was  appointed  Secretary  of  the  Duke  of  Devonshire's  Boyal  Commission 
on  Science.  When  his  work  in  this  capacity  was  ended  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  Science  and  Art  Department,  and  during  that  same  year, 
1875,  he  was  the  recipient  of  the  Janssen  medal  of  the  Paris  Academy  of 
Sciences,  of  which  he  became  a  corresponding  member. 

Lockyer  began  to  hold  classes^  to  lecture,  and  to  write  books  on 
astronomy  which  were  translated  into  many  languages.  In  1868,  the 
great  discoverv  which  had  been  made  simultaneously,  though  inde- 
pendently, by  himself  and  Janssen,  that  the  sun's  chromosphere  could 
be  seen  m  broad  daylight,  created  a  great  sensation  in  the  scientific 
world.  Lockyer  made  many  journeys  to  remote  places  in  order  to  study 
the  outlying  portions  of  the  sun  during  eclipse  periods. 

In  1887  Lockyer  published  *<The  Chemistry  of  the  Sun^"  and  in  1890 
"  Meteoric  Hypothesis,"  which  contained  in  a  summansed  form  the 
results  of  much  of  his  research  work  in  the  fields  of  solar  and  stellar 
physics^  which  had  appeared  more  fully  in  the  publications  of  the  Boyal 
Society.  In  the  second  work  a  theory  was  promul^ted  by  the  author 
bv  which  he  endeavoured  to  prove  the  meteoric  origin  of  all  the  known 
phenomena  of  the  heavens. 

In  1869  he  started  the  weekly  scientific  journal  Nature  which  proved 
a  remarkably  successful  venture.  The  founder  himself  contributed  an 
article  to  the  special  number  which  celebrated  its  jubilee  appearance  in 
1919. 

In  1894  Lockyer  published  '*  The  Dawn  of  Astronomy."  This  work 
was  the  result  of  some  visits  to  Egypt,  and  was  an  attempt  to  date  certain 
temples  from  their  orientations.  The  author  afterwards  dealt  in  the 
same  way  with  Stonehenge,  and  other  stone  circles  in  England. 

Lockyer*8  honours  included  the  F.B.S.  in  1869,  and  the  K.C.B.  in 
1897.  He  was  President  of  the  British  Association  in  190S-4  when  he 
addressed  his  hearers  on  the  urgent  need  of  more  national  universities. 
He  was  President  in  1912  of  the  British  Science  Guild,  the  foundation 
of  which  was  due  to  his  initiation.  He  married  first  Winifred,  daughter 
of  Mr.  William  Janes  of  Trabishon,  near  Abergavenny.  She  died  in 
1879,  and  in  1903  he  married  Mrs.  B.  E.  Brodhurst.  Me  had  four  sons 
and  two  daughters. 

—  Sir  Luke  White,  who  was  bom  in  1845,  was  a  Solicitor  of  Driffield, 
Yorkshire,  and  in  1897  he  became  Coroner  for  the  East  Biding.  He  was 
knighted  in  1908.  From  1900  to  1918  he  represented  the  Buckrose 
Division  in  the  House  of  Commons  as  a  Liberal. 

19.  Cdonel  John  Worthy  Chaplin,  V.C.,  C.B.,  entered  the  Army  in 
1858.  He  was  awarded  the  V.C.  for  distinguished  gallantry  during  the 
Chinese  Campaign  of  1860.  As  an  Ensign  of  the  67th  Begiment  he  was 
carrying  the  Queen's  Colour  at  the  storminff  of  the  North  Taku  Fort. 
He  planted  the  colours  on  the  breach  made  by  the  storming  party, 
assisted  by  Private  Lane,  and  later  on  the  Cavalier  Fort  which  he  was 
the  first  to  mount  He  was  severely  wounded  on  this  occasion.  In  the 
Afghan  War  of  1879  he  commanded  the  8th  Hussars.  He  was  given  the 
C.B.  in  1887. 

20.  The  Rev.  Claude  Hermann  Walter  Johns*  Utt«D.,  D.D.»  was 

bom  in  1857,  and  was  educated  at  Faversham  Grammar  School,  and 


152  OBITUAEY.  [Aug.-Scpt. 

Queen's  Ck)llege,  Cambridge.  Here  he  was  a  School  and  College 
Exhibitioner,  and  a  Foundation  Scholar,  and  took  his  degree  as  27th 
Wrangler  in  1880.  After  some  years  passed  in  teaching,  he  was  ordained 
in  1887,  and  served  a  curacy  at  Helpston.  From  1892  to  1909  he  was 
Bector  of  St.  Botolph's,  Cambridge,  and  in  1896  he  became  Edwaides 
Fellow  and  Lecturer  in  Assyriology  at  Queen's  College,  being  appointed 
Assistant  Chaplain  there  in  1903.  In  1909  he  was  elected  Master  of  St. 
Catharine's  College,  an  appointment  which  ill-health  compelled  him  to 
resign  in  1919.  His  wife  was  a  daughter  of  the  Bev.  J.  GriflSth,  LL.D. 
Dr.  Johns  was  a  leading  Assyriologist.  His  work  in  three  volumes 
''  Assyrian  Deeds  and  Documents  "  was  soon  regarded  as  a  classical 
authority  on  questions  relating  to  the  chronology,  the  legal  system,  and 
the  metrology  of  the  Assyrians.  He  was  of  an  extremely  scientific  habit 
of  mind,  and  very  cautious  in  applying  the  results  of  his  work  on  ancient 
monuments  to  Biblical  problems.  In  1903  he  edited  the  laws  of  the 
Hammurabi  in  English.  Dr.  Johns  was  for  a  time  Lecturer  at  King's 
College,  London. 

23.  The  Ris:ht  Rev.  Thomas  Stevens,  D.D.,  formerly  Bishop  of 
Barking,  was  79  years  of  age.  He  was  educated  at  Shrewsbury  School 
and  at  Magdalene  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  took  his  degree  with  a 
second  class  in  the  Classical  Tripos  and  a  third  in  the  Mathematical 
Tripos  in  1863.  In  1865  he  was  ordained  and  became  a  Master  at 
Charterhouse  School,  and  Curate  of  St.  Mary's,  Charterhouse.  Later  on 
he  became  Vicar  of  St.  Mark's,  Victoria  Docks,  and  in  1875  Vicar  of  St. 
Luke's,  Victoria  Docks.  Among  other  posts  he  held  those  of  Vicar  of  St. 
John's,  Stratford,  and  Chaplain  of  St.  Mary's  Hospital,  Ilford.  He  was 
also  Archdeacon  of  Essex,  and  an  Honorary  Canon  of  St.  Albans. 

He  was  consecrated  Bishop  Suffragan  of  Barking  in  1901,  and 
resigned  after  eighteen  years  of  strenuous  work. 

Dr.  Stevens  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries  and  a  prominent 
Freemason.  He  married  Miss  Anne  Elizabeth  Bertram  in  1866  and  had 
one  daughter. 

SEPTEMBER. 

1.  Edward  PitzEdmand  Burke  Roche,  second  Baron  Fermoy,  was  70 

years  of  a^e.  He  succeeded  his  father  in  187^  and  married,  in  1877,  the 
Hon.  Cecilia  O'Grady,  daughter  of  the  third  Viscount  Guillamore,  by 
whom  he  had  one  daughter.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  brother,  the  Hon. 
James  Boothby  Burke  Boche.  Lord  Fermoy  owned  over  21,000  acres  of 
land  in  Ireland,  and  was  J.P.  and  D.L.  for  the  County  of  Cork. 

—  Professor  Wilhelm  Wundt,  the  eminent  German  psychologist,  was 
88  years  of  age.  He  was  educated  at  Tubingen,  Heidelberg,  and  Berlin, 
and  subsequently  settled  in  Leipzig,  where  he  lectured  to  large  classes, 
and  produced  a  large  number  of  volumes  from  the  year  1862  onwards. 
He  edited  twenty  volumes  of  *' Fhilosophische  Studien,"  and  among 
numerous  original  works  he  published  the  "  Principles  of  Physiologic^ 
Psychology,"  "  Logic,"  and  "  Volkerpsychologie."  He  was  greater  as  an 
exponent  of  the  ideas  of  others  than  in  the  realm  of  original  thought. 

2.  Sir  Charles  James  Lyall,  K.C.S.I.,  C.I.E.,  was  born  in  1845,  and 
was  educated  at  Kin^s  College,  London,  and  at  Balliol,  Oxford.  In 
1867  he  joined  the  Civil  Service  in  the  United  Provinces,  and  before  long 
he  became  Under-Secretary  to  the  Central  Government  in  the  Bevenue 
and  Agricultural  Department.  In  1880  he  became  Secretary  to  the 
Chief  Commissioner  in  Assam,  and  was  subsequently  appointed  success- 
ively Commissioner  of  the  Valley  Districts,  Secretary  of  the  Home  De- 
partment (Government  of  India),  Head  of  the  Assam  Government,  and 
Chief  Commissioner  of  the  Central  Provinces.  In  1898  he  became 
Secretary  of  the  Judicial  and  Public  Department  of  the  India  0£9ce, 
from  which  he  retired  in  1910. 


IMO.]  OBITUABY.  153 

Sir  Charles  was  an  Oriental  scholar  of  considerable  attainments. 
He  contributed  articles  on  Hindustani  literature  to  successive  editions 
of  the  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica,''  and  translated  numerous  Arabic 
poems  and  diwans.  The  Universities  of  Oxford,  Edinburgh,  and  Strass- 
burg  awarded  him  honorary  degrees,  and  he  was  a  Fellow  of  the  British 
Ad^emy,  and  a  Vice-President  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society.  He 
married  Miss  Florence  Fraser  in  1877,  and  had  two  sons  and  five 
daughters. 

2.  Dr.  Frederick  Rutherfoord  Harris,  who  was  64  years  of  age,  was 
at  one  time  Secretary  of  the  British  South  Africa  Company,  and  held 
a  seat  in  the  Cape  House  of  Assembly.  Later  he  represented  Dulwich 
as  a  Unionist  in  the  House  of  Commons. 

3.  Sir  Henry  Stewart  Cunningham  K.C.I.E.,  was  the  son  of  the  Bev. 
J.  Cunningham,  Vicar  of  Harrow,  and  was  in  his  89th  vear.  After 
having  received  his  education  at  Harrow,  and  at  Trinity  College,  Oxford, 
where  he  won  the  Chancellor's  prize  for  an  English  essay,  he  was  called 
to  the  Bar  by  the  Inner  Temple  in  1859.  In  1866  he  was  appointed 
Government  Advocate,  and  Legal  Adviser  to  the  Punjab,  and  three  years 
later  he  became  Grovernment  Advocate  at  Madras.  In  1877  he  was 
appointed  a  Judge  of  the  High  Court  of  Bengal,  a  position  which  he 
resigned  in  1887.    In  1889  he  was  made  a  K.C.I.E. 

Sir  Henry  was  also  possessed  of  literary  gifts  of  a  high  order.  As  a 
young  man,  before  he  went  to  India,  he  contributed  articles  to  the 
Satwniay  Beview  and  The  Times^  and  published  two  novels  "Late 
Laurels,"  and  "  Wheat  and  Tares."  Among  the  later  Anglo-Indian  novels 
which  won  him  fame,  was  '*  The  Chronicles  of  Dustypore."  In  1891  he 
wrote  the  life  of  Lord  Canning  which  appeared  as  one  of  the  series  of 
"  Rulers  of  India,"  and  in  1896  he  published  a  remarkably  able  memoir 
of  his  life-long  friend  Lord  Bowen. 

Sir  Henry  married,  in  1877,  the  Hon.  Harriet  Emily,  daughter  of  the 
first  Lord  Lawrence.  She  died  in  1918,  their  only  son  having  predeceased 
her.    Sir  Henry  left  one  daughter. 

6.  Su3an  Agnes  Macdonald,  Baroness  Macdonald  of  Eamscliffe,  was 

bom  in  1836,  and  was  the  daughter  of  the  Hon.  T.  J.  Bernard  of 
Jamaica.  She  married,  in  1867,  Sir  John  Macdonald,  who  was  Prime 
Minister  of  Canada  for  many  years.  He  died  in  1891,  and  by  Queen 
Victoria's  desire  the  Peerage  that  was  to  have  been  conferred  upon  him 
was  given  to  his  widow.  Lady  Macdonald  was  a  gifted  woman,  and  a 
writer  of  some  power.    She  left  no  son  and  the  title  became  extinct. 

9.  Alan  deTatton  Egerton,  third  Baron  Egerton  of  Tatton,  was  born 
in  1845,  and  was  the  son  of  the  first  baron,  and  a  member  of  an  old 
Cheshire  family.  He  started  life  as  an  engineer,  and  in  1867  was  valu- 
ing engineer  under  the  Royal  Commission  for  Railways  and  Canals  in 
Ireland.  He  represented  Mid-Cheshire  in  the  House  of  Commons,  and 
later,  Knutsford,  but  was  defeated  in  the  latter  constituency  in  1906  by 
the  Liberal  candidate,  Mr.  King.  In  1909  he  succeeded  his  brother,  the 
second  baron. 

Lord  Egerton  married,  in  1867,  Miss  Anna  Louisa  Taylor.  His 
successor  was  his  son,  the  Hon.  Maurice  Egerton,  who  was  bom  in  1874. 

11.  Lieut. -Oenenil  Sir  William  BabUe,  V.C.,  K.C.B.,  K.C.M.O.,  was 

61  years  of  age.  He  entered  the  Army  Medical  Service  in  1881,  having 
been  educated  at  Glasgow  University.  He  served  in  the  first  Boer  War, 
and  won  the  V.C.  for  his  gallantry  in  attending  the  wounded  under 
fire  at  Colenso,  and  in  attempting  to  save  the  son  of  Lord  Roberts,  whom 
he  brought  in  under  heavy  fire.  In  1910  he  became  Deputy- Director- 
General  of  the  Army  Medical  Service  and  remained  for  four  years  in 
this  position.  During  the  earlier  part  of  the  Great  War,  he  held  the 
position  of  Director  of  Medical  Services  in  India.  As  such,  he  was  held 
to  be  in  part  responsible  for  the  break-down  of  the  Medical  Service  in 


154  OBITUABY.  [Sept. 

the  early  days  of  the  Mesopotamian  Campaign,  and  his  administration 
was  in  consequence  adversely  criticised  in  the  well-known  Mesopotamia 
Report.  He  was  subsequently  employed  in  important  duties  in  Eng- 
land, however,  and  the  authorities  thus  made  it  clear  that  he  was  by 
no  means  exclusively  responsible  for  the  deplorable  inadequacy  of  the 
medical  arrangements  in  the  East.  He  was  Honorary  Surgeon  to  the 
King  from  1914  to  1919,  was  made  a  K.G.M.G.  in  1916,  and  K.C.B.  in  1919. 
Latterly  he  was  Inspector  of  Medical  Services  at  the  War  Office.  Sir 
William  married,  in  1903,  the  widow  of  Major  P.  A.  Hayes. 

11.  Lleut.-Colonel  William  Thomas  Marshall,  V.C,  won  the  Victoria 
Cross  in  the  Sudan  in  1884  when  he  was  serving  as  Quartermaster- 
Sergeant  in  the  19th  Hussars.  He  rescued  Lieut.-Colonel  Barrow  whose 
horse  had  been  killed  during  a  cavalry  charge  at  El-Teb,  and  who  was 
lying  on  the  ground  severely  wounded  and  surrounded  by  the  enemy. 
His  rescuer  stayed  with  him  and  dragged  him  back  through  the  enemy 
to  the  regiment. 

12.  Oeorge  Francis  William  Henry  Denison,  third  Earl  of  Londes- 
borous:h,  who  was  bom  in  1892^  was  Yice-Admiral  of  Yorkshire.  He 
succe^ed  his  father  in  1917,  and  was  unmarried.  His  successor  was 
his  brother,  the  Hon.  Hugo  William  Cecil  Denison,  who  was  three  years 
junior  to  him. 

13.  Alexander  W.  C.  O.  Murray,  Baron  Murray  of  ElilNuik,  was  50 

years  of  age,  and  was  the  eldest  son  of  Viscount  Elibank  who  survived 
him.  He  was  educated  at  Cheltenham  College,  and  entered  the  Colonial 
Office,  where  he  was  private  secretary  in  succession  to  Sir  Robert  Meade, 
Lord  Itipon,  and  Mr.  Sydney  Buxton.  In  1893  he  paid  a  visit  to  the  Lee- 
ward Islands  as  Secretary  to  the  Governor,  and  in  1900  he  entered  Parlia- 
ment as  Liberal  member  for  Mid-Lothian.  In  1906  he  retired  to  make 
room  for  Lord  Dalmeny,  and  from  then  until  1910  he  sat  for  Peebles  and 
Selkirk,  returning  during  the  latter  year  to  his  former  constituency 
which  he  represented  until  1912.  From  1906  to  1912  he  was  a  member 
of  the  Gk)vernment,  serving  as  Comptroller  of  the  Household,  and  Scottish 
Whip  for  three  and  a  half  years,  as  Under  Secretary  for  India  for 
nearly  a  year,  and  for  two  and  a  half  years  as  Parliamentary  Secretary 
to  the  Treasury  and  Chief  Liberal  Whip,  in  which  latter  capacity  he  was 
remarkably  efficient.  In  1912  he  was  obliged  by  private  affairs  and  for 
reasons  of  health  to  resign  his  offices  and  he  was  then  raised  to  the 
Peerage. 

Lord  Murray  then  became  a  partner  in  the  firm  of  Messrs.  S.  Pearson 
&  Son,  and  he  went  to  South  America  to  conduct  negotiations  con- 
cerning the  concessions  of  oil-fields.  While  he  was  thus  occupied  the 
Marconi  inquiry  took  place  at  home,  and  on  his  return  Lord  Murray 
cleared  himself  before  the  Select  Committee  of  the  House  of  Lords  of 
anything  detrimental  to  his  personal  honour  in  those  transactions.  In 
1915  he  was  appointed  honorary  Director  of  Recruiting  for  Munitions 
Work,  in  which  capacity  he  rendered  valuable  services  to  his  country. 
Lord  Murray  married  a  half-sister  of  Lieut.-General  Sir  James  Wolfe 
Murray,  who  survived  him.  He  had  no  children,  so  his  own  title  be- 
came extinct,  and  his  younger  brother,  the  Hon  Qideon  Murray,  became 
heir  to  their  ifather.  Lord  Elibank. 

16.  The  Rev.  William  Sanday,  D.D.,  the  eminent  theological  scholar 
and  critic,  was  born  in  1843,  and  was  the  son  of  William  Sanday  of 
Holme  Pierrepont.  He  was  educated  at  Repton,  becoming  afterwaras  a 
commoner  of  Balliol,  and  a  scholar  of  Corpus.  In  1863  he  took  a  first 
in  Classical  Moderations,  and  two  years  later  a  first  in  the  Final 
Classical  Schools,  becoming  in  1866  a  Fellow  of  Trinity.  He  was  a 
Lecturer  at  Trinity  from  1866  to  1869,  was  ordained  in  1867,  and  in  1876, 
after  doing  some  parochial  work,  he  became  Principal  of  Hatfield  Hall, 
Durham,  where  he  remained  until  1883.  In  this  last  year  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  Ireland  Professorship  of  Exegesis  at  Oxford,  and  held  at 


1920.]  OBITUARY.  165 

the  same  time  a  Tutorial  Fellowship  at  Exeter  College.  His  critical  work 
had  by  this  time  made  him  remarkable,  and  he  was  Bampton  Lecturer 
in  1893,  when  he  took  as  his  subject,  "  The  Early  History  and  Origin 
of  the  Doctrine  of  Biblical  Inspiration."  In  1895  Dr.  Sanday  was 
elected  to  the  Lady  Margaret  Chair  of  Divinity,  which  he  held  until 

Dr.  Sanday  published  many  theological  works  beginning  with 
"  The  Authorship  and  Historical  Character  of  the  Fourth  Gospel,"  in 
1872.  In  1876  '*  The  Gospels  in  the  Second  Century "  appeared,  and 
among  his  more  striking  later  works  were  the  "  Commentary  on  St.  rauPs 
Epistle  to  the  Romans,"  which  he  published  in  conjunction  with  Dr. 
Headlam  in  1895.  *' Christologies,  Ancient  and  Modern/'  in  1910,  and 
'*  Personality  in  Christ  and  in  Ourselves,"  in  1911. 

He  belonged  to  the  school  of  what  has  been  aptly  called  "reverent 
criticism,"  and  his  defence  of  many  old  ideas  was  the  more  telling  in 
that  he  did  it  as  a  result  of  oersonal  original  investigation.  He  was  a 
man  of  a  very  fair  and  candid  mind,  and  latterly  he  came  much  under 
the  influence  of  the  younger  school  of  Oxford  theologians. 

In  1877  he  married  Miss  Marian  Woodman  Hastings  of  Twining^ 
Tewkesbury,  who  died  in  1904. 

16.  Egerton  Castle,  M.A.,  F.S.A.,  was  bom  in  1858,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  the  Universities  of  Paris  and  Glasgow,  and  graduated  from 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  in  the  Natural  Science  Tripos.  He  passed 
through  Sandhurst,  and  the  Inner  Temple,  and  eventually  became 
chairman  of  the  company  which  bore  the  name  of  his  grandfather,  the 
founder  of  the  Liverpool  Mercury,  which  was  subsequently  amal- 
gamated with  the  Daily  Post.  Mr.  Castle  was  a  fine  rifle  and  pistol 
shot,  and  a  famous  swordsman.  He  held  for  many  years  the  amateur 
championship  of  Great  Britain,  resigning  the  title  unbeaten,  and  he 
was  Captain  of  the  British  ep6e  and  sabre  teams  at  the  Olympic  Games 
in  1908.  He  also  became  Captain  in  the  Boyal  Engineers  Militia 
(Portsmouth  Division,  Submarine  Miners). 

Mr.  Castle  began  to  write  at  the  age  of  26,  when  he  published 
''Schools  and  Masters  of  Fence."  He  worked  on  the  stw  of  the 
Saturday  Review,  published  a  novel,  "Consequences,"  in  1891,  which 
he  followed  up  by  a  work  on  ''English  Book  Plates,"  a  play  for  Sir 
Henry  Irvinff,  and  a  translation  into  French  of  Stevenson's  "  Prince 
Otto."  The  lon^  series  of  romantic  novels  in  which  Mr.  Castle  col- 
laborated with  his  wife  brought  to  both  of  them  a  mat  popular  reputa- 
tion. From  1898,  when  they  published  "  The  Pride  of  Jennico,"  every 
year  saw  the  production  of  one  of  their  charming  romances,  several  of 
which  were  dramatised,  and  in  "The  Hope  of  the  House,"  which 
appeared  in  1915,  the  authors  showed  a  greater  depth  and  power  than  had 
been  apparent  before  the  war.  Mr.  Castle  was  survived  by  his  wife 
and  daughter. 

17.  Edmund  Beckett  Paber,  first  Baron  Paber*  who  was  bom  in  1847 
was  a  member  of  an  old  Yorkshire  family,  and  a  kinsman  of  the  Kev. 
F.  W.  Faber,  the  well-known  hymn  writer.  His  mother  (before  her 
marriage  Miss  Beckett)  was  a  sister  of  the  first  Lord  Grimthorpe. 

Lord  Faber  was  educated  at  Eton,  where  he  was  a  "  wet  bob "  and 
won  the  House  mile,  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  became  a 
member  of  his  uncle's  banking  firm,  Beckett  A  Co.,  and  in  due  course 
he  held  many  important  positions  in  the  worlds  of  banking  and  finance. 
Among  these  were  the  Chairmanship  of  the  English  Country  Bankers' 
Association,  and  a  directorship  of  the  London  and  North- Western  Bail- 
way  Company,  and  he  served  as  a  member  of  the  Boyal  Commission  on 
the  Transfer  of  Land. 

Lord  Fkber  was  also  keenly  interested  in  journalism,  becoming  first 
a  director  and  subsequently  Chairman  of  the  Yorkshire  Conservative 
Newspaper  Company.  He  was  Chairman  of  the  Conservative  Partv  in 
the  Ftidsey  Division  of  the  West  Riding,  and  was  Conservative«  candidate 


156  OBITUARY.  [Sept. 

for  the  Division  in  1900,  but  was  defeated.  In  1901  he  was  returned  to 
Parliament  by  the  Andover  Division  of  Hampshire^  and  held  the  seat 
until  in  1906  he  was  raised  to  the  Peerage.  He  spoke  frequently  in  the 
House  of  Commons,  and  subsequently  in  the  Upper  House,  on  questions 
of  finance,  and  his  advice  was  of  great  use  in  those  matters  during  the 
war. 

Lord  Faber  was  unmarried,  and  his  title  became  extinct  at  his  death. 

17.  Sir  James  Benjamin  Ball,  who  was  chief  engineer  of  the  London, 
Brighton,  and  South  Coast  Railway,  was  bom  in  1867.  During  the  last 
part  of  the  war  he  was  Comptroller  of  Timber  Supplies  for  the  Soard  of 
Trade^  and  he  was  knighted  for  his  services  in  this  capacity.  He  was 
twice  married,  and  had  four  daughters. 

18.  The  Right  Hon.  Sir  William  Mather,  who  was  born  in  Manchester 
in  1838,  was  Chairman  of  the  iron  and  engineering  works  of  Messrs. 
Mather  &  Piatt  of  Salford.  As  a  Liberal  he  represented,  in  the  House 
of  Commons,  the  South  Division  of  Salford  from  1885  to  1886,  the  Gorton 
Division  of  Lancashire  from  1889  to  1895,  and  the  Rossendale  Divbion 
from  1900  to  1904.  He  resigned  the  last  of  these  seats  in  favour  of  Mr. 
Harcourt. 

Sir  William  was  an  opponent  of  war,  a  great  believer  in  the  eight-hour 
system,  which  he  introduced  into  his  factories  on  his  own  initiative,  and 
a  keen  student  of  educational  questions. 

He  was  on  the  Council  of  Manchester  University,  and  was  Chairman 
of  the  Federal  Educational  Institute.  He  married  Miss  Emma  Watson 
in  1863,  and  had  one  son  and  four  daughters.    He  was  knighted  in  1902. 

22.  Herbert  James  Draper,  who  was  a  Londoner,  studied  Art  at  the 
Boyal  Academy  Schools,  and  on  the  Continent.  He  won  the  Boyal 
Academy  Gold  Medal  and  Travelling  Studentship  in  1889,  and  from  1890 
he  was  a  regular  exhibitor  at  Burlington  House.  His  "Lament  for 
Icarus  '*  was  bought  for  the  Tate  Gallery  by  the  Chantrey  Trustees  in 
1898,  and  his  "  Tristram  and  Iseult,"  "  The  Golden  Fleece,"  and  "  The 
Vintage  Mom  "  were  well  known  and  much  admired.  He  also  decorated 
the  ceiling  of  the  Drapers'  Hall  in  the  City. 

Mr.  Draper  married  Miss  Ida  Williams  who,  with  one  daughter,  sur- 
vived him. 

—  Sir  Lindsay  Wood,  Bart.,  who  was  86  years  of  age,  was  a  son  of 
a  well-known  coal-owner  in  the  North  of  England.  He  completed  his 
education  at  King's  College,  London,  and  became  a  mining  engineer, 
working  for  many  years  at  the  Hetton  Collieries,  of  which  he  became 
managing  director  on  the  death  of  his  father  in  1866.  He  held  many 
other  important  positions  on  the  boards  of  coal  companies,  was  mining 
engineer  to  Greenwich  Hospital,  and  served  on  several  Boyal  Commis- 
sions, notably  on  that  on  Accidents  in  Mines,  1879-86. 

Sir  Lindsay  provided  a  system  of  elementary  schools  for  the  benefit 
of  his  own  colliers  before  the  passing  of  the  Education  Act  of  1870.  He 
was  President  for  over  forty  years  of  the  Durham  Coal-owners'  Associa* 
tioD,  and  as  a  keen  Unionist  was  Chairman  of  the  Durham  County 
Division  of  the  National  Union  of  Conservative  and  Constitutional  As- 
sociations. 

In  1897  he  was  created  a  Baronet.  He  married,  in  1873,  Miss  Emma 
Barrett,  and  had  a  family.  His  successor  was  his  son,  Arthur  Nicholas 
Lindsay,  who  was  born  in  1875. 

25.  Jacob  H.  Schiff,  the  head  of  the  New  York  banking  firm  of  Euhn, 
Loeb  &  Co.,  was  born  in  1847  at  Frankfort-on-Main.  He  started  his 
career  in  New  York  at  the  age  of  18,  and  in  twenty  years'  time  he  had 
attained  to  the  headship  of  a  firm  second  only  in  importance  to  that  of 
J.  P.  Morgan.  Mr.  Schiff,  who  left  an  enormous  fortune,  was  extremely 
charitable,  and  innumerable  Jewish  organisations  for  education  and 


1920.]  OBITUARY.  157 

relief  were  largely  financed  by  him.  He  also  founded  the  Jewish 
Theological  Seminary  of  New  York,  and  the  first  Semitic  Museum  in 
America  which  he  presented  to  Harvard  University.  He  was  also 
generous  to  others  than  those  of  his  own  faith. 

Mr.  SchifE  married,  in  1875,  Miss  Loeb,  a  daughter  of  one  of  his 
partners. 

25.  Arthur  Sidgwick  was  born  in  1840^  and  was  educated  at  Bugby 
and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  He  was  the  son  of  the  Bev.  W. 
Sidgwick  of  Skipton,  Yorkshire ;  his  brothers,  William  and  Henry,  be- 
came well  known  in  the  academic  and  philosophical  worlds,  and  his 
sister  became  the  wife  of  Archbishop  Benson.  In  1861  he  was  elected 
a  Scholar  of  Trinity  College^  having  already  won  the  Bell  Scholarship 
during  the  previous  year.  He  also  won  the  Person  Scholarship  in  1861 
and  the  Members'  Prize  in  1862, 1863,  and  1864,  and  was  second  in  the 
Tripos. 

He  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  Trinity  in  1864,  and  then  went  back  to 
Bugby  where,  until  1879,  he  held  a  mastership  with  great  success.  He 
was  then  appointed  Classical  Lecturer  and  Tutor  of  Corpus,  Oxford, 
becoming  a  Fellow  shortly  afterwards.  In  1894  he  was  appointed  by 
the  Delegates  of  the  Common  University  Fund,  Beader  in  Greek,  and 
until  he  resigned,  in  1906,  he  was  continuously  re-elected  to  that  post. 
He  was  a  great  lecturer  on  Homer  and  the  Greek  dramatists,  an  anient 
Liberal,  serving  for  twenty-five  years  as  President  of  the  Oxford  City 
Liberal  Association,  and  an  advocate  of  the  higher  education  of  women. 

He  married  Miss  Wilson,  the  sister  of  Professor  Wilson,  his  old  friend 
and  colleague  at  Bugby. 

27.  David  Henry  Najel*  Vice-President  and  Senior  Tutor  of  Trinity 
College,  Oxford,  was  57  years  of  age.  He  was  educated  at  his  native 
town  of  Dundee,  at  Aberdeen  University,  and  at  Trinity  College,  Oxford, 
where,  in  1882,  he  gained  the  Millard  Scholarship.  The  next  year  he  won 
a  Taylorian  Exhibition  in  German,  and  after  taking  a  First  Class  in  the 
Final  Honours  School  of  Chemistry  in  1886,  he  became  Lecturer  in 
Chemistry  and  Physics  at  his  college  in  1888,  and  Fellow  and  Science 
Tutor  in  1890. 

Mr.  Nagel  acted  as  assistant,  first  to  Mr.  H.  B.  Dixon,  and  later  to 
Sir  John  Conroy,  but  the  conduct  of  the  laboratory  which  was  shared  by 
Trinity  College  and  Balliol  was  chiefiy  in  his  hands  for  nearly  twenty 
years. 

In  1904  it  was  decided  to  make  it  practically  a  University  Institution 
by  providing  there  a  practical  course  in  Physical  Chemistry  for  all  under* 
graduates  reading  for  the  Chemistry  School  Mr.  Nagel's  work  was 
thus  of  the  utmost  importance,  and  his  gifts  of  teaching  had  the  widest 
scope. 

He  had  a  wonderful  general  knowledge  of  the  sciences,  and  this  gave 
him  a  breadth  of  view  which  was  invaluable  in  his  capacity  as  a  member 
of  University  boards  and  committees  in  the  Science  Faculty.  He  was 
Chairman  of  the  Board  of  the  Faculty  of  Natural  Science,  a  member  of 
the  Prime  Minister's  Committee  on  tne  Teaching  of  Natural  Science,  a 
member  of  the  Council  of  the  Association  for  the  Education  of  Women, 
and  a  delegate  to  the  Press. 

30.  Sir  John  Everett  MillaiSt  Bart.,  grandson  of  the  famous  painter, 
was  32  years  of  age.  He  succeeded  his  father,  the  second  Baronet,  in 
1897,  and  later  entered  the  Navy  as  a  cadet  on  H.M.S.  Britannia,  In 
1911  he  retired  from  the  Service,  but  rejoined  three  years  later  on  the 
outbreak  of  war.  He  served  in  H.M.S.  Amethyst,  and  retired  in  1917 
with  the  rank  of  lieut.-Commander.  Sir  John  was  unmarried,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  uncle,  Mr.  Geoffrey  W.  Millais. 


158  OBITUAEY.  [Oct. 

OCTOBER. 

3.  The  Ri^ht  Hon.  Sir  Thomas  Vezey  Strong,  K.C.V.O.»  K.B.B., 

sometime  Lord  Mayor  of  London,  was  bom  in  1857  in  the  City.  He 
was  the  head  of  the  firm  of  Messrs.  Strong,  Hanbury  &  Co.,  wholesale 
paper  merchants,  and  became  Alderman  of  Queenhithe  Ward  in  1897. 
He  was  Sheriff  in  190i-5,  and  was  knighted  on  the  occasion  of  a  Boyal 
Visit  to  the  City,  and  in  1910-11  he  was  Lord  Mayor.  He  therefore  took 
part  in  the  Coronation  ceremony  at  Westminster  Abbey,  and  also  pre- 
ceded King  Georae  and  Qneen  Mary  on  horseback  through  the  City  the 
following  day.  He  was  made  a  Privy  Councillor,  and  created  K.C.V.O. 
before  he  left  oflSce.  For  his  war  services  as  Chairman  of  the  Becruiting 
Tribunal  in  the  City  he  was  made  a  K.B.E.  He  married  Miss  Lillie 
Hartnoll  in  1900,  but  had  no  children. 

5.  William  Henry  Helnemann,  the  well-known  publisher,  was  bom 
in  1863,  and  was  apprenticed  in  his  youth  to  the  firm  of  Messrs.  Trubner. 
After  this  he  travelled  for  some  years  and  studied  contemporary 
literature  on  the  Continent,  and  in  1890  he  started  his  business  in  Bed- 
ford Street.  During  that  year,  under  the  editorship  of  Mr.  Qosse, 
*'  Heinemann's  International  Library  "  began.  Bjtfmson,  Tolstoi,  Valera, 
Couperus,  and  Sienkiewicz  were  representative  novelists  whose  works 
were  thus  introduced  to  the  public,  and  Mr.  Heinemann  also  published 
the  works  of  Maeterlinck,  Ibsen,  d'Annunzio,  and  Tourgenev,  and  intro- 
duced many  new  English  novelists.  He  himself  wrote  three  plays  of 
considerable  merit,  was  President  of  the  National  Booksellers'  Society 
from  1913,  and  of  the  Publishers'  Association  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland  for  three  years.  Mr.  Heinemann  was  greatly  interested  in  music 
and  the  fine  arts  generally. 

7.  William  Senior,  who  was  in  his  82nd  year,  was  for  a  long  time  a 
special  correspondent  of  the  Daily  News^  and  later  became  well  known 
as  a  writer  on  the  subject  of  angling,  both  in  BeWs  Life  and  in  the  FieUL 
He  was  an  enthusiastic  supporter  of  fishing  as  a  sport,  and  of  fisheries, 
and  after  controlling  the  Angling  Department  of  the  Field  for  some  time, 
he  became  editor-in-chief  of  that  journal  from  1899  to  1909. 

Under  the  nom-de-plume  of  "  Bed  Spinner  "  he  published  "  Water- 
side Sketches,"  ''  Near  and  Far,"  and  ''A  Mixed  Bag." 

11.  Admiral  Sir  Michael  Culme-Seymour,  Bart,  Q.C.B.,  O.C.V.O., 

was  84  years  of  age,  and  was  the  grandson  of  the  famous  Admiral  of  his 
name  who  was  created  a  baronet  in  recognition  of  his  services  in  the 
Napoleonic  War.  Michael  Culme-Seymour  entered  the  Navy  in  1850, 
and  took  part  in  the  Burmese  War,  and  served  subsequently  with  the 
Naval  Brigade  in  the  Crimea.  He  received  the  medal  with  the  Inker- 
man  and  Sebastopol  clasps,  also  the  Turkish  medal,  and  the  Medjidie, 
fifth  class.  During  the  whole  of  the  China  War  he  served  as  flag- 
lieutenant  to  his  uncle  Sir  Michael  Seymour,  and  received  the  China 
medal  with  the  Fatshan,  Canton,  and  Taku  Forts  clasps. 

He  was  promoted  Commander  in  1859,  and  Captain  six  years  later,  and 
from  1874  to  1876  he  was  Private  Secretary  to  the  then  First  Lord  of  the 
Admiralty,  Mr.  Ward  Hunt.  From  1878  to  1880  he  commanded  H.M.8. 
Temeraire  in  the  Mediterranean  under  Sir  Geoffry  Hornby,  and  in  the 
latter  year  he  succeeded  his  father,  the  second  baronet,  who  was  a 
clergyman. 

Sir  Michael  was  promoted  Bear- Admiral  in  1882,  became  Commander 
in  the  Pacific  in  1885,  was  advanced  to  Vice-Admiral  in  1888,  and  com- 
manded the  Channel  Fleet  from  1890  to  1892.  He  became  an  Admiral  and 
also  KC.B.  in  1893.  From  June,  1893,  he  was  for  two  years  and  a  half 
Commander-in-Chief  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  from  1897  to  1900  held 
the  command  at  Portsmouth.  He  received  the  G.C.B.  on  the  occasion 
of  the  Diamond  Jubilee  of  Queen  Victoria^  and  the  G.C.V.O.  for  the 


1930.]  OBITUARY.  159 

«ervice6  rendered  by  him  as  principal  Naval  aide-de-camp  at  the  Queen's 
funeral.  He  retired  in  March,  1901,  and  was  appointed  Vice-Admiral 
of  the  United  Kingdom  four  months  later. 

Sir  Michael  married,  in  1866,  Mary,  daughter  of  the  Hon.  Richard 
Watson,  and  he  was  succeeded  in  the  baronetcy  by  his  eldest  son,  Rear- 
Admiral  Sir  Michael  Culme-Seymour,  K.O.B. 

16.  Qustavus  Arthur  Chetwynd-Talbot,  M.P.,  had  represented  the 
Hemel  Hempstead  division  in  the  House  of  Commons  as  a  Coalition- 
Unionist  since  1918.  He  was  71  years  of  age,  and  was  a  son  of  the  Rev. 
the  Hon.  G.  G.  Chetwvnd-Talbot,  and  a  grandson  of  the  second  Earl 
Talbot.  He  was  educated  at  Wellington,  and  was  at  one  time  a  member 
of  the  Legislative  Council  of  Ceylon. 

17.  Henry  Beauchamp  Oliver  St.  John,  seventeenth  Baron  St.  John 
of  Bletso,  was  44  years  of  age.  He  was  educated  at  Wellington,  and  at 
Magdalene  College,  Cambridge,  and  succeeded  his  father  in  1912.  He 
was  Deputy-Lieutenant  for  Bedfordshire,  and  a  great  landowner,  beins 
the  head  of  a  very  ancient  family.  Lord  St.  John  was  unmarried,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  brother.  Captain  the  Hon.  Moubray  St.  John. 

—  Qeneral  Qerart  Mathlen  Leman,  the  famous  defender  of  Li^ge  in 
August,  1914,  was  born  in  1861.  He  was  formerly  Director  of  Studies 
at  the  Belgian  Military  School  at  Brussels,  where  he  worked  a  revolu- 
tion in  the  system  of  training.  When  Fort  Loncin  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Germans  he  was  taken  prisoner,  being  partly  suffocated  by  the  fumes 
of  exploding  shells,  and  he  was  subsequently  removed  to  Magdeburg. 
There  he  was  very  ill,  and  he  was  taken  later  to  Blankenburff,  and  was 
finally  interned  in  Switzerland  in  December,  1917.  General  Leman's 
remains  lay  first  in  state  at  Li6ge^  and  were  removed  on  October  21  to 
Brussels.  After  an  impressive  scene  at  the  Parliament  building,  where 
funeral  orations  were  delivered  by  distinguished  persons,  military  and 
civilian,  he  was  interred  in  his  family  vault  in  the  cemetery  of  Ixelles. 
The  British  Government  was  represented  at  the  funeral,  and  a  wreath 
was  sent  by  the  British  Army. 

General  Leman  was  created  a  Count  in  recognition  of  his  services, 
and  received  the  decorations  of  the  Grand  Cordons  of  the  Belgian  Order 
of  Leopold  I.,  and  of  the  L^on  d'Honneur,  and  he  was  also  given  the 
G.C.M.G.  After  he  was  taken  prisoner  at  Li^e  his  sword  was  returned 
to  him  by  the  Hanoverian  General,  von  Emmich,  in  recognition  of  his 
gallant  defence  of  the  fortress. 

19.  Sir  Cornelius  Neale  Dalton,  K.C.M.Q.,  C.B.,  D.C.L.,  who  was 

Comptroller-General  of  Patents  from  1897  to  1909,  was  the  son  of  a 
clergyman,  and  was  78  years  of  age.  He  graduated  with  a  Second  Class 
in  Classical  Honours  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  for  a  time  en- 
gaged in  teaching  work.  In  1871  he  was  called  to  the  Bar  by  the  Inner 
Temple,  and  in  1873  he  entered  the  Civil  Service. 

In  1882  he  became  an  Assistant-Secretary  to  the  Local  Government 
Board,  and  he  served  on  several  Royal  Commissions. 

Sir  Cornelius  was  made  a  C.B.  in  1894.  and  a  K.C.M.G.  in  1908.  He 
published  "  Poems  of  a  Cambridge  Graduate,"  and  several  other  works, 
was  Master  of  the  Drapers'  Company,  and  Chairman  and  Treasurer  of 
the  governing  body  of  the  East  London  College,  and  People's  Palace. 

He  married  Miss  Margaret  Gaskell  in  1873  and  had  four  daughters. 

20.  Mrs.  B.  M.  Croker,  the  novelist,  was  by  birth  an  Irishwoman, 
being  one  of  the  Sheppards  of  Roscommon.  She  married  a  soldier,  the 
late  Colonel  John  Croker,  of  the  Royal  Scots,  and  Royal  Munster  Fusi- 
liers, and  spent  fourteen  years  of  her  life  in  the  East.  Her  novels, 
which  though  light  were  well  written  and  showed  considerable  know- 
ledge of  human  nature,  had  a  great  success.  The  first  to  make  much 
sensation  was  "Pretty  Miss  Neville"  which  was  published  in  1883. 
"Her  Own  People,"  and  *'The  Company's  Servant"  were  also  widely 


160  OBITUARY.  [Oct- 

read  and  admired^  and  Mrs.  Groker  herself  dramatised  ''Terence,"  a 
romance  of  Ireland. 

22.  Sir  Algernon  Coote,  Bart.,  who  was  in  his  73rd  year,  was  educated 
at  Eton  and  Cambridge.  He  sacceeded  his  father  as  premier  Baronet 
of  Ireland  in  1899,  and  was  Deputy-Lieutenant  of  Queen's  County  for 
many  years  until  he  associated  himself  with  the  Dominion  Home  &ule 
movement.  He  married  first  Miss  Jean  Trotter,  and  secondly  Miss 
E.  M.  Chevenix-Trench.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Balph  Algernon, 
who  was  born  in  1874. 

23.  The  Rev.  James  Franck  Bright*  D.D.,  the  well-known  historian, 
was  88  years  of  age.  He  was  a  son  of  the  famous  physician  who  dis- 
covered the  nature  and  treatment  of  "  Bright's  Disease  "  by  his  mar- 
riage with  Miss  Eliza  Follett,  sister  of  the  Attorney-General  in  Peel's 
Administrations  from  1834  to  1844.  He  was  educated  at  Bugby  and  at 
University  College,  Oxford,  and  took  a  First  Class  in  Law  and  Modem 
History  in  1854.  Two  years  later  he  was  ordained,  and  became  a  Master 
at  Marlborough,  where  he  created  and  controlled  the  *^  Modem  side," 
the  first  of  its  kind  to  be  started. 

For  this  purpose  Dr.  Bright  compiled  a  French  and  a  German 
grammar,  and  began  to  write  his  '*  History  of  England,"  and  he  started 
the  first  boarding-house  (Preshute)  in  1858. 

In  1864  he  married  Miss  Emmeline  Wickham,  who  died  in  1871,  after 
which  he  left  Marlborough,  and  occupied  himself  in  writing  his  '*  History 
of  England."  He  was  soon  offered  by  his  old  chief  at  Marlborough,  Dr. 
Bradley,  who  had  become  Master  of  University  College,  Oxford,  the  ap- 
pointments of  Modem  History  Tutor  and  Lecturer  there,  which  he  ac- 
cepted. In  1874  he  was  elected  Fellow  and  Dean  of  the  C3ollege,  and  in 
1878  he  became  an  Hon.  Fellow  of  Balliol  where  he  was  also  Tutor  and 
Lecturer  as  well  as  at  New  College. 

In  1881  Dr.  Bright  became  Master  of  University  College,  and  held  that 
post  until  1906  when  he  resigned,  and  retired  to  Norfolk  where  he  took 
an  active  part  in  county  affairs. 

Dr.  Bright's  tenure  of  the  Mastership  was  marked  by  the  extension 
of  University  College  buildings,  and  by  the  great  care  which  he  bestowed 
on  the  management  of  college  finances.  To  him  was  largely  due  the  de- 
velopment of  the  Modem  History  School  at  Oxford,  and  he  was  also  the 
initiator  of  a  technical  school  in  the  city,  for  which  he  presented  the 
premises. 

Dr.  Bright  was  a  Liberal  in  Church  affairs  as  in  politics,  an  extremely 
good  preacher,  and  a  genial  and  popular  master. 

Among  his  published  works  were  the  volumes  which  he  contributed 
to  the  "  Foreign  Statesmen "  series,  e.g.,  those  on  Maria  Theresa,  and 
Joseph  II. 

—  Sir  Arthur  Charles  Trevor,  K.C.S.I.,  was  bom  in  1841  at  Jallalabad, 
and  was  the  son  of  Captain  R.  S.  Trevor,  3rd  Bengal  Cavalry,  who  was 
treacherously  murdered  by  Afghans  a  few  months  cSter  the  child's  birth. 
With  his  mother  and  brother  he  went  through  the  hardships  of  imprison- 
ment the  following  year,  beingone  of  the smiJl  band  of  survivors.  He 
was  educated  at  St.  John's  Foundation  School,  and  at  Trinity  and 
Lincoln  Colleges,  Oxford,  holding  a  scholarship  at  Lincoln,  and  subse- 
quently entered  the  Indian  Civil  Service.  He  held  important  Commis- 
sionerships,  was  Revenue  Member  of  the  Bombay  Gk>vernment  in  1892, 
and  became  Public  Works  Member  of  the  Government  of  India  in  1895. 
Three  years  later  he  received  the  K.C.S.I. 

Sir  Arthur  married  Miss  Florence  Marv  Prescott  in  1867,  and  had 
several  children.  Two  of  his  sons  attained  distinguished  positions  in 
India,  and  a  third  was  killed  in  France. 

25.  Alexander,  King  of  the  Hellenes,  was  bom  in  18d3,  and  was  the 
second  son  of  King  Constantino,  who  was  deposed  by  the  Salonika 
Government  aided  by  the  Entente  Powers  in  1917. 


1920.]  OBITUABY.  161 

The  ex-King's  eldest  son,  the  Duke  of  Sparta,  being  inacceptable  to 
the  Powers,  Prince  Alexander  ascended  the  Throne,  and  the  distasteful- 
ness  of  his  position  was  aggravated  by  the  neglect  with  which  he  was 
for  a  time  treated.  Eventually,  however,  he  gained  the  affection  and 
esteem  of  his  subjects.  He  had  contracted  a  morganatic  marriage  with 
Mile  Aspasia  Manos. 

King  Alexander  had  entered  Adrianople  in  triumph  at  the  head  of 
his  army  after  the  surrender  of  that  city  by  the  Turks  a  few  months 
before  his  death. 

26.  Charles  Palmer,  M.P.,  who  represented  the  Wrekin  Division  of 
Shropshire  in  the  House  of  Commons  as  an  Independent,  was  only  re- 
turned by  that  Constituency  in  February,  1920.  He  was  at  one  time 
£ditor  of  TJie  Globe,  becoming  later  assistant-Editor  of  John  Bull,  and 
Editor  of  the  &u,nday  Evening  Telegram.  He  represented  the  Actors' 
Association  in  Parliament. 

—  The  Duchess  of  Edinburgh  (Dowager  Duchess  of  Saxe-Coburg  and 
Qotha),  who  was  the  Grand  Duchess  Marie  Alexandrovna  of  Russia,  was 
born  in  1863.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Tsar  Alexander  II.,  and  she 
married,  in  1874,  Prince  Alfred,  Duke  of  Edinburgh,  the  second  son  of 
Queen  Victoria.  The  Duke  succeeded  his  uncle,  Ernest  II.,  as  Duke  of 
Saxe-Coburg  and  Gotha  in  1893,  and  he  died  in  1900.  The  Duchess  had 
five  children.  Her  only  son,  Alfred^  died  in  1899,  and  she  was  survived 
by  four  daughters^  the  Queen  of  Rumania,  the  Grand  Duchess  Cyril  of 
Russia  (formerly  Grand  Duchess  of  Hesse)^  the  Princess  of  Hohenlohe- 
Langenburg,  and  Princess  Alfonso  of  Orleans,  Infanta  of  Spain. 

26.  Sir  Thomas  Carlaw  Martin,  LL.D.,  formerly  Director  of  the  Royal 
Scottish  Museum,  who  was  69,  was  Editor  of  the  Dundee  Advertiser  for 
many  years.  In  1908  he  acted  as  Chairman  of  the  Scottish  Agricultural 
Commission  to  Canada,  and  after  his  return  from  a  similar  expedition 
to  Australia  in  1910  he  became  Director  of  the  Royal  Scottish  Museum. 
Sir  Thomas  married  Miss  Isobel  Spence  in  1879.  He  was  knighted  in 
1909. 

31.  James  Boothby  Burke  Roche,  third  Baron  Fermoy,  was  bom  in 

1861.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and  for  a  short  time  sat  in  the 
House  of  Commons  as  Nationalist  member  for  East  Kerry.  In  1880  he 
married  Miss  Frances  Work  of  New  York,  and  his  successor  was  his 
elder  son  Edmund  Maurice.  Lord  Fermoy  himself  only  succeeded  his 
elder  brother  in  September,  1920. 

—  Alexander  Charles  Hamilton,  tenth  Baron  Belhaven  and  Stenton, 

was  80  years  of  age.  He  was  the  second  son  of  William  John  Hamilton, 
F.R.S.,  M.P.  for  Newport,  and  entered  the  Royal  Engineers  in  1867.  He 
served  in  the  Zulu  War  of  1879,  and  retired  with  the  rank  of  Colonel 
in  1888,  and  commanded  the  Surrey  Volunteer  Infantry  Brigade  for 
fourteen  years.  In  1893  he  made  a  successful  claim  to  the  Barony  of 
Belhaven  and  Stenton,  the  ninth  holder  of  that  title,  a  collateral  relative, 
having  died. 

Lord  Belhaven  married,  in  1880,  Miss  Georgina  Legh  Richmond.  His 
only  son,  Lieut.-Colonel  the  Hon.  Ralph  Hamilton,  Master  of  Belhaven, 
was  killed  on  the  Western  Front  in  1918,  and  his  title  descended  to  his 
nephew,  Lieut.-Colonel  Robert  Edward  Archibald  Hamilton,  CLE., 
Indian  Army. 

NOVEMBER. 

1.  Walter  Bradford  Woodgate,  barrister-at-law,  author  and  sports- 
man, was  bom  in  1840,  and  was  the  son  of  Canon  Woodgate,  Rector  of 
Belbroughton,  and  was  educated  at  Radley,  and  at  Brasenose  College, 
Oxford.  He  was  a  remarkably  fine  oarsman,  and  rowed  in  the  winning 
Oxford  boat  in  1862  and  1863,  and  in  the  latter  year  he  was  also  a 
member  of  the  crew  of  the  winning  Brasenose  boat  at  Henley,  and  in 

L 


162  OBITUABY.  [Nov. 

1865  he  was  one  of  the  winners  of  the  Grand  Challenge  Cup  at  Henlev. 
In  1860  he  won  the  O.U.B.G.  Pairs  with  the  Rev.  H.  F.  Baxter,  in 
1861  with  Canon  Champneys,  and  in  1862  with  the  Bev.  B.  Shepherd. 
He  also  won  the  O.U.B.C.  Sculls  in  1861  and  1862,  and  the  Diamond 
Sculls  in  1864.  He  was  the  founder  of  Vincent's  at  Oxford.  Sfljr. 
Woodgate  was  called  to  the  Bar  in  1872  and  joined  the  Oxford  Circuit. 
He  had  a  good  practice,  and  he  became  known  as  an  able  writer  on 
many  subjects.  His  published  works  included  *'  Boating,"  ''A  Modem 
Layman's  Faith,"  and  one  or  two  novels,  and  in  1909  he  published 
"  Reminiscences  of  an  Old  Sportsman,"  which  contained  information  on 
many  interesting  matters.  He  was  a  very  picturesque  figure,  being 
often  seen  about  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Temple  in  the  dress  of  an  old 
country  gentleman  of  a  bygone  type.    He  was  unmarried. 

6.  Colonel  Sir  James  Oildea,  Q.B.E.,  K.C.V.O.,  the  founder  of  the 
Soldiers'  and  Sailors'  Families  Association,  was  in  his  83rd  year.  He 
was  born  at  Elilmaine,  and  was  a  son  of  the  Provost  of  Tuam.  He  was 
educated  at  St.  Columba's  College  and  at  Pembroke  College,  Cambridge, 
and  served  on  behalf  of  the  National  Society  for  Aid  to  the  Sick  and 
Wounded  in  War,  in  the  Franco-Prussian  War.  Sir  James  was  active 
in  raiding  large  funds  for  the  relief  of  dependents  of  those  killed  in  the 
Zulu  War  and  in  the  Afghan  War  of  1880,  and  was  Treasurer  in 
England  of  two  Indian  Belief  Funds,  and  from  1890  to  1896  he  was 
Organising  Secretary  of  Queen  Victoria's  Jubilee  Institute  for  Nurses. 

In  1899  he  founded  the  Boyal  Homes  for  Officers'  Widows  and 
Daughters  at  Wimbledon,  and  was  also  engaged  in  other  philanthropic 
works,  besides  retaining  the  posts  of  Chairman  and  Treasurer  of  the 
Soldiers'  and  Sailors'  Families  Association  until  his  death.  From  1890 
to  1898  he  was  Colonel  Commanding  the  6th  Battalion  Boyal  Warwick- 
shire Be^ment^  and  in  1909  he  became  Honorary  Colonel  of  the  4th 
(Special  Beserve)  Battalion.  He  married  Miss  Barclay  in  1864  and  had 
a  son  and  two  daughters.  Sir  James  published  several  records  of 
philanthropic  work. 

8.  Dr.  Abraham  Kuyi>er,  who  was  formerly  Dutch  Prime  Minister, 
was  83  years  of  age.  In  1863  he  became  Pastor  of  the  Dutch  Beformed 
Church  at  Beesd  (Qelderland),  and  seven  years  later  he  removed  to 
Amsterdam,  where  by  1876  he  had  attained  to  the  position  of  leader  of 
the  Anti-Bevolutionary  Party,  whose  aim  was  to  restore  the  supremacy 
of  Christian  doctrine  in  the  conduct  of  affairs  of  State.  For  nearly 
twenty  years  Dr.  Kuyper  was  occupied  with  journalism,  literature,  and 
religious  teaching,  and  in  1894  he  was  returned  to  the  States-General  at 
the  Ha^e  by  Sliedrecht.  From  1901  to  1905  he  acted  as  Premier,  but  his 
policy  m  suppressing  a  strike  of  railwaymen  by  means  of  an  Act  of 
rarliament  which  made  illegal  any  strike  of  workers  engaged  on  public 
services,  brought  upon  him  the  animosity  of  the  Socialists.  He  made 
efforts  towards  procuring  peace  between  Great  Britain  and  the  Boers  in 
1901,  but  in  the  European  War  he  made  no  secret  of  his  pro-German 
sympathies.  Dr.  Ku>per  was  a  member  of  the  Dutch  Upper  House 
after  the  termination  of  his  Premiership  until  within  a  month  or  two  of 
his  death.    He  published  many  religious  works. 

14.  The  Rlsrht  Rev.  Alfred  Willis,  Assistant  Bishop  for  Tonsa«  was 

born  in  1836,  and  was  educated  at  Uppingham,  at  St.  John's  College, 
Oxford,  and  at  Wells  Theological  College.  After  working  for  some  years 
in  Kentish  parishes  he  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Honolulu  in  1872. 
He  had  many  difficulties  with  which  to  contend,  but  he  remained  at  his 
post  for  thirty  years  during  which  period  he  revised  and  enlarged  the 
translation  of  the  Prayer-book  made  by  King  Kamehameha  IV.,  and  he 
also  produced  two  editions  of  Hawaiian  hymns. 

In  1902  the  Bishop  resigned  his  See  on  the  annexation  of  Hawaii 
by  the  United  States,  and  the  consequent  taking  over  by  the  American 
Episcopal  Church  of  the  Mission. 


iMO]  OBITUARY.  163 

Bishop  Willis  then  became  Assistant  Bishop  to  the  Tongan  branch 
of  the  Melanesian  Mission.  He  died  in  England  where  he  was  on  a 
▼isit  which  he  had  made  for  the  pur[X)se  of  attending  the  Lambeth 
Conference  in  Jul^.  He  married  the  sister  of  the  Bev.  A.  Barrington 
Simeon,  who  survived  him. 

16.  Dr.  H.  P.  Hdlandt  J.P.,  was  in  his  92nd  year.  As  a  young  man, 
in  1851  he  attended  the  first  Duke  of  Wellington  who  was  sunering  from 
bronchial  pneumonia.  He  was  a  well-known  figure  at  Gtodalming  where 
his  family  had  long  been  established. 

—  Albert  William  Spratt*  who  had  been,  since  1865,  a  Fellow  and 
since  1892  a  Tutor  at  St.  Catharine's  College,  Cambridge,  was  well  known 
as  a  classical  scholar,  and  achieved  fame  as  a  coach.  He  was  the  editor 
of  Books  3,  4,  and  6  of  Thucydides,  for  the  Syndics  of  the  Cambridge 
University  Press. 

Mr.  Sprattwas  also  a  cultivated  musician,  and  his  College  derived 
great  benefit  both  in  its  Chapel  Services  and  its  concerts  from  his 
knowledge  and  gifts. 

17.  Sir  Charles  Fryer,  I.S.O.,  P.L.S.,  was  bom  in  I860,  and  became 
Clerk  to  Inspectors  of  Fisheries  in  the  Home  Office  before  he  reached 
the  age  of  20.  In  1886  he  became  Inspector  of  Fisheries,  a  post  which 
he  retained  for  many  years.  He  assisted  in  the  introduction  of  trout 
into  Australasian  waters,  and  he  also  save  his  valuable  support  to  the 
International  Fisheries  Exhibition  of  18S3.  Sir  Charles  acted  on  several 
occasions  as  official  English  delegate  at  International  Fishery  Con- 
gresses abroad,  and  he  published  many  works,  including  ''The  Manage- 
ment of  our  Salmon  Rivers,"  and  **  International  Regulation  of  the 
Fisheries  on  the  High  Seas.** 

20.  The  Ri^t  Hon.  Jesse  Coliinss,  was  bom  in  1831,  and  was  the 
son  of  parents  in  humble  circumstances.  His  mother  came  of  a  line  of 
yeomen  who  had  been  reduced  to  the  status  of  farm  labourers,  and  his 
life's  work  in  the  direction  of  creating  peasant  proprietors  was  partly 
inspired  by  this  circumstance. 

With  great  force  of  character  Jesse  Ceilings  made  his  own  vray 
in  the  world.  He  raised  himself  from  the  position  of  a  clerk,  in  the 
firm  of  Samuel  Booth  A  Co.,  merchants  of  Birmingham,  to  be  head  of 
the  firm  at  the  age  of  33.  In  1878  he  became  Mayor  of  Birmingham, 
and  in  1880  he  was  elected  Liberal  M.P.  for  Ipswich.  In  1886  he  was 
unseated  on  petition,  but  was  returned  for  the  Bordesley  Division  of 
Birmingham  the  same  year.  He  retained  his  seat  until  his  retirement 
in  1918. 

In  the  Liberal  Qovemment  of  1886,  Mr.  Ceilings  was  Secretary  to 
the  Local  Government  Board ;  in  1892  he  was  made  a  Privy  Councillor, 
and  three  years  later  he  was  appointed  Under-Secretary  for  the  Home 
Office  in  Lord  Salisbury's  Government. 

Mr.  Ceilings  was  brought  into  contact  with  Mr.  Joseph  Chamberlain 
in  connexion  with  the  formation  of  the  National  Education  League  in 
1868,  and  a  friendship  existed  between  them  for  many  years.  Together 
they  left  the  Leadership  of  Mr.  Gladstone  on  his  introduction  of  the 
Home  Rule  Bill  in  1886,  and  served  subsequently  the  Unionist  cause. 

Mr.  CoUings's  work  on  behalf  of  the  agricultural  labourer  took  the 
form  of  the  foundation  of  the  Allotments  and  Small  Holdings  Associa- 
tion, and  subsequently  the  Rural  Labourers'  Leaeue,  and  his  efforts 
caused  the  benents  of  the  Agricultural  Holdings  Bill  to  be  extended  to 
small  holdinffs.  In  1906  he  published  the  results  of  his  study  of  agri- 
cultural legislation  in  a  book  entitled, ''  Land  Reform,  Occupying  Owner- 
ship, Peasant  Proprietary,  and  Rural  Education."  He  married,  in  1859, 
Miss  Emily  Oxenbould,  and  had  one  daughter. 

—  Sir  Charles  Uster  i^an,  KX.B.,  was  89  years  of  age.  He  was 
the  fifth  son  of  Sir  Edward  Ryan^  sometime  Ctiief  Justice  of  Bengal, 
and  later  a  member  of  the  Judicial  Committee  of  the  Privy  Council. 

L2 


164  OBITUABY.  [Nov. 

Charles  Byan  was  educated  at  Eton,  and  became  at  the  age  of  20  a 
clerk  in  the  Audit  Office,  and  at  21  he  was  transferred  to  the  Treasury. 
He  was  Assistant  Private  Secretary  to  Mr.  Disraeli  in  1858-69,  and  to  Mr. 
Gladstone  from  1859  to  1865.  He  was  then  appointed  Secretary  to  the 
Audit  Office,  rising  subsequently  to  the  positions  of  Assistant-Comp- 
troller and  Auditor,  and  Comptroller  and  Auditor-General,  successively. 
He  retired  in  1896,  and  devoted  himself  to  gratuitous  public  work. 

He  was  made  a  K.C.B.  in  1887.  His  wife,  whom  he  married  in  1862, 
was  a  daughter  of  Sir  John  Shaw  Lefevre^  K.C.B.,  and  a  sister  of  Lord 
Eversley. 

21.  Sir  Edward  Tennant,  first  Baron  Qlenconner,  was  bom  in  1859, 
and  was  the  son  of  Sir  Charles  Tennant,  to  whose  baronetcy  he  succeeded 
in  1906.  He  was  educated  at  Eton  and  Cambridge.  After  contesting 
unsuccessfully  the  Partick  Division  of  Lanarkshire  in  1892,  and  the 
united  counties  of  Peebles  and  Selkirk  in  1900,  he  was  returned  as  Liberal 
M.P.  for  Salisbury  in  1906.     He  retained  his  seat  until  1910. 

He  was  a  traveller  and  sportsman,  and  used  generously  the  great 
fortune  he  inherited  from  his  father.  He  was  raised  to  the  Peerage  in 
191L 

Lord  Glenconner  married,  in  1895,  Pamela,  daughter  of  the  Hon. 
Percy  Wyndham,  by  whom  he  had  four  sons  and  one  daughter.  His 
eldest  son  was  killed  in  action  in  1916,  and  he  was  succeeded  by  his 
second  son,  the  Hon.  Christopher  Grey  Tennant. 

Lord  Glenconner  presented  Dryburgh  Abbey,  near  Melrose,  to  the 
nation  in  1918. 

—  Sir  Herl>ert  Maclcwortii  Praed,  Bart.,  was  born  in  1841,  and  was 
educated  at  Harrow.  After  serving  for  a  time  in  the  Army  he  resigned 
his  commission  and  went  into  the  City,  where  he  became  eventually 
director  and  chairman  of  several  investment  companies.  He  was  Con- 
servative M.P.  for  Colchester  from  1874  to  1880,  and  was  for  a  long  time 
Chairman  of  the  Association  of  Conservative  Clubs. 

His  philanthropy  was  well  known.  He  was  one  of  those  who  assisted 
in  the  formation  of  the  Charity  Organisation  Society,  of  which  he 
became  Treasurer.  In  1905  he  was  created  a  Baronet,  but  he  left  no 
heir  to  the  title. 

23.  Admiral  of  the  Fleet,  Sir  George  Astley  Callaghan,  Q.C.V.O., 
Batli  King  of  Arms,  was  bom  in  1852,  and  was  the  son  of  Mr.  F.  M.  Calla- 

fhan,  J. P.  of  County  Cork.  He  entered  the  Navy  in  1865,  became  sub- 
lieutenant in  1872,  Lieutenant  in  1875,  Commander  in  1887,  and  Captain 
in  1894.  In  the  last-named  year  he  was  appointed  NavaJ  Adviser  to  the 
Inspector-General  of  Fortifications,  and  in  1900  in  command  of  the 
Enaymion  he  took  part  in  the  suppression  of  the  Boxers.  He  fought 
at  Taku,  and  commanded  the  Naval  Brigade  which  assisted  in  the  relief 
of  the  Peking  Legations.  He  received  the  C.B.  for  his  services,  and 
from  March,  1904,  to  July,  1905,  when  he  obtained  flag  rank,  he  was  aide- 
de-camp  to  King  Edward. 

Admiral  Callaghan  was  first  appointed  Bear-Admiral  in  the  old 
Channel  Fleet  at  a  period  which  saw  the  arrival  of  the  Dreadnought  and 
a  great  advance  in  gunnery.  While  in  command  of  the  Fifth  Cruiser 
Squadron  in  1907  he  received  the  C.V.O.,  and  in  1908  he  became  second 
in  command  in  the  Mediterranean,  receiving  the  K.C.V.O.  in  1909. 

In  April,  1910,  Sir  George  was  appointed  Vice- Admiral,  and  he  was 
made  a  K.C.B.  in  June,  returning  home  in  August,  and  taking  up  the 
appointment  of  Vice-Admiral  commanding  the  Second  Division  of  the 
reconstituted  Home  Fleets.  In  December,  1911,  he  became  Com- 
mander-in-Chief^ an  appointment  which  he  held  until  August,  1914. 
During  this  period  he  received  the  G.C.V.O.  (1912)  and  was  advanced  to 
the  rank  of  Admiral  (1913).  During  the  test  mobilisation  of  the  Fleet 
in  1914,  Sir  George  was  still  in  command,  and  after  the  Spithead  Beview 
by  the  King,  the  Admiral  was  called  to  London  for  a  war  plans  confer^ 


1920.]  OBITUARY.  165 

ence  while  the  demobilisation  order  was  suspended.     Sir  Qeorge  then 

t'oined  the  Fleets  which  had  gone  north,  and  went  to  Scapa  Flow,  where 
le  first  extemporised  the  defences,  and  subsequently  handed  over  the 
command  on  August  4  to  Sir  John  Jellicoe. 

Sir  George  was  then  appointed  for  special  service  on  the  Admiralty 
War  StafiE,  he  became  First  and  Principal  Naval  Aide-de-Camo  to  the 
King  in  September,  1914,  and  Commander-in-Chief  at  the  Nore  in 
Januarv,  1915.  He  became  Admiral  of  the  Fleet  in  1917,  and  relin- 
quished his  command  in  March,  1918. 

Sir  George  was  recognised  as  a  master  of  fleet  training,  and  his 
success  in  this  great  work  was  demonstrated  when  he  handed  over  the 
Home  Fleet  in  the  highest  state  of  efficiency  on  the  outbreak  of  war. 

He  received  among  other  honours  the  Grand  Cordon  of  the  Legion 
d'Honneur,  and  he  was  a  Grand  Officer  of  the  Crown  of  Italy. 

He  was  accorded  an  imposing  Naval  funeral  in  Westminster  Abbey 
at  which  were  present  representatives  of  the  King,  and  the  Services,  and 
of  the  Order  of  the  Bath.  Sir  George  married,  in  1876,  Edith  Saumarez, 
daughter  of  the  Bev.  Frederick  Grosvenor.  He  left  a  widow,  one  son, 
and  three  daughters. 

24.  J.  Drummond  Anderson,  Lltt.  D.,  was  68  years  of  age.  He  was 
educated  at  Cheltenham  and  Rugby  and  passed  into  the  Indian  Civil 
Service  in  1873.  He  served  until  1900,  oecoming  latterly  a  District 
Magistrate  in  Bengal.  Dr.  Anderson  had  great  gifts  in  the  realms  of 
languages  and  of  literature,  and  he  published  the  Kachari  folk-stories, 
and  a  collection  of  Chittagong  proverbs.  He  was  a  great  student  of 
Bensali,  and  after  his  retirement  he  was  appointed  to  the  post  of  teacher 
in  that  language  in  Cambridge  University,  and  subsequently  at  the 
School  of  Oriental  Studies  in  I^ndon.  He  published,  in  1919.  a  manual 
on  Bengali,  being  the  first  volume  of  a  new  series  of  Cambridge  Guides 
to  Modem  Languages.  He  married  a  daughter  of  Captain  Corbue  and 
had  several  children.    One  of  his  sons  was  killed  in  France. 

26.  Arthur  Rhys  Roberts,  formerly  the  partner  of  Mr.  Lloyd  George, 
was  admitted  a  solicitor  in  1894,  and  was  appointed  official  solicitor  to 
the  Supreme  Court  in  December,  1919. 

—  Colonel  Sir  Harry  North  was  in  his  54th  :^ear.  He  was  educated 
at  Jesus  College,  Cambridge,  and  was  knighted  in  1906.  He  was  one  of 
H.M.  the  King's  lieutenants  for  the  City  of  London,  and  was  also  hon. 
Lieut -Colonel  of  the  City  of  London  Royal  Engineer  Cadet  Training 
Corps. 

27.  The  Right  Rev.  Henry  Joseph  Corbett  Knight,  D.D.,  Anglican 
Bishop  of  Gibraltar,  was  the  son  of  a  clergyman,  and  was  educated  at 
Islington  Proprietary  School,  and  held  a  scholarship  at  St.  Catharine's 
Collese,  Cambridge.  In  1882  he  graduated  with  a  First  Class  in  both 
the  Theological  and  the  Classical  Triposes,  and  he  won  the  Scholefield 
and  Evans  University  prizes.  He  was  appointed  Classical  and  Theo- 
logical Lecturer  and  Tutor  at  Selwyn  Collese,  and  was  ordained  in  1886. 
From  1895  he  held,  for  six  years,  the  benefice  of  MamhuU,  and  he  then 
became  Fellow  and  Lecturer  of  Corpus  Christi  College,  Cambridge,  and 
Principal  of  the  Clergy  Traininff  School.  In  1911  he  was  consecrated 
Bishop  of  Gibraltar,  and  devoted  himself  with  great  zeal  to  the  super- 
vision of  the  Anglican  congr^tions  in  South  Europe.  He  published  a 
volume  dealing  with  the  history  and  work  of  tnose  congregations. 
From  1905  to  1906  Dr.  Knight  was  Hulsean  Lecturer,  and  he  was  made 
sub-Prelate  of  the  Order  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem  in  1913.  He  married 
first,  Miss  Clare  Gwyn  Kerslake,  and  secondly^  Miss  M.  B.  Swete. 

—  The  Dowager  Lady  Qlfford»  widow  of  the  second  Baron  Gifford,  was 
95  years  of  a^e.  She  was  the  daughter  of  the  first  Baron  Fitzhardinge, 
and  was  married  in  1846. 


166  OBITUAEY.  [Dec 

DECEMBER. 

1.  Edward  Ponsonby,  K.P.,  C.V.O.t  C.B.,  eighth  Earl  of  Bessborough* 

was  born  in  1851,  and  was  the  eldest  son  of  the  seventh  Earl  by  his 
marriage  with  Lady  Louisa  Susan  C!omwallis  Eliot,  daughter  of  the 
third  Earl  of  St.  Qermans. 

Lord  Bessborough  served  for  a  time  in  the  Navy,  but  he  retired  from 
the  Service  in  1874,  and  the  following  year  he  married  Blanche,  daughter 
of  Sir  John  Guest,  and  sister  of  the  first  Lord  Wimbome,  by  whom  he 
had  three  sons  and  three  daughters. 

In  1879  he  was  called  to  the  Bar  by  the  Inner  Temple,  and  he  was 
secretary  from  1884  to  1895  to  Viscount  Peel,  who  was  at  that  time  Speaker 
of  the  House  of  Commons.  In  1906  he  succeeded  to  the  Earldom,  and 
took  his  seat  in  the  House  of  Lords  as  Baron  Ponsonby  of  Sysonby. 
Lord  Bessborough  had  many  interests  in  the  world  of  business  and 
finance,  and  was  Chairman  of  the  London,  Brighton,  and  South  Coast 
Bailway  Company,  and  of  Guest,  Keen,  and  Nettlefolds.  He  was  also 
well  known  for  the  active  part  he  took  in  charitable  work.  Lord  Bess- 
borough was  created  C.B.  in  1895,  and  C.V.O.  in  1902,  and  he  became  a 
Knight  of  the  Order  of  St.  Patrick  in  1915.  His  successor  was  his  son. 
Lord  Duncannon,  who  had  sat  in  Parliament  as  Conservative  member 
for  Dover  since  1913. 

3.  Sir  William  de  Wiveleslie  Abney,  K.C.B.,  P.R.S.,  was  the  son  of 
the  Rev.  Prebendary  Abney,  and  was  born  in  1844.  At  the  age  of 
17  he  entered  the  Royal  Engineers ;  he  was  made  a  captain  in  1873, 
and  retired  in  188L  In  1876  he  had  been  elected  a  Fellow  of  the 
Boyal  Society,  and  in  1882  he  was  awarded  the  Society's  Bumford  medal 
for  his  researches  into  the  phenomena  of  radiation.  He  was  a  pioneer 
worker  in  the  science  of  photography.  He  published  a  treatise 
'' Photography  with  Emulsions,"  and  in  1882  ne  gave  the  Cantor 
Lectures  at  the  Royal  Society  of  Arts,  choosing  for  his  subject  ''  Recent 
Advances  in  Photography."  Later,  he  lectured  on  '*  Photography  and 
the  Spectroscope,"  and  wrote  important  papers  on  the  subject  of  colour 
photography.  He  held  the  ofBce  of  President  of  the  Royal  Photographic 
Society  for  four  years  in  succession. 

Sir  William  was  appointed  in  1884  Assistant  Director  for  Science,  in 
the  Science  and  Art  Department,  South  Kensington.  In  1893  he  was 
made  a  Director,  and  in  1899  Assistant  Secretary.  In  1900  he  became 
Assistant  Secretary  to  the  Board  of  Education.  He  held  many  other 
important  positions,  and  was  created  C.B.  in  1888,  and  promoted  K.C.B. 
in  1909.    He  was  twice  married. 

—  Rosamond,  Lady  De  Ramsey,  was  bom  in  1851,  and  was  the 
daughter  of  the  seventh  Duke  of  Marlborough.  She  married  Captain 
Fellowes  of  the  1st  Life  Guards,  in  1877,  and  her  husband,  after  bavins 
sat  for  a  time  in  the  House  of  Commons,  succeeded  his  father  as  second 
Baron  De  Ramsey  in  1887.  Lady  De  Ramsey  lost  her  eldest  son  during 
the  war^  from  illness  contracted  while  on  active  service.  She  gave  much 
time  and  thoup^ht  to  works  in  aid  of  wounded  soldiers^  and  organised  an 
auxiliary  hospital  at  Abbotts  Repton  Hall,  Hunts,  the  expenses  of  which 
were  borne  by  Lord  De  Ramsey. 

5.  Murray  Lowthlan  Randolph  Beaven,  who  was  bom  in  1885,  was 
educated  at  Winchester,  and  Exeter  College,  Oxford.  He  graduated  in 
1908,  and  subsequently  won  the  Gladstone  Prize  for  an  essay  on  Sir 
William  Temple,  and  the  Lothian  Prize  for  an  essay  on  Prince  Eugene. 
He  became  Lecturer  in  History  at  Aberdeen  and  at  Sheffield  Universities 
successivelv,  and  in  1919  he  was  elected  Professor  of  History  at  Uni- 
versity Collefie,  Nottingham,  but  he  was  never  able  to  take  up  his  duties 
owing  to  an  illness  which  proved  fatal  Mr.  Beaven  contributed  some 
remarkable  articles  to  the  Bnglish  Historical  Review. 


1920.]  OBITUAEY.  167 

5.  Thomas  William  Rolleston  was  bom  in  1857,  and  was  the  son  of 
an  Irish  Q.C.  He  was  educated  at  St.  Columba's  College,  Rathfamham, 
and  at  Trinity  College,  Dablin.  He  was  at  one  time  editor  of  the 
DMin  University  Beview,  and  was  Honorary  Secretary  to  the  Irish 
Literary  Society  of  London,  the  Irish  Arts  and  Crafts  Society,  and 
organiser  of  the  Irish  Historic  Loan  Collection  at  the  St.  Louis  Exhibi- 
tion of  1904.  He  was  also  from  1894  Managing  Director  and  Secretary 
of  the  Irish  Industries  Association.  In  1910  he  was  instrumental  in 
founding  the  India  Society,  of  which  he  became  Secretary.  He  pub- 
lished a  book  of  verse,  and  works  on  Epictetus  and  Lessing,  and  on  Irish 
mythology  and  literature.  During  the  war  he  was  Librarian  to  the 
Information  Bureau  in  Victoria  Street,  London. 

Mr.  BoUeston  married  first.  Miss  de  Buigh,  and  secondly,  Maud, 
daughter  of  the  Bev.  Stopford  A.  Brooke.    He  left  several  children. 

—  The  Dowager  Viscountess  Strathallan,  who  was  bom  in  1846^  was 
the  daughter  of  Mr.  W.  Sm3rthe,  of  Methven  Castle,  Perthshire.  She 
married  the  tenth  Lord  Strathallan,  as  his  second  wife,  in  1876,  and  had 
three  sons  and  two  daughters.  She  became  a  widow  in  1893.  Her  eldest 
son,  the  Hon.  Sir  Eric  Drummond,  became  Secretary  to  the  League  of 
Nations. 

6.  Karel  Kovarovlc,  the  famous  Czech  musician,  was  born  in  Prague 
in  1862.    In  1896  he  became  prominent  as  a  conductor  when  he  was 

g'ven  charge  of  the  music  at  the  National  Exhibition,  and  five  years 
ter  he  became  Conductor-in-Chief  to  the  National  Opera,  Prague. 
Under  his  guidance  the  standard  of  performance  became  a  very  high  one 
and  reached  a  particularly  high  level  in  the  productions  of  the  works  of 
Smetana.  M.  Kovarovic  brought  his  orchestra  of  the  N^rodni  Divadlo 
to  London  in  the  summer  of  1919,  to  take  part  in  the  Czecho-Slovak 
Festival  at  the  Queen's  Hall.  He  was  a  gifted  composer,  and  his  operas 
*' Psohlavci,"  and  "At  the  Old  Bleachery"  added  lustre  to  his  great 
reputation. 

—  Sir  Frederick  Taylor,  Bart.,  P.R.C.P.t  was  well  known  as  a  con- 
sulting physician.  He  was  a  member  of  the  staff  of  Guy's  Hospital, 
was  editor  of  "  Guy's  Hospital  Beports,"  and  the  author  of  a  standard 
work  on  ''The  Practice  of  Medicine."  He  was  formerly  President  of 
the  Boyal  College  of  Physicians,  and  was  created  a  Baronet  in  1917. 
His  successor  was  his  son,  Dr.  Eric  Stuart  Taylor,  who  was  bom  in  1889. 

11.  Olive  Schreiner  (Mrs.  Conwright  Schreiner^,.the  famous  authoress 
of  the  '*  Story  of  an  African  Farm,"  was  bom  in  Basutoland  in  1859,  and 
was  the  daughter  of  a  German  missionary,  and  a  younger  sister  of  W. 
Philip  Schreiner,  Prime  Minister  of  Cape  Colony.  Her  first  and  greatest 
novel  was  published  in  London  in  1893,  and  she  subsequently  wrote 
"  Dreams/'  *'  Dream  Life  and  Beal  Life,"  and  "  Trooper  Peter  Halkett  of 
Mashonaland,"  and  in  1899  she  published  '*  An  English  South  African's 
View  of  the  Situation."  In  1911  her  book  **  m)man  and  Labour" 
appeared.  She  married,  in  1894^  Mr.  S.  C.  Conwright,  a  member  of  the 
Cape  Parliament,  who  subsequently  took  her  name. 

—  The  Rl^t  Rev.  William  Thomas  Harrison,  D.D.,  was  bom  in 

1837,  and  was  the  son  of  a  clergyman.  He  was  educated  at  Brighton 
College,  at  Marlborough,  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where,  in 
1860,  he  graduated  with  a  Second  Class  in  the  Classical  Tripos.  He 
was  ordained  in  1861,  and  after  working  in  Yarmouth  for  seven  years, 
he  succeeded  his  father  as  Bector  of  Thorpe  Morieux  for  five  years. 
His  next  benefice  was  that  of  Christ  Church,  Luton,  and  he  became 
an  honorary  Canon  of  Ely  during  his  tenure  of  that  incumbency. 
From  1883  he  was  Vicar  of  Bury  St.  Edmunds,  until,  in  1886,  he  was 
elected  Bishop  of  Glasgow  and  Galloway.  In  1903  he  resigned  his 
See  and  again  became  Bector  of  Thorpe  Morieux,  but  he  resigned  the 
living  in  1912  and   retired  to  Olivers,  Stanway,  a  family  property. 


168  OBITUAEY.  [Dec- 

Dr.  Harrison  had  acted  as  Assistant  Bishop  of  £ly  since  1903.  He 
married,  in  1870,  the  daughter  of  Colonel  Colvin,  O.B.,  B.E.,  by  whom 
he  had  three  sons  and  three  daughters. 

12.  Colonel  B.  Q.  Prior,  Lieut. -Qovernor  of  British  Columbia,  was 

the  son  of  the  Rev.  Henry  Prior,  and  was  bom  in  1853.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Leeds  Grammar  School,  and  became  a  mining  engineer.  In 
1873  he  went  to  Vancouver,  where  he  afterwards  became  Government 
Inspector  of  Mines. 

Colonel  Prior,  who  was  in  the  Militia,  was  known  as  a  good  shot,  was 
President  of  the  Dominion  Bifle  Association  on  several  occasions,  and 
commanded  the  Canadian  Team  at  Bisley  in  1890.  He  served  from 
1888  to  1895  as  Hon.  A.D.C.  to  the  Governors-General  Lord  Stanley  and 
Lord  Aberdeen.  He  was  a  Conservative  member  of  the  Federal  House 
of  Commons  for  over  thirteen  years,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Cabinets 
of  Sir  Mackenzie  Bowell  and  Sir  Charles  Tupper,  serving  as  Controller 
of  Inland  Revenue.  In  1902-3  he  was  Premier  of  British  Columbia,  and 
he  was  appointed  Lieut. -Governor  in  1919. 

13.  Neville  Qeorge  de  Bretton  Priestley,  Managing  Director  of  the 
South  Indian  Railway  Company,  was  59  years  of  age.  He  joined  the 
Traffic  Department  of  State  Railways  in  India  when  he  was  18,  and  in 
1900  he  became  traffic  manager  of  the  Southern  Mahratta  Railway 
Company.  Two  years  later  Lord  Curzon  appointed  him  assistant  to 
Mr.  Robertson,  the  Special  Commissioner  for  the  investigation  of  the 
administration  and  working  of  Indian  Railways,  and  he  subsequently 
became  Secretary  to  the  Indian  Railway  Board.  This  post  he  soon  re- 
signed in  order  to  take  up  that  of  Agent  of  the  South  India  Railway 
Company.  After  his  retirement  from  India  in  1910  he  became  the 
Company's  Managing  Director  in  London.  He  was  twice  married,  and 
lost  a  son  in  France  in  1916. 

—  Alexander  Muirhead,  D.Sc.,  P.R.S.,  who  was  72  years  of  age,  col- 
laborated at  one  time  with  Sir  Oliver  Lodge  in  work  connected  with 
wireless  telegraphy.    He  was  well  known  in  the  telegraphic  world. 

—  Sir  Charles  Bruce,  Q.C.M.Q.,  who  was  the  son  of  an  Indian  Civil 
Servant^  was  born  in  India  in  1836.  He  was  educated  at  Harrow  and 
at  Yale  University,  and  he  subsequently  studied  Oriental  languages  and 
literature  in  Germany.  He  assisted  in  the  preliminary  work  for  the 
Sanskrit  dictionary  of  B5htlingk  and  Roth  which  was  published  by  the 
Imperial  Academy  of  St.  Petersburg,  which  also  published  Brace's  own 
work  '<  Die  Gtoschichte  von  Nala."  He  also  published  a  translation  from 
the  Atharva  Veda. 

In  1865  he  was  appointed  Professor  of  Sanskrit  at  King's  College, 
London,  and  in  1868  he  became  Rector  of  the  Royal  College  at  Port 
Louis,  Mauritius,  where  he  remained  for  ten  years.  From  1^8  he 
spent  four  years  as  Director  of  Public  Instraction  in  Ceylon,  and  he 
then  returned  to  Mauritius  as  Colonial  Secretary. 

In  1885  he  became  Lieutenant-Governor  and  Government  Secretary 
in  British  Guiana,  and  in  1893  he  was  appointed  Governor  of  the  Wind- 
ward Islands.  Four  years  later  he  again  returned  to  Mauritius  on  his 
appointment  as  Governor,  a  post  which  he  held  with  great  distinction 
and  marked  success  until  1903  when  he  retired  to  England. 

Sir  Charles  had  a  great  sympathy  with  the  peoples  of  India,  ai\d 
during  his  later  years  he  was  active  in  support  of  the  committee  which 
was  formed  to  uphold  the  interests  of  Indian  immigrants  and  settlers 
in  South  Africa.  He  published  in  1910  '*  The  Broad  Stone  of  Empire," 
and  in  1912  " The  True  Temper  of  Empire."  In  1917  his  "Milestones 
on  my  Long  Journey  '*  appeared. 

Sir  Charles  was  created  C.M.G.,  and  advanced  successively  K.C.M.G. 
and  G.C.M.G.  (1901).  He  married  Miss  Clara  Lucas  in  1868,  and  had 
two  sons. 


1920.]  OBITUAEY.  169 

17.  The  Rev.  Dr.  Arthur  Thomas  Quttery  was  born  in  1862,  and  was 
the  son  of  a  Methodist  minister.  After  receivinj^  his  education  at  Enfield 
College,  York^  and  matriculating  at  London  University,  he  became,  at  21 
years  of  age.  Pastor  of  a  Primitive  Methodist  Church  in  Newcastle.  He 
was  subsequently  appointed  General  Missionary  Secretary  for  the  Con- 
nexion, in  which  capacity  he  worked  most  effectively,  and  in  1913  he 
was  appointed  to  a  charge  in  Liverpool. 

During  the  war  Dr.  Gutterv  went  to  France  for  the  United  Army 
Board,  and  he  also  visited  the  United  States  on  a  mission  of  propaganda 
in  the  company  of  Bishop  Gore.  He  was  a  fine  preacher,  and  a  platform 
speaker  of  great  power,  and  he  was  also  prominent  in  educational  dis- 
putes, being  a  determined  passive  resistor.  His  wife  was  formerly  Miss 
Alford. 

21.  Nora  Henrietta,  Countess  Roberts,  widow  of  the  famous  Field- 
Marshal,  was  82  years  of  age.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Captain  John 
Bews  of  the  73rd  Begiment,  and  was  married  to  Lord  Roberts^  then  a 
young  Lieutenant,  in  1859.  During  her  long  residence  in  India,  Lady 
Boberts  established  an  organisation  for  the  supply  of  trained  nurses  to 
supplement  the  work  of  the  orderlies  in  military  hospitals. 

Besides  this  valuable  work,  the  expenses  of  which  were  borne  by  the 
State,  she  provided  '* Homes  in  the  Hills"  for  the  benefit  of  nursing 
sisters,  to  be  used  by  them  as  health  resorts.  In  this  undertaking  she 
was  generously  assisted  by  the  Army  in  India. 

Lady  Boberts  received  the  decoration  of  the  Crown  of  India. 

26.  The  Rev.  Henry  Hoyte  Winwood,  who  was  90  years  of  age,  was 
a  well-known  Fellow  of  the  Geological  Society,  and  a  Vice-President  of 
the  Somersetshire  Archsaological  Society.  He  was  instrumental  in  rais- 
ing a  sum  of  1,2602.  for  the  purchase  of  the  Charles  Moore  Geological 
Collection  for  the  Museum  of  the  Boyal  Literary  and  Scientific  Institute 
of  Bath. 

27.  Sir  John  Ormerod  Scarlett  Thursby,  Bart.,  was  bom  in  1861,  and 
was  the  son  of  the  first  baronet.  He  was  President  of  the  Burnley 
Chamber  of  Commerce,  and  of  the  British  Chess  Federation,  and  was 
Steward  of  the  Jockey  Club.  He  was  well  known  as  a  racing  owner, 
and  as  a  breeder  of  horses  for  the  Turf  he  rendered  great  service  to  the 
sport. 

He  married,  in  1888,  Miss  Ella  Beatrice  Crosse  and  had  one  daughter. 
His  successor  was  his  half-brother,  Mr.  Qeoim  James  Thursby,  who  at 
one  time  superintended  the  training  of  Sir  John's  horses  in  Dorset,  fre- 
quently riding  them  in  public  on  the  course,  including  the  famous  colt 
*•  John  o*  Gaunt." 

~  Sir  Reginald  Qraliam,  Bart.,  was  86  years  of  age.  He  served  as  a 
subaltern  in  the  14th  Foot  during  the  Crimean  campaign,  and  was  pro- 
moted Captain  in  the  Rifle  Brigi^e  at  its  close.  In  1863  he  retired  from 
the  Army,  and  he  succeeded  his  father  as  eighth  baronet  in  1866. 

Sir  Reginald  married,  in  1876,  the  second  daughter  and  co-heiress 
of  Mr.  Thomas  Shifiner  of  Westergate,  Sussex.  His  elder  son.  Major 
Reginald  Guy  Graham,  D.S.O.,  succeeded  him.  In  1907  Sir  Reginald 
published  a  book  of  hunting  recollections^  and  in  1912  '*  Poems  of  the 
Chase.'' 

—  Sir  Josepii  Verdin,  Bart.,  was  82  years  of  age.  He  was  interested 
in  the  Cheshire  salt  industry,  and  served  as  High  Sheriff  for  Hereford- 
shire in  1903.    He  was  created  the  first  baronet,  and  he  left  no  heir. 

30.  B.  A.  Peachey,  whose  age  was  69,  came  to  London  from  Somerset 
as  a  young  man.  He  was  for  some  time  a  journalist  on  the  staff  of  the 
Daily  News,  of  which  he  became,  eventually,  sub-editor.  Subsequently 
he  joined  the  Parliamentary  staff  of  the  Daily  Telearaph  attaining  after 
a  time  the  position  of  chief  sub-editor,  which  he  held  until  his  death. 


170  OBITUAEY.  [Dec  1920. 

30.  James  David  Bourchier,  who  was  in  earlier  Hfe  an  assistant 
master  at  Eton,  became,  in  1888,  The  Times'  correspondent  in  the  Balkans. 
He  wielded  great  influence  among  the  Rulers  of  the  Peninsular,  and 
though  as  a  scholar  he  had  a  great  love  for  the  art  and  historical  character 
of  Greece,  he  looked  to  the  Bulgarians  to  be  the  leaders  of  the  Balkan 
nations  in  their  struggle  with  Turkey.  Mr.  Bourchier  worked  for  the 
creation  of  the  Balkan  League,  and  the  second  Balkan  War  with  the 
subsequent  ranging  of  Bulgaria  against  the  Entente  Powers  was  a  great 
disappointment  to  him.  He  died  at  Sofia  where  he  was  held  in  great 
respect,  and  a  public  funeral  was  accorded  to  him. 

—  The  Rev.  Prebendary  Cecil  Deedes,  M.A.,  who  was  bom  in  1843^ 

was  educated  at  Winchester  and  at  Brasenose  College,  Oxford,  where  he 
was  an  Exhibitioner.  In  1864  he  took  a  Second  Class  in  the  Classical 
Moderations,  and  in  1866  a  Second  Class  in  Law  and  Modern  History. 
After  doing  parochial  work  in  Oxford  he  joined  the  Central  African  Mis- 
sion as  Organising  Secretary  in  1876,  and  was  for  a  time  a  Canon  of 
Maritzburg.  After  his  return  to  England  he  became  a  Prebendary  in 
Chichester  Cathedral,  and  while  acting  as  Librarian  there  he  edited 
several  of  the  ancient  Registers  of  the  Cathedral.  He  was  a  Fellow,  of 
the  Royal  Historical  Society. 


INDEX. 


The  figures  between  [  ]  xefer  to  Pabt  I. 


[Speeches  in  ParliaimefU  are  wUered  under  their  su^ects  under  the  lieadwg 
**  Parliamentary  Speeches,**  and  those  outside  Parliament  under  the  speaker's 
name.] 


Abnby,  Sir  W.  de  W.,  Obit.,  166 

AGOIDENTS.— AsBOPi:.ASB«  Grickle- 
wood,  20 ;  Hayes,  16.  Exflobiok, 
National  Filling  Factory,  2 ;  New 
York,  16 ;  Sandgate,  20 ;  Wapping, 
18.  MiscBLLAinBOUB,  Stoke-on- 
Trent,  bridge  oollapses,  17 ;  Wol- 
▼erhampton,  St.  Ueorge's  Hall, 
oollapees,  7.  Bailwat,  Bolton, 
12 ;  iHjon,  8 ;  Honilles,  17 

AciOR,  Judge,  am>ointed  Judge  of  the 
High  Oourt  of  Justice,  11 

Adoogk,  Sir  H.,  Obit.,  181 

ADWRATgr,  changes,  12 

Abbonautegal  Research  Committee, 
constituted,  8 

Abboplanbb,  flight,  [22],  9 

AFGHANISTAN,  [271] 

AFRICA,  EAST.— BBmBH  EastAvbica, 
Bowring,  SirC,  Acting-Goyemor, 
[2841.  Byatt,  Sir  H.  A.,  Oovemor 
of  Tanganyika,  [284].  Kbnta 
colony,  [288].  LsoiSLATiys  Coun- 
cil, opened,  [284].  Natiyss,  treat- 
ment of,  [284].  Northey,  Sir  E., 
Qovemor  of  Kenya,  pSi],  17. 
Tanoantika,  [284].  PoBTUouaBE 
East  Africa,  [283] 

SOUTH,  UNION  OF.— Bddobt, 

[281].  GoNHAUOHT,  Prince  A.  of, 
appointed  Qoyemor-General,  [281], 
11;  at  Cape  Town,  [281],  19. 
ELBcnoN,  General,[280].  Hebhin- 
lonfo  Conference,  at  Bloemfon- 
tein,  [281].  KatiAhabt  desert, 
scheme  for  the  re- watering,  [282]. 
Population,  [280].  Provincial 
Councils,  elections,  [281]. 
ScHWABTz,  Prof.  E.  H.  L.,  scheme 
for  re-watering  Kalahari  Desert, 
12].  Smuts,  General,  Prime 
[inister,  [280] 

WEST.  —  POBTUOUBBB        WbST 

Atbioa,  [288] 
*<  Amoo,"  oloeed  down,  21 
Am  mail  scorviee,  9, 16 


[281 
Mix 


ALBANIA.— Ilias  Bey  Vrioni,  Prime 
Minister,  [251].  independence  of, 
recognised,  [261].  Italy,  relations 
with,  [261].  I^GUB  of  Nations, 
admission,  [166],  [251],  Natiohal 
Congress,  at  Lusnia,  [251] 

Albbbt  Hall,  meeting,  [11] 

H.B.H.  Prince,  created  Duke  of 

York,  10 

Albxakdra,  Queen,  unveils  a  statue  of 
Nurse  Cavell,  6 

Allxn,  Rev.  G.  B.,  Principal  of  St. 
Edmund  HaU,  19 

Allbnbt,  Field-Marshal  Viscount, 
Colonel  of  the  First  Life  Guards, 
4 ;  honorary  degree  conferred,  18 

Allibd  Conference,  in  London,  19; 
Lympne,  [63],  [98],  [166],  [204] ; 
San  Remo,  [44],  [166],  [1681,  [182], 
[186],  7;  Spa,  [166],  [186]-[188], 
[2281 

Allubb,  Text  of  the  Agreement  between, 
68-71 

AMERICi Vid4    Canada,    Mexico, 

Newfoundland,  United  States 

SOUTH. — ^AaoKNTiNA,  League  of 

Nations,  [1611,  [299].  Bolivia, 
Guerro,  G.,  President,  unpopu- 
larity, [800];  League  of  Nations, 
[151] ;  Revolution,  [800] ;  Saavedra, 
Seflor,  Provisional  President,  [800]. 
B&AZiL,  League  of  Nations,  [151], 
tm] ;  Strikes,  [299] ;  TUley,  Sir  J., 
British  Ambainador,  21.  Cmu, 
Aleasandri,  A.,  elected  Pnsident, 
[800] ;  League  of  Nations,  [161], 
[800] :  Tacna  and  Arica  dispute, 
settled,  [299].  Pebu,  Constitu- 
tional reforms,  [800] 

Amusdsbn,  Capt.,  expedition  to  the 
North  Pole,  44 

Andbbson,  J.  D.,  Obit.,  166 

AsDBBWB,  Capt.  H.  J.,  awarded  the 
V.C,  16 

Abbuthhott,  Viscount,  Obit.,  160 

Abicaob,  Archbishop  of.  Obit.,  ISO 


171 


172 


INDEX. 


[1920. 


ARMENIA. — BoiAHSYiKS,  attack  on, 
[269].    League  of  Nations,  admis- 
sion refused,  [156],  [269] 
Abmistioe,  anniversary,  [126],  19 
Abmy  services,  award  of  honours,  8 
Abt,  Retrospect  of :   AiiFine  Gallery, 

49.  Exhibitions,  **  one  man,"  49, 

50.  Hbbtfobd  House,  reopened, 
50.  MoDEBN  Crafts  and  Manu- 
factures, exhibition,  49.  National 
Gallery,  60.  National  Gallery  of 
British  Art,  60.  National  Portrait 
Gallery,  50.  Boyal  Academy, 
changes  in  the  laws,  47 ;  exhibi- 
tion, 48.  Sales,  48, 49.  Spanish, 
Exhibition,  48.  Wood  Engravers, 
Society  of,  exhibition,  49 

Abthub,  Sir  G.,  "Life  of  Lord 
Kitchener,*'  23 

Asqxtith,  Bt.  Hon.  H.  H.,  candidate 
for  Paisley,  [6],  2 ;  policy,  [6],  [12]; 
at  Paisley,  [18],  [54] ;  election,f  14], 
4 ;  at  the  National  Liberal  Club, 
[81],  [129] ;  Ayr,  [118] 

^*Asquith,  The  Autobiography  of 
Margot,"  26 

Abtob,  Lord,  value  of  his  estate,  1 

AUSTBALIA.  —  Constitutional  re- 
forms, [301].  Election,  General, 
[801].  Fobstbb,  Bt.  Hon.  Lord, 
Governor-General,  [802],  10.  La- 
BOUB  Party,  proposed  unification, 
[801].  New  South  Wales,  General 
Election,  [8021.  Parliament, 
opened,  [802].  Queensland,  Elec- 
tion, [808];  Nathan,  Sir  M.,  ap- 
pointed Governor,  12.  Victobia, 
Election,  [808] ;  Stradbioke,  Earl 
of,  appointed  Governor,  14. 
Wales,  Prince  of,  tour  in,  [802],  5 

SOUTH.— Harwell,     H.     N., 

Premier,  [803].  Wbiqall,  Colonel 
S.,  appointed  Gbvemor,  2 

AUSTBIA.— Census,  result,  [190]. 
Electionb,  General,  [190].  Ex- 
change, rate  of,  [190].  Fbanken- 
STBiN,  Baron,  in  London,  14. 
Hainsgh,  Dr.,  elected  President, 
[190].  League  of  Nations,  ad- 
mission to,  ||166],  21.  Mayeb,  Dr., 
Prime  Minister,  [190].  Benneb, 
Dr.  K.,  Prime  Minister,  [190]; 
resignation,  [190].  St.  Germain, 
Treaty  of,  ratified,  [190].  Seitz, 
Dr.,  elected  President,  [189] 

Azebbauan,  [269] 

Babtie,  Lieut.-Gen.  Sir  W.,  Obit.,  168 
Balfoub,  Bt.  Hon.  A.  J.,  at  the  City 
of  London  Conservative  and 
Unionist  Association,  [7] ;  on  the 
Institute  of  International  Affairs, 
[75];      elected    President,    [76]; 

f resides  at  the  Council    of    the 
jeague  of  Nations,  8 
Ball,  Sir  J.  B.,  Obit.,  166 
Bane  rate,  raised,  6,  61 


Bahfurs*  Magaaine,  66 

Banks,  amalgamation,  18, 16,  62 

Barker,  E.,  Principal  of  Eing's  College, 
London,  12 

Barlow,  Sir  M.,  Under-Secretary  to 
the  Ministry  of  Labour,  [86],  6 

Barnes,  Bt.  Hon.  G.  N.,  member  of 
the  Cabinet,  resignation,  [6],  [14], 
[36],  2,  6 

Baronetcies,  conferred,  10 

Baronies,  conferred,  Ookayne,  Sir  B., 
6;  Dawson,  Sir  B.,  1;  Biddell, 
Sir  G.,  1 ;  Stanley,  Sir  A.,  1 

Barton,  Sir  E.,  Obit.,  117 

R  C,  arrested,  [11];  sentenced, 

[12] 

Beayen,  M.  L.  B.,  Obit.,  166 

Bedsx)rd,  Adeline,  Duchess  of,  value  of 
her  estate,  8  ;  Obit.,  180 

Beef,  price  reduced,  8 

BELGIUM.  —  Brussels,  Financial 
Conference  at,  [154],  [258].  Bud- 
get, [262].  Delacroix,  M.,  Prime 
Minister,  resignation,  [258].  Elec- 
tion, General,  [251].  Enpen, 
union  with,  [154],  [252].  France, 
military  alliance  with,  [262].  Liv- 
ING,  cost  of,  72.  Luxemburg,  re- 
lations with,  [268].  Malmedt, 
union  with,  [154],  [262].  Manhood 
Suffrage  Bill,  [268].  Population, 
[262].  Spa,  Allied  Conference  at, 
[166],  ri86].[188],  [228].  Wlirt, 
C.  de,  Coalition  Ministry,  [268] 

Belhaven  and  Stenton,  Baion,  Obit., 
161 

Benson,  E.  F.,  "  Queen  Lucia,"  86 

Bbresford,  J.  D.,  "The  Imperfect 
Mother,"  36 

Bermuda,  Parliament,  tercentenary,  13 

Bessbobouoh,  Earl  of,  Obit,  166 

BILLS.— Acquisition  of  Land  [24], 
[126].      AoRicuLTURE,  [59],  [123], 

il44].    Appropriation,  [145],  [146]. 
3A8TARDY,    [61].       BuND,     ScDOOla 

for  the,  [38].  Coal  mines,  [15]. 
Consolidated  Fund,  [98].  Crdozi- 
AL  Injurie-^,  Ireland,  [12^].  Dtb- 
STUFFS,  [146].  Emeroenct  Powers, 
[122].  Finance,  [51],  [73],  [74], 
Food,  Ministry  of,  [80].  Franch- 
ise, [22].  Health,  Ministry  of, 
[96],  [123],  [139].  Home  Bole, 
Ireland,  [19]-[21],  [34],  [122],  [180], 
[144];  amendments  in  Committee, 
[58],  [64]-[66].  Home  Bule,  Soot- 
land,  [40].  Ireland,  Bestoration 
of  Order  in,  [86].[88].  Matri- 
monial causes,  [26],  [89],  [60],  [60]. 
Mining  Industry,  [63],  [98].  Na- 
tional Health  Insurance,  [24]. 
Nauru  Island  Agreement,  [58]. 
Overseas  Trade,  [63].  Peace, 
Treaties  of,  [38].  PBOFiTBEBnia, 
[43],  [52].  Bent  Bestriction,  [58], 
[61],  [63].  BoADs,  [139].  Shops 
(Early  Closing),  [38],  [61].    Trade 


1920.] 


INDEX. 


173 


/ 


Union  ballots,  [44].    Uitbmfloy- 

MBMT,[127].   UNBMFLOYMBNTlnSar 

ance,  [21].  Wab  Emergenoy  Laws, 
[18],  [23].     Wab  Pensions,  [49] 

BiBCHBNOUOH,  Sir  H.,  Chairman  of  the 
British  Dyes  Corporation,  8 

BxBKiKaHAM,  G.  A.,  «*  Inisheeny,"  S5 

University,    Robertson,    C,    G. 

appointed  Principal,  2 

BiBOK,  H.  C,  Chief  Magistrate  for  the 
Metropolitan  Police  Courts,  7 ; 
knighthood,  7 

BiBLBT,  meeting,  12 

BissoiiATi,  L.,  Obit.,  186 

Blaquibbb,  Lord  de.  Obit.,  148 

BoAT-BACB,  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  6 ; 
date  fixed,  21 ;  Shamrock  TV,  and 
IUmIuU,  12, 13 

BoDKnr,  Sir  A.,  Director  of  Public  Pro- 
secutions, 18 

Bodleian  Library,  gift  to,  13 

BOKHABA,  [271] 

BoBASTON,  Sir  J.,  Obit.,  133 

BoBB,  Sir  J.  C,  invention  of  the  cresco- 
graph,  42 

BoxiBCHiBB,  J.  D.,  Obit.,  170 

Boxing  matches,  8, 12,  20 

BoYNB,  L.,  Obit.,  132 

Bbace,  W.,  Labour  Adviser  to  the  de- 
partment of  min^s,  19 ;  scheme 
for  the  regulation  of  wages,  [112] 

Bbadbuby,  Sir  J.,  G.C.B.  conferred,  1 

Bbaithwaitb,  Lieut.-General  SirW.  P., 
appointed  to  a  command  in  India, 
19 

Bband,  Flight-Lieut.,  appointed 
K.B.E.,  9 

Bbasbnosb  CoUege,  Oxford,  Sampson, 
C.  H.,  elected  Principal,  13 

Bbbad,  price,  6, 18 ;  subsidy,  abolition, 
[24] 

Bbbvil,  Abb^,  honorary  degree  con- 
ferred, 9 

Bbidgehan,  W.  C,  Secretary  of  Mines, 
14 

Bbioadibb-Genbbal,  rank  abolished, 
6 

Bbight,  Bev.  J.  F.,  Obit,  160 

Bbitibh  Association,  meeting  at  Cardiff, 
14,45 

Empire,  Order  of  the,  appoint- 
ments, 6 

Institute  of  International  Affairs, 

founded,  [74] 

Museum,  iSnistees  elected,  3 

Bbouohton,  B.,  Obit.,  141 

Bbown,  p.  H.,  "  Life  of  Goethe,"  25 

Bbownino,  Admiral  Sir  M.,  Com- 
mander-in-Chief at  Plymouth,  12 

Bbucb,  Sir  C,  Obit.,  168 

BrtaaeU,  the,  sale  of,  14 

Bbtcb,  Mrs.  A.,  arrested,  [125] 

Bucklb,  G.  E.,  **  The  life  of  Benjamin 
Disraeli,  Earl  of  Beaconsfield,"  24 

BULGARIA.  —  ELBcnoN,  General, 
[250].  Lbaoub  of  Nations,  admis- 
sion, [156],  [250].    Peacb,  Treaty 


of,  [250].    Stambousky,  M.,  Prime 

Minister,  [250].     Stancioff,  M., 

appointed  Mixdster  in  London,  18 
BuLLABD,  A.,  "  The  Stranger,'*  37 
BuLLSN,  A.  H.,  Obit.,  126 
BxTNBUBY,  Sir   H.,    Comptroller   and 

Accountant-General  of   the   Post 

Office,  11 
BuBNB- Jones,  Lady,  Obit.,  121 
BuBNBY,  Vice- Admiral  Sir  C,  Report 

of,  102-6 
BuBBOws,  Dr.  R.  M.,  Obit.,  137 
BuBY,  J.  B.,  "  The  Idea  of  Progress,** 

32 
BmTBB,  de-controlled,  1 ;    price,  11, 

17 ;  ration,  increase  of,  5 
Buxton,  A.  F.,  Chairman  of  the  L.C.C. 

Finance  Committee,  resignation, 

12 
Viscount,  Chfluicellor  of  the  order 

of  St.  Michael  and  St.  Geozge,  IS 

Callaohan,  Admiral  Sir  G.  A.,  Obit., 
164 

Cambbidoe  University,  Bio-Chemistry, 
endowment  of,  10 ;  Glover,  T.  R., 
elected  public  orator,  2 ;  honorary 
degrees,  conferred,  9,  10,  18; 
women  students,  decision  on,  20 

CANADA. — BoBDEN,  Sir  R.,  resigna- 
tion, [295].  British  Columbia, 
General  Election,  [296].  Budget, 
[294].  Cabinet,  the  new,  [295]. 
Dbvonbhirb,  Duke  of,  Governor- 
General,  opens  Parliament,  [294]. 
Fbanchisb  Bill,  [295].  Lbaoub 
of  Nations,  [150],  [297].  Mbiohbn, 
A.,  Prime  Minister,  [295].  Na- 
tional Liberal  and  Conservative 
Party,  policy,  [295].  New  Bruns- 
wick, General  Election,  [296}. 
Pabliament,  opened,  [294];  pro- 
rogued, [295].  Quebec,  Gouin, 
Sir  L.,  Prime  Minister,  resigna- 
tion, [296];  Taschereau,  L.  A., 
Prime  Minister,  [296].  Reindeeb, 
breeding,  [297].  Stbfanbson,  V., 
Commission  on  breeding  reindeer, 
[297] 

Capital,  new,  output,  65 

Cafpeb,  Major-Gsneral  Sir  J.  E., 
Lieut.-Govemor  of  Guernsey,  11 

Cabbanza,  General  V.,  Obit.,  [299],  139 

Cabson,  Sir  E.,  at  Belfast,  [82] 

Castle,  K,  Obit.,  155 

Cavan,  Countess  of,  Obit.,  142 

General  the  Earl  of.  Lieutenant 

of  the  Tower  of  London,  4;  ap- 
pointed to  the  Aldersbot  com- 
mand, 16 ;  A.D.C.  to  the  King,  18 

Cenotaph,  unveiled,  [125] 

CEYLON. — Legislativb  Council,  re- 
form, [276] 

Chambeblain,  Rt.  Hon.  A.,  at  Birming- 
ham, [8] ;  on  the  Excess  Profits 
Duty,  [71] ;  **  Memorandum  of 
Present  and    Pre- War  Expendi- 


174 


INDEX. 


[1920. 


tare,**  [71] ;  at  the  Mansion  House, 
[72] 

Ghambbbs,  Sir  T.,  Vice-Ghaiiman  of 
the  National  Savings  Oommittee,  8 

Ohaflin,  Colonel  J.  W.,  Obit.,  161 

Ohatfxbld,  Captain  Sir  A.,  Heport  of, 
107-9 

Chatham^  the,  presented  to  New 
Zealand,  8 

Chbbthah,  Sir  M.,  Minister  Pleni- 
potentiary in  Paris,  21 

Ohbfstow,  national  shipyard,  purchase 
of,  3 

Chetwodb,  Sir  P.,  Deputy  Chief  of  the 
Imperial  General  Staff,  16 

Ghbtwynd-Talbot,  G.  A.,  Obit.,  169 

CHINA.— Ah-Fu  Party,  [277].  Chang 
Tso-Lin,  Governor-General  of 
Manchuria,  [277].  Chihli  Party, 
[277].  Chin  Yun-Peng,  Prime 
Minister,  [278].  Chou  Shu-Mou, 
Prime  Minister,  [277].  Civil  War, 
[2771  Famine,  [278].  Nobth 
and  South,  hostility  between  [276]. 
TuAN  Chi-Jui,  in  command  of,  the 
Frontier  Defence  Force,  [277] 

Ohttfy,  Sir  T.,  Senior  Master  of  the 
Supreme  Court  and  King's  Re- 
membrancer, 4 

Chbibtie'b,  sales  at,  49 

Chxischill,  Bt.  Hon.  W.,  on  the  re- 
organisation of  the  Territorial 
Force,  [8] ;  at  Dundee,  [16],  [118] 

CiFPBNHAM,  motor  depot  at,  sale  of, 
[89] 

Clabk,  Sir  £.,  Assistant  Under-Sec- 
retary for  Ireland,  16 

Clay,  C,  Obit.,  189 

CugGHOBN,  Surgeon-General  J.,  Obit., 
142 

CiouoH,  B.  A.,  Principal  of  Newnham 
CoUege,  11 

Clyde,  J.  A.,  Lord  President  of  the 
Court  of  Session,  [88],  6 

Coal,  price,  [4],  [88],  [621,  9,  16,  67 ; 
rationing,  end,  10;  shortage,  [8], 
67 

CoALmoN  Liberals,  [80] 

CoBBB,  Lieut.-Gtoneral  Sir  A.,  Military 
Secretary  of  the  India  Office,  19 

Coins,  new  silver,  20 

Cole,  A.  C,  Obit,  140 

CoLBBisoE,  E.  H.,  Obit.,  126 

CoLLiNOB,  Bt.  Hon.  J.,  Obit.,  168 

CoMBE,  C,  value  of  his  estate,  17 

CoMMEBGB  and  Finance  in  1920,  68-67 

CoMMEBOiAL  Union  Assurance  Com- 
pany, endowment  of  Bio- 
Chemistry,  10 

CoNNAUOHT,  Prince  Arthur  of,  holds  an 
Investiture,  2;  Governor-General 
of  South  Airica,  11 ;  leaves  Lon- 
don, 18 ;  at  Cape  Town,  19 

Princess   Arthur  of,  leaves   for 

South  Africa,  18 

CoNHAO,  J.,  *'  The  Bescue :  A  Tale  of 
the  ShaUows,'*  84 


CoNWAY-GoBDON,  Col.  -  Commandant  L., 
A.D.C.  to  the  King,  16 

Cook,  Sir  F.  L.,  Obit.,  189 

CoOTB,  Sir  A.,  Obit.,  160 

CoBBBTT,  Sir  J.  S., "  Naval  Operations,*' 
28 

CoBCQBAN,  J.  A.,  Director  of  Army  Con- 
tracts, 11 

Cobnwalub-Wbst,  Mrs.,  Obit,  148 

CoiBs,  Lady  B.,  Obit.,  188 

Cotton  trade,  dispute,  [47] 

Council  of  Action,  [94] 

Coufbbub,  L.,  "The  Twilight  of  the 
Souls :  Dr.  Adraain,'*  86 

CouBTNEY,  J.  E.,  "Free  Thinkers  of 
the  Nineteenth  Century,"  82 

M.  A.,  Obit.,  188 

Cox,  H.,  "Economic  Liberty,**  88 

Sir  P.,  leaves  for  Mesopotanoda,  16 

Cozbnb-Habdy,  Lord,  Obit.,  142 

Cbaio,  Sir  J.,  Financial  Secretary  to 
the  Admiralty,  [86],  6 

Cbbsooobaph,  invention  of,  42 

CBIMINAL  CASE.— Greenwood,  H., 
19 

Cbokeb,  Mrs.  B.  M.,  Obit.,  169 

Cbosland,  J.  B.,  Principal  Assistant- 
Secretary  of  the  War  Office,  11 

Obowb,  Sir  E.,  Under-Seoretaiy  for 
Foreign  Affairs,  17 

Obozibb,  Most  Bev.  J.  B.,  Obit.,  180 

CuBiTT,  Sir  B.,  Principal  Assistant- 
Secretary  of  the  War  Office,  II 

Cxtlicb-Sbymoub,  Admiral  Sir  M.,  Obit., 
168 

CUNLiFFB,  Baron,  Obit.,  117 

Cunningham,  Sir  H.  S.,  Obit.,  168 

Cubbbnoy  notes,  issue,  62,  76 

CuBBiE,  General  Sir  A.,  Principal  of 
McGill  University,  8 

CuBZON,  Lord,  elected  Trustee  of  the 
British  Museum,  8 

CYPBUS.— Gbbbob,  union  with,  [268]. 
Stevenson,  M.,  High  CommiB- 
sioner,  [268] 

CZE0HO-SLOVAKIA«— CxBHT,  M., 
Prime  Minister,  [224].  Com- 
munist disturbances,  [224].  Con- 
stitutional law,  [221].  Constituent 
Assembly,  dissolved,  [221].  De- 
FUT1B8,    Chamber    of,    elections, 

S222].  Election,  General,  [221]. 
exchange,  rate  of,  [224].  Food, 
shortage,  [220].  Frontier  question, 
[221].  Gbbhan  Bohemia,  [221]. 
Mababyk,  Prof.  T.  G.,  President, 
[221],  9.  Senate,  elections,  [222]. 
Serbs,  Croats,  and  Slovenes,  alli- 
ance with,  [224].  Teboren  quea- 
tion,  [222>[224] 


D*Abebnon,  liord.  Chairman  of  the 
Central  Control  Board,  resigna- 
tion, 8 

DMy  Heraid,  the,  wireless  telegrams 
intercepted,  [97] 


1990.] 


INDEX. 


176 


Daily  Mail,  ihe,  exhibition,  18 ;  relief 

fund,  [56] 
DiiBY  produoto,  de-contxoUed,  1 

Snow,  Islington,  opened,  18 

Dalton,  Sir  0.  N.,  Obit.,  159 

DANNBXXTimBB,  Oommander  H.  E.,  Re- 
port of,  110 

Sir  8.,  Joint  Secretary  of   the 

Miniatxy' of  Munitions,  17 

DANZIG.—ELBcnON,  Qeneral,  [220]. 
TowBB,  Sir  B.»  First  Adzninis- 
trator,  [158],  [220] 

Dabtrbt,  Earl  of,  Obit.,  142 

Debt,  National,  [29],  [71],  [72],  9,  14, 
59 

Dbgdcal  Coinage,  report,  40 

Dbxdbs,  Rev.  Frebendury  C,  Obit., 
170 

DENMARK.— Alubd  Powers,  treaty 
with,  [265].  Elbotion,  Qeneral, 
[264],  [265].  Electoral  Reform 
Bill,  [264].  Flensboig,  onion  with, 
[262].  Lbaqub  of  Nations,  admis- 
sion, [266].  Liebe,  O.,  forms  a 
non-political  Cabinet,  [264].  Mab- 
UNO,  Sir  C,  President  of  the  Com- 
mission, [262];  report,  [264]. 
Nebboaabd,  Mr.,  Prime  Minis- 
ter, [264].  North  Schleswig  Re- 
union Act,  [265].  Pablxambnt, 
opened,  [26q.  Schlbswiq  ques- 
tion, [262].  Strike,  [264].  Zahlx, 
Mr.,  dismissal,  [263] 

King  and  Queen  of,  in  London, 

20 

Dehhino,  W.  F.,  discovery  of  a  new 
star,  14  . 

Dbpijtationb  received  by.  Chamberlain, 
A.,  [71] ;  George,  D.  L.,  [14],  [66], 
[88],  [127],  ri46] 

Db  KAiffiBY,  Lady,  Obit.,  166 

Dbbino,  Sir  H.  G.,  British  Minister  to 
Rumania,  14 

DbsLiTB,  G.,  vflklue  of  her  estate,  8 

Dbylxii,  J.,  suspended  from  the  House 
of  Commons,  [87] 

Dbvonshieb  House,  purchase  of,  9 

DiOK,  Sir  J.,  Obit,  147 

DiGxiHSON,  A.  R.,  Commissioner  for 
Nauru  Island,  19 

DiOBY,  Vice-Admiral  N.  S.  F.,  OUt., 
119 

Dobmbb,  Baron,  Obit.,  128 

DowHHAM,  Baron,  Obit.,  148 

DRAMA.  —  Comedies,  58;  Musical 
plays,  58  ;  Plays,  new,  51-53 ;  Re- 
yivals,  53;  Revues,  54;  Shake- 
speare's plays,  50 

Dbafeb,  H.  J.,  Obit.,  156 

Dbbtbb,  Captain,  Report  of,  100-2 

Dbxtxhokd,  Sir  E.,  Secretary-General 
of  the  League  of  Nations,  [152] 

Dubs,  F.  A.,  v^ue  of  his  estate,  19 

DxTDLBT,  Countess  of.  Obit,  148 

DuFFBBiH,  Dow. -Lady,  Freedom  of 
Belfast,  conferred,  6 

DuKXS,  P.,  K.B.E.,  conferred,  19 


DuMAHBSQ,  Commodore  J.  S.,  A.D.C. 

to  the  King,  18 
DuBAJBTD,  Lieut-Colonel    Sir   E.    L., 

Obit,  148 
Dtbb,  General,  decision  of  the  Army 

CouncU,  [79],  [273] 


Eabthquakb,  Italy,  15 

ECCLESIASTICAL.— BEifKBTT,  Rev. 
F.  S.  M.,  Dean  of  Chester,  5. 
Chubch  Congress,  Southend,  [116]. 
D'Abot,  Dr.,  Primate  of  All  Ire- 
land, 15.  Eliot,  P.  H.,  Biahop- 
Suffragan  of  Buddngham,  19. 
FuBSB,  Dr.,  Bishop  of  St.  Albans, 
7.  Gbbgo,  Dr.  J.  A.  F.,  Arch- 
bishop of  Dublin,  15.  Hbmboh, 
Dr.  H.  H.,  Bishop  of  Durham,  10 ; 
enthroned,  18.  Hine,  Bishop, 
Suffragan-Bishop  of  Grantham,  8. 
JoMBS,  Yen.  H.,  bean  of  Salisbury, 
2.  Khoz,  Dr.,  resignation,  17. 
Lbb,  Rev.  W.  L.,  Moderator  of  the 
London  Province  of  the  Congrega- 
tional Union,  1.  Schultb,  K., 
Archbishop  of  Cologne,  2.  Smith, 
Dr.  L.,  Bishop  of  Hereford,  10. 
Southwell,  Yen.  H.  K.,  Bishop- 
SufbAgan  of  Lewes,  5.  Stafford, 
Rev.  J.  T.  W.,  President  of  the 
Wesleyan  Conference,  12.  Strong, 
Rt.  Rev.  T.  B.,  Bishop  of  Ripon, 
10.  Talbot,  Rev.  N.,  Bishop  of 
Pretoria,  7.  Walbs,  Archbishop 
of,  elected,  6;  enthroned,  9. 
Wesleyan  Conference,  12.  West- 
minster Abbey,  unknown  soldier, 
burial,  [125].  White,  Dr.  H.  J., 
Dean  of  Christ  Church,  14.  Wil- 
liams, Rev.  H.  H.,  Bishop  of  Car- 
lisle, 10. 

BcoHOMio  Conditions  of  the  World, 
Text  of  the  Declaration  of  the 
Supreme  Council  of  the  Peace 
Conference  on  the,  71-80. 

Eddibotor,  Prof.,  **  Internal  Con- 
stitution of  the  Stars,"  88 ;  **  Space, 
Time,  and  Gravitation:  An  Out- 
line of  the  General  Relativity 
Theory,"  89 

Edibbuboh,  Duchess  of.  Obit.,  161 

Edooh,  E.  R.,  Controller  of  the  Profit- 
eering Act  Department,  4 

Edwabdb,  Sir  O.  M.,  Obit,  187 

EOBBTOB  of  Tatton,  Baron,  Obit., 
158 

EoQB,  price  revoked,  21 

EGYPT.— BuDOBT,  [285].  Mbmob- 
ABDUX  on  the  Future  of,  [286], 
88^.  Biilner,  Lord,  Mission, 
[96],  [285].  Tbwfik,  Nessim 
Pasha,  Prime  Minister,  [285]. 
YouBBBT  Wahba  Pasha,  resigna- 
tion, [285].  Zaqhlul  Pasha, 
leader  of  the  Nationalists,  [285]; 
in  London,  [286] 


176 


INDEX. 


[1920. 


EiKBTEiM,  Prof.,  **  Belativity :  the 
Special  and  the  General  Theory,*' 
89 

ELECTIONS.  —  Abertillery,  21 ;  Ar- 
gyllshire, 5;  Ashton-under-Lyne, 
8;  Basingstoke,  6;  Gamberwell, 
6;  Dartford,  6;  Edinburgh,  7; 
Homcastle,  4 ;  Ilford,  17 ;  Louth, 
10;  Nelson  and  Colne,  11;  Nor- 
folk, 18 ;  Northampton,  6 ;  Paisley, 
[6],  [123.[14],  2.  4;  Bhondda,  21; 
Spen  Valley,  1;  Stookport,  6; 
Sunderland,  [86],  8 ;  Woodbridge, 
14 ;  Wrekin,  8, 19 

Eloab,  Lady,  Obit.,  130 

Elton,  Sir  E.  H.,  Obit.,  148 

ENGnnsBBiNO  trade,  dispute,  [105] 

Ebbinoton,  Sir  G.,  Obit.,  128 

Ebsad  Pasha,  Obit.,  141 

ESTIMATES.  —  Army,  [80].  Navy, 
[29] 

ESTLAND.— ABMY,demobili8ed,  [219]. 
DoBFAT  UniversiW,  re-opened, 
[219].  EZiScnoN,  General,  [220]. 
Leagub  of  Nations,  admission  re- 
fused, [156],  [220].  Russia,  ar- 
mistice [219] 

Ethbridoe,  B.,  Obit.,  116 

Eton  College,  Macnaghten,  H.,  elected 
Vice- Provost,  9 

EuGBNiB,  Empress,  Obit.,  12,  146; 
funeral,  12 

Evan-Thomas,  Admiral  Sir  H.,  Com- 
mander-in-Chief at  the  Nore,  20 

Everest,  Mount,  exploration  of,  45 

Excess  Profits  Duty,  [50],  [70],  [78],  60 

Exchanges,  foreign,  fluctuations,  68, 
77 ;  cooierence  at  Brussels,  64 

Exchequeb  Bonds,  new  issue,  [5] 

Exhibition,  Ideal  Home,  8;  Inter- 
national Advertising,  20;  village 
signs,  18 

Expbnditubb,  National,  [29],  [42], 
[71],  [188] 

ExPOBTS,  value  of,  66 

Fabbb,  Baron,  Obit.,  155 

Fabbow,  T.,  arrested,  21 

Fabbow*s  Bank,  suspend  payment,  21, 
62 

Febmoy,  Baron,  Obit.,  152, 161 

Field,  Bear- Admiral  F.  L.,  Lord 
Commissioner  of  the  Admiralty,  7 

Finance  and  Commerce  in  1920,  58-67 

FINLAND. — Aaland  Islands,  demand 
reunion  with  Sweden,  [158],  [218], 
[267].  League  of  Nations,  admis- 
sion, [156],  [219].  BnssiA,  peace 
treaty  with,  [219].  Sweden,  re- 
lations with,  [158],  [218],  [267] 

FiNiiAY,  Viscount,  member  of  the  Court 
of  Arbitration,  at  the  Hague,  14 

FIBES.— Aston,  4;  Glentanar  Forest, 
10,  11 ;  London  Hop  Exchange, 
18;  TtmtfA  Office,  20 

Fish,  restrictions  on  the  price,  re- 
moved, 8 


FiSHBB,  Lord,  value  of  his  estate,  17 ; 
Obit. .  144-6 

FiTZPATBiCK,  Sir  D.,  Obit.,  188 

FiTzwTOBAM,    Major   Sir    F.,    Obit., 
185 

Flood,  in  Louth,  [56],  9 

Floud,  F.  L.  C.,  Secretary  to  the 
Ministry  of  Agriculture,  18 

Food  Offices,  closed,  9 

prices,  increase,  9 

FOOTBALL  MATCHES.  —  Scotland 
and  Wales,  8  ;  Wales  and  Eng- 
land, 2 ;  Wales  and  Ireland,  4 

FoBD,  J.  J.,  value  of  his  estate,  16 

FoBSTEB,  Lord,  Governor-General  of 
Australia,  10 

FBANCE. — Allied  Conferences,  [44], 
[98],  [165],  [168],  [182],  [186],  7. 
Babthou,  M.,  attack  on  the  policy 
of  Great  Britain,  [168].  Belgium, 
military  alliance  with,  [252]. 
Bourgeois,  L.,  elected  President  of 
the  Senate,  [159] ;  President  of  the 
Council  of  the  League  of  Nations, 
2.  Budget,  [166].  Caillattx,  M., 
trial,  [161],  7.  Cheetham,  Sir  M., 
appointed  Minister  Plenipotenti- 
ary, 21.  Clemenceau,  M.,  Prime 
Minister,  resignation,  [159]. 
Debby,  Lord,  Ambassador,  retire- 
ment, [166].  Deschanel,  M., 
elected  President,  [159],  2 ;  mess- 
age to  Parliament,  [161] ;  accident, 
[165],  9;  resignation,  [165],  16. 
Fbanc,  value  of  the,  [166].  Geb- 
MAN  towns,  troops  occupy,  XJfiA], 
ri81].  Great  Britain,  relations 
with,  [168]-[165].  Habdingb, 
Lord,  appointed  Ambassador, 
[166],  15 ;  in  Paris,  20.  Letgxtbs, 
G.,  Prime  Minister,  [166],  16. 
Living,  cost  of,  72.  Millbband, 
A.,  Prime  Minister,  [159] ;  foreign 
policy,  [160] ;  elected  Ftesident, 
[165],  16.  PoiNCABi:,  M.,  President 
of  the  Beparations  Commission, 
resignation,  [165].  BEcoTSBy 
Loan,  issue  of,  [168].  Senate, 
elections,  [158].  Socialist  Con- 
ference, at  Tours,  [166].  Sparta- 
cist  insurrection,  ri64].  [179][182]. 
Strike,  railwa3rmen,  .1163],  4. 
Vatican,  diplomatic  relations,  re- 
sumed, [166].  Vebsailleb,  Treaty 
of,  signed,  [158] 

Fbank,  Sir  H.,  Chairman  of  the  Dis- 
posal Board  of  the  Ministry  of 
Munitions,  6 

Fbaseb,  Sir  M.,  agent  of  the  Unionist 
Party.  21 

Sir  T.,  Obit.,  116 

Fbyeb,  Sir  C,  Obit.,  163 

Fuel  Besearoh  Board,  report,  43 

Galdos,  Don  B.  P.,  Obit.,  116 
GALES. —England,    4,    20;    Ireland, 
20 ;  London,  2 ;  Scilly  Isles,  2 


1920.] 


INDEX. 


177 


Galloway,  Earl  of,  Obit,  122 
Qalbwobthy,   J.,  "Awakening,**  86; 

••  Tattoidemalion,"  86 
Gabnhb,  J.  W.,  "  International  Law 

and  the  World  War,**  80 
Gabbod,  Sir  A.  E.,  Begins  Ftofessor 

of  Medioine,  at  Oxford,  4 
Gabyics,  0.,  Obit.,  127 
Gasblbb,  S.,  Librarian  and  Keeper  at 

the  Foreign  Office,  1 
GsDDBs,  Sir  A.,  British  Ambassador  at 

Washington,  4 ;  at  New  York,  7 
Sir  E.,  at  the  Institute  of  Trans- 
port, [38] 
P.,  "  The  Life  and  Work  of  Sir 

J.  0.  Bose,**  26 
Gbobob  v.,  King,  opens  Parliament, 

EL6],  8;  birthday  honours,  10; 
olds  a  Court,  10;  gift  to  West- 
minster  Abbey,  11 ;  at  the  Isle  of 
Man,  12;  Balmoral,  14;  at  the 
funeral  of  the  unknown  soldier, 
[126] 

Gbobgb,  Bl  Hon.  D.  Lloyd,  negotia- 
tions with  the  miners,  [27],  [108], 
[112] ;  Oonf erence  on  the  Coalition 
Liberals,  rao],  [82];  at  West- 
minster Hall,  [81];  on  the 
Housing  Bonds  scheme,  [48] ;  the 
strike  of  Irish  railwaymen,  [67], 
[68];  terms  of  settlement,  |B9] ; 
at  Llandudno,  [116];  Carnarvon, 
[117];  the  Guildhall,  [128];  Hotel 
Ceoil,  [187];  Constitutional  Club, 
[189] ;  honorary  degree  conferred, 
10 ;  return  to  London,  16 ;  elected 
Lord  Bector  of  Edinburgh  Uni- 
versity, 18 

Mrs.  L.,  created  Dame  Grand 

Cross  of  the  Order  of  the  British 
Empire,  14 

Gboboe,  H.B.H.,  Prince,  midshipman 
to  H.M.S.  Iron  Duke,  21 

Gboboia,  [270] 

GEBMANY.—Abicy,  reduction,  [187]. 
Baubb,  Herr,  Prime  Minister, 
[176] ;  flight,  [177].  BerUn,  strike 
of  the  worlang  classes,  [178]. 
Cabinet,  the  new,  [180],  [186]. 
Debt,  national,  [188].  Ebbbt,  F., 
elected  President,    [176];    flight, 

il77] ;  appeal  for  a  strike,  [178]. 
election.  General,  [176],  [188]. 
Erslxnger,  Herr,  resignation, 
[180].  Fbhbenbach,  C,  forms  a 
Cabinet,  [186];  policy,  [18^;  at 
the  Spa  Conference,  [187].  Gess- 
LEB,  Merr,  at  the  Spa  Conference, 
[187].  Kapp,  Dr.  W.,  complaints 
against  the  Government,  [176] ; 
advance  on  Berlin,  [177];  pro- 
clamation, [177];  faUure,  [178]; 
flight  to  Sweden,  [179].  Mabk, 
value  of  the,  [189].  MuUer,  H., 
forms  a  Ministry,  [180] ;  on  the 
advance  into  Buhr,  [182].  Nosbh, 
Herr,  resignation,  [180] ;  President 


of  Hanover,  [189].  Poutioal 
parties,  p88]-ri86].  Population, 
[I89f],   BuHB  valley,  insurrection, 

[1641,  [180]-[182].       SCHEIDEMAim, 

P.,  Prime  Minister,  [176].  Spa 
Conference,  [186>[188].  Sparta- 
oist  insurrection,  suppression, 
[164],  [179>[182].  States,  number 
of  [176].  Tebbccobt,  cessions  of, 
[178].  Yebsaillbb,  Treaty  of, 
[168],  [172]-[176].  Wab  Criminals, 
trial,  [188] 

Gibson,  Mrs.  M.  D.,  Obit.,  118 

GsraoBD,  Dow.  Lady,  Obit.,  166 

GiLDEA,  Colonel  Sir  J.,  Obit.,  162 

GiLMOtTB,  Sir  J.,  Obit.,  14S 

Gladstone,  Bev.  S.  E.,  Obit.,  184 

Glazebbook,  Pkof.  Sir  B.,  Chairman 
of  the  Aeronautical  Beseaioh 
Committee,  8 

Glenoonnbb,  Baron,  Obit.,  164 

Glovbb,  Sir  J.,  Obit.,  129 

T.  B.,  public  orator  at  Cam- 
bridge, 2 

GoLDNET,  Sir  J.  T.,  Obit.,  180 

Golf  matches,  6, 10, 11 

GoocR,  G.  P.,  **  Germany  and  the 
French  Bevolution,*'  80 

Goodman,  Sir  G.,  Chief  .Justice  of  the 
Strait  Settlements,  20 

GoBOAS,  Surgeon-General  W.  C,  OUt., 
144 

Gow,  A.  C,  Obit.,  121 

GowEBS,  E.  A.,  Permanent  Under- 
Secretsjy  for  Mines,  16 

Gbaham,  E.,  ''The  Harrow  Life  of 
Henry  Montagu  Butler,"  26 

Sir  B.,  Obit.,  169 

Gbavbb,  B.  E.,  Chief  Inspector  of 
factories,  4 

GBEAT  BBITAIN.— Text  of  Draft- 
Trade  Agreement  with  the  Bussian 
Soviet  Government,  80-88 

GBEECE. — ^Allieb,  proclamation, 
[249].  CoDNDouBions,  Admiral, 
elected  Begent,  [247].  Cyprus, 
union  with,  [268].  Depdtibs, 
Chamber  of,  dissolved,  [246]. 
Dodecanese  Islands,  ceded  to, 
[244].  Election,  General,  [2^]. 
Italy,  convention  with,  [2441, 
[246].  Natkonalzbib,  defeated, 
[244].  Balli,  D.,  Prime  Minister, 
[249].  Smtbna,  ceded  to,  [248], 
[246].  Streit,  M.,  proclamation, 
[248].  Venizblob,  M.,  in  England, 
[244] ;  attempt  on  his  life,  [246] ; 
resignation,  ^9] 

Alexander,  King  of,  state  entry 

into  Adrianople,  [244] ;  marriage, 
[246];  death,  [247],  18,  160; 
funeral,  [247] 

Constantine,     King,     proposed 

restoration,  [248];  plebiscite  on, 
[249] ;  reception  in  Athens,  [260] 

Olga,  Qneen,  appointed  Begent, 

[249] 

M 


178 


INDEX. 


[1920. 


GBEEGE.  —  Paul,  Prince,  message 
from  the  GbverDment,  [247];  re- 
fuses the  throne,  [248] 

Gbebne,  Sir  W.  G.,  resignation,  17 

Gbebitlt,  E.,  memoir  on  the  *'  Geology 
of  Anglesey,**  42 

Greenwood,  Sir  H.,  Ohief  Secretazy 
for  Ireland,  [86],  6 

Greooe-Oolmobe,  W.  B.,  value  of  his 
estate,  11 

Gbet,  Lord,  in  England,  2 ;  on  the 
Institute  of  International  AfEairs, 
[76] ;  elected  President,  [76] 

Gbiebson,  Sir  G.  A.,  honoraiy  degree 
conferred,  18 

Griffith,  Sir  S.,  Obit.,  149 

Gbiogs,  Sir  P.,  Obit.,  160 

Grove,  Major-General  Sir  C,  Obit., 
188 

GuTTiPHATiTi,  meeting  at  the,  [48] 

Guthrie,  Lord,  Obit.,  184 

GuTTEBY,  Rev.  Dr.  A.  T.,  Obit.,  169 


Haooard,  H.  B.,  "  The  Ancient  Allan," 

86 
Haio,  Earl,  Freedom  of  Manchester, 

2;      of    Sheffield,    2;    honorary 

degree,  conferred,  9 ;  JB*reedom  of 

Brighton,  20 
HALDAung,   General  Sir  J.  A.  L.,   in 

command  in  Mesopotamia,  2 
tTatt.,  O.,  elected  Associate  of  the  Boyal 

Academy,  7 
Bear-Admiral  Sir  W.  B.,  honorary 

degree  conferred,  9 
Hamilton,  General  Sir  I.,  **Gallipoli 

Diary,**  29 
Hampden,  Lord,  outs  the  first  sod  of 

Welvvyn  Ideal  Village,  10 
Habdinoe,  Lord,  British  Ambassador 

in  Paris,  16,  20 
Harinoton,  Sir  0.,  in  command  of  the 

army  of  the  Black  Sea,  16 
Habrel,  Sir  D.,  G.O.B.  conferred,  1 
Harris,  Sir  0.,  Joint  Secretary  of  the 

War  Office,  11 

Dr.F.B.,  Obit.,  163 

Harrison,  Bt.  Bev.  W.  T.,  Obit.,  167 
HarttDavies,  T.,  Obit.,  116 
Haworth,  a.,  value  of  her  estate,  20 
HBDJAZ.— The,  [2711 
Heinemann,  W.  H.,  Obit.,  22, 168 
Henderson,   A.,   at    Dublin,    [189]; 

Lancashire,  [140] 
Hebdman,  Prol   W.  A.,  President  of 

the  British  Association,  14,  45 
Hbbklesb,  Very  Bev.  Sir  J.,  Obit.,  141 
Hewlett,  M.,  "Main waring,**  87 
HiNGSTON,  B.  W.  G.,  •«  A  Naturalist  in 

Himalaya,**  28 
HoDOBS,  F.,  on  the  mining  industry, 

[4];  at  the  Miners'    Conference, 

[100] 
Holland,  Dr.  H.  F.,  Obit.,  168 
HoFB,  A.,  "  Lucinda,'*  86 
Hops,  importation  prohibited,  21 


HoBNE,  General  Lord,  Aide-de-Gomp 
General,  8 

HoBNE,  Sir  B.,  President  of  the  Board 
of  Trade,  [88],  6 ;  on  the  demands 
of  the  miners,  [78] ;  negotiations 
with  them,  [101-108] 

HoBwooD,  Brigadier-General  W.  T., 
Commissioner  of  the  Metropolitan 
Police,  7 

Houses,  shortage,  [6],  [18],  [128] ;  aver- 
age cost,  14 

HousiNO  Bonds,  scheme,  [48],  sales  of, 
21 

HowELLB,  W.  D.,  Obit.,  187 

Hudson,  Lieut.-General  Sir  H.,  ap- 
pointed to  a  command  in  India,  19 

Hughes,  S.  L.,  Obit.,  126 

Hughes-Stanton,  H.,  elected  Boyal 
Academician,  6 

Hull  riot,  11 

HUNGABY. — Bolsheviks,  executed, 
^27].  Cabinet,  the  new,  [226]. 
Election,  General,  [226].  Hob- 
THT,  Admiral,  elected  Begent, 
[226|.  Husar,  M.,  Prime  Minister, 
[224] ;  resignation,  [226].  Peace, 
Treaty  of,  [226];  signed,  [227]. 
Simonyi-Semadam,  M.,  Prime 
Minister,  [226] ;  resignation,  [227]. 
Tbleki,  Count,  Prime  Minister, 
[227].    Trianon,  Treaty  of,  [227] 

Hungeb-stbikeb,  inquest  on,  16 

Huntingdon,  Pro!  A.  K.,  Obit.,  182 

Htmanb,  M.,  elected  President  of  the 
League  of  Nations,  [166],  19;  at 
the  Spa  Conference,  [187] 

Iceland,  [266] 

Impobtb,  value  of,  66 

Income  tax,  report  of  the  Boyal  Com- 
mission, [80],  60,  86-96 

Independent  Labour  Party,  Confer- 
ence at  Glasgow,  6 

INDIA.— Ambitbab,  riots,  [79],  [278]. 
Bbaithwaite,  Lieut.-General  Sir 
W.  P.,  appointed  to  a  command  in, 
19.  Burma,  Constitutional  Be- 
form  Scheme,  [274].  Butler,  Sir 
H.,  Governor  of  the  United  P)co- 
vinces,  [276].  Chblmefobd,  Lord, 
at  the  Legislative  Council,  [272]. 
Dtbb,  Brigadier-Gteneral,  suppres- 
sion of  the  Amritsar  riots,  [79], 
[278].  Goyebnment  of  India  Act, 
[271],  [274].  Hailet,  W.  M.,  fin- 
ancial report,  [2721.  Hudson, 
Lieut.-General  Sir  EL,  appointed 
to  a  command  in,  19.  Lttton, 
Lord,  appointed  Under-Secretary, 
16.  Maclagan,  Sir  E. ,  Governor  of 
the  Punjab,  [276].  Marris,  Sir  W., 
Governor  of  Assam,  [2761.  Maw- 
bey,  H.  L.,  appointed  Bear-Ad- 
miral, at  Bombay,  16.  Meyer,  Sir 
W.,  appointed  High  Commis- 
sioner, 16.  Mohammedans,  pro- 
test against  Treaty  of  Peaoa  with 


1920.] 


INDEX. 


Turkey,    [275].      National   Con- 
0688,  [275].    Rawzjnbor,  Oeneral 
Lord,     Commaoder-in-Gbief,    14. 
SiNHA,  Lord,  Qovemor  of  Bihar 
and  Ori88a,    [275].    Sly,    Sir  R, 
Qovemor  of  the  Central  Provinces, 
[275].    Snake  bites,  deaths  from, 
[275].     Tbbbitobial    Force   Bill, 
[278].    Wazibstan,  military  opera- 
tions, [278].    Whyte,  A.  P.,  Presi- 
dent of  the  Legislative  Assembly, 
[275] 
Indubtbial  Courts  Act,  Court  of  In- 
quiry, [86],  [105] 
I21FLDIBHZA  epidemic,  report  on,  42 
Inobax,  Bev.  D.  S.,  Obit.,  148 
InBTiTUTJfl    of    International    Affairs, 

British,  [74] 
IRELAND.  —  Babbt,  K.,  executed, 
[132].  Belfast,  Orange  celebra- 
tions, [82];  rioto,  [84],  [89]-[92], 
JllO],  [121],  14.  BelVA.,  murdered,' 
Efsh  Officers,  murdered. 
[184];  funeral,  [135].  Brooke,  F., 
muMered,  IBS].  Burke,  Inspector, 
murdered,  qQS].  Byrne,  Sir  J., 
dismissal,  [9].  Cohalan,  Bishop 
of  Cork,  denunciation,  [142].  Cork, 
outrages,  ri401j  incendiary  fires, 
[142].  DiTBLiN,  siege  of,  [M] ; 
raid,  ffi61.  [88]^  [134] ;  outrages, 
[120] ;  members  of  the  City  Council 
arrested,  [140] ;  University,  Boyal 
Commission,  appointed,  5.  Folbt, 
J.  M.  Q.,  murdered,  [92].  Orbbn- 
wooD,  Sir  H.,  Chief  Secretary, 
[86],  6;  at  a  review  of  the  Con- 
stabulary, [110].  Hon  Bnle  Bill, 
[19].[21],  [34],  [53],  [64]-[66],  [122], 
[130],  [144].    Hunger-strikes,  [45], 

S06],  [118],  [188].  JoHMBTONa, 
ajor,mu]:dered,|%2].  Lbndbum, 
Captain,  murdered,  [119].  London- 
derry, riot,  1551.  [691.  Lucas, 
Brigadier  -  Q^eral,  kidnapped, 
[70] ;  escape,  [85].  MagCitbtin,  T., 
murdered,  [34];  inquest  on,  [45]. 
Markievios,  Mme.,  arrested,  [109]. 
McSwiNBT,  T ,  hunger-strike,  [106]; 
death,  [107],  [118],  [133] ;  funeral, 
[119].     Poucs,    murdered 

[i^jji^Qjiajjd 


)ks  on  the  barrac] 
[pgj  [QQ],  [}{}^\  fl^Q] 
attempt  to  escape,  [185];  treat- 
ment of,  [46].  RAiLWATiGni,  strike, 
[66],  [70]}  ended,  [1481.  Redmond, 
W.  0.  F.,  murdered,  [10].  Re- 
prisals, cases  of,  [88],  [89],  [108], 
[109],  [121],  [132],  [142].  Roberts, 
Assistant  Inspector-General,  shot 
at,  [69].  RiyTg  f«in,  outrages^gi- 
[12],  [38],  [44].[4«],'[WHW].J66], 
[69].  PO],  p2].[86].t»HWa.ri<»> 

Niioi.  r>wmii.ri8i3-a36i.  [i89i 

[rBfFP4>4:  arrests,  p^];  plots, 


N 


179 

discovery  of.  JIMS  [185],  [141]; 
Volunteers,  taken  prisoners,  ^6^ 
Smyth,  Colonel  G.  F.,  murdered, 
JfiSi,^  Strickland,  Major-General 
Sir  E.  P.,  attempt  on  his  life,fl06]. 
Sullivan,  Inspector,  murdered, 
C^nj.  Taylob,  F.  S.,  murdered, 
[^  UuTBB  Unionist  Council, 
meeting,  [84] 

Ibibb  Seu-Determination  League, 
meeting  at  the  Albert  Hall,  [11] ; 
offices  searched,  [186] 

iBvnvB,  Prof.  J.  C,  Principal  of  the 
University  of  St.  Andrews,  20 

ITALY.  —  Adbiahc  Question,  ..{167}, 
[171],  [230]-r238]jfe36].  Albania, 
MMioaa--wttfi,n^].  Cabinbt, 
reconstituted,  [167] ;  resign,  [168] ; 
the  new,  [169].  D'Annunzk),  seises 
Fiume,  DgTU  declares  war,  XlTg]. 
Dodecanese  Islands,  cession  of, 
J244]r  Eabthquakb,  [172].  Elec- 
tion, General,  [166].  Fiumb, 
seised,  [167];  advance  on,  [172]. 
GiOLrm,  Signer,  forms  a  Ministry, 
[169];  foreign  policy,  [170].  Greece, 
convention  with,  [2441,  [246].  In- 
dubtbial workers,  disturbances, 
[170].  Juoo-Slatia,  negotiations 
with,  [171],  [236].  Lnu,  value  of 
the,  |172].  Living,  cost  of,  72. 
Nnn,  Signor,  on  the  Adriatic 
Question,  [167] ;  Ministry,  [168] ; 
resignation,  [1691.  Pabliaxbxt, 
opened,  [167].  Peace,  Treaty  of, 
signed,  [158],  [167].  Rapaixx), 
Treaty  of,  |171],  [286],  20.  Sah 
Rbmo,  Allied  Conferences  at,  [44], 
[165],  [168],  [182],  [186],  [268], 
[270],  7 

Jack,  R.,  elected  Roral  Academician,  8 
JAPAN.  —  ANOLO-Japanese  Alliance, 
P79].    BuDOBT,  [2791    Elbchon, 
General,     [278].       ^izpenditnre, 
total,  [2791.    Rbvobm  Act,  [278]. 
Sktukai  Party,  [278].     Siberia, 
troops    withdrawn    from,    [279]. 
Vbbsaillbb,  Treaty  of,  signed,  [158] 
Jblucob,  Lord,  Governor  of  New  Zea- 
land,  7;    honorary  degree   con- 
fenred,  0;  lails  for  New  Zealand, 
14;  Despatches  from,  97-99,  112- 
114 
Jkbbam,  Vice-Admixal  Sir  T.  H.  M.,  Re- 
port of,  106 
Joan  of  Arc,  canonisation  of,  9 
Johbb,  Rev.  C.  H.  W.,  Obit.,  151 
Johmbioh,  Sir  H.,  "The   Gay-Dom- 

beys,"  87 
JoNBB,  Colonel  A.  S.,  Obit.,  140 

Rt.  Rev.  H.  £.,  Obit.,  125 

Jonbb-Pabbt,    Rear- Admiral    J.    P., 

Obit.,  138 
JUGO-SLAVIA.— AoBiAHO    Qaestion, 
[167],  [171],  [280]-[288].      Cabin- 
district  of,  [335].    Constitu- 

M2 


\ 


180 


INDEX. 


[1920 


ent  Assembly,  the  new,  [5^7]. 
DAynx)viTCH,  M.,  resignation, 
[280].  Election,  General,  [237]. 
iTAiiY,  negotiations  with,  [171], 
[286].  Laoinja,  Dr.,  Ban  of 
Croatia,  [284].  London,  Treaty 
of,  olanses,  [2dO]-[282].  Ministbt, 
the  new,  [28^.  Pashttch,  M., 
Prime  Minister,  [238].  Protitch, 
M.,  Prime  Minister,  [280],  [234]. 
Rapallo,  Treaty  of,  [171],  [286]; 
ratified,  [287],  20.  Reorganisation, 
problem,  [229].  Tbuxbiich,  M., 
Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs,  [285] ; 
resignation,  [287].  Vbsnitch,  M., 
Prime  Minister,  [284],  [23^;  re- 
signation, [288].  Wilson,  Presi- 
dent, on  the  Adriatic  Question, 
[238] 
Jutland,  Offioial  Despatches  on  the 
Battie  of,  97 

Eayb-Smith,  S.,  **  Green  Apple  Har- 
vest," 35 
Ejbllawat,  F.  G.,  Secretary  of  Orer- 

seas  Trade,  [86],  6 
EsNNT,  Lieut.   W.  D.,  awarded  the 

V.O.,  15 
King,  Sir  G.,  Obit.,  144 
King's  Oollege,  London,  Barker,  E., 

appointed  Principal,  12 
KntSHOFB,  J.,  bequest,  21 
Knight,  Bt.  Bev.  H.  J.  0.,  Obit.,  165 
Knighthoods,    conferred,   1,   7,   10; 

Beck,  G,  T.,  1 ;  Budge,  Dr.  W.,  1 ; 

Maokinder,  H.  J.,  1;   Schuster, 

Prof.  A.,  1 
KoLTCHAK,  Admiral,  Obit.,  [198],  122 
KovABOVic,  K.,  Obit.,  167 
KuTFEB,  Dr.  A.,  Obit.,  162 

LABOtTB  "PtkTtjf  Oouncil  of  Action,  [94] 
Lammasch,  ^^f.  H.,  Obit.,  117 
Lapwobth,  Prot  0.,  Obit.,  128 
Lascellbs,  Bt.  Hon.  Sir  F.,  Obit.,  115 
Law,  Bt.  Hon.  B.,  at  the  Guildhall, 
[48] ;  on  the  case  of  McSwiney, 
[106] ;  at  the  Unionist  Club,  [186] 
Lawlet,  a.  E.,  value  of  his  estate, 

14 
Lbachhan,  Lieut.-Oolonel,  Obit.,  150 
Lbadbittbb.  E.,  "Shepherd's  Warn- 
ing," 87 
League  of  Nations,  [59],  [149]-[157]  ; 
members,  [150][152],  [156];  neu- 
tral countries,  [151],  [157] ;   the 
Assembly,    [15^];     meetings     at 
Geneva,  [154]-[157] ;  the  Council, 
[152];  meetings,  [57],  [158],  2,  8, 
19 ;  work  of  the,  [158]  ;  Siscretariat, 
[152] 
Lebaudy,  H.  J.,  value  of  his  estate,  8 
Lee,  E.,  OMt,  146 

Bev.    W.  L.,  Moderator  of  the 

London  Province  of  the  Congre- 
gational Union,  1 


Legal  year  opened,  17 

Leman,  General  G.  M.,  Obit.,  159 

LETTLAND.  —  Electionb, 

League  of  Nations,  admission 
fused,  [156],  [220].    BussiA,  peace 
with,  [220] 

Liberal  Party,  [80] 

Libya, [285] 

Liechtbnstein,  [260] 

Lindsay,  Hon.  B.  C,  Under-Secretary 
at  the  Foreign  Office,  21 

LITHUANIA.— Diet,  election,  [216]. 
Independence,  recognised,  [217], 
11.  League  of  Nations,  admission 
refused,  [156],  [217].  Meiol, 
Port  of,  [217].  Poland,  armistice, 
[212],  [217] ;  relations  with,  [154], 
[215].  Population,  [214].  Vilna, 
seised,  [212],  [216].  Zeugowbki, 
General,  seizes  Vilna,  [212],  [216] 

LrvEBPOOL  Docks,  Sinn  Fein  plan  for 
the  destruction,  [185] ;  incendiary 
fires,  [186] 

Living,  increase  in  the  cost  of,  4,  16, 
21,72 

Llewellyn,  Sir  W.,  elected  Boyal 
Academician,  7 

Lloyd,  General  Sir  F.,  Commissioner 
of  the  Duke  of  York's  BoyalMiU- 
taiy  School,  8 

LLOYD-Graeme,  Major  Sir  P.,  Secretaiy 
to  the  Board  of  Trade,  14 

Locke,  W.  J.,  "The  House  of  Bal- 
tazar,"  35 

LocKYEB,  Sir  J.  N.,  Obii,  151 

LoDEB,  Sir  E.  G.,  Obit.,  182 

LoNDESBOBOUGH,  Earl  of,  Obit.,  154 

London  Bankers*  Olearing  House, 
records,  62 

Elementary    Schools,   scale    of 

salaries  for  teachers,  8 

Hospital  to  close,  19 

Housing  Bonds,  sales,  21 

Lord  Mayor,  election,  17 ;  show, 

19 ;  banquet,  [128] 

Uniyersity,  site  of,  18 

LoNDONDEBEY,  Maiquis  of,  Under- 
Secretary  of  State  for  Air,  [36],  6 ; 
Freedom  of  Belfast  conferred,  6 

Long,  Bt.  Hon.  W.,  at  Trowbridge, 
[10] 

LoBD  Mayor,  election,  17 ;  show,  19 ; 
banquet,  [128] 

LoBDCEB,  Sir  B.,  elected  Associate  of 
the  Boval  Academy,  7 

Loudoun,  Earl  of.  Obit.,  188 

Louth,  flood,  [56],  9 

Lowell,  Dr.  A.  L.,  honorary  degree 
conferred,  12 

LowBY,  Admiral  Sir  B.  S.,  Obit.,  140 

Lucas,  Brigadier-General,  kidnapped, 
PO] ;  escape,  [Sq 

B.  v.,  ••  Verena  in  the  Midst," 

35 

F.  H.,  Obit.,  181 

LuTYENS,  Sir  E.,  elected  Boyal  Aca- 
demician, 5 


1920.] 


INDEX. 


181 


LUXEMBURG.  —  Belgium,  relation! 
with,  [258].  MABiB-Adelaide,  ex- 
Grand-Duohess,  enters  a  Convent, 
[264] 

Ltall,  Sir  G.  J.,  Obit.,  152 

Ltmfnb,  conference  at,  [58],  [98],  [165], 
[204] 

Lynch,  D.,  member  of  Parliament,  re- 
signation, 18 

Lytton,  Lord,  Under-Secretary  for 
India,  16 

Macaulay,  B.,  "Potterism,"  86 

BiAODONALD,  BaToness,  Obit.,  158 

Maokbnzib,  C,  "The  Vanity  Girl,*' 
84 

Mackib,  C.  H.,  Obit.,  147 

Maglban,  Sir  D.,  at  Bradford,  [129] 

Kaid  Sir  H.  A.,  Obit.,  121 

Macnaobtbn,  H.,  Vioe-PiroTost  of  Eton 
Oollege,  9 

BCacnaxaba,  Dr.,  Minister  of  Labour, 
[88],  5 ;  on  the  number  of  unem- 
ployed, [147] 

Magphbbson,  Rt.  Hon.  I.,  Chief 
Secretai^  for  Ireland,  resignation, 
[86] ;  Minister  of  Pensions,  [86],  6 

Malbt,  L.,  "  The  Tall  ViUa,"  87 

MaijOHB,  ez-Colonel,  arrested,  [125] 

Mahghbbtbb.  Stuart  Street  Power 
House,  Sinn  Fein  plan  for  the 
destruction,  [185] 

Mannbbs-Smith,  Lieut.-Golonel,  Obit., 
118 

Manbiz,  Dr.,  AxohlHshop  of  Melbourne, 
prohibited  from  landing  in  Ire- 
land, [88] 

MabiiBObouoh,  Duchess  of,  divorce,  19 

MARRIAGES.  —  Carpentier,  G.,  4; 
Graik,  P.,  18 ;  Ourxon,  Lady  C,  8 ; 
Elsasser,  G.,  4;  Hardon,  Mdlle., 
16;  Law,  Miss  B.,  10;  Lewis, 
Captain  J.  F.,  2 ;  Montagu,  Lord, 
18;  Mosley,  O.,  8;  P^tain,  Mar- 
shal, 16 ;  Sykes,  Sir  F.,  10;  West- 
minster, Duchess  of,  2 

Mamhatj.,  Lieut.  ^Colonel,  W.  T., 
Obit,  154 

Mabub,  Sir  T.  C,  Obit.,  161 

Maby,  H.R.H.  Princess,  at  the  Isle  of 
Man,  12;  Balmoral,  14 

Queen,  holds  a  Court,  10;  at  the 

Isle  of  Man,  12 ;  Balmoral,  14 

Mabtbbtob-Smitb,  Sir  J.,  Joint  Secre- 
tary to  the  Ministry  of  Labour,  7 

Maihbb,  Rt.  Hon.  Sir  W.,  Obit.,  166 

Mathbwb,  Sir  C.  W.,  Obit.,  141 

Mawbey,  ReaivAdmiral  H.  L.,  Rear- 
Admiral  at  Bombay,  16 

May  Day,  celebrations,  8 

Maufloweft  the,  celebrations  in  Ply- 
mouth, 15 

McOallum,  Sir  J.,  Obit,  118 

MoClbllah,  Captain  F.  E.,  Controller 
of  Appointments  in  tiie  Ministry 
of  Labour,  14 

MgClbllabd,  Prof.  J.  A.,  Obit.,  181 


McCuRDY,  C.  A.,  Food  Controller,  [88], 
5 

McIvBB,  Sir  L.,  Obit.,  150 

Mblba,  Dame,  at  Chelmsford,  10 

Mbnsfobth,  H.,  Direotor-Geoieral  of 
Factories  in  the  War  Office,  11 

Mebsbb,  Major-General  Sir  D.,  Obit, 
148 

MESOPOTAMIA.— Coz,  Sir  P.,  High 
Commissioner,  [270].  Haldanb^ 
General  Sir  J.  A.  L.,  in  command 
of  the  troops,  2;  Hilla,  fighting 
at,  [270].    P0PUI.ATXON,  [270] 

Mbtbobological  Office,  Simpson,  Dr. 
G.  0.,  appointed  Director  of  the, 
18 

Mbthodist  Church,  United,  Confer- 
ence, 12 

Mbthubb,  Field-Marshal  Lord,  Con- 
stable of  the  Tower,  4 

MEXICO.— Cabrabza,  General,  flight, 

•    [298],     murdered,     [299],      189. 

HuBBTA,     General,      provisional 

President,    [299],    9.      Obbboor^ 

General,  elected  President,  [299]. 


VI 


RBVOLunoN,        [298].  yilla^ 

General,  surrenders,  [299] 
Mbyob^  Sir  W.,  High  Commissioner 

for  India,  16 
Milk,  price  of,  16, 17 
MiLLAiB,  Sir  J.  E.,  Obit.,  157 
MiLNBB,  Lord,  mission  to  Egypt,  [96], 

88-86 
MniBBS,  demands,  [4],  [78],  [99]-[101] ; 

conferences,    [4],    [27],    [761-[7^» 

P9],  [100] ;  negotiations  with  the 

Government,     [27],      [101]-[104], 

[112];   cost  of   concession,  [88]; 

ballot,  [100],  [111],  [118] 
"  M1BBOB8  of  Downing  Street,'*  27 
MrrcHBLL-THOMFBOH,  Sir  W.,  Secretary 

to  the  Ministry  of  Food,  7 
MoBTAOU,  E.  S.,  elected  Trustee  of  the 

British  Mtiseum,  8 
MONTENEGRO,  ^1] 
MoBTMOBBzfCY,  J.  E.  G.  dc,  appointed 

to  theQuain  Chair  of  CompazaliTe 

Law,  18 
MoBANT,  Sir  R.  L.,  Obit,  127 
MoBiBON,  Rt.  Hon.  T.  B.,  Lord  Ad- 

vocate  for  Scotland,  5 
MoBLBY,  H.,  v^ue  of  his  estate,  4,  8 ; 

bequests,  8 
MOROCCO,  [285] 
M0BBI8ON,  Dr.  G.  E.,  Obit.,  140 
W.,  gift  to  the  Bodleian  Library, 

13 
MoBTON,  L.  P.,  Obit,  188 
MouLB,  Rt  Rev.  H.  C.  G.,  Obit,  186 
MuiBHBAD,  A«,  Obit,  168 
MUBBO,  J.,  Obit,  120 
MuBBAY,  Col.  C.  D.,  Solicitor-General 

for  Scotland,  5 

of  "  Elibank, '  Baron,  Obit,  154 

MUSIC.  ^  Retrospect   of :    Chambbb 

Music,  57.    Cnoral  Concerts,  57. 

Concerts,  57.    Hahdbl   Festival, 


182 


INDEX. 


[1920. 


67.  New  York  Symphony  Or- 
ohestra,  56.  Operas,  64-56. 
Pbomenade  Gonoerte,  66.  Queen's 
Hidl  symphony  concerts,  66. 
BoTAL  Carl  Bosft  Co.,  65.  Boyal 
Philharmonic  Society,  66.  Rus- 
sian Ballet,  66 
MuTTOK,  control  revoked,  7 

Nagbl,  D.  H.,  Obit.,  167 

Nafdbb,  Vice-Admiral  Sir  T.  D.  W., 
Obit,  148 

Nafieb-Mobland,  Lieat.-General  Sir 
T.  L.,  Commander-in-Chief  of  the 
Rhine  Army,  4 

Nathan,  Lieut. -Colonel  Sir  M., 
Governor  of  Queensland,  12 

National  Liberal  Federation,  at  Brad- 
ford [129] 

Portrait  Gallery,  reopened,  6 

Savings  Committee,  appointment 

of  Vice-Chairmen,  8 

NATtONB,  League  of,  2.    8§e  Lea^pie 

Naubu  Island,  Dickinson,  A.  R.,  ap- 
pointed Commissioner,  19 

NETHERLANDS,  THE.  —  Conbcitu- 
TioN,  amendments  in  the,  [267]. 
Lbaqub  of  Nations,  admission, 
[161],  [267].  MoNABCHY,  Report 
of  the  Commission,  [267].  Stbixbs, 
[267].  WiLUAX,  ex-Emperor,  de- 
mand of  the  Allies  for,  [264],  [266] ; 
reply  of  the  Government,  [26ilf|, 
[266] 

Nbthebsolb,  Sir  M.,  Obit.,  120 

NEW  ZEALAND.  —  Budget,  [804]. 
Chatham^  the,  presented  to,  8. 
Jblejgob,  Loid,  Governor-Gen- 
eral, [808],  7.  Land  Defence 
Scheme,  [804].  Licensing  ratem, 
[808].  MacDonald,  W.  D.  S., 
death,  [804].  Wales,  Prince  of, 
tour  in,  [804] 

Newbout,  Sir  H.,  **  A  Naval  History 
of  the  War,  1914-1918,**  28 

NEWFOUNDLAND.  —  Election, 
General,  [298].  Labbadob, 
boundary  of,  [298].  Squibbs, 
a,  Prime  Minister,  [298] 

Nbwnham  College,  Clough,  a.  A.,  ap- 
pointed Principal,  11 

Nbwbfapeb,  postage,  increase,  16 

Nbylan,  D.,  Joint  Secretaiy  of  the 
Ministry  of  Munitions,  17 

NiVEN,  F.,  "A  Tale  that  is  Told," 
37  • 

Nobth,  Colonel  Sir  H.,  Obit.,  166 

Nobthcotb,  Rev.  the  Hon.  J,  S.,  Obit., 
140 

Nobthet,  Major-General  Sir  E.,  Gov- 
ernor of  Kenya,  [284],  17 

NORWAY.^Halvobsbn,  Mr.,  Prime 
Minister,  [268].  Knudsbn,  Mr., 
Prime  Minister,  [268] ;  resignation, 
[268].  League  of  Nations,  ad- 
mission, [268].  Spitzbbboen, 
sovereignty  over,  [268] 


Oakebhott,  R.,  **Tho  Merchant  at 
Arms,*'  87 

Obituaby,  116-170.  fifM  under  sepnmte 
names 

Oliveb,  Yice-AdmixBl  Sir  H.,  Second 
Sea  Lord,  12 

Olsson,  J.,  elected  Royal  Academician, 
8 

Orblow,  Lord,  Civil  Lord  of  the 
Adxniralty,  18 

O'RiOBDAN,  C,  **  Adam  of  DnUin,*'  86 

0*Shea,  Prof.  L.  T.,  Obit,  188 

Oxford  University,  Garrod,  Six  A.  E., 
Regius  Pn>fessor  of  Medidne,  4; 
Greek,  proposal  to  abolish  com- 
pulsory, 4;  Convocation,  9,  20; 
honoraiy  degrees  conferred,  12; 
International  Congress  of  Fhilo- 
sophv  opened,  16;  Women,  ad- 
mission of,  9,  17;  degrees  con- 
ferred, 17 


PALESTINE.— Samuel,   Sir  H.,  fin- 
ancial adviser,  1;  High  Conmiis- 
sioner,  [269] 
Palles,  Rt.  Hon.  C,  Obit.,  124 
Palmeb,  C,  Obit.,  161 
PARUAMENT.-lOpened,  [14],  [16], 
8;   King's  Speech,  [16];    Easter 
recess,  [86],  6 ;  Whitsuntide  reoeM, 
[68] ;  Sbdjoumed,  [96] ;  reassembled, 
[114],  18 ;  prorogued,  [146],  21 

Addbebs,  [17]  

Aobicultdbe,  Ministry  of,  vote,  [28], 

[48] 
AiB  Force,  supplementary  vote,  [138] 
Abmy,  supplementary  vote,  [188] 
Budqet,  [40]-[42],  [60],  60 
CiYiL  Service  vote,  [29] 
Diplomatic  and  Consular  Servioes, 

vote,  [69] 
Food,  Ministiy  of,  vote,  [60],  [187] 
Health,  Ministry  of,  vote,  [80] 
Munitions,  Ministry  of,  vote,  [99], 

Navy,  supplementary  vote,  [187] 
Shipping,  Ministry  of,  vote,  [28] 
Sitting,  suspended,  [184] 
l^ftANSPOBT,  Ministry  of,  vote,*  [28], 

[68] 
PARLIAMENTARY  SPEECHES.— 
Addbess,  Balfour,  A.  J.,  [18] ;  Thome, 

G.,  [17] 
Agbicultube  Bill,  Aoland,  F.  D., 

[69] ;  CauUey,  H.  S.,  [591;  Fiisroy. 

Captain,  [59] ;  Griffith-Bosoawen, 

Sir  A.,  [59] ;  ^armoor.  Lord,  [1441 ; 

Selbome,    Lord,    [144];    Smith, 

W.,  [59],  [128] 

Ministry    of,    vote,    GriiBlh* 


Boscawen,  Sir  A.,  [28],  [4£n 
AiB  Force,  vote,  Churchill,  w.,  [188] 
Abmy    Estimates,    Churchill,    W., 

[80] ;  Scott,  Sir  S..  nW] 
Expenditure,    Churchill,   W., 

[19] 


PABLIAMENTABY       SPBBOHES, 

Axn  Snp^emenUry  vot«,  A*qnlth, 

H.  H.,  [IBS];  Chowhill,  W.,  [138] 
BUTAHfii    Bill,    GhunberUin,    N., 

[61] ;  Shortt,  E.,  [53] 
BuBD,  Kihooli  loK  tta«,  AddiioD,  Dr., 

IdSi ;  Tillstt,  B.,  [33] 
Bbicx,  Mn.  A.,  casa  of,  Cnwford, 

Lord,  [125] 
BtmaiT,     Aaqnith,    H.    H.,     [i2]; 

OtMmbco'tMn,  A..  [40],  60;  ClTnea, 

J.  R.,  [i2] :  Loeker-LuniMati,  O., 

[iS] ;  MMlaui.  Sir  D.,  [49] 
Ooui   Uines    ^11,   Adamwn,    W., 

nS]:   Bridgmnfto,    W.    C,    [IS]; 

HaxtaborD,  V.,  [IS] 
liM  in  th«  price,  HolmM,  J.  B. , 

iSS]]  Horna,  ar  B.,  [S3] 
OoHBTAiniNOFLE,  rMotitloa,  0«oHe, 

D.L.,[39] 
OoKFOHUioM  Tftz,  Kidd,  J.,  [74] 


Gbiiomal  InJDriM  BlU,  Hawut,  Sir 

a.,  [138] ;  lUoTMgh,  J.,  [128] 
DnB,_  Ocnoml,  cMe  of,  Ampthill, 


Orew«,  Lord,  [801;  BlnUy.  .  .  . 
fBO] ;  Hurit,  Lotd,  [BO] ;  Haiitei- 
WMtoQ,  Oananl  Six  A.,  [ec]; 
HidletoD,  Lord,  [BO];  Hilnu, 
Lord,  [80];  UonUe°>  ^.  S.,  [T»]; 
Biabt,  Lord,  [SO] 

DT»«n:)Fn  BUI,  Bmum,  Major, 
[14S] :  Horn*,  Sir  R.,  [146] 

BoTPT,  OnnoD,  Lord,  [134] ;  Ulnar, 
Lord,  [1341 

ZnsaMBCT 'Pomts  Bill,  Adamun, 
W.,  [133] ;  Aaqaith,  H.  H.,  [1321 ; 
OIthm,  J.  B.,  [123] ;  Omtidj,  T. 
W.,  [139];  Law,  B.,  [122];  Hao- 
loan.  Sir  D.,  [133] ;  Shoitt,  E., 
[123] 

ExcBS  FrofiU  Dn^,  Ohambulali), 
A.,  [SO],  [79] ;  Tarrell.  Q.,  [Tg 

ExpsHDiTiTHB,  Birkenhead,  Lord, 
[72] ;  Backmuter,  Lord,  ^2] ; 
Caison.  Bir  B.,  [18];  Ceoil,  Ijord 
H„  [138]:  CbamWlain,  A.,  [18], 
[188] ;  Clynee,  J.  R„  [188] ;  Oolllni, 
8irQ.,[13Er|:  Qeorge,  D.  L.,  [189] ; 
lAmbart.  G.,  [188];  Haolean,  8u 
D.,  [IT],  [18];  Hidleton,  Lord, 
my,  Steel-Maltland,  Sir  A.,  [IS]; 
Tbomu,  J.  H.,  [16] 

FiBAiicH  Bill,  Adair,  Rear-Admiral, 


Hightun,  O.  F.,  [79] ;  Hope,  3ii 

g4]i  LawBOD,  J.  J.,  [73];  Terrell, 
.,  [61] ;  Yonnger,  Bit  G.,  [73] 
Food,  Minlitrr  ol.   Bill,   UoGard;, 

c.  A.,  [813,  [i*n 

Snpi-      "■ 

HcCard 


PARLIAHBNTART       SPBBCHBS, 

FuvcBiBi  Kll,  Addlaon,  Dr.,  [23] ; 

Gmndy,  T.  W.,  [2^ 
Qbbmah  Qoal  dellTerMi,  Oeoige,  D. 

L.,  [98] ;  Worthington-BTani,  Sir 

L.,  pa] 

GovianiiBBT  D^MimenU,  rMno- 
tion  in  alaib,  BaokmattM,  Lord, 
[136] :  Oravford,  Lord,  [136] ; 
Qainlord,  Lord,  [136] ;  Stamnore, 
Lord,  [136] 

Hmaltk,  Hlniitry  ol.  Bill,  Addiun, 
Dr.,  [80],  [96],  [138] ;  Banbnry,  Sir 
F.,  [139] :  Bamnel,  A.,  [128] ;  Saod- 
hurat.  Lord,  [139];  Stiachay, 
Lora,  [189] !  WinCartoQ,  Lord,  [138] 

HouB  Bole  BiU,  Ireland,  Aaquith, 
H.  H.,  ras],  [S3];  Ballonr,  Lord, 
[144] ;  Benn,  OapWn  W.,  [6S] , 
Birkenhead,  Lord,  [180] ;  Batoher; 
Sir  J.,  [130] ;  Oaiwm,  SU  B.,  [Sff], 
___.    .*..    -.-^j,  |^.j^  j^^  ^^ 

.  R.,  [9S]i  Craig. 
10] ;  Crewe,  Lord, 
x>rd,[131];DevUD, 
.  DuDtaTen,  Lord, 
3.  A.  L,  [OS],  [132], 
D.  L.,  [85],  [651, 
M,  UenC-dolonu, 
_Hoar^BirS.,rB4], 
'jondon- 
.  riSlJ:  tong,  W.. 
[63],  [H],  [6S];  Ifaopbenon.  I., 
"J];  Midle(on,L    ' " 


B6],[631;  I 

'"■11;   Lob 

laopber 

[iOrd,[18l]; 

A.,"  [66] ;    O'Neill,    Major, 


a.  Lord,  [181];  NmI, 
Neill,    Major,    [66]; 

Oranmore,    Lord,     [181],    [144] ; 

Plnnkett,  Bir  H.,  [34]  ;  Sallabnij, 

Lord,   [181];    Stewart,    0.,   [65); 

Worthington-BTaD^  Bir  L.,  [S«1, 

[180] 
Homaa,  Shortage  of,  Addiaon,  Dr., 

[18];  L1o;d-Graame,  Major,  [IS] 
Impxbui.  Defence,  Orewa,  Lord,  [49] ; 

Canon,     Lord,     [49] ;    Haldane, 

Lord,  [491 
iBBLuni,  o: 

[M];    A...    ,  .... 

Birkenhead,  Lord,  [6S];  Oaraon, 
Sir  B.,  [66];  Cwiil,  Ix^  K,  [461; 
OursoD,  Lord,   [183];  George,  D. 


io.   A.,  [13!];  Henry,   D.,  [S6]; 


[se] ;      Hidleton,     Lord,     [SS] ; 
O'Connor,  T,  P.,  [132]  ;  Saliabnry, 
Lord,  [132] :  Thomaa,  J.  U- ,  [131] ; 
Ward,  Colonel  J.,  [ISq 
IaBi.uni,  poller.  Birkenhead,  Loid, 


[86] ;  Canon,  Sir  B„  [84] ;  Derlin. 
J.,  [94];  George,  D.  L.,  [17]; 
Greenwood,   Sir  H.,   [84] ;   Gi^, 


184 


INDEX. 


[1920. 


PARLIAMENTARY       SPEECHES. 
oonL 

Salisbury,  Lord,  [86]  ;  Thomas,  J. 
H.,  [84] 

Ibblano,  Restoration  of  Order  in, 
Asqaith,  H.  H.,  [86] ;  DevUn,  J., 
[87]  ;  George,  D.  L.,  [86] ;  Green- 
wood, Sir  H.,  re6]  ;  Law,  B.,  [86]  ; 
Maclean,  Sir  D.,  t87] 

Land  Acquisition  Bill,  He  wart.  Sir 
G.,  [24] ;  Holmes,  J.  S.,  24 ;  Mal- 
mesbury,  Lord,  [126]  ;  Peel,  Lord, 
[126] ;  PUditoh,  Sir  P.,  [24] ;  Salis- 
bury, Lord,  [126] 

Land  Values  6uties,  Hogge,  J.  M., 
[78]  ;  Thomson,  T.,  [78] 

Lbaoub  of  Nations,  Balfour,  A.  J., 
[145] ;  Olynes,  J.  R.,  [US] ;  Gnrzon, 
Lord,  pr6]  ;  Parmoor,  Lord,  [76] ; 
Sydenham,  Lord,  [76] 

Lymfnb,  Conference  at.  Law,  B., 
[53] ;  Maclean,  Sir  D.,  [58] 

MATBDfONiAii  Causes  Bill,  Askwith, 
Lord,  [50];  Birkenhead,  Lord, 
[25];  Biaye,  Lord,  [25];  Buck- 
master.  Lord,  [25];  Canterbury, 
Archbishop  of,  [25],  [40],  [50]; 
Cave,  Viscount,  [40];  Coleridge, 
Lord,  [25] ;  Finlay,  Lord,  [60] ; 
Halifax,  Lord,  [60];  McNeill,  R., 
[40] ;  Munro,  R.,  [40] ;  Northum- 
berland, Duke  of,  [40] ;  Phillimore, 
Lord,  [2q;  Rendall,  A.,  [89]; 
Russell,  Earl,  [40] ;  Sydenham, 
Lord,  [50];  York,  Archbishop  of, 
[25],  [60] 

Mbsofotamu,  Asquith,  H.  H.,  [58] ; 
Curaon,  Lord,  [58] ;  George,  D.  L., 
[58] ;  Goflchen,  Lord,  [59];  Ormsby- 
Gore,  W.  G.  A.,  [58] ;  Sydenham, 
Lord,  [59] 

MiNBBs'  strike,  Adamson,  W.,  [115] ; 
Brace,  W.,  [115] ;  George,  D.  L., 
[115]  ;  Home,  Sir  R.,  [114] 

MiNiNO  Industry  Bill,  Cory  Sir  C, 
[64]  ;  Hartshorn,  V.,  [64]  ;  Home, 
Sir  R.,  [64]  ;  Walsh,  S.,  [64] 

MmnnoNB,  Ministry  of,  vote,  Hope, 
J.  F.,  [89],  [98] ;  Maclean,  Sir  D., 
[89] 

National  Health  Insurance  Bill, 
Addison,  Dr.,  [24] 

Nauru  Island  Agreement  Bill,  Law, 
B.,  [58] ;  Wilson,  Colonel,  [58] 

Nayt  Estimates,  Long,  W.,  [29]; 
Seely,  Major-General,  [29] 

supplementary  vote,  Craig,  Sir 

J.,  [187] 

OvBBSBAB  Trade  Bill,  Bridgeman,  W. 
0.,  [63] 

Pablzaxbnt  adjournment,  Clynes,  J. 
B.,  [95]  ;  Curzon,  Lord,  [95] ;  Law, 
B..  [95] 

PXaob,  Treaties  of,  Asquith,  H.  H., 
[38] ;  Cecil,  Lord  R.,  [88] ;  Harms- 
worth,  C,  [88] ;  Law,  B.,  [89] ; 
Malone,  Colonel,  [88] 


PARLIAMENTARY       SPEECHES, 

cent 
PmsiONS,  increase  of,  Remnant,  Sir 

J.,  [21]  ;  Shortt,  E.,  [21] 
Pbsbia,  Curzon,  Lord,  ri24] 
Poland,  situation  in,  Clynes,  J.  R., 

[94] ;  Curzon,  Lord,  [95] ;  Gkorge, 

D.  L.,  [98] ;  Law,  B.,  \9S\ ;  Palmer, 

C,  [93] 

Pbicbs,  high,  Asquith,  H.  H.,  [29]  ; 
McCurdy,  C.  A.,  [29] 

Proffeebbing  Bill,  Home,  Sir  R., 
[43],  [52] ;  Nield,  Sir  H..  [52] 

"Railway,  faxes,  increase  of,  Geddes, 
Sir  E.,  [81],  [82] ;  Higham,  C.  F., 
[82];  Law,  B.,  [82];  Thomas, 
J.  H..  [82] 

Rent  Restriction  Bill,  Addison,  Dr., 
[61],  [62];  Astor,  Lord,  [62]; 
Balfour,  Lord,  [62];  Henderson, 
Major,  [61] ;  Hood,  J.,  [61] ;  Mori- 
son,  T.  B.,  [61] ;  Salisbury,  Lord, 
[62]  ;  Turton,  E.  R.,  [62] 

Roads  Bill,  Geddes,  Sir  E.,  [189] ; 
PhilUps,  Sir  L,  [139] 

RoBSiA,  problem  of,  George,  D.  L., 
[57] 

San  Rbmo  Allied  Conference,  George 

D.  L.,  [44] 

ScomBH  Home  Rule  Bill,  Kidd,  J., 
[40] ;  Johnstone,  J.,  [40] 

Shifpino,  ministry  of,  vote,  Wilson, 
Colonel,  [29] 

Shops  (Early  Closing)  Bill,  Baird, 
Major,  [61];  Banbury,  Sir  F., 
[61];  Hamilton,  Major,  [61]; 
Inskip,  T.  W.  H.,  [61] 

Slough  Depot,  sale  of,  Hope,  J.  F., 
[39] 

Spa  Allied  Conference,  Asquith, 
H.  H.,  [76];  George,  D.  L., 
[76] 

Stbia,  hostilities  in,  Law,  B.,  [76] ; 
Ormsby-Gore,  W.  G.  A.,  [7q 

Tbadb  Union  ballots,  Macnamaia, 
Dr.,  [44] ;  Samuel,  A.,  [44] 

Tbanspobt,  Ministry  of,  vote,  Mao- 
lean,  Sir  D.,  [28] 

TUBKBY,  Treaty  with,  Curton,  Lord, 
[93] 

Unsmplotubnt  Bill,  Munro,  R,, 
[127] 

Insurance  Bill,  Home,  Sir  R., 

[21] ;  Locker-Lampson,  G.,  [21] 

measures,  Adamson,  W.,  [116]; 

Addison,  Dr.,  [116] ;  Clynes,  J.  R., 
[146];  Coote,  Captain  [Uq; 
Geor^fe  D.  L.,  [115],  [146]; 
Hamilton,  Major,  [116];  Mac- 
namara.  Dr.,  [116],  [146] 

Wab  Emergency  Laws,  Beim,  Cap* 
tain  W.,  [24]  ;  Hewari,  Sir  0., 
[18]:  Home,  Sir  R.,  [18];  Mao- 
pherson,  L,  [24] ;  O'Connor,  T.  P., 


[18] 
P( 


[49] 


ensions  Bill,  Maophanon,  L, 


1920.] 


INDEX. 


185 


PABUAMENTABY  SPEECHES, 
eoni. 
Wab  Wealth,  taxation  on,  Ghambei- 
lain,  A.,  [60] ;  Olynee,  J.  B.,  [GO] ; 
Maclean,  Sir  D.,  [60] ;  Walsh,  S., 
[60] 

Pabsonb,  a.,  Obit,  119 

Pbacb  Treaty,  ratified,  1;  with 
Turkey,  18 

PaAOHBT,  m.  A.,  Obit.,  169 

PiABT,  Admiral  B.  E.,  Obit.,  124 

PsiBAOBS  conferred,  Bozton,  Lord, 
18;  Midlekon,  Lord,  1;  Munro- 
Fergoson,  Sir  B.,  19 

Pubbt,  Prof.  J.,  Obit.,  149 

Sir  P.,   porchasee   the   Sloagh 

Motor  Depot,  [79] 

Sir  W.,  principal  Assistant  Sec- 
retary of  the  War  Office,  11 

PEBSIA,  [271] 

Pbtbol,  reduction  in  the  price  of,  17 

PBiLLDfOBB,  Vice- Admiral  Sir  B.,  in 
command  of  the  Beserve  Fleet, 
12,16 

Pta  iron,  output,  66 

"PkLOBiM,  The,"  review,  22 

PtowDSN,  Sir  H.  M.,  Obit,  118 

Pldhkkt,  Baron,  Obit.,  121 

POLAND.— AiiUED  Mission  at  War- 
saw,  [202]  ;  Posen,  [207].  Danzio, 
the  Triton  at  [202] ;  warships  at, 
raiO).  Dvinsk,  captured,  [197], 
QoTBBincBNT,  appeal  from,  [204]- 
[206].  Grabeki,M.,Pramier,[199]; 
at  Spa,  [200].  Jswb,  treatment  of, 
[214].  KnsFF,  captured,  [198]. 
LiTHUAinA,  armistice,  [212],  [217] ; 
relations  with,  [164],  [215].  Minsk, 
Peace  Conference  at  [94],  [209]. 
Pbagb,  negotiations  for,  [210], 
[212];  terms  [2181.  PilsudsU, 
Genenl,  President  of  the  Bepublic, 
[197].  Population.  [218].  Plrsa- 
snysz,  occupied,  [206].  BiOA, 
Peace  Conference  at,  [212] ;  Treaty 
signed,  [21ff|.  Buasia,  war  with, 
[194],  [197].[204].  [206].[209],  [311]- 
[218];  negotiations  with  [198], 
[200],  [208],  [212] ;  demands,  [2061 ; 
terms  of  peace,  [206],  [209];  ad- 
vance on  Warsaw,  [2(^7];  defeated, 
[206].  Skulski,  M.,  Premier, 
[197];  resignation,  [199].  Soviet 
••Qovemment,"  established,  [208]. 
Spa,  Conference  at,  [200].  TsscnsBN 
question,  [222]  [224].  Ukbainia, 
agreement  with,  [199],  [2iq.  Ybb- 
BAiiiiiBS,  Treaty  of,  result,  [196], 
[198].  Vilna,  evacuated,  [201], 
piq ;  occupied,  [209],  [212].  Wab 
Cabinet,  members,  [2&].  Warsaw, 
advance  on,  [207],  [215],  [224]. 
Witosh,  M.,  member  of  ihe  War 
Cabinet,  [202].  Zbligowbki,  Gen- 
eral, enters  Vilna,  [212],  [216] 

PoiiLABD,  A.  F.,  **The  Evolution  of 
Ptoliament,*'  81 


PdLWABiiH,  Baron,  Obit,  147 

PooLB,  H.,  elected  Associate  of  the 
Boval  Academy,  7 

POBTuOAL.— Cabinbib,  new,  [261]. 
Obabja,  a.,  PHme  Minister,  [^1] ; 
resignation,  [261].  MmmiBT, 
changes,  [261],  [262].  Silva,  A. 
M.,  PHme  Minister,  [261] 

FiosxAOB  rates,  raised,  9 

PBabd,  Sir  H.  M.,  Obit,  164 

Pbibbzlbt,  N.  G.  de  B.,  Obit,  168 

Pbiob,  Colonel  E.  G.,  OUt,  168 

^mr  Councillors,  1, 10 ;  Birohenough, 
Sir  H.,  1;  Dawson,  Sir  T.,  1; 
Holdemess,  Sir  T.,  1;  Bobinson, 
Lieut-Colonel,  1 ;  Sanders,  Lient- 
Colonel,  1 

Pbubsia,  Prhice  Joachim  of,  OUt,  12, 
148 

Pbtqb,  M.  B.,  Obit,  184 

PuBuo  Documents,  68-114 

Ptoseoutions,  Bodkin,  Sir  A.,  ap- 
pointed Director  of,  18 

Pdictnby,  Lieut-General  Sir  W.,  ap- 
pointed «*  Black  Bod,'*  2 

QuBBBBBBBBT,  Marquis  of.  Obit,  149 

Bagbs,  Air,  17;  Derby,  10;  Long- 
champs,  11 ;  motor-cycle,  15 ;  New 
market  17 ;  St  Leger,  15 

Bailway  fares,  increase  of  [81],  18, 15 
16 

rates,  increase  of,  2,  15 

Wages  Board,  Central,  meeting, 

wages  Board,  National,  meetings, 

[2],  [48],  [68] ;  award,  [56] 
Bailwatmbn,  demands,  [88],  [46],  [56] ; 

meeting,  [100];  threat  to  strike, 

[112] 
Bailwayb,  British,  deficit  H 
Balbioh,  Sir  T.,  Obit,  128 
Baibs,   Advisory  Committee,   report, 

[81] 
Bawuhb,  F.  H.,  out,  181 
Bawunson,  General  Lord,  Commaadar- 

in-Chief,  in  India,  14 
Bawrblbt,  Bev.  Canon  H.  D.,  OUt, 

140 
Bbid,  Sir  M.,  Member  of  the  Council 

of  Lidia,  resignation,  8 
Bbfxnoton,  Lieut-Colonel  C.  k  Court, 

"The   First    World    War,    1914- 

1918,"  27 
Bbtholdb,  Dr.  J.  E.,  Obit,  124 
Bhbad,  G.  W.,  Obit,  184 
Bhihblabd  Commission,  Stuart,   Sir 

H.,  High  Commissioner,  2 
BHODESIA.  —  Elbction,       General, 

[282].    Bbbpohsiblb  Government 

Association,  formed,  [288] 
BiCABDO,  F.,  value  of  his  estate,  18 
BiviBBB,  B.,  Obit,  188 
BoBBBTB,  A.  B.,  Obit,  165 
Countess,  Obit.,  169 


186 


INDEX. 


[1920. 


BOBBBTS,  G.  H.,  Food  Controller,  re- 
Bignation,  [14],  8 

J.  v.,  Obit.,  128 

BoBERTBON,  C.  G.,  Principal  of  Bir- 
mingham University,  2 

General  Sir  W.B.,  Field-Marshal, 

5,8 

BoBiNB,  E.,  <*  The  MiUs  of  the  Gods," 
86 

BoBiNBON,  Sir  W.,  Secretary  of  the 
Ministry  of  Health,  7 

BocKBTELLBB  Foundation,  gifts  to 
Hospital,  10 

BoDD,  Sir  B.,  G.G.B.  conferred,  1 

Boll,  J.,  elected  Lord  Mayor  of  Lon- 
don, 17 

BoLLBSTON,  T.  W.,  Obit.,  167 

BowLAiiDB,  J. ,  Obit. ,  127 

BoYAL  Academy,  election  of  Academi- 
cians, 5,  7,  8,  19 ;  of  Associates,  7 ; 
changes  in  the  laws,  47;  exhibi- 
tion, 48 

Society,    Sherrington,    Prof.    0. 

S.,  elected  President,  46 

BUMANIA.  —  AvBBBSCU,  General, 
Ptime  Minister,  [228],  [229]. 
BmsABABiA,  union  with,  [228]. 
Cabinet,  resign,  [228].  Dbbino, 
Sir  H.  G.,  appointed  British  Min- 
ister, 14.  Election,  General, 
[228].  Pabuambnt,  opened,  [229]. 
People's  Party,  [228].  Senate, 
bomb  explosion,  [229].  Vaida- 
VOEYOD,  Dr.  A.,  at  Pftris,  [228] 

BuBSBLL,  Baron,  Obit.,  126 

Sir  T.  W.,  Obit.,  186     . 

W.  W.,  elected  Associate  of  the 

Boyal  Academy*  7 

BUSSIA.— Alijbb,  policy,  [67],  [198]. 
Army,  defeated,  [208],  [210],  [21(n. 
Balahoyitch,  General,  defeated, 
[194].  Bolshevik  State,  military 
operations,  [191]-[194];  Wpe  of 
warfare,  [196].  Budenny,  General, 
defeated,  [211].  Dbnikin,  Gen- 
eral, defeated,  [191],  [192] ;  retires 
to  England,  [194].  Estland,  ar- 
mistice with,  [219].  Finland, 
Peace  Treaty  with,  [219].  Gbbat 
Bbitain,  negotiations  with,  [67], 
[196],  [200].  Ibkutbk,  insurrec- 
tion, [192].  Kambnbff,  M.,  in 
London,  [204],  16.  Koltchak, 
Admiral,  defeated,  [191];  shot, 
[198],  122.  Krasnoyarsk,  battle 
of,  [191].  Krassim,  M.,  in  Lon- 
don, [196].  Lbttland,  peace  with, 
[220].  Poland,  war  with,  [194], 
[197].[204],  [206]-r209],  [211].[218] ; 
negotiations  with,  [198],  [200], 
[208],  [212];  demands,  [208]; 
terms  of  peace,  [206],  [209]. 
Przasnysz,  occupied,  [206].  Bioa, 
Peace  Conference  at,  [212] ;  Treaty 
signed,  [218].  Sovibt  Govern- 
ment. [196] ;  Text  of  Draft  Trade 
Agreement  with  Great  Britain, 
80-88.    Trotbkt,  M.,  on  Poland, 


[202].  ViLNA,  capture  of,  [201]. 
Wabsaw,  advance  on,  [207],  [216], 
[224].  Wrangel,  General,  defeated , 
[194] 

Byan,  Sir  0.  L.,  Obit.,  163 

Btneveld,  Lieut.-Colonel  Van,  ap- 
pointed E.B.E.,  9 

S.H.S.  STATE.— Population,  [236] 

St.  Davids^  Lord,  Chairman  of  the 
Unemployment  Grants  Com- 
mittee, [147] 

St.  John  of  Bletso,  Baron,  Obit.,  169 

Salibbuby  Cathedral,  anniversary,  11 

Sampson,  C.  H.,  Principal  of  Brasenose 
College,  13 

Samubl,  H.,  financial  adviser  in  Pale- 
stine, 1 

Sanday,  Bev.  W.,  Obit.,  164 

Sandys,  Sir  J.,  honorary  degree  con- 
ferred, 9 

ScHiFF,  J.  H.,  Obit.,  166 

ScHNBiDEB,  Mme.  H.,  Obit.,  136 

ScHOLiNO,  Sir  W.,  '^ce-Chairman  of 
the  National  Savings  Committee, 
8 

SCHBBINBB,  O.,  Obit.,  167 

SCIENCE. —  Betrospect  of:  Anthro- 
pology, 43.  Astronomy,  88.  Bi- 
ology, 41.  Crescograph,  invention, 
42.  Decimal  Coinage,  report,  40. 
Medicine,  42.  Oceanography,  14, 
46.  Physics,  89.  Physiology,  42. 
Wireless  Telephony,  41 

SCOTLAND.— Bothwbll,  Sinn  Fein 
raid,  [121].  Edinbuboh  Univer- 
sity, George,  D.  L.,  elected  Lord 
Bector,  18.  Glasgow,  arrest  of 
Sinn  Feiners,  [140].  Lrvine,  Pro! 
J.  C,  Principal  of  St.  Andrews 
University,  20.  Local  Veto  poll- 
ing, 19,  20.  Mobibon,  T.  B.,  Lord 
Advocate,  6.  Murray,  Colonel  0. 
D. ,  Solicitor-General,  6.  National 
Gallery  of,  bequest,  21.  Pbo- 
HiBmoNiBT  Party,  defeat  of,  20 

Sbdowick,  a.  D.,  "  Autumn  Crocuses," 
86 

Sbniob,  W.,  Obit.,  168 

SEBBS,  Croats  and  Slovenes,  King- 
dom of,  [229].  Cseoho-Slavakia, 
alliance  with,  [224] 

Shaokleton,  Sir  D.,  joint  Seczetaiy  to 
the  Ministry  of  Labour,  7 

Shannon,  C,  elected  Boyal  Aca- 
demician, 19 

Shbbbobnb,  Baron,  Obit.,  116 

SHEBsmaTON,  Prof.  C.  S.,  elected 
President  of  the  Boyal  Society,  46 

SHIPPING  DISA8TEBS.  —  4/H^, 
2 ;  Trwvedl,  1 

Industry,  66 

Shifyabd,  National,  at  Chepstow, 
purchase  of,  3 

Shutbb,  J.,  Obit.,  144 

SiDQWiCK,  A.,  Obit.,  167 

SiLVBB,  price  of,  8 

"  Sn[.VBB  Queen,**  flight,  [28]