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I
General Library
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State of New York— Department of Agriculture.
Seventh Annual Report
New York Weather Bureau
The Report of the Commissi oner of Agriculture, for 1886, constats of
three volumes, as follows:
Volume I. Third Annual Report of the regular work of the Department
of Agriculture, as required by section 5 of chapter 338 of the Laws of 1893.
Volume II. Seventh Annual Report of the State Weather Bureau, and
Eighth Annual Report of the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment
Station, made to the Commissioner of Agriculture In compliance with the
provisions of section 87 of chapter 338 of the Laws of 1893.
Volume III. Fourteenth Annual Report of the New York Agricultural
Experiment Station, made to the Commissioner of Agriculture In accor
auce with the provisions of section 85 of chapter 838 of the Laws of 189
I
I
TmmaiTTED to the legislature apbil ao, is«
WYBEOOP HALLENBECK CEAWFOED CO,
state pRTtrrmtB,
ALBANY AND NEW TOEK.
1886.
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State of New York— Department of Agriculture.
Seventh Annual Report
New York Weather Bureau \
1895.
Under the Department of Agriculture and in
Co-operation with the U. S. Weather Bureau.
Created and Organized undee the Laws of the State op New
Yobk— (Chafteb 148, Laws of 1889).
Reorganized and Placed under the Department of Ageiobl-
tdeb— (Chafteb 338, Laws of 1893).
&ntkal office at cc-bnell university, ithaca, n. y.
IKAN8MITTBD TO THE LEGISLATUEE APRIL 20, 1896.
WYNKOOP HALLENBEUK CRAWTOBD CO.,
STATE PRINTERS,
ALBANY AND NEW YOEK.
1896,
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State of New York.
IN ASSEMBLY,
REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR
STATE WEATHER BUREAU.
STATE OF NEW YORK:
Department of Agrioultuse, 1
Commissioner's Office, Albany, April 20, 1896. )
Hon. Hamilton Fish, /Speaker of the Assembly :
Sib. — I herewith transmit to the Legislature the Seventh Annual
Report of the Director of the State Weather Bureau, created by
and organized nnder chapter 148 of the Laws of 1889, and reorgan-
ized and placed nnder the Department of Agriculture (chapter 388,
Laws of 1893).
FRED. O. SCHRAUB,
Gommimoner of Aarioultwe.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Report of the Director 1
Financial Statement 14
Inventory of Property 18
Meteorological Tables and Snmmaries for each month and the
year 86
Description of Stations 817
Statistical Table of Stations 863
Sample drop Report 868
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Section i .
REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR
New York Weather Bureau.
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REPORT.
To the Honorable the Commissioner of Agriculture of the State of
New York:
Sib. — I have the honor of transmitting to yon the following
report on the, condition and work of the New York Weather
Bureau during the paBt year, together with a financial statement
for the fiscal year 1894-1895, an inventory of property, a summary
of the results of meteorological observations, and a description of
the weather stations within the State.
All pontine work has been carried on without Interruption and
in a satisfactory manner. The equipment and observations at
about one hundred meteorological stations have been maintained
and supervised, and instruments have been furnished to eighteen
new observers. The system of Btations displaying the weather
predictions has been improved and extended, so that at present
more than six hundred places in the State promptly receive and
display, or exhibit bulletins of the telegraphic forecasts. The re-
sults of meteorological observations at all stations have been re-
duced and published monthly; and weather crop bulletins, embody-
ing the information furnished by eighty-six observers well dis-
tributed over the State, were promptly published each week, dur-
ing the crop season.
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2 Seventh Annual Bepoet op the
Progress has also been made in the analysis and study of data
furnished by observers, for the purpose of defining the climatic
conditions of the various regions of the State; and a very useful
contribution in this direction is embodied in the five-year averages
of the various meteorological elements at numerous stations, and
in their discussion and presentation by means of charts, as shown
in this report. la this connection, I desire to call attention to the
very large amount of work on the part of the voluntary observers
of this bureau which is represented by these averages, and which
has been furnished by them without any remuneration from the
State. Several of the observers have made three observations
daily, without an intermission, since this bureau was established
in 1889, and even before that time; and from these records some
of the characteristic climatic features of the regions which are
thus represented may already be determined with a fair degree of
accuracy. The value of this kind of information is not yet so
fully understood in this country as in England, for example, where
the result obtained by the meteorological service are constantly
used by physicians, farmers, engineers, boards of health and others
whose callings and interests are affected by meteorological con-
ditions. But that there is growing appreciation of the benefits
to be derived from climatic studies here is shown by the frequent
requests received at this office, from all sources, for copies of the
monograph on the climate of this State which was published in
oar fifth annual report; such requests usually stating that the
information needed could be obtained from no other source. The
data available at the time that report was prepared were too
meagre to admit of exact results for the State as a whole; but
when supplemented by a few years of further observation will fur-
nish a basis for deductions of the utmost utility in many questions
i: liizeooyGoOQle
Nkw York Wbathhb Bureau. 3
relating to agriculture, sanitation, water supply, etc The re-
lation of soil temperature to plant growth, for example, is every
.year receiving a greater degree of attention from practical agri-
culturists; and the rainfall records obtained hy this bureau have
already been freely need by the agricultural stations of the State.
A very important step which recognizes the close relation
existing between weather conditions and the public health, has
been taken this year by the National Weather Bureau in the issue
«f the periodical entitled: " Climate and Health; " in which all
available data relating to medical climatology throughout the
United States are presented. The Boards of Health of New York
and other States are making use of the statistics of the tocal
weather services in their reports, as well giving them aid and
financial support in many States which make no direct approp-
riations for the purpose.
A brief account of the proceedings of the National Convention
of State Weather Services, prepared by the Weather Bureau As-
sistant, Mr. E. M. Hardinge, is embodied in this report. Local
Weather Service organizations are now to be found in every State
and Territory of the "Union excepting Alaska; more than half of
their number being maintained wholly, or in part, by State ap-
propriations or through the aid of State boards of agriculture,
health and trade. The National Government furnishes the frank-
ing privilege of the mails, blank forms for reportB, and also trans-
mits the weather forecast free of charge.
The following account describes the more important operations
of the bureau during the year with sufficient detail.
Meteorological Stations. — The number of stations in the State
now equipped for observing both temprature and rainfall 1b eighty,
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4 Seventh Annual Rbpobt of the
representing forty-five counties. Thirteen new stations of this
class have been established since January 1st, as follows:
Bovina Centre Delaware county.
Pittsford Monroe comity.
Elizabethtown Essex county.
Bloomville Delaware county. ■
Avon > Livingston, county^
Bemsen Oneida county.
Syracuse Onondaga county.
Westfleld.' Chautauqua county.
Jamestown Chautauqua county
Mohonk Lake Ulster county.
In addition to the above, the stations Carmel, Putnam county;
and Victor, Ontario county, have been re-established, and fur-
nished with new thermometers.
The following stations, six in number, have been discontinued:
Bondout, Ulster county; Eden Centre, Erie County; Bovina
Centre, Delaware county; Stillwater, Saratoga county; Minne-
waska, Ulster county; Le Roy, Genesee county. At three of the
above stations observers were obliged to relinquish observations
owing to a change of residence. I record, with great regret, the
decease of Mr. W. L. Annin, of Leroy, who has been one of the most
regular and painstaking correspondents of this service since its
establishment in 1888.
In addition to the daily readings of the maximum and minimum
thermometers, which now constitute the standard method of de-
termining temperature at all stations, about one-half of the ob-
servers also record the readings at Ta.m.,2 p.m. and 9 p.m., thereby
providing a valuable check upon the daily means as determined
by the first method. Wet bulb thermometers were originally fur-
nished to a large proportion of the observers, and are still used
agnized by Google
Nhw York Weather Bureau. 5
"by several of them ; bat In general this observation has proved too
burdensome for voluntary observers, especially -in winter, A
more simple and satisfactory method of determining the humidity
of the air is much to be desired.
Readings of barometric pressure have been furnished by three
voluntary observers, in addition to the records of six stations of
the National Bureau and the Central Station at Ithaca ; and these,
with a station to be equipped next year in northern New York, are
deemed sufficient to define the pressure distribution over the State
with sufficient detail.
Nearlyallregularobservera record the daily amount of cloudiness
and the direction of prevailing winds ; and about one-half the num-
ber state not only the total daily rainfall, but also give in detail
the time and duration of showers and the maximum rainfall rates.
Special Rainfall Stations. — Twenty-five stations are provided
with rain gauges only, their records being forwarded to this office
at the close of each month; and also, in the majority of cases, at
the close of each week, during the crop season, for publication in
the Weather Crop Bulletin. Four new observers have been sup-
plied with rain-gauges since January 1st, and it is expected to
largely increase the number of these special stations during the
coming year.
The Distribution of Weather Forecasts. — The number of stations
receiving the telegraphic weather forecasts in the course of the
year was 169. Of this number, 30 serve as distributing centers,
at which copies of the telegrams are printed on franked postal
cards by means of a " logotpye " or rubber stamping outfit, and are
then forwarded by rail or stage to neighboring villages. The
forecasts thus reach about 500 points in the heart of agricultural
agnized by Google
6 Seventh Annual Report of the
districts, where the timely warnings are of great value to farmer*
and shippers, as is abundantly shown by letters and newspaper
notices received at this office.
In November last the Chief of the National Weather Bureau
issued a letter, stating that a curtailment of the number of weather
forecast messages would he necessary, in order to bring the cost
to the Government within the limits of the appropriation avail-
able for that purpose; and, accordingly, a thorough investigation
was made, through correspondence from this office, as to the
status of all display stations, to determine which of them could
best dispense with the telegrams, and, as a result, 30 of the least
efficient were discontinued. The service to all distributing cen-
ters has, however, been maintained.
Twenty-five sets of signal flags, each set numbering five Sags,
were purchased by this Bureau and distributed to display stations,
during the year. The supervision of the system throughout the
State is maintained at this office, frequent and careful inquiries-
being made, through correspondence, to determine the efficiency
and public utility of the service at each point.
The Weather-Crop Bulletin was published each week from April
20th to September 28th inclusive. The list of crop correspond-
ents thiB year numbers 80 persons, representing 46 counties, who-
report succinctly the effect of weather conditions upon the staple-
crops, and also upon such important special cultures as grapes,
tobacco, hops, etc., which form a large and characteristic feature
of the agriculture of this State. Seven hundred copies of the
Crop Bulletin are issued each week, and the circulation is further
greatly increased through the newspapers, 100 or more of which
publish more or less extended extracts. The reports of correspond-
ents form the basis of a telegram which is sent to Washington,
v Google
New Yohk Weatheb Bcbhad. 7
each week, and Is there embodied in the Crop Bulletin of the
National Weather Bureau.
Work at the Central Office. — No changes in the staff of assistants
has been made this year; but during the summer months addi-
tional aid was required to dispose of the business which accumu-
lates during the crop season, and Mr. W. E. Mott, of the Engineer-
ing College, was temporarily employed for this purpose. The
data furnished by about 100 observers and 85 crop correspondents
was regularly prepared for publication, special investigations
were made in answer to inquiries from many sources and the com-
pilation of statistical data was advanced as time permitted.
Thirty-six thermometers and IS rain gauges have been issued
this year to new stations, or to replace losses due to accidental
breakage. The regular observations prescribed for all stations
of the service have been maintained at the Central Office, and, in
addition, numerous special observations have been carried on by
the UBe of apparatus which 1b fully described in this report. Some
modifications have been found necessary in order to fit these In-
struments for the work required of ■ them, and a few additions to
the equipment were made by the director, while in Europe, at
very moderate cost.
The fourth annual convention of the American Association of
State Weather Services was held in Assembly Hall of the State
Board of Agriculture, in the State Capitol, at Indianapolis, Ind.,
October 16 and 17, 1895. The association was organized at
Rochester in August, 1892, and since then has met successively
at Chicago, Brooklyn and Indianapolis, At the Rochester con-
vention the New York State Service was represented by Mr. R. M.
Hardinge and Mr. W. 0. Kerr; at Chicago, by Mr. E. T. Turner;
at Brooklyn and Indianapolis, by Mr. R. M. Hardinge. The at-
8 Seventh Annual Bbpobt op the
tendance at Indianapolis was larger than at any previous meet-
ing, 31 of the State Weather Services being represented by one or
more delegates. The director of the New York State Service, as
soon as arrangements were completed for holding the convention
at Indianapolis, announced the time and place of meeting to the
voluntary observers of the State, and invited their attendance and
participation in the proceedings. Unfortunately the expense of
attending the convention at so distant a place was so heavy that
New York State was represented by a single delegate. As all
voluntary observers of the State Weather Services are honorary
members of the association their presence at the conventions is
always gladly welcomed.
The convention was called to order at 10 a. m. of the 16th, by
the president, Major H. H. C. Dunwoody, assistant chief of the
weather bureau. Major Dunwoody, whose zealous interest in the
growth and development of State service work has contributed
largely to the present high standing of these organizations, has
been the unanimous choice of the association for presidency since
its organization at Rochester in 1892. The president announced
the following topics for discussion before the convention:
1. How best to secure and retain the services of voluntary ob-
servers.
2. What can be done to improve weekly weather crop bulletins
and increase their value? What interests are being served
by these publications?
(a) Should not selected voluntary observers be given au-
thority to telegraph State centers reports of rainfall
or other important information on the afternoon pre-
ceding date of issue of crop bulletins, thereby giving
data for a State rainfall chart?
(b) Best means for the collection of data and best form for
publications and distribution.
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New York Weatheb Bureau. 9
3. Monthly publication of State Weather Services.
(a) Form of publication.
(b) Importance of prompt i-ssue.
(c) Character of information.
(d) Uniformity in style of.
(e) Preservation in convenient form for reference the most
important data from voluntary observers' records.
4. Distribution of forecasts and special warnings.
(a) Can any improvement be made in the present system
of forecast distribution?,
(b) Should flagB be displayed to represent forecasts for the
current day?
(c) Can forecasts be given wider dissemination in rural dis-
tricts, and what can be done to prove the value of
. . forecasts in sections where they are not utilised?
(d) Should not forecasts be telegraphed to daily papers of
small cities to avoid use of obsolete forecasts given
in plate matter used in "make up? "
(e) "Valne of the logotype system.
5. Equipment and inspection of voluntary stations. Importance
of shelters.
6. Along what lines can special investigations be undertaken by
State Weather Services with best results?
As the proceedings in detail of the convention will be published
as usual — probably in the Monthly Weather Review of the na-
tional service — the interesting discussions called forth by the
several topics will be generally omitted. Bnring the second day's
session the representative of the Pennsylvania State Service In-
troduced the model of a proposed semaphore signal for the dis-
play of weather forecasts. Although not a novel idea, the work-
ing model as presented seems to be more practicable than pre-
vious inventions of this kind, and as the present flag signals are
unsatisfactory in many ways, besides being quite expensive, it is
DqltSMByCOOgle
10 Seventh Annual Report of the ,
probable that with slight modifications it will be adopted events
ally by the United States -Weather Bureau. Under the head of
distribution of forecasts the director of the Alabama service pre-
sented the novel idea of having the daily forecasts stamped on
mail matter by postmasters, the forecast for the day to be incor-
porated with the " Receiving Stamp." This haB already been done
at some poet-offices, and the scheme, while giving bat little extra
trouble to the stamping clerks, has met with much appreciation.
In considering the subject of- the Weather Crop Bulletin, the ad-
visability of telegraphing weekly rainfall to the central office for
the purpose of incorporating a weekly rainfall chart in the Weekly
Bulletin occasioned much discussion. Professor Goodwin D.
Sweezey, director of the Nebraska Weather Service, gave a very
interesting illustration of his method of producing the weekly;
charts by a stereotype process. While in some of the StHtes the
location of stations with reference to the mails and telegraph'
rendered the plan feasible, the majority of the representatives)
deemed the plan impracticable for their sections.
Professor Wiilis L. Moore, Chief of the United States Weather
Bureau, attended the convention, and demonstrated his keen inter-
est in the work of State services by taking an active part in the dis-
cussions. The professor spoke of the attitude of the National ser-
vice to State organizations as one of solicitous co-operation.
The members of the association were tendered a banquet by the
Indianapolis Board of Trade, at the Grand Hotel, on the evening
of the 16th, where, along with the good cheer provided, there
were heard many expressions of appreciation from that body rela-
tive to the value of these State organizations to the business inter-
ests of the country, A noteworthy coincidence of this convention-
was the fact that the first assembly of those interested in the-
New York Weather Bubbatj. 11
organization of State service work took place at Indianapolis, in
October, thirteen years previous.
The officers elected for the ensuing year were: Major H. H. C
Dtinwoody (re-elected), president; Mr. James Berry, Chief of the
State Weather Service Division at Washington (re-elected), sec-
retary; Major H. C.Bates, of Tennessee,andMr.F.H.Brandenbarg,
of Colorado, First and second vice-presidents, respectively. Nash-
ville, Tenn., was chosen as the place of the next meeting, to take
place probably about the middle of October, 1896,
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Section II.
Financial Statement
FISCAL YEAR 1894-1895.
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Seventh Annual Report of the
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18 Seventh Annual Bepobt of thb
Inventory of Propbbty. — State Weatheb Buexau.
DESCRIPTION OF PHOPEHTY.
No. Coat value.
Anemograph pan
Batterlee, dry calls. .
dPueaa. norms' ..
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DESCRIPTION OF PROPERTY.
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Section III.
Monthly Meteorological Reports and Charts.
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Meteorological Sumrnary for January, 1895.
The average atmospheric pressure {reduced to sea-level and 32
degrees Fan.) for the State of New York during January was
30.03 inches. The highest barometer was 30.60 inches, at Friend-
ship, on the 9th; the lowest was 29.18 inches, at Albany, on the
26th. The mean pressure along the eastern border of the State
was about 30.06 inches, thence decreasing to 29.99 near Lake On- .
tario. The average pressure at six stations of the National Bu-
reau was 0.08 inches below the normal value; the deficiencies
being least in eastern and greatest in western New York.
The mean temperature, as derived from the records of 70 sta-
tions, was 20.7 degrees; the highest general daily mean being 36
degrees on the 7th and 11th, and the lowest, 4 degrees on the 5th.
The highest local monthly mean was 30.00 degrees, at New York
city, and the lowest was 14.6 degrees, at Saranac lake. The
maximum temperature reported was 57 degrees, at Brentwood,
L. I., on the 7th, and the minimum was 30 degrees below zero, at
Saranac Lake, on the 4th. The mean monthly range of tempera-
ture was 55 degrees; the greatest range, 74 degrees, occurring
at Saranac Lake, and the least, 40 degrees, at Lyons and Romulus.
The mean daily range was 17 degrees ; thegreatest daily range being
59 degrees, at South Kortright, on the 6th, and the least, 2 degrees
occurred at numerous stations on several dates. The mean tem-
peratures for the various sections of the State were as follows:
The Western Plateau, 20.2 degrees; the Eastern Plateau, 19.9 de-
grees; the Northern Plateau, 16.5 degrees; the Coast Region,
28.3 degrees; the Hudson Valley, 21.3 degrees; the Champlain
Valley, 18.6 degrees; the St. Lawrence Valley, 17.7 degrees; the
Great Lake Region, 22.4 degrees; the Central Lake Region, 21.7 de-
grees. The average of the mean temperatures at 26 stations,
i nor-
Report of the New York Weatheb Bubeao. 23
mal, deficiencies being reported from all stations excepting Platts-
burgh and Madison Barracks.
The relative humidity was 79 per cent. The mean dew point
was 18 degrees.
The average precipitation for the State, as derived from the
records of 81 stations, was 3.11 inches. The general maximum
occurred in southeastern New York; exceeding 5 inches, while
the minimum was less than 2 inches, in portions of the Central
and Great Lake Regions, and other scattered localities. The local
maximinm reported was 10.20 inches, at Eden Centre, Erie county,
and the minimum, 0.94 inches, at Atlanta, Steuben county. A
list of maximum rates of precipitation will he found in the accom-
panying table of meteorological data. The principal wet periods
of the month were as follows: On the 6th and 7th, moderate gen-
eral rain and snow, heaviest in the eastern and southeastern
sections; from the 10th to 13th, light snow in northern New York,
moderate rain and snow else where; on the 16th, 0.54 inches of snow
(melted) in the Coast Region; on the 18th and 19th, moderate
snows, excepting in northern New York; on the 22d, moderate
snows in the northern section ; on the 26th, the heaviest general
precipitation of the month, amounting to 1.81 inches in the Coast
Region; and on the 29th, a moderate snowfall in Eastern New
York. The average total snowfall at 60 well distributed stations
was 23.6 inches. The maximum depth ranged from 40 to 60 inches
over the highlands east of the great lakes, the St. Lawrence and
Lower Hudson Valleys; and the least was under 15 inches, in
the Coast Region. The average depth in central and northeastern
New York was about 25 inches. The average precipitation at 27
stations, possessing records for previous years, was 0.40 inches
above the normal amount. The deficiencies were confined mainly
to the eastern -central and lake sections.
The average number of days on which the precipitation
amounted to 0.01 Inch or more was 11.5; the number being quite
uniform in several regions. The average number of clear days
was 7.0; of partly cloudy days, 10.3; and of cloudy days, 13.7;
giving an average of cloudiness of 60 per cent. The least cloud-
24 Seventh Annual Report or the
mess obtained in central and southeastern New York, and the
greatest in the vicinity of the Great Lakes.
The prevailing direction of the wind was from the southwest.
The average total travel at 6 stations of the National Bureau was
8,963 miles. The maximum velocity reported from the above
stations was 64 miles per hour, at Buffalo, on the 26th.
No thunderstorms were reported.
Hail fell on the 5th, 6th 10th and 26th; and sleet on the 6th,
8th, 10th, 11th, 13th, 26th and- 26th.
Solar hales were observed1 on the 5th, 9th, 14th and 29th; and
lunar halos on the 5th, 9th and 13th.
During January the weather of New York was influenced by
eight areas of high and ten areas of low pressure; the latter num-
ber being deficient ,as compared with the usual storm frequency
for January. The low pressure areas passed from the west over
or north of this State; only one depression originating near the
Gulf of Mexico and thence moving northeastward in the course
common to winter storms. The high pressure systems generally
passed from the west to the Central and Southern States, giving
abnormally cold weather in these sections, as in December; this
distribution of pressure causing a southerly component to the
prevailing wind over the Northeastern States. Both pressure
and temperature were below the normal, but the month does not
rank among the very cold Januarys shown by the records of this
State.
Cold weather prevailed from the 1st to the 6th, the lowest tem-
perature of the month occurring on the 5th. The period included
between the 6th and the 18th was, for the most part, slightly
warmer than the normal, as were also the 21st and 22d, after
which the weather continued cold until the close of the month.
The highest temperatures obtained on the 7th and 11th, when the
maxima exceeded 50 degrees in the Coast Region.
The total precipitation, while generally above the normal, was
noticeably deficient in portions of the central and eastern sections.
The only notably heavy rain or snowfall occurred on the 26th.
On the 1st, 3d and 7th depressions of slight or moderate inten*
DqltudbyGoOgle
New York Weathhb Bobeau. 25
sity passed eastward to the north of this State, the last bringing
a sharp rise of temperature and a general thaw, after the severe
cold wave of the 5th. From the 10th to the 13th the weather
waa dominated by a well developed cyclone which passed from
the Ohio valley over this State on the 10th, then spreading over
the Northeastern States, and giving rise to a secondary disturb-
ance, which moved from the central coast northward over New
York on the 13th, giving high- wind in the eastern section and a
moderate precipitation. On the 15th and 16th a general depres-
sion passed over Canada and along the northeastern coast, being
accompanied by rising temperature and snow and rain in the
eastern section. The succeeding disturbance passed from Lake
Erie over this State on the 19th, accompanied by a moderate snow-
fall. AH of the remaining storms moved toward the coast over
or beyond the northern border of New York, on the 22d, 25th, 29tb
and 31st. The two latter areas were of slight intensity, but the
storms of the 22 d and 25th were the severest of the month, the max-
imum precipitation and also the highest wind velocities of Janu-
ary occurring on the 25th.
The high pressure systems were nearest the State on and about
the 2d, 5th, 9th, 13th, 17th, 20th, 25th and 28th. As already men-
tioned, the courses of these areas were generally more southerly
than usual, but the second, which was one of the most strongly
developed of the series, passed directly eastward over the north-
ern States, and so brought a very severe and sudden depression of
temperature. The last anticyclone of January also 'developed
a high pressure, and maintained' a steady cold while lingering over
the coast from the 27th to the 31st.
The month was generally favorable for farming interests, the
snow covering being sufficient as a protection to crops, although
the total depth registered was rather below the average. The
heaviest snowstorm occurred on the 26th and 27th, the high wind
pi i' vailing at that time causing much drifting and seriously inter-
fering with traffic.
;g,t7eo:yGoO^IC
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The average atmospheric ■pressure {reduced to sea-level and 32
degrees Fahr.) for the State of New York daring February was
30.01 inches. The highest barometer was 30.5© inches at Friend-
ship, on the 3d, and the lowest was 28.94 inches, at New York
city, on the 6th. The average pressure was highest in south-
western New York, thence decreasing very abruptly toward the
east and north. The average pressure at six stations of the Na-
tional Bureau was 0.09 inches below the normal, the deficiency
- amounting to 0.16 inches at New York, while at Erie, Pa., the
value was about normal.
The mean temperature, as derived from the records of 70 sta-
tions, was 17.2 degrees; the highest general daily mean being 39
degrees on the 28th, and the lowest 6 degrees below zero on the
6th. The highest local monthly mean was 26.2 degrees at New
York city, and the lowest was 10.2 degrees at Sara-nac Lake. The
maximum temperature reported was 51 degrees at Erie, Pa., and
Elmira, on the 28th, and the minimum was 29 degrees below zero
at Canton on the 6th, and at Number Four on the 7th. The mean
monthly range of temperature for the State was 59 degrees; the
greatest range, 75 degrees, occurring at Watertown, and the least,
49 degrees, at Lockport, Hess Road Station, Baldwinsville and
Setauket. The mean daily range was 18 degrees; the greatest
daily range being 49 degrees at Varysburgh on the 24th, and the
least 2 degrees at several stations on the 8th, 13th and 20th. The
mean temperatures for the various sections of the State were as
follows: The Western Plateau, 16.1 degrees; the Eastern Pla-
teau, 16.8 degrees; the Coast Region, 23.7 degrees; the Hudson
VaJJey, 17.1 degrees; the Mohawk Valley, 17.6 degrees; the Cham-
plain Valley, 16.2 degrees; the St. Lawrence Valley, 14.7 degrees;
the Great Lake Region, 18.1 degrees; the Central Lake Region,
18.4 degrees. The average of the mean temperatures at 24 sta-
Gooole
Repobt of tub Nkw Toek Wkathbb Bureau. 4*
tiooB possessing records for previous years was 6.6 degrees below
the normal value. The mouth was the coldest February shown by
the records of Setauket and.West Point; bat generally the tem-
perature was considerably lower in February, 1876, and 1885.
The mean relative hnmldity was 76 per cent. The mean dew
point was 13 degrees.
The ayerage precipitation for the State was 1.66 inches of rain
and melted snow, as derived from the records of 67 stations. Over
much the larger portion of the State the total precipitation was
less than 2 inches, and was under 1 inch through a considerable
area of southern and southeastern New York. The region of
maximum precipitation, ranging from 2 to 4 inches, covered a belt
extending from the northern to the southwestern limits of the
State along the highlands bordering the St. Lawrence Valley
and the Great Lakes. The greatest local amount was 6.56
inches at Fulton, Oswego county, and the least was 0.43
inches at Booneville, Oneida county. A list of the heaviest
rates of precipitation will be found in the accompanying
table of meteorological data. The principal wet periods were
as follows: From the 7th to &th in eastern New York;
on the 19th, 14th, 18th, 21st and 22d in the northern and
western counties, and on the 27th and 28th in western New York.
The average total 'snowfall reported from 59 widely distributed
stations was 17.7 inches. The total depth over the St. Lawrence
Valley and the Northern Plateau was about 25 inches; over the
Eastern Plateau and the Hudson Valley, about 20 inches; over the
Central Lake Begion, the Atlantic Coast and the Western Plateau,
12 inches (the depth being much greater, however, on the high-
lands near Lake Erie). The least snowfall occurred in the Oham-
plain Valley and in portions of the Great Lake Begion. The maxi-
mum local snowfall was 45 inches, at Baldwinsville. The average
precipitation at 25 stations possessing records for previous years
was 1.04 inches below the normal amount, excesses being reported
only from Hamilton and Malone. The deficiency was most
marked in the southeastern section, the totals being the least on
record hi the Coast Begion.
Digitized by CjOOgle
46 Seventh Annual Report of the
The average number of days on which the precipitation
amounted to 0.01 inch or more was 6.8, which is much below the '
usual rain frequency. The maximum number obtained in the
Great Lake Region and the minimum number' In eastern New
York, and especially along the coast. The average number of
clear days was 8.8; of partly cloudy days, 9.8, and of cloudy days
9.4, giving an average cloudiness of 61 per cent. The least cloudi-
ness obtained in southeastern New York and the Champlain Val-
ley, and the greatest amount in the Great Lake Region.
The prevailing wind direction was from the west. The average
total wind travel at six stations of the National Bureau was 8,712
miles, being below the usual values at all stations excepting Roch-
ester. The maximum velocity was 46 miles per hour, at Buffalo,
ou the 9th.
No thunderstorms were reported.
Sleet fell on the 9th, 19th, 27th and 28th.
A solar halo was observed on the 5th, and a lunar halo on the 3d.
In summarizing the weather conditions of February, the month
is to be divided into two periods, covering the dates from the 2d to
the 15th, and from the 16th to the 28th, respectively. During the
first period the general distribution of pressure characteristic of
the winter mouths prevailed, continuously, and in an abnormally
intense degree. Thus, the winter high-pressure system in the
northwest was maintained with scarcely any interruption, and for
several days between the 5th and 13th the highest barometer read-
ings on record were obtained in the northwestern States and
British America. The five low pressure areas of this period origi-
nated in southern latitudes, and, with one exception, moved north-
eastward over the Atlantic or along the coast line. These condi-
tions gave strong and intensely cold westerly winds over the east-
ern States, the greatest depression of temperature occurring be-
tween the 6th and 8th, which was the coldest period yet recorded
by the Bureau.
After the 15th a decided change occurred in the distribution of
pressure. The anticyclone in the northwest decreased and moved
southward, being replaced by a series of " low " areas whose east-
New York Weather Bdread. 47
ward movement maintained a nearly permanent depression over
Canada. Coincidently with this shifting of pressure, the tem-
perature in New York and vicinity rose rapidly, remaining at or
above the normal value until the end of the month, excepting on
three days of the last week.
The cyclonic areas of the first period passed northeastward near
the coast line on the 1st, 4th, 8th, 13th and 16th. The storm of
the 8th was the most severe of the series, and the steep pressure
gradient from its center toward the intense anticyclone in the
west gave strong westerly winds which badly drifted the snow
falling at the time. The snowfall during the remaining storms
was tight. The low areas in all cases passed north of the State
after the 15th, the dates of nearest approach being the 18th, 21st,
25th and 28th. The storm of the 21«t reached a central depres-
sion of 29.1 inches, and gave severe gales over the Lake Region
and northern New York. The last " low " of February covered
the Canadian Provinces, as a deep general depression, on the 28th,
the pressure then being high over the southern States; and the
southerly winds which resulted raised the temperature 15 degrees
above the normal on the 28th, causing a general thaw;
Although the total snowfall was light, there was but little thaw-
ing until the 28th, and generally the ground remained covered.
Frost penetrated the ground to an unusual depth, reaching 4 feet
in the southern highlands, and causing much damage to water
and sewer pipes. The blizzard of the 8th will be long remem-
bered as the most severe of recent years.
The form of the isothermals (chart 1 of this report) would indi-
cate that Lake Ontario modified the temperature conditions in
western and central New York in an important manner. This lake
usually remains open in winter, while Lake Erie is frozen, at least
over its eastern end. Hence the cold westerly winds were not
tempered by open water in southwestern New York, while over a
large area east and southeast of Ontario considerbly higher aver-
age temperatareB are shown.
;fl,troo:-vGoO^Ic
Seventh Annual Kepobt or the
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fall Statistics — February.
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Meteorological Summary for March, 1895.
The average Atmospheric Pressure (reduced to sea level and
32 degrees Fah.) for the State ot New York during March was
30.04 Inches. The highest barometer was 30.58 inches at Friend-
ship on the 23d, and the lowest was 29.33 inches at Albany on the
28th. The pressure was quite uniform although increasing
slightly from the eastern toward the western section of the State.
The average pressure at six stations of the National Bureau was
0.02 inches above the normal value; the greatest excess being 0.05
inches at New York City.
The mean temperature of the State, as derived from records
of 69 stations, was 27.2 degrees; the highest local mean being
36.9 degrees at Brooklyn, and the lowest 19.6 degrees at Saranao
Lake. The highest general daily mean was 40 degreeB on the 25th
and the lowest was 14 degrees on the 15th. The maximum tem-
perature reported was 63 degrees at New York City on the 1st and
the lowest was 10 degrees below zero at Number Four on the 15th,
The mean monthly range of temperature was 48 degrees; the
greatest range being 62 degrees at Varyaburg, and the least 34
degrees at Manhattan Beach. The mean daily range was 18 de-
grees; the greatest daily range, 53 degrees, occuring at Waverly
and South Kortright on the 3d, while the least was 0 degrees at
Manhattan Beach on the 12th and 13th. The mean temperature
of the various sections of the State were as follows: The West-
ern Plateau, 27.3 degrees; the Eastern Plateau, 27.1 degrees; the
Northern Plateau, 21.9 degrees; the Coast Region, 35.5 degrees;
the Hudson Valley, 29.9 degrees; the Mohawk Valley, 25.0 de-
grees; the Champlain Valley, 27.0 degrees; the Great Lake Region,
27.2 degrees; the Central Lake Region, 28.1 degrees. The average
of the mean temperature at 26 stations possessing records for
previous years was 3.1 degrees below the normal. The deficiencies
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B.EPOKT of ths New York Weatheb Bureau. 69
were most marked in northern and western New York, and least
bo in the Coast Region, where one station, Setauket, obtained a
temperature Blightly above the normal.
The mean Relative Humidity wae 71 per cent. The mean Dew
Point was 21 degrees.
The average Precipitation, as derived from the records of 79
stations, was 1.61 inches of rain and melted snow. The total
precipitation for the greater part of the State was under two
inches, exceeding that amount only in the Coast Region and in
restricted portions of the eastern-central and western sections.
The local maximum reported was 3.37 inches at Brooklyn, the
minimum being 0.60 inches at Fleming, Cayuga County . A list of
the maximum rates of precipitation will be found in the table of
meteorological data. The heaviest general rainfall occurred on
the 1st, with a maximum of 0.16 in the Central Lake Region. The
succeeding storm periods were central about the 1th, maximum
In western and Northern New York; on the 7th, maximum 0.68
inches on the coast; on the 9th, maximum on the Western Plateau;
on the 13th and 11th, maximum in the Coast Region; on the 16th, -
maximum in the Hudson Valley; ou the 25th, general, bnt light ■
in the coast region; on the 28th, maximum In northern New York.
The average total snowfall, as derived from 68 well distributed
stations, was 9.3 inches. The total snowfall averaged about 10
inches over the Western Plateau; 16 Inches on the Eastern
Plateau; 20 inches in the Northern Plateau; 1 inches in the Coast
Region ; 8 to 10 inches in the Hudson and Champlain Valleys and
the Great Lake Region. The' maximum local snowfall was 29
inches at Turin. The average precipitation at 26 stations posses-
sing records for previous years was 1.03 inches below the normal
amount. Deficiencies obtained at all stations excepting Hamil-
ton and Angelica. ■
The average number of days on which the precipitation
amounted to 0.01 inches or more, was 9.3. The number of rainy
days was least in the Coast and Champlain Valley Regions, and
greatest on the Plateaus and near the Lakes. The average num-
ber of dear days was 1.8; of partly cloudy days, 11.7; and of cloudy
DqltSMByCOOgle
70 Seventh Annual Report of the
days, 9.5, giving an average cloudiness of 51 per cent, for the State.
The cloudiness was greatest in northern and central New York,
and least near the coast.
The prevailing direction of the wind was from the northwest.
The average total wind travel at six. stations of the National
Bureau was 8,740 miles, being generally above the average values
at both coast and lake stations. The maximum velocity recorded
was 64 miles per hoar at New York City on the 28th.
A thunderstorm was reported from Turin on the 11th; from
Humphrey and Arcade on the 24th; from Ithaca, Eden Centre
and 4 stations of the Hudson Valley on the 25th.
Hail fell at Setauket on the 15th, at Poughkeepsie on the 25th,
and at South Canisteo on the 29th. Sleet fell on the 25th, 26th
and 30th.
Solar Halos was observed on the 11th and 23d, and a Lunar
Halo on the 11th.
During March the weather of New York was influenced by seven
areas of high and ten areas of low pressure; the latter being
about the usual storm frequency for March in this vicinity. With
but two exceptions the high pressure systems spread over the
vicinity of New York in their eastward course, but decreasing in
intensity as they approached the coast; the mean pressure near
the lakes thus being considerably higher than in eastern New
York. The depressions moved along the paths common to winter
storms, being distributed as follows: Areas passing over northern
New York and Canada were nearest this State on February 28th
to March 1st, and on the 8th, 9th, l&th and 25th. On the 4th and
28th, low areas passed eastward over the State; and on the 9th,
16th and 20th storms passed northeastward along the coast or
over the ocean. The severest disturbances of the series were those
of the 17th and 28th, the former giving the maximum wind veloc-
ities of the month in the lake region, and the latter on the sea-
board, the unusually high velocity of 64 miles per hour being
recorded at New York City on the 28th.
The temperatures were abnormally high on the 1st, the maxima
for the month being attained in the coaBt region on that date. A
;git7eo:yGoO^IC
New Yohk Weather ■ Bureau. 71
sharp depression of temperature followed until the 6th, which was
the coldest day of March in northern New York. The period from
the 6th to the 13th was slightly warmer than usual over the
greater part of the State, but a severe cold wave was reported from
the northern stations on and about the 12th. From the 14th to
the 23d the temperature was below the normal, this period being
inaugurated by an exceptionally severe cold wave on the 14th.
The maximum temperature for March in all sections of the State
excepting the coast region occurred on the 24th and 25th, after
which the values remained about normal until the close of the
month.
The heaviest general precipitation for the State occurred on the
1st, as rain. Bain or snow fell in some portions of New York on
every day until the 16th, and from the 24th to the 31st, the inter-
vening week being fair. The snowstorm of the 28th was accom-
panied by high winds in all sections. The ground was generally
covered with snow at the beginning of the month, the depth
amounting to 30 inches in the forests of the northern section, and
to 10 inches in the southern highlands. In the St. Lawrence
Valley ground was frozen to a depth of 3 feet or more, lakes and
streams remained frozen, and sleighing was continuous through-
out the month. Ice also continued in the upper Hudson River
after the 31st. In southern New York the ground was generally
bare, excepting in the woods, by the 15th. The disappearance of
snow and ice from the warmer section was gradual, and but few
injurious freshets occurred
Blue birds made their appearance about the 23d, and a few
robins were seen early in the month. ,
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Meteorological Summary for April, 1895.
The average atmospheric pressure (reduced to sea-level and 32
degrees Fahr.) for the State of New York during April, 1895, was
30.04 inches. The highest barometer was 30.68 inches at New York
city on the 12th, and the lowest was 29.28 inches at Albany on the
9th. The average pressure at six stations of the National Bureau
was 0.04 inches above the normal value. An excess of pressure
obtained at all stations, the greatest being 0.06 inches at Albany.
The mean temperature of the State, as derived from the records
of 71 stations, was 44.8 degrees; the highest local mean being 50.5
degrees at Elmira, and the lowest being 38.9 degrees at Saranao
Lake. The highest general daily mean was 58.0 degrees on the
25th and 30th, and the lowest 32.0 degrees on the 1st and 3d. The
maximum temperature reported was 86.0 degrees at Brooklyn on
the 25th, and the lowest 10.0 degrees at Massena on the 3d. The
mean monthly range of temperature was 54.0 degrees; the greatest
range being 64.0 degrees at LeBoy and Addison and the least 36.0
degrees at Willet's Point. The mean daily range was 19 degrees; the
greatest daily range 48 degrees, occurring on the 24th at Angelica,
while the least was 0 degreeB occurring on the 1st at Borne. The
mean temperatures of the various sections of the State were as
follows: The Western Plateau, 45.2 degrees; the Eastern Plateau,
44.4 degrees; the Northern Plateau, 41.0 degrees ; the Coast Region,
46.8 degrees; the Hudson Valley, 46.1 degrees; the Mohawk Val-
ley, 48.2 degrees; the Champlain Valley, 44.8 degrees; the Great
Lake Begion, 44.4 degrees; the St. Lawrence Valley, 42.6 degrees;
the Central Lake Begion, 44.8 degrees. The average of the mean
temperature at 27 stations possessing records for previous years,
,v Google
Report or the New York Weather Bdrxatj. 91
was 0.6 degrees above the normal. The greatest excess obtained in
the Western Plateau; slight deficiencies occurred in the Northern
Plateau, Hudson Valley and Coast Region.
The mean relative humidity was 73 per cent. The mean Dew
point was 36 degrees.
The average precipitation, as derived from the records of 82 sta-
tions, was 2.84 inches of rain and melted snow. The local maxi-
mum reported was 6.81 inches at West Point, the minimum being
0.79 inches at Deposit, Delaware oonnty. A list of the maximum
rates of precipitation will be found in the table of meteorological
* data. General rains occurred on the 1st, 7th to 9th, 12th to 14-th,
and 22d, the heaviest occurring during the second period of the
month, with a maximum of 1.32 inches in the Coast Region on the
8th. Moderate rains occurred throughout the eastern part of the
State from the 27th to the 30th, being heaviest at Coast stations.
Snowfall during the month was very light, averaging one inch for
the State, the distribution'being quite uniform. The heaviest fall,
7.1 inches, occurred at Number four, Lewis county. The average
precipitation at 27 stations, possessing record's for previous years,
was 0.13 inches below the normal amount. The most marked defi-
ciency occurred in the Western Plateau, being 1.46 inches below
the normal. An excess of precipitation obtained in the Champlain
Valley, the Eastern Plateau and the Hudson Valley, being in the
latter region 1.42 above the normal amount.
The average number of days on which the precipitation
amounted to 0.01 inches or more, was 9.6. The number of rainy
days was greatest in the Hudson Valley, and least in the Central
Lake Region. The average number of clear days was 10.4; of
partly cloudy days, 8.5; of cloudy days, 11.1, giving the average
cloudiness of 52 per cent, for the State. The cloudiness was pretty
evenly distributed throughout the State.
The prevailing direction of the wind was from the northwest.
The average total wind travel at six stations of the National
Bureau was 7,219 miles. The maximum velocity recorded was 54
miles per hour at New York city on the 10th.
,v Google
92 Sbithnth Annual Report of. the
A thunderstorm was reported from Honeymead Brook on the
1st; from Brooklyn, Bedford, Lebanon Springs, Poughkeepsie and
Stillwater on tbe 9th; from Addison on the 20th; from Lebanon
Springs on the 22d; from New Lisbon, Lebanon Springs and Honey-
mead Brook on the 25th; from Hamilton, Waverly and Stillwater
on the 26th, and from Cooperstown and Saratoga on the 27th.
Hail fell at Poughkeepsie on tbe 1st; at Angelica on the 13th;
and at South Canisteo on tbe 9th, 13th and 23d. Sleet fell on the
1st at Varyeburgh, Turin, Stillwater and Appleton.
Solar Halo* were observed on the 5th and 11th and a Lunar Halo
on the 5th. "
During April the weather of New York was influenced by five
areas of high and six areas of low pressure, the latter be-
ing about the Usual storm frequency for Hie month In the
vicinity of New York. The low pressure systems, with One
exception, passed over tbe northern states and Canada,
moving slowly and tending to spread over the eastern states
and coast. Their centers passed nearest this State on the
1st to 3d, 9th, 12th, 16th to 18th, 23d and 25th; the stdrms of the
9th, 12th and 23d being the most strongly developed of the aeries,
causing the maximum wind velocities of the month. The fourth
low area traversed the southern states, and was felt in this section
mainly by its effect upon the wind direction and temperature.
The high pressure areas, like the preceding were in general of
very moderate intensity, moving sluggishly in the vicinity of tbe
coast, lingering especially over its northern and central portions.
These areas were nearest New York on the 4th to 8th, 10th to 12th,
14th to 21st, 26 th to 29th, and 30th. The second area developed the
maximum pressure of the series, 30.7 inches, on the 11th, and re-
duced the temperature considerably below tbe normal. Tbe cool-
est days of the month occurred between the 1st and 6th, but were
followed immediately by a warm wave accompanying the second
depression of April. Tbe snow and ice which still lingered disap-
peared rapidly at this time, and freshets occurred in southern New
York, from which some damage resulted, notably along the banks
of the Susquehanna river. Robins and swallows were first
Malta* byGoOgle
New Tohk Whathbb Bubsau. 93
observed at several stations about the 8th. After the 8th the
■temperature was continuously above the normal, the warmest days
being the 21st, 25th and 30th, when the excess amounted to about
10 degrees. Bods of forest trees were reported to be swelling in
the southern section on the 21st.
,v Google
Seventh Annual Repobt of the
Meteorological Data.
Loc*tiom or Srinom.
B.Hom™.
Hemiditt
T*™.
STATION.
COUNTY.
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Nbw York Weathsr Bureau.
tok April, 1895.
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Cookie
Sbvbnth Annual Rbpobt op the
Meteobologioai Data for
Location or Stations.
BiaomraiL
Hv-mrrr
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STATION.
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Now York Weather Bureau.
April, 1895 — {Continued).
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Shyhnth Annual Rbpokt or thb
MxTEOBOLOGIOAL DATA JTOB
Hd»h.iti
TumA
STATION.
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[6/) IS, 14, IB; («) 14, IS; (afi 7, IB; («) 1, B; (eft 3, IB, IB.
* moan of the trl-dally obumttlOB. i Mean ot the maximum am
the tri-dsllj oc»e rations are derived by tho formula, (7 x. u. + £ t
hours. ] Name of this station changed to Appleton.
.Google
New Yokk Whathbb Bubhau.
Apeil, 1895 — (Concluded).
TV*M — (Li DffOHKB FiHK.).
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thermograph. | Report n
t BluklndlcsCM that the
(m) 4, B; (») 6, 10: (p) 3, B; (?) S, 0; (r) S, 11; (») 18. B4; (I) SO, SO;
14, IS; (of) 1, 7. IB; (bb) 1, 18; (6c) 1, 14, IB; (M) 18, 14; (be) IT, S8;
,v Google
100 Seventh Annual Report of the
Temperature — Apbil, 1895, Showing Daily Means foe the
STATION.
*
•
3
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s
e
1
8
0
10
"
12
13
1*
Western' Plateau . .
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83
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34
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43
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28
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80
83
37
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64
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86
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Google
New Yosk Weathbh Bobbatj.
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MAP OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK
BHUWIKO
THE MEAN TEMPERATURES
FOR APRIL, I8SS
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Meteorological Summary for May, 1895.
The average atmospheric pressure (reduced to sea-level and 32
degrees Fahr.) for the State of New York during May was 30.04
inches. The highest barometer was 30.39 inches at New York city
and at Albany on the 1st; and the lowest was 29.52 inches at
Ithaca on the 11th. The highest mean pressure, 30.07 inches, was
reported from the southern ■stations, New York city and Friend-
ship, and the lowest, 30.01 inches, at Oswego. The average of the
mean pressures at six stations of the National Bureau was 0.05
Inches above the normal value, excesses occurring at all stations.
The mean .temperature of the State, as derived from the records,
of 68 stations, was 58.7 degrees; the highest local mean reported
being (14.2 degrees at Elmira, and the lowest, 55.0 degrees at Num-
ber Pour, Lewis county. -The highest general daily mean was 75
degrees on the 30th and 31st, and the lowest was 42 degrees on the
13th and 14th. The maximum temperature reported was 97 de-
grees at Stillwater on the 11th, and the minimum 20 degrees at
South Kortright on the 17th. The mean monthly range of tem-
perature, for the State, was 61 degrees; the greatest range being
71 degrees at WaverLy, and the least 42 degrees at Manhattan
Beach. The mean daily range was 23 degrees, an unusually large
value. The greatest daily range reported was 51 degrees at Rome
on the 11th, and the least was 1 degree at Oswego on the 12th.
The mean temperatures of the various sections of the State were
as follows. The Western Plateau, 58.9 degrees; the Eastern Pla-
teau, 58.1 degrees; the Northern Plateau, 56.9 degrees; Hie Coast
Region, 59.1 degrees; the Hudson Valley, 59.3 degrees; the Mo-
hawk Valley, 58.5 degrees; the Ohamplaiu Valley, 59.5 degrees;
the St. Lawrence Valley, 58.6 degrees; the Great Lakes, 58.5 de-
grees; and the Central Lakes, 59.9 degrees. The average of the
mean temperatures at 26 stations possessing records for previous
years was 2.3 degrees above the normal value, excesses being re-
ported from all stations excepting New York city and West Pointy ,
The departures were greatest in the vicinity of Lake Ontario and
the St. Lawrence Valley, and least near the Atlantic Coast.
Rkport of thk New Yobk Wkatheb Bukeatt. 118
The mean relative humidity was 70 per cent. The mean dew
point was 48 degrees.
The average precipitation, as derived from the records of 84
stations, was 2.60 inches of rain and melted snow. The local maxi-
mum reported was 4.34 inches at Saranac Lake, and the least 1.41
inches at North Hammond. Generally the amounts ranged from
two to four inches; bat over restricted areas of the northeastern
and southeastern sections, and on the western highlands, less than
two inches fell. General rains occurred on the 8th and 9th, ex-
cepting in the northern valleys and the Great Lake Region ; on the
11th and 12th, the 14th and l&th, the 19th and 20th, the 26th to
28th, and the 31st. The heaviest rainfall for the State occurred on
the 27th. The average snowfall for the State amounted to only a
trace. The maximum depth recorded was 0.5" inches at Alfred
Centre and LeRov. The average precipitation at 26 stations pos-
sessing records for previous years was 0.97 inches below the nor-
mal amount, deficiencies occurring at all stations excepting
Rochester. Oswego and Palermo. The rainfall was most deficient
in the vicinity of the Central Lakes and western highlands, and
more nearly normal in the Great Lake Region and on the Northern
Plateau.
The average number of daya on which the precipitation
amounted to 0.01 inches or more, was 7.7. The num'ber of rainy
days was very uniform over the State. The average number of
clear days was 13.4; of partly cloudy days, 11.7; and of cloudy
days, 6.9, giving an average cloudiness of 43 per cent, for the State.
The amount of cloud was quite uniform over the State, being below
the usual average over the Great Lakes, and above it near the
- coast.
The prevailing direction of the wind was from the southwest
The average total wind travel at six stations of the National
Bureau was 6,819 miles, the values being greater than usual in
eastern New York, and about normal along the lakes.
Thunderstorms were observed at four stations of the Northern
•<and Eastern Plateaus on the 4th and 5th; at seven stations of
northern, central and western New York on the 7th; at seven sta-
a- I
114 Seventh Annual Rkport of the
♦ions in all regions except the coast on the 8th; at Number Four
and Malone on the 10th; at IS stations of all sections except the
eoast on the 11th; at Turin and Brentwood on Jhe 13th; at Glens
Falls on1 the 14th and 17th; at four stations of the Western and
Northern Plateaus on the 26th; at five stations of the lower Hud-
son Valley and the coast, and at Lyons, on the 27th ; at Honeymead
Brook on the 30th, and at Setauket on the 31st
Hail was reported from four stations on the 7th; from four sta-
tions on the 11th ; from one station on the 12th, and from ooe sta-
tion on the 20th.
A Solar Halo was observed on the 4th.
During May the weather of New York was influenced by five
areas of high and five areas of low pressure, which is rather less
than the usual number of disturbances for the month in this vicin-
ity. As in April, the areas were generally large, sluggish Id move-
ment and of moderate intensity. The weather was remarkable for
great ranges and variability of temperature, a very deficient rain-
fall, and more than the usual amount of sunshine, especially during
the first and last decades of the month. There was a corresponding
fluctuation in the condition of crops, which were in a very ad-
vanced stage early in May, but apparently suffered very seriously
from the cold weather in the middle of the montlb ; and finally were
restored to neariy their usual vigor by the warmth and showers of
the last week. There were no severe general rains or wind storms,
bat thunderstorms, in some cases accompanied by hail, caused
some damage in scattered localities.
At the beginning of May the strongest high pressure system of
the month covered Canada and the northeastern states, the tem-
perature being nearly normal. Between the 2d and 9th the area
moved slowly 'to the southern coast, and the weather became much
wanner over New York, the temperature averaging 20 degrees
above normal between the 4th and 11th. The only appreciable
rainfall during this period occurred on the 8th and 9th when the
first " low " area passed eastward over Canada. Continued high
temperature amd rain accompanied the second depression which •
passed over and north of New York on the 10th and 11th; but in
Digitized byGoOgI&
New York Weather Buseao. 115
its rear, northerly winds ami a severe cold w«ve occurred, the
mean daily temperature falling 40 degrees between the 11th and
13th in northern New York. The wold was maintained by the ridge
of Mgh pressure which passed over the eastern states on and about
the 15th, together with a storm moving up the Atlantic coast at the
same time, giving moderate but general rains In New York. The
succeeding " low," in passing north of the State, raised the tem-
perature to nearly the normal value on the 18th and 19th, and
then spreading southward gave rains over New York on the 20th.
The easterly advance of a broad wave of high pressure on the 21st
again caused a cool wave, but southerly wind, due to the spreading
of this area along the coast, and the depression then over Canada,
rapidly raised the temperature above the normal. The heaviest
general rains of May accompanied a depression passing over north-
ern New York on the 26th and 27th. The weather became slightly
cooler after its passage, and with the eastward spread of an exten-
sive 'high pressure system on the 28th and 29th ; but a marked rise
of temperature to the maximum of the month followed. Light
rain occurred on the 31st, and the heat was rendered1 oppressive
by a. high humidity.
Farm work advanced rapidly early in May, and by the 4th oats
were generally sown and in many cases above ground, while in
the southeast potatoes were planted and garden truck was show-
ing some growth. Berries and nearly all f rnit trees were in bloom
by the 9th. A drouth of considerable severity prevailed in the
northern and southeastern sections, but was relieved by the show-
ers of the 11th. Severe hailstorms near Rochester and Elrnira on
this date caused much damage .to vegetation.
During the cold weather of the 10 days following, ice one-fourth
Inch thick was formed on several dates in exposed localities, and
in portions of the southwestern counties the temperature fell 12
degrees below freezing on the 18th. It was then expected that
the resulting loss of grapes and other fruits would be enormous,
but later the damage proved much less serious than had been an-
ticipated. Showers and warmth at the close of May generally
brought crops into good contrition, although grass, especially on
old meadows, was thinner than usual.
Seventh Annual Rbpobt of the
Meteorological Data
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Seventh Annual Report of the
Meteorological Data
Location of Statious.
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120 Seventh Annual Report of ihb
Temperature — Mat, 1885, Shoving Daily Means fob i
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88
58
sa
61
B7
86
54
90
88
87
89
85
09
88
69
89
83
58
81
59
79
56
78
90
81
75
80
75
59
86
50
84
59
81
58
78
59
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58
88
88
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85
47
89
48
81
50
86
40
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66
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58
69
30
70
37
55
85
03
99
00
94
89
96
61
96
45
99
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41
34
50
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49
90
60
48
97
46
New York Weatheb Bureau.
Regions, and Daily Maxima and Minima fob the Stations.
IS
IB
17
18
19
io
81
..
33
„
as
30
37
28
29
30
31
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44
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n
42
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55
45
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80
29
54
28
54
67
41
70
85
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38
64
48
57
40
85
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44
68
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53
85
33
41
59
80
50
98
55
31
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50
98
94
78
47
75
84
74
37
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90
37
81
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61
71
79
41
69
89
68
78
60
79
50
79
SB
69
43
63
42
41
41
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71
42
70
43
77
09
55
88
50
91
42
TB
90
TO
91
57
94
69
89
68
N
58
56
58
53
67
58
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59
68
68
58
B6
58
57
61
65
65
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68
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80
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58
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44
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30
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97
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30
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75
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75
71
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58
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89
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83
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40
80
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31
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79
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79
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76
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69
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56
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58
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43
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71
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07
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94
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40
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40
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84
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55
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50
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55
35
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50
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50
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28
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88
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41
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64
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53
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81
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38
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28
35
87
39
55
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69
27
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34
43
19
86
40
72
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77
78
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78
35
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89
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70
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41
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75
58
61
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79
41
78
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47
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78
74
67
71
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53
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67
78
59
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79
68
64
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64
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60
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56
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79
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66
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72
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59
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47
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41
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44
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97
48
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81
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19
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89
85
83
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38
81
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38
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80
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38
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51
81
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97
47
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53
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44
68
37
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78
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61
89
58
80
48
47
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48
50
74
75
58
75
58
73
55
69
64
58
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45
68
45
42
43
60
46
65
49
89
59
40
59
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61
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79
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91
58
89
60
88
61
83
50
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56
58
68
83
71)
81
59
81
71
6
0
0
Bbtbnth Annual Rkpoet op thb
Tempeeatore — Mat, 1895, Showing Daily Means fob
Stations —
STATION.
1
9
3
A
•
s
'
8
9
10
11
13
63
59
SB
51
49
80
44
65
45
07
44
66
4*
39
4!
71
85
48
74
55
48
37
68
88
69
68
81
65
39
33
69
39
49
36
50
33
64
SO
64
34
66
35
39
14
n
57
IS
SI
49
as
49
45
69
46
67
68
49
63
50
SI
48
3
SI
47
67
a
74
40
65
48
55
40
a
63
.16
39
89
32
56
73
44
71
50
70
33
82
71
53
is
74
53
63
71
4S
73
49
44
43
78
36
59
43
7B
39
79
33
79
35
77
70
8*
40
78
54
89
49
71
SI
49
58
84
54
89
84
89
50
84
58
85
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87
59
48
86
57
57
65
51
69
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50
86
53
68
48
81
68
55
88
78
84
60
59
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69
78
60
83
83
59
79
56
63
54
48
70
53
47
88
47
74
49
66
80
56
81
69
77
69
59
63
66
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66
68
75
88
56
48
88
73
69
60
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58
80
54
69
84
89
83
68
84
84
60
90
37
68
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66
60
64
79
61
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65
78
50
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64
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86
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78
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69
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98
67
86
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68
94
65
71
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61
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66
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88
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88
58
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87
58
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56
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61
93
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Manhattan Beach.
Haw Tort Otty
WlUofa Point
BO
44
48
53
Setaukat
66
Bedford
63
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48
1
68
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30
51
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40
56
33
Lebanon Sprlngi . .
Honermead Brook.
WappfiiRcr'a Falls. |
West Point.
Btillwator ...
Mohawk Valley....
53
65
45
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47
88
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83
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73
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69
78
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88
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36
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30 58
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New York Weather Bureau.
THl REGIONS, AND DAILY Maxuha
(OonJ-iw-ued).
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49
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64
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59,0
Seventh Annual Report of the
Tkkp&ratobe — Mat, '.
, Showing Daily Means fob
Stations —
BTATION.
•
9
S
*
B
e
7
8
•
io
11
IB
IS
14
Grtat LnlcniOoat.)
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44
67
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41
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46
76
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40
78
sa
as
u
79
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76
71
68
80
76
48
80
68
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48
66
41
83
66
78
83
60
80
68
711
68
64
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48
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44
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67
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The average atmospheric pressure (reduced to sea-level and 32"
degrees Fahrenheit) for the State of New York during June, 1895,
was 30.07 inches. The highest barometer was 30.46 inches at
Friendship on the 8th, and at New York city on the 17th; and' the
lowest was 29.71 inches at Oswego on the 13th. The highest
mean pressure was 30.09 inches at Number Four, and the lowest
was 30.04 inches at Oswego. The pressure over the State as a
whole was quite uniform. The mean pressure ait six stations of
the National Bureau was .09 inches above the normal value.
The mean' temperature of the State, as derived from the records
of 65 stations, was 69.3 degrees; the highest local mean being 73.0
degrees at Albany, and the lowest 65.3 degrees at Number Four,
Lewis county. The highest daily mean for the State was 77
degrees on the 1st and 2d, and the lowest was 59 degrees on the
6th. The maximum temperature reported was 100 degrees at Mt.
Morris on the 4th, and the minimum was 35 degrees at South Kort-
right on the 8th. The mean monthly range of temperature was
43 degrees; the greatest range being 59 degrees at Varysbnrgh,
and the least 38 degrees at Arkwrigh t. The mean daily range was
23 degrees; the greatest daily range, 50 degrees, occurring at
Friendship on the 10th, and the least, 1 degree, at Plattsburgh
Barracks on the 6th. The mean temperatures of the various sec-
tions of the State were as follows: The Western Plateau, 68.2
degrees; the Eastern Plateau, 69.2 degrees; the Northern Tlateau,
66.8 degrees; the Coast Begion, 69.4 degrees; the Hudson Valley,
71.0 degrees; the Champlain Valley, 70.5 degrees; the St. Lawrence
Valley, 69.6 degrees; the Great Lake Region, 09.0 degrees; and the
Central Lake Region, 70.2 degrees. The average of the mean
temperatures at 26 stations possessing records for previous years
was 3.0 degrees above the normal, excesses occurring at all sta-
tions. The temperature was the highest on 'record for June at
DqltSMByCOOgle
Ebpobt or the New Yoek "Wbathbb Bureau. 133
"Waverly, and at the Weather Bureau stations at Albany and
Rochester. The temperature was more nearly normal in southern
New York, and especially near the coast, than elsewhere.
The mean relative humidity was 74 per cent. The mean dew
point was 59 degrees.
The average precipitation, as derived from the records of 81
stations, was 2.75 inches of rain. The heaviest general rainfall,
exceeding four inches, occurred on the western 'highlands, while
the least was under two inches in the St. Lawrence "Valley. The
local maximum was 1.91 inches at Friendship, the minimum being
0.69 inches at North Hammond. A list of the largest rates of
rainfall will he found in the table of meteorological data. The
rain periods of the month were as follows: On the 3d and 4th,
light except at some northern and western stations; on the 5th
end 6th, moderate and general; on the 12th, 13th and' 14th, gen-
eral, but heavy only at a few scattered points; on 'the 21st, the
heaviest of the month, the maximum amounts falling in central
and western New York; on the 24th, scattering showers; on the
26th, 27th and 28th, general, heaviest over the Central Lakes and
western highlands; and on the 30th, heavy showers occurred In
eastern New York. The average precipitation at 25 stations pos-
sessing records for previous years was 0.79 inches below the
average; deficiencies occurring at all stations excepting Honey-
mead Brook, Setanket and Flattsburgh Barracks. The rainfall
was the least on record for June at the Weather Bureau stations
at Albany and Erie, Pa., and at North Hammond.
The average number of days on which the precipitation
amounted to 0.01 Inches or more, was 8.1. The number of rainy
days was above the average in eastern New York and below It
in the vicinity of the Great and Central Lakes. The average
number of clear days was 13.7; of partly cloudy days, 10.2; and of
cloudy days, 6.1, giving a mean cloudiness of 42 per cent, for the
State. The cloudiness decreased from the eastern toward the
western section of the State. "
The average total wind-travel at six stations of the National
Bureau was 5,278 miles, being below the usual values in the Lake
•
134 Seventh Annual Report of thh
Region, and in excess at the eastern stations. The maximum
velocity recorded was 42 miles per hour at Buffalo on the 26th.
Thunderstorms occurred at three stations near the coast on
the 1st ; at Sarauac Lake and Ponghkeepsie on the 2d ; at 11 sta-
tions in all regions on the 3d; at (our stations in western New-
York on the 4th; at nine stations in northern, eastern and cen-
tral New York on the 5th; at Lyons on the ftbh; at Brooklyn on
the 10th; at nine stations of the central and1 northern sections
on the 12th; at 12 stations of all sections on the 13th; at four
central and northern stations on the 14th; at Lyons on the 15th;
at Saranac Lake on the 21st; at Bedford and Lebanon Springs on
the 23d; at Mt. Morris and four coast stations on the 24th and
25th; at nine central, western and northern stations on the 26th;
at nine central, eastern and northern stations on the 27th; at
Honeymead Brook on the 28th; at four eastern stations on the
29th, and at four stations of the Hudson Valley and coast on
the 30th.
Hail fell on the 13th, 11th, 15th, 24th, 25th, 27th and 20th.
The greater ipart of June was characterized by pleasant weather,
nearly normal temperature, and an absence of severe storms.
A brief but severe heated term occurred during four days at the
beginning of the month, and a second, but much less intense warm
wave passed over the State during the second week, but with
these exceptions the temperature remained remarkably near the
normal. The rainfall was lighter than usual, especially in the
central and northwestern counties, but drouth conditions ob-
tained only during the first and second weeks, the precipitation
being generally sufficient for the needs of crops through the re-
mainder of the month. Thunderstorms Occurred much less fre-
quently than usual. '
Four areas of high and six areas of low pressure passed in the
vicinity of New York during June, being about the usual number
of such disturbances for this month. All of the low pressure
areas traversed Canada or northern New York, being nearest this
State on the 3d, 4th to 5th, 13th, 18th, 22d and 27th. They were
broad and general areas, covering the provinces and northeastern
New Yohk Wbatheb Boehau. 135
States, rather than well developed cyclones, the lowest pressure
obtained being 29.6 inches during the Storms of the 5th and 13th.
The redaction of pressure to the northward of New York tended
to raiBe the temperature, this being especially the case on the 3d
and 13th. The heaviest precipitation of the month was due to
the fifth disturbance of the series.
The high pressure systems were nearest the State about the
1st, 7th to 11th, 16th and 30th. The third area was very per*
sistent, shifting to the southern coast about the 22d, and again
northward near the end of the month. Daring the passage of
the second area the temperature of the State fell about 5 degrees
below the normal, giving the coolest weather of June, light frosts
occurring at a few stations of the plateaus on the 8th .
A drouth injurious to crops prevailed during the first half of
Jane, relieved somewhat by showers during the first week. Crops
continued to suffer in the southeast until the 22d, after which a
marked Improvement was noted1 in ail sections. The hay crop
was light but generally of excellent quality. The wheat harvest
was under way in many localities toward the close of the month.
Thunderstorms were not so frequent and generally not so
severe as usual in the summer months. That of the 26th, how-
ever, was heavy in western New York, and a considerable damage
to property was caused by lightning.
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140 Seventh Annual Rbpobt of the
Tehpebatube — Junk, 1895, Showing Daily Means fob thb
STATION.
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Stations —
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.flit roo:^ G00<^IC
Seventh Annual Report of the
Temperature and Bain
Tick I' k raters (Dsau
. (»lwraujnu.
. Chemung ..
Etutern Ptattm ■ ■ ■
Coatt Keffion
Saw York intf . .
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MAP OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK
BROWING
THE MEAN TEMPERATURES
FOR JUNE, 1895
i:„rc::' GOOglC
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New York Weather Bureau,
fall Statistics — June.
MgltbedbyGoOgle
Meteorological Summary for July, 1895.
The average atmospheric pressure (reduced to sea level and 32
degrees Fahrenheit) for the State of New York during July, 1895,
was 29.97 inches. The highest barometer was 30.36 inches at
Friendship on the 3d, and the lowest was 29.62 inches at Ithaca on
the 8th, and at Number Four on the 30th. The mean pressure at
six stations of the National Bureau was 0.01 inches above the
normal.
The mean temperature of the State, as derived from the records
of 65 stations, was 66.8 degrees; the highest local mean being
74.2 degrees at Brooklyn, and the lowest 62.1 degrees at Number
Four. The highest general daily mean was 76 degrees on the 8th,
20th and 21st, and the lowest was 58 degrees on the 31st. The
maximum temperature reported was 98 degrees at South Kort-
right on the 20th, and the minimum was 30 degrees, also at South
Kortright, on the 12th. The mean monthly range of temperature
was 45 degrees; the greatest range being 62 degrees at South
Kortright, and the least 30 degrees at Manhattan' Beach. The
mean daily range was 21 degrees; the greatest dally range being
47 degrees at Varysburgh on the 19th, and the least, 0 degrees, at
North Hammond on the '31st The mean temperatures of the
various sections of the State were as follows: The Western Pla-
teau, 65.1 degrees; the Eastern Plateau, 65.9 degrees; the Northern
Plateau, B3.8 degrees; the Coast Region, 70.1 degrees; the Hudson
Valley, 68.2 degrees; the Mohawk Valley, 65.8 degrees; the Cliara-
plain Valley, 67.2 degrees; the St. Lawrence Valley, 67.2 degrees;
the Great Lake Region, 07.6 degrees; and Ihc Central Lake Region,
67.2 degrees. The average of the mean temperatures at 25 sta-
tions possessing records of previous years was 3.2 degrees below
the normal value, deficiencies occurring at all stations. The tem-
peratures were considerably lower In .inly or (lie yearn 1884 and
1891.
Rbpobt of thf: New York Wkathkb Bokbau. 158
The mean relative humidity was 72 per wnl. The dew point
was 57 degrees.
The average precipitation, as derived from the records of 80
stations, was 3.12 inches of rain. The heaviest general rainfall,
exceeding 4 Inches, occurred over the Coast Region, and in re-
stricted portions of the northern highlands and I ho eastern-central
counties; while the least was under 2 inches in the extreme west,
and south of the central lakes. The maximum local precipitation
was 6.86 inches at West Point, and the minimum was 1.1 1 inches
at Fort Niagara. A list of the greatest rainfall rates will be
found in the table of meteorological data. The principal rain
periods of the month were as follows: From tiic 4th to 7th,
mainly on the coast and Hudson Valley; on the 8lh and Oth in cen-
tral and eastern New York; on Hie l.tth and KJIh moderate, scat-
tering over the State; on the 20th to 22d general showers, light,
excepting in the Hudson Valley; on the 27th and 28th moderate
general rains; on the 30th general rains averaging the heaviest
of the-month for the State. The average precipitation nt 2G sta- *
tions possessing records for previous years was 1.04 inches below
the normal amount; deficiencies occurring at all stations except-
ing New York City, Albany and North Hammond. The rainfall
at Waverly was the least on record for .Inly.
The average number of days on which the precipitation
amounted to 0.01 inches or more was 8.4; the number being great-
est in the southeastern part of the State, and least in the central
and northern sections. The average number of clear days was
9.8; of partly cloudy days, 14.0; and of cloudy days, 7.2; giving
a mean cloudiness of 48 per cent. The maximum cloudiness
obtained over the northern part of the State.
The prevailing direction of the wind was from1 the northwest.
The average total wind-travel at six 'stations of the Nntional
Bureau was 6,180 miles; the mileage being greater than usual
at coast and lake stations. The maximum velocity recorded was
45 miles per hour at New York on the 21st.
Thunderstorms occurred at southeastern Stallone on the 4th,
5th, 6th and 7th; at three stations of central New York on the 8th;
154 Seventh Annual Report of the
at Canton on the 9th; at 14 southern, western nod pastern stations
on the 13th; at 10 stations of nil regions on (he Kith; at three
southeastern stations on the 17th; at two eastern stations on the
18th; at nine central and eastern stations on I he 20th; at 11
stations of all sections on the 21st, and at eight scattered stations
on the 22d; at 11 stations of all regions on the 25th; at four sta-
tions of the coast and Hudson Valley on the 27th, and at five
stations of the same -regions on the 30th.
Hail was reported from one station on the 121li, from seven
stations on the 13th, from one station on the 22d, and from one
station on the 25th.
Light frosts occurred in some highland valleys of the western
and central sections on the 1st, 10th and 11th.
The prevailing weather of July was fair and pleasant, and gen-
erally favorable for farming interests over the greater part of the
State. The month, as a whole, was cooler than usual, with a large
range of temperature, the higher limits reaching I he maxima on
record at several stations about the 9th and 20th, while during the
second week and near the close of the month (he weather was
unseasonably cool. The precipitation was unevenly distributed
over the State, but conformed in a general way lo (he normal
conditions for July. A drouth prevailed during the drat and
second weeks over northern and much of central New York, and
copious general showers occurred only near the close of I he month.
There were no severe general storms, but destructive wind and
hail were reported from southeastern stations on the 12th and
13th. High winds also occurred along the const on the 21st, and
at western stations on the 30th and 31st.
Four areas of high and seven areas of low pressure (approxi-
mately) passed in the vicinity of New York during July. The
number of the latter was -somewhat above the usual frequency
for this month, but the disturbances in most cases lacked energy,
and only one strongly developed cyclonic system appeared during
the month. The areas of low pressure passed eastward over
Canada and the northeastern states, In the form of broad and
general depressions, on the 8th, 12th, 17th, 25th, 27tli, and 30th;
13,0 i/Goo^Ic
Naw York Wbatbbb Bubbau. 155
beside which, one "low" of small intensity moved northward
over the New England coast on the 22d and 23d. The first and
third of these areas advanced very slowly eastward, and were
accompanied by the hottest weather of the month.
The high-pressure areas were few in number and of small
energy; but paasing slowly toward the coast over the northern
and central states, their effect was prolonged in this section, giv-
ing pleasant weather daring the greater part of the month. The
first, second and fourth " highs," reaching the eastern states about
the 2d, 10th and 23d, respectively, brought cool waves, the most
marked of which occurred on the 9th and 10th, when the mean
daily temperature fell 25 degrees in northern New York. The
third area, a slight but very extensive system, covered the central
and southern states during the hot wave of the 20th and 21st.
The drouth of the early part of July was injurious to grass and
caused some premature ripening of grains, especially in northern
New York; while the cool nights about the first, middle and close
of the month were also unfavorable to the growth of fruits and
vegetables. The wheat harvest was in progress early in July,
giving a fair yield of grain, bat light straw. Bye proved nearly
an average crop in most sections. Oats were ripening rapidly
at the end of the second week, and some were cut by the 20th, at
which time barley also was nearly ready for harvesting. Crops
were generally secured in good condition.
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Shvhnth Annual Report or the
Meteorological Data
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58
09
52
70
76
77
73
41
74
04
61
48
73
69
04
64
60
66
62
55
48
50
SI
50
46
01
03.0
05.8
04.0
01.1
68.0
Seventh Annual Report or the
Temperature — July, 1895, Showing Daily Means fob
Stationh —
STATION.
1
*
•
•
5
a
7
8
•
IO
67
78
59
83
56
76
55
81
80
80
53
75
58
78
50
84
76
56
79
50
72
77
79
55
86
82
75
69
78
55
73
53
67
72
49
62
75
56
74
44
73
51
45
50
78
58
66
8.'
67
60
76
58
78
59
46
66
66
80
45
rfl
49
(K
46
82
7(1
13
66
70
62
81
75
78
M
69
55
64
68
54
74
50
56
75
58
14
CoamtRtgian ... .
78
67
73
61
65
84
69
ts
60
76
77
68
To
68
72
01
76
62
68
76
64
75
60
76
62
80
57
SI
54
60
79
SB
63
78
78
4S
78
78
18
77
52
78
54
68
76
65
75
SO
70
SI
60
83
48
78
60
65
43
78
83
40
80
SI
78
53
65
71
62
79
62
70
99
71
68
53
74
70
69
58
71
fill
8i
58
70
62
68
60
08
69
70
60
72
68
78
58
69
67
67
71!
62
75
67
58
71
74
69
58
70
78
66
74
61
78
68
78
65
80
62
63
70
78
65
76
60
78
81
80
8H
71
no
74
89
69
18
84'
86
66
89
66
83
66
80
85
91
88
86
60
89
58
s*
82
60
82
69
is
75
61
68
68
61
76
88
88
«2
86
86
86
65
83
65
76
89
69
72
87
69
86
■ ,
90
66
81
69
86
76
B7
66
66
71
89
(ss
157
66
7H
Manhattan Beacb.
New Tort Citj...
WD tela Point
59
76
59
78
60
53
Bedford
Htuiton ValUy....
78
50
63
78
Lebanon Springs. .
Honey mend Brook
Poujrhkeepsle
Wapplnirer'e Fall*.
75
75
78
72
52
54
77
5H
60
72
u
83
46
62
n
48
86
48
76
54
68
75
60
78
Hi
7-.]
84 88
92
77
87
88
60
62
50
81
56
15
80
48
62
74
49
88
82
58
54
62
52
81
Mohawk ralUf...
78
62
76
87
65
72
Utlca
Chamjilnin Valley,
Platwb'gh Barracks
50
66
68
HO
11
56
66
48
69
82
69
76
63
76
70
82
0*
17
70
63
70
61
46
66
56
63
GS
58
70
48
7*
Glens. Falls.
HI. Lawrence Val'g
89
71
u
80
58
62
73
8-1
S8
»
70
80
62
56
76
'.'1
65
BO
HJ
1(9
79
H
68
52
59
70
52
45
77
12
46
06
75
Madison Barracks..
5
78 HI
47 1 40
66 59
•£
Nortb Hammond..
Breit Lnktt
56 ifi
49 ' 45
68 1 SS
80
5*
92
an
68
80
':-
72
62
Si
88
■JO
8!)
61
M
80
715
78
65
7::
66
44
59
76
50
50
53
62
72
fil
71
70
56
73
65
6*
7a i 77 , 74
68
HI
64
S
H2
91
77
70
62
55
76 70
70
74 Tit 1 79
62 1 77 1 81 71
17 ; 47 1 55 I 59
73
Nbw York Weather Bureau.
thb Regions,
( Contin uecF).
and Daily Maxima and Minima for thb
IS
18 I 17 1 18
19
„
81
84
36
20
87
i
5
I
M
76
n
76
«0
TO
61
n
N
ait
73
57
78
so
SI l '
TO
80
H
■J
74
m
as
n
75
KB
■a
72
50
66
70
S3
'1
M
1
»
74
SB
1 68
1 74
05
80
(W
as
71
as
so
04
82
04
78
>T
e*
HO
eo
83
63
87
OS
96
M
7a
01
1 ■»
80
7»
67
84
68
88
70
84
es
sa
ae
SB
os
7TB
SO
«7
SO
OS
SO
SB
S4
CO
&*
S3
as
7S
88
89
94
78
68
90
as
HO
79
63
80
M
70
80
6S
81
47
81
85
60
80
85
58
75
oo
79
67
87
66
84
88
55
88
68
86
eo
69
89
60
89
64
98
60
91
60
58
78
88
78
74
68
89
n
99
90
54
88
69
89
66
85
70
90
67
91
54
61
87
63
78
70
69
89
50
89
66
89
70
68
77
87
68
58
87
56
93
•7
91
71
89
67
76
83
86
79
81
79
78
64
S3
66
89
69
B3
65
74
89
66
80
60
81
61
83
69
86
66
91
68
81
68
Bl
79
64
as
99
83
60
76
66
80
67
69
81
59
84
49
81
59
86
48
85
56
84
71
82
69
76
66
79
65
80
60
78
81
68
68
58
88
60
89
89
85
55
69
70
68
78
69
80
68
81
82
54
77
61
78
68
78
82
67
69
8*
59
67
69
as
71
68
69
77
58
80
49
80
67
80
60
65
79
78
45
60
70
79
78
66
81
60
81
48
76
68
64
89
76
50
58
75
69
69
67
60
68
77
65
86
64
78
78
60
66
89
59
80
46
80
82
47
82
52
78
71
88
70
78
64
78
64
79
58
81
59
78
67
74
ex
68
r>6
60
60
79
69
80
54
as
63
82
59
70
5-i
71
56
72
56
70
46
70
68
61
71
71
72
47
76
48
52
58
71)
74
68
70
98
69
6"
68
70
85
67
68
6
67
9
.8
.8
a
6
8
0
8
a
78
74
II
50
84
56
81
59
87
68
M
H
«n
T5
59
BO
67
n
88
6»
78
88
87
OI
«4
08
tut
7S
BO
'si' "
as
oe
T7
OS
7»
oo
78
BO
=
78
SB
«
67
76
64
00
" n'
1 oo
1 73
1 M
58
80
75
04
74
51
'si'
50
58
78
4*
81
56
59
84
49
'»'
55
80
55
88
61
70
'*6*'
r,r
84
51
86
50
77
85
B0
86
6i
"ft"
64
76
87
BSi
84
68
88
66
68
88
65
89
68
76
TO"
60
85
67
66
77
67
72
84
95
'90*'
97
75
85
59
99
59
90
Su
69
si"
54
84
85
68
76
to"
68
85
65
88
62
TO
78
74
63
71
80
60
69
59
84
99
*82'
64
69
79
60
»
69
83
87
88
65
64
68
7*
80
61
'sa'*
64
97
59
TO
55
77
58
80
68
66
76
66
6!
57
76''
73
86
53
64
76
54
67
19
56
'si"
59
98
80
59
80
56
89
54
'82*'
60
78
55
81
59
56
74
61
73
53
88
64
66
58
59
"is*
55
67
60
76
57
78
75
59
78"
90
75
78
67
"ts"
69
79
69
HU
54
68
78
58
64
70
66
64
68
76
78
51
76"
60
75
73
68
66
'73"
57
73
56
42
58
68
59
66
56
ie"
46
59
60
50
66
58
68
55
60
51
"S2"
70
50
69
'86"
81
68
59
80
71
68
65
'tS"
64
68
58
54
78
50
75
55
66
58
79
67
98
75"
67
88
50
56
57
68
76
60
'ts"
50
M
77
79
58
80
68
80
"so"
59
-
71
58
69
■«"
62
a
55
58
65
51
54
71
60
'76"
54
60
66
52
67
59
58
69
62
ft"
70
49
09
65"
66
s
49
57
61
58
68
64
70'
48
56
50
66
90
62
58
Bl
'51"
6a
68
50
60
'«"
53
52
68
96
66
66
67
67
64
67
98
56
68
67
67
98
97
8
M
51
VI
TO
7»
80
6Z
9
io"
H
«
I
ft"
67
71
67
78
(i
»
n
4
o
ro"
■
u
re
73
r»"
TO
S
64
7B
Bl
61
SO
04
8«
ce
BO
SI
so"
i «°
eo
es
SB
"
Is
2
8
a
0
J Seventh Annual Bbpobt off thb
Tkmferatdre — July, 1895, Showing Daily Means foe
Stations —
STATION.
1
*
s
4
6
8
7
8
9
10
11
IS
13
14
Great Lake* (Coo.).
71
EH
65
78
73
S3
m
»
79
55
n
66
TO
59
04
M
78
Be
79
68
TO
7t
64
78
51
53
78
18
58
TO
5B
79
58
HO
M
TO
58
is
78
74
to
M
75
80
80
80
60
77
63
70
67
78
46
77
78
67
M
78
M
67
68
88
68
70
67
78
85
77
68
78
65
78
04
70
78
03
79
T6
U
76
58
84
68
59
SI
55
79
58
78
66
69
HO
57
98
89
98
en
98
82
94
89
SB
66
98
61
U
84
69
78
67
88
71
89
88
67
89
89
88
B9
90
64
K
69
88
TO
78
83
71
70
58
79
59
71
59
59
70
69
74
60
78
55
85
69
68
78
54
89
50
78
49
71
47
TO
49
68
89
60
68
51
68
50
5H
64
49
74
50
78
58
74
79
58
78
48
78
78
50
78
54
as
TS
48
81
59
80
68
88
M
88
81
HI
61
85
48
88
55
79
6*
68
88
S3
70
81
71
59
78
81
74
51
88
60
78
68
70
68
88
88
88
HO
58
78
71
51
78
48
51
08
Palermo
78
0M
78
Erie Pa
88
68
WatUm
UU
Bomulna
74
54
70
7H
48
90
77
78
64
79
78
85
78
68
88
65
81
67
98
68
90
68
7?
63
79
54
77
58
TO
48
57
50
77
49
78
48
88
M
80
SB
78
TO
56
78
„.
?8
95
6*
64
68
88
08
74
75
69
60
61
68
64
Inimum by lha Draper thermograph. 1 llocortl from aelf-regie
.Google
Nmw Yobk Wbathbb Bcbhau.
the Regions, and Daily Maxima and Minima, fob thb
(Conduded).
IB
„
17
18
19
ao
.
aa
ss
M
*s
as
97
38
,.
SO
81
1
1
SI
0*
78
as
80
50
81
m
78
90
77
51
78
SI
n
m
m
n
u
88
SB
88
05
83
K
88
■
78
«8
m
80
SB
78
«
7S
78
M
M
u
87
HI
89
BS
SI
69
B8
81
«
BO
B»
HI
SB
75
88
74
58
78
58
78
80
78
»
88
00
78
65
78
50
74
89
87
77
58
87
58
88
58
81
5*
81
SO
fa
58
88
88
81
58
SB
as
88
54
en
67
85
86
on
88
71
81
67
SB
67
SB
68
TB
SS
78
88
70
88
89
88
t»
90
SB
TB
69
88
SB
88
71
88
89
79
87
70
80
SO
88
SO
81
81
88
80
74
«
80
68
SI
67
74
78
67
85
60
79
77
69
57
89
68
75
SB
78
SO
TB
64
68
78
SO
79
65
80
68
60
Bl
60
61
75
55
49
59
89
76
56
75
61
78
79
56
76
58
69
60
45
78
69
SB
66
79
60
76
66
78
56
77
56
68
70
SO
75
54
69
78
56
65
78
59
66
SI
75
80
68
60
65
66
64
GS
68
Gl
68
G9
G9
86
SO
75
79
GO
79
76
59
n
60
SI
78
57
78
5G
65
71
67
81
57
81
69
68
81
69
78
57
SB
58
78
69
7B
59
68
T9
58
06
55
71
56
79
67
70
54
51
58
66
55
TO
65
64
65
Tl
65
67
SB
SB
67
ss
65
68
56
68
SB
66
58
86
57
58
64
68
OB
67
88
SB
as
67
67
67
97
68
06
8
4
0
0
0
2
i
78
78
43
79
6*
88
M
He
go
ii
78
57
77
57
83
S3
87
50
88
SS
B8
67
90
69
86
68
81
70
89
SB
SI
7B
61
78
54
SB
GO
76
69
78
S3
75
58
74
58
65
6B
85
G5
70
SS
78
58
79
57
80
58
70
58
71
65
65
51
67
50
8
4
•4
88
74
88
SB
78
76
74
99
66
66
65
61
SB
OS
68
58
8
xi and minimum thermometer from the IStti to the end ef m
.Google
Shybnth Annual Report of the
Daict and Monthly Pkbctpi
STATION.
1
a
8
4
6
«
7
8
D
IO
11
18
13
■•
Wetttrn Ptatrau.
037
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1,
New Yobk Whathbr Bureau.
TATION FOB JlJLY, 1895 — (InOHHS).
u
16
1 UK
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17
la
..
30
ai
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84
as
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Meteorological Summary for August, 189^.
The average atmospheric pressure (reduced to sea level and 32
degrees Fahrenheit) for the State of New Tork daring August
was 29.95 inches. The highest barometer was 30.34 inches at
Friendship on the 22d, and the lowest was 29.64 inches at Albany
on the 24th. The mean pressure was quite uniform over the
State. The average barometer for the month at six stations of
the National Bureau was 0.06 incites below the normal; the de-
ficiency amounting to 0.08 inches at Oswego, and to but 0.04 inches
at Albany.
The mean temperature of the State, as derived from the records
of 62 stations, was G8.1 degrees; the highest local mean being 76.0
degrees at Brooklyn, and the lowest G2.6 degrees at Saranac Lake.
The highest general daily mean was 75 degrees on the 11th, and
the lowest was 57 degrees on the 22d. The maximum temperature
reported wjis 94 degrees at Oneonta, Otsego county, on the 11th,
and the minimum was 30 degrees at Saranac Lake on the 21st.
The mean monthly range of temperature was 48 degrees; the
greatest range being 50 degrees nt several stations of the Eastern
and Western Plateaus, and the least 29 degrees at Manhattan
Beach. The mean daily range was 21 degrees; the greatest daily
range, 52 degrees, occurring at Hamilton on the 23d, while the
least was 3 degrees at Malone on the 24th, and at Manhattan
Beach on the 28fli. The menu temperatures of the various sec-
tions of the State were ns follows: The Western Plateau, 66.8
Repost of the New York "Wkatheb Bubeac. 175
d^rees; the Eastern Plateau, 67.3 degrees; the Northern Plateau,
64.0 degrees; the Coast llegion, 72.0 degrees; the Hudson Valley,
70.7 degrees; the Champlain Valley, 66.2 degrees; the St. Law-
rence Valley, 67.0 degrees; the Great Lake Region, 68.6 degrees;
the Central Lake Region, 60.5 degrees. The average of the mean
temperatures at 25 stations possessing records for previous years
was 0.5 degrees above the normal. Deficiencies generally ob-
tained at northern stations, and excesses in the southern section,
amounting to about 2 degrees near the coast.
The mean relative humidity was 75 per cent. The dew point
was 58 degrees.
The average precipitation, as derived from the records of 79
stations, was 4.11 inches of rain. The heaviest general rainfall,
ranging from 4 to 6 inches or more, occurred on the plateaus
and near the coast, and the least in the Hudson and St. Lawrence
Valleys and near the Lakes. The maximum local amount was
8.27 inches at Wedgewood, and the minimum was 1.65 inches at
Le Roy. A list of the maximum rates of precipitation will be
found in the table of meteorological data. The principal rain
periods were as follows: On the 3d and 4th general but light in
the Hudson Valley and on the Lakes; on the 6th and 7th, the
heaviest general rains of the month, with a maximum in northern
New York; on the 11th and 12th, general, but light in the south-
east; on the 17th and 18th, general, excepting along the eastern
border; on the 24th, lightest in the southeast; on the 28th and
29th, moderate and general, except near the coast; on the 31st,
least in the northwestern section. A trace of snow was reported
from Gloversville on the 21st. The average precipitation at 25
stations possessing records for previous years was 0.50 inches
above the normal amount. Excesses generally obtained on the
i Google
176 Seventh Annual Report of the
eastern and central highlands and deficiencies in the Hudson
Valley and the greater part of the Western Plateau.
The average number of days on which the precipitation
amounted to 0.01 inches or more waa 10.4 j the number of rainy
days was greatest in western and northern New York, and least
in the Hudson Valley and Coast Region. The average number of
clear days was 11.1; of partly cloudy days, 13.6; and of cloudy
dayB, 6.3; giving a mean cloudiness of 40 per cent for the State.
The cloudiness was least over the Coast and the Eastern and
Western Plateaus, mid greatest over the Lake Region and
northern New York.
The prevailing direction of the wind was from the southwest.
The average total wind travel at six stations of the National
Bureau, was 5,947 miles, the mileage being above the usnal
values at eastern stations and below on the Lakes. The maximum
velocity reported from the above stations was 62 miles per hour
at New York city on the 4th.
Thunderstorms were reported from 9 stations on the 3d; from
17 stations on the 4th; from 22 stations on the 6th; from 11 sta-
tions on the 7th; from 5 stations on the 9th; from 1 station on
the 10th; from 18 stations on the 11th; from 12 stations on the
12th; from 4 stations on the 13th; from 3 stations on the 16th;
from 23 stations on the 17th; from 8 stations on the 18th; from 5
stations on the 24th; from 6 stations on the 28th; from 10 sta-
tions on the 29th, and from 7 stations on the 31st
Hail fell on Die 4lli, 6lh, 17th, 18th and 28th.
Frosts, which were generally reported on the 22d, were light in
most cases, but in some of the higher valleys of the plateaus were
severe enough to kill buckwheat and late corn.
During August the averages of both temperature and rainfall
Nrw York Wbathbb Bureau. 177
were quite near the normal values, each, however, showing a
considerable variation within the limits of the State. The month
was about two degrees warmer than usual in the southeastern
section, while in northern New York the averages were somewhat
below normal, the difference corresponding to the greater cloudi-
ness in the latter region. The warm periods included the dates
from the 6th to the 18tb, and from the 23d to the 30th, with a
maximum daily excess above the normal of about 5 degrees on
the 11th, 24th and 28th, when readings of 90 degrees, or slightly
higher, were commonly observed. The only important depres-
sions of temperature occurred from the 1st to 4th and 19th to 22d,
the latter being most marked, and giving severe frosts in the
cooler sections of the highlands. The daily range was large, indi-
cating a rapid fall of temperature at night.
Much of the rainfall occurred during thunderstorms, and hence
was quite unevenly distributed. At Malone, in the northern sec-
tion, the total was more than four inches above the normal, while
in the lower Hudson Valley a very severe drouth occurred. Bain
occurred with about the usual frequency over the State as a
whole, bnt the number of clear or fair days was greater than
usual. The month was notable for severe electric storms, the
most violent of which occurred on the 1th, 11th, 17th, 18th and
28th.
All of the low pressure areas of August moved eastward over
or beyond the northern part of the State; their dates of passage
being about the 2d, 7th, 12th, 14th, 17th, 24th, 27th and 31st.
The 6th and 8th of these areas were quite sharply defined cyclones,
but generally the depressions were broad and shallow, and mov-
ing rather slowly over the Canadian Provinces, maintained a rela-
12
,v Google
178 Seventh Annual Report of the
tively low pressure over that region daring the greater part of
the month. The high pressure systems, six in number, were
generally very extensive, though developing only moderate cen-
tral pressures. The usual course of the " highs" was over the
eastern-central or southern States to the Atlantic, thence spread-
ing northward along the coast. The anticyclonic systems were
most strongly felt in New York on and about the 2d, 14th, 16th,
22d, 25th and 29th. The maximum pressure, 30.3 inches, obtained
during the eastward passage of the fourth area, on the 21st and
22d, accompanied by a marked reduction of temperature, with
killing frosts in exposed portions of the plateaus.
Frequent showers and abundant sunshine were favorable for
corn, buckwheat and other growing crops throughout the month,
and fall plowing progressed rapidly. The cool periods of the
first and third weeks, however, somewhat retarded growth.
Barley had been generally secured early in the month, and the
oat harvest was finished in many localities during the second and
third weeks. Buckwheat was in fall flower by the 10th, and a
small amount had been cut by the 17th. The first shipment of
grapes from the lower Hudson Valley occurred on the 7th. High
winds and hail did considerable damage on the 4th, 11th, 17th and
18th. Much injury from drouth was sustained in the lower Hud-
son Valley, and in some other portions of the southern tter toward
the close of August.
Probably the severest general electric storms which have visited
New York for years were those of August 17th and 18th. Ex-
amination indicates that these were probably connected in a gen-
eral system; the storm front covering the region from the St.
Lawrence Valley to Western Pennsylvania at abont 6 p. m. of
the 17th, and thence sweeping over the State in a southeasterly
New York Wbathbb Bureau. 17ft
direction at the rate of about 35 miles per hour, reaching the
coast earl; on the morning of the 18th. Local developments of
high wind, hail and destructive lightning were frequent along its
path, especially In the vicinity of the St Lawrence Valley and
southwestern New York. The storms of the 4th, 11th and 28th
were more reatrloted In area, but caused considerable local
damage.
,v Google
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186 SBVHNTH ANNUAL- REPORT 07 THE)
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Seventh Annual Report of thb
Tempebatctbe — Augcst, 1895, Showing Daily Means tor
Stations —
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Seventh Annual Report of the
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Seventh Annual Report of thb
Tempekatubb and Rajs
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Meteorological Summary for September, 1895.
The average atmospheric pressure (reduced to sea level and 32
degrees Fahrenheit) for the State of New York during Septem-
ber was 30.01 inches. The highest barometer was 30.49 inches
at Friendship on the 15th, and the lowest was 29.58 inches at
Ithaca on the 18th. The pressure was greatest in eastern and
portions of southwestern New York, and least near the Great and
Central Lakes. The average pressure at six stations of the Na-
tional Bureau was about 0.03 inches below the normal ; deficiencies
occurring at all stations.
The mean temperature of the State, as derived from the records
of 71 stations, was 65.0 degrees; the highest local monthly mean
being 70.4 degrees at Brooklyn, and the lowest 58 degrees at
Number Four. The greatest daily mean for the State waB 76
degrees on the 21st and 22d (the highest for September since thiB
Bureau was established), and the lowest was 46 degrees on the
30th. The maximum temperature reported was 99 degrees at
Foughkeepsie on the 23d, and at West Point on the 24th; and the
minimum was 22 degrees at Bloomville on the 15th. The mean
monthly range of temperature for the State was 58 degrees; the
greatest range, 68 degrees, occurring at Foughkeepsie, and the
least, 43 degrees, at Madison Barracks. The mean daily range
was 22 degrees; the greatest daily range being 48 degrees at
Watertown on the 6th, and the least 4 degrees at three stations
on several dates. The mean temperatures for various sections of
the State were as follows: The Western Plateau, 63 degrees^
the Eastern Plateau, 61.9 degrees; the Northern Plateau, 58.5 de-
MgltlzedbyGOOgle
Report or the New Yobx Weathee Bureau. 199
grees; the Coast Region, 67.7 degrees; the Hudson Valley, 63.5
degrees; the Mohawk Valley, 61.4 degrees; the Champlain Valley,
60.6 degrees; the St. Lawrence Valley, 61.4 degrees; the Great
Lake Region, 64.4 degrees; the Central Lake Region, 66.2 degrees.
The average of the mean temperatures at 26 stations possessing
records for previous years was 2.7 degrees above the normal,
excesses occurring at all stations excepting Canton. Generally,
the departures were greatest in central and southern New York,
and least in the northern sections.
The mean relative humidity was 73 per cent. The mean dew
point was 54 degrees.
The average precipitation for the State was 2.31 inches of rain
and melted snow, as derived from the records of 92 stations. The
greatest general precipitation, ranging from 4 to 6 inches and
more, occurred over portions of the Northern Plateau and the
St. Lawrence Valley; and the least was under 2 inches over a
considerable area of the western highlands and the coast and
Hudson Valley and vicinity. The maximum local rainfall was
6.42 inches at Number Four, Lewis county, and the least was 0.72
Inches at Warwick, Orange county. A list of the heaviest rates
of precipitation will be found in the accompanying table of
meteorological data. The rainfall was insignificant until the 9th,
when light showers occurred, mainly over the western and north-
ern sections. On the 11th and 12th general showers occurred,
being quite heavy at some stations in northern New York; and
also on the 16th general but light showers were reported. The
heaviest rains of the month occurred on the 18th, with a maxi-
mum in central New York; on the 26th, maximum over the Lake
Region and the northern counties; on the 29th, general over the
State; and on the 30th, heaviest in the St. Lawrence and Hudson
Valleys; 0.6 inches of snow fell at Humphrey, and traces at sev-
eral stations of the plateaus. The average precipitation at 27
stations possessing records for previous years was 1.07 inches
below the normal amount, only Rochester and Erie, Pa,, reporting
Blight excesses. The amount at Humphrey was the least for
,v Google
200 Seventh Annual Report of the
September shown by 13 years' record at that station; and the
amount at Albany was the least for September, with the exception
of an equal amount in 1884.
The average number of days on which 0.01 inches or more of
rain fell was 6.8; the number being greatest over the Northern
Plateau and Great Lake Region, and least over the Central Lakes
and Hudson Valley. The average number of clear days was 13.7;
of partly cloudy days, 10.2; and of cloudy dayB, 6.1; giving an
average cloudiness of 42 per cent, for the State. The greatest
amount of cloud obtained over northern and western New York.
The prevailing wind direction was from the southwest. The
average total wind travel at six stations of the National Bureau
was 6,470 miles, being generally above the usual mileage. The
maximum velocity reported from the above stations was 48 miles
per hour at New Y-erk city on the 18th.
Thunderstorms were observed as. follows: On the 2d at Bed-
ford; on the 7th at 7 stations of western, central and northern
New York; on the 8th at Gloversville and Baldwinsville; on the
9th at 10 stations in all sections except the Coast; on the 10th
at Bedford and at 3 stations of the Western Plateau; on the 11th
at 11 stations of the western, northern and eastern-central sec-
tions; on the 12th at 6 stations of western and northern New
York and on the coast; on the 15th at Bedford; on the 18th at 8
stations of western, central and northern New York; on the 19th
at Alfred Center, Canton and Lyons; on the 25th at Lyons; on
the 26th at 14 stations of western, central and northern New
York, the HudBon Valley and Coast Region; on the 30th at Wap-
pinger's Falls.
Hail feli on the 7th, 12th, 20th, 27th and 30th; and sleet on the
27th and 30th.
A solar halo was observed at Wedgewood.
An earthquake shock was noted at Bedford on the 1st at 6.06
a. ni.
In general, the weather of September was characterized by
remarkably large fluctuations of temperature, with an average
,v Google
Nbw Yobk Weather Bdbbau. 201
above the normal, and by much sunshine and a deficient rainfall.
The general atmospheric movements were more rapid and more
strongly developed than in preceding summer months, and some
local storms of great violence developed within the State, as de-
tailed below. The conditions were very favorable for harvesting
operations of all kinds and also for maturing late crops, excepting
in portions of the Lake Begion and the southeast, where severe
drouth prevailed.
Five areas of high and seven areas of low pressure influenced
the weather of this State during September. The " low " areas
passed central!; to the northward of the State, with one excep-
tion, being nearest this vicinity on the 4th, 7th, 12th, 21st-22d,
26th, and 29th-30th. Ail of these areas were of considerable mag-
nitude and strength; but their centers generally passing far to
the north of New York, their full force was not felt Id this section.
In addition to the storm systems mentioned a well marked de-
pression passed centrally over New York on the 18th; accom-
panied by heavy showers in the central counties, and high winds
throughout the State, reaching the maximum for the month in the
CoaBt Region.
The third and fifth " low " areas, spreading over Canada,
notably influenced the temperature conditions of the State, bring-
ing the heated terms of the 12th and 20th to 24th, which rank
among the severest ever known in this State during September;
the latter period being also warmer than any weather during the
summer of this year. The maximum at New York city on the
21st was within 3 degrees of the highest recorded in September,
and that at Albany was the highest on record for this month. The
average for September, 1881, was, however, considerably higher,
and somewhat higher maxima also generally occurred during the
early part of that month. Fortunately the humidity of the air
was not great during the hot waves of the present month.
All of the high pressure systems which crossed the United
States during September passed in the vicinity of New York,
being nearest this State on the lst-2d, 8th-10th, 14th-15th, 24th
,v Google
202 Seventh Annual Report of the
and 28th. The second and third areas, after reaching the coast,
spread southward, covering the southern States during the prin-
cipal heated terms of the month. The latter was a large and
strongly developed system, bringing with it a severe and general
depression of temperature, causing the first important killing
frosts of the season in New York and vicinity. The fourth area
also brought a fall of daily temperature of about 20 degrees after
the hot wave of the 21st-24th, and the fifth high, closely following,
gave still cooler weather at the close of the month.
From the 1st to the 20th fair weather prevailed, with a gen-
erally deficient rainfall. These conditions favored harvesting
operations, and late crops also developed wel! in most cases; but
in some sections near Lake Ontario, the Southern Tier, and
especially in the southeast, drouth became very serious. The de-
ficiency of rainfall at Honeymead Brook, Dutchess county,
amounted to 11 inches since January 1st; and in the same county,
Wappinger"s lake was dry for the first time in 20 years. After
the 20th the rainfall was more abundant for the State at large,
but still deficient in the dryer sections.
At the beginning of the month oats were generally secured,
hop picking in the central counties was well under way, and the
bean and potato harvests were commenced. By the middle of
September corn was generally cut, and much buckwheat also.
Grapes escaped serious injury from frost, and were secured in
good condition during the last decade.
The severest local storms of the month occurred on the evening
of the 11th in the vicinity of the Champlain, Mohawk and upper
Hudson valleys. The observer at Watertown furnishes details
regarding the tornado which visited that vicinity on the 11th;
trees and chimneys being blown down and a few buildings un-
roofed. At Cape Vincent a large shed collapsed, killing three
persons and injuring others. Several other buildings were in
ruins, lumber piles were scattered and trees uprooted. At Turin,
Gloversville, Canton and North Hammond dangerous gales oc-
,v Google
New York Weather Bureau. 203
curred, and several buildings were destroyed by lightning at the
latter place. Damaging thunder and wind storms were also re-
ported from Bedford on the 6th, Mew Lisbon on the 10th and
Setauket on the 12th.
,v Google
Seventh Annual Report of thb
Meteorological Data
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for September — (Continued).
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Seventh Annual Hkport op the
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59 1 48
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Regions, J
New York Weather Bureau. 211
Daily Maxima and Minima for the Stations.
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00. 5
69.6
Seventh Annual Report of the
Temperature — September, 1895, Showing Daily Means fob
Stations —
STATION.
1
a
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New York City....
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09
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Lebanon Springs...
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S
Medleon Bimicki
Wilertoirn
North Hammond .
lie
New Yoek Weather Bureau.
the Regions, and Daily Maxima and Minima for '
(Continued).
-
IB
17
18
19
90
XI
%%
23
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91.4
69.8
93.1
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93.9
91.5
Seventh Annual Report <
Temperature — September, 1895, Showing Daily Means fob
Stations —
STATION.
1
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3
4
s
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8 9.
10
11 18
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58
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New York Weather Bureau. 215
the Regions, and Daily Maxima and Minima for the
16
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Daily and Monthly Pheoifi
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Seventh Annual Eeport of the
TEMPERATURE AND RAIN
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1881
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1895
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1881
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New Tore Weather Bureau,
fall Statistics — September.
,v Google
Meteorological Summary for October, 1895.
The average atmospheric pressure (reduced to sea level and 32
degree Fahrenheit) for -the State of New York during October was
30.04 inches. The highest barometer was 30,61 inches at Albany
on the 30th, and the lowest was 29.48 inches at New York city on
the 13*h. The pressure decreased slightly from the southern
toward the northern border. The average pressure at six stations
of the National Bureau was about 0.03 inches below the normal
value, deficiencies occurring at all stations. The greatest depar-
ture was 0.06 Inches at Oswego and the least was 0.01 inches at
Erie.
The mean temperature of the State, as derived from the records
of 71 stations, was 44.0 degrees; the highest local monthly mean
being 51.6 degrees at Brooklyn, and the lowest, 38.4 degrees at
Bloomville, Delaware county. The highest general daily mean was
S3 degrees on the 27 th, and the lowest was 34 degrees on the 19th
and 30th. The maximum temperature reported was 76 degrees at
West Point on the 3d, and the minimum was 11 degrees at Bloom-
ville on the 25th — The mean monthly range of temperature for the
State was 46 degrees; the greatest range 58 degrees, occurring at
Waverly, and the least, 20 degrees, at Manhattan Beach. The
mean daily range was 20 degrees; the greatest daily range being
46 degrees at Friendship and Waverly on the 22d, and at Bloom-
ville on the 25th. The least daily range was 1 degree at Brook-
lyn on the 8th. The mean temperatures of the various sections
of the State were as follows: The Western Plateau, 43.1 degrees;
the Eastern Plateau, 42.6 degrees; the Northern Plateau, 40.2
i; linzeooyGoOQle
Report of the New York Weather Bureau. 223
degrees; the Coast Region, 48.9 degrees; the Hudson Valley, 45.6
degrees; -the Mohawk Valley, 43.0 degrees; the Champlain Val-
ley, 42.9 degrees ; the St. Lawrence Valley, 42.6 degrees ; the Great
Lake Region, 45.1 degrees; the Central Lake Region, 45.6 degrees.
The average of the mean temperatures at 27 stations possess-
ing records for previous years was 4.6 degrees below the normal,
deficiencies being reported from all stations. The month
was the coldest October shown by the consecutive records at
Honeymead Brook covering 15 years, at Humphrey covering 13
years and at Erie, Pa., covering 22 years. It was also the lowest
shown by the non-consecutive recordsof PlaittsbuTgh Barracks, 37
years, Madison Barracks, 36 years and North Hammond, 13 years.
The mean temperature, for the State, was slightly lower in
October, 1889.
The mean relative humidity, for the State was 70 per cent.
The mean dew point was 35 degrees.
The average precipitation for the State was 1.94 inches, as
derived from the records of 91 stations. The greatest general
rainfall ranged from 4 to 6 inches over portions of the south-
eastern counties and Coast Region, and the least was under 1 inch
over considerable areas near the northern border of the State and
east of the Central Lakes. The greatest local rainfall was 6.11
inches at Middletown, and the least was 0.15 inches at Massena.
A list of the heaviest rates of precipitation will be found in the
accompanying table of meterological data. The principal rain
periods were as follows: On the 7th to 9th moderate rains in the
southeast, light elsewhere; on the 12th to 13th, heavy on the coast
and Hudson Valley, moderate over the remainder of the State; on
the 15th and 16th and 20th and 21st, light general; on the 27th,
28th and 29th, very light except in the Hudson Valley, Western
Digitized byGOQgle
224 Seventh Annual Report of the
Plateau and Great Lakes ; on the 31st the maximum for the month
over the State heaviest in eastern New York. The average snow-
fall for the State was 2.7 inches. The maximum local amount
was 27.1 inches at Turin, while at Coast stations no snowfall was
reported. On the Northern Plateau the amounts ranged from 4
to 10 inches; on the Eastern and Western riateaus from 5 inches
to a trace. In other regions the amount was generally under 2
inches. The average precipitation at 25 stations possessing-
records for previous years was 1.12 inches below the normal. The
total was above the normal at a few southeastern stations, but
was deficient elsewhere. The amount was the least for October
as Bbown by the 12 years' record of Angelica, the 18 years' record
of Elmira, the 36 years' record of Pittsburgh Barracks and the 27
years' record of Potsdam.
The average number of days on which the precipitation,
amounted to 0.01 or more was 6.7, which is the least number, with
two exceptions, for amy month since this bureau was established..
The greatest rain frequency obtained over the Northern Plateau
and portions of the Great Lake Region, and the least along the
eastern border of the State, and in areas of the Central Lake
Region and the St. Lawrence Valley. The average number of
clear days was 11.9; of partly cloudy days, 10.5; and of cloudy
days, 8.G; giving an average cloudiness of 47 per cent for the
State. The greatest cloudiness obtained over the Northern Pla-
teau and the Great Lake Region, and the least over the 'Coast
Region, the Hudson Valley and the Eastern Plateau.
The prevailing wind direction was from the southwest. The
average total wind travel at six stations of the National Bureau
was 8,949 miles, the values 'being generally above the usual mile-
,v Google
New Yohk Wbathbb Bureau. 225
age for October. The maximum velocity recorded at the above
stations was 59 miles per hour ait Buffalo on the 28th.
Thunder was heard at Le Boy on the 16th, and light thnnder
storms were reported from Alfred Centre and Appleton on the
27th and from Le Boy on the 26th.
Light frosts occurred frequently during the first week in Octo-
ber, and also killing frosts in the central and northern section.
The first killing frost of the season on Long Island occurred on
the 23d.
Hail and sleet fell at Sooth Oanisteo on the 14th and hail storms
also occurred at North Hammond' on the 28th and at Lyons on
the 30th.
Lunar halos were observedon the 30th and 31st.
The most noticeable characteristics of the weather during Octo-
ber were; A nearly continuous deficiency in temperature, broken
only by a period of abnormal warmth between the 26th and 29th;
a scanty rainfall in all sections excepting the southeast; an un-
usually large number of clear and fair days; and the prevalence
of strong southwesterly winds. A drouth of extreme severity
prevailed in nearly all sections, and streams and wells were re-
ported1 as being lower than ait any time for the past 20 years or
more by several observers. There were very few thunder storms
and no local wind or rain storms of any importance.
Eight areas of high and 10 areas of low pressure (approxi-
mately), influenced the weather of New York during the month;
the disturbances of both classes being more numerous than
usual. The dates on which " low " centers passed nearest this
State were the let-2d, 4th-5th, 7th-8th, 12th-13th, lAth-ieth, 19th-
29d, 25th and 28th ; beside which a moderate depression was over
the "Upper Lakes on the 31st. All of the disturbances passed' to
15
226 Seventh Annual Report or the
the north of the State excepting the 4th, which passed over New
York on the 12th and 13th, rapidly gaining energy, causing heavy
rain and severe gales on the coast; and the second disturbance,
which was also a severe storm whose track lay well over the
Atlantic. The severest of the storms moving in the more north-
erly courses were those of the Ttb and 8th, 16tb, 19th, 23d and
28th; the hist giving the highest wind velocities of the month in
the Lake Region, with a considerable rainfall; while, in eastern
New York the highest winds accompanied the storm of the 19th.
The heaviest general rains of the month for the State occurred on
the 31st, being due, probably, to the inflow of moist air from a
" high " off the northeastern coast toward the low pressure area
then central near the Upper Lakes.
The high pressure systems were generally strongly developed,
and their common course lay over the northern or central States
to the coast, this fact being apparently the cause of the prevalence
of low temperatures during the month. The influence of the sev-
eral high pressure systems was most strongly felt in this State on
the 1st, 4th, 5th, 9th and 10th, 14th and 15th, 17th and 18th, 21st
and 22d, 28th, and 29th, on all of which dates a decrease of tem-
perature occurred. Fair weather, with but a slight depression
of temperature prevailed from the 1st to the 7th, when a severe
storm, already mentioned, passed north of the State, and the
northerly winds in -the rear, with the approach of the fourth ex-
tensive " high " area, brought a severe depression of temperature,
-with killing frosts, which were the first of the season in sheltered
localities in the southeast The approach of the fourth " low "
brought cloudy or rainy and much warmer weather on the lflth
and 13th; but the temperature again fell rapidly on the 15th, and
the weather remained cool, cloudy and showery until the 10th.
New Yohk Whatbbb Bdebad. 227
A very sharp rise of the temperature which accompanied the
storm of that date was succeeded by as sudden a fall, the first ap-
preciable snowfall of the season occurring on the 20th and 21st.
Only slight fluctuations of temperature followed, until the 27th,
when a very sharp rise occurred, amounting to 27 degrees in the
doily mean in northern New York during the passage of the tenth
depression of October; but a severe cold wave followed on the
38th to 29th, the weather remaining cold until the close of the
The drouth reported for September was broken this month in
the lower Hudson Valley but in northern and central New York
its severity was rarther increased, making it difficult to carry on
plowing and seeding. Ground water was very low, and stock suf-
fered considerably from drouth. Frosts were of frequent occur-
rence, bnt crops were generally beyond injury.
,v Google
Sbvbnth Annual Rhpoet of thb
Meteobologioal Data
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Seventh Annual Report of thb
Metkobologioal Data
LOCATION Or ttalTIOHB.
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New Yobk Weather Bureau,
fob October — (Continued).
,v Google
Seventh Annual Rbpobt or the
Meteorological Data fob
Location or STtrroMn.
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80 ; (u>J 38, 84, 80 ; (x) 81, 88. 89, 80 ; (tf 30, 81 ; (as) 18, «B ; (abi 3D, 88 ; (ae) is, 82;
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; (/o)9,S9; 6») 18,19,88; (oft) ft, 81; (oflft.lt.
■ Mnsn of (bo trt-dally observations, i If Ban or the maximum and minimum by the I
the tri-dally observations are derived from the formula, (7 a. m, + 8 p. m. + 9 p. c
wi Chin twBDt i tow- boura.
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Nkw Yobe Wbathbr Bueidad.
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— {Is DnnB Faith.).
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,v Google
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Seventh Annual Ebpoet or the
TeHPKBATTTEE OuTOBEB, J
>5, Showing Daily Means fob
Stations —
STATION.
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64
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63
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Lebanon Springs. .
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66
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New Yoke Weather Bureau.
the Regions, and Daily Maxima, and Minima for the
( Continued).
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40.8
39.6
43.6
...
Seventh Annual Bbpobt of thh
Temperature — October, 1895, Showing Dailt Means fob
Stations —
STATION.
•
a
8
♦
S
e
7
8
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10
11
12
13
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48
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48
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58
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j. and minimum by the Draper thermograph.
.Google
New York Wbathbk Bubbad.
THE REGIONS, AND DAILY MtTTVt AND MlSIMA FOB THE
{Concluded).
IS
16
IT
18
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80
81
88
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44.0
.Google
Bitbnth Annual Ridpoet op the
Daily ahd Mohthly Pheotpi
STATION.
1
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Shvhnth Annual Report of the
Tkmperatdbk and Bain
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New Yobk Weathhe Bubbao.
fall Statistics — October.
Biimu of Moinro.r
Wttiern PlatKav ..
Angelic*
Humphrey
t/orUura Plateau . .
Coatt Region ...
New Yor* City. . .
Seuufcet,
Hwlton Valley. .
Oiamviutn Vallry. . .
PlitUbuyb Kimcti
SL Lwrno Valley.
FnokHo ...
Jeffemcm
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Central l^ket
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Meteorological Summary for November, 1895.
The average atmospheric pressure (reduced to aea level and 32
degrees Fahrenheit) for the State of New York daring November
was 30.15 inches; which is the highest value recorded by this
Bureau, with the exception of January, 1890. The highest ba-
rometer was 30.68 inches at Albany on the 28th, and the lowest
was 29.33 inches at Rochester, on the 26th. The mean pressure
was highest in eastern New York, thence decreasing toward the
lakes. The average pressure at six stations of the National Bu-
reau was 0.10 inches, above the normal, excesses occurring at all
stations. The greatest departure was 0.13 inches at Albany, and
the least was 0.09 inches at stations of the Great Lakes.
The mean temperature of the State, as derived from the records
of 71 stations, was 39.0 degrees; the highest local monthly mean
being 46.2 degrees at Setauket, while the lowest was 33.0 de-
grees at Saranac Lake. The highest general daily mean was 58
degrees on the Stb and the lowest was 21 degrees on the 21st.
The maximum temperature reported was 76 degrees at Bedford
on the 7th, and the minimum was 2 degrees below zero at Canton
on the 22d. The mean monthly range of temperature for the
State was 56 degrees; the greatest range, 66 degrees, occurring
at Canton, and the least 32 degrees, at Manhattan Beach. The
mean temperatures for the various regions of the State were as
follows: The Western Platean, 38.9 degrees; the Eastern Plateau,
39.3 degrees; the Northern Plateau, 35.3 degrees; the Coast Re-
gion, 44.0 degrees; the Hudson Valley, 41.3 degrees; the Mohawk
Valley, 38.4 degrees; the Champlain Valley, 36.2 degrees; the
St. Lawrence Valley, 36.7 degrees; the Great Lake Region, 39.8
degrees; the Central Lake Region, 40.6 degrees. The average of
the mean temperatures at 26 stations, possessing records for pre-
vious years, was 1.9 degrees above the normal, excesses occurring
generally throughout the State.
Rbpobt of thb New York "Weather Bubbjlu. 247
The mean relative humidity for the State was 75 per cent The
mean dew point was 35 degrees.
The average precipitation for the State was 4.14 inches, as de-
rived from the records of 90 stations. The greatest general pre-
cipitation, exceeding six inches, occurred over the western portion
of the Adirondack Plateau, while the least was under three inches
at several stations of central New York. The maximum local
amount was 6.39 inches at Ithaca, and the minimum was 1.80
inches at Waverly. A list of the heaviest rates of precipitation
will be found in the table of meteorological data. The principal
wet periods were as follows : On the 1st, heavy rain in the Hudson
Valley; on the 2d, moderate amounts at coast stations; on the 8th
and 9th, heavy rains in northern and western New York, and
lighter rains and snow on the 10th; on the 15th, the heaviest rains
of the month on the coast, moderate in the Hudson Valley, and
light elsewhere. General rains and snows occurred on every day
from the 19th to the 27th, the maximum amount for the State
being 0.58 inches on the 26th. The average snowfall for the
State was 2.8 inches, as derived from the records of 56 stations.
The greatest local amount was 12.9 inches at Malone, while at
coast stations only traces were reported. The average for west-
ern New York was about four inches, for eastern New York, and
the lower St. Lawrence Valley, two to three inches, and the north-
ern highlands about six inches. The average precipitation at
27 stations possessing records for previous years, was 0.71 inches
above the normal; the values being deficient only at four stations
of southern New York and at Palermo. The greatest excess
above the normal generally obtained in the northern section of
the State. The amounts were the largest for November shown
by the records of Plattsburgh Barracks and Erie, Pa.
The average number of days on which the precipitation
amounted to 0.01 inches or more was 10.4. The rain frequency
was nearly uniform over the State, although somewhat below
the general average in the vicinity of the Central Lakes. The
average number of clear days was 7.7; of partly cloudy days, 8.6;
and of clondy days, 13.7, giving an average cloudiness of 59 per -
248 Shvhnth Annual Bbpobt of thh
cent, for the State. The maximum cloudiness obtained over the
Great Lake Region and northern New York.
The prevailing wind direction was from the southwest The
average total wind travel at six stations of the National Bureau
was 7,363 miles; the values being below the average for previous
Novembers, excepting In the Coast Region. The maximum ve-
locity recorded at the above stations was 68 miles per hoar at
Buffalo on the 26th.
Thunder storms were observed at Port Jervis and Setauket on
the 26th, and at Bedford and Wappinger's Falls on the 27tb.
Hail and sleet fell on the 22d, 23d, 24th and 26th; and hail fell
on the 2d and 30th.
A lunar halo was observed on the 1st.
The weather of November was characterized by large and sud-
den fluctuations of temperature, with abnormally high values
during the first decade; by plentiful rains over the greater part of
the State, and by a larger percentage of clear and fair days than
usually occur during November.
Six areas of high and seven areas of low pressure (approxi-
mately), influenced the weather of New York during this month,
being rather less than the usual number of such disturbances
for November. The storm centers, which until the close of Oc-
tober had followed the northerly or summer track, changed to
the southerly or winter course early in November, the usual
points of formation being over the gulf or western central States.
Two depressions passed in a northeasterly direction over the
Atlantic on the 1st and 16th, the first giving copious rains and
high winds along the seaboard. Two areas passed over the
State on the 10th and 20th; the former giving the maximum rain-
fall of the month for the State, while the latter was followed by
strong westerly gales. Of the remaining depressions, the first
passed northward over the Upper Lakes on the 18th; the second
was a general depression, or trough, extending from the lakes to
the Gulf of Mexico on the 23d and 24th; and the third, which was
the severest storm of the month, moved from the gulf northward
over the Upper Lakes on the 26th and 26th, accompanied by heavy
Nbw Yobk Wbaihbk Bubkad. 249
rains and violent gales, causing much damage to property and
prostrating telegraph lines over a large area of the central States
and along the lakes.
The first area of high pressure reached the central States on the
2d, bringing a cool wave; and thereafter moved slowly to the north-
eastern coast, the temperature steadily rising in this State and vicin-
ity until the 8th, when the dally values were about 20 degrees
above normal, the weather meantime continuing fair. Colder
weather with rain or snow followed, from the 8th to the 12th, as
the second storm area passed over the State and was followed
by a strongly developed high, which took nearly the same north-
easterly course as the preceding. The weather was mild and
generally pleasant until the latter part of the third week when
the third high pressure system moved eastward to the Atlantic
States bringing a severe cold wave, with minima of zero or below
in northern 'New York. From the 23d to the close of the month
the eastern States were visited by three high-pressure areas
which were nearest this State on the 25th, 27th and 30th, each
reducing the temperature somewhat, although the average values
did not fall below the normal.
The drouth which had become very severe at the close of Oc-
tober was much relieved by the rains of this month, and the
ground was brought into good condition for plowing. Near the
northern border of the State there was sufficient snow for good
sleighing on two days, but generally the amount was not suffi-
cient to affect crop conditions appreciably. Dandelions were
reported to be in bloom in sonthern New York during the warm
period, or " Indian summer," in the early part of the month.
Some damage to property, especially fruit trees, was caused by
the gale of the 26th in the western section.
,v Google
Seventh Annual Bepobt of the
Meteorological Data
Locatios 0
Sruiom.
STATION.
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254 Seventh Annual Report or the
Tempbbatcke — Novembeb, 1895, Showing Daily Means fob tick
STATION.
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256 Seventh Annual Report of the
Temperature — Noveicbeb,
Showing Daily Means
Stations —
STATION.
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Stations —
STATION.
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9
10
11
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Tekpkkatukb and Raut
COUNTY.
TunuTim (Dhum Fahr.).
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1843
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j-aix Statistics — Notikbbe.
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it R*oftm ,
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Meteorological Summary for December, 1895.
The average atmospheric pressure (reduced to sea level and 32
degrees Fahrenheit) for the State of New York during December
was 30.11 Inches. The highest barometer was 30.78 inches at
New York and Albany on the 17th, and the lowest was 29.11
Inches at Ithaca on the 31st. The mean valnes decreased from
30.16 inches at the eastern border of the State to 30.07 along
the Great Lakes. The average pressure at six stations of
the National Bureau was 0.04 inches above the normal, the maxi-
mum excess being 0.08 lnohes at Albany, while the least was 0.01
inches at Buffalo and Rochester.
The mean temperature of the State, as derived from the records
of 71 stations, was 30.2 degrees; the highest local monthly mean
being 38.6 degrees at Setauket, and the lowest, 22.9 degrees at
Saranac Lake. The highest daily mean for the State was 50 de-
grees on the 20th and 21st, and the lowest was 8 degrees on the
13th. The maximum temperature reported was 60 degrees at Vic-
tor on the 20th, and the minimum was 18 degrees below zero at
Saranac Lake on the 15th; giving a range of 87 degrees within the
State. The mean monthly range of temperature for the State was
63 degrees; the greatest range, 78 degrees, occurring at Ogdena-
burg, and the least, 40 degrees, was reported at Manhattan Beach.
The mean daily range was 17 degrees; the greatest daily range
being 45 degrees at Saranac Lake on the 17th, and the least 0 de-
DigltbadbyCoOgle
Rkpobt of thb New Yokk Weather Bdbbad. 369
grees at Manhattan Beach on the 28th. The mean temperatures
for the various sections of the State were as follows: The
Western Plateau, 31.1 degrees; the Eastern Plateau, 30.1 degrees;
the Northern Plateau, 26.0 degrees; the Coast Region, 36.7 degrees;
the Hudson Valley, 32.0 degrees; the Mohawk Valley, 292 degrees;
the Champlain Valley, 26.4 degrees; the St. Lawrence Valley, 26.0
degrees; the Great Lake Region, 32.1 degrees; the Central Lake
Region, 32.8 degrees. The average of the mean temperatures at
27 stations possessing records for previous years was 3.1 degrees
above the normal; the valnes being in excess at all stations. De-
cember 1889 and 1891 were considerably wanner than this month.
The mean relative humidity for the State was 73 per cent The
mean dew point was 25 degrees.
The average precipitation for the State was 3.70 inches, as de-
rived from the records of 91 stations. The greatest general pre-
cipitation ranged from four to six inches over portions of south-
western, northern and eastern New York. The maximum local
amount was 6.31 inches at Canton, and the least was 1.68 inches
at Middletown. A list of the heaviest rates of precipitation will
be found in the accompanying table of meteorological data. The
principal wet periods were as follows: On the 2d, general mod-
erate rains over the State; from the 2d to the 10th, scattering
snows, light except at a few stations of the Lakes on the 5th and
6th. From the 21st to the 28th, general rains occurred on every
day except in the southeast, where the 23d, 24th and 25th were
fair. Heavy general rains also occurred on the 30th and 31st.
The average snowfall for the State was 3.3 inches, as derived
from the records of 68 stations. The greatest local amount was
16 inches at Baldwinsville. In northern New York the amounts
Malta* byGoOgle
270 Seventh Annual Report of the
averaged from 8 to 10 inches; in the lower Hudson Valley and
Coast Region about 1.5 inches; on the Eastern Plateau 3 inches,
and in western New York 6 inches. The average precipitation at
28 stations possessing records for previous years was 9.85 inches
above the normal amount, being deficient only in the Coast Region
and at Humphrey, Albany and Poughkeepsie. The most notice-
able excess obtained over portions of western and northern New
York.
The average number of days on which the precipitation
amounted to 0.01 inches or more was 8.7, which is much less than
the usual number for the winter months. The number was
greatest in northern and western New York, and least in the
eastern section. The average number of clear days was 8.1 ; partly
cloudy days, 9.2; and of cloudy days, 13.7; giving an average cloudi-
ness of 58 per cent. The cloudiness was least in the Coast Region
and greatest near the Lakes.
The prevailing wind direction was from the south. The average
total wind travel at six stations of the National Bureau was 9,120
miles, being generally above the usual mileage, especially on the
coast. The maximum velocity reported from the above stations
was 78 miles per hour at Buffalo on the 31st.
A thunderstorm was reported from fonr stations of the south-
western highlands on the 21st, and distant lightning was observed
at New Lisbon on the same date.
Hail fell on the 26th, 27th, 30th and 31st; and sleet fell on the
6th, 15th, 17th, 26th, 27th, 30th and 31st
Solar halos were observed on the 7th, 10th, 12th, 24th and
28th, and lunar halos on the 3d, 23d, 24th, 27th, 28th and 29th.
With regard to the character of its weather, December is to be
Malta* byGoOgle
New Yobk Wiathbs Bubeac. 271
divided into sharply defined periods whose conditions1 differed
widely. During the first half of the month the temperature was
almost continuously below the normal, the deficiency being Blight,
however, excepting on and near the 13th, when it amounted to
abont 20 degrees for the State. Bat after the 16th a period of
abnormal warmth occurred, the excess of mean daily temperature
over the State reaching 25 degrees on the 20th, 21st and 26th, and
at no time was it less than 10 degrees above the normal. A gen-
eral bnt moderate fall of snow or rain, which occurred from the
1st to the 11th, was followed by a period of fair weather continuing
to the 20th, after which heavy and frequent rains occurred, espe-
cially in western and northern New York, accompanied by high
winds which reached almost hurricane force on the 26th and 31st.
Fair weather prevailed daring the second and third weeks, and the
average cloudiness for the State was somewhat less than usual
for December. The weather conditions were reported to be favor-
able for agricultural interests. Plowing was genera) over the
State daring the latter half of the month, and even in Franklin
county, at the northern border, hop poles were set during Christ-
mas week. Winter grains appeared to be in good condition and
stock was thriving.
During December our weather was influenced by about six
areas of high and twelve areas of low pressure; the latter number
being abont the usual storm frequency In this vicinity for Decem-
ber. Three low pressure centers appear to have passed over this
State on the 2d, 27th and 31st, respectively; the second of these
disturbances being especially violent on the Ooast and in eastern
New York, while the third, developing a central depression of
28.9 inches, caused gales of destructive force along the Lakes and
Malta* byGoOgle
272 Seventh Annual Kepobt of thh
Id the western section, with a heavy rainfall. Two depressions
of less energy passed eastward over Canada on the 7th-8th and
22d, while on the 4th and 14th low areas of the same class reached
the Lakes, then dissipating or passing far to the northward.
Three storms, all of considerable violence, moved northeastward
over the Atlantic on the 5th-6th, 11th and 14th, causing gales
along the Coast and a redaction of temperature in the interior.
On the 11th and 12th a " low " area of moderate energy passed
from the Upper Lakes southeastward to the central coast; and on
the 19th to 20th an extensive depression was formed between
centers located respectively over the Golf States and the Lakes.
The high pressure systems were nearest this State on the 1st
8th, 8th and 9th, 13tfa to 20th, 23d, 24th and 26th, 26th and 27th.
These areas increased in size and intensity from the beginning to
the middle of the month, after which a decrease occurred, cor-
responding to the warmer and stormy period. The extensive area
which originated near the Pacific Coast about the 13th, and dur-
ing the following week covered the greater part of the United
States, brought fair weather and the severest cold of the month,
especially in northern New York. The fourth and sixth areas
visited the southern States, maintaining a relatively high pressure
over that section, while the storm centers traversed a more north-
erly course than the preceding. The fifth anti-cyclone, moving
rapidly eastward over Canada on the 24th and 25th, brought a
considerable reduction of temperature in northern New York on
those dates.
The following notes upon the violent storms during the latter
part of the month are furnished by observers: At Wappinger's
Falls, |6,000 damage from wind on the 27th; North Hammond,
Malta* byGoOgle
Nbw Yobk Weather Bdebau. 273
gale of tbe 31st blew down fences, trees and buildings; Turin,
much damage to trees, fences, etc., on the 31st; New Lisbon re-
ports streams over their banks on the 31st
Malone reports eleven days sleighing bat there was little at
points further south. The St. Lawrence river was frozen over,
near North Hammond, on the 13th.
18
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Bkveinth Annual Bepobt of the
MeTEOEO LOGICAL DATA
SorOtrn PlaUtm
Lewi*
Lewta
era
900
1671
1240
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314
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Nbw Yobk Wmathhk Bukbad.
fob Decqcbbb, 1895.
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Smvhn'Iu Annual Bbfobt of thb
Mbteobolooioal Data
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BiaomrtB.
HOWDITT.
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STATION.
COUNTY.
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four hour). 5 Rainfall on 2ttb-27th eattmMed from record of
I, 31; (o)U, U; (MM. Hi (OIL .
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Set.
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he nwani .
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11; <«>
™ the
278 Seventh Annual Kepoet or thh
Tempebattjbb: — December, 1895, Showino Daily Means toe tier
STATION.
1
9
8
A
5
e
7
a
9
10
11
19
13
1A
WeMmFlattau..
38
40
23
a
26
11
44
38
ss
M
32
43
33
48
IB
21
34
3
32
n
33
11
17
30
28
34
30
11
18
28
8
26
5
37
B
36
13
30
30
27
12
12
23
16
IS
33
30
41
18
u
28
31
30
IS
42
S3
IS
21
26
21
IB
28
IB
22
IS
22
25
38
IB
27
36
16
21
36
11
38
26
It
23
S
10
18
6
2fl
11
20
21
—6
20
38 •:
1
IB*
OS
16
n
M
37
GO
10
17
13
40
30
01
23
18
37
a
a
34
24
17
n
11
33
14
31
I*
30
IB
38
33
12
34
It
36
10
37
34
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34
4
31
1
17
37
38
8
27
t
37
34
4
35
37
15
38
8
38
38
ID
38
6
37
24
27
IT
25
30
18
38
8
30
13
36
25
80
20
27
11
12
38
25
16
34
11
8
28
28
20
30
15
34
16
28
11
38
17
37
8
86
10
IT
23
T
36
11
28
16
80
20
25
2B
38
38
30
16
22
36
12
38
30
17
16
IT
IS
so
10
34
13
SO
21
30
11
11
18
28
30
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10
37
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It
20
2
25
IB
28
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18
13
30
40
IB
30
17
16
41
88
30
9
36
37
87
11
B6
IB
S3
10
S3
31
11
S3
20
31
35
81
16
38
38
30
48
16
13
33
13
n
82
18
28
21
20
28
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17
40
43
37
31
18
26
38
86
36
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11
36
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38
12
35
33
10
38
38
38
15
15
12
30
17
37
15
32
13
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34
13
36
a
17
33
22
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17
17
15
27
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30
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17
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31
25
10
24
12
14
12
14
16
13
T
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20
34
27
21
21
10
38
27
IB
18
10
IB
16
30
27
15
30
20
28
28
13
25
IB
3B
IB
30
12
20
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13
38
38
36
13
30
11
10
38
31
18
18
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10
16
38
1
13
27
27
17
30
18
28
30
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10
28
31
25
26
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27
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12
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10
16
33
17
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12
16
11
37
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11
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S
u
21
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36
20
12
17
21
22
14
23
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10
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33
6
32
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17
10
35
10
13
17
4
30
8
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11
J
1
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10
0
23
31
20
30
24
20
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26
20
20
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11
4
IB
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22
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3
33
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18
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34
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18
80
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6
IB
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33
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84
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M
Av
80
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34
Vfedgewood
M
fi
41
a
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23
28
38
30
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18
a
30
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31
35
36
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3B
20
87
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4a
30
31
41
12
M
15
37
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36
49
48
24
11
43
18
39
53
31
48
38
43
31
38
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31
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60
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33
47
53
81
4B
86
36
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3
43
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24
18
36
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38
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13
48
10
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1
33
0
30
37
31
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8
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88
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13
15
30
12
33
5
41
South C Mi l»teo. ..
38
37
14
31
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21
38
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31
83
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mdrtlstown
31
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to
— 1
13
so
-8
38
-3
31
'
IforUium Flattan.
19 . -. . - (,t
New Yokk Whathbr Bdbbad. 279
Regions, asd Daily Mahma and Minima for the Stations.
13
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19
30
K
95
n
u
IS
to
u
ti
n
82
41
S3
43
10
44
49
26
43
64
31
30
so
31
53
84
4ft
54
41
57
56
36
6ft
44
53
67
46
69
47
60
46
57
30
64
40
58
87
81
u
56
86
89
48
31
S3
46
31
47
31
43
52
36
52
34
64
36
61
40
40
60
38
46
60
44
57
33
84
23
39
24
38
34
8S
25
40
34
43
28
B
29
30
40
16
89
16
31.1
28. 0
30
47
44
48
29
52
28
45
23
43
25
81.4
U
33
IS
86
18
M
u
n
a
a
M
11
as
3D
19
31
19
11
31
so
so
28
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s
to
s
17
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H
80
H
13
n
19
11
It
n
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10
n
10
42
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16
21
18
20
33
17
IS
to
17
so
IB
n
»
13
15
W
85
IS
31
90
17
IS
90
10
11
11
41
15
40
IB
11
IE
30
10
64
IB
M
U
46
IB
10
25
-6
15
17
11
B
17
18
11
45
48
19
47
41
1ft
41
10
11
41
13
40
8
39
n
38
4
10
11
11
17
I
M
11
16
40
6
1
41
40
8
41
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43
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31
14
1
la
34
SO
se
57
n
66
33
66
93
57
81
60
31
SO
30
64
20
48
24
48
IB
4ft
15
1
47
IB
47
M
60
30
4B
28
27
66
50
54
19
M
4ft
37
IT
47
SB
66
40
57
40
58
43
65
40
64
35
57
40
53
44
58
30
58
36
58
30
54
30
54
81
61
IB
44
10
67
IB
64
IB
61
64
40
33
67
31
64
37
60
34
46
61
33
51
38
SB
46
60
69
61
61
47
61
49
66
47
59
48
49
40
59
38
60
41
68
4*
56
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60
34
60
41
68
17
57
32
60
42
60
63
48
64
44
4ft
50
04
33
SB
41
57
36
61
46
61
42
11
42
62
6ft
65
35
61
80
50
59
46
58
43
58
44
56
40
5ft
45
56
30
58
41
so
to
58
44
66
38
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SB
58
36
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03
47
63
34
81
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48
48
88
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12
46
42
81
48
12
36
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32
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32
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66
31
67
82
42
32
54
30
54
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B*
55
31
45
17
48
33
60
82
65
SI
68
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47
33
54
41
36
33
60
64
36
62
42
55
29
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48
11
50
36
34
53
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88
50
33
41
32
46
28
47
30
40
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46
58
38
52
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27
11
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36
54
86
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40
81
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46
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39
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11
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20
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52
36
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32
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38
39
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SO
48
32
33
51
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39
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47
66
33
46
33
48
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37
45
83
47
61
46
48
54
88
60
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54
87
53
41
61
45
53
43
50
42
47
30
50
36
49
36
58
$
32
40
56
46
1ft
35
50
34
53
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51
37
64
40
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33
33
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54
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41
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61
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52
38
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37
28
63
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41
62
36
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60
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60
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67
46
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36
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24
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67
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30
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28
33
35
16
38
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28
37
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30
19
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28
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53
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23
69
34
40
30
58
25
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12
57
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58
23
60
80
36
23
46
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88
29
20
56
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21
40
24
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3B
T.
55
26
28
42
48
26
30
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32
40
25
40
13
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30
21
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38
23
30
40
36
13
37
16
40
29
88
24
48
20
82
1ft
37
25
37
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42
16
47
12
41
28
46
28
42
K
43
16
20
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24
43
26
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37
23
38
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40
25
49
28
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20
87
34
80
19
40
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33
21
29
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40
20
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28
43
26
26
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89
27
43
26
27
41
26
64
19
67
16
46
84
40
26
50
29
59
27
38
18
48
30
64
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41
28
34
23
33
68
28
10
12
32
35
40
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31
46
13
34
42
14
10
43
23
40
10
39
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38
24
36
20
62
14
23
44
80
63
23
48
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38
29
38
21
66
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40
26
60
25
14
18
53
50
23
10.9
83.4
BO. 6
32.1
81.7
80.8
12.7
30.8
18.9
80.6
80.1
11.4
80.3
30.0
28.4
38.6
38.4
81.0
31.6
10.0
28.6
81.7
3».l
33.0
26.9
23.8
16. 0.
27.1
Google
Smvmnth Annual Bhpobt of thh
Tkmperatobk — DxoKHBEB, 1895, Showing Daily Means fob
Stations
STATION.
1
a
■
«
B
fl
'
8
•
„
-
la
„
14
S.PlatMM <Cnn.
M
n
13
40
10
08
10
10
10
11
23
0
13
10
14
11
11
8
11
81
8
32
IT
12
1
83
t
U
16
1
a
24
11
22 '
T
13
„2
10
-4
a
18.
-7
a
—0
a
1
OMH&giM
17
IT
a
M
46
M
65
»
M
88
18
28
10
IT
38
11
IS
16
40
IS
ta
is
«
n
33
30
u
46
S7
30
si
17
60
41
65
37
56
(B
43
SI
M
51
86
56
54
■a
56
02
47
■a
as
34
17
48
11
33
18
13
30
20
n
a
■4
48
19
15
40
11
31
17
10
31
to
46
18
41
34
20
a
80
31
a
is
14
00
18
10
13
03
18
80
to
37
30
9.1
38
11
It
80
14
26
17
10
S3
10
IS
li
32
10
37
11
15
30
10
27
10
a
30
N
85
IT
18
10
30
H
10
24
3
33
IS
24
21
81
13
13
18
33
IS
33
as
35
n
14
80
11
14
30
18
34
10
sa
20
37
18
14
38
32
40
81
35
a
40
16
41
17
48
It
44
16
88
"
17
34
12
33
86
18
84
30
10
11
87
11
18
30
38
4S
36
11
34
84
44
20
44
32
86
11
18
17
18
18
13
48
11
16
47
38
»
20
8
10
20
34
27
27
20
33
M
12
21
85
27
37
10
11
28
34
28
14
17
27
18
18
17
20
41
11
28
10
11
a
18
20
34
21
32
21
30
20
32
21
34
12
14
24
31
10
21
32
2T
a
11
10
81
12
28
IS
30
10
a
a
18
20
31
a
a
a
24
81
18
a
18
30
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10
a
10
17
7
a
10
n
17
37
»
M
18
a
10
a
24
17
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17
a
16
a
16
10
a
IT
a
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14
18
8
15
IB
IB
17
0
a
10
T
IB
10
27
14
25
13
a
12
25
a
10
10
21
-1
-8
a
0
a
18
a
3
—4
a
30
Maakatm Botoh
New fork CJtj..
WlDat'o Point....
18
16
37
IT
10
38
IS
8T
Bedf rf
30
J7ud*m YaXUy...
IT
2T
Lebuon Spring*.
Honojme»d Brook.
W«Fpl»g«'iFmIl»
WoOtPotlt
a
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8
a
0
32
21
8
32
JfoaoutYsU**....
10
a
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CAimpinwi V«U*v
PUttab'ahBtt'ak*
II
27
W
01
SO
14
87
IS
31
17
30
6
10
31
■
11
24
10
a
36
IS
a
15
20
-1
14
32
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8
6
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1
4
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10
-10
Si. Lanrnm F«T ji
37
M
10
41
11
30
31
17
38
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34
■
00
9
10
IS
1
a
0
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■
14
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18
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10
34
16
10
15
14
35
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11
10
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tl
10
30
31
10
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81
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41
7
14
T
8
6
a
30
6
10
M
32
17
0
10
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14
1
2
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11
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1
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-0
a
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15
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11
—3
•u.—.*.
C Km
10
10
08
14
16
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81
31
0
11
7
86
IS
20
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10
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31
21
0
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T
40
It
40
13
47
14
38
10
44
13
17
10
»
0
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—8
11
— 1
8
Si
37
11
IS
30
10
23
8
20
11
10
20
a
34
10
88
33
1
34
4
11
34
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IB
— 1
18
18
18
20
IS
a
10
0
27
3
16
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1
S
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11
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18
-8
41
a
a
a
Naw York Weatheb Bdrbatj.
THE RkOIOHS, AND DAILY MsTTlfA AMD MlNIMA FOB THE
— {Continued).
IS
37
20
n
12
15
35
10
33
46
II
56
50
17
5*
30
56
42
51
51
33
30
43
45
30
43
55
51
52
25
82
25
33
35
IB
36
21
41
25
30
24
50
48
21
25.6
36.3
32
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13
26
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n
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ts
20
43
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23
36
32
36
0
35
11
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26
10
35
43
26
45
42
24
15
27
41
32
47
26
27
37
30
18
90
58
S7
20
38
23
N
!9
40
23
24
23
42
26
38
22
8
39
27
48
10
32
38
10
27
5
37
T
30
38
13
40
12
28
IS
20
30
47
30
82
23
46
14
47
26
52
20
40
82
61
10
85
40
26
47
30
48
2S
51
22
42
37
11
46
n
38
45
82
38
24
53
38
54
58
40
SO
32
48
38
55
3t
86
40
so
32
52
28
M
54
20
40
54
44
40
43
45
s
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58
30
61
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82
38
48
80
46
57
43
58
43
oo
84
58
31
80
58
84
50
SO
a
40
57
46
48
48
67
30
80
67
42
37
40
57
32
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41
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38
w
88
55
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50
27
46
64
36
45
54
■
38
32
85
55
87
57
40
56
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44
48
38
50
86
47
33
SO
58
37
60
37
40
88
36
20
46
37
38
32
30
66
38
68
34
48
28
44
27
30
64
28
35
40
24
50
S3
37
48
31
48
51
48
88
44
46
40
57
12
41
52
40
48
38
49
34
48
30
54
55
10
40
88
47
39
41
48
36
60
44
50
42
50
as
.38
50
42
40
40
46
35
34
45
87
45
M
48
38
88
48
84
42
46
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MAI' n[.- THE STATE OF NEW YORK
SHOWING
THE MEAN TEMPERATURES
FOR DECEMBER, IS95
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New York Weather Bureau,
fall Statistics — December.
STATION.
COUNTY.
Al'VKM . .
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Section IV.
ANNUAL METEOROLOGICAL REPORT.
i895-
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Meteorological Summary for the Year 1895.
The average atmospheric pressure (reduced to sea level and 32
degrees Fahr.) for the State of New York during 1896 was 30.04
inches; the highest monthly mean pressure, 30.15 inches, occur-
ring In November, and the lowest, 20.95 inches in August. The
highest barometer was 30.78 inehes at New York city and Albany
on December 17th, and the lowest was 28.94 inches at Albany on
February 8th, giving a range of 1.84 inches within the State. The
highest local monthly mean pressure was 30.20 inches at Albany
in November, the lowest being 20>.9& inches at Oswego in August.
The greatest local range was 1.84 inches at Albany, and ihe least
was 1.36 laches at Friendship and Number Four. The mean an-
nual range for all stations was 1.50 inches. The greatest depar-
tures of monthly means from the normal were +0.10 inches in No-
vember, and — 0.09 inches in February.
The mean annual temperature for the State was 45.6 degrees,
as derived from the records of 81 stations; the mean temperature
of February, the coldest month being 17.1 degrees, and of June the
warmest month, 69.3 degrees. The highest local annual mean
was 52.4 degrees at Brooklyn, and the lowest was 40.5 degrees at
Saranac Lake. The highest local monthly mean was 76.1 degrees
at Brooklyn in August, and the lowest was 10.2 degrees at Saranac
Lake in February. The maximum temperature reported during
the year was 100 degrees at Mt. Morris on June 4th, and the lowest
was 30 degrees below zero at Saranac Lake on January 4th, giving
an annual range of 130 degrees within the State. The average
daily range for the year was 20 degrees; the greatest local value
being 27 degrees at Friendship, while the least was 14 degrees at
Arkwright, Buffalo, New York and Oswego. The mean annual
temperature of the State, as derived from the records of 25 sta-
tions possessing records for previous years, was 0.2 degrees below
the normal. The departure was slight, showing an excess at 10
stations and a deficiency at 15 stations.
294 Seventh Annual Report of thb
The average total precipitation over the State for the year was
33.66 inches, ae derived from the records of 79 regular stations.
The -maximum total precipitation was 48.92 inches at Number
Four, Lewis county, while the minimum was 22.44 inches at Fort
Niagara. The greatest monthly average at both regular and
special stations was 4.11 inches in November, and the least was
1.61 inches in March. The greatest monthly precipitation was
10.20 inches at Eden Centre in January, and the least was 0.15
inches at Massena in October. The total depth and distribution
of rainfall over the State are shown by the fourth chart of this
report, and the average daily amounts by the sixth chart. The
average precipitation for 1896 at 26 stations possessing records
for previous years was 4.47 inches below the normal amount, de-
ficiencies occurring at all stations excepting West Point, Malone
and' Potsdam. The precipitation was the least on record at the
following stations, whose observations cover the periods speci-
fied': Humphrey, 12 years; Waverly, 13 years; Setauket, 10 years;
Albany, 22 years; New York city, 26 years; Elmira, 11 years.
The average total snowfall at 46 widely distributed stations was
59.5 inches. The greatest snowfall occurred as usual, on the
highlands east of the Great Lakes, the maximum local amount
being 153 inches at Turin, Lewis county. The total depth aver-
aged about 55 inches over the eastern highlands and the Great
Lake region, 45 inches on the Western Plateau, 100 inches on the
Northern platean, 3S to 40 inches over the Hudson Valley and
Central Lakes, and 80 inches in tie St. Lawrence Valley.
The average number of days on which the precipitation
amounted to 0.01 inches or more, was 107. The number was
largest near the Great Lakes and over the St. Lawrence Valley,
and least in the Champlain1 Valley.
The average number of clear days for the State was 130; of
partly cloudy days, 119; and of cloudy days, 116; giving an aver-
age cloudiness of 50 per cent. The distribution of cloudiness over
the State is shown by the fifth chart of this report.
The most noticeable features of the weather during the year
1895 were a marked deficiency of precipitation, an unusually large
DqltSMByCOOgle
Nmw Yokk Weather Bdbeatt. 296
percentage of bright weather, and large fluctuations of both sea-
sonal and daily temperature. The mean annual temperature was
very nearly normal, January, February, March, July and October
showing a deficiency, and the remaining months an excess. Feb-
ruary and October were notably cold months, white June ranks
among the hottest known in western New York.
There was a deficient rainfall during every month excepting Au-
gust from February to October, inclusive; so that a drouth of
unusual severity prevailed toward the end of this period, especi-
ally in portions of western and southeastern New Tork, ground
water being reported1 as lower than ever before observed in several
cases. The snowfall for the year was much lighter than usual,
January and February only showing about the normal amount.
Severe cyclonic storms occurred during all of the colder months
of the year; the lowest barometer reading being 28.91 inches in
February; white on December 31et, the highest wind velocity (78
miles per hour) recorded in this State for several years was regis-
tered at Buffalo. Violent local tbunderstornw also occurred in
Hay, July, August and September. These storms were especially
destructive in the vicinity of the St. Lawrence and Mohawk Val-
leys on September 11th, and in western New York on August 18th.
The year as a whole, proved1 favorable to the development of
crops, with the exception of grass, which was much stunted by
drouth in some localities in the southeast and along the lakes;
al«o, all farming interests suffered severely from the same cause.
During the cold periods of the winter, 1894-5, seeding was pretty
well protected by snow. The ground was deeply frozen, and ice
remained on lakes and' streams until the warm wave of the second
week of April, when high-water and a considerable damage from
freshets were reported from the southern counties. The appear-
ance of robins and swallows was commonly noted about April 8th,
and the forest tree buds were swelling by the 21st, in the central
and southern sections. Vegetation was far advanced early in
May; oats being sown in many cases, and above ground by the
4th, and berries and fruit trees in blossom by the 9th. Cold
weather in the middle of the month checked growth and caused
great losses in the vineyards of western New York; but the ab-
296 Seventh Annual Befobt of the
normal warmth of the end of May and early June advanced all
crops rapidly. The latter month was favorable for the hay har-
vest, which was generally under way by the 23d, although with
discouraging results in the regions of light rainfall. The remain-
der of the season was favorable for harvesting operations, and the
yield1 of grain was generally fair; but straw was commonly re-
ported to be stunted by drouth. Wheat was cut early in July,
while oats and barley were ripening at the end1 of the second
week, and were secured in some instances by the 20th. Fre-
quent showers and bright weather m August were favorable for
the advancement of late crops, and some buckwheat was cut by
the 17th. Shipments of grapes were made from the Hudson Val-
ley on the 7th. Frosts occurred on the l&th to 22A, damaging
some garden' truck; but the first severe general killing frosts of
the season were those of September 14th and 15th. Hop picking
was well under way by the 1st of September, and by the 16th
much of the corn and buckwheat had been cut. The scanty rain-
fall of October rendered fall plowing difficult, but the drouth
was broken in the southeast at the close of the month, and in No-
vember and December there was an abundant precipitation over
the State. The year closed with a fortnight of abnormal warmth,
permitting the ground to be worked until after Christmas.
In accordance with a custom commonly employed in summariz-
ing meteorological records, a table is given at the close of this re-
port showing the averages of temperature and precipitation for the
five-year period, or lustrum, 1891 to 1896, for all stations whose
records extend over that period. Such long range summaries
serve the purpose of showing to observers the continuity of the
work of the service, and its progress toward showing satisfactory
normals of rainfall and temperature. As regards temperature,
ft is shown in the Fifth Annual Report of this Bureau (p. 144), that
a five-year monthly mean will, on an average, deviate nearly 2
degrees from the true normal, whereas the differences between
the five-year means for all stations within the State will vary less
than 1 degree from the true values; so that the relation between
their normals is shown with considerable exactness. The rainfall
is subject to much greater variations, and a much longer period
is needed to show even its relative distribution over the State.
New York W bather Bureau. 297
Since the majority of stations observe only maxim am and mini-
mum temperature, the means in the table are derived from those
readings. The means of tri-daily observations, however, are less
affected by defects in exposure of thermometers, and it is intended
to publish the means of tri-daily observations for the lustrum as
time permits.
In addition to the tabulated data for the lustrum, the following
summary may be of interest :
Atmospheric pressure. — Highest monthly, for the State, 30.15
inches in February, *94 and November, '95; lowest monthly, 29.87
inches in May, '93; highest barometer (reduced1) 30.93 inches in
February, '94; lowest, 28.86 inches in- November, TH, and Octo-
ber, »93.
Temperature. — Highest annual for the State 47.4 degrees in
1894, lowest, 44.6 degrees in '93; highest monthly mean for the
State, 70.9 degrees in July, "94, lowest, 15.0 degrees in January, '93;
maximum observed, 102 degrees at Waverly on July 20, '94 ; mini-
mum 37 degrees below zero at Canton on December 19, '94.
Precipitation. — Greatest annual for the State, 43.77 inches in
1892, least 33.66 inches in 1895; greatest local, 71.05 inches at
Eden Centre, in 1893, least, 22.44 inches at Fort Niagara in 1895;
greatest monthly over the State, 6.48 inches in August, '92, least,
1.33 inches in April, '92; greatest local monthly, 12.48 inches at
Easton, Washington county, in August, '93, and the least a trace
at West Point in- October, '92. The greatest daily rainfall re-
ported was 7.35 inches at Warwick, Orange county, on September
19th, '94. The greatest total snowfall for the State was 89 inches
in 1893, and the least, 49 inches in '91.
The greatest number of days snowing a precipitation of 0.01
inches or more for the State, was 132 in 1691, and the least, 107
in '95. The greatest monthly number for the State was 17.2 in
May,' 92, and the least, 5.2 in1 August, '94. The average cloudiness
over the State for the entire period was 54 per cent; the greatest
annual value being 58 per cent in '92, and the least 50 per cent, in
'95. The greatest monthly cloudiness over the State was 73 per
cent in November, '92, and the least was 39 per cent, in Septem-
ber,'92.
Seventh Annual Report <
Meteorological Data
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Temperature and Rain
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fall Statistics — Annoal.
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Sbvbnth Annual Report of thd
AVERAGE TeUPERATUBE AND PRECIPITATION
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312 Seventh Annual Report of the
AVEBAGE TeHPEBATUKE AND PRECIPITATION
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were obtained from otber then etandard
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Section V.
Description and Statistical Table of Meteoro-
logical Stations and Sample Crop Report.
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Description of Stations.
WESTERN PLATEAU — ALLEGANY COUNTY.
Station, Alfbbd — In Ghabob of Mr. Lauebncb La Pokqb at
Alfebd Unitbbbitz.
G mill, north; longitude, 77 dec- 65 mln. wtR;
The town of Alfred is situated near the upper limit of a valley
which opens, in a northeasterly direction, toward the Alfred sta-
tion of the New York, Lake Erie and Western Baih-oad, 2 miles
distant. The station is located in the town, half-way np the east-
em slope of the valley, on both sides of which the hill rises to the
heights of from 100 to 200 feet
Until the latter part of 1695, the observatory was equipped as
follows:
A standard Green barometer was hung in a room (heated in
winter) on the first floor of a house on Sayles street The maxi-
mum, minimum, wet and dry thermometers, with a Draper ther-
mograph, were located in a louvred shelter of a pattern of the
United States Weather Bureau standard. The shelten is 7 feet
above the ground, and 35 feet from any buildings.
The rain-gauge was 28 inohes above the ground, and 30 feet from
buildings.
The station has been very recently completely equipped with an
anemograph and anemometer, a thermograph and a sunshine
recorder, and systematic observations for the determination of
the climate of the locality are being made.
,v Google
318 Sbvhnth Annual Report of thb
WESTERN PLATEAU — CATTARAUGUS COUNTY.
Station, Humphrey — Mb. Chablbs E. Whitnby, Obsbbvhb.
Kqutpped (by Signal Serrluo) IHS-lBt; Intituas, 41 deg. 11 mln. north; longitude. 71 ds«.
M mln. wnt; olemOon, 1,860 fMt, u flotanulned by aneroid rwrtlnjn; no d»U b»i«
bn prof lonely obtainable, mud conaoqnontly th« height glTan In the report of ISM 1»
Terr much In error.
The statjou 1b about 10 miles northeast of the Great Valley sta-
tion of the New York, Lake Erie and Western railroad. It ft near
the summit of a ridge of hills, 360 feet above, and on the north-
west side of a stream which flows into the Allegany River at Great
Valley station. The 'hills hi this section rise to an average height
of 1,900 or 2,000 feet above tide, and are intersected by numer-
ous deep valleys,
Mr. Whitney5* station is situated between two knolls, toward
the east and west respectively, whose summits are from 50 to 80
feet above the station.
The dry and wet bu lb and the maximum and minimum thermome-
ters are placed under the roof of a piazza facing toward the south,
in an angle formed by the main portion of the house and a wing on
the eastern side. The height of the tlhennometers above the
ground is about 7 feet; above the floor of the piazza, 5} feet, and
below its roof, 3 feet. The width of the piazza is 4 feet The
thermometers are hung several inches away from the wall of the
building.
The rain-gauge is ■situated about 45 feet north-northwest of the
main portion of the house. Two or three dwarf fruit trees are at
a distance of 12 or 15 feet, and are the only obstacles to a free cir-
culation of air in the vicinity. The top of the gauge is 4 feet above
the ground.
An anemometer placed at this station is mounted on the sooth
gable of the house, 7 feet above the ridge and about 30 feet above
(he ground.
,v Google
New York Wbathbb Bcbeau. 3:
WESTEHN PLATEAU — CHAUTAUQUA COUNTY.
Station, Abkwbight — Miss Etta L. Wilcox, Observer.
This station is situated about 6 miles east southeast of Dunkirk,
on the range of bills which borders the shore of Lake Erie The
writer's observations of an aneroid barometer give the elevation
of this station as approximately 686 feet above the level of Lake
Erie. The thermograph is located at the house of Mr. E. I. Wil-
cox, which stands on the northern slope of a ridge rising above the
general level of the hills to a height of 200 or 300 feet, half a mile
In the rear of the station. The ground falls away from Mr. Wil-
cox's house toward the north and west, so that there is an unoh
structed view toward Buffalo plains and over Lake Erie. The
station is somewhat sheltered from the south winds by the ridge
mentioned, but air currents from all other directions 'have a free
circulation about it. The shelter of the Draper thermograph is
placed at the eastern end of a northern piazza, at a height of 4 J
feet above the floor and 7 feet from the ground. The eastern and
■western ends of the piazza are formed by wings projecting about
7 feet from the body of the house. The thermograph being placed
about 1 foot distant from the outer aide of the piazza. The rays
of the sun are excluded from the shelter and its vicinity at all
times, excepting possibly for an hour in the late afternoons of sum-
WESTERN PLATEAU— CHAUTAUQUA COUNTY.
Station, Jamestown — Mb. N. D. Lbwis, Observer.
BttabHitied In Noremtwr, UK: latitude, « d«K. M mln. north; longitude, » dan.
This station is sitaated in the city of Jamestown, on the crest of
a hill extending in an easterly and westerly direction. The sur-
rounding country is hilly, mainly a moraine formation, Intersected
by short valleys.
Digitized byGOOgle
320 Seventh Annual Report of the
Maxim mm and minimum thermometer* are exposed on the east-
ern side of the house, at a height of 15 feet from the ground, and
are protected by a piazza roof. They are exposed to the Bun's
ray* only at sunrise In mid-winter.
The rain gauge stand* on a level surface, and is 15 to 20 feet
from the nearest tree or buildings. Its top is 9 feet above the
ground.
WESTERN PLATEAU— CHEMUNG COUNTY.
Station, Elmira — Messrs. W. S. & C. R Gbbity, Observers.
u north; lcmgitudn, TO das. St mln.
The city of Elmira is located upon the broad valley bottom of
the Chemung river, at its point of intersection with a deep depres-
sion extending northward from Pennsylvania to the valley of Sen-
eca lake. Beyond the city limits the hills rise abruptly from the
flat lands to the higher levels of the Western' Plateau.
The meteorological station is located near the center of the city
at the business house of Messrs. Gerity, on the southeast corner of
Lake and Carrol streets. The thermometer shelter projects from
a window on the north-northwest side and second story of the
brick building. Its dimensions are approximately 3 feet in width,
2 feet in depth and 3 feet in height, the thermometers being se-
cured near its center at a distance of 18 inches from the window,
which is always closed. The sides and front of the shelter are
closed, the provision for ventilation consisting of an open bottom
and air spaces between the top and Bides. The thermometers are
18 feet above the pavement.
WESTERN PLATEAU — LIVINGSTON COUNTY.
Station, Avon — Mb, W. G. Mahkham, Obsbrvhr.
This station is located in open country of the Genesee Valley
bottom, 28 miles south of Lake Ontario, and is about 100 rode east
.Google
AVERAGE DAILY TEMPERATURE AN!
80
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ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURES RECORDED AT
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Day of Year 30 45
60 75 SO 105 120 135 ISO 165
PRECIPITATION OVER THE STATE 1855.
.0 195 210 225 240 255 270 2S5 300 315 330 345 3*0
THACA DURING i8?5 (8iO FEET ABOVE TIDE).
ISO 195 210 225 240 255 270 265 300 315 330 345 _360 £.TJ. \
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MAP OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK
SHOWING
THE MEAN TEMPERATURES
Wrre -,G00glC
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New York Weather Bureau. 321
of the Genesee river and 25 feet above its 'highest level. At high
water the valley is carried over an area 1£ miles in breadth. The
anrfaice is gently undulating to the east, while westward, hills rise
to a considerable elevation. The valley is 'broad and open toward
the sooth.
Maximum and minimum thermometers are attached to the north
end of a building, their height above the ground being 5 feet.
They are protected by a hood 6 inches deep, open toward the
north, and the rays of the sun are excluded at all hours.
The rain gauge is mounted upon a post, its top being i feet S
inches above the ground. The surface near by is quite level, and
the gauge is at an ample distance from obstructions to free air
circulation.
PLATEAU — LIVINGSTON COUNTY.
Station, Mount Morris — Mr. J. E. White, Observer.
i. worth; lontUuda, 77 dec. 68 min. w«l;
The instruments are located at the house of Mr. White, one
mile south of Mount Morris, on the western side of the broad1 val-
ley of Darasvilie creek. The ground falls 20 or 30 feet to the
valley bottom, in front of the house, and in its rear rises gradually
to the ridge which separates Dansville creek from the Genesee
river. The general surface of the neighboring country slopes
rapidly from the high hills, further south, toward the plains of
the great lake region.
Since the inspection of the station by an officer of the Bureau in
1890, the location of the instruments has been changed' from the
piazza to the northern side of the house. The thermometers are
now secured to a board facing a window of the nrst story; their
elevation above the ground being 10 feet.
The rain-gauge is about 100 feet southwest of the house ; its top
being 12 inches above the ground.
21
Seventh Annual Report of the
WESTERN PLATEAU — NIAGARA COUNTY.
Station, Lockport — Mb. W. D. Lovell, Observer.
This station is three- fourths mile from the limits of the city of
Lockport. The surface of the country near the station is level,
but about 40 or 50 rods north is the "mountain," so called, descend-
ing about 100 feet toward the north.
The dry, wet, maximum and minimum thermometers are ex-
posed in a shelter whose base is about 4 feet from the ground and
about 30 feet from the house and barn respectively. The shelter
is about 2 feet square, and has a pyramidal roof. The door and
three remaining sides are of louvred work, and the bottom is
formed by slats placed about 1 inch apart. The door opens
toward the north.
The rain-gauge is in an open space in the garden about 10 feet
from any trees or bushes.
WESTERN PLATEAU — SCHUYLER COUNTY.
Station, Wedgewood — Ma. O. F. Cobwin, Observer.
This station is situated on the high hills which rise abruptly
from the valley of Seneca lake, and is about three-quarters of a
-mile west of Wedgewood depot of the Fall Brook Coal Company's
railroad. The ground rises gradually to the west and south of
Mr. Corwin's house, where the instruments are located, but elopes
away from it in all other directions. The temperature and rain-
fall at this station should fairly represent the climatic features of
the highlands near the central lakes.
The thermometer shelter is about 30 feet west of the house, and
is supported on posts at a height of 4 feet above the sod. Its
dimensions are about 31 by 24 feet at the base and 3 feet in height.
Google
New York Weathkb Bureau. 323
The rides are of board (unpainted), with a door of Hie width of the
shelter on the east ride. Ventilation ia obtained by spaces about
one-eighth of am inch in width between the boards, and by a large
comber of holes bored in the aides at such an angle that rain is
excluded. The top double, with an air space, and has a slight
slope. The thermometers are hung near the center of the shelter.
The rain-gauge is placed on a post 4£ feet above the ground, that it
may be above snow-drifts. The only obstacles to a free circula-
tion of air iii' the vicinity of the gauge is a hedge of shrubs 20 feet
distant and about 12 feet in height.
WESTERN PLATEAU — STEUBEN COUNTY.
Station, South Canibteo — Ma. Jambs E. Wilson, Obsebvbb.
This station is situated in the valley of a creek, 5 miles south-
southeast of the town of Canisteo. The hills rise abruptly from
the valley at distances ranging from 100 to 200 feet on the eastern
and western sides of the station. The high ridges of the surround-
ing country are separated by deep valleys similar to the one in
which the station ia located, opening northward toward the Canis-
teo river. The highest point in the neighborhood is the "Swale,"
about 3 miles east of the station.
The dry and wet and the maximum and minimum thermometers
are exposed under a piazza of Mr. Wilson's house, 5 feet in width
and facing the northeast. The thermometers are secured to the
wooden wall of the house, about 3 feet from its northeast corner.
An air space intervenes between the thermometer supports and
the wall of the heated rooms within. Canvas is spread along the
front of the piazza to ezol ude the rays of the morning sun from the
instruments and also from the piazza floor. The thermometers
are 3 feet below the piazza roof, &£ feet above its floor and 8 feet
324 Seventh Annual Bbpobt oe the
The rain-gouge is 20 feet distant from the nearest building 10 or
12 feet in height, and about as far from a few small fruit
trees. The height of the top of the gauge above the ground is 2
feet.
WESTERN PLATEAU — WYOMING COUNTY.
Station, Aroadb — Mb. J. D. Tate, Observes.
Efltabliitaed April. 1590; tettlndo, 42 deg. 12 mln. north; longitude. TO ieg. M min. wait;
This station is located near the eastern side of a ridge of hills
which lie west of a valley extending from Arcade to Sandusky.
The valley of Arcade is about 2 miles west-northwest of the sta-
tion. Toward the north the ground slopes gently from the sta-
tion to the valley bottom, 100 feet or more below ; while toward
the west and southwest the ridge rises to a height of 100 to 200
feet above the station. The surrounding country is very hilly,
some of the higher summits reaching an elevation of more than
2,000 feet above tide.
The dry and wet bulb, maximum and minimum thermometers
are exposed outof the north window of am umheated one-story wing
of Mr. Tate's house. The sides of the shelter are the window
blinds, which are secured in a position at right angles to the wall
of the house by a wide board forming the top of the shelter. The
thermometers are 9 feet above the ground, and facing outward,
are reached by steps. The front of the shelter is open, while a
wide board at the bottom cuts off radiation from theground.
The rain-gauge is about 40 feet northwest of the house. There
are no trees or other obstructions to a free air circulation in its
vicinity. The top of the gauge is 26 inches above the ground.
WESTERN PLATEAU — WYOMING COUNTY.
Station, Vabxsburqh — Mr. H. C. Orb, Obsebveb.
The town of Varysburgh is situated in the Tonawanda val-
ley, which extends nearly north and south through western
VjOOgle
New York Weather Bdrbad. 325
Wyoming county. The station is located within the limits of the
village.
The thermometer shelter is built substantially after the specifi-
cations of the United States Weather Bureau, having louvred
sides and1 a sloping shingled roof. It is 24 feet southeast of the
nearest building (a barn) and is not affected by any artificial heat.
The thermometers are 5£ feet above the ground.
The rain-gauge stand* on level ground, 30 feet south of Mr. Orr"s
house and 12 feet south of a small fruit tree. The top of the gauge
is 2 feet above the ground.
EASTERN PLATEAU — BROOME COUNTY.
Station, Binghamton — Superintendent op ■State Hospital;
Mr. J. J. Eastman, Observer.
i. north; loa*ltu4«,
The instruments are located on the grounds of the pumping sta-
tion of the State hospital water- works, on the northern bank of the
Susquehanna river. North of the station the ground rises ab-
ruptly to the hospital grounds, over 200 feet above, and beyond
the hospital the ground continues to rise to a much greater eleva-
tion. The station is at the outskirts of the city of Binghamton,
which lies on the broad plain toward the south and west.
The dry bulb and maximum and minimum thermometers are
exposed in a louvred shelter, built after the signal service specifi-
cations, and is supported at the height of 12 feet from the
ground on a skeleton platform. It is 100 feet west of the pumping
station, 100 feet north of the river bank, and about 30 feet above
mean water level of the river.
The rain-gauge is 90 feet west of the water-works, and there are
no obstructions nearer than this to interfere with a free air circu-
lation. The top of the gauge is 36 inches- above the ground.
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Seventh Annual Report of the
EASTERN PLATEAU — OHENANGO COUNTY.
Station, Oxfobd — Mr. John P. Davis, Observer.
This station is located at Mr. Davis* residence in the town of
Oxford* on the western side of the Chenango river valley; the sur-
faoe being nearly level, however, in the vicinity of the station.
The maximum and minimum thermometers are secured 6 feet
above the sod, to the north side of a bam. They are protected by
loovred wings at the sides, and by a closed board1 roof.
The rain-gauge is situated in the garden, about 25 feet distant
from the barn. Its top is 2 feet above the ground.
EASTERN PLATEAU — DELAWARE COUNTY.
Station, South Kortriqht — Mr. D. C. Sharps, Observes.
This station is located in a deep valley of the Oatsktll moun-
tains through which the western branch of the Delaware river
flows in a southwesterly direction. On the southern side of the val-
ley the mountain* rise to a height of about 1,000 feet, and to a
somewhat less elevation on the northern side. The valley at this
point is about one-half mile wide, the station being located near
its center.
The maximum and minimum thermometers are exposed in a
doorway about 2 feet deep, on the north-northwest side of Mr.
Sharpe's house,
The instruments face toward the northeast, and are never
reached by the direct sunlight. The hall into which the door leads
Is uu heated. The walls of the building are of wood. The ther-
mometers are about 7 feet above the sod.
The rain-gauge is 22 feet distant from the south side of the
house. The top of the gauge is 2 feet above the ground.
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New York Weather Bcheau. 327
EASTERN PLATEAU — DELAWARE COUNTY.
Station, Bloomville — Ma. F. J. Campbell, Observer.
i. north; longitude, 74 cleg. 49 min.
Bloomville station is situated on1 the flat lands lying on the
western side of the Delaware river; and is one-fourth of a mile
from the terminns of the U. and D. railway. It is surrounded by
high hills, excepting toward the north and northeast
The maximum and minimum thermometers are plaoed, at a
height of BJ feet above the ground, on the northern side of the
house. They are sheltered by a hood 3 feet wide and 4 feet long.
Neither the thermometers nor the adjacent walls are subjected to
the sum's rays or to artificial heating.
The rain-gauge stands on level ground 50 feet from the nearest
building (which ia about 20 feet high). The top of the gauge is
i feet 3 inches above the ground.
The winter climate is not considered severe in this vicinity, the
ground seldom freezing to a greater depth than 1 foot.
EASTERN PLATEAU — MADISON COUNTY.
Station, Brookfibld — Me. D. B. Stillman, Obbervbr.
The town.of Brookfteld is situated in the deep valley of Beaver
creek, a small stream flowing southward Into the Unadilla river.
The hills rise abruptly on the eastern and western sides of the
town to heights ranging from 200 to 800 feet
The meteorological station is located at Mr. Stillman's house
which stands a few hundred feet east of the creek, the ground in
its vicinity rising gradually toward the eastern hills.
The dry and wet bulb, and the maximum and minimum ther-
mometers are supported by a horizontal board facing the north
window of an nnheated hallway in the second floor of the building.
The roof of the house projects over the thermometers, affording a
L.OO*^le
328 Seventh Annual Report of the
partial abetter from rain. The walls of the building, with the
high eastern hille, shade the instruments until late in the after-
noons of summer, when they are exposed to the rajs of the sun
for about an hour. The thermometers are about 12 feet above the
ground and 1 foot distant from the window.
The rain-gauge is located about 40 feet from the western side of
the house, Its top being 2 feet above the ground*
EASTERN PLATEAU — MADISON COUNTY.
Station, Hamilton, at Colgate Academy — Pbof. W. F. Lang
WORTHY, OBSERVER.
Colgate academy is situated at the outskirts of the village of
Hamilton and has practically the free exposure of the open
country. The station is located on the broad1 valley-bottom; hills
of a moderate elevation beginning at a considerable distance from
the academy.
Dry and wet, maximum and minimum thermometers are placed
in a louvred1 shelter of standard dimensions andi construction,
which is supported at a height of 2 feet above a board platform,
and 12 feet above the ground. It is about 100 feet distant from
the academy in an open field, and there are no obstacles to a free
air circulation.
A rain-gauge is secured to a corner post rising alxjve the plat-
form and is about 13 feet above the ground.
EASTERN PLATEAU — ORANGE COUNTY.
Station, Middletown — In Charge of Seldbn H. Taloott, M.
D., Dr. Allen and Mr. Ewer, Observebs. At the State Hos-
pital,
i. north; longitude, T4 3eg. ZG rain.
The State hospital is located about 1 mile southwest of Middle-
town, and is about 50 feet above the city. The ground slopes
New York Weather Bureau. 329
rapidly away from tfoe station toward the north and east, but
southward the country Is nearly level with the station, or rises
slightly above it.
The dry and wet, maximum and minimum thermometers are ex-
posed on the northern side of a wing of the hospital, one and one-
half stories in height. The instruments are secured to frame-
work facing the window, 18 inches distant from it, and1 10 feet
above the ground. The thermometers are about 4 feet below the
roof, which, extending 4 feet beyond the wall, is utilized as a
shelter. The rays of the sun are entirely excluded from the in-
struments and the sod beneath, in the morning by the high wall
of the main building, which extends for 170 feet or more toward
the north, and in the afternoon by a northern extension of the
wing. The window is only opened for the purpose of moistening
the wet-bulb thermometer. The room within is unheated but the
corridor in the basement beneath is warmed by steam during the
winter. The thermometers are about 40 feet distant from the
main building.
The rain-gauge is exposed on a lawn east of the main building
and about 200 feet from it. There are no obstructions to a free
air circulation in the vicinity of the gauge, other than a few orna-
mental shrubs 30 or 40 feet distant.
EASTERN PLATEAU— ORANGE COUNTY.
Station, Port Jervis — Professor John M. Dolph, Observer.
EiUbllshed November, 1889; ipeclnl temperature «Ution; equipped with a thermo-
graph In December. 1880: latitude, 41 deg. 21 mln. north; longitude, "4 dag. 40 mln. Test;
•leratlon, 470 feet.
Port Jervis is situated between the Delaware and Neversink
rivers, at a short distance north of their point of junction. The
valley of the Delaware makes an abrupt tarn at this point, from
the southeast to the southwest, the Neversink river entering from
the northeast at the 'bend. The surface rises gradually toward
the north in the vicinity of the station, which is about BO feet
above the river surface. But beyond the city limits high hills
close in abruptly about the valley.
330 Seventh Annual Report of the
The thermometers and thermograph are exposed in a louvred
shelter built substantially after the pattern employed by the
limited States Weather Bureau. The shelter is about 12 feet
from the northeastern side of the house, and 5 feet above the
ground.
The rain-gauge is placed upon a post at a 'height of 4 feet 8 inches
above the ground,' between two low buildings whose roofs rise
above the gauge to a height about equal to their distance from it.
EASTEBN PLATEAU — OTSEGO COUNTY.
Station, Coopbbstown — Mr. G. Pombrox Keesb, Observer.
i. north; loncltnil*, ft tog. GT min. tai; elera-
Oooperstown is situated in the valley at the southern end or foot
of Otsego lake, bills rising abruptly on the eastern and western
sides of the town. The stream flowing south from the lake
through a narrow valley, forms one of the principal sources of the
Susquehanna river. The meteorological station is 200 feet south-
west from the shore of the lake, and is sufficiently isolated from
the buildings of the town to admit of a very free air circulation.
The hills on the eastern and western sides of the valley are re-
spectively one-half and three-fourths of a mile from the station.
The dry, wet, -maximum and minimum thermometers are se-
cured to the side posts of a northern piazza of Mr. Keese's resi-
dence; their distance from the ground being about 9 feet, and
from the piazza roof, 5 feet. The sun reaches the piazza only
near the hours of rising and setting, and at these times one-half
of the piazza is always in the shade of a projecting doorway;
hence by moving the thermometers from one side of the piazza to
the other, they are kept shaded for several hours pre-
ceding the time of observation. The walls of the house are of
brick, from which the instruments are separated by at least sev-
eral inches of air space.
Digitized byGOQgle
Nbw Yokk Wkathbb Bcreau. 881
The rain-gauge is 60 feet south of the house, and has no obstacle
to & free air circulation in its vicinity. The top of the gauge is i
feet above the ground.
Mr. Reese's record of temperature was kept during 86 years
from readings of a Green standard thermometer, with which the
instrument furnished by this service early in 1890 was found to
agree closely. The rain-gauge in use for 86 years was the Pike
" conical " form, which, as compared with the gauge of the New
York Bureau, is found to give a slightly deficient registration.
The exposure of the instruments has been substantially the same
during the entire period of the record.
EASTERN PLATEAU — OTSEGO COUNTY.
Station, Nbw Lisbon — Mr. G. A. Yatbs, Obsbrvbb.
This station is situated in the open country on the rolling lands
of the Butternut Creek valley, which Is here about thieeHfourtns
of a mile wide, the adjacent Mils being of moderate elevation.
Maximum and minimum thermometers are exposed in a loavred
shelter of United States standard form and dimensions; their height
from the sod being 6 feet. The shelter is 30 feet northeast of Mr.
Yates' house, and is near, but not directly under, a fruit tree.
The Tain-gauge is supported by a fence post at a height of 6 feet
from the ground. A barn 40 feet away is the nearest building.
EASTERN PLATEAU — OTSEGO COUNTY.
Station, Onbonta — Messrs. Ford and Fobd, Obsbrvbrb.
Established August, ISM; latitude, 41 dag. 2T mln. north; longitude. IE dag. 8 min.
*«I; deration. 1,000 test.
The town of Oneonta is situated in a valley of the eastern high-
lands, at the junction of the Susquehanna, Charlotte and Schenevus
riverB.
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332 Seventh Anndal Report of the
The maximum and minimum thermometers are exposed in front
of the drag store of Messrs. Ford, on the north side of Main street.
The instruments are 6 feet above the sidewalk. Direct sunlight
is excluded by an awning; bat the pavement is liable to become
heated in the early morning and the late afternoon.
The rain-gauge is mounted ait the center of the flat tin roof of
fcbe business block, at a height of abont 40 feet from the ground;
the bottom of the gauge resting upon the roof.
EASTERN PliATEAU — SCHUYLER COUNTY.
Station, Persy Orry — Ma, W. H. Jeffers, Observer.
12 dug. OS mlii, north;
This station is located about 4 miles west -southwest of Trumans-
burgh, on the hills west of Cayuga lake, from whose shore it is
about & miles distant. Mr. Jeffers' house is situated on the west
bank of a brook which, after flowing southward 50 rods, meets a
larger stream emptying into Cayuga lake; the ground rising grad-
ually from the valley of the creek toward the northwest and south.
At a distance of 8 miles to the south is the range of Newfleld hills,
■whose summit reaches an altitude of 2,100 feet; and a similar
high tract of land lies to the west of the station near Seneca lake.
The valley in which the station is situated, with others opening
out of it, form an irregular depression extending through this
western range of hills.
The maximum, minimum, wet and dry bulb thermometers are
exposed in a shelter built on the north side of a low wing of Mr,
Jeffers' house. The bottom of the shelter, which is about 4J feet
above the ground, is constructed of slat work, which cuts off radia-
tion from the sod. The sides are lourred in the mauner adopted
by the Signal Service, and a slanting roof and a door opening
toward the north are provided.
The rain-gauge is about 80 feet east of the house and about 30
feet south of a corn house. The gauge is 2 feet 9 inches above the
ground.
New York Weather Burbau. 333
EASTERN PLATEAU — TIOGA COUNTY.
Station, Wavbrlv — Mr. T. P. Yatbb, Observer.
Established by Signal Service In August, 1887: latitude, a deg. 01 mln. north; longitude,
Tl dec- M mill, west; elevation, S26 feet.
This station is near the northeastern, limits of the village of
Waverly , and its surroundings are more like an. open country than
might be expected from its proximity to the village. The station
is about tmvthirda of the distance between the gradual slope from
the Susquehanna river and the hills a mile away, which form the
northern1 boundary of the valley. The elevation of the hills in
this vicinity, on either the north or sooth side of the valley, prob-
ably does not exceed 300 to BOO feet.
The dry and wet bulb and the maximum and minimum ther-
mometers aire exposed in a shelter 50 feet east of Mr. Yates* boose.
The shelter consists of a doable onpainted box open at the bottom
having an air space 1 inch in width between the sides, and with
slat work at the top opening to the ventilators in the ridged roof.
Some additional ventilation is also obtained' through a few spaces
from one-eighth to one-fourth of an inch in width between the
boards at the sides of the shelter. The dimensions of the shelter
(outside) are 2 by 3 feet at the base and 2$ feet in height, exclusive
of the roof. The thermometer supports are secured to a board
near the back or south side of the inner box, and the door of the
shelter opens toward the north. The height of the thermometers
above the sod is 4.\ feet.
The rain-gauge is 5 feet north of the shelter, 46 feet from the
house (which has two stories and an attic), and about 36 feet from
the branches of a large fruit tree.
EASTERN PLATEAU — ULSTER COUNTY.
Station, Mohonk Lake, at the Mountain House — Mb. A. K.
Smiley, Observer.
Established Is November, UK; latitude, O. dec. « mln. north; longitude. T4 dog- 01 mln.
wait; elevation, l,Hllj feet.
This station is situated about 12 miles west of the Hudson river
upon a mountain; ridge separating the Shawangonk and Wallklll
334 Seventh Annual Report ot the
valleys. Immediately east of the station the ground falls away
precipitously for several' hundred feet to the valley lands, and
thence, more gradually, to the Wall-kill river, between which and
the Hudson the surface is comparatively flat. There is also a sharp
descent from the Mountain House to the valley on the northwestern
side. The summit of the range is a ridge of rocks rising a hundred
feet or more from the eastern border of Mohonk lake; the Moun-
tain House being situated ha the northwestern side, and com-
manding an unobstructed view over the valley in that direction.
The dry, wet-bulb, maximum and minimum thermometers are
exposed on the southeastern piazza of a small building belonging
to the hotel, and fronting toward the lake. The instruments are
secured to the side of the house, and are protected by the piazza
roof, which is about 17 feet wide. They are exposed to the rays
of the sun between' the hours 8 and 9 a, m. Their height above
the ground is 10 feet, and above the water surface 18 feet.
The rain-gauge stands on a floating boat wharf at a distance of
160 feet from the nearest building or woods. The top of the gauge
Is 3 feet above the lake.
NORTHERN PLATEAU — FRANKLIN COUNTY.
Station, Sabanao Lake — Edwin R. Baldwin, M. D., Observer.
Batabltihed November. 18M; latitude. U dog. U mln. north; longitude, 14 dec. 08 min.
waat; titration about 1,600 tact.
This station is situated in the village of Saranac Lake, one-
eighth mile from the Saranac river, and1 76 or 100 feet above its
surface; the ground about the station being very nearly level.
A hill rises about 100 feet above the station' toward the north-
east, and at a considerable distance north and northeastward is a
range of the Adirondack mountains.
Dry and wet bulb, maximum and minimum thermometers are
secured 4 inches from the clapboarding of Mr. Baldwin's resi-
dence, facing north 10 degrees east. They are protected from the
weather by a slanting board roof 14 inches wide. Their height
DqltSMByCOOgle
New York Weather Bureau. 335
above the ground is 5 feet. The instruments are not reached by
the rays of the sun during the winter, and only late in the after-
noon in summer, when1 a screen will become necessary.
The rain-gauge has an excellent exposure 100 feet distant from
any trees or buildings. Its top te 2 feet 6 inches above the ground.
NORTHERN PLATEAU — FULTON COUNTY.
Station, Qlovbhsvillb — Ma. L. W. Chamberlain, Observer.
The city of Gktversville is situated on the southern slope of the
Adirondack Plateau, near the upper limits of a valley tributary
to the Mohawk; the city being about 600 feet above the Mohawk
river. The station stands on the city hospital grounds, which
slope sharply upward at the eastern1 border of the city.
The Instrument shelter stands on the slope west of and below
the hospital building, 100 feet distant; and there are no objects
nearer than this to obstruct the air circulation. The shelter, con-
taining a full set of thermometers, is constructed after the specifi-
cations of the Weather Bureau, and stands 5 feet above the sod.
The rain-gauge is located on the same slope 20 feet north of the
shelter, and at about the same level.
Mr. Chamberlain has made careful and systematic observations
upon the weather for the past 10 years.
NORTHERN PLATEAU — LEWIS COUNTY.
Station, Number Four — Mr. Charles Fknton, Observer,
BiUbllahed by tba National BerTlce In December, 1S88; equipment completed by On
State Id December, 1835; latitude, 41 Has. 60 mln. north; longitude, TB daf. U mln. WMt;
elevation, 1,671 feet. |
The station, Fenton's Number Four, is 18 miles east of Lowville,
near the western limits of the Adirondack wilderness. The sta-
tion stands on a plateau which commands a view of Beaver lake,
336 Seventh Annual Report of thb
about one-half mile distant, and also a considerable range of th«
surrounding country in all directions. Since the hills in this sec-
tion are much lower than the peaks of the eastern Adirondacks,
the air circulation about the station is nearly unobstructed.
The dry, wet bulb and maximum and minimum thermometers
are exposed near the northwest corner of Mr. Fenton's main build-
ing in a single-Iouvred shelter of the Signal Service pattern. The
shelter is about 11 feet above the ground, andi is reached by a nar-
now platform, extending out about 10 feet from the piazza of the
house. It is exposed to the rays of the sun until about 9 in the
morning; but during the remainder of the day the shelter is
shaded by the main building.
The rain-gauge is situated on open ground, free from obstacles
to a favorable exposure. The height of the funnel is about 3 feet
from the ground. The barometer (by Schneider Bros.) is hong
near the window of am unhealed room on the first floor of the
building.
NORTHERN PLATEAU — LEWIS COUNTY.
Station, Tubin — Mr. R. T. Chdhch, Observer.
This station is located on the same terrace of " Tug Hill " range
already described' with reference to Oonstableville; but the pla-
teau is not so wide as at the tetter place, and the hills rise much
more abruptly westward from Turin toward Gomer Hill (the high-
est point of the range) whose summit is 2,100 feet above tide. A
consideration of the very heavy rains or clond bursts which have
occurred during past years in this section, as well as its ex-
ceedingly severe winter climate and1 deep snows, indicate the ex-
istences of peculiar mete ro logical conditions well worthy of far-
ther investigations.
This station is situated about one-fourth of a mile west of the
village of Turin, and is but a few hundred feet from the base of the
steep hills of the range.
Malta* byGoOgle
New York Weather Bureau. 337
The dry and wet bulb thermometers, and the maximum and
minimum, are exposed) out of a north window on the first floor of
Mr. Church's house. The afternoon sun is excluded by wings
from the eastern and western sides of the window; and over these
a slanting board ©over is placed, forming a shelter from rain and
snow. The windows are always closed and the rooms are un-
heated. The sod immediately beneath the instruments ia pro-
tected at all hours by the house fund a fir tree at Its northwestern
corner. The dwelling is a frame house.
The rain-gauge is located in an open field 100 feet distant from
the bouse. The height of the mouth of the gauge is 5 feet above
ground.
COAST REGION — SUFFOLK COUNTY.
Station, Brentwood — Mr. W. H. Boss, M. D., Obsdrvbr.
i. north; longitude, TO dag. 14 mlD.
This station is situated 1 mile northeast of Setauket post-office,
at a distance of one-fourth mile from the Hotel Austral.
The maximum and minimum, dry and wet bulb thermometers
are exposed on the north side of Dr. Bobs' residence, about 6 feet
above the floor of a veranda, whose roof acts as a shield from the
sun and weather. Their height above the ground is 7 feet. The
rain-gauge hae a favorable exposure upon an open plat of ground.
COAST BEOION — SUFFOLK COUNTY.
Station, Sbtauket — Mr. Selah B. Strong, Observer.
This station is situated 1 mile northeast of Setauket post office
upon a neck of land projecting into estuaries of Long Island
' sound. The Oldfleld light, a prominent point of the northern coast
of Long Island, is about 1 mile distant toward the northwest.
22
338 Seventh Annual Report op the
Mr. Strong's house stands on ground 40 feet above sea-level, with
an open exposure on all sides excepting the northeastj where ;i
cedar grove stands on a slight elevation.
The instrument shelter, containing a fnll equipment of ther-
mometers, is fastened to a window casing on the north side of the
house. It is louvred on three sides, with slat work at the bottom;
the side facing the window being open. The dimensions of shelter
are: Width, 20 inches; height, 24 inches; depth, 10 inches. Its
height above ground is 6 feet, and the distance from the window 4
inches.
The roof of an open piazza prevents the rays of the afternoon
sun from reaching the shelter, while a grove toward the east bas
a similar effect in the morning.
The rain-gauge stands upon nearly level ground, and is well
removed from obstructions to a free air circulation. Its height
above ground is 12 inches.
Observations upon temperature and rainfall have been made
continuously at this station since 1886, Signal Service instruments
being used until 1890.
COAST REG-ION — WESTCHESTER COUNTY.
Station, Bedford — Mb. William A, Htdb, Observes.
Established In March, lSSi; latitude, 41 deg. 11 mln. north; longitude, 71 dag. 39 mln.
wait; elevation, about SO feet.
Mr. Hyde's residence is situated in the hamlet of Bedford Centre,
having practically the exposure of the open country, which is a
rolling plateau in this vicinity.
The maximum and minimum thermometers are located under
the roof of a porch, on the south side of the house. They are se-
cured to a post, at an elevation of 6 feet above the ground, and 5
ifeet above the piazza floor. Rays of the sun are excluded from the
instrument by maple shade trees and by a screen over the ther-
mometers.
The rain-gauge is mounted about 4 feet above the ground, on the
fence of an open lot. The exposure is very satisfactory.
New Yobs Weather Bureau. 339
HUDSON VALLEY — COLUMBIA COUNTY.
Station, Lebanon Springs — Mb. Arthur K. Harrison, Ob-
This station is located on the eastern Bide of a narrow valley
which runs nearly north and south through the high hills of eastern
Columbia county.
The maximum and minimum thermometers are exposed on the
northern side of a building under a " hood; " their distance from
the walls of the building being 5 or 6 inches, and from the ground
6 feet.
The rain-gauge is exposed in a slightly sloping, open meadow.
Its height above ground is 1 foot 4 inches.
HUDSON VALLEY — DUTCHESS COUNTY.
Station, Wappingeb's Falls — Mr. H. C. Townsdnd, Observer.
Equipped with rain-gauge May, IsaO, with maximum and minimum thermometers la
February. 18S3: latitude, 41 ieg. U ruin, north; longitude, 71 flef. U mlD. wait.
This station is located at the .eastern edge of the town of Wap-
pin-ger's Falls, in the valley of Wappinger's creek. The surround-
ing country is broken, one of the higher hills rising about 300 feet
west of the station. The station stands on a point of land extend-
ing into Wappinger'a lake, a body of water 1 mile long and abont
half a mile wide.
The maximum and minimum thermometers are exposed on the
northwestern aide of a small wing of Mr. Towneend's house, and in
a shallow angle formed by the wing and the main portion of the
house. They are protected by a shelter 3 feet high, 3 feet wide
and 1 foot deep; its top and back being of solid wood, and the front
and sides of lattice work. During the summer the sun reaches
the shelter for abont an hour in the morning and afternoon, but at
other seasons it is entirely shaded. The thermometers are 5 leet
Google
340 Seventh Annual Keport op the
2 inches above the ground and 8 inches from the wing wall. The
room within is not heated.
The rain-gauge is at ample distance from trees and buildings.
Its top is 7 feet 4 inches above the ground.
HUDSON VALLEY — DUTCHESS COUNTY.
Station, Honbymbad Brook — Dr. Jambs Hyatt, Observer.
Equipped April, 1890; latitude, 41 dec- El mla. uorth; longitude, 71 dag. 45 mlu. wsat;
eiaviUan. 450 teat.
This station is situated about 1 mile southeast of the village of
Stanfordville and is about 100 feet distant from the track of the
N. D. and €. B. B. The valley through which this road passes
opens toward the south-aoutbwest into the Hudson valley; hence
It is thought that the meteorological conditions of the station are-
similar to those of the Hudson valley north of the Highlands.
The general surface rises for several miles east and southeast
from the station to the high hills west of the; Harlem valley, while
in its immediate vicinity the ground is broken by numerous irregu-
lar hills having a comparatively small elevation.
The dry and wet bulb, amd tbe maximum and minimum ther-
mometers are placed rat the angle formed by the northeast side of
the main portion of Mr. Hyatt's house and the northwest side of a
wing projecting about 4 feet from the main building, tine instru-
ments thus fronting toward the north. Tbe thermometers, ex-
cepting the maximum, are placed (between louvred sides, the top,
front and back of the shelter (being open. The maximum ther-
mometer is placed nearby, outside of the shelter. The wings of
the house exclude the sun at all hours.
The rain-gauge, which was constructed by Mr. Hyatt, is 70 feet
southeast of the house. Its top is 4J feet above tbe ground. Its.
readings agree well with the gauge of the State service.
,v Google
New York Weather Bureau. 311
HUDSON VALLEY — DUTCHESS COUNTY.
Station, Podghkeepsie, Vassab College Obsbbvatoby.
Latitude, 41 dec. 41 mln. north; longitude, 73 def. E3 mln. wett; elevation, ISO (set.
This station is located on a plateau 160 feet above the Hudson
river and about 2 miles from its eastern 'bank. The country is
quite open in all directions.
The anemometer at this 'station is mounted on the Observatory,
7£ feet aibove a fiat roof and 27 feet above Che ground. The ther-
mometers are exposed in a shelter of standard pattern located on
the college grounds, about 60 feet from the observatory.
HUDSON VALLEY — PUTNAM COUNTY.
Station, Carmbl — Ma. Thomas Manning, Observes.
Date of eetabtlebmeDt not known: latitude, 41 dee. HI mln. north: longitude, 7S def.
This station is about 1,000 feet east of the village of Carmel, near
the foot of a gradual descent from the village. The surrounding
country 1s much broken by abrupt, irregular hills, probably not
exceeding 300 or 400 feet in height above the general surface.
The station is equipped with a maximum and minimum ther-
mometer, owned by Mr. Manning, and a rain-gauge of the pattern
used in the Croton aqueduct system. The thermometers are ex-
posed on the northern piazza of Mr. Manning's house, at the height
of 5 feet above the floor, and at about the same distance below the
roof. The instruments are about 15 feet from the western or near-
est end of the piazza, the roof of which (6 feet in width), with the
hill westward, probably shields the thermometer from the direct
rays of the sun at all hour*.
The rain-gauge is on level ground, about 100 feet south of the
bouse, and has an unobstructed air circulation about it. The fun-
nel of the gauge is about 12 inches in diameter, and its height above
the ground is 12 IncheB.
i) ait 7co oi 'VjOOy It
342 Seventh Annual Report of the
HUDSON VALLEY — SARATOGA COUNTY.
Station, Stillwater — Ret. R. G. Thompson, Observer.
Eitabltahed May, 1S99: latitude. 42 dag. SI mlo. north- longitudo. Tt flag. 45 mlE. west.
This station is located in the town of Stillwater, in the Hudson
river valley, which at this point is about 1 mile in width, high
hills rising on each aide. The river is about 40 rod« distant from
the station.
The maximum and minimum thermometers are exposed on a
northern piazza, on the northeastern side of the house in summer,
and on the northwestern side in winter. They are 5 feet from the
brick wall of a room heated throughout the year; being mounted
on a backing of inch board, with screens of the same material at
the top and sides. In winter the sun strikes the back an'd end of
the shelter for a short time in the afternoon, but in its summer
position the shelter is shielded at all hoars by the house and by
large elms near by. The thermometers are 7J feet above the
ground.
The rain-gauge is placed on level ground 25 feet from buildings,
and 10 feet from a small fruit tree. The top of the gauge is about
14 inches above the ground.
HUDSON VALLEY — WESTCHESTER COUNTY.
Station, Pbekbkill, at the Peekskill Military Academy — In
Charge of Professor John N. Tildes, M. D.
HO. north; longitude, 73 dec
The military academy is situated on a knoll which rises at the
southeastern side of the town of PeekskiH. From the summit tbe
ground slopes abruptly down to the Hudson river, about one-half
mile distant from the station and 250 feet below it. The sur-
rounding country is broken by abrupt hills and deep valleys, the
general surface, however, rising toward the east in the rear of the
station.
,v Google
New York Weather Bureau. 343
The equipment of this station consists of a standard barometer,
a complete set of thermometers and a rain-gauge, owned by Dr.
Tilden.
The dry and wet bulb, maximum and minimum thermometers
are exposed in a shelter, built in all respects after the Signal Ser-
vice specifications. It is located1 about 160 feet from the main build-
ing of the academy, in a position insuring a free circulation of air.
The height of the Instruments above the sod is 8 feet. The door
of the shelter opens toward the west.
The barometer (a Green standard) is hung against the wall of a
room (heated in winter) on the first floor of the academy.
The rain-gauge is situated in an open plat of ground near the
instrument shelter.
MOHAWK VALLEY — ONEIDA COUNTY.
Station, Rome — H. C. Sutton, M. D., Observer.
Rome is situated at the western extremity of the Mohawk valley
near the summit of the water shed separating the Hudson river
system from that of the great lakea. The valley at this point 1b
broad and flat, opening westwardi toward Oneida lake and the
great lake region. The exposure of instruments has been changed
several times during the two years past; but at present the maxi-
mum and minimum and dry and wet bulb thermometers are se-
cured to the northern post of an open summer house, whose roof
affords a protection from rains, and, with buildings towards the
east and west, excludes the sun at all hours.
The rain-gauge is located south of the summer house at an
ample distance from buildings. Its top is 12 inches from the
ground.
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\ Seventh Annual Report of the
CHAMPLAIN VALLEY — SARATOGA COUNTY.
Station, Saratoga — Mr. W. H. Hall, M. D., Observer.
The general surface in the vicinity of Saratoga is a plain, bor-
dered on the west by the Palmerstown range of hills, and on the
east ridges of lesser height separate the plain from the Hudson
river. The station is, no doubt, subject to the conditions of both
the Champlain and Hudson valleys; but the character of the
topography of Saratoga county indicates that the prevailing air
currents are from the north rather than the south. There are no
records of previous systematic meteorological observations for
Saratoga covering a period longer than one year.
The thermograph was removed in May, 1892, from the location
described in the report of 1890, and 1b now exposed' out of the north
window of the tower of the High School building, at a height of 50
feet from the ground.
CHAMPLAIN VALLEY — WARREN COUNTY.
Station, Guars Falls — Prop. C. L. Williams, Observer.
. north; longitude, Tt ieg. 40 mln.
Glens Falls village is at the southern border of Warren county,
onthebankof the Hudson river, which at this point flows eastward
through a broad valley. The country is nearly flat toward the
south, and also northward as far as the French mountain range on
the eastern shore of Lake George.
The station is located at the Glens Falls academy, No. 60 War-
ren street. The shelter is secured to the northern side of a wood
building, 10 by 10 feet, which is built against the brick school
building. The shelter is 30 inches high by 18 inches deep by 24
inches wide. Its sides are of wood, free air circulation being ob-
tained by slits at all the edges, and through the wire screen in
front. The height of the thermometers (dry, wet, maximum and
minimum) is 4 feet from the ground.
,v Google
New York Weather Bureau. 345
The rain-gauge is placed 2 feet above an open plat of ground and
SO feet from any buildings.
ST. LAWRENCE VALLEY — FRANKLIN COUNTY.
Station, M alone — Mr. A, B. Johnson, Observer.
Established In the town In November of 1839, and discontinued In the summer of 1890;
tliu present station was established In November. 1890; latitude, 44 de(. G7 mln. north;
longitude, T4 dog. IS mln. west; elevation. 810 feet.
The town of Malome is at the base of the lower foot hills of the
Adirondack^, from which the ground slopes gradually and uni-
formly to the St. Lawrence river, 18 miles distant. The station is
located on the summit of a rise of ground 1£ miles south-south-
west of the town, and about 200 feet above the tracks of the Ver-
mont Central railroad. The station commands a very extensive
view of the St. Lawrence valley toward1 the north and1 west, and of
the Adirondack mountains to the southward.
The dry, wet, maximum and minimum thermometers are ex-
posed about 15 feet from the northern side of Mr. Johnson's resi-
dence, in a shelter built after the specifications of the United
States standard.
The rain-gauge stands in an open space 90 feet distant from the
nearest buildings and 3 feet above the ground.
ST. LAWRENCE VALLEY — JEFFERSON COUNTY.
Station, Watbrtown — Mr. F. M. Porter, Observer.
); transferred t
i dog. M mln. w
This station is located at Mr. Porter's residence, 154 State street,
about 1| miles southeast of the business center of Waterfcown, its
exposure being practically that of the open country. The station
stands near the summit of a ridge, being about 100 feet higher
than the former station in the city.
346 Seventh Annual Report op the
The thermometers hang in a shelter 2 feet 8 inches long, 12
Inches deep and 3 feet high, with louvred windows and a glazed
door in front. The roof is sloping, the bottom and back are closed,
the door opening toward the northeast The shelter is situated
midway between a low wing of the house and the barn, 30 feet
distant from each. It is secured to a post at a height of 5 feet
above the sod.
A barometer located in a room on the first floor of the house
was found to be out of adjustment and was returned to the central
office for correction.
The rain gauge is fastened at the back of the shelter, its top
being weH above the roof and 7 feet from the ground.
ST. LAWRENCE VALLEY — ST. LAWRENCE COUNTY.
Station, North Hammond — Mr. C. A. Wooster, Observer.
a (by the National Berries lrtth a standard thermometer) la November. ISM;
and completely equipped by the State Service la December, 1888; latitude, 41 dog. 10 mln.
north; longitude, 75 deg. 40 mln. weet; elevation, about 340 feet
The station is situated in the open country 6 miles north of the
Hammond depot of the Rome, Watertown and Ogdensburg rail-
road, and about 1 mile from the St. Lawrence river. Northwest-
ward from the station the surface of the country is nearly flat, with
a gradual slope toward the river; whilst toward the east, and
300 feet from the station, the general surface rises some 30 or 40
feet. There are no high hills in the vicinity of the station.
The dry, wet and maximum and minimum thermometers are ex-
posed on the northwestern side of a wing of the observer's house,
*nd under the roof of a piazza 5 feet wide. The instruments are
secured to the wood work of the wing 6 feet above the floor and 9
feet above the ground. The room within is heated throughout
the year; but as a check, a standard thermometer located in a
shaded position away from the veranda is read at each observation
and thus far the results have agreed very closely. The sun's heat
is excluded from the piazza until late in the afternoon, when the
.OOgK
New Yobs Weather Bureau. 347
floor and the walls are liable to radiate their heat to the instru-
ments. Efforts have been made to remedy this defect.
The rain-gauge is located about 36 feet west of the wing of the
house (1J stories in heagW;), and a distance from a low outbuilding
equal to the height of the latter. The top of the gauge is about 5
feet above the ground.
ST. LAWBENOE VALLEY — ST. LAWRENCE COUNTY.
Station, Potsdam — Mb. G. W. P. Smith, Observer.
This station js situated on Leroy street, Potsdam, at a distance of
1 mile north from the center of the town, and well removed from
other 'buildings. The station is about 100 feet above the tracks
of the Borne, Watertown and Ogdensburg railroad, on the summit
of a knoll which is the highest point within a radios of a mile.
The ground slopes gradually away from the station in all direc-
tions. The surrounding country is flat as far as the Adirondack
foot hills, nearly 10 miles distant.
The dry and wet bulb and maximum and minimum thermometers
are exposed in a shelter which Is built out from the window on the
north side of a low, unheated building attached to Mr. Smith's resi-
dence. The Shelter is louvred at the sides and front, and in the
rear a small door gives access to the Instruments from the interior
of the building. The dimensions of the shelter are about 3 by 2£
feet at the base, and 3 feet dn heigih t. It has a slanting doable roof
and slat 'bottom. The rays of the sun touch the top of the shelter
at noon, but are excluded from it at other times by the walls of the
building, and also by a pine tree west of the 'house. The •walls
adjacent to the 'shelter are of wood. The height of the thermome-
ters above the ground is 6 feet.
The rain-gauge is located 70 feet north of the house, and' about
25 feet from a few small-fruit trees. The top of the gauge is 5 feet
above the ground.
348 Seventh Annual Report of tub
ST. LAWRENCE VALLEY — ST. LAWRENCE COUNTY.
Station, Ogdeksbukq, at the St. Lawrence State Hospital.
; longitude, 7G deg. 30 mln.
The State Hospital is situated on a broad, open plain, within 100
rods of the St. Lawrence river, and about 2 miles from the center
of Ogdensburg. The thermometers (which belong to the hospital)
are located on a third-story balcony of the administration building
opening towards the west-south/west. They are exposed in a shel-
ter 24 inches broad by 30 inches deep, and 6 feet in height, louvred
from top to base (which rests on the piazza floor). The shelter
is painted brown. The dry and wet bulb and maximum and min-
imum thermometers are located midway between its sides, being
5 feet above the floor and a boat 50 feet above the ground. The
piazza becomes heated from the direct rays of the sun in the after-
noon1; and hence the maximum temperatures indicated1 may be
somewhat too high.
The rain-gauge is 30 feet east of a low wing of the same building.
Its top is 4 inches above the ground.
ST. LAWRENCE VALLEY — ST. LAWRENCE COUNTY.
Station, Massbna — Mb, A. J. Nelson, Obsekveh.
M'assena is sitnated at the extreme northern border of the State,
on thebroad and nearly level country adjacent to the St. Lawrence
river, which is 3 miles distant from the village. The maximum
and minimum thermometers are located1 at the store of Mr. Nelson,
on Harrowgate street. The instruments are ■secured to the rear
or western wall of a shed 12 feet high at the back of the store; the
height of the thermometer above the ground being 8 feet. The
shed is rather loosely boarded on all sides excepting the south,
which is open. The temperatures indicated may be somewhat too
Google
New York Weather Bureau. 349
high, owing to the 'heating of the adjacent unpainted wail by the
sun.
The rain-gauge is placed at the rear of Mt. Nelson's residence on
Glenn street. Its distance from the house is about the same as
the height of the building.
The present location of the thermometers Is one-fourth mile
north of the former station.
ST. LAWRENCE VALLEY — ST. LAWRENCE COUNTY.
iStation, Canton — Mb. C. W. Bolton, Observer.
EaUbllihed November, 1883: inistnimeuta transferred from Prof. Hocry Prleit to present
observer In March, 1834. Latitude. M dag. 35 mln. north; longitude, 73 dag. 11 mln. ™t;
elevation. J04 feet.
The meteorological station is located at the summit of a slope
on the north side of #he Qrasse river, which is about 300 feet dis-
tant. Although within the limits of the village, the station has a
very open exposure.
The thermometers are secured to the northern wall of a frame
building, at a distance of 3 feet from the northwest corner. A
screen toward1 the west cuts off ail direct rays of the Mm; (but to
prevent direct radiation to the thermometers from the ground in
the afternoon, a shelter having louvred sides and front, with a solid
top and bottom, was to be placed around the instruments. These
are now placed about 6J feet above the ground.
The rain-gauge is located about 30 feet from the house, and is
also about the same distance from the barn. The height of por-
tions of these buildings adjacent to the gauge is about equal to
their dtotance from it.
GREAT LAKE REGION — CHAUTAUQUA COUNTY.
Station, Westfisld — Mb. G. Schobnfbld, Obsbrvbr.
This station is situated in the open country, 2 miles from Lake
Erie, toward the north, and 2 to 3 miles from the main ridge of
S60 Seventh Annual Report or the
the Chautauqua county hills toward the south. The surface is a
plain slope from the lake toward the hills.
The thermometers are exposed on the north side of a building, 2
feet from its walls and 8 feet above the ground. They are pro-
tected by a hood or roof and by lattice work sides; the dimensions
of the shelter being 2x2x3 feet. They are not exposed to
direct sunlight or other source of heat.
The rain gauge stands on level ground, 35 feet from the nearest
building. Its top is 8 feet above the ground.
This locality is not subject to autumn frosts or very severe win-
ter weather, a week of continuous sleighing being rare. There is
less rain and dew than on the highlands. Brisk winds are fre-
quent.
GREAT LAKE REGION — MONROE COUNTY.
Station, Pittsfobd — Bev. G. H. Gomph, Observer.
ft; longitude, 77 deg. 34 mln.
The land about Pittsford is slightly rolling,, with a general slope
In a northerly direction Into the Irondequoit basin and Lake On-
tario. The station is situated at the western end of the village.
The maximum and minimum thermometers are exposed in a
shelter built out from the north window of an unused second-story
room, their distance from the ground being 15 feet. The shelter
fs built of window blinds, and is about 18 inches deep, 2 feet 6
inches wide in front and 3 feet 6 inches at the rear. The bottom
and top are open, but the cornice of the house, 6 feet above, affords
partial protection from weather. Direct rays of the sun are ex-
cluded at all hours.
The rain-gauge stands on nearly level ground, and is 60 feet dis-
tant from any trees or buildings. The top of the gauge is 6 feet
above the ground.
Interesting notes as to the course of thunderstorms in this
vicinity are added by the observer.
Malta* byGoOgle
New York Weathbr Bureau. 351
GREAT LAKE REGION — NIAGARA COUNTY.
Station, Applbton — Mr. H. A. Van Wagoner, Observer.
i. north; loosltuao, 78 aeg. 41 mla.
This station is situated in the open country, on the broad plain
of northern Niagara county, at a distance of 1 mile from Lake On-
tario.
The dry and wet bulb, maximum and minimum thermometers
ate mounted, under a hood, at the northern end of Mr. Van
Wagoner's house. They are shielded from the bud's rays at all
hours; imtheroorningbyaiwingof the house and also by a canvas
screen, amd in the afternoon by a building a dozen feet to the
west. The instruments are about 5 feet from the ground.
The rain-gauge stands between the house and barn, being about
SO feet distant from each. Its top is 1 feet nine inches above the
ground.
GREAT LAKES — OSWEGO COUNTY.
Station, Palbruo — Mr. E. B. Bahtlbtt, Observer.
OtMervaUona commenced In IBM; equipped with standard maximum and minimum ther-
mometers (by Signal Service) In July, 1887: tally equipped by State Service In February,
ISM; latitude, 43 de>. 14 mln. north; longitude, 76 flog. 10 mln. welt; elevation, 460 feet
This station is situated in the open country about 6 miles south-
southwest of the town of Mexico, Oswego county. The surface of
the surrounding country is rolling; the ridges, which are gener-
ally low, extending from northwest to southeast. A hill, said to
be the highest point in Oswego county, lies 3£ miles southeast of
the station, but no marked rise of ground occurs until within half
a mile of the summit. The station is situated1 on the northern
slope of one of the ridges mentioned. The ground rises rapidly
for a short distance at the rear or south side of the station, but
falls away from it on the eastern and northeastern sides, thus
giving a free circulation of air from the east, north and west.
The thermometers are exposed in a shelter of the dimensions
and pattern used by the United States Weather Bureau. This
lOOgle
352 Seventh Annual Report op the
shelter is 6 feet above the ground and 17 feet from the north side
of Mr. Bartlett's house.
The rain-gauge is 50 feet from the north-east corner of the house
in a clear space. The bottom of the gauge is 1 inch above the
ground.
Details as to the manner in which long records of temperature
and rainfall were obtained by Mr. Rartlett may be found in the
report of this bureau for the year 1890.
GREAT LAKES — WAYNE COUNTY.
Station, Lyons — M. A. Vbsdbr, M. IX, Observes.
Mr. 'Veeder'shouBeisanorneartheeummTtof the gradual slope
on which the town of Lyons is situated. The ground falls away
gently from the station to the northeast and south, but toward the
west is nearly level for a quarter of a mile, to the base of an abrupt
ridge, extending ini a north and south direction, and 75 to 100 feet
in height. The general character of the surrounding country is
that of a plain, broken by numerous isolated) low hills. The ther-
mometers are exposed in a single-louvred shelter about 3£ feet in
width by 3 feet in height, which is placed out of the window of an
unhealed room on the second floor and north side of the bouse.
The shelter has a sloping roof and its bottom is closed. The front
and sides are of single-louvred work, while at the back the raising
of the window-sash gives access to the thermometers. In the
eariy summer the shelter is exposed to the sun up to about 9 a. m.,
but is shielded from solar rays during the remainder of the day.
The rain-gauge is placed on a roof having a southeastern ex-
posure, and is 12 feet above the ground. A second roof rises about
6 feet above the gauge, at a distance of 18 feet from it, and 16 feet
toward the northwest a roof also rises about 10 feet above the
,v Google
i Naw Tohk Weathbr Bureau. 353-
CENTRAL LAKES — CAYUOA COUNTY.
Station, Fleming — Me. Eobbbt Warwick, Obshrvbh.
BaUbllibcd December, 188S: latitude « deg. El mtn. north: longitude. 78 de* 34 mln.
tat; elevatloD, 1,000 feot.
This station is situated in the open country, oa the ridge of land
lying between Cayuga and Owasco lakes, its distance from the
latter being about 2^ miles, and from the city of Auburn 4 miles.
The surface in the vicinity of the station is quite flat, but with a
general slope downward toward the north.
The thermometers have recently been removed from the shelter
described in the report of 1890, and are now exposed in a corn-
house, whose north side is of open lattice work. The thermom-
eters are suspended on the north side of the house, 3 feet from the
lattice and 6 feet from the ground.
The rain-gauge is located about 100 feet west of Mr. Warwick's
house, and is well removed from obstructions to a free air circu-
lation.
CENTRAL LAKE REGION — SCHUYLER COUNTY.
Station, Watkins — Glbn Spbings Sanitabidm,
This station is situated' on a bluff of the western side of the
Seneca Lake valley, at a distance of about 2,000 feet from the head
of the lake.
The maximum and minimum, dry and wet bulb thermometers
are located in a shelter somewhat smaller than the Signal Service
standard, having three louvred sides and a solid door facing west.
Its distance from neighboring buildings is 120 feet, and its height
above the sod is 6 feet.
The rain-gauge is 2 feet from the ground, and is about 120 feet
from neighboring buildings.
,v Google
354 Seventh Annual Report of thb
CENTRAL LAKES — SENECA COUNTY.
Station, Romulus — Ms. J. H. Coryell, Observer.
Instrument* transferred from Mr. B. E. Hick* September 7, 1891; latitude. 41 die
U min. nortb; longitude, 76 flag. M mln. wait; elevation, 719 leet.
This station is situated in the western part of the Tillage of
(Romulus, near the summit of the ridge separating the basins of
Cayuga and Seneca lakes. The high southern plateau terminates
in a somewhat abrupt descent at Ovid, 6 miles south of Romulus,
north of which a comparatively flat country extends to Lake
Ontario.
The thermometers are exposed in a single-louvred shelter 20
Inches wide, 36 inches long, and 30 inches high, with a hinged
bottom, and a drop-door in front facing the west. The shelter is
located at the eastern side of the house, and is exposed to the di-
rect rays of the sun only from 10 to 12 a. m. The instruments are
hung in the center of the shelter at a height of 4 feet 8 inches
above the ground.
The rain-gauge is 30 feet distant from any buildings or trees, the
nearest of the latter being small shrubs 8 feet high. The gauge
Is 30 inches above the ground.
CENTRAL LAKES — TOMPKINS COUNTY. ■
Station, Ithaca — At thb College of Civil Engineering, Cor-
nell University.
This station is situated on the hill bordering the eastern side of
Cayuga Lake valley, its distance from the head of the lake being
about 1 mile and its elevation above the lake level 400 feet Sooth
of the city of Ithaca, which lies immediately below the station, the
valley divides into two branches, the first and main branch extend-
ing through the Mils toward the southwest, while the second forms
the narrow channel of Six Mile creek, which flows from the high-
lands southeast of the city Into Cayuga lake. The meterologica)
station has an open exposure toward the main valley on the west.
New Yobs Weather Bdbead. 355
while eastward, aft«r a alight rise near the station, the surface is
nearly flat along the course of the Fall creek; but numerous hills
arise to heights varying from 300 to 500 feet above the general
level, at distances of a mile or more to the southeast of the station.
The Instrumental equipment of the station is as follows:
Bakomhthbb.
These instruments are plaeed in the basement clock room of the
engineering college.
1. The standard, a Fuess normal siphon barometer, is so con-
structed that amy error due to the presence of air at the top of the
mercurial column may be detected and approximately corrected
by varying the capacity of the cistern, and so making the column
occupy more or less of the vacuum chamber at the top. The press-
are of any gas in the vacuum chamber will increase as the space
Is diminished, so that, under these conditions, the readings wiH
not agree.
2. A Draper barograph furnishes a continuous record of press-
ure. The cistern of this instrument is suspended upon long spiral
springs, while the main tube is fixed. The proportions of the va-
rious parts are such that a rise of pressure forces the mercury up
into the tube from the cistern, which then rises; and a decreasing
pressure produces a contrary effect. The record is made by a pen
attached to the cistern, which bears against a record sheet moved
horizontally by clock work. Since this barograph acta by balanc-
ing the weight of the mercurial column against the weight of the
atmosphere, the correction for the temperatwre of the mercurial
column Is very small, falling within the limits of other errors of
the instrument. The latter seldom amount to 0.01 Inch.
3. A Green's Fortin barometer of the ordinary pattern, having
a fixed zero point, to which the level of the cistern is adjusted, is
used for purposes of current comparisons.
Thermometers.
1. Standard dry bulb and maximum and minimum thermome-
ters are mounted in a shelter of the Weather Bureau pattern.
Malta* byGoOgle
366 Seventh Annual Report op the
The shelter stand's about 40 feet east of the college 'building, upon
a grass plot sloping downward toward the west; the height of the
instruments above the sod being about 6 feet.
2. A continuous record of temperature is furnished by a Richard
thermograph placed in the shelter. The pen tracing the record
is attached to an arm whose position is governed by the expan-
sion or contraction of a metal tube filled with alcohol. The record-
ing sheet is carried 'by a •cylinder, revolved by clock-work, at the
rate of oneturn per week. This thermograph, which is very accu-
rate when properly adjusted, is checked by comparison with' the
adjacent standard thermometer.
The shelter also contains a hair hygrometer (Richard's), whose
registering mechanism is similar to that of the thermograph; but
in this case the pen arm is moved by the expansion and contraction
of a bundle of hairs which are rendered very sensitive to the action
of moisture by a special process of the makers. The index or
datum of this hygrometer is liable to change somewhat during
prolonged wet or dry periods; but gives very satisfactory result*
when adjusted from time to time to agree with the values of hu-
midity indicated by the whirled psychrometer. (See " Instructions
to voluntary observers " for full information regarding the latter
instrument.)
A Richard dry and wet bulb recording hygrometer has also
been used at this station, but thus far has not proved as satis-
factory as the instrument just described. In principle it con-
sists of two Richard thermographs, one of which has its alcohol
tttbe moistened constantly by muslin dipping into a reservoir,
while the other tube is kept dry. The instrument is so con-
structed, however, that the records of both dry and wet bulbs are
traced upon the same cylinder.
EVAPOROMETBRS.
An evaporometer (Richard's) is located beneath the shelter at a
height of 2 feet from the ground; direct sunlight and driving rain
or snow being excluded by louvred sides. The evaporometer con-
,v Google
Nbw Yohk Weather Bdeeac. 357
sists, essentially, of a pair of scales, one pan of which carries the
waiter, whose evaporation is to be measured, and a pen attached by
suitable mechanism to the scale arm, which records on a rotating
cylinder the rise or fall of the scale beam as the quantity of water
is diminished or increased.
An actinometer or sunshine recorder (Richard's) is mounted
on a shelf out of a south window of the college. The intensity of
solar heat is measured by the difference in temperature between
two glass bulbs 4 inches in diameter, placed Bide by Bide, one of
which is coated with lamp-black while the other is silvered.
The two have the same temperature (nearly) when the sky is over-
cast, but the black bulb absorbs the heat of solar rays more rap-
idly than the bright under a clear sky. Each bulb contains a
ooil of copper tube filled with alcohol, and communicating with
separate tubes similar to those of the thermographs, each of which
has its recording lever and pen, whose tracings are made on a
cylinder rotating once in two days. The differences between the
temperatures traced by the two levers indicate the intensity of
the solar radiation.
Wind Registers.
Two sets of wind registers are in use at the central station, each
set furnishing an automatic record both of velocity and direction.
Firstly, the instruments provided: eighteen years ago by the di-
rector, and whose records have since been maintained, are
mounted about 8 feet above the ridge of the engineering building
and 75 feet above the ground. The wind vane has for its axis a
rod which is brought down through the roof, and carries at its
lower extremity a cylinder about 3 inches in diameter and 9
Inches long. A pencil held in a suitable carriage moves vertically
down the length of the cylinder in 24 hours; and since the cylin-
der turnB with the vane, the pencil tracing upon a sheet of
paper which is wrapped around the cylinder, furnishes a continu-
ous record of the wind direction.
The anemometer, which is of the Robinson pattern, has four
hemispherical cups carried on spokes radiating from a vertical
368 Shyjdnth Annual Rbpoht op the
axis. Rotation Is caused by the greater force which the wind
exerts upon the concave over that upon the convex aides of the
capo; and when the number of revouitions indicates 1 mile of
Iwindtravel, an electric contact Is made by a mechanism-
attached to the axle of the anemometer. Wires attached
to the instrument transmit the current to a Gibbon reg-
ister located on the first floor of the building. A screw-
thread is cut upon the axis of the recording cylinder
of this register, and as it is rotated by clockwork at the rate of
one turn in 6 hours, the screw also gives it a motion lengthwise
with the axis, so that a pen in a fixed position would trace a spiral
line around its surface. In fact, the recording pen is attached to
the pole piece of an electro-magnet in circuit with the anemometer,
and hence, at every mile-contact, a notch is made in the spiral line
traced by the pen upon the recording sheet, and the number of
mites of wind travel for any given time is found by connting the
number of these notches. It is necessary to replace the recording
sheet each day.
A second wind vane and pair of anemometers are mounted on
the tower of McOraw hall, one of the University buildings, stand-
ing on the crest of the hill and overtaking the Oayuga valley.
These instruments are 12 feet above the roof of the tower, and 140
feet from the ground, being thus more exposed to the full force
of the wind than those just described. The anemometer for meas-
uring horizontal wind current is of the Richard's construction,
consisting of a small wind-mill with 6 inclined vanes radiating
from a horizontal axis, which axis, extending into a metal case,
makes an electric contact with each hundred revolutions by means
of suitable gearing. The entire apparatus revolves freely about
a vertical axis in the same manner as an ordinary wind-mill, and
Is made to face the wind by a broad, wedge-shaped tail at the
rear. The vertical axis, which is tubular, passes down into the
Interior of the tower, and within it are carried the wires which,
transmit the measurements of wind velocity.
,v Google
Naw York Weather Kukbao. 359
As the instrument was furnished by the makers, the cylin-
der upon which the record is traced, was fixed to the
lower end of the axis of the wind-vane; bnt since the
registers at the central station are located in the Engineer-
- ing building, 600 feet distant from the anemometers, a dif-
ferent arrangement was necessary. The present device con-
sists, firstly, of a fixed metallic ring (a) 3 inches in diameter,
through the center of which the lower end of the wind-vane axis
passes. This ring is divided into four segments or quadrants,
each being connected with a wire passing to the corresponding
quadrant of a similar ring (b) on the register in the distant build-
ing. A metallic contact piece secured' to the wind-vane axis)
bears against the quadrants of (a), passing from one to the other
as the direction of the wind changes. The ring (b) also has its
contact piece, which is secured to the axis of the recording cylin-
der, said cylinder being rotated uniformly by clock work at the
rate of one turn in 6 minutes. Its contact piece is in circuit with
one pole of an electric battery, the other pole being grounded; and
the contact piece of {a) is also grounded through the wind-vane
axis. Hence, when the contact piece of (b), in its steady rotation,
passes over the quadrant corresponding to that upon which the
wind-vane contact is resting, a current is allowed to pass through
(b) and its connectng wire to (a) and thence to the ground. This
current actuates an electro-magnet in the register, thus pressing
a pen against the cylinder until its contact piece, by rotation,
passes off from the quadrant corresponding to the wind direction,
when it is released. The pen falls vertically the length of the
cylinder once in 24 hours, and, in the manner explained above,
at every revolution of the cylinder, leaves a trace upon that part
of its circumference which corresponds to the direction of the wind
at the time.
The register, as thus described^ records the wind direction only
to four points; but by broadening the contact piece of (a) so that
It can 'bear upon portions of two quadrants at the same time, as,
for example, upon the north and west quadrants, for a northwest
,v Google
360 Seventh Annual Report OF THE
wmd, both north and west are recorded upon the cylinder, and
such a tracing is read northwest.
As previously stated, the wires of the velocity register pass
through the hollow axis of the vane; and at the lower extremity
of the latter are connected through mercury cups with wires run-
ning to the Engineering building. At every hundredth revolution
of the anemometer, corresponding to 100 meters of wind, a circuit
is made through an electro -magnet of the register; and this turns
the proper recording cylinder through one one-thousandth part of
a complete revolution. The recording pen (which is attached to
the same carriage with that of the direction register), traverses
the length of the cylinder in 24 hours, and thus leaves upon the
tracing sheet a spiral line, every complete turn indicating 100
kilometers of wind.
In addition to the hundredth meter contact, the anemometer is
also provided with a second contact, which is made at every revo-
lution of the anemometer •wheel, and the circuit thus established
is transmitted to a Richard's anemo-cinemograph, devised to regis-
ter the details of the wind movement, and to show its maximum
force during gusts. In this instrument an electro-magnet and
mechanism operated by it, raise the pen arm of the cinemograph
about one-ifhirty-aecond of an inch at every contact ; while a clock-
work depresses the arm at a rate proportionate to its distance
from the zero position. With a given wind velocity, therefore, the
arm takes a position such that the rate at which it is being raised
by the anemometer contacts exactly balances that at which it is
being depressed by the clock movement; and in this position is
quickly changed to correspond with variations in the wind veloc-
ity. As in the other instrument's, the height of the pen above
the zero point is registered upon a band of paper carried by a uni-
formly rotating cylinder. As the cinemograph is needed chiefly
to record the force of violent gusts, a mechanism has been devised
which puts it in operation only when the wind velocity exceeds 30 .
miles per hour.
:y Google
New York Weather Bureau. 361
A Richard's anemometer for measuring the force of vertical air
■currents (or their vertical components), is also placed on the tower
-of McG-raw hall. This anemometer has four inclined blades or
fans, rotating about a vertical axis, upward1 and downward cur-
rents turning it in opposite directions. Two sets of contacts are
provided, one of which is operated by upward and the other by
downward currents. The number of turns of the anemometer
Is registered upon a cylinder in the manner employed for recording
horizontal velocities, excepting that the cylinder is made to turn
to the right by downward currents, and in the opposite direction
by upward currents. The movement of the cylinder is also ten
times more rapid than in the case of the horizontal regiseter for
winds of the same velocity.
,v Google
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368 Seventh Annual Report of the
SAMPLE OP THE CROP BULLETIN OF THE NEW YORK
STATE WEATHER BUREAU, ISSUED IN CO-OPERATION
WITH THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OP AGRI-
CULURE WEATHER BUREAU.
Vol. VI. For the week ending August 4, 1894. No. 18.
Cornell University,
Ithaca, N. Y., August 7, 1894.
The following information has been condensed from the reports
of crop correspondents for the week ending with Saturday, August
4,1894:
Albany County (Albany). — Favorable week. Rain, 1.05.
Allegany County (Angelica). — Some haying yet to do; most of
wheat harvested. Farmers are cutting oats for fodder to save
from grasshoppers. Buckwheat, and in some places potatoes, in-
jured by grasshoppers. Potatoes and corn, generally look well.
Rain, 2.26. Bolivar — Potatoes are looking better — much helped
by rain of last week. Slight damage from rains of Thursday
night. Rain, 2.60.
Cattaraugus County (Conewango). — Copious shower of 2d
checked drouth, but not one-fourth what was needed. Dairy pro-
ducts reduced one-third; caused by drouth and grasshoppers,
which are more numerous than ever known before. Oats two-
third crop, and buckwheat not promising. Corn late but looking
well. Humphrey — Some haying yet to be done; hay is of good
quality and well put up. Oats will be light although improved
greatly in last two weeks. Blight has struck potatoes in places
and a few report them as rotting. Rain, 1.83. Little Valley —
Rains have broken the drouth and pastures, where not too many
grasshoppers, are reviving. In some parts the grasshoppers are
cutting -off all the oats, trimming the apple trees of leaves, and
devouring potatoes, corn and gardens. Rain, 2.00.
Cayuga County (Scipio). — Rains somewhat delayed harvesting.
Late potatoes and corn booming. Early apples and late red
varieties, will be abundant; plums and pears trees, bending be-
neath their weight. Rain, 2.15. Sherwood — Recent rains of in-
,v Google
Nbw Tobe Wkathbe Biteeau. 369
calculable benefit to growing crops, newly cut meadows, eto. Bar-
ley generally cut and in; crop below arverage. Oats harvest be-
gun. Some have commenced plowing for wheat. Apples con-
tinue to drop and early apples are scabby. Bain, 2.00
Chautauqua County (Cherry Creek). — Grasshoppers continue
to Increase, damaging not only oats and meadows but also corn,
potatoes and millet. Early oats nearly all 'harvested; early pota-
toes yield light. Late sown1 buckwheat doing very well. Need
more rain, pastures are getting very short Bain, 0.47. Dun-
kirk— Drouth ended by rain of 1st, and accompanying cold
weather pat an end to the grasshopper plague for 'the present. .
Apples "dropping " and promise only one-half crop. Other fruits
are doing well. Good crop of oats iB being harvested. Bain, 0.64.
Poland Center — Oats mostly cut. Copious rains of Thursday the
salvation of late potatoes. Erie, Pa.— Bain, 0.48.
Dutchess County (Bengali). — Short crop potatoes, apples,
peaches and pears. Oats mostly secured and in good order. Corn
coming into blossom; looks well. Scant rains since May; de-
pendent prospects poor. Bain, 0.49. Wappingers Falls — In a
great measure drouth continues. Light rains did little good;
streams low and vegetation in a serious condition. Grain crops
all in, some threshing done. Corn setting very tight; buckwheat
at a standstill. Potatoes very poor, and tomatoes full of black
rot. No change in hops and fruit. Bain, 0.60.
Brie County (Buffalo). — High winds of Sunday damaged f ruita
in this locality. Bain, 0.33. Eden Center — Work pushed ; oats
nearly all cut; corn makes a very rapid growth. Potatoes are
looking well ; corn will be about one-half a crop. Bain, 1.10.
Franklin County (Malone). — Favorable for ail growing crops.
Oats and wheat harvest begun; will be general next week. All
grains ripening a little too fast. Potatoes doing well, but a little
blight has appeared in places. After-growth in meadows grow-
ing fast. Hops are coming out of the burr and doing well. About
six daysearHeT than last year. Grasshoppers reported damaging
pastures and grain in some localities. Bain, 0.82.
Jefferson County (Carthage). — Haying over. Oats being cut,
24
370 Seventh Annual Bepobt of thb
light yield. Pastures very dry end there is no .after-growth.
Early potatoes yield poorly, rain needed for late ones.
Lewis County (Leyden). — Haying done; fair in quantity, but
poor quality. Harvesting began; oats and barley frill be fair
crops. Rust on some potatoes; early are few in the hill bat good
size. Bain, 1.22.
Livingston County (Avon). — Favorable week. Recent rains
have greatly improved pastures and meadows. AH crops booking
well. Threshing begun; yield light for amount of straw — from
16 to 20 bushels to acre — fair quality. Bain, 1.05 Mt. Morris—
Recent showers of great benefit to corn and) beans but not sufficient
to restore meadows and pastures. Bain, 0.86.
Monroe County (Rochester). — Potatoes improving. Too cold
latter part for corn. Bain, 0.18.
Montgomery County (Oanajoharie). — No complaints. Haying
about done; crop fully equal to last year in quantity and secured
in excellent condition. Oats, com, potatoes and hops reported1 as
promising.
New York City.— Bain, 0.81.
Niagara County (Hess Boad station). — Favorable; rather cool
latter part. Oat cutting well along; grasshoppers injure them
quite badly. Early potatoes not up to average; early peaches
being picked for market. Some threshing done. Bain, 0.42.
Lookport — Fine work. Corn rather late but growing finely.
Pair crop of oats being out. Early peaches and pears in market.
Rain, 0.66.
Ontario Oounty (Phelps), — Harvesting nearly finished; a num-
ber have threshed. Wheat was damaged by rust and wet weather
and a light yield results. Barley and oats especially are light.
Corn; and potatoes benefited by the rains, and soil rendered fit for
plowing.
Otsego Oounty (Oooperstown). — Favorable week. Haying
about finished1; crop light in some sections, but on- the whole favor-
able. Truck much benefited by recent rains. Wheat and pota-
toes well. Hops are setting well and are generally free from ver-
min. Bain. 1.44.
,v Google
Nbw Yobk Wdathbb Buebau. 371
Oswego Ooomty (Demarer). — Bain1, 0.47, Oswego — Favorable
week. Bain, 0.86: Palermo — Very dry brat vegetation revived
by rate of 3d. Oats short in straw and light in grain. Potatoes
small and few In hill. Corn late brat growing very fast Bain, 0.80.
Saratoga County (King's Station). — Oropsdomgwell'j oats better
than expected — so are apples. Buckwheat looking excellent
Bain, 1.18.
Sahuyler County (Perry Oity). — Wheat cat and in; straw heavy
brat does not yield very well and berry shrunken in places where It
was lodged. Barley partly cot ; crop fair hat not ap to average.
Oats not very good on account of blight. Haying nearly done;
crop above average and secured in fine condition. Corn looks fine.
Apples still drop and will be scarce except in favored localities.
Bain, 1.30.
Steuben County (HaskiiuviLle). — Pasture short; haying fin-
ished; buckwheat looking well. Pears will be full crop. South
Canieteo — Drouth effectively broken and radical change for the
better in corn and buckwheat. Blight has appeared in potatoes
which with the bugs make the outlook for that crop very poor.
Oats harvest began. Wheat yields well In quantity and quality.
Upland oats not promising; valley oats much better. Apples
small, knotty and one-sided. Some report pears dropping
Grasshoppers eating the green oats. Bain, 2.94.
St. Lawrence County (DeKaib Junction). — Haying nearly over;
harvesting has began. Bain (to Friday), 0.68.
Suffolk County (Setauket). — Drouth continued! until 3d when
heavy rain 'has already made pastures green — will bring up tur-
nips and will help the carrots that have not entirely failed. Corn
filling well and promises good crop. Potatoes are turning out
very poorly. Bain, 1.63.
Wayne County (Lyons). — Potatoes look unusually well, but
early potatoes yield small and few in the Mil. Haying finished;
large yield; wheat does not yield as well as expected Pastures
are good. Apples, pears, quinces and plums promise an average
yield; grapes will be less than half the usual crop. Very heavy
storm evening of 2d, causing severe fires and considerable damage.
373 Seventh Annual Report of thb
Westchester County (Bedford). — Drouth continues more serious
than ever. All crops suffering greatly. Early apples few and
not more than half the usual size; crop will be very light. All
fruits drop badly. Small fruits greatly injured by droutlk Plume
will be an enormous crop. Pastures very short. (As this report
ended Thursday night it is highly probable that good- but hardly
sufficient rains have occurred since then. — Ed.)
Extracts from tine national bulletin for tine week ending with
Monday, July 30, 1891 :
The continued drouth over the principal com producing States
of the central valleys and1 northwest has resulted in great damage
to the corn crop. Very unfavorable reports as to the condition
of this crop are received from South Dakota, Iowa, Nebraska, Min-
nesota, Missouri and Oklahoma, and while leas unfavorable re-
ports come from Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio, the crop in those
States is suffering greatly in the uplands. In the ■southern States
oornisgenerally in excellent condition, and In Georgia the heaviest
crop for many years is predicted. Reports as to cotton continue
very favorable, although some slight injury has resulted from ex-
cessive cloudiness and 'heavy local rains in portions of 'South Caro-
lina and Florida. Tobacco is doing well in Tennessee, and in some
portions of Maryland, Virginia, and Kentucky, but reports from
Ohio are unfavorable. Oats yield light in New Jersey, Penn-
sylvania and Ohio,
General Remarks.
Excepting in the extreme southeastern; sections the weather of
the week has been quite favorable for growing crops as well as for
carrying on harvesting operations. The general — and in the
southwestern: counties heavy — rains of 1st, 3d, 3d instant
effectively broke the drouth and corn, potatoes, beans, late garden
truck, etc, have beea greatly revived. Pastures, which were get-
ting very short, were greatly benefited, and the rain falling on
newly mown meadows will do much good. In the southeast, how-
ever, the rains were light and insufficient, and drouth conditions
still prevail.
flitroo^GoO^IC
Nbw York Wbathhb Bureau. 373
Harvesting has been carded on under favorable conditions.
Haying is generally finished1; and! wheat and! barley cut and in in
the most southern counties. Oats harvest is general and in many
sections early oats are already in. Wheat is rather uneven, being
light in parts of Ontario county; not as well as expected in Wayne
county; heavy straw but rather light yield ini Schuyler county;
but reports in genera) would indicate a fair crop. Considerable
has been threshed. Barley Is reported fair in Lewis county, light
in Ontario, and below the average in Cayuga. As stated in pre-
vious bulletins oats will be a light crop although much improved
and better than earlier expected. Corn' and buckwheat are grow-
ing nicely. Corn usually is late but growing fast; the crop is
very promising although a report from Erie county states that it
will not be more than half a crop. Early potatoes usually are
small and few in the Mil. In some southwestern sections blight
has appeared among them which, with the bugs, will make a poor
crop. Fruit prospects remain about the same. Apples are im-
proving in Saratoga county, but the crop promises to be light and
poor. Apples, peaches, pears and quinces are reported an average
crop in Wayne county. Early peaches and pears are being picked
in Niagara. Pears promise to be a full crop ; and in Westchester
plums will be abundant. In parts of Wayne county it is reported
that grapes will be less than half a crop. Tomatoes aire attacked
by a black rot in southern Dutchess.
The storm of the 29th was accompanied by hall in parts of Steu-
ben county, and growing crops were somewhat damaged in
places. The grasshoppers continue to be a plague in southwestern
counties, and somewhat in the extreme north. In- the southwest,
com, potatoes, oats, gardens, in fact everything green, is being
damaged. In parts of Allegany county they have cut some
fields of oats as fodder to save from their ravages.
E. A. FEURTES,
Director.
R. M. Hardinge,
Observer, U. 8. Weather Bureau,
Assistant Director.
Please give this the widest circulation possible. J°9S ' '
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Cornell University — Agricultural Experiment Station.
EIGHTH ANNUAL REPORT
Agricultural Experiment Station.
ITHACA, N. Y.
i895-
TRANSMITTED TO THE LEGISLATURE APRIL 20, 1896.
WYHKOOP HALLENBECK CRAWFORD CO.,
STATE PRINTERS,
ALBANY AND NEW YORK.
1696.
MgKbodbyGoOgle
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State of New York.
IN ASSEMBLY,
AfbA, 20, 1896.
Eighth Annual Report
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF CORNELL
UNIVERSITY.
STATE OF NEW YORK:
DlCPABTHENT OF AOBIOULTUBS, )
Albajtt, April 20, 1896. )
To the Honorable the Legitlatwre of the State of New York :
In accordance with the provisions of the statutes relating
thereto, I have the honor to herewith transmit the Report of
the Agricultural Experiment Station at Cornell University.
FRED C. SCHRAUB,
Commissioner of Agriculture.
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REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR.
To the President of Cornell University:
8m. — I have the honor to transmit herewith, my eighth annual
report, with those of the treasurer, the chemist, the botanist and
arboriculturist, the cryptogamic botanist and the plant patholo-
gist, the entomologist, the agriculturist, the horticulturist and
that of the assistant professor of dairy husbandry and animal
industry; together with an appendix of 22 bulletins and a spray
calendar, covering the year ending December 31, 1896. Also, a
detailed statement of the receipts and expenditures for the fiscal
year ending June 30, 1898.
The year has been unusually fruitful in valuable results. As
the wants of the farmers become more clearly defined we are
enabled to better and better meet their demands. An inspection
of the publications of the year will show that the demand for
original, accurate investigations directly related to both the prac-
tical and scientific sides of agriculture has been very fully met.
During recent years the ravages of the Insect and fungous
enemies of cultivated plants have become so numerous that many
farmers have felt like abandoning the production of the tenderer
and higher class of fruits and vegetables, the very kind of pro-
ducts which uniformly result, when successfully raised, in bring-
ing the best returns to the producer.
Malta* byGoOgle
6 Agricultural Experiment Statioh, Ithaca, N. T.
During the year an effort has been made to change the practice
of the orchardists with the happieBt results. By the instruction
given at the schools and by bulletins, the fruit growers have been
taught that most of their failures have been due to partial soil
exhaustion and to careless culture or to no culture. As a result
of our efforts, numerous orchards, heretofore kept continuously
in grass or grain, have received continuous, clean culture until
the last of August with marked benefit. Where suitable fertil-
izers were applied in conjunction with clean and continuous cul-
ture, the fruit has been most abundant and of superior quality.
The benefits which have accrued and are certain to accrue front
our teaching and investigations during this year, are so1 great and
far reaching that one hesitates to place a money value upon them,
lest he be charged with exaggeration.
The numerous letters of appreciation which have been received
and the great call for bulletins, justifies the belief that the work
of the year has been of a very high character.
All the various divisions of the station are working so harmo-
niously and effectively that no changes are recommended. The
office of the director has become to a large extent what I believe
it was the desire it should become — a sort of clearing house.
During the winter months a hundred written communications
frequently reaches the office each day. The inquiries embrace a
wide range of subjects, but the station staff, composed ae it is of
so many able specialists, is able to give help and valuable infor-
mation in almost every instance. About one ton of mail matter
during the summer and two tons during the winter have been sent
out monthly. Our foreign exchange now amounts to 250 and is
steadily increasing.
Malta* byGoOgle
R&FOBT OF THE DlKECTOE. 7
Experiments already completed have furnished valuable mate-
rial for Biz or eight additional bulletins, which will be published
in the near future.
The spray calendar published in 1894, was revised and a second
edition was issued, the first one having become exhausted at an
earl; date. The demand for them still continues and a third
edition will be printed in the near future. The titles of the bul-
letins issued during the year are as follows:
January, No. 84, — The Becent Apple Failures.
February. — Spray Calendar.
March, No. 85.— Whey Butter.
March, No. 86.— The Spraying of Orchards.
April, No. 87. — The Dwarf Lima Bean.
April, No. 88.— Early Lamb Baising.
April, No. 89.— Feeding Pigs.
April, No. 90.— The China Aster.
April, No. 91. — Becent Chrysanthemums.
May, No. 92.— Feeding Fat to Cows.
May, No. 93.— The Cigar-Case-Bearer.
May, No. 94.— Damping Off.
June, No. 95. — Winter Mnskmelons.
June, No. 96. — Forcing-house Miscellanies.
July, No. 97. — Entomogenous Fungi.
July, No. 98.— Cherries. .
August, No. 99. — Blackberries.
September, No. 100. — Evaporated Raspberries in Western New
York.
September, No. 101. — The Spraying of Trees, with Remarks on
Canker worm.
Malta* byGoOgle
8 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION", ItHAOA, N. Y.
October, No>. 102. — Care of Fruit Trees, General Observations.
October, No, 103.— Boll Depletion In Respect to Oare of Fruit
Trees.
November, No. 104. — Climbing Cutworms in Western New
York.
December, No. 105. — Tests of Cream Separators.
I. P. ROBERTS.
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Report of the Treasurer.
The Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, in
account with the United States appropriation, 1894-5:
i>b.
To receipts from treasurer of the United States, at per
appropriation for fiscal year ending Jane 30, 1895,
as per act of Congress approved March 2, 1887. . . $13,500 00
Cb.
Salaries |8,448 42
Labor. 1,065 48
Pnblications 2,181 68
Postage and stationery 328 05
Freight and express 118 43
Heat, light and water 28 89
Chemical supplies. " 164 22
Seeds, plants and sundry supplies 317 78
Fertilizers 25 03
Feeding staffs 192 62
Library 83 33
Tools, implements and machinery 27 75
Furniture and fixtures 102 25
Scientific apparatus 27 73
Live Btock .„ 6 00
Malta* byGoOgle
10 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N, Y.
Traveling expenses. $39 79
Contingent expenses 10 00
Building and repairs 332 55
113,500 00
We, the undersigned, duly appointed auditors of the corpora-
tion, do hereby certify that we have examined the books and ac-
counts of the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion for the fiscal year ending Jane 30, 1895; that we have found
the same well kept and classified as above, and that the receipts
for the year from the treasurer of the United States are shown
to have been $13,500.00, and the corresponding disbursements,
$13,500, for all of which proper vouchers are on file and have been
by us examined and found correct, thus leaving no balance on
hand.
And we further certify that the expenditures have been solely
for the purpose set forth in the act of Congress approved March 2,
1887.
(Signed.) H. B. LORD,
[l. s.] GEO. R, WILLIAMS,
Auditors:
Attest:
Emmons L. Williams,
Custodian.
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Report of the Chemist.
To the Director of the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment
Station:
Sib. — I have to report that the work of the Chemical Division
of the Experiment Station has been carried on in the usual manner
-daring the year 1895.
Ninety-five substances have been Bent to the laboratory for an-
alysis, requiring 200 determinations in duplicate. The results of
this work are given in various bulletins of the station. The
largest part of the analyses were made by Mr. G. W. Cavanaugh;
the rest were made under his immediate direction.
G. C. CALDWELL.
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Report of the Botanist.
To the Director of the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment
Station:
Sir. — The important work of this department consists, as here-
tofore, of studies, investigations and experiments concerning the
diseases of plants. This work is wholly in charge of the Associate
Professor of Cryptogamic Botany, George P. Atkinson, whose re-
port is herewith inclosed.
In Phanerogamic Botany no work has been undertaken beyond1
the answering of inquiries, the naming of weeds and other plants,
and the carrying on of a considerable correspondence relating to-
other subjects.
A. N. PRENTISS.
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Report of the Cryptoffamic Botanist.
*To ike Director of the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment
Station:
Sib. — I respectf oily submit the following report for the past
jear:
One bulletin (Bulletin 94, May, 1895}, baa been published during
the year, which treats of several of the obscure fungi which cause
the rot of seedlings and other green-house plants. The bulletin
consists of forty pages and is illustrated with six fall-page plates,
representing the life history and development of the parasites.
Other investigations are in progress which, in time, will be
presented for publication, especially on the leaf spot of the quince
■and pear. In connection with this, there has been discovered
a hitherto unknown fungus which is quite abundant on pear
leaves, causing much the same appearance and injury as the ordi-
nary leaf spot (Entomosporium maculatum), and probably many
times having been mistaken for it, since it is impossible from the
usual popular descriptions of this fungus to distinguish it from
this new one. Probably many of the descriptions which have been
given heretofore of experiments for the prevention of leaf-spot
have been wrongly applied to the Entomosporinm. Several other
investigations which were mentioned in the last report are still
under way.
Dr. E. J. Durand, assistant cryptogamic botanist, has been en-
gaged upon the investigations of the life history and development
14 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. T.
of two important parasitic fungi. One, causing a disease of cur-
rant canes, has, for several years, been reported in different sec-
tions of the state, and indeed from other states, hot up to this time
the cause and the development of the organism has been unknown.
Dr. Durand has succeeded in following out and determining the
complete life history of the parasite, and will soon have the matter
ready for publication as a bulletin.
The development of a fungus parasite of stone fruits, Clado-
sporium carpophilum, is also being carefully investigated by Dr.
Durand, and the matter is in a fair way for completion.
Besides these investigations there has been much work of a
routine kind, in the way of determining specimens of fungi that
have come to our hands for this purpose.
Some extensive experiments have also been carried on in deter-
mining the number of bacteria in milk at different stages in the
pasteurization of the same; and we have now in progress studies
of some peculiar organisms which give an uneven and undesirable-
coloring to cheese during its curing. The trouble exists in several
of the cheese factories of the state.
The needs of the division are so great that I hesitate to enumer-
ate even any of them. It is desirable that an assistant should be
able to give his entire time to the investigation of the numerous
problems that are arising in connection with the diseases of plants,
and that the division should be otherwise relieved by an instructor
who could give his entire time to the instruction in the laboratory
and the care of the Cryptogamic Herbarium. There are many
important problems which can not be even entered upon without
continued assistance and the opportunities which would come from
the appropriation of a larger fund to the division. AH of the
work is of such a character that it requires expensive apparatus
KSPOBT OF THE CbYPTOGAMIO BoTAHIST. 15
for carrying it on, and needs the accumulation of type material
which can be ased in the comparison of the material which is being
investigated.
Among other things, one of the most pressing needs is a small
bat properly appointed culture house or forcing house, near to the
laboratory, where plants for experimentation upon the different
diseases could be under close observation, and could be ased for
studying more carefully the relation of the parasites to the host,
and of the effect of surrounding conditions.
Even for the continuance of the work as it is now carried on
more funds are necessary than have been appropriated this year.
These suggestions are respectfully offered for your consideration.
GEORGE F. ATKINSON.
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Report of the Entomologist.
To the Director of the CorneU University Agricultural Experiment
Station:
Sir. — During the past year several injurious Insects have been
investigated by this division of the station. For instance, we
have demonstrated that the mysterious " dying back or blight-
ing " of the tender tips of peach nursery stock is largely, if not
entirely; dne to the punctures of the common and well-known
tarnished plant bng. A maggot, which barrows down the center
of and finally girdles young raspberry shoots, was also quite de-
structive in several localities ; we have full, illustrated notes on its
habits and life history, but have as yet failed to get the adult
insect — an Anthomyiid fly. Borne of the scale insects which are
common here in the east have been bred on trees growing in the
insectary, with the result that new and very important facts
regarding their life histories have been learned.
The 500 peach trees in our extensive peach-borer experiment
were first treated in 1894, and the examination last spring revealed
several interesting and important facts. Although the careful
examination and treatment of each one of these trees involves
much labor, the results thus far obtained afford sufficient en-
couragement to warrant the continuance of the experiment for
a series of years.
Considerable work was undertaken by this division during
1894 and 1895, under the auspices of the so-called Experiment
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Report of the Entomologist. 17
Station Extension or Nixon bill. The results of these investiga-
tions are embodied in the following bulletins, issued during the
past year:
93. The Cigar-Case-Bearer in Western New York.
104. Climbing Cutworms in Western New York.
A large share of our time has been occupied with the corre-
spondence of the division. We have always taken great pains to
give every correspondent the latest and best information, for we
believe this 1b one of the most important phases of our work. The
correspondence has nearly doubled daring the past year. Six
hundred and fifty letters of Inquiry regarding insects and their in-
juries were answered; one hnndred twenty of these answers were
prepared for publication and have appeared in the columns of
agricultural journals.
Respectfully submitted,
M. V. SLINGEBLAND,
Assistant Entomologist.
2
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Report of the Agriculturist.
To the Director of the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment
Station:
Sib. — The work of the agricultural division during the greater
part of the year has bees uuder the direction of Mr. G. C. Watson,,
who resigned his position in August to accept the chair of agricul-
ture at the Pennsylvania State College.
During the year the investigations with reference to the value
of feed stuffs hare been continued and at the present time we are
feeding a lot of twenty-five pigs to determine the value of different
rations. The important line of work which was commenced sev-
eral years ago with barn manures has been continued and valuable
and interesting results obtained. Experiments to determine the
relation between cultivation and conservation of soil moisture
have been conducted on the permanent plots. It is expected that
the experiments with field crops and fertilizers will be continued
through a series of years, for in this way only can results of any
value be obtained.
L. A. CLINTON.
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Report of the Horticulturist. .
To the Director of the Cornell' University Agricultural Experiment
Station:
Sib. — The work of the horticultural division daring the year
1896" has been chiefly concerned with the investigation and teach-
ing requested of the station by the so-called Experiment Station
Extension or Nixon bill. The investigational work under the
auspices of this statute has been of two general types — that made
at the home station, and that which was undertaken in the fruit
plantations of the western part of the State. Of the former type,
we have published results in bulletins as follows, during the year:
87. The Dwarf Lima Beans.
90. The China Asters; with Remarks upon Flower Beds.
91. Chrysanthemums.
95. Winter Muskmelons.
96. Forcing-house Miscellanies.
The work of the latter class — that done partly or chiefly on the
plantations of farmers — has given more profuse results in publi-
cation. I have been fortunate to have secured the co-operation
of my colleagues in this work, and part of the bulletins which have
appeared in fulfillment of the law have been written by persons
outside my division. Those bulletins which were prepared by
writers under the direct supervision of the horticultural division
are as follows:
Digitized byGOQgle
20 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
84. The Recent Apple Failures of Western New York.
86. The Spraying of Orchards — Apples, Quinces, Plums.
98. Cherries.
99. Blackberries.
100. Evaporated Raspberries in Western New York.
101. Notions about the Spraying of Trees; with Remarks on the
Canker Worm.
102. General Observations Respecting the Care of Fruit Trees;
with some Reflections upon Weeds.
A full and explicit account of the work which has been at-
tempted under this State grant is given in Bulletin 110.
The accustomed work at the home station has taken a secondary
place to this State work during the past two years. We have
also suffered a serious loss during the past season in the wanton
destruction of all our cherry orchard, our entire vineyard, nearly
our entire collection of native plums, and a large lot of seedling
currants and other plants, by the grading which was done to pro-
vide for a site for the State Veterinary College. These planta-
tions were devastated without warning, and the work of several
years was irrevocably lost. The Experiment Station houses are
getting old and are much In need of repairs. Our area is now
so small that we can not expect to plan much new experimenting
therein in fruit-culture; and it is now so completely occupied by
permanent planting that experiments in vegetable gardening must
henceforth be very limited and must eventually cease.
Respectfully submitted,
L. H. BAILEY.
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Report of the Assistant Professor of Dairy-
Husbandry and Animal Industry.
To the Director of the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment
Station:
Sir. — The work of the Agricultural Experiment Station in the
dairy division has been mainly continued along the same lines as
for several years past. IXiring the year three bulletins have been
published :
85. Whey Batter.
92. Feeding Fat to Cows.
105. Teste of Cream 'Separators.
The records of our herd of dairy cows have been kept up during
the year and are now continuous for something over four years.
It is hoped to shortly publish a bulletin giving some of the results
obtained.
We have also secured considerable data bearing upon the re-
lation of milk production to food consumed in cases where animals
have been forced for great production. Experiments are also
under way concerning the relation of food to quality of milk and
during the year some investigations have been made upon the sub-
ject of milk pasteurization and sterilization.
The efficiency of this division could be very materially increased
if it were possible to secure the services of a trained bacteriologist
and chemist.
Very respectfully submitted,
H. H. WING.
Malta* byGoOgle
Appendix II.
DETAILED STATEMENT
Receipts and Expenditures of the Cornell University
Agricultural Experiment Station, for the
Fiscal Year Ending June 30, 1895.
RECEIPTS.
Prom Horticultural Division.
1894.
Oct. 17. Sundry fruits |27 00
23. Sundry fruitB 2 56
Dec. 6. Sundry fruits 25 00
17. Sundry fruits 9 00
1895.
Feb. 1. Hauling coal 6 30
28. Products sold (sundry fruits) 18 00
♦87 86
From Office.
1895.
May 8. One hundred spray calendars fl 00
ut ,<*, -.Google
Receipts and Expenditures. 23
EXPENDITURES.
For Salaries.
1894.
July 81. I. P. Roberts, director, one month $125 00
H. H. Wing, dairyman, one month 104 16
L. H. Bailey, horticulturist, one month 125 00
G. F. Atkinson, cryptogamic botanist, one
month , 91 66
Q. C. Watson, assistant agriculturist, one
month 100 00
M. V. Slingerland, assistant entomologist,
one month 100 00
G. W. Cavanaugh, assistant chemist, one
month 66 66
Aug. 81. I. P. Roberts, director, one month 125 00
H. H. Wing, dairyman, one month 104 16
L. H. Bailey, horticulturist, one montb 125 00
G. F. Atkinson, cryptogamic botanist, one
month 91 66
,' G. O. Watson, assistant agriculturist, one
month 100 00
M. V. Slingerland, assistant entomologist,
one month 100 00
G. W. Cavanaugh, assistant chemist, one
month 66 66
H. W. Smith, clerk, 23-26 month 55 28
Sept. 30. I. P. Roberts, director, one month 125 00
H. H. Wing, dairyman, one month 104 16
L. H. Bailey, horticulturist, one month 126 00
Google
24 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
1894.
Sept. 30. G. F. Atkinson, cryptogamic botanist, one
month (9166
G. C. Watson, assistant agriculturist, one
month 100 00
M. V. Slingerland, assistant entomologist,
one month 100 00
G. W. Cavanaugh, assistant chemist, one
month 66 66
H. W. Smith, clerk, one month 62 50
Oot. 31. I. P. Roberts, director, one month , 125 00
H. H. Wing, dairyman, one month 104 16
L. H. Bailey, horticulturist, one month 125 00
G. F. Atkinson, cryptogamic botanist, one
month 91 68
G. C. Watson, assistant agriculturist, one
month 100 00
M. V. Slingerland, assistant entomologist,
one month 100 00
G. W. Cavanaugh, assistant chemist, one
month 66 66
H. W. Smith, clerk, one month 62 50
Not. 30. I. P. Boberts, director, one month 125 00
H. H. Wing, dairyman, one month 104 16
L. H. Bailey, horticulturist, one month 125 00
Q. F. Atkinson, cryptogamic botanist, one
month 91 66
G. C. Watson, assistant agriculturist, one
month 100 00
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Receipts and Expenditures. 25
1894.
Nov. 30. M. V. Slingerland, assistant entomologist,
one month f 100 00
G. W. Cavanangh, assistant chemist, one
month 66 66
H. W. Smith, clerk, one month 62 50
Dec. 91. I. P. Roberts, director, one month 125 00
H. H. Wing, dairyman, one month 104 16
L. H. Bailey, horticulturist, one month 125 00
G. F. Atkinson, cryptogamic botanist, one
month 91 66
O. C. Watson, assistant agriculturist, one
month 100 00
M. V. Slingerland, assistant entomologist,
one month 100 00
G. W. Cavanangh, assistant chemist, one
month 66 66
H. W. Smith, clerk, one month 62 50
1895.
Jan. 31. I. P. Roberts, director, one month 125 00
H. H. Wing, dairyman, one month 104- 16
L. H. Bailey, horticulturist, one month 125 00
G. F. Atkinson, eryptogamic botanist, one
month 91 66
G. C. Watson, assistant agriculturist, one
month 100 00
M. V. Slingerland, assistant entomologist,
one month 100 00
G. W. Cavanangh, assistant chemist, one
month
66 66
vCoo^rc
26 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, BT, T.
1895.
Feb. 28. I. P. Roberta, director, one month $125 00
H. n. Wing, dairyman, one month 101 16
L. H. Bailey, horticulturist, one month 125 00
G. F. Atkinson, cryptogamic botanist, one
month 91 66
G-. C. Watson, assistant agriculturist, one
month 100 00
M. V. Slingerland, assistant entomologist,
one month 100 00
G. W. Cavanaugh, assistant chemist, one
month 66 66
H. W. Smith, clerk, one month 62 50
March 30. I. P. Boberts, director, one month 125 00
H. H. Wing, dairyman, one month 101 16
L. H. Bailey, horticulturist, one month. . . . 125 00
G. F. Atkinson, cryptogamic botanist, one
month 91 66
G. C. Watson, assistant agriculturist, one
month 100 00
G. W. Cavanaugh, assistant chemist, one
month 66 66
April 30. I. P. Roberts, director, one month 125 00
H. H. Wing, dairyman, one month 101 16
G. F. Atkinson, cryptogamic botanist, one
month 91 66
G. C. Watson, assistant agriculturist, one
month 100 00
G. W. Cavanaugh, assistant chemist, one
month 66 66
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April 30. H. W. Smith, clerk, one month |62 50
May 31. I. P. Roberts, director, one month 125 00
H. H. Wing, dairyman, one month 104 16
G. F. Atkinson, cryptomagic botanist, one
month 91 66
G. C. Watson, assistant agriculturist, one
month 100 00
G. W. Cavanaugh, assistant chemist, one
month 66 66
June 30. I. P. Roberts, director, one month 125 00
H. H. Wing, dairyman, one month 104 16
G. F. Atkinson, cryptomagic botanist, one
month 91 66
G- C. Watson, assistant agriculturist, one
month 100 00
G. W. Cavanangh, assistant chemist, one
month 66 66
Total for salaries. *8,205 04
For Building.
1894.
Oct. 1. ChimLey for green-house f 230 00
June 21. Paint for insectary 7 65
29. Labor, painting insectary 30 00
Total for buildings f 267 65
flitroo^GoO^IC
28 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
For Printing.
1894.
July 21. United States Express Co., expressage |0 30
30. United Statea Express Co., expressage 25
25. J. Horace McFarland, electro 35
28. N. Y. Engraving and Printing Co., cats 3 78
Aug. 1. United States Express Co., expressage 55
4. United States Express Co., expressage 30
7. United States Express Co., expressage 40
10. United States Express Co., expressage 25
8. United States Express Co., expressage. ... 30
United States Express Co., expressage.. .. 30
15. United States Express Co., expressage 30
16. John Allen, pen and ink drawing 4 54
20. National Express Co., expressage 75
10. National Express Co., expressage 45
25. National Express Co., expressage 75
Sept 1. E. G. Hance, cartage 1 00
Aug. 29. L. V. B. B. Co., freight 2 90
7. N. Y. and Penn. Telegraph and Telephone
Co., message 40
25. W. F. Humphrey, 10,000 copies bulletin,
No. 68. 180 25
Sept. 14. National Express Co., expressage 1 00
21. E. G. Hance, cartage 75
16. L. V. B. B. Co., freight 3 80
21. National Express Co., expressage 66
13. U. S. Express Co., expressage 26
13. U, S. Express Co., expressage 35
27. L. V. B. E. Co., freight 4 23
DqltSMByCOOgle
Receipts and Expenditures.
Sept. 12. Franklin Engraving Co., cuts $66 50
Oct. 1. Franklin Engraving Co., cuts 22 98
3. National Express Co., expressage 70
8. U. 8. Express Co., expressage 30
8. Franklin Engraving Co., cat 80
11. Lovejoy Co., electro IT
13. L. V. B. R. Co., freight 4 65-
17. National Express Co., expressage.' 75>
22. E. G. Hance, cartage 1 00
30. E. G. Hance, cartage 75
27. U. 8. Express Co., expressage 25
31. TJ. S. Express Co., expressage 25
29. Lovejoy Co., electros 1 44
Nov. 1. Western Unio* Telegraph Co., message. . . 2T
21. V. 8. Express Co., expressage 25.
24. TJ. B. Express Co., expressage 25-
16. TJ. S. Express Co., expressage 25>
29. W. F. Humphrey, 10,100 copies Bnlletin
No. 73 338 50
24. Franklin Engraving Co., cuts 13 13
25. U. 6. Express Co., expressage 25-
28. TJ. 8. Express Co., expressage 40
Dec. 5. National Express Co., expressage 25
3. Franklin Engraving Co., half-tone cut 2 60
21. U. 8. Express Co. expressage 30
24. TJ. 8. Express Co., expressage 30
24. Lovejoy Co., electros 73
27. Lovejoy Co., electros 4 79
Malta* byGoOgle
30 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
1895.
Jan. 24. IT. 6. Express Co., expreBsage $0 26
29. L. V. R. E. Co., freight 12 00
31. E. G. Hance, cartage 1 50
Feb. 5. U. 8. Express Co., expressage 25
13. IT. 8. Express Co., expressage. 25
16. U. 8. Express Co., expressage 25
16. TJ. 8. Express Co., expressage 25
Jan. 26. W. F. Humphrey, 12,000 copies Bulletin,
No. 78 640 40
Feb. 21. U. S. Express Co., expressage 25
2. Matthews-Northrap Co., cats 6 00
25. L. V. R. B. Co., freight 2 19
26. U . S. Express Co., expressage 25
28. E. G. Hance, cartage 50
22. W. F. Humphrey, 11,000 copies Bulletin, No.
82 -1 110 00
8. W. F. Humphrey, 12,000 spray calendars. 40 60
March 9. National Express Co., expressage 25
7. Franklin Engraving Co., zinc cut 75
19. L. V. R. R. Co., freight 1 22
18. W. F. Humphrey, 12,000 copies Bulletin,
No. 85 48 80
12. U. S. Express Co., expressage 15
20. U. 8. Express Co., expressage 30
23. E. G. Hance, cartage 50
28. National Express Co., expressage 66
26. Franklin Engraving Co., half-tone cats. . . 20 76
April 8. O. D. Watson, pen drawing 1 50
10. IT. 8. Express Co., expressage. . . .
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Receipts and Expenditures. 31
1895.
April 18. IT. 8. Express Co., expressage $0 25
29. National Express Co., expressage 66
30. L. V. E. B. Co., freight 3 27
24. U. S, Express Co., expressage 25
May 3. TJ. S. Express Co., expressage 25
6. L. V. B. B. Co., freight 1 30
4. W. F. Humphrey, 12,000 copiea Bulletin,
No. 89 73 90
April 27. W. F. Humphrey, 12,000 copies Bulletin,
No. 88 146 20
May 8. E. G. Hance, cartage 1 00
13. IT. S. Express Co., expressage 25
15. W. F. Humphrey, 12,000 copies Bulletin,
No. 92 97 00
30. U. S. Express Co., expressage 25
18. L. V. R. B. Co., freight 6 10
27. L. V. R. R. Co., freight 1 50
29. L. V. R. B. Co., freight S 59
June 8. TJ. 8. Express Co., expressage 25
15. TJ. 8. P. O. Stamps 12 00
15. E. G. Hance, cartage 1 75
21. TJ. S. Express Co., expressage 25
19. Lovejoy Co., electros 1.16
Total for printing $1,910 99
For Office Expenses.
1894.
Joly 3. U. S. P. O., stamps $15 00
3. E. G. Hance, cartage ..„ GoA<JPe
32 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
1894.
July 1. Treman, King & Co., index tine fO 60
6. AndniB & Church, stationery 5 35-
21. U. 8. ExpresB Co., expressage 30
Aug. 7. U. S. P. O. stamps and postal cards 6 00
8. National Express Co., expressage 45-
6. H. H. Ballard, clips 10 10
10. Andrus & Church, pencils 40
11. Letter copy hook, Andrus & Church 1 25
11. E. Hance, cartage 1 00-
14. National Express Co., expressage 30'
11. George P. Rowell & Co., American News-
paper Directory 6 00-
31. TJ. 8. P. O. stamps 10 00
Sept. 3. P. P. Hatch, labor 11 70-
Ang. 18. Andrus & Church, printing and stationery. 6 04
Sept. 20. Andrus & Church, envelopes 4 95
19. Andrus & Church, supplies 1 80-
Aug. 81. Nellie G. Works, labor 7 88-
31. Lizzie V. Maloney, labor 17 50
31. Arthur Stout, labor 1 86-
31. Walter Tailby, labor 2 0O
Sept. 22. Stationery and supplies, Andrus & Church. 3 05
26. Elgin Dairy report, stationery 2 50
29. Andrus & Church, stationery 3 50
Oct. 4. Andrus & Church, stationery 5 16
5. Ithaca Gaslight Co., gas 20-
6. Andrus & Church, pencils 1 00
10. U. S. Express Co., expressage 40
16. TJ. S. Express Co., expressage
vGoo^Tc
Receipts and Expenditures. 33
1894.
Oct. 17. C. V. repairs, pigeon boles and office desk. . $11 87
27. W. O. Wyckoff, typewriter ribbons 2 00
23. Andrus & Church, printing 75
Nov. 1. W. W. Boot, labor 6 76
6. Andras & Church, Shannon binders 2 25
3. Andrus & Church, stationery 3 75
8. U. S. Express, expressage 26
1. Ithaca Gas Light Co., gas 20
Sept. 4. Piatt & Colt, rubber stamp and brush 4 90
Nov. 13. E. D. Norton, Ink 50
10. Andrus & Church, letter copy book 2 00
30. Lizzie V. Maloney, labor 32 50
14. H. H. Wing, traveling expenses 28 25
Dec. 6. Ithaca Gas Light Co., gas 40
11. W. O. Wyckoff, mimeograph supplies 2 80
15. XJ. S. P. O., 3,000 stamped envelopes 66 00
29. Lizzie V. Maloney, labor 32 50
22. E. 9. Tichenor & Son, chest of drawers 12 50
1895.
Jan. 7. Andrus ft Church, paper 1 75
11. W. O. Wyckoff, stationery 1 60
5. Ithaca Gas Light Co., gas 40
14. Andrus & Church, stationery 3 50s
21. Andrus & Church, printed letter heads 4 75-
21. Andrus ft Church, stationery 85
26. Andrus & Church, ink 75
Feb. 6. Ithaca Gas Light Co., gas 40
7. Andrus & Church, stationery 2 75
5. W. O. Wyckoff, typewriter ribbons 2 00
34 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
1895.
Feb. 16. Andrns & Church, stationery f 2 30
21. W. O. Wyckoff, mimeograph paper 1 75
26. W. O. Wyckoff, mimeograph ink 60
28. Nellie G. Works, labor 36 00
28. Arthur T. Stout, labor 12 80
27. Andrns & Church, printed cards 4 75
March 1. Andrns & Chnrch, letter copy book 2 60
6. Andrns & Church, stationery 1 10
4. U. S. Express Co., expressage 26
5. U. 8. Express Co., expresaage 25
8. U. S. Express Co., expressage 25
12. U. S. P. O. stamps 10 00
14. V. 8. P. 0., 500 stamped envelopes 10 80
14. A. A. A. C. & Exp. Sta,, membership fee. . . 10 00
20. W. O. Wyckoff, mimeograph supplies 2 20
15. AndruB & Church, printed slips 1 75
15. Andrns & Chnrch, printed stationery 12 50
SO. Arthar T. Stoat, labor 5 72
30. G. Walter Tallby, labor 6 09
March 29. Andrns & Church, printed letter heads 4 13
27. Andrus & Chnrch, stationery 2 63
April 1. W. O. Wyckoff, mineograph ink 60
4. Andrns & Church, stationery 88
6. Comstock Pnb. Co., Comstock's Manual. . . . 3 75
13. George T. Lasher, V. 8. Postal Guide 2 00
20. Nellie G. Works, labor 27 00
26. Andrns & Church, binding postal guide 90
24. Andrns & Church, desk trays 1 42
30. Lizzie V. Maloney, labor 12 00
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Rbceiptb and Expenditures. 35
1895.
April 23. W. O. Wyckoff, mineograph supplies *1 96
30. Andrus & Church, lead pencils 80
May 7. U. 8. Express Co., expressage 25
7. U. 8. Express Co., expressage 85
31. Lizzie Y. Maloney, labor 40 50
31. E. G. Hance, cartage 1 00
31. Arthur T. Stout, labor 10 00
27. Ithaca Rubber Stamp Co., repairing stamps 26
14. W. O. Wyckoff, mimeograph paper 1 75
Jane 1. Andrus & Church, towels and brashes. ... 1 08
18. Andrns &. Chnrch, wrapping paper 6 40
21. W. O. Wyckoff, typewriter ribbon 1 00
29. Lizzie V. Maloney, labor 37 50
29. H. G. Norwood, labor 11 37
Total for office expenses (645 72
For Agricultural Division.
1894.
July 10. National Express Co., expressage (0 36
9. J. M. Thorburn & Co., clover seed 66
11. National Express Co., expressage 25
31. National Express Co., expressage 75
Aug. 1. IT. 8. Express Co., expressage 3 30
8. CharleB Payne, rabbits 6 00
31. Ithaca Calendar Clock Co.. dynamometer
apparatus. 11 60
Sept. 1. C. XI. Agr. Dept., labor 6 66
5. TJ. 8. Express Co., expressage 60
12. Andrus & Church, stationery. ,
■;"^o:-yGoagle
36 Agbicoltueal Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
1894.
Sept. 15. Ajndrua & Church, stationery f 0 55
29. National Express Co., expressage 65
Oct. 3. U. S. P. O., 500 stamped envelopes 10 90
3. National Express Co., expressage 30
2. E. & H. T. Anthony, photograph supplies. . 4 68
Sept. 20. L. S. Wortman, tallow 3 00
12. Perry Seed Store, clover seed 1 60
Oct. 13. National Express Co., expreBsage 65
18. L. V. R. R. Co., freight 80
20. Smiths & Powell, trees 9 40
26. National Express Co., expressage 80
27. National Express Co., expressage 65
Nov. 1. National Express Co., expressage 40
Oct. 30. Treman, King & Co., hardware 6 85
Nov. 2. National Express Co., expressage 65
2. I. P. Roberts, traveling expenses 3 54
5. National Express Co., expressage 50
Oct. 24. L. 8. Wortman, tallow 23 88
5. J. S. Wood-ward & Sou, drinking basins 8 40
Nov. 7. U. 8. Express Co., expressage 30
8. U. S. Express Co., expressage 35
8. U. S. Express Co., expressage 50
9. National Express Co., expressage 40
10. National Express Co., expressage 25
9. IT. S. Express Co., expressage 30
8. Charles Wanser, traveling expenses 4 00
10. National Express Co., expressage 65
Sept. 25. C. J. Rumsey & Co., battery jars 4 20
Nov. 12. National Express Co., expressage.
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Receipts and Expenditures. 37
1894.
Not. 10. National Express Co., expressage fO 30
15. National Express Co., expressage 60
19. National Express Co., expressage 35
19. National Express Co., expressage 30
21. National Express Co., expressage 1 00
SO. Theodore Van Natta, labor 37 00
30. F. P. Hatch, labor 40 35
30. Henry J. Brown, labor 9 75
30. U. S. Express Co., expressage 30
Dec. 4. National Express Co., expressage 50
1. National Express Co., expressage 35
Nov. 27. L. S. Wortman, tallow 37 86
June 9. E. McGillivray, photo plates 3 60
Dec. 22. J. M. Trueman, labor 16 00
15. L. S. Wortman, tallow 18 66
Oct. 9. Joe Fowles, cement 6 35
1895.
Jan. 30. National Express Co., expressage 70
Feb. 28. Theodore Van Natta, labor 34 15
28. Joseph A. Krenzer, labor 8 69
1. E. McGillivray, photo plateB 3 21
March 15. National Express Co., expressage 35
20. J. M. Trueman, labor 6 20
23. Andrus & Church, printed slips 4 75
April 16. National Express Co., expressage 1 75
March 16. A. Blanc & Co., sacaline, roots and seeds. . . 1 15
Jan. 28. Treman, King & Co., hardware 1 55
April 9. J. M. Trueman, labor 14 00
25. National Express Co., expressage T..,i,r. ...;i 25
38 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. T.
1895.
April 25. A. D. Pratt, oats 11 35
26. National Express Co., expressage 76
23. 6. Cramer, photo plates 6 58
20. A. W. Livingston Sons, seed corn 52
24. D. Landreth & Sons, sunflower seeds 17
29. National Express Co., expressage 45
30. E. R. Ewell, labor 37 00
May 3. National Express Co., expressage 30
3. Hook BroB., seed potatoes 1 80
1. C. E. Chapman, seed potatoes 80
April 27. A. W. Horton, seed corn 1 00
Jan. 23. Edward G. Allen, English periodicals 8 80
May 9. E. C. & N. R. R. Co., freight 1 99
13. D., L. & W. R. R. Co., freight 58
7. L. V. R. R. Co., freight 50
April 16. E. McOillivrar, photo supplies 3 38
May 22. A. W. Livingston Sons, seed corn 56
2. H. J. Baker & Bro., fertilizer 25 03
81. E. R. Ewell, labor 38 42
31. J. W. Gilmore, labor 2 10
June 10. White & Bnrdick, chemicals 45
28. Neptune Meter Co., planimeter 5 00
29. H. G. Norwood, labor 15 64
26. Treman, King & Co., hardware 6 16
29. George Small, lumber 34 00
Jan. 3. National Express Co., expressage 70
Total for agricultural division $666 62
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Receipts and Expenditures. 39
For Horticultural Division.
1894.
June 29. E. O. Lodeman, expenses sprayin g orchards, f 11 95
Jul; 2. E. G. Lodeman, expenses spraying fruits. . 10 76
3. Driacoll Broa., lime and cement 14 BO
3. Rothschild Bros., towels 2 00
3. Barr Bros., hardware 2 60
June 1. White & Burdick, chemicals 7 43
Feb. 2. Pall Creek Milling Co., feed 9 77
March 2. Fall Creek Milling Co., feed 10 26
31. Fall Creek Milling Co., feed 10 70
July 7. J. S. McGowan, hay 23 28
6. Ithaca Gas-Light Co., gas 38
1. Ira Grover, Jr., labor 41 00
17. G. H. Powell, money paid for labor 18 00
6. Detroit Paper Package Co., berry baskets. . 4 00
9. Ernest Walker, Herbarium specimens 7 90
28. Ed. Nolan, labor 16 00
28. William Mann, labor 14 25
31. Ira Grover, Jr., labor 37 60
30. New York Engraving and Printing Co., cat, 8 23
Aug. 2. C. T. Stephens, seeds 3 66
14. A. H. Perkins, maps 10 00
Sept. 3. Ira Grover, Jr., labor » . . . 37 00
8. Henry A. Dreer, seeds 39
Aug. 25. Henry A. Dreer. seeds 64
27. F. R. Pierson, rose planta 6 48
Oct. 1. Ira Grover Jr., labor 37 60
May 17. Andrus & Church, stationery 60
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40 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, K. Y.
1894.
Juij 27. Drlscoll Bros., bricks. f8 50
7. Andrus & Church, printed cards 1 25
20. Andrus & Church, printed labels 1 60
Aug. 3. Andrua & Church, printed labels 1 60
June 14. White & Burdick, chemicals 66
Sept. 11. John N. May, rose plants 3 00
Nov. 2. Ira Grover, Jr., labor 37 60
Aug. 9. J. F. More, agent, repairing harness 4 00
Oct. 30. White & Burdick, chemicals 1 26
Nov. 3. E. G. Lodeman, expenses spraying orchard, 12 75
Oct. 30. J. M. Thorburn & Co., plants 90
Nov. 14. J. M. Thorburn & Co., plants 43
Sept. 26. Burns Bros., shoeing horses 5 15
29. Dennison Mfg. Co., shipping tags 70
Dec. 1. Ira Grover, Jr., labor 37 00
Aug. 22. Henry A. Dreer, turnip seed 39
Nov. 12. Pall Creek Milling Co., feed 13 50
Oct. 19. Egbert & Merrill, drugs and chemicals. ... 5 23
Dec. 31. Ira A. Grover, Jr., labor 37 00
6. W. O. Wyckoff, stationery 1 26
Aug. 15. E. McGillivray, photo plates 1 32
July 9. H. W. Bostwick, baskets 4 00
Dec 18. Fall Creek Milling Co., feed 12 30
Sept. 25. Pritchard & Son, repairing wagons 15 10
1896.
Jan. 1. Burns Bros., shoeing horses 1 70
29. August Roelker & Sons, chemicals 2 79
Feb. 1. Ira A. Grover, Jr., labor 38 42
8. D., L. & W. R. B. Co., freight 1 25
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Receipts and Expenditures. 41
1895.
Feb. 8. D., L. & W. R. R. Co., freight |0 77
2. M. E. Jones, labor 3 00
18. National Express Co., expressage 26
28. Ira A. Grover, Jr„ labor 37 00
28. Peter C. Toner, labor 40 00
April 1. Ira A. Grover, Jr., labor 37 60
X. Peter C. Toner, labor 40 00
Feb. 6. H. Cannells & Sons, begonia plants 4 32
2. White & Bnrdick, chemicals 1 60
27. Alfred Bridgeman, seed beans 2 00
March 22. J. W. Austin, dewberry plantB 1 00
13. J. W. Killer, hazel plants 1 20
14. Rochester Lith. Co., hand plates 42
14. Driscoll Bros., sand and lime 3 00
April 10. W. M. King, cherry tree 3 00
30. J. A. Stevenson, oats 21 32
30. Ira A. Grover, Jr., labor 37 60
30. Peter C. Toner, labor 40 00
1894.
May 1. Gustav E. Stechert, foreign periodicals 26 60
1895.
Jan. 23. Edward G. Allen, foreign periodicals 11 48
May 31. Peter C. Toner, labor 16 00
31. Ira Grover, Jr., labor 37 60
1894.
Nov. 15. Ellwanzer & Barry, strawberry plants 1 60
1895.
June 8. J. W. Manning, hay 8 10
May 6. J. F. Moore, harness sundries iMtvj* * OoO$I*^
42 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
1895.
June 1. E. C. Cleaves, bine print paper f 10 06
29. Ira Grover, Jr., labor 37 60
29. Peter C. Toner, labor. 40 00
Total for horticultural division f 1,061 95
For Chemical Division.
1894.
July 12. C. IT. Chemical Department, chemicals... |53 38
12. White & Burdick, chemicals 4 55
Oct. 2. National Express Co., expressage 65
Nov. 6. W. W. Root, labor 4 70
Dec. 4. W. W. Boot, labor 21 60
1. C. U. repairs, stock and labor 1 84
Nov 21. Jameson & HeKnmey, plumbing 28 63
1895.
Jan. 2. W. W. Root, labor 26 25
Feb. 2. W. W. Root, labor 12 50
March 5. Ithaca Plumbing Co., plumbing 1 39
June 29. C. U. Chemical Department, gas 26 91
Total for chemical department f 182 40
For Botanical Division.
1894.
July 11. J. B. McAllister, meat f 0 40
11. Larkin Bros., groceries 15
Sept. 24. Treman, King & Co., galvanized condenser, 2 25
29. Jamieson & McKinney, rubber tnbing 3 50
Oct. 15. E. McGUlivray, photo supplies 28 92
12. Elmer & Amend, chemicals 14 80
Digitized byGOQgle
Rbcicifts and Expenditures. 43
1894.
Sept. 18. White ft Burdick, chemicals |1 30
Oct. 26. The Bool Co., furniture and repairs 34 28
Not. 7. R. H. Pettit, labor 10 60
7. Bertha Stoneman. labor 5 00
Oct. 20. Bausch ft Lomb Opt. Co., chemicals 3 46
Dec. 19. Andrus ft Church, stationery 0 73
21. Bertha Stoneman, labor 11 00
29. E. McGillivray, photo supplies 9 91
19. G. F. Atkinson, stamps and traveling ex-
penses 16 41
6. Eimer ft Amend, chemicals 11 00
1895.
Jan. 7. W. W. Calkins, collection lichens 37 00
10. Andms & Church, stationer; 2 78
31. Mary A. Nichols, labor 4 60
31. Bertha Btoneman, labor 22 00
6. Treman, King ft Co., hardware 9 10
Feb. 2. A. B. LangloU, pyrenomycetes 12 00
20. Whittle, Tatum ft Co., glass vials 1 60
Jan. 11. E. McGlllivray, photo supplies 6 36
April 3. Mary A. Nichols, labor 7 20
3. Bertha Stoneman, labor 13 60
2. Andrus ft Church, stationery 3 00
March 14. Andrus & Church, printed letter heads 8 00
11. White ft Burdick, chemicals 6 95
Feb. 5. E. Larkin, potatoes 15
March 2. The Bool Co., reseating chair 85
Feb. 4. Andrus & Church, stationery 96
April 6. Andrus ft Church, stationery
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44 AOEICDLTPKAI. EXPERIMENT STATION, ItHAOA, N. T.
1895.
April 8. B. Pink, 171 packages of lichens $8 65
Feb. 28. Gustav E. Stechert, foreign periodicals. . . 13 56
1894.
Oct 24. Gnstav E. Stechert, foreign periodicals 3 24
May XI. Charles Scribner Sons, periodicals 3 60
1895.
May 17. Mary A. Nichols, labor 4 40
17. Bertha Stoneman, labor 9 00
28. White & Bnrdick, chemicals 5 95
26. E. McGillivray, photo supplies 2 70
March 21. Enz & Miller, stationery 6 00
June 8. Elmer & Amend, chemicals 19 50
18. Eimer & Amend, chemicals 7 75
13. B. Westerman & Co., periodicals 1 00
May 31. E. Steiger & Co., periodicals 3 50
7. Andrus & Church, stationery 3 05
June 17. Whitall, Tatnm & Co., glassware 9 39
Total for botanical division $395 27
For Entomological Division.
1894.
July 1. Treman, King & Co., hardware f 1 20
27. National Express Co., expressage 1 35
26. U. S. P. O., 500 stamped envelopes 10 90
26. Library Bureau, card index case and acces-
sories 14 33
25. J. Carbutt, photo plates 4 00
19. J. D. Eagles, Ferro plates 50
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Receipts and Expenditure. 45
1894.
Aog. 1. M. V. Slingerland, expressage f 1 00
1. C. U. Farm, labor 66
6. G. W. Herrick, labor 23 06
U. S. Express Co., expressage 60
29. G. W. Herrick, labor 24 86
Sept. 1. C. U. Farm, labor 91
Jan. 27. White ft Bnrdick, chemicals 3 80
Sept. 17. Andrns ft Chnrch, stationery 70
26. G. W. Herrick, labor 9 20
21. The Bool Co., office chair 6 50
21. Holmes HoIliBter, lumber 47
18. Edward R. Taylor, carbon bi-eulphide. .... 66
21. Rothschild Bros., lamp fixtures 1 18
Ang. 11. £. McGHllvray, photo supplies 4 00
Sept. 21. Andrus ft Church, stationery 30
24. D., L. ft W. R. R. Co., freight 63
20. Treman, King ft Co., hardware 1 35
Oct 6. Peter Henderson ft Co., bulbs 2 95
8. Andrns & Chnrch, stationery 1 00
July 7. Treman, King ft Co., hardware 15
Oct. 31. Rothschild Bros., candles 1 00
31. G. W. Herrick, labor 9 95
Mov. 14. IT. S. Dept. Agriculture, index cards 2 00
24. G. W. Herrick, labor 7 10
27. National Express Co., ezpressage 85
Dec. 8. Andrus & Chnrch, printed letter heads and
stationery. 7 26
22. G. W. Herrick, labor 7 00
Sept 21. A. B. Brooks, chemicals CfHB*? Ic
46 Ageiculthhal Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. T.
1895.
Jan. 5. Q. W. Herrick, labor |5 90
5. Andrns & Church, mucilage 1 10
8. TJ. S. Express Co., expressage 70
21. TJ. 8. Express Co., expressage 26
7. J. Carbutt, photo plates 5 38
25. G. W. Herrick, labor 7 90
23. TJ. 8. Express Co., expressage 25
25. TJ. S. Dept. Agriculture, index cards 2 00
Feb. 1. Andrns & Church, drawing ink 7B
16. G. W. Herrick, labor 1 60
22. TJ. 6. Express Co., expressage 46
28. G. W. Herrick, labor 6 00
2. Jamieson & McKinney, plumbing 2 44
March 4. Andrns & Church, catalogue cards 1 25
22. G. W. Herrick, labor 5 45
28. L. V. B. B. Co., freight 50
29. Hammond & Willard, peach trees 2 65
April 6. G. W. Herrick, labor 9 95
6. E. McGillivray, chemicals 60
March 26. Treman, King & Co., glass 1 36
April 9. G. Cramer, photo plates 2 94
20. L. V. B. B. Co., freight 60
26. National Express Co., expressage 70
17. Hammond & Willard, fruit trees 65
23. G. Cramer, .photo plates 5 22
22. Andrns & Chnrch, stationery 50
13. Treman, King & Co., basket 25
29. G. W. Herrick, labor 4 00
May 1. TJ. S. P. O., postal cards i^,^,-fl,W
Dgit.-eo :;y VjOOV IL
BjXHIFTS AND EXPHNDITDBM. 47
1896.
May 3. E., C. & N. B. B. Go., freight fO 61
2. Andrus & Church, printing 1 00
18. G. W. Herrick, labor 4 20
27. U. S. Dent. Agriculture, index cards 2 00
June 8. U. 8. Express Co., expressage 1 25
6. The Deming Co., repairing spray pomp 5 00
17. National Express Co., expressage 25
6. Arthur B. Brooks, chemicals 4 77
29. H. G. Norwood, labor 5 09
27. Treman, King & Co., hardware 5 32
Total for entomological division (264 36
SUMMARY.
The Agricultural Experiment Station of Cornell University,
in account with the United States Appropriation:
Dr.
To receipts from treasurer of the United States as per appropri-
ation, for the year ending Jnne 30, 1895, under act of Congress,
approved March 2, 1887 f 13,500 00
Ob,
Salaries $8,205 01
Buildings 267 66
Printing. 1,910 99
Office expenses 645 72
Equipment, labor and current expenses:
Agriculture. 566 62
Horticulture. 1,061 96
,y Google
48 Agbigoltchai, Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. T.
Chemistry. |182 40
Botany. 396 2T
Entomology. 264 36
(13,500 00
Receipts for produce sold:
Balance from 1893-94 f 841 44
Horticultural division 87 86
Office 1 00
By printing • f336 62
By balance to 1896-96 893 78
■ Electros, cute and printing 10,200 copied Bulletin No. 04, $336.72 ; exproM-
age, $0.80; total, «386£2.
,v Google
THE APPLE SCAB FUNGUS.
MgltbedbyGoOgle
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BULLETIN 84 January, 1895.
Cornell University— Agricultural Experiment Station.
HORTICULTURAL DIVISION.
The Recent Apple Failures
OF WESTERN NEW YORK.
Bv L. H. Bailey.
)ijiio,aWGoosIe
ORGANIZATION.
Board of Control— The Trustees of the University.
STATION cotjwcir..
President, JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN.
HOK. A. 1>. WHITE Trustee of Ike Univeriity.
Professor I. P. ROBERTS. Pntident Stale Jgricuitural Society.
PROFESSOR I. P. HOBERTS Agriculture.
Pbofessor 6. C. CALDWELL ChemUtry.
Professor JAMES LAW Veterinary Science.
Professor A. N. PRENTISS Botany.
Professor J. H. COM8TOCK Entomology.
Professor L. H. BAILEY Horticulture.
Professor U. H. WING Dairy Sutbandry.
Professor Q. F. ATKINSON Cryptogamie Botany.
OFFICERS OF THE STATION.
LP. ROBERTS' Dtrootor.
E. L. WILLIAMS Trvaourtr.
H.W.SMITH Clsrfc.
ASSISTANTS.
M. V. SLINGERLAND Entomology.
GEO. C.WATSON AgrUmlture.
G. W. CAVANAUGH Ckomiitry.
E. G. LODEMAN EorUouitmr*.
MICHAEL BARKER HorUouiture.
Office of the Director, 30 Morrill Hall.
Those desiring this Bulletin sent to friends will please send as the nunes of
the parties.
Bulletins of 1895.
84. The Recent Apple Failures in Western New York.
flitroo^GoO^IC
COHNIELL UNITBBSITT, 1
Ithaca, N. T., January 15, 1895. J
The Honorable Commissioner of AgricvHwre, Albany :
Sir- — The most important fruit interest of western New York
id apple growing, and it is also the one which lias been subject to
the most disastrous failures daring the past decade. J have at-
tempted to discover the causes of these failures, and the larger part
of last summer was spent in a careful examination of apple orchards
in various parts of the Fifth Judicial Department ; and experiments
in the fertilizing of orchards were inaugurated. It was the original
intention to present a full account of these surveys, describing
specific cases both of failure and success in apple-growing ; but the
account would be so voluminous that I forbear, and I now submit
the summary conclusions of the investigation. The statement is
proposed for publication under Section 87, Chapter 675, of the
Laws of 1894. A detailed sketch of spraying experiments of the
year will appear in Bulletin 85. A synoptical guide for the operator
will be found in the new Spray Calendar.
L. H. BAILEY.
,v Google
* "f* pepvoiJMO
MgltbedbyGoOgle
The Recent Apple Failures of Western
New York.
The causes of the failures of our apple orchards are various, and
it is likely that many of them are not understood or even known.
I am satisfied that the first and fundamental cause is neglect. For
twenty years and more, our apple growers have sown neglect ; they
are now reaping the harvest.
More than half the apple orchards of western Kew York have
been turned out to grass from the time they were set ; and even
the graBS has too often been sold at the city market. Land will not
grow good meadows and good orchards at the same time. The
grass takes the cream of the land. Apple trees which have been
fed on skim milk for a quarter of a century must be expected to-
be lean.
If grass has not been profitable, the orchard lands may have been
sown to grain, and the farmer usually complains if the grain is not
a good crop. The trees are not thought of as requiring ground
space and food. Orchardists generally consider, too, that the crop,
in an apple orchard, is the fruit ; but the crop is really the orchard
itself, for the soil must nourish the trees day by day, just as it
nourishes a crop of com or hay. The orchard is a continuous crop
upon the land, whether it bears or not. The most delicate morsels
of the Boil are taken by the wheat and oats ; and these plants appro-
priate the water from the rains and there is no tillage to conserve
soil-moisture. The apple trees feed upon the husks, and are then
obliged to share their portion with borers, tent caterpillars, fungi,
and twenty other tramps.
Of late years, attention has been given almost wholly to these
tramps, by the use of the sprays. This is essential ; but it is evi-
dent that this is not the primary or fundamental treatment for an
thons.
64 Aqkicultdbal Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
People say that spraying is not always Bure to bring a crop. Oer-
tainly not 1 One can not feed a horse by using a curry comb. It
is a wonder that, in the average orchard, the spray is ever sufficient
to secure a crop ; bat the fact that it often is, is proof of the won-
derful constitutional vigor of an apple tree and the pertinacity with
which it holds on under discouragement.
Some persons who have cultivated, fed and pruned their orchards
for the past few years, and have sprayed in the bargain, have yet
failed to secure good crops. This is not surprising. One should
not expect to correct the evils of years of neglect by a spurt of
repentance ; and the evil is the worse, too, for having been wrought
when the orchard was young, for " as the twig is bent, the tree 's
inclined." Orchards which have been many years in sod and
neglect are occasionally thrown into such exuberant growth by
tillage and fertilizing that they do not bear. Such a change would,
no doubt, be a surprise to most western New York orchards, and it
would be no wonder if the trees should jump out of their boots. In
such case the orchardist should aim at a moderate growth by stop-
ping cultivation early in the season (say the middle or last of July)
and by the sparing use of nitrogenous fertilizers. Yet this treat-
ment— liberal tillage, fertilizing, pruning and spraying — ib the
best which can be recommended for old and unprofitable plantations,
and if it will not revive the old trees the only remaining treatment
is to plant a new orchard.
So loDg as trees blossom profusely, they should bear. Perhaps
the bloom oftenest fails because of the attacks of the apple-scab
fungus, an opinion which was first expressed, so far as I know, in
our Bulletin 19, which was devoted to the fruit failures of 1890 in
western New York. "When this is the case, Bordeaux mixture is a
specific. Frequently, the trouble is the codlin-moth worm or other
insects, and for these Paris green is a specific. But the flowers
probably often fail to set fruit because the tree is not sufficiently
nourished to sustain them. Unfortunately, there is no complete
specific for this difficulty, for the orchard may be in such condition,
from long neglect, that the land can not l>e properly tilled and the
trees can not be adequately fed. One of the best methods of feed-
ing the tree is to keep it well pruned, for the food which is diffused
in numbers of worthless HmbB is then concentrated in a small num-
,v Google
Rhoent Apple Faildees of Western New Yokk. 55
ber. And it is only the well pruned trees which are capable of
successful treatment with the sprays.
Good tillage should be the first intention of the apple grower.
But this can be satisfactorily given only in orchards which have been
properly planted. The roots should be deep enough to allow of
easy plowing, not only because the tillage may thereby be improved,
but also because the roots are then in moister earth and they suffer
less from dry weather. Planters frequently make ,the mistake of
setting their trees too shallow. It is probably better to have them
stand rather deeper in the orchard than they did in the nursery ;
bnt whatever depth the person may design to plant them, he should
make allowance for the settling of the soil. land which has been
for some years in pasture, meadow, or grain, is elevated or loosened
by plowing, and it frequently requires an entire season of good
tilliigo to compact it to its normal level. Bnt the trees are set in the
subsoil, and therefore do not settle ; and the owner may find at the
end of a year or two that his trees seem to stand too high out of the
ground. When setting trees on newly turned land, the planter
should allow one or two inches for the settling of the soil, and
thereby increase the depth of the planting.
Now, if the soil is deep and well drained, and the trees are
properly planted, rather deep spring plowing is recommended for
the first few years. The exact depth to which the furrow may be
run will depend much upon the soil, hut it should rarely exceed
seven or eight inches. It is probably best to plow apple orchards
early in the spring, bnt not in the fall unless it may be found, by
experiment, that plowing under the leaves in the fall lessens the
attacks of apple scab. Fall plowing leaves the surface in bad shape
for the winter, and it serves no purpose. Yet it should be said that
Apple orchards are less likely to suffer from fall plowing than many
other kinds of fruits, for the trees are hardy, and not likely to he
forced into fall growth and are not induced to start so early in the
spring as to be caught by frosts. But there is no occasion for
plowing apple orchards in the fall, as a rule, so far as we know.
Till the soil frequently and lightly during the late spring and
early summer. The general methods of cultivating orchards, and
the reasons for them, are discussed in Bulletin 72, to which the
reader is referred ; but the leading points may be reviewed here.
DqltSMByCOOgle
56 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaoa, N. Y.
Let us first consider the relation 0/ tillage to moisture. The land
obtains its water from rains. This water is held in the interstices
of the soil, and it gradually passes off into the air by evaporation. In
finely compacted soils, the water which is in the lower levels is
gradually raised to the surface by capillary attraction. A mulch of
straw placed upon the surface, prevents this soil moisture from com-
ing into immediate contact with the atmosphere and it therefore
keeps the soil moist. Two to four inches of loose fine earth acts in
essentially the same manner, — it mulches the soil beneath by break-
ing up capillary attraction, and preventing the soil moisture from
reaching the atmosphere. This loose top soil may itself be as dry
as ashes, but it still conserves the moisture beneath. Every farmer
knows that a "baked" soil soon becomes dry; and he also knows
ttiat the soil underneath a well-tilled surface is always moist. It is
evident that, if one wishes to conserve the greatest amount of
moisture, he must begin his tillage early and he must continue it
uninterruptedly throughout the season. Above all things, he will
cultivate soon after a rain, to prevent a crust from forming. The
past season was one of almost unprecedented drought in New York.
Most farmers suffered severely, and as a result the winter meetings are
full of discussions of methods of irrigating lands. But the best
irrigation in this State, for orchards, is frequent shallow cultivation
— repeated every week or ten days so long as one wishes to keep his
trees growing. The long dry seasons of California are made fruit-
ful by constant tillage. By its use, orchards are now growing
profitably without irrigation in certain western lands where the
annual rainfall is said to be less than ten inches. With our thirty
to fifty inches of rainfall, there is little need for irrigating orchard
lauds, if we take care of the water which we have. In the burning
heats of last summer, when everyone was asking for water, I visited
a raspberry grower, upon sandy soil, who was afraid it would rain
and spoil his berries ! His patch was crisp and fresh and loaded
with fruit. "But you must have rain to ripen your crop," I said.
"No," he replied, "drought never affects me. I water my land
with the cultivator."
But tillage means more than conservation of moisture. It pro-
motes nitrification and enables the plant to unlock more of the
mineral elements thau it otherwise could do. Every good soil is a
& Google
Recent Apple Failures in Webtekn New York. 57
mine of plant food, and the first thought of the farmer should be
to utilize it. The buying of fertilizers should be a second thought.
As a rule, an orchard should never be seeded down ; or if sod appears
to be necessary, pasture it close. Do not make a meadow of the
orchard nor attempt to raise grain in it, even from the beginning.
Hoed crops may be grown during the first few years, if one culti-
vates well and allows sufficient space about the trees — and tree roots
extend much farther than farmers are aware — but the temptation is
to continue the practice too long and to expect too much from the
crop. If the trees are to be of secondary importance, do not plant
them ! It will be cheaper to leave them in the nursery.
Persons often tell me that they know of productive orchards
standing in sod. So do I; but this only proves that the land is
unusually good. The great majority of orchards contradict this
experience, and reason is against it. For myself, I should consider
that I could not afford to run the risk of placing orchards perma-
nently in sod. There are cases in which thrifty young orchards
can be thrown into bearing by seeding them down, but this is only
a temporary expedient, and if the land is again brought under
cultivation when the desired result is obtained, no harm will come.
If the old orchard is giving satisfactory returns in sod, it would be
folly to plow it np ; but if it is unprofitable, something must be
done. Next to tillage, pasturing closely with sheep or hogs is the
best thing which can be done ; and if the stock is fed grain, so much
the better.
Thus far, I have spoken of apple orchards which have been under
good treatment from the first. How shall we manage the old
orchards, which have been neglected for years ? Snch orchards, of
course, are in sod. The roots are so high that the land cannot be
plowed. In this case, the best that can be done is to break up the
turf in spring when it is soft, using a sharp toothed or disc harrow.
When the sod is once well cut up, sow on fertilizers, and continue
to work it shallow. But the tree tops are often so low that a team
can not be UBed. An orchard in which horses can not be driven is
worth little, and it is doubtful how much labor can be spent upon
it with profit. Trees which have been cultivated from the first
have their tops formed by gradual and timely pruninga, the owner
scarcely knowB how ; but the untitled trees often develop into brush-
•
68 AOBIOCLTCBAL EXPERIMENT STATION, ITHACA, N. T.
heaps, which no amount of good intentions can correct. But, if
possible, these old orchards most be trimmed up to admit of culti-
vation. Swine can sometimes be utilized as plows in sach orchards.
With a crowbar make holes three or fonr inches deep all through
the orchard and drop a handful of corn or buckwheat in each hole.
Let the hogs root for it !
As to fertilizers for the apple orchards, little can be said within
the limits of this paper. In orchards which have been well tilled
from the hist, there will seldom be an; need to add much, if any,
commercial nitrogen. If the trees apparently need it, a sufficient
supply may usually be had from the use of crimson clover (see-
Bulletin 72). Potash is considered to be the dominant factor in
fruit production ; this and phosphoric acid should be added each
year. In using concentrated fertilizers, the grower should bear in
mind that his object is to feed the plant, not to fertilize the soil.
That is, it is better to add each year about as much as the plant
may be supposed to need, rather than to occasionally apply a sur-
plus with the idea that it will be of use iu future years. It is true
that the best effect of fertilizers may appear in the second or even
in the third year after application, but this does not affect the
proposition. It is also true that potash and phosphoric acid do not
escape from the soil, as nitrogen does ; but any superfluous amount
is likely to become more or less mechanically locked up in clods of
earth, and it may be shifted by the movements of soil water. And
there are some plants, at least, which take up more phosphoric acid
than they need, when this material is applied in redundant amounts.
At all events, if I had more commercial fertilizer than the trees
would evidently need, I should rather have it in the barn than in
the ground.
But the immediate cause of most of our apple failures of the
last few years, is undoubtedly the apple-scab fungus. In the first
place, it should be said, however, that only a small part of tbe
flowers, when the bloom is full, should be expected to set fruit.
Apple flowers are borne in clusters of six to twelve, but the apples
are usually borne singly. These superfluous flowers undoubtedly
furnish pollen for the ones that set. The picture shows the nor-
mal blasting of the flowers. This cluster had seven flowers, and
six of them are now withered and dead, whilst the seventh has
" D,aitoe0DyGoOQle
Bbcbnt Apple Failures of Western New York. 59
passed into an ambitious apple. Man; of the one-sided apples owe
their deformity to imperfect pollination. Such a one is ehown in
the cut. The apple has five carpels or cells, each cell containing,
3. Normal failure of apple Boners. Only one has set fruit,
normally, twin seeds. Now each of these twins is fertilized by
pollen which falls upon that one of five stigmas which is attached
to that carpel ; and if no pollen falls upon this particular stigma,
the seeds will not develop and the apple grows slowly upon that
side.
This apple scab is no new peBt. It has no doubt been seriously
present ever since apples were grown in the country, causing many
failures of crops which were laid to the weather
or the moon. But within the last decade, it
seems to have been unusually destructive in
the orchards of western New York. It is now
enforcing attention to the condition of our
long neglected orchards, and it will undoubt-
edly be the means of greatly improving the
apple industry of the country. It is most -
familiar in the scab-like patches upon the
' A 8. Lop-sided apple, due to lm-
fruit. The small scabs upon mature apples perfect pollination,
are probably due to infections rather late in the Beason. If the
fungus attacks the fruit when it begins to grow, the apple may
become one-sided, and later on it may crack ; or the apple dies and
falls. The earlier the apple is attacked, the greater is the in
mjnry,
fiO Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. T.
and, as a rule, the very earliest attacks in bad seasons, are fatal.
Various stages of injury upon the fruit are shown in the colored
plate. Fig. 4 shows a Northern Spy taken Jnly 5th, last year.
This apple ib now deformed by the attacks of the scab, and if it had
remained upon the tree it would probably have become a gnarly,
crooked specimen entirely unfit for use. It is probable, however,
that the fungus patches upon the stem would have soon cut off the
food supply, causing the apple to fall. Fig. 6 is a Greening picked
September 20th. The deep fissures have resulted from the check-
ing of the growth of the fruit by the fungus. At the lower side of
4. Apple Injured by RourdeuiX mixture.
the apple are shown two small scabs which are dead and harmless.
The tissues of the apple have grown beneath them, and have broken
them apart.
During the past summer, this scab upon the fruit has been con-
founded by some persons with an injury wrought by the Bordeaux
mixture itself. This injury is a russeted surface of the apple
upon the sprayed side, much like that shown in the accompanying
illustration. It appears to come mostly from the use of Bordeaux
mixture which has an insufficient supply of lime to satisfy the re-
actions which occur, in a wet season, after the mixture is applied
to the tree. In seasons like the last, the use of the ferrocyanide of
potassium test for the preparation of Bordeaux mixture is probably
unsafe. This injury is not often serious, and the fruit more or less out-
, Google
Rbcbnt Applb Fajldrkb op Western New York. 61
grows it; bat I have seen a number of cases daring the past season
in which I was satisfied that the mixture had been the cause of the drop.
ping of the fruit. Fears seem to suffer most, and in some instances,
the crop was nearly rained by the spray. The climatic conditions
which made this injury possible may not recur in many years, bat
last year's experience in western New York has taught the
importance of using freely of lime in the preparation of Bordeaux
mixture. There was more or less of this ruseett injury npon many
orchards sprayed with the Bordeaux mixture made by the regular
formula, and it was even often present upon unsprayed trees. It
is evident that the weather was sometimes directly responsible for
it, bnt the injury was never serious, so far as we could determine,
except upon those trees which were treated with the mixture made
with the ferrocyanide test. A similar effect of the Bordeaux or
the arsenic was common upon the foliage of the sprayed trees, the
injury appearing in the form of circular dead, brown spots, but
even in the worst cases which I saw the leaves were much less
injured than they evidently would have been by the fungus, A
fuller discussion of this matter will occur in Bulletin 85. For an
account of a similiar injury upon the quince, see Bulletin 80.
The most serious injury wrought by the fungus in western
New York in recent yeare is upon the foliage. Its first visible
attack, upon the under side of a leaf in this case, is shown in Fig. 7
in the colored plate. It is simply a light olive-green discoloration,
appearing in small patches. Fig. 5 is a leaf badly attacked in
many places, chiefly among the veins, where the disease causes-
dark, sooty elevations ; and patches of it are often Been on the
leaf stalk. The lumpy character of these patches is perhaps a
trifle exaggerated in the printing of the plate, but otherwise the
picture accurately represents a leaf badly attacked by the fungus.
These attacks cat off the food sapply of the parts of the leaf
beyond, and the leaf becomes dry and curled, its edges die and
are torn by the wind, giving the tree the blighted appearance
which is familiar to all New York apple growers. A spray of this
ragged, blighted foliage is shown in the illustration on the next
page. This condition of the foliage is often serious even when the
apples themselves are very slightly attacked, and it is sometimes,
so bad that most of the foliage falls in early summer. It has been
62 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
at its worst early in the season during tbe past few years, no doubt
because the weather has been favorable to ite spread when the
foliage is young. It is evident that trees with such foliage as this
can neither mature a crop of apples nor lay up much store of
energy for the following year. Those not familiar with the
conditions in western New York, can have little idea of the
wide-spread prevalence and
S. Blighted foliage of Fall Pippin, taken June ».
the season. Figs. 1, 2, and 3 represent cross sections of a leaf. In
Fig. 1 the leaf ib healthy. Observe the regularity of the tliree
upper layers of cells. In Fig. 2, the brown fungus may be seen
Bbcont Apple Failures of Western New Yobk. 63
growing on the upper surface, and at this date it has destroyed the
Tipper or epidermal cells, although it is probable that the mycelium
of the fungus first spreads just under the cuticle, on top of the
layer of epidermal cells. Fig. 3 shows the fungus when it is better
established, and it will be seen that all the cells of the leaf are dis-
arranged, the chlorophyll or green grains being few in number, and
the leaf has increased in thickness. This Fig. 3 is a cross section
through one of the blister-like elevations which are shown on the
leaf in Fig. 5. It will be seen that the fungus does not enter the
deeper tissues of the leaf, although it disorganizes them by its
parasitic effects. In Fig. 3, a spore can be seen at A, and two are
shown broken off their eteme or hyphaa, at B. In Fig. 2, the spores
can be seen in process of formation at the ends of the threads, and
at C one of the threads is cut off. The fungus itself is supposed to
pass the winter on young shoots, fallen leaves, and upon the fruit,
The spores form at a low temperature, and the early cold wet
weather of recent years has afforded excellent conditions for the
spread of the fungus. The apple scab is one of the so-called " im-
perfect fungi," — a name given to those fungi of which the perfect
form is unknown. The reader will recall that some fungi, like the
quince rust (see Bulletin 80), have two very unlike forms which
sometimes live upon different plants. There is every reason to
expect that the apple scab passes part of its existence in another
form ; and it is possible that the discovery of this other form may
give us a new means of combatting the disease.
Various insects cause the occasional failure of the apple crop over
considerable areas. One of the worst of these in western New
York is the bud-moth (see Bulletin 50). Another one, which was
serious in Wayne and Monroe counties last year, is the cigar-shaped
case-bearer (Colcophora FleichereUa), an acccount of which may be
expected later on from the Entomological Division. The work of
this insect upon the foliage is shown on the next page. The plum
curcnlio has also been a serious pest upon apples in some places,
puncturing the apples and causing them to grow gnarly. Ite marks
may be seen upon two of the young apples shown on the cover. The
apple-worm, the larva of the codlin moth, is too familiar to need
description, and is now pretty generally held in check by Paris
green. The same remedy will also apply to the bud-moth and case-
64 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
bearer. For the carculio, there is no good remedy apon the apple.
It is doubtful if its numbers are greatly lessened by arsenical sprays.
Some persons have recommended the planting of plum trees in the
apple orchard for the purpose of attracting the cureulios, and from
these trees the insects can be jarred onto sheets. It is a question,
however, if t h e
useii, matting it im-
possible to rotate the «. Work of ttao elg*r-iihiiped aue-bearer. June I*.
crop. It is well known that a frequent and proper rotation of crops
is one of the most efficient means of keeping insects and fungi in
check. This is true even of small-fruit plantations. Our beet
blackberry and raspberry growers, in regions where there is likely
to be trouble with anthracnose and root-galls, fruit their plantations
only two or three years, and by the time the enemies become threat-
ening the patch is destroyed. But with apple orchards this is impos-
sible. The large, thick-topped trees become unmolested breeding
places for disease decade after decade. So orchards, of all other
crops, should receive the most painstaking treatment for insects
and fungi.
.Google
66 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. T.
The best proof that the apple scab fungus is the immediate cause
of the greater part of the apple failures of western Mew York is
afforded by the fact that thorough spraying with Bordeaux mixture
is usually followed by a great increase in the productiveness of the
orchard ; and it may he said that the indifferent resultB which occa-
sionally follow the spray are equal proofs that there may be other
causes than the fungus for the failures. Much of the failure with
the Bordeaux mixture, however, is due to careless or hasty applica-
tion. If the Bordeaux mixture is properly made — using an excess
of lime — no injury may be expected to follow its use, and it
should be applied with great thoroughness. The operator should
endeavor to completely cover all the leaves and shoots. A mere
sprinkling, Bnch as most persons give, is of little good. One
thorough application, which drenches the tree, is better than several
of this ordinary kind. Then people are always waiting for fair
weather. Now, it is in the rainy weather that the fungi spread
most seriously, and it is then that the spray is most needed. With
plenty of lime the mixture adheres well. Spray between the
showers, even when the trees are wet, if you can do no better. To
delay is to fail. It is better to spray in the rain than not to spray at all.
There is abundant proof that two to four applications of Bordeaux
mixture are capable of keeping the fungus almost completely in
check. It is not known what value there is in an application before
the buds open, but it can do no harm, and it is probable that it is
very serviceable in most seasons. At the latest, spraying should
begin as soon as the blossoms fall. Make the Bordeaux mixture
with 6 pounds of copper sulphate, 1 pounds (or more if the lime is
Air-slacked) of lime and about 40 gallons of water. It is always
advisable to add Paris green for various insects — 1 pound to every
250 gallons of the mixture. Then take up your position near the tree
with a strong pump and apply the mixture until the tree is soused.
Does the Bordeaux mixture kill the scab fungus, or simply keep
it off % To test this matter, marked leaves and fruits were immersed,
upon the tree, in Bordeaux mixture on June 20, July 4, and July
26. All the leaves and fruits were badly attacked with the fungus
at the time of the first application. Without going into details, it
may be said that none of the treated leaves recovered from the
attacks of the f ungns, but most of them were in better condition
when growth had ceased, in August, than similar check leaves upon
the same shoots. Those which were so badly diseased when the
Rbcbnt Apple Failures of Western New York. 67
experiment began that the edges had begun to roll or curl, fell off in
July, whether treated or not. The only very marked benefit coming,
from the treatments of Bordeaux upon leaves, was seen in the case
of twoBimilar large leaves of Siberian Crab, standing side by side.
When the experiment was began, these leaves were just beginning
to show the debility due to the infection of scab, but no definite
scab patches had developed. One leaf was treated, and the other
not. "When the second application waB made, two weeks later, no
difference could be detected between the two leaves, and the disease
had progressed little. But from this time on, the treated leaf suf-
fered little extension of the disease, but the other developed Bcab-
patches, and prominent blisters raised upon the upper surface, the
leaf finally appearing much like Fig. 5 in the colored plate. Upon
the yonng fruits there was a more distinct benefit from the treat-
ment. In every case, the Bordeaux confined the spots to very nearly
their original dimensions, and in one or two cases the scab was wholly
killed. On one fruit of Siberian Crab, there were several scab-
patches an eighth of an inch across when the treatment began.
These spots had not enlarged two weeks later, and a month after the
first treatment — the apple having been dipped twice in Bordeaux —
the patches appeared to be dead, but a new growth of the fungus
had started beyond the rims of the original spots. In another case,
five scabby apples upon one twig were treated the three times, and
on two of "the fruits the scab was certainly wholly killed, notwith-
standing that the injury at the time of the first treatment was quite
as Berions as that upon Fig. 4 in the colored plate. The patches of
scab broke away, the apple resumed its growth underneath, and in
their places there appeared a scabby russet surface like that made by
the injury of the Bordeaux mixture (as described on p. 00.) In one
case, in which the spots of scab bad nearly encircled the little fruit,
the apple grew most rapidly upon either end, leaving a russet valley
or zone extending nearly around the fruit. But if anything was
gained by the killing of the scab, it was generally lost by the injury
of the Bordeaux mixture itself, for half of the treated apples finally
dropped. It will be recalled that these apples were immersed, the
mixture being held in a cup, and the fruits were allowed to lie in it
a half minute at each of the three applications. Some of the apples
did not appear to be injured by this treatment, but many of them
evidently were. I have made careful examinations of the yonng
apples in sprayed orchards, and I am satisfied that the small and
68 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
recent patches of scab are sometimes killed outright, but the chief
value of the Bordeaux mixture certainly lies in preventingan attack
or checking the spread of the fungus.
Apples can still be profitably grown in western New York.
This is proved by the experience of a number of orchardists. I have
visited over twenty orchards in the western part of the State this
year in which there were large crops of excellent quality, but all of
these had been sprayed with Paris green or Bordeaux mixture, or
both, all of them were pruned and the land was in " good heart."
Most of them were cultivated. The general run of orchards were
almost barren this year, and the BmaUness of the crop was usually
in proportion to the degree of neglect in which the orchards were
growing. I have asked a number of the successful growers, whose
orchards I have inspected, to prepare me a statement of their
methods, and their accounts are here given. Several correspondents
also report good crops of apples this year, and all of them attribute
their sucoess to careful treatment either of tillage, fertilizing or
spraying. Amongst these are E. W. Catchpole, North Hose, Wayne
Co.; Lyell Hill, Morton, Orleans Co.; J. Van Vorheis, Fisher's,
Monroe Co. ; J. B. Collamer, North Parma, Monroe Co.
T. Q. Yeoman* & Sons, Walworth, Wayne Go. (eee out on page 65).
We give the following statement of our experiments in spraying
our apple orchards the past season.
This being the first season in which we hare sprayed our apples
with Bordeaux mixture, we feel reluctant to say too much in its
favor till we have had more experience, except to say we are so well
satisfied with the results that we shall repeat the same next year
more extensively. We have about one hundred and thirty acres of
apple orchards, which have been planted from thirty to forty-eight
years, and which are nearly all Baldwins. Our spraying tanks hold
about three hundred gallons and they are made like a thresher tank.
The men who spray, stand on a platform on the rear end of the
tank, about nine feet from the ground. This platform is made to
project about one foot beyond the outside of the tank on each side,
thns enabling the men to stand outside of the tank proper, and
allowing them more room in which to work. A strong rail on the
four sides of the platform prevents the men who spray from falling
Recent Apple Failures of Western New York. 69
off the platform, and allows them to spray more securely and with
less fear of being thrown off by the moving of the team. Each man
has about twenty two feet of hose, the upper part of which is tied to
a light pole twelve feet long to elevate the nozzle. The driver
pumps, and the two men on the platform direct the spray, the three
men alternating work. A small boy on the tank agitates the water
with a hoe through the open trap in the top of tank, when the team
is standing still, closing the trap when the team is in motion, to pre-
vent slopping. We Bhall endeavor, however, to devise some auto-
matic agitator, for the purpose of saving expense; and we shall
expect, of course, to modify onr outfit from year to year, as experi-
ence and the progress of invention seem to warrant. We used a
Gould's double-spray pump, No. 905, and a Nixon nozzle, No. 8
cylinder with a No. 2 bottom, for all large apple trees, which gives
the nearest approach to a perfect mist which we have been able to
throw into the tops of onr apple trees. We use thirty-two pounds
of sulphate of copper to a tank, using the yellow prussiate of potash
test for the quantity of lime, and always using two pounds of London
purple per tank. The sulphate of copper we dissolve in suspension,
in quantity, so that each gallon contains two pounds of the copper.
We would advise that experiments be made to ascertain if enough
more lime should not be added, after the potash test, to neutralize
the acid in the London purple, the same as is done when it is used
without the Bordeaux.
' Plot A. — Sprayed twice before and twice after blossoming, viz, :
April 26th and May 3d, (blossomed May 6th to 8th) ; May 22d, and
June 4. This plot had a full crop of nice apples, several large limbs
breaking from the weight of the apples. All Baldwins.
Plot B. — Sprayed twice before and once after blossoming, April
27th, May 5th, and 30th. One outside row not sprayed and had
but few apples ; the balance had a full crop of choice apples. All
Baldwins.
Plot C. — Sprayed once before and twice after blossoming, viz. :
April 30th, May 22d, and (because of rain) May 30th to June 4th :
This plot had about a half crop of very nice apples — Baldwins and
Greenings. An outside row of this plot, which was not sprayed,
did not have a peck of fruit per tree.
Plot D. — Sprayed once before and once after blossoming, viz. :
April 27th and May 30th. Result, half to two-thirds of a crop of
Baldwins.
70 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, ITHACA, N. Y.
Plot K —Thirty-five acres of Baldwins, bh-ssomed as full as the
others, but was not sprayed with Bordeaux. Result, a very light
crop and foilage very badly injured by scab.
We are not prepared to advance the opinion that a crop can
always be secured by spraying, nor that a crop cannot be grown with-
out, for there are too many exceptions to attempt to establish any
such rule. "We are inclined to the opinion that we have not fully
realized the importance of early spraying, and are convinced that
very few persons Bpray thoroughly.
Whenever we have a period of long continued wet weather about
the time the apples are setting, we have noticed that there is a very
general complaint that " apples are not setting well," " apples are
falling off badly," "my apples blossomed and set full, but we had
twenty-one days of continuous rain and they all dropped off." Now,
during that twenty-one days was the most favorable time possible
for the growth of fungi. Did it not attack and destroy the fruit
and cause it to drop? The damper and more rainy the weather in
May and early June, the more urgent the necessity for spraying.
We sprayed many days in a fine drizzling rain the past season.
No other persons in this vicinity sprayed at all with Bordeaux,
and we have no knowledge of any orchard in this vicinity which
has half a crop ;' many have very much less.
We keep our orchards in clean culture.
o*Vgfe~~~~&T
IF. T. Mann, Barkers, Niagara Co. (see frontispiece).
My orchard was planted about 1870 to 1873, and contains eighty-
eight trees, eighty-five of which are bearing. As the distance
between them is only twenty-five by thirty feet the orchard occupies
a little less than one and one-half acres. The soil varies from a
clay loam to a sandy loam with a clay subsoil, and has sufficient
irregularity of surface to afford good surface drainage. For per-
haps ten or twelve years the young orchard was planted with boed
crops, and was then seeded and used for a number of yeare as a
meadow. During the past three or four years it has been plowed
and cultivated without cropping. All these years it has been
occasionally fertilized with light dressings of barnyard manure.
Recent Apple Failures of Western New York. 71
Since 1889 it has been sprayed annually with an insecticide, and
since 1891 with a fungicide. With this treatment it has produced
fair crops annually for several years.
Daring the past season it has been kept well cultivated, first by a
shallow plowing and later by frequent working with a spring-tooth
harrow until the burdened branches prevented further passage.
Early last summer the orchard was fertilized with an application of
200 lbs. of sulphate of potash and 400 lbs. of fine ground bone per
acre, sowed with a grain drill. 1 find by my records that the
orchard was first sprayed May 5th with the Bordeaux mixture and
Paris green. At that time an occasional King blossom was open.
May 12th the orchard was in full bloom. May 15th "heavy frost,
crust frozen on the surface of the soil." May 19th the bloom had
mostly fallen, and three weeks of rainy weather began. The 25th
scab spots began to show on the foliage, though none was then
visible on the fruit. May 31st sprayed the orchard the second time.
This spraying was greatly delayed by the heavy and long continued
rains. June 9th sprayed the orchard the third time. Under date
of June 18th I find this statement in my notes : " Corner orchard
full crop, but many one-Bided because of the scab."
The mixture used in all of our sprayings in this orchard was pre-
pared by adding ten pounds of sulphate of copper, in solution in
water to a hundred-gallon tank, then adding milk of lime until the
test of ferrocyanide of potassium was satisfied, and then one-half
pound of Paris green was added, after which the tank was filled
with water. We used a power pump with two nozzles, a Vermorel
for the lower branches, and a McGowen for the tops. After apply-
ing the spray to each side of each row, we crossed the rows. In
this way we endeavored to reach all parts of the trees, but in this
effort we were disappointed, as a careful examination just before the
picking season showed. At that time many of the trees bore but
little fruit in the interior, while the outer branches which received
the spray, were certainly overloaded. The results have satisfied me
that thorough work can be accomplished only with a hand pump.
As to the results for this season, I present the following table. It
should be stated, however, that it was the off or non-bearing year
for the Cranberry Pippin, and many of the Greenings, and the
,v Google
72 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
price quoted is simply the average price paid here in onr local
market for good frnit :
Baldwin
Greening
King
Cranberry Pippin
Northern Spy ....
Fallawater
Early Harvest . . .
Culls and windfalls, 99 bushels.
$90 00
48 00
46 50
12 00
10 50
1 50
1 50
$210 00
19 80
$229 80
The quality of this frnit is especially worthy of mention. In the
case of the Baldwins a record was kept of the quantity of culls
obtained from picked frnit. In one lot of nineteen barrels of first
grade fruit, two bushel crates held all the cnlls. In case of another
lot of fifteen barrels, one bushel crate held all the cnlls, and in the
whole lot there were but eight bushels. In order to show the quality
of the first grade frnit, I submit a copy of the statement of the buyer:
" Dear Sir : We are pleased to state that the Baldwin apples
which we purchased from you and which you stated were from a
well-sprayed orchard were the finest lot which we have seen this
year. We noticed no wormy specimen, and but comparatively
little injury from the scab.
"E. L. ELLIS."
Kow while this crop may not be remarkable for yield considering
the amount of land, or number of trees, still, when we consider the
size of the trees, the general failure of apples in this section, (the
crop of the county being estimated at only twenty per cent.) and
the quality of the fruit, the result is certainly very satisfactory.
JI. L. Brawn, Carlton, Orleans Co.
As near as I can get at it my orchard iB about 30 years old. It
contains 14fl trees. We barreled 898 bbls. from the orchard this
Recent Apple Failures of Western New York. 73
year, 749 firsts
and 149 seconds,
I have had the
management of
the orchard ever
since 1889. That s»
spring it was top g
dressed with 8,
yard manure and
pastured tosheep.
"We got no ap-
ples. In 1890
pastured again, 8
and no apples. |
In 1891 pastured 3
and picked 100 |
bble. In 1892 -
pastured and ™
picked abont 75 J
bbls. of poor ap- *
pies. It was top g.
dressed in 1893 3
with yard man- =
nre, and pastur- &
ed. We shook %
off abont 200 |
bushels of dry- ™
ing appleB. In •
the late fall of |
189 3 and the s
winter of 1894, p
we gave the or- %
chard a heavy |
dressing of sta-
ble manure of
the best quality.
In the spring of
1894, we gave
the orchard a ,
very severe pruning and began Bpraying. In this work we
followed the directions of Cornell Bulletin No. HO. We used
Googre
74 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca. N. T.
Bordeaux exclusively. I can not give the exact date of each
spraying. The first one was made early in May, before any leaves
started. The next one came just as the buds began to show a little
red color. The third one was made after the blossoms had fallen
and fruit set. Fart of the orchard was sprayed the fourth time, the
very last of June, and I could see a marked difference in favor of
four sprayings.
Tha genera.] result has been everything I could ask. 1 sold apples
for $2.12$ and our neighbors could get only $1.50 to $1.76.
TZ^fc
G. H. Bradley <& Son, Lake Road, Niagara Co.
Our Duchess of Oldenburg orchard is 17 years old and has 375
trees which produced this year 900 barrels firsts and windfalls,
which netted us $2,100. We sprayed three times with Paris green.
The orchard has been cultivated and fertilized with stable manure
heavily for the last four or five years. There were almost no
No. 2 apples. We picked 200 barrels at one picking and had only
3 barrels of No. 2.
Our Twenty Ounce orchard yielded at the rate of $400 per
acre, treatment same as Duchess, except that it was sprayed seren
times with Paris green and Bordeaux mixture. Baldwins and
Kings yielded at the rate of $150 per acre, and the quality was
No. 1. They were also sprayed and manured.
Duchess sold for $2.75 per barrel.
Twenty Ounce sold for $2.35 per barrel.
Baldwins and Kings sold for $2.00 per barrel.
^^^£/ V^£#-^
Albert Wood, Carlton, Orleans Co.* {See frontispiece.)
My orchard covers about twenty-five acres and was set in the
spring of 1860. The land is moderately rolling, descending toward
the north, and is well underdrained with stone trenches. The
* Mr. Wood's account was also presented to Che Western Mew York Horti-
cultural Society, January 23, 1896, but it was first prepared for this bulletin.
.Google
76 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, K. Y.
eoil is deep, gravelly loam, and the orchard bore fairly well
up to eight years ago. Six years ago I became convinced that, like
all orchards of early setting, the trees were altogether too thick;
they interlocked, and the red apples, such as Baldwins, were, as yon
might say, growing white from lack of sun and air; the ground
was covered with moss, and, as well as the trees, had become
unproductive. I had one-half of the orchard cot down diagonally,
leaving the remaining trees standing in diamond order, twenty-four
trees to the acre. As a result of this thinning out, the ground lost
its sourness and became covered with grass — in fact the change was
as great as in a cup of black coffee after receiving cream and sugar.
I wish to say, for the benefit of my brother fruit growere, that the
butts of those trees were sold for fifty-five dollars per thousand to
Henry Disston & Sons, saw manufacturers of Philadelphia, yielding
me about six hundred dollars. But all this thinning ont, with good
culture and heavy manuring added, did not rid this orchard of the
apple-scab fnngns. The foliage was rusty and the apples scabby
every year, though there was a fairly good yield of inferior frnit.
In January, 1893, according to my custom, I visited tbe Western
New York Horticultural Society, and made myself thoroughly
acquainted with the Bcab fungus through information received, and
carefully noting the valuable suggestions in onr excellent Experi-
ment Station bulletins. In the following spring, I selected two
Baldwin trees Jwhich bloomed fairly well, and gave them three
thorough sprayings with the Bordeaux mixture. These two trees
gave me a heavy crop of first class apples ; while the fruit in the
balance of the orchard was so scabby that the bulk of it was Bent to
the dry house, and those I packed were by no means of the first
quality. This experiment thoroughly converted me to the import-
ance of spraying orchards for profit ; and in the spring of 1894 I set
to work with all the force and confidence which I every year ex-
pend in raising fifty to seventy-acres of beans. I will now give the
results of seven tests of spraying.
First Test. — On April 23, 1894, I commenced with the Bordeaux
mixture on my apple orchard (twenty pounds sulphate of copper
and four pails of milk of lime to one hundred and fifty gallons of
water) just as the buds began to swell. Greening, Baldwin, King,
Twenty Ounce, Talman Sweet, Strawberry — in fact all my varieties
H.RCHNT Applb Failures of Westbbn Nhw Yobk. 77
were treated in the same manner aud at the same time. May 1st, I
began a second spraying, using the same formula with the exception
of one pound of Paris green added. The buds were at this time
about as large as a robin's egg. Before thisspraying was finished, the
buds opened somewhat, showing the flower. Following this spray-
ing, we bad a very heavy rainfall — over five inches on the level —
but the lime and the sulphate of copper still adhered to the foliage
and was plainly visible, which gave me great confidence that after
the mixture was once set it would remain and do its work. The
third spraying was done with the same mixture as tie second, and
when the apples were on an average about one half inch in diame-
ter, although some were larger. They had a healthy stem and
satisfied me they had come to stay ; there were fourteen large Bald-
win trees not sprayed, and these were dropping fruit, and the stems
of what remained on the trees were turning yellow and ready
to fall.
Second Test. — My pear orchard was treated the same way as my
apple orchard. In both orchards the sprayed trees were heavily
loaded. Indeed, there was hardly a tree in either orchard that had
not one or more limbs broken by the weight of the fruit. The
foliage was dark, rich, rank and heavy, a wonder to the whole
neighborhood, especially the perfect fruit growing on the inside of
the trees on the small fruit spurs. In fact, I made a standing offer
to my city friends and to my neighbors, that if they could find a
wormy or a scabby apple on any tree that had been treated, I
would make them a present of their winter supply of fruit. "When
we picked the crop, the fourteen trees not treated had no apples on
the inside ; the foliage was rusty and dropping ; there were some
apples on the top branches, but I gathered only thirty-five barrels
from fourteen trees when I ought to have had one hundred and
thirty-five. The picking began October 1st. The apples were
placed in packages and remained thirty-four days after being bar-
reled. The buyers, as all kuow, require close packing ; and I found
the thirty-five barrels from fourteen unsprayed trees had shrunk
five barrels, while those from the sprayed trees (two thousand four
hundred barrels) had not shrunk five in two thousand. The crop
was sold for three shillings per barrel more than the average mar-
ket price. The two trees sprayed in 1893, and again this year, also
78 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
bore a few apples, but every apple was perfect, Bhowing that by a
proper nee of the Bordeaux mixture we can raise apples in the off
year.
Third Test. — I had one Strawberry tree from which I had not
had a perfect apple in nine years. I sprayed it. This was its off
year (18!>4) but every apple was large and perfect. The same can
be said of the old-fashioned Holland Pippin.
Fourth Test. — One tree of my Kings was left untreated. The
apples were worthless, while those treated gave results equal to the
best, though a little undersized, owing to the heavy crop.
Fifth Test. — One tree of Twenty Ounce was left untreated.
The apples were covered with scabs and checks, making them
entirely worthless, while those on the treated trees were extra large,
and smooth as glass.
Sixth Test. — One tree of Roxbury Russet was left unsprayed. I
can safely say that three-fourths of the apples were fit only for
cider, the balance only passable. The Russets from the treated trees
were not so smooth as the other varieties. I Unci them to be more
susceptible to the scab than other varieties, and have concluded they
should be sprayed five times.
Seventh Test. — I have one old standard pear tree, 25 feet high, of
the old White Doyenne or Virgalieu variety. I have not had a
single perfect pear from this tree in twenty-five years. This year,
after being treated according to the Cornell spray calendar, it was
loaded, and there was not one imperfect pear on the tree. I called
the especial attention of Professor Bailey to that tree, and he con-
ceded that he could not find a single imperfect specimen upon it
Over fifty other fruit growers who visited me daring the season
gave the same testimony.
I can safely say that in size, quantity, quality and keeping prop-
erties, these tests show at least ninety per cent, in favor of spraying.
In one block of twenty-five hundred dwarf Duchess pear trees, set
four years ago, I sprayed twice, leaving one row. In riding along
the road during the growing season any one could see a difference in
the foliage. That on the unsprayed trees fell early, while that on
the treated trees held on till after the second hard freeze ; and the
trees showed a growth from a fourth to a third more than the
nnsprayed.
Recent Apple Failures of Western Nhw York. 79
In another block of about the same number, set at the Bame time
(principally Kieffer, standard and dwarf Anjou) treated in the same
manner, there were similar results. The same can be said of a
block of Orange quince, set at the same time. In fact, all varieties
of fruit gave marked results. No description cau do injustice to
the effect of spraying my cherries and plums. The latter astonished
all who saw them. The foliage on my Fay currant bushes was a
thing of beauty. We gathered fruit hidden under the rank growth,
twenty days after the unsprayed bushes were entirely bare. I wish
to say to the fruit growers of western New York, that we can raise
fruit as in the old times. Of course, in case of stoi ins or heavy cold
rains at the time when the flower is being fertilized, we are liable
to loss, as the rains wash off the pollen. My apple orchard is now
in grass, pastured very close with sheep, which I consider the right
kind of treatment, to prevent the grass from growing so high as to
act as a pump on the soil. The Bordeaux mixture must be applied
in the form of a vapor,* and the proper appliances must be
employed, proper nozzleB and proper spraying machines, to insure
success. For a large orchard the pump should be strong enough to
carry two leads of hose with four nozzles, that is, two on each lead
of hose with Y attachment. Three of my neighbors, Harry Brown,
(see page 74) George D. Simpson and Frank Cohoon, can furnish
equally strong testimony regarding the benefits of spraying their
orchards. The quantity and quality of their fruit and prices
received were far in advance of those who failed to treat their
orchards.
<2^L*^/- U'cmyC
A Michigan JZcperim&it in Renovating an Old Orchard.
The first investigation which I made of the reasons for the failure
of the apple crop was inaugurated in 1885 at the Michigan Agricul-
tural College. At this time the Paris green spray was in its experi-
mental stage and Bordeaux mixture had not been used upon
orchards. The following account was published at the time,+ but
* That is, a flue stroog spray. Mr. Wood used the UoGowtn nozzle. L. H. B.
t Bull. 31, Agrio. College of Mieb. 82 (1887).
DuNaeoevGoOgle
80 AORICCLTUHAL EXPERIMENT STATION, ITHAOA, N. T.
as it was before the establishment of the general experiment
stations, the experiment attracted little attention. There is nothing
unusual in the experiment, and it is inserted here chiefly for the
purpose of illustrating the fact that treatment for the renovating of
an old orchard must be continued three or four yeare before great
increase in the crop is to be expected.
"The college apple orchard, originally comprising about nine
acres, was set in 1858. The original plantings were mostly Northern
Spy, Baldwin, Talman Sweet and Seek-no-further. The soil is a
strong sandy loam, in some parts inclining to be cold and wet. The
orchard has received various treatments. For nearly ten years,
beginning about 1873, careful and valuable experiments in culture
were carried on by Dr. W. J. Deal. In recent years the orchard
has received less attention, being allowed to stand in sod. It has
borne very few good crops, even from the first. In 1885, when the
immediate control of the orchard passed into the hands of the
writer, the trees presented a discouraging appearance. The pre-
vious hard winter had destroyed many of the largest trees on the
lower land. Most of these trees were Baldwins, Greenings and Fall
Jenncttings. In fact, there is only one Baldwin left in the orchard
and but two or three Greenings and Jennettings, and all are feeble.
Many or all of these trees bad been injured by a hard winter some
ten or twelve years before. The remaining trees of the orchard
apparently from neglect in culture, were feeble during the year, the
leaves presenting a yellow and sickly appearance. Many of them
appeared to be dying. All the trees were very much stunted, there
not being enough last year's wood on most of them to furnish even
a few good scions. Many of the main limbs had died back from the
ends and the dead portions were conspicuous in every direction.
The trunks were often mossy and rough. The tops for the most
part very thick and low, so that no attempt at thorough culture
could be made. Most of the orchard lay in a dense June grass turf.
In short, the orchard was in so poor condition that several careful
farmers recommended that it be cut down.
" The first work of renovation was to prune the trees. This was
done vigorously in May, 1885, the tops being made high enough in
every instance to allow the passage of a horse in harness. All limbs,
irrespective of size, which would interfere seriously with plowing
lowing
oogk
Recant Apple Failures of Westebn New York. 81
and cultivating were removed. At the same time the tops of the
trees were thinned considerably, though not to such an extent as to
allow the sun to beat continuously upon the main branches. The
trunks and main limbs, so far as a man could reach, were scraped,
all the loose bark and mosB being removed. This Bcraping was
performed solely for the purpose of making the trees look better.
* * * As Boon as the pruning was accomplished and the great
quantity of brush removed, the ground was plowed, and plowed as
deeply as possible. To be sure, roots were broken, but this did no
harm. The ground was cultivated at intervals with the spring-
tooth harrow, and in August a second plowing, in the opposite
direction, was made. No crops were planted. There was no effect
produced upon the trees that year. The season's growth, if any,
was well under way when the first plowing was made. The leaves
continued yellow, and fell very early, as usual.
" In 1886 the Batne treatment was repeated. Nearly as much
pruning was done as in the previous year ; this time, of course,
entirely in the tops of the trees. Care was exercised, however, not
to prune the tops so thin that the large limbs would be injured by
the sun. The trees early showed signs of improvement. Although
the summer was dry, the growth on all the trees was good, and the
leaves assumed a dark, vigorous color, and remained very late upon
the trees. So marked was the improvement in the orchard that it
was a subject of common remark. A fair crop of apples, some 300
bushels, was also gathered.
"In the spring of 1887 the orchard was again plowed, deeply as
always before, and the sod was removed from all the trees by hand.
The tops are now so high that the plow turned over nearly all the
sod. The ground was now in good heart. The trees set very full
of fruit and no pruning was attempted. Although the trees have
borne a heavy crop, and the season has been one of almost unprece-
dented drouth, the growth has been heavy. The bearing trees are
140 in number, of which less than 100 — all Northern Spy — are a
prolific variety and produced apples which find a demand in market.
There are a number of Sweet Romanites and others which can not
be expected to return a profitable crop. The sales for the year
have been as follows :
8 DigltbadbyCoOgle
82 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. T.
874 barrels No. I (822 bushels) at $1.35 $369 90
100 barrels No. 2 (300 bushels) at 75 centB 75 00
60 bushels at 25 cents 15 00
100 bushels at 80 cents 30 00
220 bushelB made into cider at 20 cents 44 00
300 bushels cider apples at 5 cents 15 00
1808 bushels $548 90
" The reason for the great proportion of cider apples is the heavy
crop and the drouth, rendering it impossible for all the fruit to
mature. Thinning would probably have paid. The crop was
remarkably free from worms. Old apple buyers declared that they
had never seen so few wormy apples in a crop. This freedom from
insects was due to sprayings of Paris greeu. * * * We used a half-
pound of Paris green to a kerosene barrel of water. In one instance
we used three-fourths of a pound, but the liquid injured the foliage.
" Permanent sod (without fertilizing) is an injury to the orchard.
This has beeniproved in the experience of nearly every successful
orchardist. It is forcibly illustrated in the instance of the old Col-
lege orchard. In the earlier experiments conducted by Dr. BeaL
the same fact was emphasized. For some years he kept a part of
the trees in sod, others were cultivated thoroughly, while still others
were cultivated at varying distances from the body of the tree.
Even as early as 1874 he found that ' trees in grass made less growth,
looked yellow in foliage, and bore smaller fruit and apparently less
of it.' In 1875 he observed that 'the evidences looked more and
more strongly every year against the propriety of leaving trees, in
our section, in grass. They have stood the severe winters no
better ; they have borne no better; the apples are smaller ; the trees
grow more slowly ; a greater proportion of trees have died than of
those cultivated each year. So marked have been the results that
we have plowed up about half that part of the orchard which was
left in grass.' "
SUMHART.
Till.
Feed.
Prune.
Spray.
Those bulletins which are oat of print are marked with an asterisk. Articles
which are published along with other matter, in miscellaneous bulletins, are
placed in parenthesis.
Bulletin 3 (1888). (On the Destruction of the Plum Curculioby Poisons.)
9 (1889). Windbreaks iu their Relation to Fruit Growing.
1* (1889). Strawberry Leaf Blight.
15 (1889). (Anthracnose of Currants, Leaf Blight of Quince and Pear.
Tbe Apple-Tree Tent Caterpillar. The Cranilall Current.)
18 (1890). Experiences in Spraying.
19(1890). Report upon the Condition of Fruit Growing in western New
York.
23 (1890). Insect* Injurious to Fruit.
25(1890). (Tbe Peach Yellows.)
34 (1891). Dewberries.
33 (1881). Combination of Fungicides and Insecticides.
38 (1892). The Cultivated Native Plums and Cherries.
14 (1£92). Pear- Tree Psyila.
-46 (1892). Mulberries.
18 (1892). Spraying Apple Orchards in a Wet Season.
49 (1892). (The Black Pouch Aphis. Fertilizers for Grape Cuttings.
Black-Knot of the Plum and Cherry. The Vetch or Tiire as
an Orchard Plant.)
• 50(1893). The Bud Moth.
• '31(1893). Four New Types of Fruits — Prunna Simouii. Wiueherry.
Craudall Currant. Dwiirf Jnneberry.
Raspberries and Blackberries.
The Four-lined Leaf Bng.
Does Mulching Retard the Maturity of Fruits!
Tbe Spraying of Orchards.
-61 (li-93). ((Edema of Apple Trees. The Pear-Leaf Blister. Orchard
Covers, — Vetch, Cow Peas, Pens, etc. Labels.)
-62 (1894). The Japanese Plums in North America.
-69 (1894). Hints on the Planting of Orchards.
-70 (1894). Tbe Native Dwarf Cherries.
-71 (1894). Apricot Growing in western New York.
-72 (1894). The Cultivation of Orchards.
-73 (1894). Leaf Cur) and Plum Pockets.
-74 (1894). Impressions of the Peach Industry of western New York.
-75 (1894). Peach Yellows.
-76 (1894). Some drape Troubles iu western New York.
-77 (1894). Tbe Grafting of Grapes.
-79 (1894). Varieties and Leaf Blight of the Strawberry.
-80 (1894). The Quince in western New York.
81 (1894). Black Knot of Plums and Cherries, and Methods of Treatment.
83 (1894). A Plant Scale in western New York.
Dgit.-eo oy ■ VjOOV It
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Cornell University— Agricultural Experiment Station.
HORTICULTURAL DIVISION.
February, 1895.
SPRAY CALENDAR.
By E. G. Lodkman.
Malta* byGoOgle
SPRAY CALENDAR.
In the preparation of this calendar the most important points
regarding sprays have been selected and arranged in sncli a
manner that the grower can see at a glance what to apply and
when to make the applications. The more important insect and
fungons enemies are also mentioned, so that a fairly clear
understanding of the work can be obtained by examining
the table. When making the applications advised, other enemies
than those mentioned are also kept under control, for only the most
serious ones could be named in so brief an outline. The directions
given have been carefully compiled from the latest results obtained
by leading horticulturists and entomologists, and they may be
followed with safety.
Notice. — In this calendar it will be seen that some applications
are italicised, and these are the ones which are most important. The
number of applications given in each case has particular reference
to localities in which fungous and insect enemies are most abundant.
If your crops are not troubled when some applications are advised,
it is unnecessary to make any. It should be remembered that in
all cases success is dependent upon the exercise of proper judgment
in making applications. Know the enemy to be destroyed ; know
the remedies that are most effective ; and finally, apply them at the
proper season. Be prompt, thorough, and persistent. Knowledge
and good judgment are more necessary to success than any definite
rules which can be laid down. Black knots on plums or cherries
should be cut out and burned as soon as discovered. For alphides
or plant lice use kerosene emulsion on all plants.
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Sprat Calendar.
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Sprat Calendar.
FORMULAS.
Bordeaux Mixture.
Copper sulphate <> pounds
Quicklime 4 "
Water 40-50 gallons
Dissolve the copper sulphate by putting it in a bag of coarse cloth
and banging this in a vessel holding at least 4 gallons, so that it is
just covered by the water. Use an earthen or wooden vessel. Slake
the lime in an equal amount of water. Then mix the two and add
enough water to make 40 gallons. It is then ready for immediate
use but will keep indefinitely. If the mixture is to be used on
peach foliage it is advisable to add an extra pound of lime to the
above formula. When applied to such plants as carnations or cab-
bages it will adhere better if about a pound of bard soap be dis-
solved in hot water and added to the mixture. For rots, moulds,
mildews, and all fungous diseases.
Ammoniagaj, Copper Carbonate.
Copper carbonate 1 ounce
, . I 1 volume 26° Beaume. 1 i enough to dissolve
| 7_8 voiuine8 water. , . f \ the copper.
Water 9 gallons
The copper carbonate is best dissolved in large bottles, where it
will keep indefinitely and it should be diluted with water as required.
For the same purposes as Bordeaux mixture.
Copper Sulphate Solution.
Copper Bulphate 1 pound
Water 15 gallons
Dissolve the copper sulphate in water, when it is ready for use.
This should never be applied to foliage, but must be used before the
buds break. For peaches and nectarines use 25 gallons of water.
For fungous diseases.
Paris Green.
Paris green 1 pound
Water 200-300 gallons
If this mixture is to be used upon peach trees, 1 pound of quick-
lime should be added. Repeated applications will injure most
92 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. T.
foliage, unless lime is added. Paris green and Bordeaux mixture
can be applied together with perfect safety. Use at the rate of 4
ounces of the arsenites to 50 gallons of the mixture. The action
of neither is weakened, and the Paris green loses all caustic proper-
ties. For insects which chew.
London Purple.
This is used in the same proportion as Paris green, bnt as it is
more caustic it should be applied with two or three times its weight
of lime, or with the Bordeaux mixture. The composition of Lon-
don purple is exceedingly variable, and unless good reasons exist
for supposing that it contains as much arsenic as Paris green, use
the latter poison. Do not use London purple on peach or plum
trees unless considerable lime ie added. For insects which chew. -
Hellebore.
Fresh white hellebore 1 ounce
"Water 3 gallons
Apply when thoroughly mixed. This poison is not so energetic
as the arsenites and may be used a short time before the sprayed
portions are harvested. For insects which chew.
Kerosene Emulbion.
Hard soap i pound
Boiling . water 1 gallon
Kerosene 2 gallons
Dissolve the soap in the water, add the kerosene, and churn with
a pump for 5-10 minates. Dilate 10 to 25 times before applying.
Use strong emulsion, diluted 4 times in winter, for all scale insects.
For insects which suck, as plant lice, mealy bugs, red spider, thrips,
bark lice or scale. Cabbage worms, currant worms and all insects
which have soft bodies, can also be successfully treated.
,v Google
BULLLBTIN 85 — March, 1895.
Cornell University— Agricultural Experiment Station.
AGRICULTURAL DIVISION.
WHEY BUTTER.
By H. H. Win.
.Google
ORGANIZATION.
Board of Control— The Trustees of the University.
STATION COUNCIL.
Pretidmt, JACOB GOULD SCHUBMAN.
HON. A. D. WHITE Trustee of the Univereity.
PROFESSOR I. P. ROBERTS PretUeitt State Agricultural Society.
Professor I. P. ROBERTS Agriculture.
Professor G. C. CALDWELL Chemistry.
PrOPBBBOR JAMES LAW Veterinary Seienee.
Professor A.N. PRENTISS Botany.
Professor J. H. COM8TOCK Entomology.
Professor L. H. BAILEY Horticulture.
Professor H. H. WING Dairy Husbandry.
Professor G. F. ATKINSON Cryptogams Botany.
OFFICERS OF THE STATION.
I. P. ROBERTS Director.
E. L. WILLIAMS .'. Treaenrer.
H. W.SMITH Clerk.
ASSISTANTS.
M. V. BLINGERLAND Entomology.
GEO. O.WATSON Agriculture.
G. W. CAVANAUGH Chemistry.
B. G. LODEMAN Bortieutture.
MICHAEL BARKER HortiaMwe.
Office of the Director, 20 Morrill Hall.
Those desiring this Bulletin sent to friends will please a
the parties.
Bulletins of 1895.
84. The Recent Apple Failures in western New York.
.Google
Whey Butter.
Id the process of cheese making a Email percentage of fat escapes
in the whey. This fat is lost except in so far as it adds a slightly
increased feeding value to the whey. From some hints that we had
received from Dr. S. M. Babcock of the Wisconsin Agricultural
Experiment Station, we were led to believe that this fat could be
utilized in. the form of commercial butter. Partly with the pur-
pose of making some investigations into this matter and partly to
afford our students additional practice in running the separators
we determined at the beginning of the Short Dairy Course term of
1895 to run the whey through the separators, and if possible to
make butter of the fat that we were thus enabled to secure.
Accordingly January 18, 1895, we began to run the whey from
the cheese making regularly through the separators and we have
been successful in securing a large proportion of the fat in the whey
in the form of commercial butter of good quality. This butter has
been scarcely, if any, inferior to that made from cream, separated
from whole milk and it has been printed and sold in the same mar-
ket with our best butter. The details of the various separations and
chumings are shown in the table below.
This work has been done with the cooperation of Mr. "W. W.
Hall, Instructor in Cheese Making, and Mr. Jared VanWagenen,
Jr., Instructor in Butter Making. The details of the work were
almost entirely in their hands and to them most of the credit of the
work is due.
It will be seen that upon the average we have been able to secure
3.57 pounds of butter from each lOOu pounds of whey and that the
whey has contained upon the average .25 of 1 per cent, of fat, show-
ing that we have recovered in the form of butter nearly all of the
fat in the whey.
In only a few details does the manufacture of whey butter differ
from ordinary butter making.
On account of the small percentage of fat in the whey it was
found to be impracticable to secure at one separation a cream
96 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N, Y.
i i
m
9 a a a a a a a a a-a-a-a-a'°-o-o-o-a-o
93 S 3 5 2 « 3 8«»»««8«»«»
■^H^HjI-lb^l-ababgbgblpElPhGCibh&iExtlztp^EEl
,toog (
Whbt Bbttbb. 97
thick enough for best results without churning it- more or less in
the separator. In order to overcome this the whey was pnt through
the separator in the same way milk would have been and about one-
tenth the whole bulk taken from the cream outlet This was found
to contain on the average from 2 per cent, to 5 per cent, of fat or to
be of nearly the same fat content as ordinary milk. This so-called
" first cream " was run through the separator a second time, and in
this way the cream condensed to the proper consistency for churning.
In running the Danish-Weston machine, this was not found to be
necessary. The Danish-Weston machine is provided with a con-
trivance whereby the proportional Sow from the skim milk and
cream outlets can be controlled at will and in running the whey
through this machine it was found entirely feasible to shut off the
cream outlet entirely nntil a sufficient amount of cream had gathered
in the center of the bowl, when, by turning in the skim-milk point
this cream could be thrown out, aud after being so removed the
skim-milk point could be thrown back again until a second portion
of the cream had gathered in the center of the bowl. In this way
we were enabled to get a clean separation and cream of good con-
sistency in one operation.
Id all of our experiments the whey was run through the separator
immediately after it was drawn and before it had cooled down. It
was at this stage, of course, slightly acid and the resulting cream
was in good condition to churn at once after being reduced to the
proper temperature. We have had no difficulty, however, so far as
the flavor of the butter was concerned in holding the whey 24 or
even 48 hours in some cases, but would strongly recommend that the
whey cream be churned as soon as convenient after separation. In
one case where it was attempted to hold the whey 48 hours before
separating, the development of lactic acid went so far that the flavor
of the butter was spoiled. The practical point seems to be that the
whey should be separated at once and where possible the cream
churned quickly, and preferably in any case the whey cream should
not be held more than 24 hours.
The cream from the whey, containing as it does, very little casein,
was very easily, quickly and completely churned at a low temper-
ature. The most complete churning was obtained when the churn
was started at a temperature from 48° F. to 54° F., the time required
in most cases being less than 20 minutes.
7 DiaitiwdbyGoOgle
98 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
In regard to the quality of butter ; as before stated butter made
from the whey has gone into the same market as the butter made
in the ordinary way. Good judges who have seen the two kinds of
batter Bide by side hare been in some cases unable to detect which
was made from whey and which from cream. In other eases slight
inferiority in texture and flavor have been noticed in the whey
butter. That it is possible to make butter of good commercial
qnality we have clearly shown. Whether or not it can be done at
a profit, is the practical question for the ordinary factoryman.
In order to enable the ordinary factory to utilize the fat wasted
in this way, it would be necessary to provide storage capacity for a
large part of the whey produced in any given day, and a centrifugal
separator, churn and butter worker. In cases whore more than one
vat of milk is made np, by so arranging the work that the whey
would be drawn from the vats at .different times, it would not be
necessary to provide so much storage, for the separator could be
started as soon as the first whey was drawn and much of the whey
could be gotten out of the way before the last vat would be ready.
Most factories have the necessary steam power to run such a
separator.
The manufacture of butter from the whey will not ordinarily
require much increased labor. The whey can be run through the
separator at the same time that the latter part of the cheese making
process is going on and the churning will take but a small amount
of time and labor. The additional items of expense will be the
storage capacity for the whey and the separator. How much this
saving might be made to the farmers of this state is shown by the
following calculation :
According to the returns made to the Commissioner of Agricul-
ture, there were made in the state of New York in 1892,
130,991,310 pounds of cheese. Estimating that for each pound
of cheese there would be 8J- pounds of whey we should have a total
of 1,113,426,135 pounds of whey produced in the state. Our whey
has contained upon the average .25 of 1 per cent, but our cheese is
made in small quantities with special pains to prevent loss of fat in
the whey, and the percentage of fat in oar whey is undoubtedly
smaller than that of the State at large. In Bulletin 65 of the New
York Experiment Station, Dr. L. L. Van Slyke gives the average of
a large number of analyses of whey made by him during the b>
fifty
7
Whet Bettee. 99
different factories in eight counties of the State, extending from
April to October, and the average of the whole shows .39 of one
per cent, of fat in the whey. Assuming this to be a fair average of
the percentage of fat in all the whey produced in the State, we
should have 4,342,362 pounds of fat lost in the whey. Allowing
that the hatter contained 86 per cent, of fat and providing for all
mechanical losses in the manufacture, we should make from this
amount of fat 4,77(5,598 pounds of butter, which at 20 cents per
pound would he worth $995,319, or about 50 cents for each cow in
the State.
In nearly all of the factories in the state this butter would find a
home market among the patrons of the factory so that expense of
packages and marketing need not be taken into account and the
saving would be a clear one to the patrons.
HENRY H. WING.
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.Google
BULLETIN 86— March, 1895.
Cornell University— Agricultural Experiment Station.
HORTICULTURAL DIVISION.
The Spraying of Orchards,
Apples, Quinces, Plums.
B_V £. G. LODKMAN.
.Google
ORGANIZATION.
Board of Control— The Trustees of the University.
STATION COUNCIL.
Preetdent, JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN.
HON. A. D. WHITE Trustee of the Univereity.
PROFESSOR I. P. ROBERTS President State Agricultural Society.
Professor I. P. ROBERTS Agriculture.
Professor G. C. CALDWELL ChemUtry.
Professor JAMES LAW Veterinary Science.
Professor A. N. PRENTISS Botany.
Professor J. H. COMSTOCK Entomology.
Professor L. H. BAILEY Horticulture.
Professor H. H. WING Dairy Husbandry.
Professor G. F. ATKINSON Cryptogamic Botany.
OFFICERS OF THE STATION.
I. P. ROBERTS " Director.
E. L. WILLIAMS Jreaeurer.
H. W. SMITH CUrh.
ASSISTANTS.
M. V. SLIKGERLAND Entomology.
GEO. C. WATSON Agriculture.
Q. W. CAVANAUGH Chemietry.
E. G. LODEMAN Horticulture.
MICHAEL BARKER Horticulture.
Office of the Director, 20 Morrill Hall.
Those desiring this Bulletin sent to friends will please send us the names of
tbe pnrtieB.
Bulletins of 1895.
8i. The Recent Apple Failures in western New York.
85. Whey Butter.
86. Spraying of Orchards.
Diaiti2eat>yG00Qle
Cornell Unitbbsitt, i
Ithaoa, N. T„ March 1, 1895. J
The Honorable Cornnviasioner of Agriculture, Albany :
Sib. — The following sketch of experiments id spraying orchards
is submitted for publication under Section 87, Chapter 675,LawBof
1891. This bulletin may be considered to he a complement to No.
84, npon Apple Failures in Western New York. The general con-
clusions as to the fundamental causes of the recent failures of apples
are essentially alike in the two bulletins, but they were arrived at
independently by Mr. Lodeman and myself. It is now established
that spraying with Paris green and Bordeaux mixture is often capa-
ble of rescuing a crop of apples and other fruits from the ravages of
insects and fungi ; but it is equally well established that spraying
sometimes avails little. In other words, some of the failures of
orchards to bear are due to insects and diseases, and other failures
are due to causes which lie back of these attacks, probably to lack of
available food supply. The inference is plain ; orchards should be
both fed and sprayed.
L. H. BAILET.
,v Google
10. Plum loaf Injured by fungus. (Ptgt 196.)
Hotting of plums (page 1S8). The upper fruit spur has been killed by Ibe fungun.
Malta* byGoOgle
The Spraying of Orchards.
PART I.— NOTES ON THE SPRAYING OF APPLE
ORCHARDS.
AT CORNELL.
W.- rear killed bj- Bordeaux mixture.
Most of the experiments made by the Cornell Experiment Station
during the past season on the Bpraying of apples were conducted in
106 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
the orchard of John J. McGowen, who again kindly placed his
trees at our disposal. The orchard has now been treated by this
station for three years, and it offers in several respects an excellent
field for work of this character. In a previous bulletin * a foil de-
scription of the orchard has been given, so that all the conditions
under which the experiments were carried on might be understood.
Brief descriptions of the apple scab and of thecodlin moth have also
been published.! These two pests are the most serious ones against
which the apple growers of this vicinity have to contend, and it has
been found that by keeping them well nnder control the foliage and
the fruit of the trees remain almost perfectly healthy throughout
the season.
But the question is constantly before us as to how we can best
control these two enemies of the apple grower. The present
methods employed are in a great many ways unsatisfactory. The
labor of making the application is difficult and unpleasant ; the best
time to spray is still a matter of doubt ; the amount of liquid to use,
the best methods of preparing it, and a host of other unsolved prob-
lems are continually arising and demanding answers. These can not
be definitely given when based on the work of only one season.
One point and then another must be carefully studied, and the
greater the delay in coming to a final conclusion, the greater should
be its accuracy.
The machinery. — The selection of spraying machinery has
proved to be somewhat unsatisfactory. The pumps which have
given the best satisfaction are hand pnmps constructed practically
upon the model of Gould's " Standard," Fig. 905, of their catalogue.
Nearly every pnmp manufacturer makes this style of pnmp and I
have still to learn that one is any better than another. These pumps
are comparatively cheap ; they are very powerful and durable. Sev-
eral pnmps, smaller as well as larger ones, bave been tried at this
Station, but the above type has proved to be the least unsatisfactory.
The one used has the serious objection, especially when much work
is to be done, of being too small.
This fact has led us to try horse-power sprayers in apple
orchards. Every man who sprays will welcome with delight any
* Cornell Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 60, p. 357.
Ubid. Bulletin 46, p. 266, tt teq.
Thb Spraying of Orchards. 107
kind of a machine which will give the horse a chance to do the
pumping instead of himself, aod his delight will probably increase
directly in proportion to the amount of spraying he has done in the
past. With hope in our hearts we wrote to the Field Force Pump
Co. of Lockport, N. Y., and this firm kindly sent us one of their
machines for trial. It was taken to an orchard and thoroughly
IS. Berrlcublsi
tested until all present were satisfied as to the capabilities of the
machine. It worked perfectly, and in fact has done so throughout
the year, but from the present light we have upon spraying matters
it did not answer the purpose for bearing apple trees from twenty-
five to thirty years of age. The two objections found against it
were that it did not throw enough liquid to cover a tree as t
108 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. T.
as was desired, and it did not throw the spray far enough for oar
purpose, although several nozzles were tried. In the vineyard, how-
ever, the machine did admirable work and the sprayed vines yielded
an almost perfect crop of fruit. It can also be used to advantage
in spraying potatoes and other low growing crops, but for orchards
this class of machines is as yet of doubtful value. The hand pump
has the great advantage of allowing the operator to apply as much
liquid as desired upon any given part of the tree. When such a
pump is placed upon the side of a barrel, or on a tank having any
desired capacity, and then placed upon the wagon so that it can be
hauled into the orchard, it makes a very seviceable outfit.
The nozzle which has been used during the past three years is the
McGowen, manufactured by Mr. J. J. McGowen of this city. Most
of the new nozzles have been tried, but none have yet been found
equal to this one for spraying trees.
Figure 13 represents a very serviceable outfit when but little
work is to be done, and no large plants are to be treated. The barrel
holds about fifteen gallons. It can be drawn quite easily even upon
soft ground for the tires of the wheels are broad. The pump is
light and powerful, and has answered our purpose in many places.
The weather. — The past spring and summer were remarkable for
the great extremes of rainfall and of drought. This applies partic-
ularly to the central New York region, for here the rain appears to
have been more continuous than in other sections. The official
record of the signal service station situated at Ithaca shows the fol-
lowing rainfall from April 1st to October 1st. The sign -\- denotes
increase over the average, and the sign — a decrease :
MONTH.
April.
Kay
Junn.
July.
—
"ST
If umber of days during
J7
4.84
+2.57
22
7.S4
+9.10
18
3.40
—.36
16
8.17
—.71
8
.058
—2.78
Total rainfall id inches
Departure from tbe average
5.17
It will be seen that April was au exceptionally wet month ; May
shows an increase over the average of 3.10 inches. The precipi-
tation during the first week in June was also heavy. The records
, Google
Thh Spraying of Orchards. 109
show that during the first twenty-three days following May 16,
rain fell daring twenty-two, and twenty of these were consecutive.
The unfavorable influence of Bach weather upon the successful
spraying of apples and other fruits can only be realized when it is
considered that there is probably the greatest need of the application
at just this time.
An appoximate schedule of the dates of spraying had been made
out before the work was begun, and this schedule waa followed as
closely as possible. The applications were made some in sunshine,
and some in rain, and at the time it seemed as if the liquids used
were washed off as fast as they were pot npon the trees. If the
sprayed trees succeeded in becoming dry between the showers, that
appeared to be all that could reasonably be asked.
Daring the last week in Jane the rainfall practically ceased, and
then began a period of drought, more or less severe, which con-
tinued until early in September. This prevented the apples from
attaining their normal size, but probably had little effect npon the
severity of fungous and insect injuries. Not so with the early
rains, however. Notes which were taken June 16, at the time of
an application, show a very discouraging condition of foliage and
fruit. The weather had been warm and moist and there had
appeared, daring the ten days previous to this time, a vigorous and
quite general growth of the scab fungus. All the plots were
attacked, and showed fruit that was already one Bided, and leaves
that were more or less covered by the black, smoky patches of the
parasite. In addition to this the young apples were rapidly falling
from the trees, and what at fir<it promised to be an abundant yield
of fair fruit now seemed to indicate exactly the contrary. When
the crop waa harvested in September, the yield was indeed small,
and it now remains to determine to what degree " the weather "
was responsible for the lose.
The materials. — All the applications were made with the Bole
purpose of combatting fungi. The Bordeaux mixture was almost
exclusively used, London purple, and the copper sulphate solution
being the only other substances tested for this purpose. The trees
sprayed with the mixture were not all treated alike as regards
the amount of liquid used, the dates of applications, etc. The
Malta* byGoOgle
110 AOBICCLTCBAL EXPBBIMENT STATION, ItHACA, N, T.
Bordeaux mixture was, with two exceptions, always made according
to the formula :
Copper sulphate 6 pounds.
Quick lime 4 pounds.
Water 45 gallons.
Upon two occasions, the mixture was prepared with the assists
ance of the ferrocyauide of potassium test. The value of this
chemical in the preparation of the Bordeaux mixture lies in the fact
that when in solution it will combine with dissolved salts of copper
and form a compound having a deep reddish-brown color. When
sufficient Jime ib added to the copper-sulphate solution in making
the Bordeaux mixture, several new compounds are formed, of which
all that contain copper are practically insoluble. If an insufficient
amount of lime is used, some of the copper salts remain in solution
and the addition of a few drops of the ferrocyauide of potassium
solution will produce the characteristic brown color in the mixture;
but as soon as enough lime is present to remove all dissolved copper,
the test will cause no change to take place. This test solution may
be made as follows :
Ferrocyauide of potassium (yellow prnssiate of potash). . 1 ounce.
Water 1 pint.
The chemical dissolves very readily, and is then ready for use.
When the Bordeaux mixture is prepared in this manner, it contains
the smallest amount of lime necessary to satisfy all immediate
chemical changes, and upon this fact rests the principal argument
for the use of the method. The subject is more fully treated upon
pages 120-122.
Copper sulphate 1 pound.
Water 18 gallons.
This was applied as soon as the crystals were dissolved, but it was
used only at the time of the first applications, before the buds had
fully opened.
London purple was applied by using
London purple 1 pound.
Air-slacked lime 1 pound.
Water 250 gallons.
The lime was added to prevent any caustic action of the poison.
13,0 ivGoo^Ic
Thb Spuayinq of Orchards. Ill
The dates of the applications. — Tbe trees were sprayed upon the
following dates :
1. April 21. The budB had burst, but only the tips of the leaves
could be seen.
2. May 1. Nearly one-fifth of the blossom bads had opened.
3. May 19. A few of the blossoms were still upon the trees.
4. May 31.
5. June 16.
It was tbe intention to make one more application about June 30,
hut at this time so much of tbe fungicide could still be seen upon
the trees that further treatment was thought unnecessary. As but
little rain fell during the next two months, the mixture could still
be Been upon tbe leaves in September, so that even if another treat-
ment had been made it would have been of little value.
The rust. — On June 29 the orchard was examined and a serious
amount of rust was discovered. It was fonnd that the Red Astra-
chan, Fallawater, and tbe King apples showed injured foliage and
fruit, partly in consequence of the Bordeaux mixture which had
previously been applied. Baldwins were not so seriously hurt, and
Fall Pippin showed no trace of any such trouble upon the fruit.
Here then was another difficulty, only traces of which had been
noticed during the past year but which now appeared nearly as for-
midable as the scab or the codlin moth. Upon the leaves, it ap-
peared to show itself in the form of reddish brown areas, generally
quite small, and probably of minor importance as regards injury to
the tree. Upon the fruit, the affected portions turned grayish
brown, and later in the season such portions were rough and ap-
peared yellowish brown in color. A microscopic examination of
these injured tissues showed that the coloring matter normally
present when the fruit is ripening was entirely wanting, and the-
walls of the cells that are situated under the epidermis or outer skin
of the apple had become thickened and seemed to have acquired a
corky texture. Any external irritation of the apple may cause
sucb*a formation, and it undoubtedly was so caused last spring.
This subject is more fully discussed on pages 120-122.
Grading the apples. — In 1893 tbe apples of this orchard were
graded upon the following basis : " The amount of scab or other
fungonB injury upon an apple determined its grade, the injury done-
by worms being rather secondary, for the apples were comparatively
112 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
little damaged by them." * In consequence of this standard it fre-
quently became necessary to place a commercially first-class apple
into the second or possibly into the third grade. The orchard had
been sprayed with arsenitee so that the worms did not do any seri-
ous damage. This year, however, the worms were allowed to hare
everything their own way, for ^no applications were made which
were designed to destroy them. All applications were made with
the sole object of combating the scab, and so in the final grading,
insect injury, to whatever extent it may have taken place, did not
prevent an apple from entering the first class. It waa only on
account of fungous injury that affected apples were removed. Since
the apples were very wormy (see page 116) it made the first grade
appear anything bnt fancy fruit, although the selection had been
made in conformity to the principles laid down when the work was
undertaken.
Another factor which rendered the grade more difficult was the
rust, of which mention has already been made. In some cases it
was practically impossible to determine whether a certain injury
was caused wholly by scab, or by rust. It was too late in the sea-
son to tell accurately the cause of a blemish upon an apple. For-
tunately such cases were not very common.
In order to simplify the table, the figures showing the number
of apples in each grade represent what per cent, of the total yield
of a plot the given grade formed. The trees bore a light crop,
(see page 117), the Kings averaging scarcely three bushels per tree,
while the Baldwins and the Fall Pippins bore less than two
bushels each. Such a small yield was disappointing, for it is desir-
able to have as many apples as possible to get at the true value
of an experiment. Nevertheless the figures given on the
following pages are quite accurate. Some of the experiments
made were solely for the purpose of verifying results which had
been attained here and at other stations, and with scarcely an excep-
tion the results have been practically the same as in past years when
larger crops were borne. The King trees in particular were very
uniform in this respect. Unfortunately, some of the trees of the
other varieties bore hardly an apple and in such cases, of course, not
even an approximate conclusion could be reached. On this account
several experiments planned were without result. Those upon
which reliance could be placed are given below.
* Cornell Agric. Exp. SU. Bull. 60, p. 261.
The Spraying of Obchabds.
113
The number of applications necessary. — The King tree selected
for this experiment showed considerable difference in the quality of
the fruit, as shown in the table. They were treated with the
Bordeaux mixture and as nearly as possible the same amount of
liquid was applied to each tree.
Table I. — Showing the Value of Taetxhg Numbekh of
Applications
NUMBER OF APPLICATIONS.
First
W
Third
T
42
58
52
27
55
34
46
Probably the most interesting feature of the table is the effects
produced by only two applications. These were made May 7th and
May 19th. The number of first-class apples was increased from
7 to 42 per cent, while the third-class fruit diminished from 66 to
4 per cent. The additional treatment given the other plants show
still greater benefits but not in the same proportion. The plot
treated four times [shows considerably more first-class apples, and
the apples of the second class were also decidedly less attacked by
scab and were consequently more handsome. This lot also shows an
increase in the third quality, yet this can scarcely be attributed to
the spray which produced snch favorable results in the plot treated
but twice. The apples from the trees which were sprayed five
times, all grades considered, were not much better than those receiv-
ing four treatments. This is practically the same result which was
obtained last year * with this variety. The comparatively slight
difference between the fruit treated twice and that treated four
times suggests the use of only three treatments, and if only this
number had been made, it would in all probability have been suf-
ficient. The other varieties treated in these plots did not yield snf.
licient fruit for safe comparison.
The two most important applications. — It has been shown in
former bulletins from this station, as well as in those from other
* Cornell Agric. Exp. Sea., Dull. 60, p. 267.
, Google
11+ Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaoa, N. Y.
stations, that the moat important treatments are those made in the
spring. The use of only two applications lias been followed by such
good result* with some varieties that this number seemed to be suf-
ficient to control the apple-scab. But the best time for making
these treatments can not be stated unhesitatingly. Two applications
were therefore made at different times to certain King and Baldwin
trees to discover if possible which treatments were the most effective.
Three plots, or divisions were made:
1. Two applications made before the blossoms opened: April
21th, copper sulphate solution ; Hay Tth, Bordeaux mixture.
2. One application made just before and one immediately after
the blossoming of trees ; May 7th aud May 19th, using Bordeaux
mixture.
3. Two applications after the blossoming of the trees : May 19th
and May 31st, Bordeaux mixture.
Table II. — Showing Effect of Two Applications Made at
DlFFKBENT TlMKS.
DATE OF APPLICATIONS.
Pint Second Third
First Second Third
None
April 21.
May 7...
May 7. . .
May 1U . .
May 19..
May 31..
73
ia
The yield from untreated trees is given in the above table for
comparison. The trees receiving the two earliest treatments were
greatly benefited by them. The number of third class apples was
reduced from 66 per cent to 22 per cent, in the case of the King
aud the Baldwin showed a reduction from 73 to 42. There was
also a marked increase in the number of first class and second class
apples of both varieties.
Turning to the second division, those treated May 7 and May 17,
we find that a still greater difference has been made by these two
The Spraying of Orchards. 115
applications than by those of the first division. The King in par-
ticular shows this difference, there being only four third-class apples,
but forty-two in the first class. The Baldwin also shows a marked
improvement, bat it is not so decided as in the case of the other
variety.
The apples of the third division do not differ much from those of
the second. This is especially true of the King apples, there being
a few more first quality fruits, but also more of the third grade.
The Baldwins show a similar increase, but it is still more marked in
the first class fruit. (See also p. 124, The Nixon orchard.)
Having thus briefly considered the character of the fruit, it will
be interesting to note which treatment has been followed by the
best results. The first two applications did not produce the fairest
fruit, while that of the second division, in the case of the King
apples, was equal to any borne by the trees. The Baldwin also
showed such an improvement that it will be safe to say the applica-
tion made April 21 was not so valuable as that made May 7. In
the third division the Baldwins show a still greater improvement,
and it would appear from them that the treatments made May ) 9
and May 31 were the most valuable. Such may have been the case
this season, but in 1892 * it was found that when the first applica-
tion was made as soon as the blossoms fell, the scab had already
secured an entrance into the fruit and the foliage of the trees.
Taking this fact into consideration, it would appear that the most
important treatments for apple scab f are those which are made just
before the blossoms open and soon after they fall, this statement
being, to a certain extent, dependent upon the season.
The amount of liquid to apply. — I have so often Been men spray-
ing their trees with much less liquid than it has been our custom to
apply, that one part of the orchard was this year used to determine
the effect of applying different amounts of the Bordeaux mixture.
Six King trees, well grown, and nearly thirty years of age, were
selected for the purpose. Two were treated with two gallons of the
mixture at each application ; two with three gallons and two with
four gallons. Care was taken to distribute the smaller amounts of
liquid as evenly as possible, so that it Bhould not be applied in
patches.
'Cornell Agric. Exp. Sta. Bull., 48, p. 269.
t The treatments to be made for the codlin moth have been dismissed in Bul-
letin 60 of this Station.
116 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, ItHAOA, N. Y.
Table III. — Showiho the Value of Diffebent Amounts of
Fungicide.
GALLONS OF LIQUID.
Ftrrt
sr
Third
7
39
48
19
27
53
47
46
The average of the check trees is here again used for comparison.
The marked benefits derived by applying only two gallons are seen
at a glance. The improvement in still greater where three have
been used. Four gallons did not make sufficient difference, as
shown by the table, to make the nse of this amount desirable.
Judging only from the table, therefore, it wonld appear that the
proper amount of the Bordeaux mixture to use on trees of this size,
provided the liquid is well distributed, is between two and three
grilou.
But figures are not the most satisfactory things to deal with,
especially when they refer to the grading of apples. The table does
not show that the size, symmetry and fairness, the rust, of course
excepted, increased almost directly in proportion to the amount of
the mixture used. It does not show that the apples which received
hut two gallons at each application were only about two-thirds as
large as tbose which were treated with fonr, yet such was the case,
nor is the degree of insect injury hinted at. Nevertheless, the
apples which had been most thoroughly sprayed showed fewer insect
injuries; I refer particularly to those many kinds that are so com-
monly seen upon the surface of the apples, and not to the codlin
moth. This permitted a more regular growth to take place, and
the apples treated with four gallons of the Bordeaux mixture were
decidedly superior to those treated with only three. Although this
result was entirely unlooked for, it was so evident that it could not
escape notice. Now the question arises, does the Bordeaux mixture
have any influence in keeping insects from fruit, or does it merely
encourage growth \ The scab did not influence this result, for it
was upon the amount of scab present that the apples were graded.
The Spraying of Orchards.
11T
The effect of former applications upon the crop of 1 894. — It has
been the custom to leave an additional check tree each year since
work in the orchard began. There were three King trees left
unsprayed this year; one had never received treatment, another
had been sprayed in 1892 only, and the third in 1892 and again in
1893. The trees when sprayed had received liberal applications of
the Bordeaux mixture.
Table IV. -
-Showing the Effects of Former Applications of
Fungicides on the Ceop of 1894.
TREATMENT.
Flmt
•s?
Third
yielded
4
18
26
23
31
68
73
57
Jbn.
l}bu.
bprayed in 1892, 1893
7
27
66
The table does not offer much hope to the lazy man, for the scab
is nearly as abundant upon one plant as on another. There is some
difference in favor of the tree which was treated twice bat it is not
great enough to encourage an apple grower to neglect the care of
his trees ; yet one circumstance must be taken into consideration.
These trees are situated in an orchard which is only partially well
sprayed. There has not been a systematic effort to exterminate the
disease upon the trees, which might make a greater difference than
is shown by the table.
The early use of the copper-sulphate solution is closely related to
this subject. It may be possible to free the trees from the scab
fungus before the buds break by destroying it so early in the season,
but the results obtained in the orchard this year do not encourage
the plan. The proximity of untreated trees probably exerted an
unfavorable influence. Yet what orchard, even if entirely so
treated, is so isolated that it may not be infected from another in
the neighborhood ? Until more work has been done, it seems advis-
able to spray the young fruit as suggested by Table II, on page 114.
London purple as a fungicide — Since the establishment of the
fact that Paris green possesses considerable value as a fungicide, its
118 Agricultural Experiment Station, Itbaca, N. T.
use upon trees which are being treated for fungi, to determine the
comparative value of different materials, is not advisable. London
purple was this year applied to one-half of a Fall Pippin tree to
discover if the scab would be affected by the applications. Five
treatments were made. This variety of apple is generally very
much injured by scab, but it may also be protected quite easily by
the use of proper fungicides. Some trees to which the Bordeaux
mixture had been applied produced very large and fair fruit. But
those treated with London purple showed absolutely no benefit
from the application, neither upon the foliage nor upon the fruit.
The poison contained nearly seventy-five per cent, of the normal
arsenite of calcium, and had been used with success against the
codlin moth in previous years.
The value of former applications of arsenites. — No treatments
were made this year that were connected with the destruction of
the codlin moth. During the past two years the orchard had been
ao thoroughly sprayed with arsenites that it was supposed these
applications might have had considerable influence in the extermi-
nation of the pest. There is no large apple orchard near the one
treated. And this comparative isolation, it was hoped, would not
be without its influence. But as the season advanced the conse-
quences of this neglect became more apparent. Not only did the
<codlin moth flourish, but also nearly every insect that could in any
way disfigure an apple. The curculio was very prevalent, and
assisted in the disfigurement of nearly every apple in the orchard.
The light crop appeared to compel the insects to concentrate then-
efforts upon the few apples that were borne, and rarely has a crop
of apples shown more clearly the extent to which insects alone can
ruin fruit. The average amount of injury obtained from several
trees of different varieties, treated and untreated, showed that 76
per cent, of the fruit had been attacked by the codlin moth ; the
lowest figure obtained was 70, from a tree thoroughly sprayed with
the Bordeaux mixture, and the highest 80, produced by an unsprayed
tree. If other insect injuries had been considered, the per cent,
would undoubtedly have been nearly 100.
Doubt is sometimes expressed as to the comparative seriousness
of the apple scab and the codlin moth. It is probable that if the
insects had been controlled in the orchard instead of the fungi, the
injury done would have been less. And this leads us to the question
of the comparative value of all applications. In apple orchards I
The Spraying of Orchards. 119
am convinced that Paris green is the most valuable material that
can be used hs it is our safest insecticide and possesses also strong
fungicidal properties. When to this poison is added properly pre-
pared Bordeaux mixture, the apples borne by the trees should be
gathered in almost perfect condition.
Spraying as affecting the bearing of orchards, — The apple-scab
fungus has been held responsible for many if not all of the failures
of the New York apple orchards to bear during recent years. It
was supposed to destroy the young fruit after the blossoms fell, or
the blossoms themselves were so injured by the fungus that the fruit
did not set. There is undoubtedly much foundation for this theory.
Mr. L. T. YoemanB, of Walworth, N. Y., showed me a row of
Baldwin apple trees which had failed to produce any fruit during
the past year. This row was the outer one of the orchard and it was
so close to the next one on the interior that a spray cart could not
enter. For this reason it was not treated, and although the
remainder of the orchard, which was well sprayed, yielded an enor-
mous crop, this untreated row scarcely bore an apple. The age of
the trees, soil, cultivation, and other circumstances were the same in
both eases.
This theory will not always explain the non-bearing of apple
orchards. The one which has been treated by this Station during
the past three years has had liberal applications of fungicides and
insecticides, with the exception of this year, yet it has not borne a
full crop for many years. In 1893 a little more than half a crop
was produced, but in 1892 and again the past season the crop was
very small. One of the objects of leaving a check tree each year as
already described, was to determine the extent to which the theory
would apply to the McGowen orchard. The treatments have been
of some benefit, for the sprayed trees averaged more than twice as
much fruit as the unsprayed, but still the yield was very light.
Some orchards appear to bear independently of spraying. There is
some other cause for the trouble and I believe it may be improper
cultivation or fertilization. Several years will be required to deter-
mine this point, but the station has the work now under way, and
the results are awaited with considerable interest.
The causes of the rust. — The exact cause of rusty fruit is difficult
to find, and as so often happens when the reason for a certain fact
is unknown to us, we lay it to the weather. The weather then, con-
sidering its nature and the unusual abundance of rust even in
120 Agricultural Expbeimbnt Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
unsprayed orchards, may be considered as one of the prime factor*
which brought about the trouble. Since such an unnsnal amount
of rain, fell, this excess of moisture alone may have brought it on.
When we come to sprayed orchards, the severity of the rust
increases, probably on account of the chemicals used, and not in
consequence of the water applied, as this amount is comparatively
small. One of the most severe cases of rust noticed was in the
orchard of John W. Spencer, Westfield, N. Y., and these trees had
been thoroughly sprayed with the Bordeaux mixture and London
purple. In the trees sprayed by this station the rust appeared to
increase with the number of treatments, and those which were
sprayed with the Bordeaux mixture made with the potassium fer-
rocyanide test showed the discoloration most strongly. Mr, Spencer
used the same test in making his Bordeaux mixture and from all
appearances the trouble has been aggravated by the use of the chem-
ical. In the orchard of a prominent fruit grower a pear crop was
practically ruined apparently by the early use of Bordeaax mixture
prepared with the aid of this test. Fully seventy-five per cent, of
the fruit fell to the ground soon after the application was made,
while in a neighboring orchard containing similar varieties, the
the fruit remained upon the trees.* (See initial illustration, p. 105.)
The test, therefore, would seem to be unsafe unless more lime is
added than appears to be necessaary. The lime will not prevent
the trouble, but it may assist in lessening its severity. The formula
given on page 110 seems to be as satisfactory as any yet proposed in
this country. I have learned, however, that in some parts of Italy
a much more dilute mixture is used on grapes, with entire success.
The formula recommended in the past by this station is made
approximately of a one and eight-tenths per cent. (1.8 per cent.) solu-
tion of copper sulphate, considering the crystals as weighing 6
pounds and the forty gallons of water 333 pounds. The Italian
mxiture calls for only seven-tenths of one per cent. (.7 per cent.)
which is equivalent to diluting our mixture to about 104 gallons.
Applications made with such a fungicide may not encourage rust,
•See also Garden and Foreit, vii. p. 456 for a more complete account of this
orchard. The danger of using the Bordeaux mixture made with the f errocy an i de-
test, was indicated in Bull. 74, p. 3S2 &Dd 84, p. 12. At about the same time
FaircblM'e bulletin upon the Bordenux mixture (Bull. 6, Div. Veg. Path.
Dept Agric), expreeseil a doubt as to tbe advisability of using the ferrocyanidfl-
,v Google
Thb Spraying of Orchards. 121
bat it might not be equally efficient against the apple scab. The
Italian growers also confess to the necessity or making a greater
number of applications when such dilute mixtures are used.
The experiments of Soetegni, Borne of which have already been
referred to in a former bulletin, * have a direct bearing upon this
subject. In a later article f he emphasizes the value of having a
certain amount of dissolved copper present in the Bordeaux mix-
ture. The chloride of ammonia is added to increase the amount of
copper in solution. The solvent action of carbonic acid as found in
rain water and dew is also mentioned. The dew found upon grape
foliage which had been sprayed was very carefully absorbed by
blotting paper and then analyzed for copper. It was found that
when ordinary Bordeaux mixture had been applied, in four cases
out of five no copper was found in these tests. When the mixture
had been prepared with a small amount of lime some copper was
found in every case. But the addition of the chloride of ammonia
caused a large increase in the quantity of copper held in solution.
In a later paper, % the same writer gives an account of other
experiments from which he draws the following conclusions :
1. The principal cause of the solution of the copper is the car-
bonic acid dissolved in the water which bathes the leaves upon
which the Bordeaux mixture has been placed. This explains why the
dew that has absorbed this gas acts with great energy as a solvent
of the copper compounds.
S. When the leaves treated with the Bordeaux mixture remain
for some time in contact with the moist air a large part of the cop-
per compounds become gradually soluble. On this account rains
may carry away large quantities of the dissolved metal; and it
follows that very freqnent rains, although of short duration, dissolve
and waste more of the fungicide than do more severe rains which
follow each other at longer intervals.
3. A great excess of lime hi the Bordeaux mixture diminishes
the amount of copper held in solution in the clear liquid. When
auch a mixture is applied to foliage the copper is less widely dis-
tributed, and can only be found in these places in which solid
particles of the mixture have lodged. The lime retards the solvent
action of the carbonic acid gas, since before the latter can act upon the
* Cornell AgrtP. Exp. Sta. Ball. 48, p. 291.
t Soategni, L'AgrU»lt*ra Meridionals, 1891, No. 17, pp. 261-263.
J Soategni. Giomale &i Viticaliura, F.nologia, td Agraria, 1S93, Not. 12 and 13.
122 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
copper compounds the lime must be changed from the hydrate into
the carbonate. This may be of advantage daring seasons of fre-
quent showers for in such cases less of the copper would be washed
from the leaves and lost.
After our experience of 1894 it would appear to be very advisable
that an excess of lime be used in making the Bordeaux mixture.
But this excess is not put in for the purpose of lessening the waste-
of dissolved copper, but tliat foliage and fruit may not be injured
by its presence. The conditions of dry climate existing in Italy,
are evidently very different from those found in America, for here
dissolved copper is injurious while there it is desired.
THE WORK DONE EL8BWHEBE.
By station workers. — The results obtained by Munson * indicate
that a combination of the Bordeaux raitxure and of Paris green was
more effective in preventing apple-scab than was either the Bordeaux
mixture used alone, or eau celeste. The [result shows that Paris
green possesses fungicidal properties, but in this case they are not bo
strongly marked as has been reported from other stations.
Stinson * has found that when apple trees are thoroughly sprayed
the total number of windfalls is considerably reduced. The greater
part of those from the check tree fell early in the season, while
from the sprayed trees they fell mostly when large enough to use.
At the time of the harvesting, the sprayed trees yielded nearly
twice as much fruit as that obtained from the unsprayed trees. The
season's work (1893) goes to show that three or four treatments are
sufficient to control apple scab, and it was also noticed that trees
which were "sprayed but twice gave about the same per cent, free
from scab as those sprayed three times, but the apples were not so
large as those sprayed three times."
By growers. — T. H. Walker, Ripley, Bprayed R. I. Greening,
Baldwin, Twenty-ounce, N. Spy, and a seedling variety, with Paris
green and the Bordeaux mixture. The apples were more wormy
than was expected, the trees showing from fifty to ninety per cent, of
affected fruit. This was undoubtedly very largely dne to the fact
that the first application of Paris green was not made until May 23,
twelve days after the blossoms fell from the trees. A second ap-
* Maine Agric. Exp. Sta. Bull. 8, Second Series.
' Arkatman Agric. Exp. Btn. Bui). 26. a
i;.git.-eo:;yGOO^IC
The Spraying of Orchards. 123
plication of Paris green Was made Jane 6. The falling of the
apple blossoms ie the signal for the use of arsenites in the destruc-
tion of the codlin moth.
The orchard was sprayed four times with fungicides ; the first ap-
plication was with the copper-sulphate solution ; the following ones
were with the Bordeaux mixture. They were made on the follow-
ing dates : April 9, April 21, May 2, June 6. The fruit was
practically free from scab. The seedling variety had never borne
perfect frnit before having been sprayed, but this year the tree was
loaded with good frnit free from scab.
Rust was found npon most of the varieties to a considerable ex-
tent, and there appears to be no doubt of the injurious action of
the Bordeaux mixture in these cases.
Mr. Tenant, of Ripley, sprayed an orchard three times, using
only the Bordeaux mixture and Paris green. The former was used
alone for the single application made before the blossoms appeared,
bnt the two were applied together as soon as the blossoms fell, and
again about ten days later. From one to two gallons of the mixture
were used per tree. In spite of the use of this small amount of
liquid, the crop harvested was very fair and the owner is enthusiastic
regarding the value of the treatment. The varieties grown are mostly
Baldwins, Roxbury Russet and King. Rust was found throughout
the orchard, but it was not so serious as in that of Mr. Walker.
John "W. Speflcer, Westfield, sprayed bis apple trees very
thoroughly the past season, making all the applications generally
recommended. The crop, however, showed that careful work
added to even the best intentions will not always produce perfection.
Mr, Spencer's apples suffered severely from rust, and they were ex-
ceedingly wormy, bo much that they conld not have been much
worse if no application had been made. The reason for this trouble
was discovered, bat too late to remedy it. London purple had been
used in place of Paris green, and it was so deficient in arsenic that
about a pound to forty gallons was required to destroy potato-
beetles. It had been used upon the apple trees at the rate of one
pound to nearly two hundred and fifty gallons of water, so of course
its action was very slight.
The Bordeaux mixture was made with the use of the ferrocyanide
of potassium test. This undoubtedly had much to do with increas-
ing the amount of rust upon the fruit, for the applications were
thoroughly and frequently made.
124 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
Charles Colburn, Kipley, sprayed his apple trees once, using Paris
green and the Bordeaux mixture. Trees which in former years
prodnc'ed cracked fruit that dropped prematurely to the ground,
this year produced fruit that remained upon the trees and matured
in much better condition. Only about one and a half gallons of the
mixture were used per tree. The applications will be made again
in 1895.
H. A. Blowers, Westfield, sprayed his trees with London purple
as soon as the blossoms fell to the ground, and repeated the applica-
tion about three weeks later. No marked difference could be seen
between the trees which were sprayed and those which were not
treated, but another trial will be made during the coming year.
E. W. Skinner, Portland, sprayed his orchard about the middle
of Jane and again ten days later, using the Bordeaux mixture and
Paris green. Although there was an apparent benefit derived from
the treatments, the fruit being about one-third larger, better results
might hare been obtained if earlier applications had been made.
The orchard will be more thoroughly treated next year as the work
appears to pay.
F. W. Howard, Fredonia, says he made the first application to
his orchard about five days after the falling of the blossoms, using
the Bordeaux mixture and Paris green. This was repeated in about
ten days. In the fall the apples were of poor quality, the treatment
having done apparently no good. The cause of this failure can
scarcely be explained unless it is the fungicide was not applied
sufficiently early.
Judge Barker, Fredonia, sprayed Baldwin, Greening, and Spit-
zenborgh trees with Paris green as soon as the blossoms fell, and in
about a week the trees were again sprayed, this time with the
Bordeaux mixture as well as with the Paris green. A third treat-
ment was also given the trees, only the Bordeaux being used. The
apples gathered in the fall were exceptionally fine. The trees were
loaded and the fruit was nearly perfect. This crop was undoubtedly
the finest it was my pleasure to see last fall.
The orchard of Hon. S. F. Nixon was treated for the apple scab
and for the codlin moth. Work was begun late in the season, the
first application being made May 24th, the second Hay 31st. The
Bordeaux mixture and London purple were used in combination
for each treatment. The Bordeaux was made with the ferrocyanide
of potassium test, and the arseuite was the same as that used by
Thb Spraying op Orchards. 126
Mr. Spencer, already mentioned on the preceding page. In spite
of tibe late beginning some good was done. The number of first-
class apples upon the Baldwin trees waB as follows : unBprayed 2.7
per cent., sprayed 7 per cent. ; upon the It. I. Greening, nnsprayed
.034 per cent., sprayed 3.8 per cent. The second class frnit on the
sprayed trees was also decidedly superior to the same grade of the
nnsprayed. The grain is small, and goes to emphasize early appli-
cation and the nee of good material.
H. B. Clothier, Forestville, sprayed an orchard in which several
varieties were growing, including trees of Baldwin, N. Spy, Green-
ing, and Roxbury Russet. The orchard was sprayed as follows :
First, when the buds were nearly ready to burst ; second, when the
blossoms had fallen, using Bordeaux mixture and Paris green ;
third, ten days later with same combination ; fourth, ten days later,
repeated the last. The leaves were then somewhat affected with
scab, but the apples were nearly perfect. On July 5th, the condition
of the trees was about as follows, the figures denoting the per cent,
free from scab: Baldwin, 80 ; N. Spy, 95; R. I. Greening, 78;
Roxbury Russet. 83. This was a decided improvement as could
be seen from a neighboring orchard in which similar varieties are
grown. The rust was quite serious, but the gain from the appli-
cation far overbalanced the loss caused by this defect.
PART n.— SPRAYING QUINCES FOR LEAF SPOT, AND
THE CRACKING OF THE FRUIT.
Quinces in all parts of this state are almost invariably attacked
by a fungus (Mitomosporiwm maeulatum). This causes the for-
mation of small circular brown spots upon the foliage, and if a leaf
is attacked in several places, those spots may unite in the formation
of considerable areas. Such leaves generally assume a yellowish
appearance, and they soon drop from the tree. Many trees are
entirely defoliated each year by the fungus, the fruit in some
instances still persisting. (See Bulletin 80).
The fungus attacks the fruit as well as the foliage. When this
takes place early in the year the affected part is checked in its
growth, and in consequence the fruit becomes misshapen, and in
some portions corky. It may even split open, and is of course
rendered entirely worthless for market. Fortunately, however, thU
disease does not appear to be very active early in the year. I have
126 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
rarely seen any serious attack before the first of July, and sometimes
itjis nearly the first of August before much injury is done. Theee
later attacks cause the fruit to appear spotted with small, nearly
black, sunken places which do not materially affect the form of the
quince, but which nevertheless disfigure it. The fungus thrives
14.— Anders quince, not sprayed.
in warm, damp weather, and its appearance and severity are largely
dependent upon theee conditions.
The treatment of this disease is simple and effective. Some good
fungicide, as the Bordeaux mixture or the ammonical solution of
copper carbonate Bhould be sprayed upon the trees early in the sum-
mer, the date of the first application depending upon the season.
Fig. 14 shows an unspraycd Angers quince tree, while Fig. 15
shows one which was treated. This received application of the
Bordeaux mixture May 18, June 6, June 28, July 16 and August 2.
i;,, v^yGoO^lc
Thb Spraying or Orchards. 127
This number of treatments was unnecessary, for other trees which
were not sprayed until June 6th showed foliage which was apparently
jnst as healthy. The very wet weather seemed to [bring on the
•disease earlier than usual, but trees which had been sprayed resisted
the attacks almost perfectly. The fruit was very fair and large.
15.— Angara quince, sprayed.
That borne by trees which was sprayed later, beginning June 28th,
was more or less Bpotted, and showed that the work had not been
done early enough. Yet in 1891 some quinces which were not
sprayed before July 13th preserved their leaves practically uninjured
until very late in the fall. Applications which are made to quinces,
as well as to so many other fruits, must be made intelligently and
with some regard to the season.
flitroo^GoO^IC
128 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. T.
PART UI.— NOTES ON SPRAYING PLUMS
In spraying onr plum trees for the black knot, of which a report
has recently been' published, * notes were taken regardingthe action
of these applications in checking a fungous disease known as leaf
spot (Septoria cerasind), causing an appearance resembling that
shown in Fig. 10, and the rotting of the fruit. Fig. 11, also caused by a,
fungus (Momilia fructigena). Several varieties received the appli-
cation, a list being given below, but one unsprayed tree was left in
each plot.
More treatments were made than are required for the control of
these diseases, but the dates of all applications are here given:
March 8, 18; April 20 ; May 2, 30; June 28; July 16; August 1.
If any plum diseases are 'susceptible to treatment by the use of
fungicides these trees should have been free from them.
The leaf-spot or " shot-hole " fungus of plums first appears during
early summer. It causes the formation upon the foliage of small,
dark-brown or purplioh spots. Such portions soon fall from the
leaf, which then appears to have been riddled with shot. Those
which are most seriously affected turn yellow and fall to the ground.
In this way trees are very often defoliated.
This disease can easily be controlled by making the following
applications :
First. About two weeks after the blossoms have fallen, apply
the Bordeaux mixture.
Second. Repeat first in two or four weeks, depending upon the
season.
Third. Repeat the first in two to four weeks after the second,
if necessary.
The fungus which causes the rotting of the fruit, also attacks the
smaller branches, particularly of plums and peach trees. It may
penetrate the fruit and even the blossoms early in the year, but it
generally is moat serious when the plums are nearly full grown.
The fruit turns brown in the affected parts, and thiB color spreads
rapidly throughout the fleshy parts and the rotting of the fruit is
soon accomplished. Such fruits may remain upon the trees, often
fastened together where they come into contact with each other,
and they may still be seen the following spring, where they form
■Cornell Agiic. Exp. 8to. Bull. 81.
Digitized byGOQgle
Thb Sprayino of Orchards.
centers of distribution of the spores which spread the disease daring
the warm days of the new year. If not controlled it is a very seri-
ous disease and has caused the entire rnin of many crops of plums
and of peaches.
The most important treatments made to control this disease are
probably the following :
First. Spray the trees before the bads break with the copper-
sulphate solution.
Second. When the blossoms have fallen apply the Bordeaux
mixture.
Third. When the fruit is about two-thirds grown, repeat the second.
Fourth. If necessary spray with the ammoniacal solution of
copper carbonate.*
That part of the following table relating to the fruit rot has been
prepared from notes takeu August 25th. Notes on the leaf spot were
made October 18th, when the effects of the treatments were most
visible. The figures represent the degree of perfection of the
foliage and of the fruit, so the greater the figure the less is the
severity of the disease.
Fruit Kot.
■™
■*,.
<***.
Sprayed.
Owok.
*-
Bavay's Green Gage
70
90
90
80
95
90
90
90
50
50
100
95
90
100
90
10
100
75
85
96
95
50
85
70
90
90
• TTris fangioide ia made by dissolving one ounce of (he carbonate of copper
in ammonia, and then dilating the eolation with nine £*Uons of water. Before
dilution, the bine Ammonia liquid eboald be kept in tightly corked bottles. It
may then be used as required.
9
180 Aqbioultubal Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y,
Itps'interesting to note the difference in the degree to which the
varieties were affected. The Niagara suffered most from fruit rot,
every plum having been destroyed, for a good crop set early in the
season. Varieties which are followed by leaders produced no fruit.
Imperial Gage lost about one-half of the crop from this disease,
IS.- Gemini prune, iprajed.
while Bavay's Green Gage and Lombard lost about thirty per cent.
In the other varieties the loss on the check trees was less severe.
No variety of the sprayed trees lost more than twenty per cent, by
rot, and this amount occurred only in the case of the Jefferson, it
being five per cent, less than the check. I can not explain this
loss. The loss in the other varieties was only five or ten per cent.
The foliage showed some difference when the first notes were
taken but not so much as later in the season. Fig. 16 represents
a tree which was sprayed, while Fig. 17 represents another of the
i;.git.-ec:;yG00^Ic
The Spraying of Orchards. 131
same variety which received no treatment. The photographs from
which the illustrations were made were taken October 18th. The
entire lose of foliage, even though it occurs but a week or two earlier
than under normal conditions, must weaken the tree to a certain
extent, and the earlier this loss takes place the more will the tree
IT. — German prune, not epra j ed,
be injured. There is nearly as much difference in the extent to
which the several 'varieties ot plum foliage are attacked by leaf
spot, as in the case with the fruit and the fungus which causes the
rotting.
The foliage also shows mnch difference in the powers of the
varieties to resist disease. Fellenberg and German Prone had lost
all their leaves from the check trees, while the sprayed trees still
retained their leaves in an almost perfect condition. Bradshaw was
also seriously affected. Coe'B Golden, Jefferson and Niaj
N,ag"*
132 Agriccltubal Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
showed no fungous disease upon either the sprayed or the unsprayed
foliage, but all the other varieties were more or less attacked.
The large number of applications which were made this year
seemed to have an influence upon the thickness of the foliage.
Leaves were taken October 15th from sprayed and unsprayed trees
of three varieties of plum, Fellenberg, Bradshaw and German
Prune. . Five leaves were selected for each lot, and they were taken
from corresponding portions of *he trees. In making the selections
the material was uniformly cut from near the mid rib, in the vicinity
of the center of the leaf, so that no error might creep in from thiB
direction. The average of the measurements are as follows :
Fellenberg, sprayed 10,6 micromillimeters ; unBprayed 10.4 in.,
a gain of 1.9 per cent.
Bradshaw, sprayed 10.9 micromillimeters ; unsprayed 10.6 m.,
a gain of 2.8 per cent.
German prune, sprayed 12.9 micromillimeters; unsprayed 11.7 m.,
a gain of 10.2 per cent.
The differences between the sprayed and the unsprayed foliage,
although very slight in cases of the first two varieties, are neverthe-
less uniformly in favor of the sprayed foliage. This is most plainly
shown in the leaves of the German prune. It would appear that
the Bordeaux mixture has an influence upon the foilage causing it
to become thicker, or that the increased vigor of the tree brings
about this result. It has often been said by careful observers that
apple foliage is benefited by such applications, ignoring entirely the
protective action of the Bordeaux mixture against fungi. The
particular cells of the plum leaves which were enlarged could not
be determined with certainty, but the palisade cells appeared to be
longer in the sprayed leaves.
SUMMARY.
1. Hand pumps have proved the most satisfactory machine for
spraying apple orchards.
2. Power sprayers have proved unsatisfactory because they do-
not throw enough liquid, and they do not throw the spray far
enough.
3. Power sprayers are excellent machines to use in spraying
grapes and low growing plants.
Digitized byGOOgle
Thb Spbating of Orchards. 133
4. Rusty frait was found upon Baldwin, King, Red Astrachan
and Fallawater trees, bat none npon Fall Pippin.
5. Four applications of the Bordeaux mixture made to King trees
protected the frnit well from scab, bat it is probable that three
would have been sufficient.
6. The two most important applications made for combating the
apple scab consist of the one which is made just, before the blossoms
open, and the one made as soon ae they fall.
7. If a third treatment is advisable it should be made about two
weeks after the falling of the blossoms.
8. The use of three gallons of Bordeaux mixture npon bearing
trees from twenty-five to thirty years of age, seems to be advisable ;
for a part of the beneficial action of this fungicide may be the less-
ening of insect, especially curculio, injuries.
0. Former applications of the Bordeaux mixture upon the trees
of this orchard appeared to possess little value in perfecting the
crop this year, but all circumstances were not favorable to an accur-
ate experiment regarding this point.
10. The early use of the copper-sulphate solution may be of
value if orchards are uniformly and thoroughly sprayed with it. In
our experimental orchard, with nnsprayed trees as probable sources
of infection, the value of such treatments has not been very marked.
11. London purple possesses no fungicidal properties.
12. Former applications of arsenites appear to have exerted no
influence in suppressing insect ravages daring the past Beason.
13. If only one substance is applied to apple orchards, it should
generally be Paris green.
14. Spraying orchards in some cases increases the yield of fruit
from practically nothing to a full crop, but in other cases the
operation is followed by nearly negative results in this direction.
15. It is doubtless true that much of the failure of apple orchards
to bear is due to the want of proper fertilization and cultivation.
16. The true cause of the formation of rusty apples is obscure,
but the character of the season appears to influence the severity of
the attack.
17. The Bordeaux mixture has a tendency to produce rusty fruit
even when prepared according to the formula given on page 110.
18. The ferrocyanide of potassium test used in the manufacture
of the Bordeaux mixture is not so satisfactory as was at first thought,
for the mixture when so prepared may be injurious to the frnit
134 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
19. Mnnson has shown that Paris green possesses fungicidal
properties.
20. Stinaon has shown that fruit, sprayed three times was larger
than that sprayed twice, although the per cent, of scab on both lots
was the same.
21. Paris green must be applied immediately after the blossoms
fall in order to be most effective against the codlin moth.
22. Rust was very prevalent in Chautauqua connty the past
season, but apple growers, on the whole, are well satisfied with
results obtained from spraying.
23. London purple is an unreliable insecticide in some cases.
24. The failures which have occurred may be due largely to the
lateness or the hastiness of applications.
25. The leaf spot and the cracking of quinces may be controlled
by the proper use of Bordeaux mixture.
26. Applications for the control of this disease need not be made
so early as in the case of the apple-scab fungns.
27. The shot-hole fungus attacking plain and cherry foliage can
be controlled by the use of Bordeaux mixture as described on
page 128.
28. The fruit rot of plums and peaches can be checked by the
me of the fungicides mentioned on page 129,
29. Some varieties of plums are more subject to the attacks of
fungi than others.
SO. Spraying plum foliage with the Bordeaux mixture thickens
the leaves, but further^ measurements must be made to establish a
Vole.
E. G. LODEMAN.
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BULLETIN 87— April, 1895.
Cornell University— Agricultural Experiment Station.
HORTICULTURAL DIVISION.
The Dwarf Lima Beans.
)ijiio,aWGoosIe
ORGANIZATION.
Board of Control— The Trustees of the University.
STATION COUNCIL.
Praridtnt, JACOB GOULD 8CHURMAN.
Hon. A. D. WHITE Trutttaof the Pniwr»i(y.
Pbofkb80rI. P. BOBERTS Pretidont Stat* Agricultural Society.
Professor I. P. HOBERTS Agrioaltan.
Professor G. C. CALDWELL CXemittry.
Professor JAMES LAW. Veterinary Soieaot.
Professor A. N.PRENTISS Botany.
ProfebsouJ. H. COMSTOCK Entomology.
Professor L. H. BAILEY Hortieultitr*.
PbofxbsorH. H. WING Dairy Sutbandry,
Professor O. F. ATKINSON Cryptoyamio Botany.
I. P. ROBERTS Director.
B. L. WH^LIAMS Treaeurer.
H. W. SMITH Clark.
H. V. 6LINGERLAND Entomology.
OEO. C. WATSON AgHanlture.
Q. W. CAVANAUGH ChomUtry.
E. G.LODEMAN '. BorUeultur*.
MICHAEL BARKER Hortitmltwt.
Offlcn of the director, 30 Morrill Hall.
Those desiring tfais Bulletin sent to friends Will please send i
the parties.
Bulletins of 1895.
84. The Recent Apple Failures in Western New York.
85. Whey Batter.
86. Spraying of Orchards.
87. The Dwarf Lima Beans.
Diaiti2eat>yG00Qle
Cornell Univbesitt, i
Ithaca, N. Y., April 1, 1895. \
The Honorable Commissioner of AgricvUure, Albany :
Sut. — One of the most novel and interesting recent features of
vegetable gardening ie the Bndden appearing of a number of dwarf
or bush beans of the Lima bean type. The ordinary or pole Limas
are an uncertain crop in many parts of western New York, and
people are loosing to these dwarf forma for varieties which are
adapted to our seasons and which do not require the annoyance
and expense of poling. We have made a careful study of them,
and submit the account for publication under Section 87, Chapter
676, of the Laws of 1894.
L. H. BAILEY.
,v Google
.Google
The Dwarf Lima Beans.
Beans of the dwarf Lima type have attracted much attention dur-
ing the past few years, bnt there appears to be considerable confu-
sion aa to their merits and little positive knowledge of their botanical
features. The writer began the study of this class of beans in 1889,
when Enmerle and Henderson dwarf Li mas were introduced, and
the investigation has been continued until the present time. It was
not until last year, however, that the whole subject was carefully
gone over with a view of publication, in response to many inquiries
for definite information respecting this interesting type of garden
vegetables. Some unexpected results have followed thiB study,
particularly in respect to the botanical affinities and the histories of
the varieties.
In the first place, it should be said that the dwarf Lima beans
constitute a new type of garden vegetables. They have all appeared
in public within the last decade, and they are apparently nearly
unknown in other countries, except as introductions from North
America. Seedsmen and horticulturists often remark that when
any very decided variety of plant is introduced, other varieties of
the same general type are likely to at once appear. Gardeners will
recall, amongst many other instances, the case of the large-leaf
tomatoes, the Mikado, Turner Hybrid and Potato Leaf all appear-
ing nearly simultaneously. This curious phenomenon has been
forcibly stated by one of our leading seed experts,* as follows :
" Plants have inherent tendencies to variation which are devel-
oped and appear only after years of cultivation. Seedsmen receive
every year scores of new potatoes raised from seed, and it is aston-
ishing how much resemblance there is in the seedlings of any period
of about three years. Thus, a few years ago we had the St. Patrick,
Burbank and "White Star, which, although distinct varieties and
* W. W. Tracy, of D. M. Furry & Co., in Proo. Sixth Meeting Soo. Prom. Agt
140 Aghicultcbal Experiment Station, Ithaoa, N. Y.
raised under very different circum stances, are certainly very similar
to each other. Later we have appearing the Mayflower, Garfield,
and many nther similar sorts. ' And the appearance of any distinct
variety is sure to be followed by -others, which although raised from
entirely different stock, are very similar to the first. The Favorite
tomato is followed by the Optimus, Beauty, and a score or more of
unnamed varieties raised in different localities and from different
stock, bntof comparatively little commercial value because so simi-
lar to the named sorts ; but if any one of them had appeared a year
or two earlier, it would have been regarded as of the greatest value.
It is claimed that the hard-shelled Champion, or Kolb's Gem water-
melon originated in Georgia in 1882, from a cross between Scaly
Bark and Cuban Queen. It is quite distinct from any observed
sort or cross appearing before that date, hut I know of two un-
named sorts originating in 1882 — one in Illinois and the other id
Florida — from different parentage, but practically identical with
the Gem. The Minimum and American Wonder peas originated
about the same time — the one in England, the other in America —
and were a new type of evident value and importance, which, had
they appeared among the thousands of new sorts raised before that
time, would have been extensively propagated and sold ; but these
two named sorts are only two of many peas of that type which
appeared at that time."
There has been considerable speculation as to the cause of this
singular synchronism , or the nearly simultaneous appearing of simi-
lar types. It was long a source of perplexity to me, and it is not
yet wholly explicable, although these dwarf Lima beans, which we
are about to stndy, offer some explanation of the question. These
beans afford a remarkable instance of synchronistic variation.
Henderson and Kumerle dwarf LimaB were introduced in 1889,
Burpee in 1890, * Jackson Wonder in 1891, and Barteldes in 1892
or 1893. The variety which is now called the Henderson
was picked np twenty or more years ago by a negro, who found it
growing along a roadside in Virginia. It was afterwards grown in
various gardens, and about 1885 it fell into the hands of a seedman
in Richmond. Henderson purchased the stock of it in 1887, grew
it in 1888, and offered it to the general public in 1889. The intro-
* The statement in Annals of Horticulture for 1889 (p. 97) that Burped Bosh
Bean was introduced in 1889, ia fin error. The dwarf Lima which Bnrpeo offend
that year was the Henderson.
The Dwaef Lima Beanb. 141
duction of Henderson's bean attracted the attention of Asa Palmer,
of Kermett Square, Pennsylvania, who had aleo been growing a dwarf
Lima. He called upon Burpee, the well-known seedsman of Phil-
adelphia, described his variety, and left four beans for trial. These
were planted in the test grounds and were fonnd to be valuable.
Mr. Palmer's entire stock Was then purchased — comprising over an
acre, which had been carefully inspected during the season — and
Burpee Bush Lima was presented to the public in the spring of
1890. Now, Mr. Palmer's dwarf Lima originated in 1883, whilst
Henderson's originated at least ten years earlier ; and Mr. Palmer
made his own variety public because he was attracted by Hender-
son's advertisement. In other words, the atnultaneousness of these
two varieties was only an apparent one. This is certainly true of
many apparently simultaneous varieties. They have originated at
widely different times and in different ways, and have been culti-
vated year after year, perhaps, in obscure places. When someone
introduces a strange type, attention is directed to all similar varieties,
and they are called into notice, in the same way that an unusual
event in some locality is often followed by the recital of other
similar events.
Yet it is true that, speaking broadly, there is a general tendency
in any species, and amongst closely related species, to vary in
similar directions. The angular or cornered tomatoes of a gen-
eration ago are rapidly passing into the large round apple-shaped
tomatoes, particularly in North America, where this evolution has
progressed farther than elsewhere in the world. All varieties of
potatoes are progressing towards Heedlessness. There are reasons
for these general onward movements of plants, which can not be ex-
plained here. All that need be said in explanation of this tendency
is the fact that the beans tend to vary into bush or non-twining
forms. "We shall discover presently that these dwarf Lima beans
are offshoots of two or three distinct species. We know that the
original forms of these species were climbing plants. Now, this
known tendency to the production of dwarf forms in these three
species or types of so-called Lima beans, affords an excellent illus-
tration of how the common held and garden beans must have
originated. The common bean, both in its pole and bush form, is
wholly unknown in a wild state. Even its native country is unde-
termined, although there is the strongest circumstantial evidence
that the species is Amercian. Linnsans, over a hundred years ago,
112 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaoa, N. Y.
described two species of the garden kidney bean, Pkaaeolua (pro-
nounced Fase-o-lus) vulgaris, the pole bean, and Pkaseolus nanus,
the bush bean. It is now generally agreed that these two forms
are horticultural modifications of one original type. Bat which
was the original form, the twiner or the bush form I If all the so-
called bush Limas are known to have come from twining plants,
there is, thereby, the strongest reason for supposing that the com-
mon bush beans originated from the twiners, a conclusion which is
also supported by much other evidence.
The reader is now anxious to know just how these dwarf Lima
beans originated. They appeared in the same way that nearly all
new varieties of plants originate : they were found growing amongst
plants of common and well-known varieties. A single plant, •
" sport," was first observed in some cases, and in others several
original plants were discovered. The Knmerle or Thorburn Dwarf
Lima originated from occasional dwarf forms of the Challenger
Pole Lima which J. W. Knmerle, of Newark, New Jersey, found
growing in his field. The Henderson, as we have seen, was a
chance dwarf picked up iu Virginia. The Burpee came from a
single plant of the Large White Lima. Mr. Palmer, with whom
it originated, had his entire crop of Limas destroyed by cut-worms
in 1883. He went over his field to remove the poles before
fitting the land for other uses, but he found one little plant,
about ten inches high, which had been cut oil about an inch
above the ground, but which had re-rooted. It bore three pods,
each containing one seed. These three seeds were planted in
1884, and two of the plants were dwarf, like the parent. By dis-
carding all plants which had a tendency to climb, in succeeding
crops, the Burpee Bush Lima, as we now have it, was developed.
The singular Barteldes Bosh Lima came from Colorado and is a
similar dwarf sport of the old White Spanish or Dutch Runner
bean. Barteldes received about a peck of the seed and introduced
it sparingly. It attracted very little attention, and as the following
season was dry, Barteldes himself failed to get a crop, and the
variety was lost to the trade. Just why these bush forms should
appear in these instances, we must ask mother nature, and it is
possible that she will never be persuaded to give an explicit reply.
We hear much about the scientific origination of varieties, but as a
matter of fact, the science of the horticulturist is exercised much
,v Google
Thb Dwabf Lima Beans. 143
more in determining when a given form ia valuable and in the
subsequent breeding or selection of it, than in any power which he
possesses over the original genesis of novel types. Certainly, with
the dwarf Lima beans, the horticulturist owes less thanks to science
than to good luck and cut-worms.
Before proceeding to an account of the actual merits of these
dwarf Lima beans, I must still farther bewilder my reader with a
discussion of the botany of them. So far as we can determine from
any literature yet written, these beans are simply dwarf forms of
various Limas. But this is not sufficiently explicit. There are
three well-marked types or groups of Limas in cultivation in this
country, two of which have been considered by many botanists to
represent distinct species. Linnseus, nearly a hundred and fifty
years ago, described two species of beans, which modern botanists,
consider to be the parents of the so-called Lima beans of gardens.
Now, the dwarf Lima beans have sprang from each of the three
different types of pole Limas, and one of them is a semi-perennial
plant and in an offshoot of the same Bpecies which gives as the
Scarlet Runner, Painted Lady and White Dutch Runner. The
botanical types from which these so-called dwarf Linus have sprung
may be arranged as follows :
I. Phaaeolua lunatug, Linn, (Sp. PI. 734, 1753). Carolina,
Sieva, Sewee, Saba, Sivy, Civet, Sky, West Indian and Butter
Beans. Bushel Bean of early American writers. PKaseolus
KpwwrfofcM, Jacquin, Hort. Vind. i. p. 44. t. 100 (1770) is com-
monly referred to LinnaaaB' P. lunatus, and it is probably an
outlying form of it, but it is not in cultivation in this country, so
far as I know. It differs from our Sievas by its long leaves,
different pod, and conspicuous hairiness.
Dwarfs. — Jackson (Jackson Wonder) ; Henderson ; Northrop,
Braslan and Goodwin Dwarf Lima ; Dwarf Carolina.
I A. Pka&eolus lunatus var. maeroctvrpus, Bentham (Flora Brazil.
xv. i. 181, 1862). P.inamcmue, Linn. Sp. PI. 724; Jaeq. Hort.
Vind. i. p. 37, t. 66. Other specific names which seem to belong
here are P. JAmenais, P. sacchwabus, P. facundau, P. latisi-
Uqwu, Maefayden, Fl. Jamaica (1837; P. pubervlus, HBK.
Nov. Gen. vi. 451 ; P. Xvareeii, Zucc in D C. Prodr. ii. 393.
,v Google
144 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
This is the Lima bean of American horticultural literature. We
may distinguish two leading types :
1, Potato Limas, characterised by tnmid or nearly spherical beans.
Dwarf. — Thorbnrn, Kumerle or Dreer.
2. Flat or large Limas, with very large and flat veiny seeds, a tall
growth and late maturity.
Dwarf. — Burpee.
II. Phaseoltte nwltiflorus, Willd. (Sp. PL iii. 1030). P. cocovneus,
Lam. Encyc iii. 70, not of Linnseus. Scarlet Runner, Painted
Lady, White Dntch Banner, and Spanish beans.
Dwarf. — Bar tel des.
The above classification accounts for all the so-called dwarf
Limas, seven in number, with which I have met. It will aid us to
understand the subject if we briefly stretch the history and
distinguishing marks of these various types.
I. The Sieva or Carolina bean is a small and slender grower
as compared with the large Limas, early and hardy, truly annual,
with thin short and broad (ovate-pointed) leaflets, numerous,
small papery pods which are much curved on the back and pro-
vided with a long upward point or tip and which split open and
twist when ripe, discharging the seeds ; beans small and flat, white,
brown or variously marked with red. The beans are shown at
Nob. 1, 2 and 3 in Fig. 24, and the foliage and pods on the
cover illustration and in Figs. 25 and 26. This type is always
distinguishable from the large Limas with the greatest ease, and is
really as distinct from that type as Phaseolus TtvuMflorua is. I am
inclined to believe that it will eventually be discovered to have had
a different specific origin from the Limas. Always smaller than the
true Limas, it also has a well-known tendency to vary into small or
buah forms, as in the Dwarf Carolina, a half dwarf which has been
well known for many years, and this tendency is apparently much
more strongly developed than in the Limas.
Linnteus believed that this bean came from Bengal, but it is now
understood to be Sooth American, although it is not certainly
known in a wild state. It was early known in North America.
LawBon, in his voyage to Carolina in 1700-8, mentions Bushel
Beans as a spontaneous kind. Gay and Trumbnll* gness that this
may have been a form of Phaseolus multijforus, or Scarlet Banner,
■'""• ■"""• **■ ""• m- ,,,,0 : : , GOOglC
The Dwarf Lima Bbanb. 145
but this is very improbable. JPMahon mentions it in 1806 in hie
"American Gardener's Calendar : " " Wbat is commonly called the
Carolina bean is only a small and early variety of Lima bean."
Deane also speaks of it in New England in 1797 as "being culti-
vated in this climate of late to advantage, " * but he does not men-
tion the Lima bean. Gardiner and Hepburn, in the " American
Gardener" 1804, do not mention it, although the Lima is recorded.
The early cultivation of the plant amongst the Indians and settlers
of Carolina, no doubt gave it the name of Carolina bean. The
origin of the various other names which it has received is not so
easily determined, but since the plant is evidently of tropical origin
and is often known in early writings as the West Indian bean, I
suppose that its name Saba comes from the island Saba in the West
Indies; and it is not unlikely that Sieva and Sewee are derivations
from the same name. The word Civet, which is possibly of
European origin, in probably derived from the use of the beans in
the dish known as civit stew, f
IA. The Lima bean is distinguished from the Sieva by its tall
growth, lateness, greater susceptibility to cold, perennial in tropical
climates, large thick often ovate-lanceolate leaflets, and fewer thick
fleshy straight (or sometimes laterally curved) pods without a prom-
inent point and not readily splitting open at maturity; seeds much
larger, white, red, black or speckled. Dwarf forms of the Lima are
shown in Figs. 27, 28 and 29, and in Nos. 4, 5 and 6 of Fig. 24.
Linnams thought that this bean came from Africa, but it is now
well determined that it is South America. Unmistakable seed have
been taken from Peruvian tombs and the plant has been found wild
in Brazil. I do not know the origin of the word Lima, which,
•N«*> England Farmer, 2d td., 23.
1 1 have made a careful search for the origin of the names of this bean. Pro
feasor Masaey, of the North Carolina Experiment Station, to whom addressed
an inquiry, writes as follows :
"I am sorry that I a in unable to help yon in the search for the origin of the
name Sieva, or Sewee, as applied to the small-seeded Lima bean. I have often
wondered where the name came from and have looked np all I can find on the
subject. The only thing that ever seemed like an explanation was that given
by an old man in South Carolina, who thought it was originally the ' Seaweed'
bean, indicating that the seeds had drifted ashore in seaweed. I can find no
foundation for this notion, and simply give it for what it is worth. I know of
no local name of any section or district from which it could have been derived.
It may possibly be a Cherokee name, for their names very commonly ended with
■doable e, and they always give the accent on this last syllable."
10
116 Aghicdltobal Expbbiubnt Station, Ithaoa, N. Y.
according to De Candolle, has been'used " since the beginning of
the century," bat I suppose that it comes from the city lima in
Pern. The name has been commonly employed by writers in
America from 1804 to the present time, and it is probably of still
earlier origin. The two forms, the ronnd-eeeded or potato lima,
and the large flat Lima, were early~known and described in Europe,
the latter, and evidently the former, as early as Lobel, 1591.
II. The Scarlet Runner and Dutch Runner .type of beans
{Phaaeohta rmiltifloraa) is probably [native to Mexico, or perhaps
of regions to the southward. It is cultivated mostly as an orna-
mental plant in this country, and yet the young pods and the
ripe beans are excellent for the table. ^ There are only two varie-
ties— mentioned above — in common cultivation in this country.
It appears to be in greater favor as an esculent amongst the
Mexicans. In 1891 a single bean (was sent me from Colorado as
" Mexican bean." The plant, as we grew it in our forcing houses,
was apparently identical with the White Dutch Runner, except
that its tuberous root was luger, than any which I had seen else-
where, — for all these beans are J perennials. We were unable to
induce the plant to fruit, although the[flowers were hand pollinated.
A subsequent experience which I had with the western form of this
A
— Root of common b
epeeiea was in the spring of 1894, when I grew the Melde Perennial
and Irvine Hybrid Perennial, which were distributed for trial by
the California Experiment Station in 1893 and 1894. It is supposed
that the latter is a hybrid between the Lima and Painted Lady
Digitized byGOQgle
Tea Dwarf Lima Beans. 147
beans, bat I can find no evidence of hybridity, and I have no heaita
tion in calling it a straightforward variety of Phaeeobus rrndtijlorus.
But the most marked type of this bean which I know is the
Barteldes Bush lima, which is as completely bosh form as the com-
mon field bean, and which has so far departed from the character of
^r
y~
lfl.-U'!e«hy orpflTonnim root of Barteldee Buih Lima.
its parent that it is almost or quite annual in the growth of its root.
The illustrations explain thiB curious evolution towards an annual
root. Fig. 18 shows the root of a common bush bean (Sion House).
The root lacks wholly any tap root, and the fibres are hard and
woody and die completely when the beans mature. Fig. 19 is a
root of one of the most perennial types of Barteldes Bush Lima, and
it shows the fleshy tap-rooted character of the root syBtem. "This
148 Agbicultcbal Exphbiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
root remains live and fleshy after the tops are killed by frost, and it
would no doubt grow the following spring if not killed by the
winter. From the same
packet, some seeds of Bar-
teldes Bush Lima produce
roots which are almost per-
fectly fibrous and which
gradually die after the top
has been cut short by frost,
as in Fig. 20. This root is
imperfectly annual ; and I
have no doubt that if atten- ji._ Germination of the common btuhbeu.
tion were given to the matter, a truly annual bean could be devel-
oped from this type in a comparatively short time.
Another peculiarity of this Barteldes bean is that the cotyledons,
or halves of the bean, remain below ground when the seed germi-
Thb Dwahb- Lima Bbanb. 149
nates. This is a peculiarity of all forms of Pkaatofois rmtlbiflorus,
bo far as I know. Fig. 21 shows the familiar germination of the
common bean with the seed halves appearing above ground at a. a.
Fig. 22 illustrates the peculiar behavior of the Barteldes in keeping
E2.— QormlnMion of B*rt*]des Bush Lima.
the seed halves helow ground. The botanist will be curious to
know how the vital parts of the seed look, when they are dormant.
Fig. 23 shows diagrams of a seed of Barteldes (1) and Burpee Bush
Lima (II). The two npper diagrams sbow a seed split in two, so
that the observer is looking at the inside face of one of the coty-
ledons or seed halves. The embryo is seen at the left. At r is
shown the radicle or root portion, at e the stem portion, and at a the
junction of the two. At the tip of the embryo are the two little
bodies which are to become the first true leaves of the plant-let.
It will he noticed that the radicle of I. — the Barteldes — is short,
whilst the stem portion is long as if in readiness to elevate the
leaves into the air, leaving the cotyledons or seed halves below.
This stem portion e, therefore, is the epicotyl or that part of the
160 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaoa, N. Y.
stem which stands betwixt the cotyledons and the tree leaves,
whilst the hypocotyl, or that portion of the stem below the cotyledons
is obsolete. In II, however, — the Burpee — the stem portion is very
short, and the root portion is long and is partly comprised of the
hypocotyl, which, by elongating, elevates the seed halves into the
air. If, now, the onter covering or skin is removed, and the bean
is placed on its back, we see the parte as shown in the lower
diagram. Here, again, only one-half of the bean is shown. These
views emphasize the long radicle of the Burpee (on the left) and
the very short radicle of the Barteldes (on the right).
83.— Structure of toe Lima and MulUflorui beaut.
I have finally arrived at the point of saying something about the
economic valne of these dwarf Lima beans. I am convinced that
these beans, as a class, are very valuable. Their great merit is
earliness. They are from two weeks to a month earlier than the
tall varieties from which they came. Their productiveness has
not been reduced in proportion to the redaction in size of the
plants, bo that I believe that it is possible, in the north to secure
greater total yield per acre from the dwarfs than from the pole
varieties, seeing that the plants require less room. They are also
much cheaper to grow. They require no poles. In central New
York, the tall Lima beans are always a precarious crop, on account
of their lateness and the liability of being injured by tnidsummer
droughts at the time when the pods are setting. The earliest
varieties of these dwarf Li mas are those which are derived from the
Sieva type, as Henderson and Jackson. The following field notes
of the varieties indicate onr experience with them ;*
* Hi* render will alio find a good account of two or three of the dwarf Lima*
In 3d Rep. Kana. Exp. Stn. 130, with 1)1 oat rations (1889).
The Dwarf Lima Beans. 151
Henderson Bush Lima (No. 2, Fig.
34; Fig. 25). — Very dwarf, with only ^
an occasional plant producing a feeble
tendency towards a climbing stem, re-
quiring no more space than field beans ; „
plant compact, bushy, very productive
and continuing long in bearing; very
early ; beans small, flat, clear white ;
quality good. A patch planted on the
6th of June last year was bearing well
the second week in August, notwithstand-
ing the almost unprecedented drought
An occasional plant produced speckled
beans. This seems to be the best variety
for earlinese, and its great productive-
ness and habit of long bearing are addi-
tional recommendations. The pods also
escape the mildew, which is often serious 5
upon the late, thick-podded sorts. Whilst
good in quality, it lacks the buttery and
rich quality of the true Limas.
Jackson (No. 3, Fig. 24 ; Fig. 26). —
This variety, commonly known as Jack- g
son's Wonder, differs from the Hender-
son in having brown -speckled beans, and
in a less dwarf and compact habit, and
it is possibly a little later. In produc-
tiveness it even excels the Henderson.
All of the vines in our plantations have _
made a diffuse, sprawling growth, and
many of them make twining shoots two
feet long. On account of this diffuse
habit and the color of the beans, it has
seemed to us f:o be less desirable than some m.-d™* Lima. (nBt. mm.
other varieties. Its great productiveness, »n; t. ' Thornum; s.' dW;
however, ia a strong recommendation. *' Barv*K '• b^^"16"-
Northrvp, Braslan and Goodwin Dwarf Lima I know little
about I have tried it ouly a single season in a small way. It is
apparently much like the former varieties, but the beans are
uniformly dun colored.
Digitized byGoOgle
162 Agricultural ExPBaiMlHT Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
Thorium or Ktanerle Dwarf Lima (No. 4, Fig. 24 ; Fig. 27,
p. 82). — Very bushy and^dwarf bean, with no tendency to climb;
leaflets thick, long orate or lance ovate, more or less deltoid at the
33.— Hendenon Bmh Lima (open pod Henri)- utunl die).
base; pods largo and thick; beans white, tnmid, of very excellent
quality ; rather late, and moderately productive. "With as seeds
planted June 6th began to give edible beans the first and second
weeks in September. The plants are stout, 10 to 18 inches high.
Many persons consider the potato Limas — of which this is a dwarf
type — to be superior to the large white Lima in quality. Dreer
Google
Thb Dwarf- Lima Bbans. 163
Bwh Lima (^No. 5, Fig. 24) is the same, having been introduced
from Mr. Kumerle's stock.
Bwrpee Bvth Lima (No. 6, Fig. 24 ; Figs. 28 and 29).— A trne
Lima bean. Very dwarf, although somewhat taller and wider
growing than Thorbnrn (16 to 80 inches high), with little or no
tendency to climb ; leaflets broadly ovate ; pods large and thick ;
80. — JacksoD Dwarf Unt.
beans as large as pole Lima, very flat and veiny, of the highest
quality ; season medium to late, beginning to ripen about two or three
weeks after the Henderson; productive. Upon our grounds this
has been the best single variety of dwarf Lima.
With us last year, the Burpee was rather earlier than the Thor-
bnrn, although there is little difference in season between these two
15-1 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
types. The following notes on the season of the three types of
dwarf Limas were made in Massachusetts inJ.892 : * " May 35, sowed
Henderson, Dreer and Burpee Bush Limas. Picked Henderson
August 10 ; Dreer August 23 ; Burpee August 24. Summary :
Henderson, early, small but very productive; Dreer, medium
sized but very tine flavored ; Burpee, very large and more produc-
tive than Dreer." With us, the Burpee has been more productive
than the Thorburn type, bnt others have had contrary results. It is
probable that there is no constant difference between the two in pro-
ductiveness.
• AXtni Q. Cl*rk, Amtr. Qard. ri T, 110.
,y Google
The Dwarf Lima Beans.
155
Bartddes Bush Lima (No. 7, Fig. 24; Figs. 30 and 31.) — A
small bushy plant of rather weak and sprawling habit, about the
size of plants of the field bean ; pods 5 or 6 inches long, more or
less depressed between the seeds, containing three or four large,
oblong and plump white beans which are of good quality. It is
very late at Ithaca, maturing only a few of the earliest pods before
frost, and is, therefore, apparently of little account for this latitude.
It appears to be unproductive also.
M.— BirMta Btwfa Lima (n»t-
orslibe).
We have endeavored to
force the Henderson and
Burpee under glass. The
».— uiirpoo bu»h uma. Henderaon has some
promise, although it ia doubtful if it will ever pay to force any other
boon than the string or snap bean. But we will try it again. Bur-
pee ran to vine, and was unproductive. Whilst it is generally a
complete dwarf in the field, it runs five to seven feet high in the
bone.
166 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
Bl.— IJurteldcj Bush lima (uiural (tea).
The following account of the dwarf Limas, from the gardener's
standpoint, is contributed for this occasion by T. Grenier, of La
^oogle
Thb Dwarf Lima Beans. 157
Salle, Niagara county, a well-known and careful horticulturist and
author ;
" I am acquainted only with the three kinds of buBh Lima, which
are now catalogued by every seedsman, viz. : Henderson, Dreer and
Burpee. The dwarf or bush character of all these three seems to
he well fixed, and only in the Burpee do I find an occasional rever-
sion to the original twining form. With the exception of this
change in habit of growth, the bush Limas have all the advantages
and faults of the original variety. Henderson possesses all the
characteristics of the ordinary pole Sieva ; Dreer, those of the
ordinary Dreer Pole Lima ; and Burpee, those of the old Large
Lima.
" If I lived in a locality with seasons too short for the develop;
ment of the large Lima beans, I would surely plant Henderson,
which is as early, as productive, but also as small in foliage and
individual seed as the pole Sieva, This bush Sieva is as easily
grown as any ordinary dwarf bean, and will do well on any ordinary
good corn land. I can see no more reason to grow the pole form of
the Sieva than to seek for atidgrow the pole form of the Early Val-
entine, or any of our common snapbeans, except perhaps for ornament,
variety or curiosity. The plants are usually bo well loaded with pods
that one can gather the latter by handfuls. On the other hand, the
single beans are small, and not equal in quality to the larger Limas.
The dry bean also is easily grown, since the pods shed water well,
and protect the seed from becoming spotted.
" Dreer Bash Lima equals Dreer Improved Pole Lima in quality,
being superior in this respect to all other beans which I have ever
grown. Its habit of growth, however, is far from being ideal. The
pods grow closely together near the ground, and are in danger of
becoming badly soiled, and of rotting long before the beans are fit
for use. It will need improvement in this respect long before it
will ever become popular, notwithstanding its high quality.
" Burpee Bush Lima leaves nothing to be desired in form of plant
except breeding out the slight tendency reverting to the climbing
habit. The plants are reasonably productive, the pods filled with
from one to four very large beans, and the quality of the latter
good enough for anybody. The ground should be rich and warm,
and kept well cultivated. A good crop can then be grown even in
a pretty dry season. But this is applicable to Pole Limas with
equal force.
158 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
" For some years I have been looking for accidental crosses
between theBe bush Limae, and for the purpose of supplying the
most favorable conditions for their production, have planted large
patches with mixed seed , but thus far have failed to find a single
cross."
REVIEW.
The dwarf or bush forms of the Lima beans are, as a class
acquisitions to the vegetable garden. They belong to two distinct
species, Phaaeohis lunatua and P. multijlomis. The single variety
derived from the latter species — the Barteldes— seems to have little
to recommend it for cultivation in New York. The dwarf off-
spring of Phaaeolus kmafaig are of three general types : 1. The
Sieva dwarfs, which are the earliest and most productive and of
which the most serviceable variety appears to be the Henderson.
2. The potato Lima dwarfs, represented by the Thorburn or Dreer,
which is of the highest quality, and in all ways desirable. S. The
large Lima dwarf, the Burpee, which has been the leading single
variety upon our own grounds, on account of the large size and high
quality of its beans, and it is evidently as well adapted to general
field culture as the earlier or smaller seeded varieties. All these
dwarf Limas — Henderson, Jackson, Thorburn and Burpee — are
worth growing either for home or market.
L. H. BAILEY.
,v Google
VEGETABLE GARDENING PUBLICATIONS OF CORNELL UNIVERSITY
EXPERIMENT STATION.
Bulletins which are marked with an asterisk are out of print. Articles
which are published in miscellaneous bulletins, along with other matter, are
inclosed in pnren thesis.
* Bulletin 7 (1889). On the Influences of Certain Conditions on the Sprouting
of Seeds.
• 10 (1888). Tomatoes.
• 16 (1889). (Tbe Onion Mould. Prevention of Potato Rot. A Point in the
Cultivation of Root Crops. The Orange Melon. Influence
of Soil upon Peas. The Influence of the Depth of Trans-
planting on Heading of Cabbages. Influence of Deptb of
Sowing on Seed Tests. Do old Seeds of Cucurbits give
Shorter Vines tban Recent Seeds i Teste of Patent Ger-
minator.)
• 21 (1890). Tomatoes.
* 25 (1890). (The effect of removing Tassels on the Prolificacy of Corn.
The Forcing of Beans. Influence of Latitude upon Pota-
toes. The Influence of the Depth of Transplanting upon
the Heading of Cabbages. The Paper Flower Pot. Ex-
periences in Crossing Cucurbits.)
Experiences with Egg Hants.
Experiments in tbe Forcing of Tomatoes.
Some Preliminary Studies of tbe Influence of the Electric Arc
Light upon Greenhouse Plants.
Forcing of English Cucumbers.
Notes of Tomatoes.
(Pbysalis, or Husk Tomato. Pepino. Chorogi. Spanish
Salsify. The Influence of the Depth of Transplanting
upon the Heading of Cabbages.)
-40 (1893). Removing Tassels from Corn.
-il (1893). On the Comparative Methods of Steam and Hot Water for
Greenhouse Heating.
-43 (1892). Second Report upon Electro-Horticulture.
-18 (1893). Some Troubles of Winter Tomatoes.
-45 (1892). Tomatoes.
-49 (1892). (Note on the Cercospora of Celery Blight. Com-Detasseling
Experiment, A naw Maize and its Behavior under Culti-
vation. Behavior of Some Egg Plant Crosses. The Wild
Potato of the Mexican Region. Do Fertilizers affect the
Quality of Tomatoes T Substitute for Glass In Greenhouse
Roofs.)
160 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. T.
63 (1883). (Edema of the Tomato.
56 (1693). Greenhouse Notes.
61 (1693). (A New Food mtnt,—at*ahy>i FUtrUUma. The Mole Plunt-
Oarden Docks. Recent Varieties of Tomatoes. Tomato.
Potato Grafts. A Potato Preserver.)
* 67 (1894). Borne Recent Chinese Vegetables.
78 (1894). The Cabbage Root Maggot, with notes on the'Onion Maggot
and Allied Insects.
,v Google
BULLETIN 88 — April, 1895.
Cornell University— Agricultural Experiment Station.
AGRICULTURAL DIVISION.
EARLY LAMB RAISING.
By G. 0. WiTBOB.
)ijiio,awGoOgIe
ORGAN IZATION.
Board of Control— The Trustees of the University.
STATION COUNCIL.
President, JACOB GOULD 8CHUBMAN.
Hon. A. D. WHITE Tnateeof the Uutverttty.
PROFESSOR I. P. EOBEET8 Preiident Stato Agricultural Socinty.
PROFESSOR I. P. BOBERTS Agriatltvre.
Pbofbssoh G. C. CALDWELL Ckemittry-
Professor JAMES LAW Veterinary Sowmoe.
Professor A. N. PRENTISS Botany.
Professor J. H. COMSTOCK Entomology.
Pkofessob L. H. BAJLET Horticulture.
Professor H. H. WING Dairy Hutbandry.
PkofxssorG. F. ATKINSON Cryptoganie Botany,
onnm op the station.
I. P. BOBERTS
E. L.WILLIAMS
H. W. SMITH Citrlt.
ASSISTANTS.
M. V. 8LINGERLAND Entomology.
GEO. C. WATSON AgrUmltmrt.
O.W. CAVANAUGH CkemUtry.
E. G. LODEMAN flbrWmtllw*.
MICHAEL BARKEE 1 BoriiimUme.
Office of the Director, SO Morrill Hall.
Those desiring thia Bulletin seat to friends will please seed as the n
the parties.
Bulletins of 1895.
81. The Rcoent Apple Failures in Western New York.
85. Whey Butter.
8G. Spraying of Orchards.
87. The Dwarf Lima Beans.
88. Early Lamb Bailing.
,v Google
Early Lamb Raising.
During the last three years experiments have been made to com-
pare the merits of Shropshires and Horned Dorset sheep as breeds
to produce " Hot honse" or winter Iambs. In the summer of 18ttJ,
the College of Agriculture and the Experiment Station owned but
few sheep suitable for this trial, but it was thought best to begin
the test with the available number and continue it through a num-
ber of years. Additions were to be made to the flock as opportunity
offered and suitable quarters could be provided. In carrying out
this test, particular reference has been given to the growth of grade
lambs of these two breeds for the reason that the great majority of
early lambs sent to the New York market are a cross of thorough-
bred males on grade merino ewes. These ewes as bought or bred
by the early lamb raiser have more or less blood of the improved
mutton breeds, but still not enough to place them in any class other
than grade merinos. In this connection it may be of interest to
note the development of the merino sheep and the causes which
made this breed % favorite for bo many years.
As the great improvement of the merino was made by American
breeders, they became admirably adapted to the climate and to the
conditions under which the farmer of the Middle and New England
states kept this class of stock.
The ability of the A merican merino to thrive on rather scanty
pastures, the bleak hillsides and the half cleared fields has been a
potent factor in subduing and improving much land that would
otherwise have remained unproductive. These sheep have done a
most excellent Bervice for the American farmer and with a greater
profit for the investment and labor bestowed than could have been
obtained by any other breed at the time these improvements were
made. This together with the reluctance of the sheep owners to
give up that which has served them well has kept the merino sheep
in the State for a number of years at very little or even no profit.
In the trials made in raising early lambs from merino or grade
164 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
merino ewes it has been found that these sheep respond quickly in
milk production to extra care and food and that they are well
adapted for the purpose of early lamb raising.
Formerly merino sheep were kept with great profit for the pro-
duction of wool alone, but with the great decline in the value of
wool during the last few years, it became necessary for the sheep
owners to dispose of them, or in some way so conduct the breeding
and feeding that the meat product would equal or exceed that of
the wool in value. Those who found it necessary to exchange the
wool breed for some of the larger so-called middle breeds learned
that the methods pursued with the merinos profitably would not
give satisfactory returns with these English mutton breeds ; the
business had to be learned anew and frequently discouragement in-
stead of success was the result which eventually led to the abandon-
ment of sheep husbandry.
"While the merinos would thrive in large flocks on rather indif-
ferent pasture, providing it was not too wet daring the summer
dry feed and a suitable grain ration for the winter ; it was soon
found that the distinctively mutton breeds would not produce as
desirable mutton on this food as the same breeds produce in Eng-
land, where succulent food is fed throughout the year. It is now
generally admitted that the best flavored, juicy mutton can not be
produced by the food and care heretofore given by the American
farmer to merinos. The consequent failures and discouragements.
have led sheep owners to produce a product not before attempted,
early Iambs.
The sheep owners throughout the State have pursued somewhat
different courses in striving to produce the best product of this
kind, and without doubt the method adopted by this Station will
differ from those of many successful early lamb raisers.
Since a few ewes have been purchased each year since the season
of 1891, it has been the custom to sell each year nearly all of
those purchased the year before, retaining only a few of the best,
those that raised the best lambs. In making this selection it has
been found that the ewes that raised the best lambs, were the best
milkers, and have been the ones as a rule that bred the earliest.
In studying closely the records of all the ewes, the thoroughbreds
as well as the grades, this fact has been clearly brought out, that
there is a cloBe connection between early breeding and great milk
production. A great difficulty met with in raising lambs for the
Early Lamb Raising. 165
early market is to get the ewes to breed early. With ordinary pre-
caution a few ewes of almost any flock that is at all suited for this
purpose, will breed early and will fatten good lambs, but when early
lamb raising is undertaken on a somewhat extensive scale, it is
desirable to have a considerable number of ewes lamb about the
same time, in order that one or more pens of ewes may be fed the
same ration. If the lambs are all dropped within a short period the
labor of caring for them will be much less than if they are dropped
throughout a long period. In feeding all classeB of stock it is
desirable to have the animals that are fed together as uniform as
possible and particularly is this essential in lamb raising. "When-
ever the ewes go into winter quarters in good flesh, very little or
no grain and but few roots should be fed before lambing time ; this
will enable the owner to carry the ewes through a critical period
with less trouble than if grain and roots are fed liberally before the
lambs are born. Whenever grain and roots are fed in considerable
quantities to ewes before lambing, those ewes that are heavy milkers
will give the owners more or less trouble on account of their udders
becoming hard and inflamed from an undne secretion of milk. Of
couiso this means that the best ewes are likely to be injured and a
loss entailed which can not be afforded, particularly as the remedy is
so simple. As the ewes recover from lambing, grain may be fed in
small quantities at first but increased as fast as the condition and
character of the ewes will safely permit. The best results have
been obtained, everything considered, in feeding grain as described
and forcing the ewes to their utmost from a period of four to eight
weeks after lambing. At this time extra grain and care will bring
greater returns than any other time during the year ; the profit
derived from this increased flow of milk is not directly proportional
to the total yield. A little extra food may bring the lamb into
prime condition and cause it to sell for the highest market price,
while the same lamb without this increased nourishment would be
only in fair condition and sell in the market for not more than two-
thirds the price of prime lambs.
It is of the utmost importance that the lambs be well fattened
No matter how large and thrifty a lamb may be, it will not sell for
the highest price if it is not fat.
Daring the time that the ewes are being forced to their greatest
capacity for milk, the lambs should receive equally as careful atten-
tion in the way of inducing them to eat as much food as possible.
166 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
It has been found that these lambs will consume more grain food if
a change is frequently made so that a varietly is offered them. In
changing this food, it has been observed that the lambs will eat a
certain kind of grain with considerable relish for a day or two and
then seem to tire of it and consequently consume less ; as soon or
even before this stage has been reached, if a change in the grain
ration is made, it has been found that the lambs will consume a
large amount of grain without loss of appetite.
A little sugar sprinkled on ground feed will help materially to
teach the lambs to eat, and in order to still further facilitate this
the grain should be so placed that it is within easy reach of the
lambs at all times and where it can not be disturbed by the ewes.
It will not take the feeder long to ascertain what kinds of grain are
relished best. Different kinds of ground feed are readily eaten but
particularly are those relished where corn and oats form a consider-
able portion of the mixture. Whole wheat and whole oats are
readily eaten.
Tables I and II, give in detail the growth of thoroughbred
Shropshire and Dorset lambs in the experiment of 1891-2. The
weights are given in pounds.
,v Google
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Early Lamb Raising. 140
Whild the number of lambs of each breed waa email the differ-
ence in gain was bo great that it is worthy of notice. The Dorset
lambs were the largest at birth and gained more each week through-
oat the whole period of feeding than did the Shropshires, although
the greatest gain was made after the fourth week. The Dorset
ewes had the appearance of being heavier milkers than the Shrop-
shires, and the lambs consequently were stronger and made more
growth.
Tables III and IV show the weekly gain of thoroughbred Shrop-
shire and Dorset lambs for 1893-93. From these tables it will be
seen that as in the former year the Dorsets made the greater gain.
While the nnmber of Shropshire lambs in this test were larger than
the Dorsets it must not be inferred that the Shropshires could have
made as good a record as the Dorsets had the best been selected, for
the very best did not equal the average of the Dorsets.
In all the tests both the ewes and the lambs were given all the
food they would consume ; the food given the two breeds was the
same in quality but oftentimes differed considerably in quantity.
The Dorset ewes consumed more food than the Shropshires and
their appetite seemed lees affected by changes in the weather than
waa the case with the Shropshires. From experiments in feeding
these two breeds for three years it was noticed that the Dorsets were
the best feeders ; not only did they stand forced feeding better, but
were less affected by unfavorable atmospheric changes.
,v Google
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172 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
Tables Y and VI give the growth of lambs from thoroughbred
males and grade merino ewes.
It will be noticed, that the grade Dorsets made a much better
growth than the Shropahires.
In selecting ewes for these two flocks care was taken to have the
flocks as near alike as to age, breeding and general appearance as it
was possible to make them. Whenever the ewes selected for these
two flocks were those that were retained from the previous years'
purchase, their previous record was taken into account.
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Eaelx Lamb Raising.
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Eaely Lamb Raising. 175
Tables VII and VIII give the date of birth, weight at birth and
record of growth of Grade Shropshire and Grade Dorset lambs of
1893-4. A considerable larger number of ewes were nsed in this
experiment than in the experiment of the previous year. It will be
noticed here also, that so far as the growth of the lambs are con-
cerned, the grade Dorsets show a considerable gain over that of the
Shropshires. The weight of the lambs at birth of the two lots do
not differ materially, yet the average gain per week for the whole
time of the Dorseta over that of the Shropshires is considerable, and
of great importance, if the highest market prices are to be secured.
The ewes of these two lots were of equal age, size and general ap-
pearance, also in breeding so far as their appearance would indicate.
Nearly all of these ewes were purchased of a large breeder of merino
sheep who disposed of them on acconnt of their advanced age.
These ewes were of good size, many of them weighing from 90 to
110 pounds when in good condition. They were hearty and, as a
rale, were able to consume a fairly liberal grain ration. It must, be
remembered, however, that these sheep had never before been sub-
jected to a forced feeding for large milk production, and conse-
quently gave a smaller quantity of milk than they wonld have given
had their capacity been developed by liberal feeding calculated to
produce this effect for several years previous.
The question has been asked if corn silage can be substituted for
roots in the ration for ewes when winter lambs are the chief object.
This question is of considerable importance to every early lamb
raiser who practices ensilaging corn for his dairy. If corn silage
will take the place of beets or turnips as a food for this class of
sheep, considerable expense can be saved where silos are in use, by
feeding the silage as a succulent food instead of roots, since a little
extra corn can be grown and put in the silo under these conditions,
and at a less expense, than the same feeding value of roots can be
grown and harvested.
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178 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
The number of letters of inquiry received at this Station seem to
demand a better knowledge than we possessed of the feeding value
of ensilage in a ration for ewes giving milk. Consequently, two
small flocks, consisting of eight grade Merino ewes each were
selected with a view to compare the value of corn silage with that
of mangel-wurzel. The ewes selected were good sized mature
sheep, quite uniform in appearance. From each pen, seven lambs
were raised. The following tables (IS and X) give the weights
each week of eac-h lamb and also their averages and gain. It will
be observed that very little difference is shown by these records
between the feeding values of these two foods.
,v Google
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Tables XI and XII give the amount of food consumed from Janu-
ary 17th to April 16th by the two lots. The roots were the long
red mangel-wurzel, good size, well matured. The ensilage corn
was Sibley's Pride of the North, planted in hills three feet apart,
each way, and cut and put in the silo when an average ear was just
beginning to glaze. The corn was a heavy crop, well eared and
nearly all of the ears were put in the silo with the stalks.
Table XI.— Lor I.
HW.
ITihr.
Root..
Total train.
326.50
474.5
308.
13S.5
760.5
1891.5
1858.
572.
31.5
714.
744.
436.
124T
4082.
1926.
Table XII.— Lor II.
Bar. Water.
January .
February
March . . .
April
Tola]
304.
447.
288.5
97.
770.
1655.
1411.
685.
131.5
687.
653.
285.
1137.
1757.
The grain fed these two lots consisted of two parts bran, one
part corn meal and one part cotton seBd meal
During the time this grain was fed, the sheep had all they wonld
readily consume twice a day. The roots and ensilage were fed but
once a day in as large quantities as would be readily eaten. The
coarser part of the corn stalks in the ensilage was not consumed,
and was weighed back and deducted from the amount of ensilage
weighed out. The bay was a good quality of mixed hay, largely
clorer, fed twice a day in such quantities as were readily consumed.
L.OOQle
182 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
In this connection it may be said that good clover bay is one of the
requisites to auccesB in raising early lambs. While bean straw or
other coarse fodder, rich in nitrogen, may be substituted in part,
yet there is no coarse fodder so good as first quality clover hay.
In order to make a more thorough trial of the comparative feed-
ing value of ensilage and roots, the succulent food for ewes rearing
early lambs, the experiment of 1893 was repeated. In this trial
somewhat larger nocks were taken, otherwise the experiment was
carried out in all details the same as the one of the previous year.
Each lot consisted of 16 ewes, and from each pen 15 lambs were
raised, one ewe in each lot failed to breed.
Tables XIII and XIV give the record of the growth of the lambs
of each lot.
It will be observed that the lambs of each lot were grade Shrop-
shires and grade Dorsets, and that these were nearly as equally
divided as possible, so that whatever gain one lot may have made
over the other was due to the difference of the food consumed and
not to any difference to breeding. These sheep were fed ensilage
once a day in as large quantities as would be readily consumed.
They learned to like the ensilage almost as readily as they did the
beets, and it seemed evident that neither ensilage nor beets had
been given these sheep before this experiment was commenced.
,v Google
Eably Lamb Raising.
N
III Ml : M i ! M M
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s
5
hi
1
V
pi
38.04
19.60
20.80
24.46
34.22
24.86
39.12
35.20
31.80
34.40
2T.10
30.50
32.00
26.10
29.40
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184 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
PS SI
l 3
> *•
hi
48.90
43.88
45.60
~P*
47.50
45.10
38.50
41.90
50.18
43.52
36.68
34.58
34.26
3
40-00
40.10
44.00
33.59
39.40
2S.60
43.00
37.00
34.46
30.46
32.50
38.04
33.08
*
»
35.22
37.30
39.50
31.70
35.50
22.60
39.29
34.39
33.47
27.90
28.81
35.46
29.46
i
3
30:50
35.24
29.60
2840
31.40
22.20
34.70
30.30
30.19
24.50
26.17
31.90
26.20
22.04
i
5
27.10
31.10
25.00
25.30
28.80
22.00
29.74
25.80
26.70
22.30
23.20
28.19
22.70
20.14
18.54
1
1
23.13
26.50
21.62
21.83
25.14
20.00
26.00
22.70
22.50
19.20
20.00
25.10
20.24
18.00
16.62
1
3
19.80
22.44
17.64
17.84
21.14
16.80
21.40
18.46
19.00
16.90
17.50
21.60
17.40
15.24
13.81
1
3
15.68
18.90
13.90
14.40
17.46
14.18
16.62
14.56
15.50
13.66
13.40
18.00
13.74
13.90
11.00
§
3
N
11.94
14.88
10.84
11.30
13.50
11.16
12.02
9.74
12.36
10.98
10.00
13.96
10.20
10.30
9.10
3
1
It
g0"£35r'2::S = 2 5Sios'£
q44£^££&£££££'£3''
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HenwGOOgle
Early Lamb Raising.
Table XV gives the amount of hay, water, roots and grain con-
sumed by the flock fed roots, and table XVI gives the amount of
water and food consumed by the flock fed ensilage.
Table XV.
Hay. 1 W.ter.
BooU.
Com Mdonte.
HM..
February
1368
1519
1350
850
3248
4307
8767.5
863
467
664
661
240
156.5
191.
239.
82.
33
224
239
86
Total
4611
12184
2032
688
622
Hv.
WMer.
H^
o.m„a„»
MmI.*
sill
nil
1040
1086
1180
460
2480
8115
3595
1179
433
705
729
335
156
188
248
117
78
224
248
125
Total
8666
10369
2202
709
670
The record of the food consumed extends from January 2d to
April 19th. It will be noted that the flock given the ensilage con-
sumed somewhat more of this food than was consumed of beets by
the beet-fed flock. A little more grain was consumed by the sheep
fed ensilage than by those fed beets. This difference, however, was
hardly great enough to denote a greater appetite caused by the
ensilage.
* Two parte bran, <
a meal, and one part cotton seed meal.
,v Google
lfifi Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
Tables XVII, XVIII, XIX and XX give the records of weights,
dressed weight, loss in dressing, age in days of the Grade Shrop-
shires and Dorset lambs, slaughtered in 1893 and 1894. It will be
noticed that the Dorset lambs were slaughtered at a somewhat
younger age than were the Shropshires and that their weight dressed
was also a little greater than that of the Shropshires. Practically
there was no difference in the amount which these two breeds lost
in weight by dressing.
Table XVII — Record of Slaughtering Grade — Shbopshibb
Lambs, and the Prices for "Which They were Sold, 1893.
DATS.
No. of
Lit.
weight.
oKS.g.
A..!.
Amount
ot .ale.
Apr. 18..
Apr. 18..
May 1..
May 1..
May 1..
11
19
9
15
17
50.24
45.74
46.30
49.00
40.30
84.44
33.70
34.76
32.50
81.00
15.80
12.04
11.54
16.50
9.30
74
57
' 88
82
73
«6 00
6 00
6 00
6 00
6 00
46.31
33.28
13.03
74.8
$6 00
Table XVIII — Record of Slaughtering Grade Dorset
Lambs and the Prices for "Which They were Sold, 1893.
DAT*.
Drowwd
Again
wrighA
Wright.
Of Ml..
Feb. 15..
1
48.62
87.16
11.46
58
$10 00
Mar. 7..
4
45.58
33.82
11.76
65
7 00
Mar. 7..
6
42.80
31.86
11.44
51
8 50
Mar. 27..
5
53.12
38.46
14.69
74
8 00
Mar. 27..
8
49.72
35.81
14.91
55
8 00
Apr. 18..
May 1..
7
41.54
25.44
16.10
79
8 00
81
40.70
31.60
9.10
55
< 00
46.01
83.87
12.77
62.42
«7 14
.Google
Early Lamb Ka.sing.
Table XIX-
Rboobd op Slaughtering Grade Shropshire
'Lambs, 1894.
DATE.
Number of
Lira
Wright.
weight.
LlhIe
Agehi
February 28
March i2
March 27
March 12
March 12
March 27
February 28 ,
March 27
April 10
March 27
April 10
April 10
April 10
April 16
April 30
April 30
7
8
9
10
13
17
18
21
22
23
24
30
33
35
37
47
48.90
40.80
43.10
45.10
41.50
45.00
45.00
44.00
45.80
44.10
45.60
42.70
43.52
42.42
47.64
43.64
35.50
28.50
30.04
33.90
28.60
32.20
34.00
30.82
33.10
31.80
35.00
30.80
32.08
29.50
32.34
82.27
18.40
11.80
13.06
11.20
12.90
12.80
11.00
13.18
12.70
12.30
10.48
11.90
11.44
12.92
14.30
11.37
62
71
86
64
62
75
47
59
70
56
69
60
58
62
75
70
44.27
31.90
12.29
-Record 07 Slaughtering Grade Dorset
Lambs, 1894.
DATE.
Number ol
weight.
weight.
LonlD
dreenlDg
Again
March 12
March 12
March 12
March 27
April 10
April 16
April 10
April 16
6
16
19
20
26
81
32
40
60.90
45.20
42.70
42.40
42.08
40.50
50.18
44.18
44.40
81.90
32.80
30.50
30.28
31.80
34.41
30.75
16.50
13.30
9.90
12.10
11.80
8.70
15.77
13.43
75
61
51
65
66
65
59
60
46.02
33.35
12.68
.Google
188 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
Table XXI gives the number of lambs, date of killing, date of
sale and price per head. In marketing these lambs, it was found
necessary to have them present a neat and inviting appearance when
exposed for sale if best prices were to be obtained. Of course size
and fatness are of prime importance and it is also equally import-
ant that these conditions be obtained early in the life of the lamb
before it presents what is known as a " staggy " appearance. As
the season advances, it will be found necessary to have the lambs
larger than during the first of the early lamb market. The late
market seems to demand greater weight than the early market.
From several visits at various commission houses in New York it
has been learned that care and skill in dressing the lambs and pre-
paring them for market is almost of as much importance as the care
and skill in fattening the lamb. Particularly is this true of lambs
of ordinary condition. On one visit to a commission house a lot of
lambs was noticed for which the commission merchant asked {3.00
per head and had remained unsold for several days. Assurance was
given that this same lot would have met with ready sale at $6.00
per head had they been properly prepared for the market. In pre-
paring lambs for shipments, certain precautions should be observed.
^Google
Early La.ur Raising.
Tbe following table gives the date of killing, the date of sale and
the prices for which the lambs were sold in New York in 1894 :
Table XXI.
DATE OF KILLING.
No. of lamb. Date of
PriCS per head.
February 28.
February 28.
March 12....
March 12...
March 12....
March 12...
March 12
March 12. . .
March 27....
March 27. . .
March 27. . . .
March 27....
March 27
April 10
April 10
April 10....
April 10
April 10
April 10
April 16
April 16
April 16
April 30
April 30
March
March
March
March
March
March
March
March
March
March
March
March
March
April
April
April
April
April
April
April
April
April
May
May
1 at |7.00
lat 6.50
2 at 6.00
2 at 5.00
2 at 4.00
2 at 6.00
3 at 5.00
4 at 5.50
2 at 5.00
2 at 3.00
6.00
It will be seen that the lambs sent early in the market sold for
the highest price, and in this respect the market for early lambs in
1894 did not materially differ from the markets of other years. As
a role, the early market is the best. It is true that the lambs sent at
this time arc likely to bealittle betterin quality,as those which fatten
best are sent first to the market, so natnrally the best lambs will be
sent to the market a little earlier than the poorer lambs ; and when
we consider the prices at which earlier lambs are sold in the New
York market during the winter and spring months, this point should
be borne in mind. Early lambs are usually sold by the head until
Tennessee lambs come to market, then all lambs are sold by the pound.
The exact time at which this occurs will vary from year to year.
Sometimes the early lamb market keeps up well until the last of
April or even the fore part of May.
190 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
3 \ The expense of Bending Iambs to New York will vary greatly
throughout the different paits of the State. From points where
competing express companies ran to New York reasonable express
rates may be obtained. From Ithaca to New York the rate is 80
cents per hundred weight.
Sometimes it is of considerable importance that the lambs arrive
in New York early in the week. As a nile the Tuesday or
Wednesday market is the best. The wholesale market practically
closes Friday noon, so lambs ought to reach New York in ample
time to be sold before the wholesale market closes.
Early Lamb Raising. 191
Some precautions to be taken in dressing lambs. — In order to
secure the most perfect bleeding and at the same time to prevent
the wool abont the head and neck from being soiled it is beat to sus-
pend the lamb by the hind feet so that its head will clear the floor
by a foot or more.
In bleeding the lamb an opening shonld be made only on one
side of the neck, preferably the left side, immediately back of
the head and in front of the cervical vertebra (neck bones). The
opening need not be large, but it will be necessary to give the
knife blade a considerable sweep in order to be sure that the
large artery is severed. The stomach and intestines should be
removed without disturbing the heart, lungs or liver. As soon
as the intestines are removed spreaders should be inserted to give
the lamb the best appearance when offered for sale. For lambs
weighing from thirty to forty pounds dressed weight, spreaders
about 14 inches long will be about the right length. If too long
spreaders are used there is danger of breaking the ribs and thereby
injuring the appearance. At each end of the spreader should
be made a shoulder and a projecting point ; one of these points
shonld be inserted from the outside at the flank near the opening
made for the removal of the intestines, the spreader crossing
the back diagonally and the point at the other end inserted in a sim-
ilar manner in the opposite Bide of the lamb near the chest. In like
manner a second spreader is inserted so that the two cross each
other forming an X at the back of the lamb. The caul fat should
then be fastened by means of two skewers at the thighs and the
points of the spreaders, in such a manner that the whole of the
meat, not covered with the skin is covered with the caul fat and in
this condition the lamb should be allowed to cool. It is of the
utmost importance that all of the animal heat be given off before
the carcass is wrapped for shipment. Many lambs have reached the
market in a bad condition from lack of proper cooling immediately
after slaughtering. This is more frequently observed in the spring
months during warm weather.
Before shipment each lamb should be wrapped with two separate
wrappings, the inner wrapping to be of plain tough paper or muslin
(if muslin is used one yard for each lamb is sufficient.) This should
be so put on that it will draw tightly over the front of the lamb to
prevent breaking and soiling by handling. An outer covering of
burlap or sacking should be added before shipment.
D,aitoe0DyGoOQle
192 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, ~K. Y.
From the inspection given a large number of lambs in the New
Fork markets, it was avident that often insufficient provision is
made for removing all of the bloody liquid from the chest. In
the ordinary way of slaughtering lambs, more or lees liquid will
accumulate at this point and unless it is removed serious injury to
the appearance of the lamb, when shown for sale, is likely to occur.
To effectually remove this, an opening should be made with a large
knife at the lower part of the chest and kept free until the chest is
completely drained. This should always be done while the carcass
is yet hanging up.
SUMMARY.
It is of the utmost importance that the lambs be fat.
The market early in the season does not require so large lambs as
the late market. The best early market commences as soon as the
holiday poultry is ont of the way, usually about the middle of January.
Other things being equal, ewes that give the most milk, breed
earliest in the season.
The Dorset Horn sheep have bred earlier and fatted better lambs
than the ShropshireB.
There is practically no difference between beets and ensilage as
a succulent food for ewes rearing early lambs.
Dressed lambs should reach the New York market as early in the
week as possible ; as Saturday is retailers' day, the lambs ought to
be sold before Friday noon.
As a coarse fodder for the ewes and also for the lambs there is
nothing better than good clover hay. In fact this is one of the
essentials to success in early lamb raising.
As a rule ewes respond more liberally to forced feed for milk
production the second year than they do the first.
The manner in which the lambs are dressed determines to quite
an extent their selling price. Neatly dressed lambs are always pre-
ferred to those of like quality poorly dressed.
Ewes should not bs forced for milk production until the lambs
are a few days old.
Be sure that the animal heat is all ont of the carcass before wrap-
ping np for shipment; particularly is this of the utmost importance
in warm weather.
An opening should be made to remove the blood from the cheat
before shipment.
GEORGE C. WATSON.
C
BULLETIN 89— May, 1895.
Cornell University— Agricultural Experiment Station.
AGRICULTURAL DIVISION.
FEEDING PIGS.
By G. C. Wi-nwH.
)ijiio,aWGoosIe
ORGANIZATION.
Board of Control— The Trustees of the University.
STATION COUNCIL.
PrstWeaf, JACOB GOULD 8CHURMAN.
Hon. A. D.WHITE Tnuteeof fa* Uninertity.
PROFESSOR I. P ROBERTS President State Ai/ricaltural Society.
Professor I. P. ROBERTS dgrltmUKn.
Professor Q. C. CALDWELL Chemistry.
Professor JAMES LAW Veterinary Soitnot.
Professor A. N. PRENTISS Belong,
Professor J. H. COMSTOCK Entomology.
Professor L. H. BAILEY Horticultvrt.
Professor H. H. W1NO Dairy Husbandry.
Professor G. F. ATKINSON Cryptogams Botany.
OFFICERS OP THE STATION.
I. P. ROBERTS Dinetor.
E. L. WILLIAMS Treaemrtr.
H. W. SMITH CUrk.
M. Y. SLINGBRLAND Entomology.
GEO, C.WATSON Agriemltm*.
G. W. CAVANAUGH ChemUtry.
B. G. LODEMAN Eortioultore.
MICHAEL BARKER MortUmltM.
Office of the Director, SO Morrill Hall.
Those desiring this Bulletin sent to friends will please send us the nun
the parties.
Bulletins of 1895.
84. The Recent Apple Failures in Western New York.
86. Whey Batter.
86. Spraying of Orchards.
87. The Dwarf Lima Beans.
88. Early Lamb Raising.
89. Feeding Pigs.
,v Google
Feeding Pigs.
On account of the extremely low price of wheat fort he past
year a great deal more baa been fed to slock than usual, and by men
who have had little or no experience in feeding it. In the feeding
of wheat as in every other new departure, the lack of facte and
reliable data concerning the results of previous work in thia line
frequently hindered those who had wheat to feed, from obtaining
the best results under the circumstances. Particularly was a com-
parison of the feeding value of wheat with one or more of the most
common foods needed to help those to compound a ration who
have little knowledge of the chemical composition of feeding stuffs.
Until quite recently, comparatively few experiments have been
made to determine the feeding value of wheat because the price
for flouring purposes prevented its use as a food for animals in a
practical way. Now, however, many farmers who raise wheat are
confronted with the problem, "can I afford to sell wheat at the
market price and buy food for stock ? " Of course the character
and quantity of the coarse fodder to be fed in connection with the
grain, should determine largely whether wheat is the most econo-
mical of the concentrated foods to feed with it, but aside from this
the question of selling wheat and buying com meal, oats and bran
has been one not easy to solve by those confronted with it. It has
been said that farmers in this State should not raise wheat ; that at
the present prices it can be purchased in the market cheaper than
it can be grown on the improved laud with high priced labor.
While this may be true to a great extent, the fact still remains that
this crop has taken its turn in the regular four or five years' rota-
tion and can not be left out without changing the whole syBtem of
farming. In many instances no doubt, the system will eventually
be changed, but it will take Beveral years to bring it about.
Farmers as a rule are conservative and hesitate to try new depart-
ures except in a small way at first. This will be a great influence
DigltbadbyCoOgle
196 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. T.
in continuing the cultivation of wheat in New York State for
several years to come, although the money received for the grain
may be insufficient to meet the expenses of raising and marketing
the crop. Then, too, the wheat straw is often the chief stable
absorbent in the grain districts and is of great value for this pur-
pose. As the number of animals on the farms is increasing, par-
ticularly in the dairy districts, the question of providing absorbents
for the preservation of manure is not always easily solved. In view
of all these facts it is safe to assume that wheat will be raised for
many years in this State and that a larger portion than formerly
will be fed on the farms.
In order to make a comparative test of the value of the wheat
product with that of corn as a food for pigs, the food was so mixed
that the grain fed of each kind had the same chemical composition,
bo far as the nutritive ratio was concerned. It was found by mixing
twenty-six pounds of gluten feed with one hundred pounds of corn
meal that the nutritive ratio of the mixture was practically the
same ae that of wheat. This mixture was fed to one lot of pigs
and ground wheat to another. Each lot received equal amounts of
skim milk.
September 25, 1894, twelve barrows were selected from a uni-
form lot of thirty pigs, about nine weeks old, and divided into
two lots of six each. Lot I was fed ground wheat and skim milk.
Lot II, corn meal and gluten in the proportions mentioned above
with the same amount of skim milk as Lot I. Twenty-six pounds
of skim milk was fed to each lot night and morning until about the
10th of January when the milk was increased to fifty-two pounds at
each feeding. Each lot was fed the food indicated until October
10th when the pigs were weighed and the records of the experi-
ment began. The following table gives die total weight, the aver-
age weight and the average monthly gain for each lot until Febru-
ary 11th, the time of slaughtering.
,v Google
Feeding Pigs.
Table I — Record of Growth and Grain.
Lot 1 -Whui,
Lot 2- -Co hh Hkil in Olutui.
Total
weight.
weight.
'sr
Total
weight.
«sr
'jsr
367
628
966
1,294
1,556
61.1
104.6
161.0
215.6
259.3
48. 5
56.4
54.6
33.9
394
704
1,082
1,413
1,701
65.7
117.3
180.3
285.5
J83.5
December in
63.0
1,189
1,307
It will be noticed that the greatest difference in the record of
growth of these two lots is the greater gain of Lot II. While the
greatest gain of each lot was made during the second month of the
experiment, the wheat-fed lot gained nearly as much during the
third month as it did daring the second month, bnt the corn-fed lot
showed a marked falling off during this time. The difference of
growth of these two lots is most marked in the difference of gain ;
the time when the greatest growth was made was nearly the same
for the two lots.
During the time of feeding (from October 10, 1894, to February
11, 1895,) each lot consumed 8,110 pounds of milk, or about 10
pounds per head per day for the whole time. Lot I consumed 3,473
pounds of gronnd wheat and Lot II 2,826 pounds of corn meal and
735 pounds of gluten feed.
The grain food of these two lots was fed with the milk; the meal
and ground wheat was stirred in the milk and fed as a slop. The
grain was given in as large quantities as would be readily consumed,
and varied somewhat from day to day, no record being kept of the
amount consumed daily. Water was kept before each lot nearly all
of the time, no record being kept of the amount drank.
The following table gives the live weight, dressed weight and the
weight of various organs :
,v Google
198 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
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200 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
The total dressed weight of Lot I was 1,331 pounds and the aver-
age loss in dressiug was 14.46 per cent. On the supposition that
the piga at the beginning of the experiment would lose the same
per cent, in dressing as the average of all the lots at the time of
slaughtering (16.04 per cent.), there was produced during the time
of the experiment 1022.87 pounds of pork. The cost of the grain
fed this lot was $38.20, that is allowing 60 cents per bushel for the
wheat and 10 cent* per ewt. for grinding. Allowing the milk to be
worth 15 cents per cwt., the total cost was $50.37, or $.049 per
pound for the pork.
Daring the same time and on the same basis Lot II produced
1120.20 pounds of pork at a cost of $.0456 per pound. The corn
meal was computed at $23 per ton, the average price for which it
sold daring this time at the Ithaca mills. Gluten meal was pur-
chased at $17.50 per ton delivered at Ithaca. It muBt be remem-
bered that the above calculations are made on the market prices of
grain during the experiment and that the price of wheat was unusu-
ally low, while the price of corn was considerably above the average
for the last four or five years for which it has been sold in the
market. Notwithstanding all this, the corn produced pork at a leas
cost per pound than did the wheat.
In the illustrations, No. 1 represents Pig No. 1 of Lot I and
No. 2 represents Pig No. 12 of Lot II. It will be observed that
Pig No. 1 represented almost exactly the average in weight for
Lot I, and that Pig No. 12 was only a little heavier than the aver-
age for Lot II.
From the same lot of pigs from which Lota I and II were taken
twelve more were selected and divided into two lots of six each,
making the two lota as nearly alike as possible and numbered Lots
III and IV.
Lot III was fed corn meal and water, no other food being given
from October 10, 1894 to February 10, 1895, the time of slaugh-
tering.
Lot IV was fed two parts corn meal, one part meat scrap, and
water. Lots III and IV were the same age and breeding as those
described in the previous experiment. The object in feeding these
two lots was to compare nitrogenous and carbonaceous rations as a
food for pigs, both as to growth of the animals and the comparative
amount of lean meat produced by these foods. As these animals
were of the same age and breeding, and about the same weight at
.Google
202 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. T.
the beginning of the feeding as the two lots just described, compari-
sons ma; also be made with them.
The following records give the growth and gain of Lots III
and IV :
Tabls III.
DATE.
Lot m — Com Jul
Lot IV — Cone Huo .bo
Mrjiaup
ToWl
weight.
ass
*_sr
weight.
S5W
"£?
October 10
December 10
January 10
February 11
383
572
737
885
1003
63.8
95.3
122.8
147.5
167.2
ii.k
27.5
24.7
19.7
384
613
883
1185
1421
64.0
102.0
147.0
197.5
236.8
38.0
45.0
50.5
49.3
620
1037
....
From the preceding tables it will be seen that there was great
difference in the growth of the two lots ; also in the time when the
greatest growth was made. Lot III gained the most the first month
of the experiment, and each succeeding month the increase in weight
was less than for the month before. Although these pigs ate much
less food than Lot IV, yet there was no time when they did not
present a thrifty appearance. While they did not make the growth
of the other lots, they did not at any time appear stunted or
unhealthy.
The following tables give in pounds the live weight, dressed
weight, and the weight of various organs at the time of
slaughtering :
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204 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
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206 Agricultural Exi-kkimbnt Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
Lot I [I consumed 2,639 pounds
of corn meal which cost $30.35
and produced dressed pork at
$.061 per pound.
Lot IV consumed 2,765 pounds
of corn meal and 1,382 pounds
of meat scrap and produced pork
at $.0686 per pound. The meat
scrap fed these pigs was ob-
tained from fertilizer manufac-
turers and appeared to be ground
dried meat with a considerable
amount, of quite fine bone,
and analyzed about 10 per cent,
of nitrogen. The excesive cost
($40 per ton) made this an ex-
pensive animal food. It was fed
in connection with the corn
meal, not so much to determine
the cost of meat production as
the amount and distribution of
lean meat compared with that
produced by corn meal alone.
The number of the pig or the
section in the illustrations desig-
nates the number of the lot
from which the pig was taken.
It will be seen that while lot IV
showed somewhat the largest
proportion of lean meat, yet the
difference was not very marked,
showing that, in this case the
very different rations so far as
the nitrogen was concerned, pro-
duced very nearly the same pro-
portion of lean meat.
Fig. 31 shows a representa-
tive pig from each lot as they
appeared the day after slaugh-
87. -Section! through the carcau between tering. Lot II made the largest
the kidney and ham. allowing the dtstribu- , - , , ,-
Uon of fat ud lean meat. gTOWth, and WBS Somewhat the
i;.git.-ec:;yG00^Ic
FraoiHO Pigb. 207
fattest although there was not a marked difference between Lots I
and II.
Lot III made the least growth yet was about as fat as the other
lots, the greatest difference being in size.
Lot IV while not any fatter than Lot III made a much better
growth ; particularly was this noticeable in the length of the ani-
mals before slaughtering.
Figures 35 and 36 shows sections through the carcasses between
the fourth and fifth ribs, and Fig. 37, sections between the kid-
neys and ham. Of all the sections, number 4 shows somewhat the
largest proportions of lean meat.
CONCLUSIONS.
Corn meal and gluten fgave the greatest growth and produced
cheaper pork than ground wheat.
Corn meal and meat scrap produced a somewhat larger propor-
tion of lean meat than did corn meal.
The corn meal and gluten lot had a better appetite and consumed
more food than the lot fed ground wheat.
The com meal lot consumed the least food and made the least
growth.
Corn meal and meat scrap produced the largest proportion of
lean meat, bnt not enough more to make it commensurate to the
cost of the food consumed.
GEORGE C. WATSON.
,v Google
.Google
BULLETIN 90— April, 1895.
Cornell University— Agricultural Experiment Station.
HORTICULTURAL DIVISION.
THE CHINA ASTERS.
WITH REMARKS UPON FLOWER BEDS.
.Google
ORGANIZATION.
Board of Control— The Trustees of the University.
STATION COUNCIL.
Prttident, JACOB GOULD SCHTJBMAN.
Hon. A. D.WHITE TrmtMoftke Univertity.
PROFESSOR I. P. ROBERTS President State Agricultural Society.
Processor I. P. ROBERTS Agriculture.
Professor Q. C. CALDWELL CktmUtry.
Pbofebbor JAMES LAW Veterinary ScUatee.
Professor A. N. PRENTISS Botany.
Profebsor J. H. COMSTOCK Entomology.
Professor L. H. BAILEY Horticulture.
Professor H. H. WING Doiry Husbandry.
P&orEBBOR G. P. ATKINSON Cryptogamic Botany.
OFFICERS OF THE STATION.
I. P. ROBERTS Dtreolor.
E. L. WILLIAMS ■.Treatvrtr.
H. W. SMITH Cler*.
ASSISTANTS.
M. V. SLINGEBLAMD AtMwbflT-
GEO. U.WATSON Agriculture.
G. W. CAVANAUGH Chemistry.
E. G. LODEMAN Horticulture.
MICHAEL BARKER Horticulture.
Office of the Director, 20 Morrill Hall.
Those desiring this Bulletin sent to friends will please send us (he names oi
the parties.
Bulletins of 1895.
84. The Recent Apple Failures in Western New York.
85. Whey Butter.
86. Spraying Of Orchards.
87. The Dwarf Lima Henna.
88. Early Lamb Raising,
89. Feeding Pigs.
90. The China Astern.
Digitized byGOQgle
COEHBLL TTnIVEBBTTY, 1
Ithaca, N. T-, April 10, 1895. [
The Honorable Commissioner of Agricvltwre, Albany :
Sib. — Last year this station published a bulletin upon the Culti-
vated Poplars, with some homeopathic remarks respecting the plant-
ing of grounds. It was a departure in onr work, although it is
clearly within the purview of the federal law that matters of
ornamental gardening may receive attention from the experiment
stations. A full edition of the bulletin was published, but it was
very soon exhausted by the demands of correspondents, whilst the
surplus of other bulletins touching upon matters of more immedi-
ate economic importance, still remained upon our shelves. The
people are evidently interested in matters of taste.
Every rural home is touched by any message which is designed
to add to the cheer and contentment of life, and with tbia convic-
tion I have prepared the following paper. I have ventured to pre-
scribe an allopathic treatment for the dejected conventional flower
bed of farmers' yards. The outlook of the paper is not wholly
upon the sentimental side, however, although I have endeavored to
treat the subject from the point of view of the amateur or flower
lover. Persons who Bell seeds and plants — and their number is
legion in western New York — are commercially interested in
every effort which aims to extend a love of planting ; and persons
who buy flower seed are as much in need of advice as those who
buy turnip seeds. The account is submitted, therefore, for publi-
cation and distribution under Chapter 230, of the Laws of 1895.
L. H. BAILEY.
v Google
88.— in Artist'* Flower Border.
The chief beauty of the garden should lie in its flower colors and
plant forms, and not in the symmetry of its beds and borders. If
onr ideas of a perfect garden include any rigid geometrical prin-
ciples, we would better study nature and let onr ideals go 1 Onr
ideals, at best, are extremely limited, while nature's realism is
immeasurable ; she puts bo mnch variety into her reality that she is
more beautiful than we can imagine, by sheer force of quantity !
* * * We should seek to display the whiteness and purity
of the lily in the garden, and not trouble ourselves so much about
the brown earth patch from which it grows. — F. Schuyler Mathews,
in the Beautiful Flower Garden.
,v Google
The China Asters.
WITH REMARKS UPON FLOWER BEDS.
It ib commonly assumed that may people have no love or appre-
ciation of flowers, but it is probably nearer to the truth to say that
no person is wholly lacking in this respect. Even those persons
who declare that they care nothing for flowers, are generally de-
ceived by their dislike of flower-beds and the conventional methods
of flower-growing, I know many people who stoutly deny any
liking for flowers, bnt who, nevertheless, are rejoiced with the
blossoming of the orchards and the purple bloom of the clover fields.
The fault is not so much with the persons themselves as with the
methods of growing and displaying the flowers.
The greatest fault with onr flower growing is the stinginess of it.
We grow onr flowers as if they were the choicest rareties, to be
coddled in a hotbed or under a bell jar, and then to be exhibited as
single specimens in some little pinched and ridiculous hole cut in
the turf, or perched upon an ant-hill which some gardener has
laboriously heaped upon a lawn. Nature, on the other hand, grows
her flowers in the most luxurious abandon, and yon can pick
an armful without offense. She grows her flowers in earnest, as a
man grows a crop of corn. Ton can revel in the color and the
fragrance, and be satisfied.
The next fault with our flower growing is the flower bed. Now,
nature has no time to make Bower beds ; she is busy growing flowers.
And, then, if she were given to flower beds, the whole effect would
be lost, for she could no longer be luxurious and wanton, and if a
flower were picked her whole scheme might be upset. Imagine a
geranium bed or a coleuBbed, with its wonderful "design," set out
into a wood or in a free and open landscape I Even the birds would
laugh at it t
What I want to say is that we should grow flowers when we make
a flower garden. Have enough of them to make it worth the effort.
214 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaoa, N. Y.
I sympathize with the wan who likes sunflowers. There is enough
of them to be worth looking at. They fill the eye. Now Bhow
this man ten square feet of pinks, or asters, or daisies, all growing
free and easy, and he will tell yon that he likes them. All this has
a particular application to the farmer. He' grows potatoes and
buckwheat and weeds by the acre ; two or three nnhappy pinks or
geraniums are not enough to make an impression.
I suppose that everyone feels that the greatest charm of any land-
scape in the north is the greensward. It is the canvas upon which
every artist planter attempts to make a picture. But imagine a
painter putting a glowing bed of coleuses on his canvas, foraeenter-
piece ! The fact is, the easiest way to Bpoil a good lawn is to put a
flower-bed in it ; and the most effective way in which to show off
flowers to the least advantage is to plant them in a bed in the
greensward. Lawns should be large, free and generous, but the
more they are cut up and worried with trivial effects the smaller
and meaner they look.
But if we consider these lawn flower beds wholly apart from their
surroundings, we must admit that they are at best unsatisfactory.
It generally amounts to this, that we have four months of sparse
and downcast vegetation, one month of limp and frost bitten plants,
and seven mouths of bare earth or mud. I am not now opposing
the carpet beds which professional gardeners make in parks and
other museums, but desire to direct my remarks to those humble
home made flower beds which are so common in lawns of country
and city homes alike. These beds are cut from the good fresh turf,
often in the most fantastic designs, and are tilled with such plants
as the women of the place may be able to carry over in cellars or
in the window. The plants themselves may look very well in pots,
but when they are turned out of doors they have a sorry time for a
month adapting themselves to the sun and winds, and it is generally
well on towards midsummer before they begin to cover the earth.
During all these weeks they have demanded more time and labor
than would have been needed to have cared for a plantation of
much greater size, and which would have given flowers every day
from the time the birds began to nest in [the spring until the last
robin had flown in November.
I wish that instead of saying flower bed we might say flower
border. Any good place should have its center open.' *The aides
(google
The China Asters. 215
may be more or less confined by plantings of shrubs and trees and
many kinds of plants. This border planting sets bounds to the place,
making it one's own ; it is homelike. The person lives inside his
place, not on it. He is not cramped up and jostled by things scat-
tered all over the place, with no purpose or meaning. Along the
border, against groups, often by the corners of the residence or in
front of porches, — these are places for flowers. When planting do
Dot aim at designs or effects ; just hare lots of flowers, a variety of
them growing luxnrantly, as if they could not help it. '
I have asked a professional artist, Mr. Mathews, to draw me the
kind of a flower bed that he likes. It is shown in Fig. 38, at the
beginning of this bulletin. It is a border, — a strip of land two or
three feet wide along a fence. This is the place where pig weeds
usually grow. Here he has planted marigolds, gladiolus, golden-
rod, wild asters, China asters, and — best of all — hollyhocks. Any
one would like that flower garden. It has some of that local and
indefinable charm which always attaches to an *' old-fashioned gar-
den," with its exuberant tangle of form and color. Every yard has "
some such strip of land along a rear walk or fence or against a build-
ing. It is the easiest thing to plant it, — ever so mnch easier than
digging the hideous geranium bed into the center of an inoffensive
lawn.
There is no prescribed rule as to what you should put into these
flower borders. Put in them the plants you like. Perhaps the
greater part of them should be perennials, which come up of them-
selves every spring and which are hardy and reliable. Wild flowers
are particularly effective. Everyone knows that many of the native
herbs of woods and gladea are more attractive than some of the
most prized garden flowers. The greater part of these native
flowers grow readily in cultivation, sometimes even in places which,
in soil and exposure, are much unlike their native haunts. Many
of them make thickening roots, and they may be safely transplanted
at any time after the flowers have passed. To most persons, the
wild flowers are less known than many exotics which have smaller
merit, and the extension of cultivation is constantly tending to
annihilate them. Here, then, in the informal flower border, is an
opportunity to rescue them. Then one may sow in freely of easy-
growing annuals, as marigolds, China asters, petunias and phloxes,
and the like. One of the advantages of these borders is that they
are always ready to receive more plants, unless they are full. That
216 Aonicor.TOBAL Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
is, their symmetry is not marred if some plants are pulled out and
others are put in. And if the weeds now and then get a start, very
little harm is done. Such a border half full of weeds is handsomer
than the average well kept geranium bed, because the weeds enjoy
growing and the geraniums do Dot. I have such a border, three
feet wide and ninety feet long beside a rear walk. I am putting
planta into it every month in the year when the frost is out of the
ground. Plants are dug in the woods or fields, whenever I find
one which I fancy, even if in July. The tops are cut off, the roots kept
moist, and even though the soil is a most unkindly one, most of
these mueb abused plants grow. Such a border has something new
and interesting every month of the growing season; and even in the
winter the tall clumps of grasses and aster-stems wave their plumes
above the snow and are a source of delight to every frolicksome
bevy of snowbirds.
The China asters arc amongst the best of all the annual garden
flowers. They are of the easiest culture, most free of bloom, and
comprise a multitude of forms and colors. They are, therefore,
admirably adapted to profuse and generous effects in schemes of
planting. They are also worthy of wide attention because they are
adapted to many of the purposes for which chrysanthemums are
grown, and they can be raised to perfection wholly without the use
of glass. They attai n't heir best in the decline of the season, from
late August till frost, at a time when many of the annuals and the
greater part of the perennials are spent and gone. Nogarden flowers
carry such a profusion of bloom and color down to the very closing-
in of winter. Last fall our aster border still had blooms when the
snows fell in November, and when even the wild goldenrods had
waned and died.
The evolution of the China aster suggests that of the chrysan-
themum at almost every point, and it is, therefore, a history of
remarkable variations. The plant ie a native to China. It was-
introduced into Europe about 1731 by E. P. d'Incarville, a Jesuit
missionary in China, for whom the genus InvarviUea of the Big-
nonia family was named. At that time it was a single flower ; that
is, the rays or ligulate florets were of only two to four rows. These
rays were blue, voilet or white. The center of the flower (or head)
was comprised of very numerous tabular yellowish florets. Philip
Miller, the famons gardener botaniBt of Chelsea, England, received
seeds of the single white and red asters in 1731, evidently from.
6 ' Google
Thb China Abtbbb. 217
France; and he received the single bine in 1736. In 1752 he
obtained seeds of the doable red and bine, and in 1753 of the double
white. At^that time there appear to have bees no dwarf forms,
for Miller says that the plants grew eighteen inches to two feet
high. Martyn, in 1307, says that in addition to these varieties
mentioned by Miller there had then appeared a "variegated blue
and white" variety. The species* was well known to American
gardeners at the opening of the century. In 1806, M' Mahon, of
Philadelphia, mentioned the "China aster (in sorts)" as one of the
desirable garden annuals. Bridgeman, a New York seedsman,
offered the China and German asters in 1837 "in numerous and
splendid varieties," specifying varieties "alba, rubra, cerulea, striata,
purpurea, etc." In 1845, Eley said that "China and German
asters," "are very numerous" in New England.
This name German aster records the fact that the first great
advances in the evolution of the plant were made in Germany, and
the seedi which we now use comes largely from that country. The
marked departure from the type, appears to have been the prolonga-
tion or great development of the central florets of the head, and the
production of the " quilled " flower. This type of aster was very
popular forty and fifty years ago. Breck, in the first edition of his
" Flower Garden," in 1851, speaks of the great improvement of the
aster " within a few years," " by the German florists, and others,"
and adds that " the full-quilled varieties are the most highly esteemed,
having a hemispherical shape, either a pure white, clear blue, purple,
rose or deep red ; or beautifully mottled, striped, or edged with
those colors, or having a red or bine centre." About fifty years
ago the habit of the plant had begun to vary considerably, and the
progenitors of our modern dwarf races began to attract attention.
The quilled, high centered flower of a generation or more ago is
too stiff to satisfy the tastes of these later days, and the many flat-
rayed, loose and fluffy races are now most in demand, and their
popularity is usually greater the nearer they approach the form of
the uncombed chrysanthemums.
The China aster had long since varied into a wide range of colors
of the cyanic series — shades of blue, red, pink and purple. I do
not know what its original color might have been. The modern
ovulation of the plant is in the direction of habit, and form of flower.
Some type varies — generally rather suddenly and without apparent
i;„ ^::yG00^Ic
218 Aqbiooltobal Exfebimbnt Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
cause — into some novel form, still retaining its accustomed color.
The florist fixes the variation by breeding from the best and most
stable plants, and soon other colors appear, until he finally obtains
the entire range of color in the species. So it happens that there
are various well marked races or types, each of which has its full
and independent range of colors. The Comet type (Bee title page
and 3, Fig. 48), now the most deserving of the China asters, illus-
trates these statements admirably. The Comet form — the loose
open flower with the long strap-like^ rays — appeared upon the
market about 1886 or 1887 with a flower of a dull white overlaid
with pink. The pink tended to fade out after the flower opened,
leaving the color an unwashed white. The rose colored Comet next
appeared and the bine was introduced in 1890. The first clear
white was introduced in America in 1892, coming from Yilmorian
of Paris, and the China aster had reached its greatest artistic
The greatest desideratum yet to be attained in the China aster
is a pure yellow flower. There seems to be some general incom-
patability between the cyanic and the xanthic, or yellow, series
of colors. Yellow of a pure type has not yet been attained in the
annual phloxes and many other plants which affect the blues and
reds. Yet the chrysanthemum and various other jplants combine
the two, and I confidently expect that the China aster will event-
ually do the same. We already have distinct approaches to the
yellow in the Lemon Gem, in which the flowers are suffused with
a lemon-yellow tint, and in a yellow quilled variety introduced this
year by Burpee as the Yellow Aster. This latter aster is one of
the crowned type, having a good yellow center and a border of
whitish rays.
In the immense range of color, form, habit and season in the
China aster, the flower lover can find almost any ideal which an
annual compositons flower can be expected to satisfy. In earliness,
there has been a distinct advance in recent years in the introduction
of the excellent French variety, Revne dee Holies, which is known
in this country as Queen of the Market (Fig. 39; 2, Fig. 48.)
This variety blooms early in August at Ithaca, even when the seed
is sown out of doors. One of the earliest forms of this type of
aster is Burpee's Queen of Spring, which will bloom by the middle
of July if started in a frame by the middle of April. This Heine
dee Holies type of aster was introduced in 1885 or 1886 by Yilmorin,
'^ v>oogle
Thb China Asters. 219
although it had long been known in the PariB markets, but the
stock was controlled by a few persons. This variety also has the
freest and most wide spreading habit of growth, and the stems are
so long that the variety is very useful for cut flowers. The Can-
delabra asters are very like tbe Queen of the Market in habit, but
are later.
30.— Quoeii of the Market. The earliest type of China Alter.
In such a range of type, it is impossible to recommend any one
of them as superior to all others. If one wants deep and glowing
colors, I should recommend the Trnffaut asters, variously known as
Perfection and Peony flowered, and this type has a most beautiful
pyramidal habit and a high-centered incurved comely flowerj(Figs.
40. 41). The shades of red are especially good in this type of aster.
Closely allied to this is the Semple strain, which has the distinction
of being the only well-marked type of American origin. This type
originated with James Semple, of Bellevue, Pennsylvania, who, by
continued selection, has brought it to a high degree of perfection.
The plant is a tall and robust grower, reaching two and a half and
even three feet high, with long and strong stems and very large
flowers (often three and a half inches across) with incurved and
often twisted rays. Two colors of this tine aster are now fixed, the
pink introduced in 1892 as Mary Semple, and the white, known as
Semple White.
Digitized byGoOgle
230 AqBIODLTUHAL EXPBRIIIBNT STATION, I'l'HAOA, N. Y.
For myself, however, 1 should give the Comet asters the very
first place amongst all the various tribes. The habit is dwarf and
compact, although free. Bat the great merit lies in the flat, soft,
spreading long rays, which give the flowers a freedom and novelty
(
40. — Tniffaufe Peonj flowered.
of outline and substance which can not be found in any other aster.
I am particularly fond of the great white Comet and of the delicate
shades of azure blue. I should place the Truffaut, Semple and
Jewell strains of asters — all of similar type — in the second place.
The China Asthbs. 221
The Jewell aster known as Apple Blossom, has no superior amongst
the delicate shades of blush or pink. For the third place, I should
hesitate between the Washington and Chrysanthemum-flowered
types. The Victorias are generally given a very high rank, and
they are one of the most popular strains in England, particularly
for pot culture, hut they have not behaved so well with me. They
seem to be nntrne and mixed in type, and last year many of them
gave flat open " eyes " or centers. Yet I should place the Victorias
fourth or fifth in my list. Beyond these types, it would be difficult
to single ont one strain as superior to others for purposes of general
cultivation. All of them have particular merits. The Queen of
the Market is desirable for earliness, long stems and graceful habit,
and it is popular with florists. The quilled asters are now so far
outnumbered by the flat-rayed section that they may almost be
classed with the curiosities. They are always useful for variety,
and many persons admire their prim form. One of the best of
these is the Victoria Needle (Fig. 42), a variety which distinguished
itself on our grounds last year by giving the latest blooms of any
aster. The Lilliput, — a sum-growing sort with small stiff- petalled
flowers — is also one of the favorites of the quilled section. Read-
ing Beauty is also an excellent quilled aster.
222 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
Another type of quilled aster is represented by the button-headed
German Quilled, with its scant fringe or short rays (Fig. 43). The
best form of this is the IJetteridge, an improved strain with large
flowers.
Amongst the curious asters are the Crown or Corcardeau, with a
rim of dark color and a center of white or light shades (Figs. 44, 45),
the Harlequin or party-colored, and the many miniature or tufted
«.■ Victoria Needli
sorts, some of which grow only three or four inches high, and bear
a close bunch of small dense flowers (see Fig. 47). The very dwarf
types are stiff and bunchy, but they are often used for borders, and
the plants can be lifted on the approach of frost and put in pots,
where they will continue to hold their flowers for three or four
weeks.
It iB impossible to construct a satisfactory classification of the
China asterB. It is no longer practicable to classify the varieties by
color. Neither is it feasible to classify them upon habit or stature
of plant, for several of the best marked types ran into both tall and
dwarf forms. Vilmorin, however, still divides the varieties into
two groups, the pyramidal growers, and the non-pyramidal growers.*
The most elaborate classification is that proposed by Barron, from a
study of extensive tests made at Chiswicb, England. + Mr. Barron
,y Google
-■--■&;ij ■;/'&'<£
■;»te«,
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— OerniBii Quilled A.
;git7ecoyGoO^Ic
224 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
has seventeen sections, but they are not co-ordinate, and they are-
really little more than an enumeration of the various types or
classes. After considerable study of the varieties in the field and
herbarium, I find the following scheme to be the moat serviceable
for my purpose :
I. Flat-rayed asters, in which all, or at least more than five or Biz
rows of rays, are more or less prominently fiat and the florets open.
A. Incurved or ball shaped.
B. Spreading or reflexed.
II. Tubular or quilled asters, in which all, or all bnt the two or
three outer rows of florets have prominently tubular corollas.
A. Inner florets short ; outer ones longer and flat. Represented
by the German Quilled.
B. All the florets elongated and quilled.
I shall make no attempt to describe all the China asters now
offered by American seedsmen, nor even all that we have grown, bnt
the following running notes may have some interest:
I. A. Globe Asters.
Truffavi, Peony-flowered or Perfection Asters (Figs. 40, 41, 4 in
Fig. 48). — This is one of the oldest types of our modern asters,
having been known — although probably not in its present excellence
— nearly or quite fifty years ago. It was developed by Truffant of
Versailles, who died early in the present year when 78 years of age.
The plants are moderately tall, strong and vigorous, more or less
pyramidal in habit, with nearly globular often nodding large flowers
with the outer petals generally spreading or loose. In many colors.
La Superbe is one of the best strains. There is a semi-dwarf form
which is excellent. Prince of Wales is one of the globe-flowered
Troffauts.
Semple. — Already described, page 219. The New Branching
Aster seems to be the same.
Ball-flowered or Jewell. — Mostly of dwarfer habit than Semple,
the flowers less incurved than Truffant, the petals short and the
blooms compact and firm. Various colors. Excellent for symmetry
of bloom.
Triumph. — As originally introduced by Haage and Schmidt,
about 1887, this is a dwarf peony-flowered aster, but much of it
now seems to be open-flowered, and Barron classes it with the
Chrysanthemum-flowered tvpes. When pure, it is one of the best
Ml. It h
jOOQH
The China Asters. 225
a very free and graceful habit for a dwarf. Height about eight or
ten inches.
I. B. Flat or Reflexed Asters.
ChryawrUhermimrflowered (1 in Fig 48). — Plants of various habit
and of various merits. Usually characterized by a free and open
growth, although there are semi-dwarf forms, and symmetrical well-
formed dowers with the outer rays much reflexed. A very useful
clasB, in many colors.
Washington. — An offshoot of the last, of medium height, with
large, rather flattiah flowers, full and symmetrical to the center.
Many colors, and little inclined to " run " or sport.
Mignon. — A very fine aster, of medium height, close, pleasing
habit, the flower full to the center and rather flat, the lower rays
not much reflexed. A most interesting feature of one variety is its
singular habit of changing color. It opens a white flower with
only the faintest tinge of undetinable azure or flesh color, but grad-
ually passes into a delicate light rose pink. Flowers small andmore
regular in shape than the Victorias.
,<*"$*^te-
M.— Crown Alter.
Victoria. — A very popular class of asters, both tall and dwarf.
It is commended for its very free blooming, aud^for the habits of
15
220 Aqbioultubal Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
many of the white strains of changing into azore and pink tints,
like the Migiion. (Page 151.)
Hhnporer or Giant Emporer. — A strong tall grower, rather late,
only slightly branching and bearing three to five very large flowers,
of chrysanthemum form ; various colors.
Quern of the Market (Figs. 39, 2 in Fig. 48) has been already
described (pages 149, 151). Queen of Spring and Queen of the
Earlies are varieties of this type.
Crown otlCoroardecm (Figs. 44, 45). — Of medium or semi-dwarf
habit (45), early and free flowering. Center of the flower white or
nearly bo, surrounded by a rim or fringe of variously-colored rays.
Interesting and very showy. The central florets are somewhat
tabular, and suggest the quilled section of asters, with which, per*
haps, the type should be classed. Known also as Double Crowned,
Pompon Crown and Cockade.
Comet (Title page, illustration, Fig. 46, 3 in Fig. 48).— Folly
described on pages 148, 150. The center of the flower is filled with
Malta* byGoOgle
Thb China Astehs. 227
short rays, which are sometimes very narrow and twisted. The type
still tends tojport, although the greater part of the flowers come
true to the ideal form. Fig 46 shows one of the most frequent
— Comet, Inferior tjpe.
departures from the type, with a loose border and a " single " center.
In this form the^variety approaches chrysanthemum flowered type
The Comet asters, in various colors, are amongst the best of all the
races for flower .border, bat they are less useful for cut flowers than
Google
228 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
some of the larger stemmed and stiffer and rounder flowered typesi
like Truffaut, Semple, Ball-flowered and the like.
Imbricated or Imbricated Pompon. — This aster, in many colors,
is intermediate between the flat-rayed and qnilled sections. The
rays are all alike or approximately bo, short and somewhat concave,
springing from a tabular base. The flowers are medium or some-
times small in size, very close and compact, and uniform in shape.
The habit is compact, either dwarf or rather tall. Distinct and
desirable.
II. A. Button-quilled asters.
German quilled (Fig. 43). — Described on page 223. There are
many excellent strains of this type, mostly of medium tall and
spreading growth, with long stiff steins. In some forms, the flowers
are drooping. Many colors.
Dwarf Bouquet (Fig. 47). — Very dwarf and compact asters,
growing five to eight inches high, with a terminal bouquet of small
— Dwarf Bouquet.
very dense flowers with the center florets short and tubular, and a
thin border of short flattish rays. Excellent for borders, or formal
effects. Many colors.
Shakespeare. — Much like the last, butthe flowers more distinctly
quilled. These are the dwarfest asters which we liave grown, many
D-aii,ze0t>yGoOQle
The China Astbrb.
of the plants never reaching beyond four inches in height. Many
colors.
II. B. Long-quilled or Needle oxters.
Victoria Needle (Fig. 42).— Either medium tall or dwarf asters,
with the habit of the Chrysanthuiri urn -flowered type, and the range
and brilliancy of coloring of the Victorias, but distinguished by
the long quill-like florets, and the absence of rays. Excellent, of
its class. (Page 222.)
LiUiput. — Plants tall and strict. Flowers small, the quills slen-
der and compact. Late. Many colors, very pretty, (Page 221.)
The student a few years hence who consults this paper — if I
should be so fortunate as to have a reader then — will be interested
to know just what varieties of asters were offered by American
Beedsmen in the spring of 1895. I have, therefore, made a list of
the varieties, under the names by which they are catalogued. All
these many and various types belong toasingle species (CaUistephus
kortensia*), which is native to Siberia and China, and which is now
widely cultivated in temperate climates. The trade names are given,
without any attempt to determine synonyms:
Alneer's Perfection Double.
Ball of Fire.
Betteridge'e Prize.
Betteridge's Quilled, Mixed.
Betteridge'B Qnilled, Sulphur
Yellow.
Blue Danube.
Bolitze's Dwarf Bouquet.
Boston Florists' White.
Boston Market White.
Bouquet Dwarf, Crimson.
Bonquet Dwarf, Mixed.
Bouquet Dwarf, White.
Branching, Crimson.
Branching, Lavender.
Branching, Shell Pink.
Branching, White.
Breck'B International Prize,
Candelabra, Red.
Caldelabra, Rose.
Candelabra, White.
China.
Chrysanthemum flowered —
Dwarf, Brilliant Rose.
Chrys. flowered — Dwarf, Crim-
son.
Chrys. flowered — Dwarf, Dark,
Lavender.
Chrys. flowered — Dwarf, Fiery
Scarlet.
Chrys. flowered — Dwarf, Flesh
Pink.
* The proper botanical name of the China aster, however, is Gallia lemma hor-
lentt, Cassini, Dist. Sci. Nat. vi. Suppl. 45(1817), and Bull. 3oc. Philom. 1817,32.
Tbe name CallMephus horlcnsit, both gemiB and species, dates from 1825. This
latter name is accepted by Bentham and Hooker, bowever (Genera Plsntarum,
ii,270), and I therefore used it in tbe revision of Gray's Field, Forest and Garden
Botany, inasmuch as Gray preferred to adhere closely to Beiithum and Hooker's
work. Callittemma bus loog been in use, with more or less frequency, by horti-
culturists, and it would seem, therefore, that it should be revived.
280 Agbicci/tubal Expheimhnt Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
Chrys. flowered — Dwarf, Indigo
Blue.
Chrys. flowered — Dwarf, Large
Flowered.
Chrys. flowered — Dwarf, Light
Blue.
Chrys. flowered — Dwarf, Orange
l£ose.
Chrys. flowered — Dwarf, Mixed.
Chrys. flowered — Dwarf, Bose.
Chrys. flowered — Dwarf, Striped.
Chrys. flowered — Dwarf, White.
Chrys. flowered — Tall, Mixed.
Cocardeaa or Crown.
Comet, Bright Bine and White.
Comet, Carmine.
Comet, Deep Fink,
Comet, Dwarf.
Comet, Giant White.
Comet, Indigo and White.
Comet, Lavender and White.
Comet, Light Blue.
Comet, Lilac.
Comet, Lilac and White. •
Comet, Mixed.
Comet, Peach Blossom.
Comet, Pink and White.
Comet, Purple White.
Comet, Rose.
Comet, Rose and White.
Comet, Snow White.
Crimson Crown.
Crimson Wave.
Diamond.
Diamond, Dark Crimson.
Diamond, Deep Carmine.
Diamond, Deep Violet-
Diamond, Deep Violet and White.
Diamond, Crimson and White.
Diamond, Pink and White.
Diamond, Purplish Lilac.
Diamond, Reddish Violet.
Diamond, Rose.
Diamond, White.
Double German.
Dwarf, Brilliant Rose.
Dwarf, Fiery Scarlet.
Dwarf German
Dwarf Pyramidal.
Dwarf Pyramidal Bouquet.
Dwarf Queen.
Crimson.
Dark Bine.
Large Flowering.
Light Bine.
White.
Dwarf Queen
Dwarf Queen.
Dwarf Queen.
Dwarf Qneen,
Dwarf Queen.
Eclipse.
Empress, Bright Bine.
Empress, Crimson.
Empress, Mixed.
Empress, White.
French, Peony.
General Jacqueminot.
Giant Emperor.
Globe Flowered, Double Ger-
man.
Globe Flowered, Pyramidal.
Goliath.
Half Dwarf, Mnltiflora Manve.
Harlequin, Mixed.
Henderson's Marvel.
Hover's Florist's Prize.
Imbricated Pompon, Crimson.
Imbricated Pompon, Dark In-
digo.
Imbricated Pompon, Lavender
Bine.
Imbricated Pompon, Mixed.
Imbricated Pompon, " Mourning
Aster."
Imbricated Pompon, Rose.
Imbricated Pompon, Sky Bine.
Imbricated Pompon, White.
Improved Pyramidal Bonqnet
Improved Quilled.
Improved Victoria.
Jewel, Apple Blossom.
Jewel, Carmine Rose.
Jewel, Crimson.
Jewel. Purple.
La Brilliant.
Lady in White.
Large Rose Flowered, Dark
Scarlet.
Large Rose Flowered, Mixed.
La Superbe.
Lemon Gem.
Leonard's Snowball.
Tbb China Asters.
331
Lilliput-flowered, White.
May s Miniature.
Meteor, Bright Crimson.
Mignon.
MigDOD, Bright Bine.
Mignon, Carmine Red.
Mignon, Peach Blossom Fink.
Mignon, Snow White.
Mignon, White and Lilac
Mignon, White and Rose.
Miniature Bouquet.
Mixed Crown.
New Dwarf Pearl.
He Pins Ultra.
Pearl.
Pearl Blanche.
Pearl Rose Crown.
Pearl Rouge.
Perfection, Flesh-colored.
Perfection, Light Yellow.
Primrose Pint
Prince of Wales.
Princess Rosalind.
Pygmte.
Pyramidal Harlequin, Purple.
Queen of Spring.
Queen of the Earlies.
Queen of the Market.
Quilled, or China.
Reid's German Quilled.
Beine des Halles.
Rose.
Rose, Bine.
Rose, Dark Red.
Rose, White.
Kose-fiowered .
St. Paul Beauty.
Salzer's Goliath.
Salzer's Prize Bouquet.
Salzer's White Bonquet.
Scarlet Needle.
Schiller, White.
Semple's Branching.
Shakespeare, Crimson.
Shakespeare, Dark Blue.
Shakespeare, Mixed.
Shakespeare, White.
Silver Ball.
Snowball.
Snow Queen.
Sulphur Yellow.
Sutton's Reading Beauty.
Triumph, Dark Scarlet.
Triumph, Dark Scarlet and
White.
Triumph of the Market.
Trnffant's Peony Perfection,
Brilliant Rose,
Trnffant's Peony Perfection, Car-
mine.
Trnffant's Peony Perfection,
Crimson,
Trnffant's Peony Perfection,
Dark Blood Red.
Trnffant's Peony Perfection,
Deep Mauve,
Trnffant's Peony Perfection,
Light Blue.
Truffaut's Peony Perfection,
Mixed.
Truffaut's Peony Perfection,
Pink.
'Trnffant's Peony Perfection,
Purple.
Truffaut's Peony Perfection,
Snow White.
Truffaut's Peony Perfection,
Striped.
Truffaut's Peony Perfection,
Dwarf, Black Bine.
Trnffant's Peony Perfection,
Dwarf, Black Blue and White.
Truffaut's Peony Perfection,
Dwarf, Crimson and White,
Truffaut'B Peony Perfection,
Dwarf, Light Blue.
Trnffant's Peony Perfection,
Dwarf, Light Blue and White.
Truffaut's Peony Perfection,
Dwarf, Rose.
Truffaut's Peony Perfection,
Dwarf, Rose and White.
Truffaut's Peony Perfection,
Dwarf, Shining Dark Scarlet,
Truffuat's Peony Perfection,
Dwarf, White.
Uhland Globe.
Vaughan's Beauty.
232 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. T.
Vaughan's FirebalL
Vaughan's Improved Victoria.
Vesuvius.
Vick'B New Brandling.
Victoria, Apple Blossom.
Victoria, Bourdeaux Red.
Victoria, Dark Scarlet.
Victoria, Dwarf Booquet, Grim-
Victoria, Dwarf Mixed.
Victoria, Dwarf Rose.
Victoria, Dwarf White.
Victoria, Cream Colored-
Victoria, Crimson.
Victoria, Large Flowering.
Victoria, Light Blue.
Victoria, Needle.
Victoria, Needle Perfection.
Victoria, Peach Blossom.
Victoria, Pnrple.
Victoria, Striped-
Victoria, White.
Washington, Crimson.
Washington, Light Bine.
Washington, Mixed.
Washington, Needle.
Washington, Peach Blossom.
Washington, Silver Gray.
Washington, White.
White Star.
White Wave.
Yellow Aster.
Zirngiebel's, Doable White.
Zulu King.
Respecting the cultivation of these China asters, little need be
said. If early flowers are wanted or if the plants are to be grown
in pots as specimens for exhibition, the seeds should be sown indoors
or in a frame as early as the middle of April, in this latitude. Bat
if the plants are to be grown in borders, it is quite as well to sow
the seed in the ground where the plants are to grow. The China
aster is essentially an antutnn flower, and I have no desire, from the
amateur's standpoint, to force it ahead of its season and to make it
compete with the flowers of midsummer. We sowed the seeds of
about fifty varieties on the 4th of Jane last year. The soil was
rich and kindly — a good loam- — and the plants came on with
vigor, and, notwithstanding a prolonged drought, every variety
gave a profuse bloom throughout September and October, and a
few sorts — like Queen of the Market — spent themselves and died
before frost came. l
China asters do not force well. They generally grow too tall and
are too slow in coming into bloom . But experiments in forcing
them for winter bloom have not been made to any extent in this
country, and it is not improbable that some varieties might lend
themselves to this treatment with ease.
There are two or three insects which prey upon the China aster
bnt they do not appear to be widespread. The most serious diffi-
culty with them is the mst,a iangun{Colsoadorium Sonchiorvenms)
which attacks the under side of the leaf and raises an orange-
colored pustule. Timely sprays with the copper fungicides will keep
China Abtbha. 233
this disorder in check. The Bordeaux mixture discolors the plants,
and it is therefore better to use the ammoniacal carbonate of copper.
Spray it upon the plants before the fungus appears, and repeat every
week or ten days. Use a cyclone nozzle and spray upwards, so as to
strike the under sides of the leaves.
ABSTRACT.
This bulletin desires to discourage the formal and geometrical
flower bed, which persists in setting itself into the middle of a qniet
and well behaved lawn. It advises that flowers be grown for their
own sakes, and not for the bed in which they happen to be placed.
It urges the growing of flowers profusely, in a free and graceful
way, in borders next rear walks and fences and against groups of
larger plants and occasionally about the foundations of buildings. It
would use hardy and free-growing plants in preference to the potted
and unwilling house plants, which usually give strained and exotic
effects.
The China asters are amongst the best of the annuals for popular
nse. They are essentially autumn flowers, and little is to be gained
by forcing them ahead of their season, except when they are wanted
for sale as cut flowers. In central New York, they may be sown as
late as the first or even the middle of June with good results, if the
soil is rich and if they are given good care. There is a multitude
of varieties. For growing in borders, perhaps the best type is the
Comet, in various colors. Other excellent races are the Tmffaut,
known also as Perfection and Peony- flowered, the Semple or Branch-
ing, Chrysanthemum-flowered, Washington, Victoria and Mignon,
and Queen of the Market. The last is commended for earlinessand
graceful open habit, and it it one of the best for cut flowers. Many
other types are valuable for special purposes. The Crown of
Cocardeau is odd and attractive. Amongst the quilled asters, the
various strains of German Quilled, "Victoria Needle and Lilliput are
excellent. The very dwarf tufted asters are well represented in
Dwarf Bouquet or Dwarf German, and Shakespeare.
L. H. BAILEY.
,v Google
.Google
BULLETIN 91— April, 1895.
Cornell University— Agricultural Experiment Station.
HORTICULTURAL DIVISION.
' Michael Barker.
.Google
ORGANIZATION.
Board of Control— The Trustees of the University.
STATION COUNCIL.
PrttUtnt, JACOB GOULD 8CHURMAN.
Hon. A. D. WHITE TrmUtofthe Univtrtity.
Professor I. P. ROBERTS President State Agrioultural Society.
Professor I. P.ROBERTS Agriculture.
Profebbor G. C. CALDWELL Chemistry.
PRornssoR JAMES LAW Veterinary Sdenoe.
Professor A. N. PRENTISS Botany.
Profebbor J. H. COM8TOCK Entomology.
Pkofksbor L. H. BAILET Horticulture.
Professor H. H. WING Dairy Husbandry.
Professor G. F. ATKINSON Crypiogamie Botany.
OFFICEBS OF THE STATION.
I.P.ROBERTS Dirsotor.
E. L. WILLIAMS Treasurer.
H.W.SMITH Clerk.
ASSISTANTS.
M. V. SLINGERLAND Entomology.
GEO. U.WATSON Agriculture.
0. W. CAVANAUGH Chemistry.
E.G. LODEMAN Bortteulture.
MICHAEL BARKER BorUculturt.
Office of the Director, 20 Morrill Hall.
Those desiring this Bulletin sent to friends will please send a
the parties.
Bulletins of 1895.
84. The Recent Apple Failures in western New York.
85. Whey Butter.
86. Spraying of Orchards.
87. The Dwarf Lima Beans.
88. Early Lamb Raising.
89. Feeding Pigs.
90. The China Asters.
91. Recent Chrysanthemums.
,v Google
Ithaoa, N. Y., April 20, 1895. (
The Honorable Commissioner of Agriculture, Albany :
Sib. — The sudden popularization of the chrysanthemum is one
of the marvels of recent horticultural enterprise. The commercial
interest in chrysanthemum growing in this State is now very large,
and there are many features of the industry which demand atten-
tion from experimenters. As a beginning towards the solution of
some of the perplexities which beset the growers of the plant, and
for the purpose of still further popularizing a worthy industry, we
have made a careful test of the leading varieties upon the market in
1894, and have here given an account of the behavior of the most
prominent ones. Onr collection numbered over 200 kinds. The
report is written from the point of view of the florist, rather than
the amateur. I submit the paper as a bulletin under Chapter 230
of the Laws of 1895.
L. H. BAILEY.
,v Google
A KEY TO THE CLASSIFICATION OFJ VARIETIES OF
CHRYSANTHEMUMS.
Group A. Large flowered. Diameter 4 to 10 inches.
Section X. Incurved.
Florets regularly incurved.
Sub-section 1. Japanese Incurved.
Florets irregularly incurved.
Section 2. Japanese.
Florets straight, spreading, twisted, curled, or
Section 3, Reflexed.
Florets regularly reflexed.
Sub-section 2. Japanese Reflexed.
Florets irregularly reflexed, or
Section 4. Anemone.
Florets in two series, disk and ray. Disk flor-
ets tubular, forming half a sphere in center.
Ray florets strap-shaped, horizontal and arrayed
around the outside.
Sab-section 3. Japanese Anemone.
Ray florets incurved, reflexed, 'or drooping.
Group 6. Small flowered or Pompon. Diameter 1 to 2 inches.
Section 1. Pompon.
Flowers formal and diminutive, with short
closely packed florets.
Section 2. Anemone Pompon.
Diminutive flowers of the Anemone'jype.
Group C. Single flowered. Diameter 1 to 5 inches.
Flowers single.
v Google
Recent Chrysanthemums.
"Within the past ten years, the chrysanthemum of the florists has
risen from a very inferior position, commercially, to one of the
greatest prominence in this country. The first regular chrysan-
themum exhibition in America was held under the auspices of the
Massachusetts Horticultural Society in 1868, but this and the sister
society in Pennsylvania awarded prizes for chrysanthemums much
earlier. In those days, however, and perhaps for many years pre-
vious, the chrysanthemum was treated as a hardy plant, and culti-
vated in the outdoor gardens. Better flowers and plants came later,
with the idea of affording them greenhouse protection, and then we
find Dr. 11. F. Walcott, of Cambridge, Massachusetts, and Mr. John
Thorpe, then of Queens, Long Island, to be the most prominent
raisers of seedlings, cultivators and advocates of the chrysanthemum
in general.
But the courageous attempts of these and several other persons
in various parts of the country, particularly in the vicinity of Bos-
ton, Massachusetts, met with only a small share of success. Not,
indeed, until the later years of the past decade was anything ap-
proaching popular esteem for the chrysanthemum aroused in the
American people, and then it was mainly due to a happy speculation
on the part of one of onr prominent nurserymen. In 1888, Mr. W.
A. Manda, then of Cambridge, Massachusetts, now at Sonth Orange,
New Jersey, purchased the famous variety, Mrs. Alphens Hardy,
from a Boston florist for the Bum of $1,500 — a price un-
precedented in the chrysanthemum world. This event, and the
subsequent advertising of the variety, did more to render the chrys-
anthemum an object of public fame in America than all other pre-
vious efforts combined. The demand for these plants at once began
to grow with leaps and bounds, annual exhibitions sprung into exist
ence in all parts of the country, and many florists and nurserymen
created special departments to cover the work of securing new varie-
ties and to select, propagate and distribute those of greatest merit.
240 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. T.
"Mrs. Alpheus Hardy had been sent here in the first instance from
Japan, and numerous other varieties were now imported from that
country in the hope of securing something equally valuable. Bat
while many of those importations proved really meritorious under
our climatic conditions, none of them reached that high position in
the public regard which had been accorded their forerunner.
So many of these varieties imported from Japan and Europe
proved to he unsatisfactory, that it soon became evident that if our
growers were to have a class of plants suited to their own peculiar
needs and climate, they must set about raising them from seeds,
crossing the varieties in hand so as to secure offspring of the desired
character. This has been done with very marked success, and fore-
most among those who have given the departure extensive attention
and encouragement may be mentioned, Messrs. Pitcher & Mandy,
of Short Hills, New Jersey ; Messrs. Nathan Smith & Son, Adrian,
Michigan j Messrs. Peter Henderson & Co., New York ; Messrs. E.
6. Hill & Co., Richmond, Indiana ; Mr. John N. May, Summit.
New Jersey ; Mr. Hugh Graham, Philadelphia ; Mr. T. D. Hat-
field, Wellesley, Massachusetts; Mr. J. C. Vaughan, Chicago ; Mr.
Wm. K. Harris, Philadelphia ; Mr. Thos. II. Spaulding, Orange,
New Jersey, and Messrs. Fred. Domer & Son, Lafayette, Indiana,
A very large proportion of the imported varieties are weak growers,
and they have a tendency to produce imperfect flowers. The outer
florets (erroneously called petals) sometimes expand so as to show
the center of the flower, and this characteristic renders certain
groups of varieties comparatively worthless for commercial purposes,
while in other sections (anemones and pompon anemones) the full
development of this central disk is considered one of the essentials
of a worthy bloom. This defect occurs less frequently in the
domestic productions, although unscrupulous dealers occasionally
praise inferior varieties to the disadvantage and often serious loss of
the purchaser. Great difficulty stands in the way of decreasing the
extent of this evil. With some such idea, and to prevent the duplica-
tion of names, the American Chrysanthemum Society was organized
at Buffalo, N. Y., August, 1889 ; and the work of that body, espe-
cially in the latter particular, has been of great service to the growers.
A promising innovation was made by the society last autumn in
establishing local committees to determine the degree of merit
exhibited by all new varieties brought to their notice, and to report
them worthy or unworthy, as they found them to be. "With a testi-
Recent Chrysanthemums. 241
monial of thia character, given by the most competent judges, the
meritorious varieties should soon close the market against all others,
and for this reason those who are successful in producing good new
kinds should in future submit them to some member of the society
before trying to dispose of them by the ordinary process of com-
merce. The present officers of the society are : Mr. E. A. Wood,
Denver, Colorado, president ; Mr. E. Q-. Hill, Richmond, Indiana,
vice-president ; Mr. E. D. Smith, Adrian, Michigan, secretary j Mr.
John N. May, Summit, New Jersey, treasurer.
Great as are the troubles of nomenclature and misrepresentation,
there are others of almost equal importance which the society can
not properly regulate, and the undertaking would be much too
troublesome for private or commercial growers. Many dealers now
issue long annual lists of new kinds from which it is impossible to
select the best varieties for local requirements. No effort is spared
in the most expensive and elaborate system of cultivation, to make
these plants produce blooms for the exhibitions of the previous
autumn, and the awards then given are at best an imperfect guide
for the investor. The average florist for obvious reasons can pro-
vide only ordinary conditions, and he desires to know if any of these
new varieties will prove better than the older and cheaper sorts
under his method of cultivation. Again, some varieties produce
the choicest blooms from "crown" buds, while "terminal" buds
are the best in others ; some bloom late, others early ; some are
adapted for specimen plants, others for specimen flowers. Then there
are new insects and diseases to deal with, and many minor matters
bearing on cultivation, the effects of various fertilizers, etc. Hitherto
there has been no one to thoroughly investigate these matters for
the benefit of the vast number of people throughout the State and
country who are financially and otherwise interested. A work of
this character has been recently undertaken by the Horticultural
Department of Cornell University, and it is hoped in due time to
bring about the desired results. Although late in the season, opera-
tions were begun last August, and a record of the results so far
obtained will be found in these pages. It is due to the public spirit
and generosity of Messrs. Pitcher & Manda, Messrs. Peter Hender-
son & Co., Mr. John N. May, Messrs. Nathan Smith & Sons, and
Messrs. E. G. Hill & Co., that we were enabled to secure for our
purposes ample supplies of such of their varieties of 1894 as were in
16
242 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
stock at that time. Many others, who promised to contribute dar-
ing the present season, would hare joined in the work last year had
our intentions been known to them before their supplies were
exhausted.
Recent Yabieties.
While a large nnmber of the new varieties put on sale in the
United States of late years show no marked improvement on older
types, there are still many of them decidedly superior in character.
The advance is perhaps moBt noticeable in the stems, which are
dwarf, stout and erect, and well furnished with luxuriant leaves to
the base of the flower, as compared with the long, slender and
sparsely leaved growth of older kinds. And the blooms in many
cases are of larger size and improved form, and better filled with
florets of the best texture. Considerable progress has also been
made in providing good types of the most desirable colors to bloom
at the various seasons, early, medium and late. Mrs. £. G. Hill and
Mrs. H. McK. Twombly, for example, are invaluable additions to
our earliest varieties, as are Eugene Dailledonze and Titian to the
mid-season set, and Challenge, Laredo and Mrs. J. George lis to the
late flowering sorts. Nivens, Fig. 52, in all essentials comes nearest
to the American ideal of a perfect variety.
The tendency to low growth in the stems, while of much 'util-
ity when blooms for cutting are the main consideration, is of far
greater importance in the production of decorative and specimen
plants. It is not forgotten that blooms with two or three feet of
stem are a necessity in the cut flower trade, but there is proba-
bly little danger of the dwarfing of the plants being carried so far
as to render the flowers they produce unmarketable or useless for
cntting. Plants for decoration and exhibition can hardly be toe-
dwarf or stocky in growth, and it is in this connection that such
varieties as Golden Ball, which may be developed in excellent form
with one-third of the labor and expense usually required in staking
and training, will ultimately assert themselves and increase in
popularity. Perhaps the one feature of chrysanthemum development
which affords little or no indication of progress is the color of the
flowers. It is true that a few novel shades have been produced, but
these are of such indifferent character tbat their utility is doubtful,
and most of them, from the florist's point of view, are certainly
valueless. The most serviceable flowers for decorative purposes,
Boobnt Chrysanthemums. 243
and hence for commercial work, are those of well defined colors,
and in this direction but little has been accomplished in the last few
years.
During the past season we grew many of the more recent kinds,
with a view to arriving at some definite conclusions in these and
kindred matters. They were grown side by side in the center
(solid) bed of a long-span-to-the-sonth greenhouse. This bed is 60
feet long by 6 feet wide, and the prepared compost, resting on a
heavy day bottom, is about 12 inches in depth, the constituents of
the mixture being decomposed clay-sod and well-rotted manure,
about three parts of the former to one of the latter. It was late in
the season when operations were begun, the plants having been
placed in position, about ten inches apart, August 9 and 10. When
they had fairly started into growth, some three weeks after planting,
a light mulching of short barnyard manure was applied, and twice
during the season tbe bed was dressed with a commercial fertilizer,
each time scattering about three pounds of the artificial manure
over the entire surface of the bed. Manure-water, prepared from
unadulterated cow-dung, was given twice a week until the bads
began to show color, when all manuring practically ceased. The
liquid was applied at first in very weak solution, using a three gal-
lon measure of the solid manure to 100 gallons of water, and
gradually increased in strength until the end. Water was applied
as the plants appeared to need it, and after bright days they were
sprayed overhead. Each plant was restricted to one stem, which
was trained to a bamboo stake, and only one bud, crown or terminal
was allowed to develop on each. As a result of the late planting,
the flowering of the plants was generally late, and a number of them,
which were rather small and weakly at the outset, failed to bloom.
In the way of comparing the varieties when grown under equal con-
ditions, however, the test was fair and carefully made.
Onr notes on the leading varieties which bloomed with us are
given in detail. In parenthesis following the name of the plant
will be found the name of the disseminator and date of distribution.
Then comes a general estimate of the variety, followed by descriptive
particulars. Where we had two or more plants of a variety, one
was grown to a crown bad and the other to a terminal. These terms
are represented by their initials in the notes set back from the mar-
gin, which refer to the taking of the buds and their arrival at the
stage of full development. The errors in names as received from
244 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
the dealers were few in number, and apparently due to displace-
ment of the labels at some time. One plant of Judge Hoitt was
received from Messrs. £. G. Hill & Co., under the name of Andes ;
Messrs. Peter Henderson & Go, and Messrs. Pitcher & Manda sap-
plied Yellow Hammer under the name of Condor; one plant of
Mrs. E. G. Hill came from Messrs. Peter Henderson & Co. nuder
the name of Mdme. Ed. Lefoit, and Messrs. Pitcher «fc Manda
described some other variety as Elizabeth Bieland in their catalogue
of 1894.
NOTES ON SOME RECENT VARIETIES GROWN AT
CORNELL. 1894.
T. Terminal — A flower or flower-bud produced by a lateral shoot.
C. Crown — The solitary flower or flower J>ud which is sometimes
borne at the extremity of the main stem.
Adele Mers (Pitcher <& Manda, 1894) — Medium quality. Stem
36 inches high, strong and erect. Flower 6 inches diameter, show-
ing center a trifle. Florets medium width ; reflexed ; moderately
firm in textnre and of rich rose color. Svn. Stanley Baxter.
Taken September 26. At best November 10.
American Eagle {Pitcher t& Manda, 1894) — Anemone. Medium.
Stem 34 inches high, rather weak. Flowers 5 to 6 inches diameter,
full and perfect ; largest and beet to crowns. Ray florets in a single
row, horizontal, medium width ; white. Disk full and high ; florets
rosy purple.
T. Taken October 8. At best November 16.
C. Taken October 8. At beet November 10.
Andes (Pitcher de Manda, 1893)— Excellent. Stem 27 inches
high, stout and erect. Flowers 6 inches diameter, very fall and
strikingly decorative. Florets broad, incurved ; the lower ones
drooping a little and slightly curled and twisted; heavy in texture
and of rich bronze-yellow color.
C. Taken October 11. At beet November 29,
A. T. Ewing (HUl & Co., 1893) — A very beautiful variety.
Stem 26 inches high, stout and erect. Flower 6 inches diameter ;
full, and very regular in shape. Florets spreading ; broad; heavv
in substance ; ground color white, margined and suffused with bril-
liant rose.
T. Taken October 16. At best November 14.
Beau Ideal (HiU *& Co., 1893) — Very good. Stem 28 inches
high, moderately strong and erect, and of equal strength under
Recent Ohrisanthemums. 215
ctowiib and terminals. Flowers ' 5^ inches diameter : full, and
equally good from crowns and terminals. Florets irregularly spread-
ing ; broad ; good id substance and of a bright pink color.
T. Taken October 11. At beet November 21*.
0. Taken October 30. At best December 13.
Beauty of Eemouth (Godfrey, 1893)— Yery good. Stem 32
inches high, and moderately strong and erect. Flowers 6 inches
diameter, very full and decorative. Florets twisted and curled in
all direction ; medium width ; firm in texture ; pure white. An
English seedling.
C. Taken October 8. At best November 8.
Bonnie Morjorie {Pitcher & Manda, 1894) — Medium. Stem
35 inches high, rather weak. Flower 4J inches diameter, fnll and
of good form. Florets broad ; heavy in texture ; incurved and of
pale yellow color.
T. Taken September 26. At best November 11.
Challenge {HiU & Co., 1894) — A choice variety. Stem 20 to
SO inches high, weakest and shortest under terminals, stout and
erect under crowns. Flowers massive, 5 to 6 inches diameter ;
largest and best from crowns ; very deep and full. Florets partially
incurved ; broad ; firm of texture ; light yellow in color.
T. Taken September 28. At best November 29.
C. Taken September 28. At best November 29.
Charles Davis (Davis, 1894) — Extra fine. Stem 27 to 35
inches high, moderately strong and erect, strongest and longest
under terminals. Flowers 6 to 6} inches diameter, very full and
graceful ; largest and best from terminals. Florets irregularly
renexed ; broad ; of medium substance and light bronze color. This
is of English origin, a sport from Viviand Morel, and one of the
few European varieties that do well in this country.
T. Taken September 27. At best November 1.
C. Taken September SS8. At best November 6.
Charlotte (Pitcher <6 Manda, 1894) — Medium quality. Stem
30 to 36 inches high, strong and erect, shortest and strongest under
crowns. Flower 5 inches diameter, full and of good depth. Florets
regularly incurved ; texture moderate ; medium width ; ivory-white
in color.
T. Taken September 26. Rower deformed.
C. Taken September 27. At best November 13.
Clinton Chalfant (Chalfant, 1594) — Very good. Stem 25 to
36 inches high, moderately strong and erect, shortest and strongest
under crowns. Flower 5 inches diameter, full and perfect ;
largest and best from crowns. Florets straight ; medium width ;
,v Google
246 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaoa, N. T.
firm in an balance : color bright yellow. A sport from JoBeph A.
White. Fig. 49.
T. Taken September 28. At beet November 28.
C. Taken October 17. At beat December 9.
48.— Clinton Chalfant. (Halt Elm.)
- Creole {May, 1893) — Very good. Stem 36 inches high, strong
and erect. Flower 5 inches diameter, moderately full. Florets
irregularly incurved, extra wide, firm in texture, and of deep
amaranth color.
T. Taken October 3. At best November 18.
Elisabeth BUland (Pitcher dk Manda, 1894) — A typical Japa-
nese variety of high quality. Stem about 45 inches high, rather
weak ; strongest under terminals. Flower 7 to 8 inches diameter,
crown bnds producing those of the larger size ; very full and irreg-
Recent Chrysanthemums. 247
alar. Florets narrow ; light in texture and of canary yellow color.
A grand keeper.
T. Taken September 27. At beat November 10.
C. Taken September 13. At beet October 30.
Eugene' Daffledouze {Hill <& Co., 1894)— Superlative. Stem 40
to'45 inches high, longest to crowns ; stoat and rigid. Flower 6 to
7 inches diameter, crowns larger and fuller than terminals ; of great
BO.— Eugene D&EUedouxe. (Half Slie.)
depth. Florete wide and of heavy substance ; irregularly incurved ;
rich orange yellow. Fig. 50.
T. Taken October 3. At best November 10.
C. Taken October 3. At best November 21.
Q-wrza {Pitcher & Manda, 1894) — Anemone. Very good.
Stem 19 to 26 inches high, eqnally strong under crowns and ter-
248 Aqhicultdkai. Expbbimbnt Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
urinals. Flower 5 inches diameter ; very perfect ; beet blooms from
crown bade. Disk full and compact ; florets white, tinged light yel-
low. Ray florets broad, pure white ; standing out horizontally.
T. Taken September 26. At best November 9.
C. Taken October 11, At beet November 22.
George E. Cause (Hill <& Co., 1893) — Yery good. Stem 84
inches nigh ; rather weak, though erect. Flower 6 inches diameter ;
very full and of great depth. Florets irregularly spreading ; medium
width ; light of texture ; reddish-bronze color.
T. Taken September 27. At beet Nov. 20.
George Schlegel (Pitcher dk Manda, 1894) — Poor quality. Stem
49 to 53 inches high ; moderately strong and erect; highest and
strongest under crowns. Flower 4J to 5 inches diameter ; largest
and Best from crowns. Florets wide j well incurved ; pure white.
T. Taken September 26. At beet November 12.
Georgienne Bramkatt (Pitcher dk Manda, 1894) — Very good.
Stem 36 to 38 inches high ; moderately strong and erect ; shortest
and strongest to crowns. Flower 5^ to 6 inches diameter ; largest
and best from crowns ; full. Florets broad, irregularly incurved,
thick in texture and of pale yellow color.
T. Taken September 26. At best November 15.
C. Taken October 16. At best November 19.
Gettysbwrgh (Henderson & Co., 1893) — Medium quality. Stem
39 inches high, strong and erect. Flower 5 inches diameter,
moderately full. Florets renexed, whirled in center; medium
width ; firm in texture ; deep crimson.
T. Taken October 8. At best November 13.
Golden Gate (Pitcher A Manda, 1893) — Poor quality. Stem
3L inches high, moderately strong. Flower 5 inches diameter,
showing center very much. Florets broad, reflexed, and of light
yellow color.
T. Taken September 27. At best November 13.
Golden Hair (Smith <& Son, 1894) — Very good. Stem 26 inches
high, stout and erect. Flower 5£ inches diameter, moderately full.
Florets irregularly incurved ; broad ; very-hairy ; of heavy substance
and rinh golden bronze color.
T. Taken October II. At best December 7.
Golden Wedding (Henderson dh Co., 1893) — One of the best.
Stem 38 inches high, stout and erect. Flower 6 inches diameter ; f nil,
and very attractive in form. Florets irregularly incurved ; medium
width and substance ; deep yellow.
T. Taken October 3. At best November 19.
Hon. Thomas Lowry (Pitcher <£ Manda, 1894) — Inferior.
Stem 36 inches high, weak. Flower 5 inches diameter, full. Floret*
DqltSMByCOOgle
Recent Chrysanthemums. 249
wide, of good substance ; pale yellow in color, faintly suffused with
rose. The disseminators class it with the hirsute sections in their
catalogue of 1894, but the florets show nothing of the hairy character
of this group with ns.
T. Taken October 3. At best November 5.
Illwrmnator (May, 1893) — Very good. Stem 45 inches high,
stout and erect. Flower 5£ inches diameter, full. Florets spreading
informally ; broad ; medium texture ; bright yellow.
T. Taken Ootober 11. At best November 15.
Ingomar {Smith & Son, 1894)— Excellent. Stem 58 inches high,
strong and erect. Flower 74 inches diameter, full and graceful.
Florets spreading ; medium width and texture ; light bronze shade.
T. Taken October 3. At best November 29.
Jessie Godfrey (Pitcher de Manda, 1R94) — Very good. Stem
40 inches high, and of medium strength. Flower 5£ inches diameter ;
very full and of good depth and excellent form. Florets incurved,
those in the center whirled ; medium width ; white, with light
traces of pink.
T. Taken September 26. At best November 8.
J. J. SHI (Pitcher <& Manda, 1894)— Medium.' Stem 42 inches
high, stont and rigid. Flower 5^ inches diameter, very full.
Florets re flexed ; medium in width and texture ; rich golden-yellow.
T. Taken September 26. At best November 15.
Joey SUl (Hill & Co., 1893)— One of the best. Stem 52 inches
high, strong and erect. Flower 6 inches diameter, very full, and
excellent in form. Florets broad, the lower ones reflexed, those in
center midway between erect aud reflexed ; strong in texture ; upper
surface rich, dark velvety red, reverse old gold color.
T. Taken September 27. At best November 6.
Judge Addison Brown. (Spaulding, 1894) — Very good. Stem
27 inchec high, moderately strong and erect, of equal height and
strength under crowns and terminals. Flower 44 to 5J- inches di-
ameter, largest and best from crowns ; very full. Florets informally
incurved ; broad ; notched at the tip ; strong in Bubstance, and of
deep bronzy-yellow color.
T. Taken September 26. At best November 23.
C. Taken October 23. At best December 8.
Judge Soitl{Sill & Co., 1893) — Anemone. G-ood and remark-
able. Stem 42 inches high, moderately strong, but rather weak-
necked. Flower 5 inches diameter, full, and of curious form. Kay
florets broad, and disposed in two or three rows. Disk very large
and perfect, the florets almost equal to the outside series in length.
The entire flower is of a delicate pink shade.
T. Taken October 8. At best November 13.
DqltSMByClOOgle
260 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
^Catherine Richards Gordon (Pitcher ds Manda, 1894)— Ex-
quisite. Stem 32 to 36 inches high, stout and erect, shortest and
strongest under crown bads. Flower 5 to 6 inches diameter ; very-
full ; moat perfect and largest from crowns. Florets irregularly
incurred ; medium width and texture ; hairy ; white in color,
beautifully tinged with pink.
T. Taken September 26. At beet October 24.
C. Taken September 27. At best October 22.
Zaredo (Smith <& Son, 1894V- -Very good. Stem 29 to 34 inches
high, stout and erect, of equal height and strength under crowns and
terminals. Flowers 5| to 6 inches diameter ; full ; smallest but
most perfect from terminals, the crown buds often developing de-
formed, though larger blooms. Florets informally spreading, broad ;
firm in texture ; deep pink.
T. Taken October 16. At beet December 8.
C. Taken Oct. 16. At best December 1.
E Enfant dee deux Mondea (Crozy, 1893) — Very good. Stem
20 to 27 inches high, weakest and longest under terminals, moder-
ately strong and erect under crowns. Flowers 5 inches diameter ;
full and of good form ; best from crowns. Florets well incurved ;
medium width and texture ; pure white and densely hairy. A sport
from Louis Boehmer, introduced from Europe.
T. Taken September 27. At best November 13.
C. Taken September 28. At best November 6.
Major Bonnaffon (Dorner & Son, 1894) — Extra fine. Stem 27
to 29 iuehes high ; shortest and moderately strong and erect under
crowns, a trine weak-necked under terminals. Flower 5 inches
diameter; very full ; faultless in form ; equally good from terminals
and crowns. Florets strictly and regularly incurved; broad; medium
texture and of a beautifully soft yellow shade. Fig. 51.
T. Taken October 11. At best November 29.
C. Taken October 11. At best November 22.
Marie Louise ( Witterstaetter, 1894) — One of the best. Stem 31
to 37 inches high, longest and weakest under terminals, strong and
erect under crowns. Flower 6 inches diameter; full and very high
in center ; longest and best from crowns. Florets irregularly ar-
ranged ; medium width ; firm of substance ; pure white.
T. Taken September 26. At best November 20.
C. Taken October 3. At best November 24.
Marion Henderson (Henderson <fe Co., 1894) — Very good. Stem
24 to 26 inches high, strong and erect, strongest and longest under
terminals. Flower 6 inches diameter; full, lasting in perfection a
long time. Florets disposed in various directions; narrow, and of
medium texture and canary-yellow color.
T. Taken September 27. At best November 18.
C. Taken September 28. At best November 1,. ...jit ,fi.
Bjuobnt Chhysanthkmdmb. 201
Mary HiU (Spaulding, 1894)— Poor quality. Stem 40 inches
high, strong and erect. Flower 7 inches diameter. Florets medium
width, spreading and showing center ; pale pink with us ; not
hairy as described in disseminator's catalogue.
C. Taken October 8. At beBt November 12.
M.— JUJor Bomuiffon. (Halt Size).
Maud Dean (HiUdc Co., 1893) — An excellent flower. Stem 28
inches high, moderately strong and erect. Flower 7 inches diameter,
very full. Florets informally incurved ; broad ; firm in texture ;
deep pink color.
T. Taken September 27. At best November 21.
Mayflower {May, 1894) — Among the best of the season. Stem
30 to 35 inches high, strong and erect ; longest to terminals.
Flowers 7 to 8 inches diameter, of great depth and exceedingly full;
crowns larger, than terminals. Florets of medium width, curled and
twisted in all directions ; creamy white and of good substance.
T. Taken September 11, At best November 17.
C. Taken October 3. At best Nov. 18.
252 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
Miles A. Weeeler {Smith cfe Son, 1893) — Poor quality. Stem
32 inches high, weak -necked. Flower 44 inches diameter, very fall
and of good form. Florets well incurved ; broad and of heavy sub-
stance; pale yellow, tinged reddish.
T. Taken October 8. At beet Nov. 23.
Miss K E. Xingsley (.Pitcher <& Manda, 1874) — Medium
quality. Stem 26 to 42 inches high, weak-necked; longest and
strongest under terminals. Flowers 5 to 5} inches diameter, rather
flat : very full and compact ; largest and best from crowns. Florets
informally, though closely incnrved ; medium in width and substance
and of a very light pink shade.
T. Taken September 26. At best December 5.
C. Taken October 3. At best November 22.
Miss F. Pullman (Pitcher <£■ Manda, 1894) — Very good.
Stem 46 inches high, stout and rigid. Flower 7 inches diameter ;
very full and of good depth. Florets partially incurved ; medium
width and of modern texture ; pure white.
T. Taken October 3. At best November 1.
Miss Hattie Bailey (Smith c6 Son, 1894) — Very good. Stem
44 inches high, stout and erect. Flower 6 inches diameter ; very
full. Florets spreading and reflexed ; broad ; strong in texture and
of deep bronze colo»
T. Taken October 11. At best November 26.
Miss Louise Bartahorn (Pitcher & Manda, 1 894) — Poor quality.
Stem 37 to 42 inches high, weak ; longest and weakest to terminals.
Flower 4J- to 5 inches diameter, showing center. Florets incnrved ;
medium width ; hairy and of pink color.
T. Taken October 16. At best November 10.
0. Taken October 18. At best November 4.
Miss T. B. Harper (Pitcher ds Manda, 1894) — Good flower.
Stem 43 inches high; medium strength, holding flower erect.
Flower 5 inches diameter; full. Florets incnrved ; narrow; pure
white.
T. Taken September 26. At best November 13.
Mrs. Archibald Ropers ( Pitcher & Manda, 1894) — Very good.
Stem 40 to 50 inches nigh, stout and erect ; longest under terminals.
Flower 54, to 6 inches diameter ; very full. Florets spreading ;
medium width ; heavy in texture and of deep rosy-purple shade.
T. Taken September 26. At best November 1.
C. Taken September 27. At best November 19.
Mrs. Charles Lanier (Pitcher tfe Manda, 1S94) — Medium
quality. Stem 50 inches high, and rather weak. Flower 5 inches
diameter; full and of good form. Florets incurved; medium
width; moderate texture and bright yellow color.
T. Taken September 26. At best November 16.
Recent Chrysanthemums. 263
Mrs.E. G.HUl (Hill <& Co., 1894) — One of the best Stem
38 inches high, stoat and erect. Flower 6 to 7 inches diameter ;
foil, and attractive in form. Florets incurved ; medium width ;
firm in texture and of bright pink color.
T. Taken September 26. At beBt October 24.
C. Taken September 28. At best October 20.
Mrs. F. Gordon Dexter {Pitcher & Manda, 1894) — Japanese
Anemone. An excellent variety. Stem 36 to 42 inches high ;
moderately strong and longest to terminals. Flower 5£ to T inches
diameter; full and perfect; best to terminals. Florets pale rose,
14. inch long. Ray florets 3 to 4 inches long, drooping about the
stem ; color white. (See page 235.)
T. Taken September 26. At best November 6.
C. Taken October 16. At best November 30.
Mrs. George J. Magee (Pitcher db Manda, 1894) — Excellent.
Stem 30 to 40 inches high, stout and rigid, highest under terminals.
Flower 6 inches diameter ; beBt from terminals ; crowns weak,
necked, showing center. Florets well incurved, wide, forming a
globular flower of great depth and solidity ; heavy in texture ; outer
surface pale pink, interior a shade darker. Keeps well.
T. Taken September 2'i. At best November 1.
C. Taken September 27. At best November 6.
Mrs. George M. Pullman (Pitcher & Manda) — Highly decora-
tive. Stem 42 to 46 inches high, stent and erect ; shortest under
crowns, rather weak-necked to terminals. Flower 6 inches diame-
ter, 9 inches when florets are held Ottt horizontally. Florets reflexed;
very long, drooping about the stem, and showing center of flower ;
wide ; firm in texture and of deep yellow color.
T. Taken September 27. At best November 9.
C. Taken October 3. At best November 25.
Mrs. H. McK. Twombly (Pitcher & Manda, 1S94)— "Very good.
Stem 27 to 30 inches high, somewhat weak under terminals, but
strong and erect to crowns. Flower 5 to 6 inches diameter, full ;
terminals largest and beet. Florets incurved ; broad ; firm in tex-
ture ; white, delicately shaded pink.
T. Taken September 26. At best November 10.
C. Taken September 28. At best November 1.
Mrs. Howard Rinek (Pitcher i& Manda, 1894) — Very good.
Stems 44 inches high ; strong but weak necked. Flower 5$ inches
diameter; very full, and of perfect globular form. Florets well
incurved ; wide; strong in texture and somewhat hairy; deep pink
on inner Biirface, silvery pink externally.
T. Taken September 26. At best October 16.
Mrs. James B. Crane (Pitcher & Manda, 1894) — Medium
quality. Stem 42 inches high, strong and erect ; equally good
under crowns and terminals. Flower 5 to 6 inches diameter, mod-
254 Agbicoltubal Experimbnt Station, Ithaca, N. T.
erately full ; largest and best from crowns. Florets irregularly in-
curved ; wide ; strong in substance and of deep rose color,
T. Taken September 28. At beat November 13.
C. Taken September 27. At best November 9.
Mrs. J. George lis (Sievers, 1894) — A grand variety. Stems 60
to 60 inches high ; strong, bnt owing to the great weight of the
flower, not erect; longest and strongest to terminals. Flower 7 to
8 inches diameter, very f nil ; largest and best from terminals.
Florets irregularly incurved ; broad ; very heavy in texture ; pure
white.
T. Taken October 11. At best December 4.
C. Taken October 8. At best December 7.
Mrs. Marshall Orane (Pitcher & Manda, 1894) — Very good.
Stem 46 inches high, medium strength. Flower 6 inches diameter,
full and of good form. Florets incurved; medium width; strong
in substance ; creamy white.
T. Taken September 26. At best November 11.
Mrs. Mary A. Forepamgh (Pitcher di Manda, 1894) — Very
riod. Stem 37 inches nigh, moderately strong and erect. Flower
incheB diameter, very full and of good shape. Florets regularly
incurved ; broad ; medium texture ; delicate pink, tipped yellow.
T. Taken September 26. At best December 5.
Mrs. Sarah Rose (Pitcher ds Manda, 1894) — Very good. Stem
43 to 46 inches high, strong and erect to crowns, weak-necked under
terminals. Flowers 6 to 6 inches diameter, full and perfect ; largest
and best from crowns. Florets slightly reflexed ; narrow ; medium
width ; pale rose.
T. Taken September 26. At best November 16.
C. Taken September 27. At best November 19.
Mrs. W. H. Trotter (Spavlding, 1894) — Very good. Stem 30
to 36 inches high, strong and erect; strongest and longest nnder
crowns. Flower 5 to 5Jj inches diameter, very full and high: larg-
est and beet from crowns. Florets spreading ; medium width and
substance ; curiously laciniated at the tip ; pure white. The flowers
of this variety develop very slowly, and on this account they are
often deformed in the center. Flowers from terminal buds are
most subject to this weakness.
T. Taken September 27- At best December 6.
C. Taken September 28. At best Dec. 5.
Mrs. W. K. VanderUU (Pitcher c6 Manda, 1894) — Very good.
Stem 40 inches high, moderately strong and erect. Flower 5-i
inches diameter, quite full. Florets spreading; medium width and
texture ; pure white.
T. Taken September 26. At best November 22.
Mrs. Wm, Trelease (Pitcher d; Manda,l$9S) — Excellent. Stem
42 incheB high, moderately strong and erect. Flower 7 inches
! Recent Chrysanthemums. 26C
diameter, very full and of good form. Florets refiexed ; medium
width ; slightly hairy and of deep pink shade.
T. Taken September 27. At beet November 20.
Mrs. W. E. Merriam {Pitcher & Morula, 1894) — Very fine.
Stem 38 inches high, strong and erect. Flower 7J inches diameter
and of good form. Florets wide and of good substance, the inner
ones incurved, those around the outside straight or slightly refiexed.
This is by no means a refiexed flower, as the raisers nave classed it.
T. Taken September 346. At best November 1.
Mutual Friend {Mann Bros., 1894) — An excellent sort. Stem 19
to 24 inches high, moderately strong and rigid ; weakest and long-
est under terminals. Flowers 5 to 0 inches in diameter, terminals
larger and fuller than crowns. Florets refiexed, irregular ; wide ;
medium substance ; pure white.
T. Taken September 25. At best November 8.
C. Taken September 25. At best November 5.
Nvoeus (Smith <& Son, 1893)— One of the best. Stem 36 to 40
inches high, stout and erect. Flower 6 inches in diameter, very
13,0 i/Goo^Ic
256 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
foil ; perfect in form. Florets incurved in center, slightly reilexed
around edge; extra wide; strong in texture; pure white. See
Fig. 52.
0. Taken October 11. At beet November 16.
Pitcher tfe Mamda {Pitcher de Manad, 1894) — Very good.
Stem 26 to 36 inches high, moderately strong and erect; strongest
and shortest nnder crowns. Flower5 to 6 inches diameter, very flat
and full ; largest and best from crowns. Florets straight and stiff ;
medium width ; the outer ones white, tinged pink ; those in the cen-
teryellowish.
T. Taken September 26. At best November 9.
C. Taken September 28. At best November 20.
President W. R. Smith {Hill & Co. 1893) — Medium quality.
Stem 30 to 36 inches high, strong and erect. Flower 5 inches
diameter ; moderately fall ; equally good from crownB and terminals.
Florets Btraight and spreading ; medium width and substance ; pale
pink color.
T. Taken October 3. At best November 8.
C. Taken October 3. At beet November 13.
R. L. Beckert {Spaulding 1894) — Very good. Stem 30 to 34
inches high, moderately strong and erect Flower 5£ to (5 inches
diameter ; full. Florets loosely incurved, the center series straight ;
medium width ; strong in texture ; deep bronze yellow,
C. Taken October 11. At beBt November 2lt.
Robert M. Grey {Pitcher dk Manda, 1894) — Poor quality.
Stem 46 to 48 inches high, moderately strong and erect ; strongest
and shortest under crowns. Flower 5 to 6 inches diameter. Florets
incurved, showing center very much ; medium width and texture ;
densely hairy, and of an odd though showy reddish tinge.
T. Taken October 11. At best Novemher 13.
C. Taken October 11. At best November 8.
Sayo-nara {Chandler, H394) — Medium quality. Stem 38 inches
high, rather weak. Flower 6 inches diameter; full, and of good
keeping character. Florets spreading, the lower ones drooping
about the stem ; medium texture ; pale sulphur-yellow color.
T. Taken September 28. At best November 10.
Silver BUZ {Pitcher db Manda, 1894) — Anemone. Medium
quality. Stem 23-26 inches high, rather weak ; strongest and short-
est under terminals. Flower 3 j to 4 inches diameter, and fairly
perfect; largest and beBt from crowns. Kay florets horizontal,
arranged in several rows ; narrow ; pure white. Disk full and of
good form ; florets white, tipped yellow.
T. Taken September 26. At best November 6.
C. Taken September 27. At beet November 11.
,v Google
Reobnt Cheybanthmmums. 267
Thomas Emerson {Pitcher & Manda, 1894)— Fairly good.
Stem 28 inches high, strong and erect. Flower 6 inches diameter ;
somewhat loose. Florets incurved; broad; medium substance;
brigbtyellow.
0. Taken September 26, At beat November 6.
Titian (May, 1894) — A superlative variety. Stem 36 inches
high, stout and erect. Flower 7 inches diameter; very full and of
great depth and tine form. Florets broad ; renesed ; firm in texture
and of a deep rosy pink shade.
C. Taken October 8. At beet November 17.
Toucan (Pitcher <& Manda, 1894) — Anemone. Poor quality
with us. Stem 30 inches high, moderately firm. Flower 3J inches
diameter, poor in form and color. Disk florets yellowish ; rays pale
red.
C. Taken October 2. At beet November 23.
Wanlass (Spaulding, 1894) — Very good. Stem 50 inches high,
strong and erect. Flower 5 inches diameter, very full. Florets
informally incurved ; medium width ; solid substance, silvery pink
in color, the interior florets tipped yellow.
T. Taken October 11. At best December 6.
W. C. Cook (Pitcher & Manda, 1894) — Medium quality. Stem
48 inches high, rather weak. Flower 54 inches diameter, moder-
ately full and compact. Florets incurved; wide; good in texture ;
color deep yellow. Syn. Chas. A. Jessnp.
T. Taken October 26. At beet November 13.
W. G, NevM (Httt ds Co., 1893) — Very good. Stem 30 inches
high, stout and erect. Flower 5 inches diameter, very fall. Florets
somewhat irregularly disposed, the outer ones reflexed, those in the
center erect or slightly incurved ; texture medium ; pure white.
T. Taken October 11. At best November 12.
William. Seward (Seward, 1892) — Very good. Stem 23 inches
high, stout and erect. Flower 6 inches diameter, very foil. Floreta
loosely spreading ; medium width and texture ; dark crimson.
European.
0. Taken October 8. At best November 9.
Yellow Sammer (Pitcher t& Manda, 1894) — Excellent. Stem
38 inches high ; a trifle weak ; strongest under crowns. Flower
4 to 5 inches diameter ; crowns largest and best. Ray florets of
medium width, arranged in single horizontal row; bright yellow.
Disk very full and perfect; florets of a deeper yellow shade
than rays.
T. Taken October 3. At best November 25.
C. Taken October 10. At best November 23.
17
v Google
258 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. T.
Methods of Cultivation.
Many systems of cultivation are employed, and as each method
has its special advantages, that to he adopted must be decided by
the individual grower according to his circumstances. The plants
are propagated during the spring months, grown in pots for a time,
and finally placed in benches or borders under glass. They may
also be grown in pots throughout the year, or planted in the open
ground for the summer months and transferred to pots early in
autumn. The best results are undoubtedly obtainable under pot
culture, as witness the marvellous plants and blooms produced by
this process in England ; and the best plants we have bo far seen in
this country have been grown in pots. The reason of this is not
difficult to trace. The roots of plants in pots are confined to certain
limits and beneficial food, and a grower of ordinary experience may
readily supply any nourishment which, from the behavior of the
plant, appears to be lacking, or withhold any injurious application
of water or stimulants. This cannot he accomplished successfully
by any other mode of culture. But except in those rare instances
where fully developed specimens are desired for exhibition pur-
poses, exclusive pot culture is not advisable in this country. The
heat and drought of our summers render it too expensive.
Where marketable or exhibition blooms are required, beds or
benches under glass afford the most economical means of growing
these plants. There is, as has been lately evidenced in the horti-
cultural press, some disparity of opinion as to the relative merits of
beds and benches. It should be understood that the term bed here
applies to a solid mass of earth the sides of which may be defined
by boards or masonry, but the body of soil of indefinite thickness,
with from six to eight inches of prepared compost on the top. A
bench, on the other hand, has bottom and sides restricted, with
capacity for a body of soil averaging six inches in depth. Our
experience has amply demonstrated that the benches, under proper
treatment, give the best results. The condition of the soil, as to
moisture and fertility, can be better controlled in the latter ; and in
this regard bench culture comes nearer the perfection of pot treat-
ment than any other system. One great difference presents itself in
that the plants, with roots spreading at will throughout the soil,
must be treated collectively rather than individually. This is a
drawback of no mean importance where numerous varieties are planted
indiscriminately in the same bench, but one which may be eliminated
Bbobnt Chbybanthsuuus. 269
to an appreciable degree by growing the plants of each variety in par-
tially isolated batches, or, as is the common practice in large commer-
cial establishments, by devoting an entire bench to a single variety.
Although hardly so satisfactory as benches, beds have some
advantages. A point largely in their favor is their still greater
economy. The material and work of a bottom are saved, and this
becomes a very important item when the receipts and expenditures
are compared. There is a further saving in labor, for the watering
of plants in beds does not require each persisted attention as that of
those in pots or benches. An experienced grower, by the exercise
of good judgment in watering, may often secure blooms in beds
fully equal in quality to the best raised on benches.
With regard to the financial side of chyBanthemum growing it
must be said that there are at least ten purchasers of moderate priced
flowers of medium quality to every one who will demand blooms
of faultless character and pay the highest price for them. The
writer has an impression that the proportion in favor of the inferior
flowers is on the whole much greater than this, although the assur-
ances given him by retail dealers of long standing in eastern cities
do not exceed the degree stated. Some will be inclined to say on
the strength of this reasoning that it would not be profitable to
grow flowers of the best quality. This would be an erroneous im-
pression, tending to defeat the purpose of these remarks, which is to
encourage the best rather than excuse questionable methods, and
yet to assure those of inferior opportunity that their position
is by no means hopeless. The number of growers who produce
lower grade flowers is far in excess of those who can rise to the
greater requirements of their profession, and so far there is no
reason to believe that the supply of greenhouse products of high
quality is greater than the general demand. Poor flowers do not
sell to advantage, but there are many profitable grades between the
poor and the best. Perhaps the lowest grade of marketable flowers
are those obtained from plants grown out of doors during the Hum-
mer months. These plants are taken up in August and placed in
pots or boxes. During the latter part of September, when the
nights become chilly, they are removed to a sunny greenhouse,
where in due time they bloom profusely. The flowers of such
plants, in their natural clusters, are much esteemed by many pur-
chasers ; and if the plants themselves have had some little staking
and training after potting, they can be Bold readily.
260 Agricoltubal Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
Insects Friends and Enemies.
The insects most commonly found on chrysanthemums are here-
named and some descriptions of them and their work, with instruc-
tions for the eradication of detrimental kinds, are given to enable
the inexperienced to deal with all according to their deserts.
Ants. — The little brown ants so common in greenhouses and on
plants grown therein are not injurious. Occasionally they appear
in such large numbers that their presence is objectionable ; but it
should be remembered that they are great scavengers, and while
working little or no injury to the plants, they clear them of a lot of
objectionable matter in the form of dead and dying insects. Their
presence should therefore be tolerated.
Black Aphis. — Entomologists are undecided about the specific
position of the much dreaded black aphis of the chrysanthemum,
although it is apparently one of the commonest of the plant lice of
greenhouses. It multiplies with amazing rapidity, and is found on
the young shoots and leaves of many cultivated plants, being very
partial to chrysanthemums, deforming the foliage and destroying
its vitality. It is easily held in check by the frequent application
of pyrethrum powder, or by fumigation with tobacco.
Caterjrittarg. — The green caterpillars which abound on chryaan-
mums indoors and out, all through the growing season, are very de-
structive. They live npon the fleshy portion of the leaves, leaving
only the thin epidermal covering of the npper surface, and occasion-
ally devouring the leaves bodily. Sometimes they also attack the
soft young shoots, treating them in similar fashion. They are easily
traced by their work and their blackish excrement, and they should
be at once picked off and destroyed. Usually they are found on the
under side of the leaves.
Cfaysopa, — We have a friend in the larva? of the lace wing &y,
of the group of insects known to entomologists under the name of
Chrysopa, which is an insatiable enemy of aphids and kindred peats.
This larva is of greyish color, and nearly an inch in length. It
kills and devours the minor insects in large numbers, and in this
respect is certainly one of the best helpers of plant growers. The
perfect insect is extremely pretty, having beautiful green lace-like,
wings and golden eyes.
Green Fly. — Perhaps the most familiar of all greenhouse insects
is the aphis commonly known as the green fly. The young and
tender branches of soft-wooded plants are its favorite abode, and
Bbobnt Chrysanthemums. 261
where once it gets a footing, it speedily becomes plentiful. The
insects feed upon the juices of the plant, which soon shows the re*
suit in its sickly appearance and. ultimate death. The insects and
their deposits also render the foliage and flowers very unsightly
even before they have effected any serious injury. Tobacco smoke
is the best remedy.
Lady Birds are common everywhere during the summer
months, and they sometimes make their appearance in green-
houses in winter and spring. They and their larvse feed largely
on the various apbids, and in this way do valuable work while they
cause no injury to the plants. Sometimes they are very common, and
, appear to pervade every nook and corner, and at other times it is
difficult to find a single specimen. They should never be destroyed.
Mites. — Much havoc was made among verbenas some, years ago
by insects commonly known as mites. This is the two-spotted
mite, Teiranyohua bimaculatat, a close relative of the red spider.
It appears to be common now in the greenhouses of many parts of
the country, attacking plants of various kinds, chrysanthemums
among the number. It is a small whitish insect, more incon-
spicuous than the red spider, and affects the plants in much the
same way. It is extremely difficult of eradication, and thrives best
in a dry atmosphere. If the house and plants are kept constantly
damp, the mite does less damage. It can also be despatched with
kerosene emulsion. The emulsion should be diluted — twenty-five
to thirty parts of water to one of the emulsion — and applied often,
say three or four times or even more a month. Two applications
made in quick succession will probably annihilate all the fully
developed insects on the plants, but the numerous eggs are probably
still unaffected, and in the course of a week or two the plants are
as bad as ever. A dilute mixture iB preferable to a strong one for
the reason that it spreads more readily over every part of the plant,
and some care should be taken to wet the entire plant. The mites
are generally most numerous on the lower side of the leaves, and
particular pains should be taken in applying the material to these
parts. It is generally supposed that the peculiar " frozen" appear-
ance of Golden Wedding and other varieties is due to the ravages
of these insects, but this is a mistake. The trouble with those
varieties is of au altogether different nature, and one that is said to
be caused by a fungus, which may be exterminated by a liberal use
of Bordeaux mixture.
262 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
Bed Spider. — Like the preceding, the red spider, Te&rawychus
tdari-w of scientists, is so small that it has often done serious
injury before it is noticed. In a dry atmosphere it forms a regular
maze of web-work on the under side of the leaves of the plants, and,
if unchecked, in time extends over every part of the entire collec-
tion. The treatment is to keep the plants and houses damp.
Tarnished Plant Bug {Lygua pratensis). — Among chrysanthe-
mum growers this pest is perhaps better known as the chrysanthe-
mum fly. This insect is very common, and we are indebted to it
for the injury known as " blind growths " or " blind bnds." It is
of stout build, about one-fourth of an inch in length, and of brown-
ish or yellowish color. It attacks a great variety of plants, both
ornamentals and fruit plants, and seems especially fond of chrys-
anthemums. Anyone who has collected soeds of our hardy herb-
aceous perennials in autumn must have come in contact with it, for
it abounds in the flower heads of asters, solidagos and the like. It
punctures the young growths, buds and leaves of chrysanthemums,
extracting and subsisting on their juices, and thus renders them
useless. Pyrethrum powder and kerosene emulsion are the best
preparations for destroying the pest, but where the insects are few
in number they may be collected by hand with little trouble.
Tkripe. — Several species of these little insects infest garden plants.
It is known that they injure the foliage by mutilation and by with-
drawing its fluids, and their black deposits have the effect of putting a
decided stop to the development of the leaves. When the dark, round-
ish spots are noticed, both surfaces of the leaves of plants out of doors
should be thoroughly sprayed with tobacco water, and plants in simi-
lar circumstances under glass should he fumigated with tobacco.
A Recent Bud Trouble. — A new source of annoyance has
appeared within the past year in the form of the premature death
of the flower bnds. The stem
immediately beneath the bud
swells to some extent, and this
is followed by the gradual
. decay of the bud and a small
i, as in Fig. 53. At first it was
uble was confined to the variety
• reports prove this to be erro-
he prominent varieties being
affected in the same way, and we have had the variety Red Eobin
Recent Chrysanthemums. 293
attacked while Challenge grown in the same house remained Tin-
harmed. It has been said that mites are the cause of the malady,
and again it is attributed to a fungus, while others look for a bac-
terial origin. It is more probably due to external mechanical injury
caused by some insect much larger than the mites, or in disbud-
ding. In any case it would be well to take the precaution of allow-
ing the buds to attain to good dimensions previous to disbudding.
SUMMARY.
Popular interest in chrysanthemums in America dates from the
distribution and extensive advertising of the variety Mrs. Alphens
Hardy in 1888-89.
Varieties for commercial purposes should have dwarf stems (from
three to four feet high), strong and erect, furnished with luxuriant
foliage to the base of the flowers, which should be large (from four
to eight inches in diameter), doable, and of a distinct shade of color.
For the purpose of American growers, the American varieties are
in general far superior to those of foreign origin.
New varieties should be submitted to the Crysanthemum Society
of America, or its representatives, before being placed on the
market. Growers should support the society in its efforts to pre-
vent the increase of synomyms.
Among the new varieties of last year the best for commercial
purposes at our place were Eugene Dailledonze and Major Bon-
naffon, yellow ; Mayflower and Marie Louise, white ; Mrs. E. G-.
Hill and Laredo, pink ; and Charles Davis and Ingomar, bronze.
The best flowers are obtained by bench culture, although good
marketable blooms are more cheaply raised on solid beds.
Some study should be given to the insects which infest the plants,
so that the helpful ones may be readily distinguished from those of
injurious character. The leading injurious ones are black aphis,
green fly, mites and thrips.
The plants are kept free from insect pests by using either pryeth-
rnm powder, kerosene emulsion or tobacco, the last to be applied in
the powder form or in frequent light fumigation.
As the premature decay of the flower buds is probably due to
external injury, greater care should be exercised in disbudding,
allowing the bads to attain to a good size before commencing the
operation.
MICHAEL BARKER.
264 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
THE TESTING OF VARIETIES.
In answer to inquiries respecting our attitude towards the testing
of varieties, I append the following statements of the methods
which the Horticultural Division of the Cornell Experiment Station
has uniformly pursued. We refuse to test varieties simply because
they are new. Our basis of study is the monograph — the investi-
gation of a particular subject, rather than the indiscriminate grow-
ing of things which chance to be put upon the market in a given
year, and which have no relationship to each other aside from a
coincidence in date. When we take up a certain group of plants
for study, we endeavor to secure every variety of it, old or new.
These varieties are studied not only in the field, but botanical speci-
mens are invariably made of every one,'so that the experimenter has
specimens before him for leisurely stndy when the hurry of field
work and the excitement of bug catching are done. We are always
glad to receive the seed novelties of any year, but we do not agree
to report upon them or even to grow them. If we were to attempt
to grow them all, we should simply be making a museum of curiosi-
ties, and we would have no time left for investigation and experi-
ment. More than this, we have to admit that we are incompetent
to make a test of all novelties. An opinion of a novelty is of no
value unless the person who gives it is well acquainted with all, or
at least most, of the other varieties of the plant, and we find it
impossible to know all garden plants. There are many kinds of
fruits and vegetables with which we have only a passing acquaint
ance, and itwonld be presumptuous for us to affect a critical knowl-
edge of any variety of them, simply because it happened to be
introduced in any given year.
Seedsmen and others, therefore, must not expect reports upon the
novelties which they send us, unless the varieties happen to be of
plants to which we are giving explicit study. Roots and trees
which are sent ns are always planted as a part of our collection, and
they are given the same attention as other parts of our plantation ;
but we do not agree to test them for publication, although we are
always glad to make a written statement of their behavior.
L. H. BAILEY.
,v Google
BULLETIN 92— May, 1895.
Cornell University— Agricultural Experiment Station.
AGRICULTURAL DIVISION.
ON THE EFFECT OF
FEEDING FAT TO COWS
By HE.vnr H. Wim.
)ijiio,aWGoosIe
ORGANIZATION.
Board of Control-The Trustees of the University.
STATION COUNCIL.
PreMdent, JACOB GOULD SCHTJRMAN.
Hon. A. D. WHITE Tnuteeo/tke Unltertity.
PROFESSOR I. P. ROBERTS I'reaident State Agricultural Society.
PXOFE8S0R I. P.ROBERTS Agriculture.
PROFESSOR Q. C. CALDWELL Chemistry.
ProfkssOR JAMES LAW Veterinary Science.
Professor A. N. PRENTISS Botany.
PROFESSOR J. H. COM8TOCK Entomology.
Professor L. H. BAILEY Horticulture.
Professor H. H. WING Dairy Husbandry.
Professor G. F. ATKINSON Cryptogenic Botany.
OFFIOEBS Or THE STATION.
I. P.ROBERTS Director.
E. L. WILLIAMS Treasurer.
H. W.SMITH Clerk.
ASSISTANTS.
M. V. SLDSGERLAND Entomology.
GEO. O.WATSON Agrieulturt.
G. W. CAVANAUGH Chemistry.
E. G. LODEMAN Horticulture.
MICHAEL BARKER Horticulture.
Office of the Director, 20 Morrill Hall.
Those desiring this Bulletin sent to friends will plea
tbe parties. .^___ ^^_
Bulletins of 1895.
84. Tbe Recent Apple Failures in Western New York.
85. Whey Butter.
86. Spraying of Orchards.
87. The Dwarf Lima Beans.
88. Early Lamb Raising.
89. Feeding Pigs.
90. The Chioa Asters.
91. Recent Chrjsuuthemums.
92. On the Effect of Feeding Fat to Cows.
,v Google
On the Effect of Feeding Fat to Cows.
It is the common opinion of dairymen that the food exerts a great
influence upon the quality of the milk, although experiments have
long since shown that, in most cases, the quality of the milk is de-
pendent upon the individuality of the cow and is very little affected
by the food. The first experiments leading to these conclusions
were made in Germany, but several of the American Experiment
Stations have experimented along the same lines and in general
have confirmed the results of the foreign experimenters.
These experiments, for the most part, have been made to show
the influence of rations relatively rich or poor in nitrogen upon the
quality of the milk. Comparatively few experiments have been
made to show the influence of rations relatively rich or poor in fat
upon the milk. This is no doubt due to the fact that it has long
been conceded that the nitrogenous part of the ration is the source
of a large part, if not all, of the fat in the milk. There have, how-
ever, been some experiments made upon feeding foods rich in fat.
The most important of those made in this country were made by
Wood of the New Hampshire Agricultural Experiment Station,* in
which cotton-seed oil, palm oil, cocoanut oil, oleo oil and stearin were
added to a ration composed of hay and ensilage and a grain ration
of eight pounds of equal parts of ground oats and middlings. The
oils were fed in turn to three different cows in periods of two weeks
each. Daily analyses of the milk were made and the conclusions
arrived at were as follows :
" That the first effect of an increase of fat in the cow's ration was
to increase the per cent, of fat in the milk.
" That with the continuance of such a ration, the tendency was for
the milk to return to its normal condition.
" That the increase in fat is not due to the oils, but to the un-
natural character of the ration.
"New Hampshire Experimental Station, Bulletin No. 20.
Google
268 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
" That the results of feeding oilo tend to confirm the conclusions
that the composition of a cow'b milk is determined by the individu-
ality of the cow, and that although an unusual food may disturb for
a time the composition of the milk, its effect is not continuous."
JuretBchke has found* as a result of the addition of four to five
pounds per thousand pounds live weight, of cotton seed cake, rape
cake, and peanut cake to a basal ration consisting of hay, straw,
brewers' grains and wheat bran, that the " milk secretion is not
directly, but only indirectly, affected by the feeding, and that the
feeding of large amounts of fat does not increase the amount of
butter fat in the milk."
Spierf concludes as follows, as the result of feeding cows on
pasturage, brewers' grains and potatoes with bean meal, cotton-seed
cake, barley meal and linseed cake, that "although the quantity of
milk is easily influenced up to a certain point by the food supply,
the quality is not materially altered by any ordinary mixed food.
" The proportion of butter fat is very little influenced by foods
containing a large percentage of oil, such as linseed or cotton cake,
nor yet by albuminous food, such as bean or pea meal, decorticated
cotton cake, etc."
On the other hand, some' experiments made by Mr. Henry Van
Dreser, of Cohleakill, N. Y., aud reported in Hoard's Dairyman,
Vol. XXV, No. 18, p. 288, June 22, 1894, have shown a remarkable
increase in the yield of fat by the addition of tallow to the ordinary
ration.
In brief, Mr. Van Dresers methods and results were as follows :
The cows, thoroughbred Holsteins, had been receiving a ration of
thirty pounds of ensilage per day with hay at noon, with a grain
ration of six pounds of a mixture of two parts of wheat bran, and
one part each of cotton-seed meal and corn meal. The skim milk
was also fed back to the cows. At the beginning, one-quarter of
a pound per cow per day of clean beef tallow was shaved up and
mixed with the grain ration. The cows ate the tallow readily,
and in the course of two weeks the amount was increased to two
pounds per day. At the end of five weeks, a week's butter teat was
made of each cow, the results being as follows ;
•Molkerei 8eHung, Vol. VII. 38, p. 618.
t Trail iittttiouH of Uighknd mid Agricultural Society of Scotland, 1894, p. 83.
D.aitoe0t>yGoOQle
The Effect of Feeding Pat to Cows.
NUMBER OF COW.
Weight.
Butter in one
»offc before
feeding tallow
Butter In one
feed log tallow
Gain per
oent. T)j
tallow8
1,189
1,130
1,168
1,000
Lb*.
14.00
12.00
8.50
13.06
Lb«.
20.00
17.05
16.875
17.06
The result of this experiment was bo striking and bo contrary to
the results of similar experiments made previously that it seemed to
be worth while to carry the investigation a little further.
On September 14, 1894, five cows of different ages and at differ-
ent periods of lactation were selected from the University herd
for an experiment in feeding tallow. The cowb were as fullowa :
Emma, -J-| Holstein, 4 years old, in milk 4 months and 10 days.
Freddie, J Holstein, 9 years old, in milk 15 days.
Garnet Valentine, 73,783 A. J. C. C. H. R, 3 years old, in milk
15 days.
Pearl, -J Holstein, 6 years old, in milk 25 days.
Pet, j- Holstein, 9 years old, in milk 5 months.
The cows were at pasture and were receiving a grain ration of 8
pounds per day of an equal mixture of wheat bran and cotton-seed
meal. This, they continued to receive. During the first week from
September 14th to 81st no change was made in the ration. The fat
was determined in each milking separately by the Babcock test. At
the conclusion of the first week 4 ounces of tallow per day were
added to the grain ration night and morning. The cows ate the
tallow readily and as fast as seemed best the amount of tallow was
increased, four ounces at a time, until all of the cows were eating
two pounds each per day. This occurred during the fourth week
with all of the cows except Pet who seemed to be less fond of the
tallow than the others, and did not eat the full ration until the fifth
week. The experiment was then continued until the end of the
tenth week, when the tallow was discontinued and the milk weighed
and fat determinations made for two weeks longer.
For the first six weeks after beginning to feed the tallow, sepa-
rate determinations of the fat were made for each cow for each
milking. From the seventh week on, samples were taken from each
,v Google
270 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. T.
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Tea Effect ow Feeding Fat to Cows. 271
milking for each cow separately, and a composite test of the same'
made each week. In the table above is shown the amount of grain
and tallow connumed each week by each cow.
It will be seen that the tallow was regularly consumed in full
amount by nearly all of the cows. The only exceptions were that
Garnet Valentine refused one feed in the fifth week and one in the
seventh week.
As the season advanced and the pastures began to fail the cows
were fed dry corn stalks, and on November 6th, during the seventh
week, they began to be fed corn ensilage of good quality, carrying
a fair crop of ears, and mixed clover and timothy hay. This date
really began the period of winter feeding.
No visible effect was noticeable in the health of the cows at any
time during the experiment from the effect of feeding tallow, and
weights made on November 1st and December 3d showed that the
cows had practically neither gained nor lost in weight. The yield
in milk and fat is shown in Table II.
It will be seen that in general there was no effect in either the
yield of milk or percentage of fat that could be traced to the feeding
of the tallow. During the first two or three weeks the percentage
of fat rose slightly with several of the animals, notably Garnet Val-
entine and Pet, bat toward the close of the experiment the percent-
age of fat fell slightly with some of the animals, notably Emma and
Freddie. There was a constant downward tendency in the yield of
milk with all the animals, due undoubtedly to the advancing season
and the change from pasture to winter feed.
After the experiment had continued for three or four weeks and
it was seen that no very marked changes in the quality of the milk
were taking place it was decided to select another lot of cows for
further experiment. There were in the herd several two-year-old
heifers that had recently calved. They were quite thin in flesh and
giving small amounts of milk of not very good quality. Several of
these heifers were selected for the second lot, the idea being that
perhaps they would be more susceptible to radical changes in the
food. The second lot of five was selected on October 19th, consist-
ing of the following:
Clara, grade Jersey, 2 years, 9 months old, in milk ten days.
Dora, <f$ Holstein, 3 years and 2 months old, in milk 1 month and
20 days.
,v Google
272 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
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9.110
8.982
9.717
9.266
10.248
8.676
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6.886
7.979
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274 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. T.
Gazelle, grade Jersey, 6 years and 9 months old, in milk 1
month.
May 2d, | Holetein, 1 year and 11 months old, in milk 1 month.
Nora, |- Holstein, 2 years and 1 month old, in milk 20 days.
The details of the experiment with the second lot were in all
respects the same as with the first, except that they were on the
winter feed for a greater part of the time and that the grain fed to
the second lot was composed of 8 pounds of a mixture one fourth
bran and three-fourths gluten meal by weight, and in the feeding
we were able to get the cows upon the full feed of 2 pounds of
tallow each per day in the third week instead of the fourth. The
amount of feed consumed is shown in Table III. No difficulty was
found in getting the animals to eat the tallow. The health of all
of the animals remained good and no appreciable change in live
weight took place.
It will be seen that the tallow was readily and regularly eaten by
nearly all of the animals. The exceptions were that Clara and
Gazelle only ate a pound and a half per day during the greater part of
the fifth week and Nora refused a part of two feeds in the seventh
week. The yield in milk And fat of Lot II is shown in Table IV.
It will be seen that, as with Lot I, there were no variations in the
percentage of fat that could be ascribed to the effect of the tallow.
At least, there was no increase. The greatest change in percentage
of fat was seen in the gradual decrease in the two two-year-old Hol-
stein heifers, May 2d and Nora. There were two fluctuations in the
percentage of fat in the cows in both lots, but they were intermit-
tent and not progressive.
The time of the experiment fell very naturally into four divisions
or periods :
First. The period of one week before beginning to feed the
tallow.
Second. The preliminary period of three or four weeks during
which the amount of tallow fed was gradually increasing.
Third. The period of full feeding, six or seven weeks.
Fourth. The final period of two weeks after the tallow was taken
away.
In table V the average yield of milk per day for each cow and
the average per cent, of fat for the whole period is grouped together,
and to this has been added the average yield of milk per day and
percentage of fat two months after the close of the experiment.
DqltSMByCOOgle
Thb Effect of Feeding Fat to Cows.
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276 Agricultural Espbrihhnt Station, Ithaoa, N. Y,
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I. One week, before feeding tal-
low, Sept. 14 to 2]
II. Four weeks, preliminary amt.
of tallow increasing, Sept.
III. Sixweeks,on full feed of tal-
low, Oct. 19 to Nov. 30...
IV. Two weeks, after feeding tal-
low, Nov. 30 to Dec. 14 . . .
Two months afterward, week
1
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I. One week, before feeding tal-
low, Oct 19 to 26
II. Three weeks, preliminary,
amt of tallow increasing,
Oct 26 to Nov. 16
III. Seven weeks, on full feed ol
' *■ ' tallow, Nov. 16 to Jan. 4 .
IV. Two weeks, after feeding tal-
low, Jan. 4 to 18
Two months afterward, week
ending March 18
.Google
278 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaoa, N. Y.
Id table Y it is seen there is no very marked change in the per-
centage of fat and yield of milk in the period when the cows were
on a fall feed of tallow. While there are slight variations in the
percentage of fat, they rarely reach one-half of one per cent, and
what is of more significance the; are not uniform. Some of the
cows gave richer milk and some poorer on a full feed of tallow than
they did before or after.
It is of interest to note the average daily yield of milk and the
percentage of fat for each cow two months after the close of the
experiment which is included in Table V. It will be seen that all
the cows except Pet were still giving practically the same amount
of milk of the same quality, and Pet at this time had practically
reached the end of her period of lactation.
CONCLUSION.
In this quite extended trial there has been no increase in the fat
in the milk by feeding tallow to the cows in addition to a liberal
grain ration. These results were obtained with ten different cows,
of two breeds of various ages, in various periods of lactation, extend-
ing over a period of ten weeks, for at least six of which they ate
two pounds per head, per day of tallow.
HENRY H. WING.
,v Google
Trade Values of Fertilizing: Ingredients in Raw Materials and
Chemicals. Season of 1895.
Frequent inquiries lead as to believe that the following informa-
tion is timely :
IBM IBM.
Onta Odu
per pound, par pound .
rfitrogon in ammonia salts l&J 19
Nitrogen in nitrite* 15 14*
Organic nitrogen In dry and fine ground Bah, meat, blood, and
iu high-grade mixed fertilizer* 16i 18,
Organic nitrogen in cotton-seed meal 12 15
Organic nitrogen in fine ground bone and tankage 16 16,
-Organic nitrogen in fine ground medium bone and tankage 11 16
Organic nitrogen in medium bone and tankage 11 13
Organic nitrogen in coarse bone and tankage 5 T
Organio nitrogen in hair, horn shavings, and coarse fish scraps. 5 7
Phosphoric acid soluble in water 6 6
Phosphorio acid soluble in ammonium citrate SJ 5i
Phosphoric acid in fine boue and tankage 6} 5)
Phosphoric acid In fine medinm bone and tankage *i H
Phosphoric acid in medinm bone and tankage 3 3
Phosphoric acid in coarse bone and tankage 3 3
Phosphoric aeidin fine ground fish, cotton-seed meal, and wood
ashes 5 S
Phosphoric acid iu sol nblu (in am. oit.) in mixed fertilizer" 2 3
Potash as high grade sulphate, and in mixtures free from
muriate Si 5
Potash as muriate 4, 4r
The manurial constituents contained in feedstnffs are valued as
follows :
Organic nitrogen 16 ft
Phosphorio acid 5 6
Potash J>i _6_
In applying the foregoing prices to the guaranteed analysis of a
commercial fertilizer it should be remembered that no allowance
has been made for mixing the fertilizer, commission or freight to
interior points, as the prices given are the average wholesale prices
280 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
in the larger cities on the Atlantic sea board for aiz months'previous
to March, 1895.
It should be remembered that ammonia is 82.3 per cent, nitrogen ;
that sulphate of potash is 54. per cent, actual potash, and muriate
(chloride) of potash 68.5 per cent, actual potash.
In buying and applying commercial plant food the following
brief rules, may be adhered to in the majority of cases :
Chemicals or mixed fertilizers of high grade furnish cheaper^plant
food than those of a low grade.
Wherever a good crop of clover or other leguminous plantaJcan
he grown they will produce nitrogen cheaper than it can be obtained
in commercial fertilizers.
Well-drained upland soils are usually defient in nitrogen but'not
in phosphoric acid.
Reclaimed low lands are frequently deficient in phosphoric acid,
but contain an abundance of nitrogen.
Muriate of potash should not be applied to sugar beets,[tobacco
or potatoes.
Frnit trees making a yearly growth of from six inches to one foot
do not need nitrogen but are usually benefited by a moderate'ap-
plication of potash and phosphoric acid.
The greater the leaf surface of a plant the more potash it requires.
Nitrogen salts should be applied only in such quantities as meet
the requirements of the crop, on account of the liability of loss from
leaching.
Nitrates should always be applied on the surface to a growing
crop.
Malta* byGoOgle
BULLETIN 93— May, 1895.
Cornell University— Agricultural Experiment Station.
ENTOMOLOGICAL DIVISION.
THE CIGAR-CASE BEARER
IN WESTERN NEW YORK.
■ M. V. Sldjgeeland.
)ijiio,awGoOgIe
ORGANIZATION.
Board of Control— The Trustees of the University.
station cotjnctx.
President, JACOB GOULD 8CHURMAN.
Hon. A. D. WHITE Trustee of the University.
Professor I.P.ROBERTS President State Agricultural Soviety.
Professor I. P. HOBEKT3 Agriculture.
Professor G. C. CALDWELL Chemistry.
Professor JAMES LAW Veterinary Science.
Professor A. N. PRENTISS Botany.
Professor J. H. COM STOCK Entomology.
Professor L. H. BAILEY Hortioulture.
Professor H. H. WING Dairy Husbandry.
Professor G. F. ATKINSON Cryptogamio Botany.
077ICEBS 07 THE STATION.
LP. ROBERTS Director,
E. L.WILLIAMS Treasurer.
H.W.SMITH -. Clerk.
ASSISTANTS.
M. V. SLTNGERLAND Entomology.
GEO. C.WATSON Agriculture.
G. W. CAVANAUGH Chemistry.
E. G. LODEMAN Horticulture.
MICHAEL BARKER Horticulture.
Office of the Director, 20 Morrill Hall.
Those desiring this Bulletin sent to friends will plea
the parties.
Bulletins of 1895.
84. The Recent Apple Failures in Western New York.
85. Who; Butter.
86. Spraying of Orchards.
87. The Dwarf Lima Beans.
88. Early Lamb Raising.
89. Feeding Pigs.
90. The China Asters.
91. Recent Chrysanthemums.
92. On the Effect of Feeding Fat to Cows.
93. The Cigar-Case Bearer.
Diaiti2eat>yG00Qle
Cornell Unitebbity, )
Ithaca, K. Y., April 18, 1895. I
The Honorable CoTrnmssioner of Agriculture, Albany :
Sib. — One of the serious insect peats which we met when prose-
cuting our investigations of the apple orchards of western New
York last year, is the Cigar-case Bearer. A brief sketch of this
insect was given in Bulletin 84, and the present paper is the
account which was promised in that bulletin. Mr. Slingerland has
made a very careful study of the insect, and this account of it is
approved by Professor Comstock. ThiB case bearer will probably
take its place along with other staple pests which, by harrying the
apple grower, will hasten the study and improvement of our
orchard interests ; and this bulietin is therefore recommended for
publication under Chapter 230 of the Laws of 1896, as an important
contribution to the advancement of apple cultivation.
L. H. BAILEY.
,v Google
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Lintner. Fifth Report, p. 321. Received specimens from Rochester,
N. Y., at. work od young pears, June 8, 1888. (As CoUopkora sp.)
Lintner. Popular Gardening, v. 198. Brief aooonut of its work on young
pears ; early arsenical spray advised. (As CoUophora sp.)
Lintner. Sixth Report, p. 317. Same as 1890 aeoonnt above.
Fletcher. Report foi 1891, p. 196-198. Good account of habits and spray-
ing experiments. (Ah Coieopiora sp.)
Fletcher. Evidence before Com. of House of Commons, p. 9. Brief
account of habits and experiments against. (As Coleophora sp.)
Femald. Canadian Entomologist, xxiv, 122. Original description of
moth; case also described, (As CoUopltora JUtolwella.)
Fletcher. Report for 1892 , p. 4. Brief mention.
Lintner. Ninth Report, p. 374. Brief mention.
Fletcher. Twenty-fifth Report of Ont. Ent. 8oc., p. 79,80. Best account
of life history and remedies.
Fletcher. Evidence before Com. of House of Commons, p. 19. Brief
, account.
Fletcher. Report for 1894, p. 201-206. Habits and life history; reine-
v Google
The Cigar-case Bearer.
Coleaphora JletchereUa Fernald.
Order lefidopteea ; superfamily tineina.
During the past year (1894) fruit trees in western New York
hare suffered severely from the attacks of two, practically new,
insect nests. One ^
with their a c c o m-
panying specimens, '- " * g"7^L ^[„
that reached the in-
sectary in 1894, this case bearer was one of the most s
the season. Professor Bailey's observations, recorded in Bulletin
84, p. 15, also show that the insect was very destructive, especially
in die apple orchards in Wayne and Monroe counties. Fig. 54 is a
fair sample, of its destructive work on apple foliage; many of the
286 AOBIOOLTOBAL ESPBEIHBNT STATION, ITBAOA, N. T.
smaller leaves are dead, and the others are almost entire skeletonized
by the insect. We have no definite data as to just how much damage
the insect did in 1894. Apparently it now ranks next to the bud-
moth (Bulletin SO) in destructiveneas ; and the two insects are often
seen at work on the same branches.
Thus this new case bearer affords an additional emphasis to the
fact that eternal vigilance on the part of the fruit grower is now the
price which must be paid for the finest and best fruit.
Its Past Histoby abd Distbibxjtion.
Doubtless this case bearer has been present in limited numbers in
New York orchards for many years; and it may have been pre-
viously noticed by some fruit growers, but it was not until 1888
that public attention was called to it, by Mr. P. Barry of Roches-
ter, N. Y. He found it boring holes in newly-tet pear fruits, and
specimens were sent to Dr. Lintner ; these specimens furnished the
text for the first published account of the insect, by Dr. Llntner in
1890. In 1892 Dr. Lintner received some apples from Oswego
N. Y., which had apparently been bored by this case bearer.
Nothing further seems to have been heard of the insect in our
State until last year (1894.) Then specimens began to come into
the insectary from western New York as early as February, and
continued coming in increased numbers during the months of May
and June. Specimens were received from the following localities :
Rochester, West Brighton, Moreton Farm, North Rose, Albion,
Newark, Sodus and South Byron ; this winter we have also received
specimens from North Parma, and have Been the insect here in
Ithaca. The specimens sent in indicated that it was present in
alarming numbers in nearly every case. Doubtless it will be found
generally distributed throughout the State, and it probably also
occurs in neighboring States.
The insect is also very numerous in Canada. It first attracted
attention there in 1889 at Charlottetown, Prince Edward's Island.
In 1891, it appeared in alarming numbers at Adolphustown,
Ontario ; and a few were also found at Port Williams, Nova Scotia-
Last year it did very serious damage in several localities in Ontario ;
specimens were also sent to the insectary from Lakeville, Nova
Scotia.
Thus, this case bearer has so far been recorded only from New
York and Canada, and has appeared in alarming numbers only in
The Cigab-oabb Beabeb. 287
western New York and Ontario. Attention was first directed to
the insect at about the same time in the widely separated localities
of Rochester, N. T., and Prince Edward's Island. It was especially
destructive in Ontario in 1891 and in both New York and Ontario
in 1891 ; and, judging; from specimens received this winter, hun-
dreds of the little creatures are passing through their long winter's
W. — Clgar-caje bearers at work; natural liie.
fast safely, and will be ready to satisfy their hunger on the opening
buds of thousands of fruit trees in western New York in the npring.
Its Appeabauce.
On account of its small size and peculiar habits, the insect itself,
in any stage, will rarely be noticed by the frnit grower. But one
of the curious suits, or cases as they are called, which the little
,v Google
288 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, ITHACA, N. T.
caterpillar wears is quite conspicuous, thus often revealing its
presence to even the casual observer.
The Caterpillar and its Cwrwus Case. — The caterpillars are their
own tailors and each has two suits during its life time. The first
suit or case is made in the fall, when the caterpillar is about two or
three months old ; it is worn all winter and until about May 15th of
the next spring. As this case is quite small, it is often overlooked
by the fruit grower. This phase of the insect's life is discussed in
detail farther on under the account of ite life history.
About May 15th the half -grown caterpillar finds that its winter suit
is too small, and proceeds to make a new and larger summer case ;
we caught the little tailor at this work one morning, and a photo-
graph of the interesting process is presented further on, with an
account of the operation. This second case presents a striking
resemblance to a miniature cigar, both in its shape and color. In
May or June one or more of these curious cigar-shaped cases may
often be seen projecting at various angles from a leaf (Fig. 55) or
from a young fruit (page 281) ; and as the figures show, they are
quite conspicuous objects. They are sure to arouse one's curiosity,
especially when, after watching one for a few minutes, it is seen to
move off to another part of the leaf. A careful examination of one
of these moving, cigar-like objects will reveal its inhabitant, a
dark orange-colored, black-headed caterpillar scarcely one-fifth of
an inch in length. When disturbed, the little creature retreats
into its cigar-shaped case, and can be induced to come forth only
by either tearing open its case or by continued urging from the
rear. As described in detail further on in discussing its life history,
the insect passes the remainder of its life until the emergence of the
adult in this cigar-shaped case.
The Adult Iivsect. — The moth, shown nearly four times natural
size in Fig. 56, is a very delicate and
pretty steel-gray object. During
the day it rests on a leaf with its
heavily fringed wings folded closely
, over its abdomen and its long slender
! antennae placed close together and pro-
jecting straight forward from its head.
60.— Adult Intpct, about four times *. ° ~° , , ,
natural *i2e. ;I bey may be seen on the leaves from
about June 15th to July 15th.
MgKizedbyGoOgle
Thb Cigar-case Bearer. 289
Indications of the Fbebknce of the Insect.
The first indications of the presence of this case bearer appear on
the swelling bnds of apple, pear, or plum trees. Early in the spring
of 1894, we saw hundreds of them at work on pear buds near
Rochester, N. Y. ; they were then in their small carved cases
(Fig. 59), and were quite conspicuous as they projected from the
surface of the swelling bnds. Two or three often occurred on a
single bud busily at work eating minute round holes, scarcely larger
than a pin, into the bnds. The bnds open quite rapidly, and an
many of the caterpillars do not awaken from their winter's sleep
thus early in the season, the damage done on the opening bnds is
small compared with their later work on the foliage.
The work of the insect on the expanded foliage takes the form of
various sized, skeletonized, dead, and brown areas which have near
their centers a clean cat small round hole through one skin (usually
the one on the underside) of the leaf. These skeleton ized Weas are
well shown in Fig. 57. "When the insect is very numerous, often
ST.- Characteristic work o! the caterpillars on the lea, res : natural alas.
so much of the inner tissue of the leaf !b thus eaten out that the
whole leaf tarns brown and dies. Several of the leaves on the
branch shown i
19
Fig. 54 were killed in this way, and several of
290 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. T.
the others almost entirely skeletonized. ThuB the work of the
case bearer on the foliage ie quite conspicuous, and may be easily
recognized with the aid of the figures.
Tlie caterpillars also often attack the forming fruit. In fact, the
insect first attracted public attention by its work on the fruit of
peats ; Dr. Lintner has also found their work on apples. The
frontispiece well illustrates their work on the fruit. The cater-
pillar eats a circular hole through the skin and then revels in
the flesh beneath, sometimes eating as far as it can reach and not
let go of its case. Our observations indicate that after the fruit
attains about twice the size of the one shown in the frontispiece, it
is but little injured by the attacks of this case bearer * Bat, as
Mr. Fletcher states, the insect also attacks the sterna
of the Bowers and setting fruit, and often does
much damage in this way. Fig. 58 shows a young
pear which was killed by the case-bearer attached to
it; we received this specimen from Albion, N. T.,
on May 29, 1894.
Thus the presence of this case bearer may be indi-
' cated, not only by its peculiar appearance, but by its
eating minute holes in the swelling buds, by its
skeletonizing irregular areas on the leaves, by its
bearer attached n> attacking the stems of the flowers and setting fruit,
wbioh ?n»d km- or by the destruction of the young fruit itself.
ed ; Mtanl Kite. J J ft
Its Naxb.
The striking resemblance of the larger case, which the caterpillar
carries about with it, to a minature cigar, suggested to Mr. Fletcher
the apt popular name of Cigar-case bearer for this insect.
It belongs to the large group of minute moths known as Tineids ;
nearly all of the Tmeids are easily distinguished from other moths
by their narrow wings, which are bordered with very wide fringes
(Fig. 56). When Dr. Lintner tirst saw this case bearer iu 1888, he
" Several larva; were placed under a net ou pears on a tree near the i nncct-
ary ; anil although they punctured the fruit in several places, in every cane
the scar healed and was scarcely visible on the mature fruit. It isdoub'tnl if
this ense bearer has anything to do with the hard knotty kernels which are so
often accompanied by irregular pustular spots or cracks; this mysterious affec-
tion which was so prevalent on the fmit in many pear orchards iu western
New York in 1894, may be the work of plant bugs or of the plum corcnlio.
i:rji o ivGoO^Ic
The Cigae-casb Bearer. 291
referred it to the Tineid genus CoUophora. It was not until 1892,
however, that it received a specific name. Then Dr. Fernald named
it fietchereUa, in honor of Mr. Fletcher, who gave us the first ex-
tended account of its habits and life history. Thus, the insect
is'scientifically known as Coleophora
Its Life History.
This little case bearer is one of the
most interesting insects, as regards its
life history and habits that it has been
our pleasure to study. It has been
under almost daily observation here at
the insectary from the time it awakes
from its winter's Bleep until it passes
through its wonderful transformations
into the delicate little moth, from
whose beautifully sculptured eggs the
little caterpillars hatch ; and these soon
demonstrate that they are both miners
and tailors. We have also been fortu-
nate enough to secure pictures of some
of the most interesting phaseB of its life ;
no illustrations of the insect or its work
have heretofore been publshed.
Hibernation. — By September 15th
most of the little creatures have gone
into winter quarters as minute, half- M._Tllt, ,m»nourred „,„ ln whieh
grown, orange-yellow caterpillars en- tS^St&fflS^ C&
cased in a Binall curved suit, and firmly tJto»Ira1ScewnMHiillS™!''0 tower
attached to the bark, usually on the smaller branches. In Fig. 59
are shown many of the insects in hibernation ; the npper part of the
figure shows the cases natural Bize. The large case so conspicuous
on the right hand twig is one of the cigar-shaped cases fastened
there during the summer by a mature caterpillar ; it serves well to
contrast the two suits worn by the caterpillars during their lifetime.
Where the insect is numerous, they may be quite easily discovered
in their winter quarters; the specimens figured were recently sent
in by a correspondent at North Parma, N. Y.
,v Google
292 Agricultural Expbbihbnt Station, Ithaca, K- Y.
Nearly seven months of the insect's life in spent in idleness in
these snug, curved cases on the twigs of the trees.
Appearance and Habits in the Spring. — The little caterpillars
awake from their long winter's fast early in the spring, as soon as
the buds begin to open. In 1894, the little cases were loosened
from the twigs about April 15th, and the march of the hungry
caterpillars for the buds began ; on April 25th we saw hundreds of
them on pear buds near Rochester. Their manner of working on
the bnds has been described on page 289.
As the caterpillars continue feeding on the expanding foliage
they soon find that their winter suits or cases are too short for their
growing bodies; and they proceed to build on extensions at one
80.— The win tor uasea, with their spring addfdoua ; much enlarged.
end. In Fig. 60 are Bhown, considerably magnified, two of these
enlarged spring suits or cases ; from one, the head of the caterpillar
projects. The smoother portions of the cases in the figure repre-
sent the winter snits. The portions added in the spring are much
rougher, apparently consisting of bits of the fuzzy skin of the young
leaves glued together ; in many cases this added portion is nearly as
long as the original winter case.
However, the little caterpillars increase in size bo fast in the
spring, that by the middle of May most of them find their spring
suits entirely inadequate for their wants. Then their tailoring
instinct again asserts itself and they proceed to construct their
second and last suit or case.
The Construction of its Cigar-shaped Suit or Case. — In the con-
struction of this, its summer suit, the caterpillar illustrates in a
very interesting manner the instinctive powers of insects. We
were fortunate enough to catch one of the little tailors at work on
The Ciqab-gasb Bbabbr. 293
its new suit, and the camera has faithfully reproduced what we saw
(Fig. 61).
During the forenoon of May 31st, we found one caterpillar that
was still in its spring suit or case. It was transferred to a fresh
leaf, where it at once traveled to a point on the underside a short
distance from the edge. There work was begun by first eating a
small round hole through the skin of the leaf ; it then began feeding
upon the inner tissues between the two skins of the leaf. By
nightfall it had thus eaten out the tissue over a narrow elongate
area reaching to the edge of the leaf. The little tailor must have
continued its work nearly all night, for at eight the next morning
what we saw is represented, considerably enlarged in figure 61 ; the
leaf in the lower right hand corner is natural size. The caterpillar
had mined out the inner tissue over the narrow area, for the
purpose of using the two skins of the leaf remaining above and
below the mined area, as the cloth out of which to make its new
suit As the figure shows, the little tailor had then adroitly cut ont
his suit by cutting through both skins along the sides of the mine,
leaving a few strands uncut to act as guy ropes to hold the skins in
position while they were being neatly joined together by the silken
threads spun by the caterpillar inside. The stocking-shaped object
shown on the leaf in the figure is the caterpillar's discarded spring
294 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
suit. When the photographs for Fig. 61 were taken, the eater-
pillar was busily at work spinning a smooth silken lining in its new
suit. At this stage of the proceedings, it became a martyr to science
and the whole leaf now forms an interesting addition to our col-
lection illustrating the different phases of this carious case bearer.
When first Bewn together, the two skins of the leaf mak« a
flattened case. This is gradually constricted into the more rounded
cigar shape, doubtless by the caterpillar in tightening his silken
lining inside. The round hole eaten through the skin of the leaf
when the mine is begun, now serves as the entrance to the new
case. When the case is complete, the caterpillar in some manner
manages to break the now dry and brittle guy ropes, and elevating
its new suit in the air walks off to seek new pastures, leaving the
little empty case attached to the leaf. These cigar-shaped cases,
being thus formed from bits of the upper and lower skins of a leaf,
show, under a lens, on one side the characteristic raised veinlets of
the upper skin and on the other the fine hairs of the lower skin.
Usually the side seams form slight ridges on the case.
Our wonder at the ingenious tailoring which the little cater-
pillar did in onr cage was increased, when, upon further exami-
nation of many infested leaves sent in by correspondents, we
found that most of thein had shown still more ingenuity in their
work. Many of the leaves received May 31st had bad their basal
edges eaten away in a peculiar manner; and the explanation was
always at band in the form of one of the little curved cases,
■e bjifljil portion" wer
always empty, attached at the point where the leaf joins its stem.
In Fig. 62 are shown three such leaves natural size ; quite often
both basal edges would be cut away, as shown in the figure.
The Cigab-oabe Bhabeb. 295
Why should the caterpillars always seek this particular portion
of the leaf from which to make their cases? Mr. Stainton tells us
it is for the simple reason that the little tailor saves itself much
trouble by thus mining at the edge of the leaf, because the upper
and lower skins are already joined together along one side, the edge
of the leaf, and the making of one seam is thereby avoided.*
At the uper end, these cigar-shaped cases are contracted rather
abrubtly into a three-lipped, star-shaped orifice, the lips of which fit
closely together. This orifice, or back door, is used for a special
purpose by the caterpillar, as we shall see later.
Its Habits as a Cigar-Case Bearer. — Most of the caterpillars fin-
ished their cigar-shaped summer suits by May 25th, in 1894. After
this date, they feed mostly on the leaves, and do their most damag-
ing work during the next three weeks. The peculiar manner in
IS.— A caterpillar feeding ; much enlarged.
which they feed is well shown in Fig. 63. -A small hole is eaten
through one skin of the leaf and the soft inner tissue is then mined
out. The caterpillar protrudes itself from its case and feeds as far
as it can reach in several directions, thus forming an irregular
blotch mine. The little miner never lets go of its case while at work,
and quickly wriggles back into it when disturbed. Many of these
blotch mines with their entrance holes are shown in figure 57. The
'Natural History of tho Tiiieinn, by H. T. Stain ton. Vol. iv, Coleopbora,
parti, p. 8. (1869.)
296 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. T.
caterpillar keeps the interior of its home neat and clean by using
the small hole in the upper end of the case as a back door oat of
which all of the excrement is ejected.
Some of the caterpillars become full grown by Jnne 4th, but
most of them continue feeding until about Jnne 20th. They then
seek a suitable place, usually on the leaves but sometimes on the
branches, where they securely fasten their case with silk, in nearly
the same position in which the caterpillar holds it while feeding.
So securely are they fastened that they remain in place long after
they are of any further use to the insect ; this fact accounts for the
cigar-shaped cases sometimes found among the small curved hiber-
nating cases on the branches in winter, as shown on the right hand
branches in Fig. 59.
PttpaHon — If one of these cigar-shaped cases be cut open about
ten days after it was fastened as described above, there will be
found inside, not the dark orange-colored caterpiller, but a light
brown quiescent object, known as the pupa. Thus these cigar-
shaped cases serve both as a summer suit for the caterpillar and as
a secure cocoon within which the insect undergoes its tranformatious
to the adult stage.
After fastening its case, and before changing to a pupa, the cater-
pillar in some manner turnB around in its case, for the head end of
the pupa is always found nearest the upper end of the ease.
Emergence of the Moth, and Egg-Laying. — About ten days after
the change to a pupa takes place in cigar-shaped cases, there
emerges through the lipped orifice in the upper end of the case a
minute steel-grey moth — the adult insect (Fig. 56.) In our cages,
some of the moth emerged as early as June 25th, hut others did not
appear until July 15th.
The moths remain at rest on the leaves during the day. They
doubtless feed but little, if any, and do no damage. Some of the
moths that emerged June 25th had laid eggs three days later. In
our cages, most of the eggs were snugly tucked away among the
numerous hairs on the undersides of the youngest leaves near the
mid ribs ; some were similarly laid on the young, hairy branches.
They are apparently not glued to the hairs, aB they are easily
The eggs are of a delicate light lemon-yellow color, and quite
deeply pitted over their entire surface with triangular depressions
Digitized byCOQgle
The Cigar case Bhabhb. 297
separated by narrow ridges (Fig. 64). They are cylindrical in
shape with rounded ends, and measure .31 by .25 mm.,
thus being scarcely visible to the unaided eye. Under
a lens they are beautiful objects. The egg stage lasts
about two weeks, the little caterpillars emerging about
July 15th. 64. -The egg;
Mining Habits of the Recency Hatched Caterpil- flea.
tars. — The newly-born caterpillars are miners, and at once eat
through one skin of the leaf and begin a mine in the soft inner
tissue. They keep their mines clean as they go, by throwing all of
their excrement out of the entrance hole. They continued to "feed
in this manner for about two weeks, or until August 3d, in our
cages ; then, owing to our inability to keep their food fresh any
longer, they died.
Construction of their Winter Suit or Case, and the Full Migra-
tion of the Caterpillars. — After feeding as miners for two or three
weeks, the young caterpillars exercise their tailoring instincts by
constructing tiny curved cases in which thoy are to pass the win-
ter. One of Mr. Fletcher's correspondents saw many of these little
cases on the leaves on August 10th. We have not been able to
catch the little tailor at its work of making its winter suit; but Mr.
Fletcher says they cut clean holes through the leaves by taking oval
pieces from the upper and lower skins of the leaves with which
they form their curious cases by joining them together along their
edges. Doubtless the process is similar to the one used in making
the summer cigar-shaped cases, as shown in Fig. 61. These small
curved cases (Fig. 59) also have an opening in the upper end out of
which the caterpillars eject their excrement.
Probably they feed for several days on the leaves after they
make these curved cases. About September 1st, migration begins
from the leaves to the twigs, where they securely fasten their cases,
which then serve as snug, warm and secure quarters for the winter.
Many of these hibernating case bearers are shown in Fig. 59.
Briefly summarised, the life history of this case bearer is as
follows : The insect spends about seven months (from September
15th to April 15th) of its life in hibernation asa minute half-grown
caterpillar in a small case attached to a twig (Fig. 59). In the
spring, the caterpillars attack the opening buds, the expanding
leaves, the stems of the flowers and fruit, and the forming fruit
,v Google
298 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
(Figs. 55 and 58). By May 20th, its hibernating case with its
spring additions (Fig. 60) is discarded for another and larger cigar-
shaped case (frontispiece and Fig. 58) which the caterpillar deftly
makes from pieces of the upper and lower skins of the leaves
(Fig. 61). Protruding themselves from these cases, they eat
through one ekin of the leaf and mine ont the inner tissues over an
irregular area, as far as they can reach and not let go of their case
(Fig. 63). In the latter part of Jane, tbey cease feeding, securely
fasten the cases to the leaves or branches, and change to papse
within. The moth (Fig. 56) emerges in about three weeks, and
soon lays minute, pretty, yellow, pitted eggs (Fig. 64) among the
hairs on the young leaves. The egg stage lastB about two weeks,
the little caterpillars emerging about July 15th. They work as
miners in the tissue of the leaf for two or three weeks, then aban-
don their mining habit and construct their curious little curved
cases from bits of the skins of the leaves. By September 15th,
they have all migrated to the twigs, where they pass the winter in
theBe cases (Fig. 59).
Natural Enemies.
We have not met with any natural enemies of thiB case bearer,
but in 1891, Mr. Fletcher bred a few minute hymenopteroos
(Chalcid) parasites from the cases in Canada.
How TO Combat it.
It ib practicable to fight this case bearer in its caterpillar stage
only ; and it is then bo well protected in its case as to render its
destruction dependent upon very thorough work.
Extensive experiments in Canada by Dr. Tonng, of Adolphns-
town, Ont., have demonstrated that there iB but little hope of
reaching the caterpillars while they are in their winter quarters
on the twigs. Dr. Young sprayed his trees in the winter with
kerosene emulsion, using it both cold and warm (probably diluting
it with nine parts of water), and failed to destroy the cater-
pillars in their little cases. Perhaps a Btronger emulsion might
have been more effective, but it is very doubtful if any spray will
reach the insect in its winter quarters. Thus the only time when
it can be effectively reached is when it is actively feeding in the
spring.
We have had no opportunity of carrying on any experiments
against the insect ; but we advised all of our correspondents in
, Google
The Cigar-case Beaeer. 299
189i to spray thoroughly in the early part of June with Paris
green, one pound to 200 gallons (always using two or three pounds
of lime to prevent injury to the foliage from free arsenic.) Several
reported very satisfactory results. The first spraying should be
made as soon as the little cases are seen moving in the spring, that
is, about the time the bads begin to open. Repeat the application
from four to seven days later, for the leaves open fast and soon
present much un poisoned surface for the case bearers to work upon.
In Canada, Dr. Young has had very good results from the Paris
green thus applied.
Fortunately, this is just the time when the bud moth (discussed
in Bulletin 50) can be the most successfully combated with the
same spray. In fact, the cigar-case bearer and the bnd moth often
worked on the same leaves in many western New York orchards in
1894. The Paris green may be effectually combined with the
Bordeaux mixture at this time for the first application for the apple-
scab fungus.
While Dr. Young found the Paris green Bpray very effective, as
mentioned above, he also discovered that a spray of keroBene
emulsion, diluted with nine parts of water,* applied thoronghly in
the spring when the caterpillars are active, was still more effective.
Some of our correspondents have also thought they checked the
bud moth with the emulsion used at this time for other insects. It
is also a fortunate coincidence that the same emulsion Bpray, when
directed against the case bearer in pear orchards, will alBO be just in
time to catch the recently hatched nymphs of that dreaded pest, the
pear psy 11a, discussed in Bulletin 44.
To summarize, we believe that this cigar-case bearer can be kept
in check by two or three thorough sprayings with Paris green, one
pound to 200 gallons of water. The first application, which may
■Tomato the emnlsion, thoroughly dissolve one-half pound hard or soft soap
in one gallon boiling water. While this solution Is still very hot odd two gallons
of kerosene and quickly begin to agitate the whole mass through a syringe or
force-pump, drawing the liquid into tbe pump and forcing it back into the dish.
Continue this for five minutes or until the whole mass assumes a creamy color
and consistency which will adhere to the sides of the vessel, and not glide off
like oil. It may now be readily diluted witb cold rain water, or the whole mass
may be allowed to cool when it has n semi-solid form, not unlike loppered milk.
This standard emulsion if covered and placed in a cool dark place will keep for
a long time. In making a dilution from this cold emulsion, it is necessary to
dissolve the amount required in three or four parte or boiling wuter, after which
cold rain water may be added in the required quantities.
300 AQKrOULTUHAL EXPERIMENT STATION, ITHACA, N. Y.
be effectively combined with the Bordeaux mixture then to be used
for the apple-scab fungus, should be made as sooH as the little cases
are seen on the opening buds. A second, and perhaps a third, ap-
plication may necessary at intervals of fonr to seven days on badly
infested trees. These sprayings will also check the bnd moth.
Furthermore, it has been experimentally demonstrated in Canada
that a kerosene emulsion spray, applied at the same time as directed
above for Paris green, still more effectively checks the case bearer ;
and we believe it would act likewise on the bud moth. In pear
orchards, both this case bearer and the pear psylla can be effectively
checked by the same emulsion spray when the leaves axe opening in
the spring. Never spray _a frnit tree when it is in blossom.
Renumber thai success in any case will depend almost entirely
on how thoroughly the spraying is done.
MARK VERNON SLINGERLAND.
,v Google
BULLETIN 94— May, 1895.
Cornell University— Agricultural Experiment Station.
BOTANICAL DIVISION.
DAMPING OFF.
' Gbo. F. Atkinson.
Malta* byGoOgle
ORGANIZATION.
Board of Control— The Trustees of the University.
STATION COUNCIL.
PratWent, JACOB GOULD 8CHURMAN.
HoH. A. D. WHITE Trustee of tke University.
Professor I. P. ROBERTS /'resident State Agricultural Society.
Professor I. P. BOBKBT8 Agriculture.
Professor G. C. CALI'WKLL Chemistry.
Professor JAHE8 LAW Veterinary Science.
Professor A. N. PRENTISS. Botany.
Professor J H. COM.V1WK Entomology.
Professor L. H. BAIL1CY Horticulture.
Professor H. H. WING Dairy Husbandry.
Professor G. F. ATKINSON Cryptogamie Botany.
OFFICERS OF THE STATION.
I. P. EOBERTS Director.
E. L. WILLIAMS Treasurer.
H. W. SMITH Clerk.
ASSISTANTS.
M. V. SLINGERLAND Entomology.
GEO. C.WATSON Agriculture.
G. W. CAVAKAUGH Chemietry.
E. G. LODEMAN Horticulture.
MICHAEL BARKER Horticulture.
Office of the Director, SO Morrill Hall.
Those desiring thin Bulletin sent to friends will please send u
the parties.
Bulletins of 1895.
a Western New York.
Dwarf Lima Beans.
Early Lamb Raising.
Feeding Pigs.
The China Asters.
Recent Chrysanthemum a.
Feeding Fat to Cows.
The Ci gar-Case Bearer.
Damping Off.
Tfce potting-bed fungus, Artotrogue debaryawu* (Hesse).
Damping ofprothaflia, Artoirogus intermedins (lie Bary),
Sole on the genus Artotrogut.
A potting-bed fungue ne«l to America, Conpletoria complex* Lohdr.
A new cutting-bed fungus, Volutella leuootrieha Attention.
Canker in cucumber ».
Damping off by a sterile fungus.
Damping Off.
" Damping off" is a disease of seedling plants which rots or disin-
tegrates the tissues at the surface of the ground. The tissues thus
changed weaken, lose their firmness and supporting power, and the
seedling falls prostrate on the soil. The disease is wide spread and
sometimes very common. It occurs not only in gardens and fields
bnt is a very frequent attendant upon the culture of seedling plants
in the forcing house or bed. The trouble ie favored by damp soil,
comparatively high temperatures, and humid atmosphere.
The term "damping oft" is therefore indicative of one of the
attendant conditions of the soil inducing the disease. While this
popular expression is thus far significant of the trouble it is by no
means the exact statement of the case. The plants do not damp
off because of tbe abundant damp or moisture in the soil The
dampness encourages the growth of minute parasitic plants, not
visible to the unaided eye, which pierce the seedling, feed upon
its substance and set up disintegration processes which result in
the death and collapse of the affected parts. Soon after the plant
falls the dissolution of the tissues near the surface of the ground
has usually proceeded so far that communication by the ordinary
physiological processes of life is cut off, and the plant then with-
ers and dies. While damping off is dne to the action of minute
fungus parasites, it is by no means caused by one and the same
species. Different species of fungi may under some conditions
produce nearly or quite identical phenomena in the progress and
Fr'onHtpieoe. — This is from a photograph of an experiment to show the
parasitic nature of the Artatrogus debaryaiins (Hesse). Before planting the
cucumber seed the pots were filled with soil which was thoroughly wetted and
than ■teamed in the steam sterilizer tor several hours on three successive days
in order to bill all tbe organisms. The seed was then planted and when jast
coming up some plant tissue with freshly developed stages of the fungus was
placed by the seedlings iu pots 5, Sand 8, while pot 7 wag left as a check. Tbe
resnlt ean be easily seen in tbe photograph, the check plants remaining nnharmed
while all the plants in 6 are killed and only one remains health v in each
of 5 and 8.
304 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
culmination of the disease. Some species develop phenomena allied
to genuine cases of damping off, and the final result of which is
practically the same, the decay of the stem near the surface of the
ground and the collapse of the seedling.
Some variations in the external appearance furnish diagnostic
characters correlated with the presence of certain species of the
parasite, but it is doubtful if in any case the specific cause should
be confidently asserted without recourse to microscopic examina-
tion, sometimes to be preceded by special treatment. In discussing
the several species of fungi which have been found to contribute a
share in the production of the disease it will be convenient to take
up first the species to which the trouble is generally attributed, and
then to follow with others which play a more or less important part
in the development of similar or nearly identical troubles.
The Potttng Bed Fumgus.
Artoiroffus debaryamus 1 (Hesse).
This fungus is responsible for a large part of the damping off
of young seedlings. It is very widely distributed, being very com-
mon in the soil of gardens and also in the forcing house. It is
common also in many fields, but it probably is more abundant in
soil where numbers of plants are grown from the seed in a more
or less crowded condition, especially those plants which are known
to be predisposed to its attacks. It has, however, been found in
virgin soil taken freshly from the woods into the forcing house. '
It is thus a very common and unwelcome bedfellow and pot-
companion of many seedling plants which are more or less crowded
in the seed bed or forcing pots of our gardens and hot houses,
especially if undue moisture is present in the soil. In the gardens
it is frequently impossible to control the amount of moisture in the
soil, and in the forcing house where often the light is defective, the
air is not fresh or it is supercharged with moisture, it is often nearly
1 Pytbium debarvanuin Hesse. The name Pytbium wo* used in 1823 us a
generic name for two species (Muoor spinosus Sehrank, and M. impercepti bills
Sehrank, Donksclir. d. k. acad. d. wias. x. Munsohen, 1813, 14) by Noes von
Esenbeck Nova acta acad. Leap. XI, 2,515, which belong to another genus
(Achlya, see Fischer, Rabeuho rat's Krypt. Flora, IV, 332). Artotrogns (Mon-
tague, Sylloge, 301, 1845) was the next name which was used for a member of
this group and must consequently take the place of Pytbium Pringahalm, Jahrb.
wias. Bot. II, 303, 1860.
■ Humphrey, 8th Ann. Sept. Haas. St. Agr. Exp. Station, 221, 1860.
Damping Off. 305
or quite impossible by the ordinary methods to preserve that equi-
librium of environment which will permit the growth of the seed-
ling and at the same time check the growth of its inimical guest.
All experienced gardeners are probably familiar with the appear-
ance of the diseased seedling when affected with the damping off
fungus. At this day when the germ theory of disease, both animal
and plant, has so completely poisoned the minds of all classes of
people there is little difficulty in successfully advocating what is
now an established fact, that the damping-off fungus is a parasite in
the seedlings and invades the tissue of the latter for the purpose of
obtaining its food. It is fortunate, therefore, that especial attention
can be given to setting forth the facts in the structure and develop-
ment, and other peculiarities of the parasite, which are quite import-
ant to know in order to properly treat it, and also because it can
then be distinguished from others either near or remotely related,
some of which induce diseases in the early life of certain ferns or
fern-like plants and can not disease seedlings.
The first striking pecularity in a bed or pot of seedlings affected
with the disease which attracts our attention is the prostrate con-
dition of a few plants while others are upright and apparently
healthy. The prostrate plants are found to be shrunken at or near
the crown, i. e. near the root or the surface of the ground. Fre-
quently when oar attention is thus first called to the disease the
collapsed tissue of some of the prostrate plants is so far disintegrated
as to he in a soft and rotted condition, so that on pulling at the
plant it breaks easily at this point Farther investigation will show
that usually the entire root system is by this time decayed, while
the greater part of the stem above ground and the young leaves are
still green and possibly quite fresh, or flabby, or more or less wilted.
The conditions of the aerial portions of the plant at this early
stage of its fall are largely dependent upon the moisture content of
the atmosphere. If the moisture be quite dry the seedling will be
quite flabby before it falls and will soon wilt thereafter, but if the
moisture content is large the tissue will remain quite firm for a time
unless the soil upon which it is lying is so saturated with moisture
as to encourage the rapid growth of tbe fungus in the prostrate
portion of the plant. When this is the case the entire plant soon
becomes a putrid mass and the tissues often take on a dark color.
After attention has been called to the trouble by the preliminary
3 Will
306 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
probably present a paler green color than the perfectly healthy ones,
especially near the surface of the ground. If such plants are care-
fully examined they will probably show the presence of the fungus
in the tissues of the root and lower part of the stem, for the fungus
requires several hoars after entering the tissues to produce such
changes which would be visible to the unaided eye.
Mycelium. — If from one of these prostrate plants a portion of
the collapsed part of the stem is teased apart on a glass slip, such as
is used in microscopic work, in a little water and then examined
under the microscope the vegetative phase of the parasite will prob-
ably be apparent. It exists as slender, colorless, thread-like irregular
tubes, which appear to be more or less tangled in the tissues of the
seedling. These tubes are the hyphae, as they are called, of the
fungus, and collectively make up the mycelium. The hyphae are
branched in quite a profuse manner, the successive branches usually
forming somewhat more slender hyphae than the parent ones, so
that the main hyphae is frequently larger than the branches.
The hyphae course between and through the cells. Where a
hypha passes through a cell wall it is very much constricted or
very much more slender than it is in the cell lumen of the seed-
ling or between the cells. The hypha in boring its way through
these walls excretes a ferment, it is supposed, which dissolves the
cellulose of the walls at the point of contact. A quite minute
opening in the wall is sufficient for the growing end of the hypha
to sqneeze its way through and maintain communication with the
older portion, and has the advantage of requiring a much less
expenditure of energy than if the opening were made of the same
size as the hypha. After passing through the cell wall the hypha
enlarges to the normal size.
While the mycelium is comparatively young the inner portion of
the hypha is continuous, i. e., there are no cross walls partitioning
the tubes into sections. This is a characteristic possessed by a very
large group of fungi to which the Artotrogus belongs, known as the
Phycomycetes. The protoplasm within the hypha is finely granular
when the mycelium is young, but in the larger threads as they
become older the grannies become coarser, their contents are not bo
homogeneous, and the granules tend to collect into groups or very
irregular masses, somewhat resembling the protoplasm in some
mucors.
,v Google
Damping Off. 307
In a crowded seed bed after a few plants have fallen, unless the
disease is checked, it will spread from these affected ones as centers
to others near them and thus from the one or several starting points
the plants will fall until nearly or quite all of them have been killed.
Where the soil and atmosphere is quite damp and the temperature
conditions bo high as to favor rapid growth of the fungus it will
grow ont from the diseased part of the stem into or on the surface
of the soil for a few millimeters in extent as a very delicate cottony
mass or velvety pile. Where the adjacent plants are not too far
distant the superficial threads may thus reach them and communi-
cate the disease to them. In other cases minute motile reproductive
bodies called zoospores, or swarm spores (perhaps more properly
zoogonidia), are developed in a manner to be described later. These
swim in the soil water to the more distant seedlings and thus spread
the disease.
Sometimes there will be seen quite a profuse growth of a mycelium^
which on the surface of the soil may spread several centimeters in
extent. Usually this profuse growth is that of another fungus, a
Ehizopus, or Jfucor, or in other cases a different "damping off"
fungus to be described in a later paragraph.
If the tissues examined as described above from a seedling which
has not remained long after falling over perhaps the condition of
the mycelium described will be the only phase of the plant (for the
fungus is a plant) at that time present. If it has been dead for
sometime, however, there will probably be seen here and there on
the hyphae a number of rounded or spherical bodies, three to five
times the diameter of threads of the mycelium with which they are
connected. These are reproductive organs of the fungus and will
soon be described.
The characters of the mycelium alone are not in all cases sufficient
for the correct determination of the plant. Let then this prepara-
tion on the glass slip lie free in an abundance of water, and place
the slip in a small, moist chamber sufficiently protected so that the
air in the chamber will not become dry by evaporation at the point
of contact of the two vessels. This can be avoided by placing a
sheet of wet filter paper between the cover and the edges of the
bottom vessel. A Petrie dish, such as is used in bacteriological
work, ib excellent for the purpose. Some wet filter paper should
also be placed in the bottom and on this the support for the glass
slip can be placed. For hasty examination the material can be
308 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
teased out directly in the bottom vessel of the I'etrie dish Id a little
water, and then this can he placed od the stage of the microscope
whenever it is desired to examine it.
In twelve to twenty-four hours if the preparation is again exam-
ined many threads of the fungus will be seen to have grown out
from the tisane and spread on all sides for a distance of one to two
millimeters in the flnrrounding water, now presenting the characters
noted above in a clear manner, except there are no constrictions of
the hyphae corresponding to those where they pass through the cell
walls of the host. The branching is in an alternate or irregularly
monopodia! fashion. There will also be seen numbers of the
rounded bodies noted above on the mycelium, both within the tissue
and on the mycelium which is growing free in the water around its
margin.
Sexual Organs. — Oogonia. — The larger number of these rounded
bodies in the case of this species will probably be what are termed
oogonia. These are developed in several relations to the hyphae
which bear them. They may be terminal, i. e., on the ends of the
hyphae which bear them, or on the ends of quite short branches, or
intercalary, i. e., when they appear as swellings of the hyphae here
and there without any reference to the end.
A terminal oogonium begins as a slight swelling of the rounded
end of a hypha or short branch, which continues until the spherical
body is about 18,0-25,1/ in diameter. During its growth in size the
protoplasm which fills the interior is supplied by the supporting
hypha or oogoniophore, without, however, emptying any portion
of the latter structure. When the oogonium has reached its full
size, a septum, or partition wall, is formed cutting off its protoplasm
from that of the stalk or oogoniophore. At this time the wall of
the oogonium is thin and the protoplasm finely granular, though
distinctly so, and completely tills the interior of the oogonium. The
wall now increases somewhat in thickness, but remains colorless.
The egg cell of the oogonium is now soon differentiated, and
in moBt cases, except where parthenogenesis takes place, is probably
influenced by the development of the antheridium. The finely
granulated protoplasm of the oogonium becomes coarser and is
gradually collected iuto numerous small irregularly rounded masses.
At the same time all of the coarsely granular protoplasm contracts
from the wall of the oogonium and moves toward the center forming
there a rounded central mass somewhat less in diameter than that of
Damping Off. 30*
the oogoninm, being Uy-lSp in dimeter. This central sphere of
coarsely granular protoplasm is termed the oosphere, or egg cell,
and is really an unfertilized egg. the receptive cell of the oogoninm.
Between this egg cell and the wall of the oogonium is a space tilled
with a nearly clear, bat finely granular and homogeneous fluid
called the periplasm. At this stage there is no wall surrounding-
the egg cell and it is ready to be fertilized.
Antheridia. — The sole purpose of the antheridia is to supply the
fertilizing element for the egg cell, and the antheridinm is some-
times termed the supplying gamete, while the oogonium is termed
the receptive gamete. The antheridia are of two kinds, stalk
antheridia and branch antheridia. A stalk antheridinm is formedt
from a section of the oogoniophore by the formation of a partition
wall in the hypha cutting off an elongated cell one end of which i»
thus in contact with the wall of the oogoninm, and its contents are
only separated from those of the oogonium by the wall of the latter.
This is the simplest of the two forms of the antheridia.
A branch antheridium is developed as a lateral branch of the
oogoniophore, arising, usually quite near the oogoninm, but some-
times more or leas remote from it, rarely on a separate hypha.
The branch grows towards the oogonium and its rounded end
comes in contact with the oogoninm wall and becomes fixed at the
point of contact. A septum is now formed in the branch cutting
off an elongated cell varying from 15//-40//. This cell, one end of
which is in contact with the oogonium wall, is the antheridium, and
the proximal portion of the branch is the antheridiophore. More
than one antheridium may be formed in connection with a single
oogoninm, frequently two and sometimes three. Both may be
branch antheridia, or one may be a branch antheridinm and the
other a stalk antheridium, and other combinations may take place
where more than two antheridia are present. There does not seem
to be any rule in the number of antheridia which take part in the
fertilization of the egg cell. Where several are in contact one or
more may take part in the act of fertilization.
When the antheridial cell is formed its farther development ia
the same whether it be a branch an'heridium or a stalk antheridium.
The cell which is cylindrical or nearly so in form begins to swell
and this continues until it is two to three times the original diameter,
the greatest diameter being near the end which is in contact with
the wall of the oogonium. At the same time it also becomes quite
310 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
strongly curved and more or less twisted. In case the oogonium
is a terminal one and possesses both a stalk antheridinm, and branch
antheridiiun, the stalk antheridinm may curve so strongly to one
side as to make it difficult to determine later which is really the
stalk antheridinm.
While these changes are taking place in the antheridinm the
granular protoplasm of the oogonium iB moving toward the center
to form the egg cell as described above, and now the end of the
antheridium iu contact with the wall of the oogonium, puts out a
slender tube which pierces the oogonium wall, extends across the
space occupied by the periplasm and touches the egg cell at the
nearest point. This tube is known as the fertilization tube. At
this point on the egg cell there is a small clear space called the
receptive spot.
Nearly all of the protoplasm in the antheridum except a very
thin layer next the wall becomes coarsely granular, arranged in
strings and is finally collected in the middle line of the antheridinm.
This is known as the gonoplasm, and soon passes through the fer-
tilization tube and is emptied into the egg cell at the receptive
spot, where it disappears in the substance of the egg cell and com-
pletes the act of fertilization.
While the passage of the gonoplasm is going on it can be seen
that a thin wall is forming around the egg cell over the surface
except at the point where the fertilization tube is located. When
the gonoplasm has passed through, the wall becomes complete at
that point, and the entire wall then thickens somewhat and soon
becomes brown in color. The fertilized egg cell now becomes the
egg, or oospore.
These phenomena in the development of the oogonia and an-
theridia and in the fertilization of the egg cell can be quite easily
followed by teasing out a small section of the diseased plant tissue
in water ou a cover glass and arranging this for a cell culture in
what is known as a van Tieghaui cell. This can be placed on the
stage of the microscope from time to time and the development
traced. From such a culture made from a diseased young melon
seedling the following record was made. The diseased tissue was
teased out in water od a glass slip Monday, January 2Sth, and placed
iu a moist chamber. The following day, January 29th, a profuse
growth of mycelium, oogonia and antheridia had taken place, the
mycelium extending for 2mm to 3mm out from the diseased tissue.
Daupinq Off. 311
January 30th a small portion of thie tisane was farther teased ont and
mounted in fresh water in a cell culture. January 31st farther
growth had appeared and new oogonia and antheridia were
developed. This continued for several days in the same culture.
On February 1st at 12.30 p. m. as shown in Fig. 1, the egg cell in
the oogonium has formed and the antheridium curved over on one
side is full size hat the fertilization tube has not yet formed nor
has the gonoplasm differentiated, the granular protoplasm being
arranged in a network of threads. At 3.15 p. m. of the same day,
as shown in Fig. 2, the fertilization tube is complete, the gono-
plasm has formed and is about to pass through the tube, while a
very thin wall is forming around the egg cell except at the recep-
tive spot. At 9 p. m., Fig. 3, the gonoplasm has passed through
and the wall of the oospore is complete. Fig. 4 represents an inter-
calary oogonium which was observed in the stage figured, at
12.30 p. m., February 1st. Two antheridia are here in contact with
the oogonium, s. a. a stalk antheridium and b. a. a branch antheri-
dium. In both cases the fertilization tube is complete, and the
gonoplasm has separated preparatory to passing through. The
curving of the stalk antheridium has turned the main thread to one
side, the branch antheridium arising quite closely by the side of the
oogonium has curved inward to the wall of this organ. At 3.30
p. m.. Fig. 5, the gonoplasm has passed through the fertilization
tube from both antheridia and a thin wall has formed around the
now fertilized egg. Fig. 6 at 12 p. m., showed a terminal oogonium
with two antheridia, one a stalk antheridium and one a branch
antheridium, it being difficult in this case to say which is the stalk
and which is the branch. An accident happened to this specimen
and it was not seen again. Fig. 7 represents two terminal oogonia
each with a stalk autheridnm, first observed at 9 p. in., Febru-
ary 1st. At this time in the case of oogonium a, the egg cell is
formed, and the gonoplasm in the antheridium has separated,
while in oogonium b, the egg cell has not yet formed. From the
fact that the stalk antheridium was on the under side of oogonium ft,
when it was first observed, the stage of its development could not be
seen. At 2 p. m,, on February 2d, however, fertilization was com-
pleted in both as shown in Fig. 8. Fig. 9 represents an oogonium
with a fertilized egg and two antheridia in contact with its wall;
one, a, a stalk antheridium whose gonoplasm took part in the act of
fertilization, and one, b, a branch antheridium from a different
i;„ v^vGoO^lc
312 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
hypha from that on which the oogonium is borue. From the latter
the gonoplaam was not used.
These oospores or fertilized eggs mark a very important phase in
the life history of the fungus. They will eventually germinate
and produce the mycelium again, which under favorable conditions
will start the disease anew. Bnt the remarkable thing about the
oospores is that they can not germinate immediately, except in rare
instances, bnt mast undergo a long period of rest, and hence are
sometimes termed resting spores. In this condition they are
capable of resisting degrees of cold and dryness which would prove
fatal to the vegetative portion of the fungus. This accounts partly
for the appearance of the disease after long periods of drought and
after the inclement weather of the winter season in some sections.
Not only does the thicker wall of the oospore offer greater pro-
tection against an unfavorable environment, but the protoplasm
undergoes a marked change before it finally enters upon this-
enforced period of rest. This change is practically a metamorphosis,
the complete nature of which we do not understand. Among other
changes there is probably a change in the molecular or physical
structure of the protoplasm by which a large amount of a fatty
substance is separated and forms a very large globule and sometimes-
other smaller ones which occupy a large part of the space of the
oospore. The protoplasm thus becomes transformed into a state
highly resistant to outside conditions and incapable of growth for a
long period, even though the environment may be most favorable
for growth. The period of rest lasts for several, four to five, months.
They will resist freezing for weekB, followed by drying, without injury*
Propagatwe Organs. — Organs of another kind than oogonia and
antheridia are developed on the mycelium. The function of these
is chiefly for the immediate and rapid propagation of the numbers
of the parasite. The organs are like the oogonia, either terminal
or intercalary swellings of the hyphae, and at first do not differ
materially from them before the defferentiation of the egg cell
and antheridium. These organs are exactly alike in form bnt differ
in the discharge of their functions and are termed respectively,
conidia, resting conidia, and zoosporangia.
Con/idia, — The conidia measure about the same as the oogonia
and when fresh water is added to them they will germinate im-
mediately after maturity, which is attained upon reaching their
faille.
Damping Off. 313
Besting Conidia. — These are conidia which do liot germinate
immediately and acquire a somewhat thicker wall than the conidia.
They pass through a period of rest before germinating. They are
identical in form and size with the conidia. They are capable of
growing after being frozen, and after drying, and serve in this way
much the same function that the oospores do in that they tide the
fungus over quite long periods which are unfavorable for the growth
of the plant.
In germination the conidinm thrusts out, by an extension of its
wall, at one or more points, a slender tube which elongates into a
hypha exactly like those of the former mycelinm. ThiB enters a
young seedling when favorably situated, and starts the disease again.
The conidia and zoospores are rarely developed so abundantly in
this species as are the oogonia. In my cultures during January and
February, 1894-5, the oogonia were far more abundant and no zoo-
sporangia were observed. DeBary says that sometimes one may
search for weeks and even months and not find zoosporangia. I
have, therefore, not had as yet an opportunity of studying the for-
mation of the zoospores from the zoosporangia and can not say
whether or not they agree with those of Artotrogus intermedvua
{deBary), which will be described in the next paragraph. The
following account ia therefore abbreviated from published descrip-
tions.' The zoosporangia are usually not to be differentiated from
the conidia until the time for the development of the zoospores.
They are either terminal or intercalary, and sometimes so much of
the protoplasm migrates into them during development from the
supporting hypha that this is emptied for a short distance near the
point where the wall separates the zoosporangium from the contents
of the hypha. They usually remain attached to the supporting
hypha and at the time of maturity, if placed in fresh water con-
taining oxygen, a short protuberance is developed on one side at
nearly right angles to the supporting hypha, which grows to a very
short tube of a varying length but always shorter than the diameter
of the zoosporangium. Into this tube the protoplasm migrates and
causes the end of the short tube to swell out into a rounded vesicle
of about the same diameter as that of the zoosporangium, with a
thin enclosing membrane. The protoplasm now breaks up into a
>DoB»ry, ZarKemit. d. Peronosporeeo, Bot. Zeit. 39, 521, 1881, Beitr. t. Morptu
n. Phy«. <]. Pilzo, IT, 188 1.
Jjuhroeter, Pllze, la Eugler a. Pr.iDtl, Naturl. Pflanzenfam. 1, 1 IO^Tq^
314 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
number of kidney -shaped masses, with two lateral cilia according to
most authors, although Hesse,1 who first described the process in this
species, says that the zoospores are oval and uniciliate. These
swarm about in the water for a few minutes, come to rest, round off
and germinate in the ordinary way for conidia by Bending out a
slender germ tube which when favorably situated will start the
disease in fresh plants. It is probably by the development of these
in wet soil during rain or at the time of watering the pots or soil in
seed beds that the disease is spread so rapidly.
The fungus is, however, capable of developing as a saprophyte on
dead or partially decayed organic matter in the soil so that with one
watering it may become well seated in nearly all parts of the bed.
To show that it is also a saprophyte it is a, very easy matter to start
it in the laboratory on the leaves or stems of seedlings which have
been previously killed by boiling.
This damping-off fungus was first described by Hesse in 1874
(1. c.) and named by him Pythium deharyanum. It was shown
by him to be a parasite of seedlings, such as Gamdina saliva, Tri-
folium repent, Spergula arvensts, Panicum miliaceum and Zea
mays, while seedlings of Solarium tuberosum, Linum usitaiissi-
mum, Papaver somniferum, Brassica napus, ornilhopus salvous,
Onobryohis, Pisum, Hordeum vulqare, Triticum vulgare and
Avena saliva were not attacked.
Defiary made a comprehensive study of the sexual stage. s
Pythium equiseti Sadebeck, is in his opinion the same species.
P. equisetiwas first described by Sadebeck ■ in 1874 from prothallia
of Equisetum axvense, and in farther studies * it was shown that not
only did it occur in potatoes affected with Phytophthora mfe«-
tans 9 but that healthy potatoes could be inoculated with it.
Pythium, autumnale Sadebeck which grew in young plants of
Equisetum palustre and E. limowm, produces oospores which
* Reuse, Pythium itetmrysrmra, eiu entophytischer scbmarotzer, Halle, 1874.
» Beitr. s. Morpb. n. Pbys. A. Pilze, IV, 1881.
6 Uober eineu iler fauiilie der Saprolegniaceen augeborigen Pilze in dem pro-
thnllien ties AckerschaohtelhalujeB. Sitznogsb. d. Bot. Ver. d. Prov. Bran-
dcnberg, 116-122, 1874.
* Ni*ue UnlerHnrhiiDgen ilber I'ytbium eqniseti. Sitaungsb. d. Gesella.
natnrf. Vreumle z. Berlin, V, 21, 1*75.
8 Utber In fee ti niie u welcbe Pyt Mum -Arte n bei lnbenden Pflanzen horror-
briugeu. Beibl. z. Tageb. A. 49 Vera, tleniscbw natiirf. ii. Aertse. 100, 1878.
13,0 ivGoo^Ic
Damping Off. 315
develop parthenogenetically. Fischer 9 places this in P. debaryanum.
A plant found in Xepidium sativum, and in Seta and
Sinapis by Lohde,'° was described by him as Lucidittm pytkioides
and from the description there is little doubt that it is the Arto-
trogus debaryamis. L. cireumdans described by the same author
in a fern prothallinm11 develops only in the margin of the same,
producing short conidiophores and zoosporangia with 4-8 zoospores.
Fischer a also includes this with P. debaryamvm Hesse, as well as
the Saprolegnia schachtii " described by Frank in the thallus of the
liverwortb Pellia epiphyUa. Zoospores were not seen and oogonia
only rarely, the plant being usually sterile.
A number of these are probably rightly referred to Artotrogus
debaryamis (Hesse.) Unfortunately these plantB can not well be pre-
served for study in their several stages and in most of the cases
probably no specimen of any stage has been preserved, so that it
would !>e quite impossible at the present time at least to speak with
any feeling of certainty on the proper disposition of these forms.
There is need of a thorough and comprehensive study of the species
of the genus, and considerable uncertainty will probably exist as to
the proper disposition of some of the above species until they can
again be found and critically studied.
The fungns has been several times reported in this country, and
many notices of damping off have been made without, probably,
any serions attempt to determine the species. T. W. Galloway from
a careful study determined it from seedlings of Gilia, Viaearia
Lobelia, etc., in the Botanic Garden of Harvard University. He
did not, however, observe the zoospores. Humphey1* also carefully
determined the species, but does not describe the zoospores.
Damping of Prothallia.
Artotrogus imtermediua (de Bory).
This species was first noticed in fern prothallia growing in the
botanical conservatories of Cornell University in the month of
» RabenhorM'H Krypt. Flora, Pilze, IV, 404, 1893.
mUeljtr eiuige neiie punisitieehe Pilze. Tagehl. d. 47 Vera, deutscher Natarf.
u. Aertw, 203, 1874.
11 Ueber einige drub parasiti»ebe Rise. Tagebl. d, 47 Vera, deutscher Naturf .
o. Aertze, 203, 1874.
"Rabenhomt's Krypt. Flora. Pike, IV, 404, 1892, 4 Ibid.
"Notea on tbe fungus causing damping oft, etc. Trans. Mass. Hort. Soe.
"8th Ann. Rept. Maes. State Agr. Exp. Station, 220, 1890.
316 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
February, 1894. The affected prothallia were quite soft, limp, and
darker in color than the healthy ones. Some were placed in water
on a glass slip aDd kept in a moist chamber. The following day the
fungus had grown oat of the prothallia! tissue and had extended a
considerable distance over the slip. The mycelium is at first non
setate and contains granular protoplasm which is present in minute
irregular masses, having in the larger threads much the appearance
of the protoplasm in some muoors, and in some cases well marked
and strong currents of the protoplasm have been observed, which
resemble the movement of the protoplasm in these plants.
The threads branch monopodially, the extent of the branching
depending, to a certain extent, on the amount of the vegetive
growth. The threads put out in the water from the prothallia may
be quite long and possess primary and secondary branches before
«onidia are developed to any great extent. The conidia are developed
at the ends of the main threads or their branches, the hypha swell-
ing at the end into a round body several times the diameter of the
thread itself. In other cases the thread may develop a conidinm
while it is still quite short and the growth of the thread in length
practically cease. In other cases the conidia are developed at the
ends of the primary or secondary branches as well as at the end of
the main hypha. Wnere the conditions are not favorable for the
rapid growth of the vegetative portion of the plant, sometimes the
■conidia are developed more profusely and rapidly so that they are
many times produced in chains. Frequently these are in nearly
Explanation of Plate 1. Artatrogxi debaryanut (Bene.)
Figs. 1,2 and 3, different stage! in fertilization; aantheridlum, oog. oogonium,
4. o. egg cell, gon. gonoplasm, ootp. oospore.
Figs. 4 and 5 intercalary oogonium with stalk antberidinm (*. a.) and branch
an the indium (b. a.) in 4 with gonoplasm separated front the periplasm, and in
5 fertilization complete.
Fig. 6 terminal oogonium with stalk and branch anbheridlara.
Figs. 7 and 8 different stages in development, and fertilisation, of sexual
organs ; 6 iu 7, oogonium before the formation of the egg cell.
Fig. 9 oogonium with stalk antheridlum (a) which has fertilised the egg cell,
And branch author id ium (b) from another hypha than that which bears the
oogonium. In this branch antheridinm the gonoploem has separated, and the
fertilisation tube has formed, bnt fertilization took place from the stalk anther-
idinm first and the wall of the oospore prevented the nae of the gonoplasm from
the branch antheridinm.
All the figures drawn with aid of camera lucida and magnified fifty times more
thau the scale. Scale— 1 millimeter.
i;.flitroo:-yL.OO^IC
PL4TI I—. ArtoCrogua dehaiyantis (Meur j.
)ijiio,aWGoosIe
Putb II.— ArtotroguslnternitillusdleBsrj-).
MgltbedbyGoOgle
Damping Off. 319
straight chains, or they may form a curve, or again a short and
close spiral bo that they are held close to the point of origin in a
small head.
The eonidinm may be spherical or broadly apieulate at the proxi-
mal end or more minutely apieulate at the distal end. Sometimes
there is do enlargement of the fruiting thread at the point of origin
of the eonidinm, bat very frequently, and in a majority of eases
which I hare observed where they are grown in water, there is an
oval enlargement of the hypha with a minute apical sterigma which
bears the eonidinm. Where there is quite rapid growth of the
fungus the hypha grows onward pushing the recently developed
oonidinm to one Bide, but not always freeing it, and soon bears
another eonidinm in like manner. This continues so that several
conidia may be borne at short intervals on the same branch, and the
successive points of the origin of the conidia are not only marked .
by the attached conidia hut by the oval enlargements on the branch.
The appearance is thus, in many cases, very much like that of the
oonidiophores of Phytcphthora, and e'e Bary has called attention to
the same fact. Many of the conidia become free.
Early in April of the same year cultures were again started on
glass slips in water. A preparation was started Tuesday afternoon,
April 10th, at 3 p. m. At 6 p. m. considerable growth had taken
place and several conidia were developed. At 9 p. m. another
examination was made and quite a profuse growth was present and
numerous conidia or zoosporangia.
At 9 a. m., April 11th, there were many free conidia and zoospor-
angia and the culture abounded in the form of fructification which
so closely resembles Phytopkthora. Freeh water was now added to
the preparation, a cover glass placed upon it for the purpose of
studying it with the high power of the microscope and for obtaining
Explanation of Plate II. Artotrogv* intermedin* (de Bury),
Fi>(g. 10, 11, 12, 13, conidia developed in chains.
Figs. 14 and 15, cunidia borne in ;i manner resembling tbeconidial fructification
in Phyioplithora.
Figs. 17-23, different stages in the development of the zoospores.
Fig. 24, free zoospores with a cilium at each pointed end, passing into amcoboid
movement and becoming divided into oval unciliated zoospores.
Fig. 16, Intercalary con idiom.
All tlit figures from camera lucid* drawings and magnified fifty times more
than the scale. Scale 1 millimeter.
,v Google
320 Aghicdltdeal Expebimhnt Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
camera lucida drawings. After making several sketches of desired
objects one zoosporangium was discovered emitting the protoplasmic
vesicle preparatory to the differentiation of the zoospores. When
the eye first fell upon it the object was in the phase represented by
Fig. 18. Soon the protoplasm had all passed through the short
tabe and was collected in a roanded vesicle at the end. There was
a slight differentiation of the protoplasm at the time of the pass-
age, bnt it was tittle marked. The differentiation became more and
more marked showing that the mass was dividing into ten or twelve
polygonal bodies. The surface of the forming zoospore next the
wall of the vesicle, or the periphery, is the longer, and at the mid-
dle of the outer surface of the object there soon appears a de-
pression which gives each a carved appearance. This form becomes
more and more marked and now movement begins, which first ap-
. pears as a kneading of the entire mass, and as they become more
and more sharply differentiated each young zoospore produces an
oscillatory movement with its center nearly stationary, the move-
ment of coarse much restricted by the surrounding vesicle. As
they assume more distinctly the enrved appearance there is de-
veloped from each end of the zoospore a cilium by the lashing of
which the movement becomes more violent and results soon in the
release of the swarmers when they suddenly dart away.
The movement is now a complex one. The oscillatory move-
ment is more marked with a tendency in many cases to produce
figure of 8 cycles, which is combined with a jerky progressive
movement in the direction of the longitudinal axis. Frequently
when they come in contact with some object larger in size, they
simulate to some extent the movements of a paranuecium along
some object in the water.
The form of the mature zoospore is broadly fusoid, inequilatera
with pointed ends which terminate in a long cilium. After five to
ten minutes the movement of the swarm spores becomes slower
and finally it nearly ceases and the body undergoes plastic move-
ments resembling somewhat that of an amoeba as represented in
Fig. 24. At first this amoeboid movement is irregular but after a
few minutes it assumes a definite character which tends to cnt the
organism into two parts. This progresses until complete fission
results in the formation of two zoospores which are oval in form
with the cilium attached directly at the smaller end.
flitroo^GoO^IC
Damping Off. 821
This peculiarity in the development of the zoospores ie one which
haa not heretofore been recorded except in a preliminary paper hy
the writer.1 ■ The species was at that time studied along with the
seedling fungus, A. debaryanns (Hesse), and as this is reported as
occurring also oh fern prothallia (Todea afrioand) the species now
under discussion was then supposed to be the same, and to this
species it was doubtfully referred. But the development of the
oonidia is very different from that described for any other species of
this genua resembling that of Phytophtkora as stated above.
It can not therefore at the present time be Baid with certainty that
the zoospore formation in Artotrogua debaryamts is the same as
that found for A. intermedins, though what evidence we already
have on the subject might be interpreted to support that view of
the case.
Where the soil is kept very damp and the air of the house is
quite humid the prothallia are apt to be overrun by certain algae
which chofee the prothallia, shut out the air and Kght, prevent their
proper development and frequently cause them to be completely
sterile. Many of the prothallia are thus killed, sometimes entire
beds or pots of them. A very common alga which I have several
times observed is a variety of Hormiscia flaccida (Kuetz.) Lagerh.
Species of OsciUatoria are also frequently present and produce a
like injury.
If the pots or vessels in which the prothallia are grown are rested
on sphagnum, a layer of which can be placed in the bottom of the
wardian case, and after the young prothallia have started, all of the
watering be applied through this, the prothallia will do much better
than if surface watering is practiced and far better than where the
pots are rested in a vessel partly full of water. The air of the
wardian case or of the house should not be kept too damp.
Note ok the Genus Abtotbogus.
Hessa,who first described Artotrogus debarycmus16 {Pythvum de-
batrywnum Hesse) says, as stated above, that the zoospores are oval
and provided with one cilium. Pythium equiseli11 Sadebeck,
which is generally considered to be the same plant, possesses two
<* Preliminary note on the swarm spores of Pythiam and Centiomyxa, Sot.
Gar. XIX, 375, 1894.
Pythiam denary ana
' «r Pvt.hlnm pmnnef.1. (Inhii'u Ralt.r. a. Biol, u :. ......
,ljOOgl<
922 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
lateral cilia according to the descriptions, and de Bary only says that
the zoospore formation takes place in the oft described way.18 In
Artotrogus proliferus1* (deBary), the author, was unable to deter-
mine whether the zoospores were nneiliate or biclliate. In the
reside they are figured as renifonn, but the ultimate zoospores are
described as oval, one end being narrower than the other. Double
zoospores were also described which possess two light spots instead
of one. These ultimately divided, but before division, according to
the author, the double zoospore was like that of an organism con-
trolled by two opposing wills. This was net the case with the
biciliated zoospores observed by myself in Artotroffus intermedin*,
until amoeboid movement was beginning after a period of swarm-
ing, and when fission is about to take place. Possibly de Bary
observed the " double" zoospores just at that time.
In Artotrogua pythiodes*' (H, et C.) the zoospores are described
and figured as biciliate, one cilinm attached at each pointed end of
the zoospore exactly as I have found in the case of A. intermedin*.
Bnt in A.pyikiodea the authors say that the zoospores absorb the
two cilia, round off and germinate, i. e., they do not divide, if the
observations are clear on this point. This species was fonnd on
leaves of Wolffia mitcheUii.
Other species of the genus are as follows: A. hydnosporut"
Mont, in potatoes and in dead seedling plants." A. ferax (de
Bary) in dead insects and in dead seedlings in water. A. megala-
canthus*3 de Bary, in dead seedlings and parasitic in prothalia of
Todea africana. A. proUferut3* (de Bary) saprophytic on dead
seedlings and insects in water; A. vexanaK (de Bary) in dead seed-
lings and in diseased potatoes; A. wnguUlulae aceti™ (Sadebeck),
parasitic in AngwiUvla aeeti ; A. sadebechionue (Wittmack) pro-
ducing epidemics of diseases in lupines aud peas. Several other
species have been imperfectly described.
( "ZurKenntniaederPeronoaporeen, Bot. Zeit. XXXIX, 624, 1881.
; >* Pyttaium proliferum de Bury, Priogsh. Juhrb. f. wiwa. Bot. II, 183, 1860,
*°Baze et Cornn, eur dauz nouveaux types generiqnea poor lea Families dea
Saprolegnees et dees Peronosporees, Ann. de aci. nat. Bot. aer. B, II, 73, 1869.
"Montagne, ayolloge, etc., p. 304, 1846.
»Bofc Zeit. XXXIX, 663, 1881.
• Beitr. z.Morph. o.Phys. d. Pilze. IV., 19,1881; Bot. Zelt. XXXIX, 578, 1881.
"Pringuh. Juhrb. f. wias. Bot. II, 182, 1860.
*Joor. Bot. V, 119, 1876.
■•Bot. CoDtislblii, XXXIX, 318, 1887.
Dgit.-ocoyVjOOQIC
Damping Off. 323
A Pottihg Bed Fungus New to America.
Completoria Complens Lohde.
This is an organism which is parasitic upon fern prothallia grown
in forcing houses. It has been known in Europe for several years,
but was first found in this good try during the winter of 1893-4, in
the botanical conservatories of Cornell University, while studying
the rotting of prothallia induced by Artorogus intermedins (de
Bary), described in a former paragraph of this paper. Ultimately
the prothallia decay, but the first signs of disease when caused by
this parasite alone is the appearance of a yellow or yellowish brown
color imparted by the prothallia as they lie on the soil of the pot or
bed. The prothallia are so small that usually the color appears to
reside in the entire prothallium when seen by the unaided eye.
When examined by the aid of a microscope, however, unless the
prothallium is in the last stages of the disease, the decay will be
seen to be confined to " Bpots."
These spots vary in color from a yellowish green to yellowish
brown, deep brown and finally blackish, dependent on the phase of
the injury to the cell and its contents. At first the injury is con-
fined to single cells, either near together or far isolated, on the mar-
gin of the prothallium or at any point over its surface.
When the trouble is well advanced and there are numerous cen-
ters of the disease, as frequently happens, the prothallium will
present a checkered or mosaic appearance, the different pieces of
the mosaic being colored with the various shades of color detailed
above. It also presents at this time quite a ragged appearance,
because many of the cells are dead and the disintegration of their
contents makes holes in the plant and rifts in its edges. A short
note on the occurrence of this fungus in the United States was
published by the writer in the Botanical Gazette for November,
1891. It is a very interesting fungus from its very simple struct-
ure, its peculiar form, mode of development, and aa a plant parasite,
from its being a member of the Bntomophtkoreae, which are almost
entirely parasites of insects.
The vegetative body of the fungus is a more or less compact,
grape like, botryose cluster of oval or curved hyphal branches
originating from a common center, and presenting on the surface
a series of convolutions formed by the external hyphal branches
lying close together over the surface. This vegetative body lies
324 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
within a single cell of the prothallium, sometimes completely filling
even quite large cells, while at other times the bod; may be smaller
especially in smaller cells of the prothallium, where it sometimes
consists of only a few hyphal branches closely cursed upon their
parent cells. These hyphal branches vary from 7// to 15^ in
diameter or may even be of a greater diameter, and are one and
one-half to two times longer. When the plant body in a single
cell becomes mature it may spread to the surrounding cells by
certain of the external hyphal branches putting out a slender germ
tube which pierces the adjacent intervening wall. This is done by
the tube of the hypha excreting a substance which dissolves the
cellulose of the wall mating a small minute pore and at the same
time turning the adjacent portions of the wall brown in color. The
wall of the slender thread which squeezes its way through thia
opening is also colored brown, and this color is frequently extended
to the slender portion of the thread or tube, in which the proto-
plasm passes or migrates to the center of the cell as shown in Fig. 44.
When it has reached the center of the cell lumen the free end
enlarges and forma a rotund body which finally becomes oval. At
this time it is about 15// to 25// in diameter, with quite coarsely
granular protoplasm and with one or more large vacuoles. By this
time also all of the protoplasm from the original cell has moved
into this oval body in the center of the cell, leaving behind only the
wall of the slender tube by which it gained entrance and which is
still connected with the wall of the living organism. This old wall,
as well as the wall of the prothallial cell where the organism entered,,
becomes brown in color soon after the protoplasm has passed
through into the center of the cell of the host. From the free and
smaller end of this oval cell a short protuberance grows curving to
one side usually rather close to the Bide of the parent cell. Some-
times this branches quite soon in a dichotomous manner and the
two short cells curve in opposite directions. If dichotomy does not
occur at the beginning of the protuberance another branch arises
soon from the original cell or from the branch. These protuber-
ances become enlarged at a very abort distance from their origin
forming oval cells. These in like manner produce short branches,
and the process continues until a botryose or convoluted mass of
cells is developed which eventually fills the cell of the prothallium,
and the elements of the botryoid body become angular from mutual
,v Google
Damping Off. 320
pressure. The wall now becomes brown in color and the glomerate
appears to be mature.
In this condition if these hyphal maesee are teased out from the
cell of the prothallium and kept on a glass slip in a small amount
of moisture germination soon takes place. Hyphal masses so teased
out from the prothallium and placed under the above conditions at
5 p. m. on February 28, 1894, and kept at the ordinary room
temperature during the night, the temperature falling somewhat
below that of the day (the temperature was 70° to 80° Fair., up
to midnight and fell 30 toward morning and rose to 66 at 9 a. m.}.
At 9 a. m. February 23d, the preparations were examined and the
mature hyphal masses were germinating. In some cases the germ
tubes were 50<Y to 700/y long and all the protoplasm had moved
oat in the distal half of the tube (Fig. 42). In germination under
such circumstances a protuberance arises from one of the indi-
vidual cells of the glotnerale and extends soon into a tube the
diameter of which is about 10^. As the tube extends in length the
protoplasm gradually disappears from the parent cell and passes
into the tube. As the tube continues to elongate the protoplasm
continues in the distal portion and the older portion of the tube
becomes empty, nothing remaining but the wall. There appears to
be a wall at the junction of the tube with the parent cell, if so, it
is formed after the protoplasm has passed into the tube. When
the tube has become considerably elongated so that there is an
empty portion from 200// to 500^» in length there appear what
seem to be transverse septa, or it may be the remains of a portion
of the protoplasm situated in a thin transverse sheet in the tube.
These occur so regularly and at about 30f> to 40^ distant that the
resemblance to septa is very striking if they are not really septa.
■ If they are septa they are formed' only after the protopalsm has
passed these points. It may be that the growth of the tube was
arrested for a certain length of time and the walls were formed
while it was in this quiescent condition, or the growth of the tube
may be naturally periodic. The protoplasm is coarsely granular,
presenting here and there rather faint vacuoles, but there are, bo far
as examined, no septa separating the protoplasm into distinct por-
tions. The coarse of the tube is slightly sinuous, and also in an
ascending position as the glomerule lay on the glass slip. Perhaps
this was for the purpose of emerging from the water. After an
examination the cultures were retained to the moist chamber.
326 Agbicdltchal Experiment Station, Ithaoa, N. T.
While the fungus is progressing through a prothallium when one
of these spore balls becomes mature, soma of the cells lying adja-
cent to healthy cells of the prothallium germinate and grow directly
into the new cell host. In doing bo the germ tabe is very much
smaller since less energy is expended in making the perforation
through the wall. After emerging from the wall in the new host
cell the tube does not enlarge to the size of the tnbe when germina-
tion takes place in water on the glass slip, but remains about the
same size as that of the perforation in the wall, until it reaches the
center of the cell lumein where it enlarges into a rotund body as
described above. Here it soon grows into the botryoid hyphal
mass again. Other cells may germinate and course for a consider-
able distance over the surface of the prothallium and enter new
host cells quite distant from the hyphal mass, but this has not been
observed. In some cases more than one cell lying quite close to a
new host cell will germinate and grow into the same. From the
observations thus far made I should judge this to be quite common
but not general.
The first ovoid portion of the mycelium in the center of the cell
of the host is considerably larger than the curved branch which
develops at its apex and frequently larger than any which follow.
The more slender form of these branches and the close apposition
of the branches to the primary enlarged ovoid portion suggests a
striking resemblance to an oogonium and antheridium. Thus far
I have not seen any conclusive evidence that these organs are pres-
ent However, frequently the conditions are favorable for the de-
Explamation of Piatt III. ConpUtoria oomplmt LoMc.
Files. 26-30, different plants with mature raiting spores, showing the variation
Id number developed in a single plant; the resting spores surrounded by tlie
empty peripheral cells of the plant, which mny have developed conidia, or some
of them entered adjacent cells of the prothallium, or possibly some of them fed
the developing resting spores.
Figs. 31, 32, yonnger stages In the development of the resting spans.
Fig 34, plant developing resting spores at the center and a oonidinm from one
of the peripheral cells.
Fig. 35, conidium germinating; 36, 37 and 39 germinating oonldiawith the
germinal vesicles or proembryoe developed from each one.
Fig. 40, germinal vesicle or proembryo developing the minute entrance tube
which pierces the wall of the cell of the prothalliam ; 36, showing the entrance
tnbe complete and the protoplasm having migrated to the center of the eel]
where the rotund body ia formed ;41, branching of yenng plant in cell of host.
Drawn with aid of camera lucid* and magnified 30 times more than the scale.
Scale 1 millimeter.
Digitized byGOOgle
Puti IT.— Complatoria complins Lohde.
MgltbedbyGoOgle
Piati III — CoroplrtorU ooapleni Ljbde.
)ijiio,aB,GoosIe
Damping Off. 329
vfilopment of another form than the purely vegetative portion of the
plant, and either simple resting spores are developed, or if sexual
organs are present, then oospores. The number of resting spores
varies from one to ten or even twenty, in large prothalUal cells
where the botrioid fungus is well developed. The resting spores
occupy the central portion of the mass and are surrounded by the
smaller and terminal cells of the plant which now are empty. The
resting spores are rounded, sometimes oval in form, and when
mature are bounded by a very thick wall consisting of three coats,
which are smooth, but sometimes appear roughened by the closely
cohering cell walla of the collapsed surrounding terminal portions
of the botryoee mycelium. The portions which become resting
cells are always the larger and central portions. They are much
larger at the time of the formation of the resting spores than when
the fungus is in the vegetative stage, and since at first there appear
to be no cell walls intervening it wonld seem that their increase in
size came chiefly from the outer and smaller cells giving .up to them
their protoplasmic contents rather than that the additional nutriment
came from the cell of the . host which by this time is nearly ex-
hausted. However, this point was not determined. The wall of
the young resting spore is at first very thin and the protoplasm
finely granular. The mature resting spore presents a very coarsely
granular protoplasm the grannies rounded in form and closely
packed together.
Propagation also takes place by the production of non-motile
Conidia from monosporous sporangia.
The conidia are oval or broadly obovate, colorless cells, with a
thin wall and measure from 15/> to 25^ in diameter. In germi-
nating, unless they are lying entirely immersed in water or in an
Explanation of Plate IV. CompUtoria complex* Lohdti.
Fig. 42, botryoee cluster of plant body after being placed in water, the per-
ipheral cells germinating and forming long tubes.
Fig. 43, plant body, some of the central cells, forming resting spores, and some
of the peripheral ones developing conidia.
Fig. 44, plant body in one cell of the host, the peripheral cells developing
tabes which penetrate adjacent cells of the prothallinm.
Fig. 4E, two young plants in one cell of the boat having entered from an
adjacent sell, early stages in the branching and development of the botryoee
plant body are shown.
All figures drawn with aid of the camera lncida and magnified 30 times more
than the scale. Scale, 1 millimeter.
' Dgit.-ocoyVjOOQIC
830 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
abundance of a water which may be on the surface of the pro-
thallium or on the soil, the; do not form a mycelial tube directly.
A very short tube is formed and into this the protoplasm migrates
and causes the end of the short tube to swell out into an oval or
oblong reside or the vesicle may be separated from the conidinm
by a constriction. This phase reminds one of the formation of the
zoospore vesicle in the species of Artot/rogus. But the formation
of this tube and of the vesicle does not take place so rapidly as in
Artotrogua, and the form of the vesicle is quite different and varies
considerably in form as well as in size, bat the most marked differ-
ence is that there is a firmer covering which appears to be in the
nature of a well-defined wall around the protoplasmic vesicle, while
in Artotrogut there is only a protoplasmic membrane. Here the
analogy ceases for zoospores are not formed. This cell is a ger-
minal vesicle or proembryo, and from this proembryo arises the
slender tube which pierces the cell of the prothallimn and permits
the parasite to enter. If the eonidia are lying in an abundance of
water they will germinate and produce a tube five to ten times the
length of the diameter of the conidium. This I have several times
observed, but in no such case have I observed the germ tube to
enter a cell of the prothallium. Leitgeb states that in snch cases
which came under his observation the conidinm only developed a
short tube and then soon died.
The eonidia possess a prominent apicnlus which in development
is directed toward and rests partly in the stalk of the sporangium.
The sporangium develops from some of the superficial cells of the
botryose body, but so far as I have examined from cells which are
larger than the usual external cells. The cell begins growth in an
upright position or away from the moisture and appears very much
like an ordinary vegetative thread which is produced when the
plant is immersed in water except that it is greater in diameter.
When (JO// to 80^ in length the end becomes enlarged and the pro-
toplasm collects into the forming sporangium. While the spor-
angium ia forming the protoplasm is more coarsely granular at the
base, while at the terminal portion it is more hyaline, giving the
appearance of quite large and rather numerous vacuoles. When
the spore is mature it is ejected with considerable force in much
the same manner as the spores of the Entomophthoree.
The aerial development of the sporangia instead of aquatic is in
correspondence with the nonciliated condition of the eonidia. One
Damping Off. 381
case which came under my observation shows clearly the necessity
for the aerial development of the sporangia in the formation
of the conidia in this plant. In mounting an affected pro-
thallium in water for examination I discovered a partly formed
sporangium which projected out into the cavity of an old and
emptied ruptured cell. In the growing condition of the prothallia
in this case they were somewhat crowded bo that they stood more
or lees erect. The sporangium then in growing also in an erect
position away from the moisture would be directed into the empty
cell above. Placing this prothallinm in a horizontal position on
the glass slip in a small quantity of water would immerse the
sporangium in the water, or partly so. All of the water was then
drawn off except just a sufficient amount to prevent the prothal-
linm and fungus from drying and the preparation was placed in
a moist chamber in order that from time to time it might be
examined to watch the development of the sporangium. This stage
of the sporangium is represented in Fig. 43. No farther develop-
ment of this sporangium took place. But just at the base of
the stalk another one began to be thrown up in a position per-
pendicular to this prostrate one. As the new one increased in
height the old one gradually lost the protoplasm both from the
forming sporangium aud the stalk. In the course of four to five
hours the sporangium was mature and the conidium ejected, when the
sporangium and stalk collapsed and remained as a flabby membrane
attached to the wall of the old stalk and sporangium which was still
in the water and which still remained intact.
The conidium is capable of germinating immediately when there
is sufficient moisture and the behavior seems to be manifested in
three different ways according to the amount of moisture, or in
some cases perhaps according to the proximity of the host. If the
spore is entirely immersed in water a long slender germ tube is put
forth similar to the tube which is emitted from the terminal cells
of the botryose body of a vegetatively mature plant. "Where less
water is present the conidium germinates by developing a germinal
vesicle, or proembryo as described above.
From the inner face, the one lying next the prothallinm cell,
of the broader end of the proembryo, a minute tube is thrust out
which pierces the cell wall of the host and grows out to the center
of the cell lumen where in the ordinary way it enlarges into the
first ovoid body of the new plant (Figs. 33, 40). In other cases
332 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. T.
probably, where there is still a less quantity of moisture, the tube
from the germinating spore is directed upward or away from the
host and becomes a sporangium with a very short stalk or only the
short narrowed end of the sporangium which serves as a stalk.
Before this conidium ib ejected from this secondary sporangium if
it be immersed in water, the protoplasm will grow oat into a long
Blender germ tube. If it were only partially immersed it might as
in the case of the primary sporangium noted develop a new sporan-
gium. In the case of the primary sporangium which, was immersed
in water and which developed a new sporangium at the base of the
old one, as described above, the base of the stalk was not entirely
immersed.
As stated above the primary sporangia in the cases observed
developed from some of the larger of the external cells of the cluster.
In one case this took place while the inner cells were developing;
resting spores (Fig. 34). It may be possible that the sporangia are
always developed from somewhat larger and richer cells of the
periphery but more likely others of the cells can develop sporangia
when the conditions of the environment, which hare not all been
determined, are such as to produce this tendency to fruit in the
organism.
I have found the fungus in the prothallia of Aapidium(CyTtomi-
wm) fotcoturn, Pteris wrgyria and Pi, orelica.
It was first described by Lohde*7 and was later more thoroughly
studied by Leitgeb* who grew it in a large number of fern
prothallia.
A New Cutting Bed Fuhgus.
VoluteUa leucotricha Atkinson.
April 10th (1894) two cuttings, in the botanical conservatory, of
carnations which were damping off were called to my attention.
These were placed in a moist chamber expecting to obtain the sterile
fugus or an Arlolrogus. Two dayB later, 12th, the stems were well
covered with a fungus which formed elevated stromata, whitish in
color or with a slight tinge of flesh color. "With a hand glass the
stroma was seen to be surrounded by several setae, which, however,.
"UebaroiniganBueparaaitisuhe Pilre. Tagebl. d. 47 Vera, dentwher Naturf.
u. Aerttt, 303, 1874.
taCompletoria complena Lohde, ein in Farnprotb Allien nohmaroUenderPil*.
Sitznngsti. d. math, natnrw. Klwue d. Akad. d. Wins. LXXX1V, I, 288, 1881.
Damping Off. 8S3
■did not present at the time a dark color as is the ease with the com-
mon carnation anthracnose, VoluteUa dianthi (Hals.). At the
time it was supposed that this lack of color in the setae might be
due to the growth. Sections of the stromata showed the structure
of a Volutella, but the conidia were considerably smaller than those
of V. dianthi and the setae were quite different in form as well as
in color. They taper but little toward the free ends, are quite blunt
at the ends and usually more times septate.
At my request Mr. R. H. Pettit, a student in my laboratory,
made a separation of the fungus for me by the agarplate method.
The first trial was successful and in a few days the colonies of the
Volutella were risible to the unaided eye, the conidia having been
kept watch of during the stage of germination and the formation
of the colonies. The growth of the colonies is quite diffeient
from that of the V. dianthi as well as the development of the
fruiting hyphae, and there was no longer any doubt that it was
a different species from the V. dianthi, and the name V. leucotricha
is here proposed for it.
Pure cultures were then started on bean and vetch stems and in a
few days the characteristic stroma with the setae were developed
in profusion on the surface of the stems. With the conidia from
one of these cultures pure dilution cultures were made on April 20th.
Instead of pouring a few drops of the first dilution into the second
and from this into the third as I usually do with fungi having large
conidia, the second and third dilutions were made by transferring
with a double and twisted platinum needle. Plate No. 1 and 2
were sufficiently separated for the study of colony characteristics
and for photographing natural size. The colonies grow rather
slowly and the plate No. 2 was ready for photographing on the
25th, and No. 3 on the 27th. In No. 2 the colonies were quite
numerous and consequently rather small, from 4-6 mm. in diameter,
while those in plate No. 3 where ihere were only 6 colonies were
on the 27th 10 mm. in diameter. The colony steadily develops a
thin and nearly circular weft marked by numerous fine radiating
lines which because of the exceeding thinneasof the weft are visible
over the entire colony as it ages. There are quite regularly more
dense radiating lines caused by the overlaping of certain radiating
areas, and the margin shows a tendency to form roundish angles.
The growth is quite sensitive to periodic changes in temperature
which occur between night and day, as shown by the several con-
934 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca., N. Y.
centric lines which are quite pronounced on the colony. At the
center of the colony there is developed quite a compact stroma which
is very much like that on a more solid substratum, like the stems of
the vetch or bean. This stroma may he quite extensive and irregu-
lar in outline with a few outlying smaller and scattered ones, or
there may he quite a large number of them at the center of the
colony, the larger ones of course nearer the center and the smaller
ones at the periphery. These individual stromata arc so far like
those developed in solid substrata, either in nature or culture tubes,
that they are margined with the characteristic satae. A photograph
of several of these growing in the agar in a Petrie dish is shown in
Fig. 52, plate VI, left npper corner. The photograph was taken
from directly above and is magnified about 60 diameters.
In a few days after the appearance of the colonies the basidia
begin to develop. Some of them and probably the first ones are
prostrate and wholly or partly immersed in the agar. They may
be simple, or branched, when the branches may be opposite, or
irregular, and in some cases the branches are asBurgent, when most
of them are thrown to one side. There is a strong tendency for
the threads of the mycelium to assume a moniliform appearance by
the swelling of the short cells thus producing a strong constriction
at the septa. This tendency to a swelling of the cells of the
mycelium is also shown to some extent in the basidia. Quite early
many of the fruiting threads become erect and branch several times,
the ultimate branches forming the basidia. The branches and the
basidia are frequently opposite or whorled and when standing alone
simulate very well the couidia fructification of a YertioUUv/m. For
some time the conidia are held in chains as they are developed suc-
cessively on the same basidinm. When moisture is sufficient, and
this is usually the case in the Petrie dish, the capillarity of the film
surrounding the conidia pulls them from the concatenate posi-
tion and they are gathered into a globular head appearing as if they
were developed in the form of a Mucor. Very soon at the center
of the colony by the development of numerous fertile hyphae
very closely, a true stroma is formed, and the conidia are held by
capilliarity in great masses upon the summit of the stroma.
After 24th a cell culture was prepared in a drop of nutrient agar
at 5 p. m. On the following day the conidia were germinating and
a group of them was photographed (46, Plate V, upper left corner).
The spores here at this time were 4-5^ in diameter. The germ
Google
Plat* V.— TolutelU laucotrlcba Atkli
)igltbadbyC00gIe
Pun VI— Volulella leuootrloha Aikloson
MgltbedbyGoOgle
Damping Off. 337
tubes are quite sinuous, and at this age (seventeen hoars from time
of sowing) were 15/< to 25// long, and about 2/' in diameter. In the
germinating spores are a few, 3 to 5, small and very strongly refrig-
erent grannies in the hyaline and homogenous protoplasm, and are
qnite well shown in the photomicrograph. On the following day
when the culture was forty hours old another photograph was taken
(tig. 47). By this time many of the conidia showed the development
of three tubes, and the tubes were now quite long. In some cases
the hyphae coming in contact, anastomose, one of these conditions
being shown in the photomicrograph. One day later several of
the conidia showed still other tubes, so that in time two to several
tubes may arise from a single conidinm. The anastomosing in
some cases is qnite common. In this cell culture, where the layer
of nutrient agar was quite thin and the conidia numerous, fruiting
did not take place very abundantly. In many cases the basidia are
directly connected with the conidinm, and in other and a majority
of cases the basidia are developed from the hyphae at a variable dis-
tance from the conidium. The basidia under these circumstances
are usually simple, terete and at the apex bear several conidia,
which, because of the rather large per cent, of water in the medium,
soon free themselves from the point of their origin and rest at one
side. In a few cases the basidium is branched, or the fruiting
hypha may hear lateral or opposite branches, and ] the terminal por-
tion act as a basidium also. In this cell culture there was not the
tendency for either the mycelium or the basidia to become swollen
or enlarged. Two photo-micrographs were taken of the conidinm
production in the cell culture, one showing the development of a
basidium directly from the conidinm (50 lower left) and one with
two basidia near each other on a single thread of the mycelium (48
middle right).
In order to study the separate conidiophores, or fruiting hyphae,
recourse was had to the dilution culture, No. 1, in the Petrie dish.
The conidia being so numerous in this dilution, caused the develop-
ment of numerous colonies in quite close proximity, and the fruiting
was necessarily more scanty and a less tendency to the development
of the stroma so characteristic of the fungus on solid substrata, or
in the agar where they were not so crowded. There were, there-
fore, many scattering and independent fruiting hyphae or conidio-
phores. By placing a thin cover glass over portions of the plate
32
338 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N, Y.
these erect conidiophores were bent in a prostrate position, and the
amount, of moisture was sufficient to displace the greater amount of
air bo that the medium between the glass and the agar was nearly
of the same density as the agar itself, and quite satisfactory photo-
graphs could he obtained when the suhadjacent growth of myce-
lium was not too dense to interfere with the entrance of light, or to
produce a hopelesB confusion of threads which were not desired.
Figs. 49, 51 and 54 represent some of the conditions of the coni-
diophores in thiB culture, whichhave been referred to above. (Figs.
46-51 and 54 were photographed at an amplification of about 600
diameters.)
A portion of one of the fruiting stools which was teased out from
a culture on vetch stems was photographed with an amplification of
100 diameters and is shown in Fig. 53, Plate VI, lower figure.
The preparation was mounted in water and the conidia which were
so numerous that they would have clouded the preparation were
mostly washed out. Quite a number, however, remained in the
preparation, and show as minute oblong dark spots over the field of
the photomiorograph. The fruiting stool is composed of numerous
branched Bporophores closely compacted together.
Canker in Cucumbers.
What is sometimes called canker in encumbers has occurred dur-
ing the two past winters in the horticultural houses of Cornell
University. The appearance is that of a large and deep ulcer
in the stem at the surface of the ground. It occurs on plants of
considerable size, on sterna from 5 cm. to 1 cm. or more in diameter,
the vines of which are several meters long. The nicer has a dnll
brown color, the color of the external portion depending to some
extent on the amount of soil which becomes worked into it. The
tissues for some depth are soft and more or less putrid, dependent
on the stage of the disease. It may advance so far as to cause the
stem to rot off entirely, when, of course, the plant dies. In other
cases the plant may not he ultimately killed but the ulcer has af-
fected bo deeply the vascular tissues as to interfere greatly with cer-
tain physiological functions of the plant. As the disease becomes
serious the plants take on a sickly yellowish green color and be-
come more or less limp. It soon runs its course, ending in death.
During the month of December, 1894, sections of a diseased Btem
were placed in water and kept as described above for the seedling
13,0 i/Goo^rc
Damping Off. 339
fungus, and in twenty-four hours a profuBe growth of an Artotro*
ffus} supposed to he the common A, debaryanus was developed.
The species was at that time not accurately determined, and at the
present writing there is none of the disease in the houses. The
trouble is invited by keeping the soil around the Btems in a too wet
condition, just such conditions as favor the development of the seed-
ling fungus. It is quite possible that another fungus, to be de-
scribed in a later paragraph, may also have something to do with
the etiology of the trouble.
Damping Off bt a Sterile Fungus.
Much of the trouble iu the nature of damping off both in the
forcing bouse and iu the fields is caused by a fungus which baa been
under study at several different times during the last three years,
but up to the present time has refused all the encouragement
which it has been possible from present experience to offer it, with
the hope of inducing it to develop some characteristic fruiting or-
gans in order that its real nature and affinities might thus be made
known. There are quite characteristic features of the mycelium
and of certain sclerotoid bodies developed on the mycelium, and
which, with a little care, serve to distinguish it from other known
fungi.
I first observed it while studying the diseases of the cotton plant.
(See Bull Ala. Agr. Exp. Station, Dec. 1899.) In the cotton-
growing States it is a very frequent parasite on young cotton plants,
and produces a very large percentage, so far as my observation has
gone, of what is known as " sore shin " in that section. The trouble
is caused by the fungus growing first in the superficial tissues of the
stem near the ground and disintegrating them before it passes to the
deeper tissues ; in other words the fungus never seems to penetrate
far in the living tissues, but " kills as it goes," and the tissues be-
come brown, depressed and present the appearance of the plant
having a deep and ugly ulcer at the surface of the ground. The
fungus does not spread into the tissues either above or below the
nicer to any extent, but literally eats away at that point until it has
severed the stem at the affected place or the plant has recovered
from its effects. The plants do not seem to suffer seriously from
the disease until the woody portion containing the vascular bundles
is nearly or quite eaten away.
Digitized by G00gle
340 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
Id the latter case all communication between the root and the
aerial portion of the plant is cat off, and, of course, the plant
withers and dies. But frequently the stem may be eaten off so far
that the plant has not sufficient strength in the remaining tissue at
that point to support it and it will fall over, and, perhaps, if the
disease does not progress any farther, it may remain fresh and
green for weeks, but it is rare that after this etage the plant re-
covers sufficient strength at that point to erect itself again. Fre-
quently, however, when the stem is nearly eaten off, the disease may
be arrested, and the plant completely recover from the effects.
During the winter of 1894-5, some bean plants in the horticultu-
ral forcing houses of Cornell University were affected by this dis-
ease and quite a number of them presented brown
and quite deep ulcers on the stems at the surface
of the ground. A few of the plants went so far
ss not to be able to stand. Some of the worst
ones were pulled up, but others which were quite
badly diseased remained in the bed and all gradually
recovered completely. The plants were six to ten
inches in height when the trouble was called to my
attention. When the plants attain this size the
disease cannot make much headway, but even very
young plants will frequently recover from the effects.
It is more serious when it attacks smaller seed-
m. - etoroe f uogua lings, as radi shea, lettuce, etc. Egg plants and cab-
Arram" iwriUD ' ' o f bages m well as others are known to be affected,
oenunret candt- Both the plants in seed beds in the forcing houses
dtal ™* have been seriously affected by this fungus. Let-
tuce is frequently eaten off at the surface of the ground and the
plants supported by others near may remain erect and fresh for sev-
eral days. Gradually, however, if not quickly, they wither and fall
when the fungus grows in the tissues farther as a saprophyte. If
such plants be placed in a moist chamber, it is not necessary to place
them in water ; in a day or two there will be developed on the sur-
rounding moist paper on which it is well to place the plants, a pro-
fuse growth of mycelium composed of whitish threads. To he
sure that these threads are those of this fungus and not those of
some mucor it will be necessary to have recourse to the micro-
scope. The most characteristic peculiarity of the threads of the
mycelium is to be found in connection with the branching. The
flitroo^GoO^IC
Damping Off. 341
freshly developed threads branch freely bnt not profusely; they
are colorless, composed of elongated cells 9/^11^ in diameter and
100^200// in length. The protoplasm is finely granular and
contains numerous small rounded vacuoles. The branches extend
to an angle usually of between SO and 60 degrees from the main
hypha and very near the point of attachment are a little curved
toward the point of growth of the same. At the point of attach-
ment with the parent hypha the branch is considerably smaller
than either the diameter of the parent hypha or the main part of
the branch, and the septum separating the protoplasm of the
greater part of the branch from that of the parent hypha is situated
some distance from the latter, usually 15// -20// from the main
thread. This portion of .the branch then, the contents of which
are continuous with those of the parent thread, is clavate in form.
Species of Bofoytw will occasionally be developed in diseased tissue
of this kind, and sometimes develop phenomena of damping off
similar to that produced by this fungus, though much more rarely,
and the mycelium in its early stages can not, so far as I am able to
tell, be differentiated from this sterile fungus. But if a culture of
the mycelium be made, in the course of a few days or in a week, if
the mycelium be that of Botrytis the conidial stage or the clasping
organs will be developed. Bnt if it be that of this sterile fungus,
no such conidial stage will he developed.
Pure cultures of the fungus have been obtained at two different
times. In the summer of 1892, from young cotton plants, and
again in February, 1895, from young lettuce plants which were
damping off. It can quite easily be obtained in pure culture by
transferring some of the mycelium grown in the air of a moist
chamber to some acidulated culture media. A very good medium
is made by placing cuttings of bean stems, 7 to 8 centimeters long,
in a culture tube and adding to this about 8 cc. of water and 1
drop of concentrated lactic acid. Several of these culture tubes
should be prepared, and then sterilized in steam for two hours per
day for three or four days in succession. The bean stems should
project 2 to 4 centimeters above the liquid, and to the ends of these
the mycelium can be transferred with a named platinum needle.
Several transfers should be made, and from portions of the mycelium
which have been previously examined, to be certain that mucors or
other fungi are not present. Ont of several transfers, if the growth
DigltbadbyCoOgle
842 AORICDLTDBAL EXPERIMENT STATION, ITHACA, N. T.
in the moist chamber has been made with caution, a few pure cul-
tures are quite likely to result.
Bacteria will be shut out bj the acid in the medium, and if the
culture is free from other fungi in a few days the mycelium will be
visible as a silky white growth which spreads over the surface of
the beau stems, growing downward over them and also outward
onto the surface of the glass tube. This growth continues to
advance for several days with quite an even advance edge to the
weft In the course of four or five days, or one week, from the
time that the mycelium is visible to the eye in the culture tube,
there will appear first on the stems at certain points, and later on
the surface of the glass tube, minute white powdery looking tufts
on the mycelium. These are made up of closely and profusely
branched threads, the branching sometimes presenting numerous
and quite regular dichotomies, at other times quite irregular, and
the terminal branches profusely lobed, the lobes standing in all
directions and considerably more slender than the threads of the
mycelium, and from 10// to 20// or more in length, occupying the
distal portion of the branch for a distance from 30// to 50//.
Another form of branching will also be present in which the closely
set branches diverge at quite strong angles and are quite regularly
constricted, presenting a moniliform appearance, and become
eventually divided into short cells. These branches become more
closely compacted and interwoven, forming rotund bodies at first
white and quite small, but eventually 2 to 4 millimeters in diameter
and of a brown color. These bodies are probably sclerotia.
Upon the surface of these sclerotia are diverging threads with
numerous moniliform cells which resemble chains of conidia.
These are not true conidia, since they do not easily become sepa-
rated. By breaking down the sclerotia, or by scraping the surface,
many of them become separated into chains of two or three cells or
even become entirely separate. If placed in water, or in suitable
medium, they will germinate, thus functioning like conidia.
The sclerotia have been kept for several months, but in no case
has any other stage of the fungus been developed from them.
At present it can not be correlated with any known group of
fungi, but there are reasons for supposing that the sclerotia may be
the resting stage of some hymenomycetous fungus. Frequently the
threads become united into rope like strands and change to a brown
color.
Damping Off. 348
1 Damping Off by Various Fungi.
Several fungi, probably quite a large number, produce phases of
damping off at certain times, while their evil effects are not con-
fined to this peculiar class of injuries. Phytophthora cactorum
(L. et 0.) Schroeter {Phytophthora omnivora de Bary) was first
discovered as the cause of decay of species of cactus in forcing
houses. This fungus frequently destroys seedlings of trees, causing
them to become brown and later to decay.
Several of the anthracnoses are known to produce genuine cases
of damping off while their injury is by no means confined to this
trouble. CoNstoi^iokum lindemuthiawum on bean seedlings is a
good illustration of this, as Halsted M has already shown. The same
author points out that a CoUetotrichwm on cuttings of albutilon,
passinora, clematis and jessamine causes them to damp off and in
some houses ruins the bulk of the cuttings in the bed, while a
Gloeoepormm damp off rose cuttings.
Another anthracnose, CoUetotrichum gossypii Southworth some-
times damps off seedling plants of cotton. Carnations are also
affected in the same way by VofotteUa dianthae (Hals).
Halstead found a PkyUosticta in one case and in another case a
Septoria growing in the stems of decaying chrysanthemums, and
while this was the only fungus present it was not certainly deter-
mined as the cause of the trouble. According to Halstead bacteria
also cause seedlings of encumbers to damp off.
A species of Botrytis which is very common in forcing houses,
producing a variety of diseases of various plants, frequently damps
off leaves and twigs of cuttings or well rooted plants. When the
houses are quite damp the fungus gains hold on the plant, probably
in the axil of the leaf or branch, because the water is held at these
points for a longer time, and once well seated in the tissue continues
its work until the leaf or branch is rotted off. Leaves of begonias
and branches of roses have been damped off in the horticultural
houses at Cornell University.
A careful inquiry would probably reveal a large number of fungi
which at times produce diseases almost if not quite identical with
damping off so far as external appearance goes.
»«h Kept. N. Jr. Agr. Coll. Exp. Sta. 291, 1891.
DigltbadbyCoOgle
344 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
Treatment.
In the treatment of this trouble especial attention most be given
to the environment of the plants and those conditions which favor
the rapid development of the parasites. These conditions are known
in most cases to be high temperature accompanied by a large mois-
ture content of the soil, humid atmosphere, insufficient light and
close apartments, and soil which has become thoroughly infested
with the fungi by the development of the disease in plants growing
in the same. Some excellent notes on the treatment of the disease
by gardeners and horticulturists are given in the American Garden
for 1890, by Meehan, Massey, Maynard, Watson, Lonsdale, Gardi-
ner, and Bailey, and a short description of the potting bed fungus
(Artotrogua deboryanus) by Seymour. The principal lines of treats
ment suggested there from the practical experience of the writers
are as follows :
When cuttings are badly diseased they should be taken out, the
eoil removed, benches cleaned and fresh sand introduced, when only
the sound cuttings should be reset. For cuttings is recommended
a fairly cool house, and confined air should be avoided in all case?.
As mneh sunlight as possible should be given as the plants will
stand without wilting. When close atmosphere is necessary guard
against too much moisture and keep an even temperature. The
soil should be kept as free as possible from decaying vegetable
matter. This is a very important matter, for several of the most
troublesome of the parasites grow readily on such decaying vege-
table matter and in many cases obtain such vigorous growth that
they can readily attack a perfectly healthy plant which could resist
the fungus if the vegetable matter had not been there to give it
such a start. Soil which is dry beneath and wet on top as results
from insufficient watering by a sprinkler favors the disease more
than uniformity of moisture throughout the soil.
In seed beds use fresh Bandy soil free from decaying matter.
Avoid over watering especially in dull weather, shade in the middle
part of the day only and keep temperature as low as the plants will
stand.
When seedlings are badly diseased it will be wise to discard them
and start the bed anew. In the early stages however they can fre-
quently be saved by loosening the soil to dry it, and placing tbe pots
in sunny places at such times as they will not wilt. Some advocate
i;.git.-ec:;yG00^Ic
Damping Off. 845
sprinkling sulphur on the soil and in some cares sulphur at the rate
of one to thirty is mixed in the soil before sowing with good effect.
When the beds are badly infested Humphrey3" advocates the entire
removal of the soil, whitewashing the beds, and the introduction of
fresh soil.
In houses heated by steam if it were possible to have, without too
great expense, a steam chest where the pots and seed pans which
are used could be placed and the soil thoroughly steamed for sev-
eral hours it could be sterilized, and the finer and more delicate
seedlings be grown then with little danger if subsequent care was
used to not introduce soil from the beds. In testing the virulence
of the Artotrogus debaryanus (Hesse), and of the sterile fungus,
several experiments have been made by steaming pots of earth,
growing seedlings in them and then inoculating some of the seed-
lings with the fungus while other pots were kept as checks, and all
were under like conditions with respect to moisture, temperature,
etc. The seedlings which were not supplied with the fungus re-
mained healthy while those supplied with the fungus were diseased
and many killed outright (see frontispiece).
Conclusions.
Damping off is caused by the growth in the seedlings or cuttings
of fungus parasites which themselves are plants, but microscopic in
size. The plants when affected frequently present a paler green
color. The tissues become soft at the surface of the ground, the
plant falls over and dies. No one fungus is concerned even in the
Boft rot of seedlings. In related cases the plant may show a brown-
ish ulcer at the surface of the ground which frequently increases in
size until the plant is severed at this point and then dies.
Too great a moisture content of the soil, air, high temperatures,
close apartments, and insufficient light not only favor the rapid
growth of the parasites but they also induce a weakly growth on
the part of the seedling so that it cannot bo readily resist the disease.
The parasites can grow and multiply on decaying vegetable mat-
ter which is in the soil.
When once in the soil they can remain alive for months even
though the soil become dry or frozen.
Soil used in seed beds or cutting beds should be free from de-
caying vegetable matter or care should be used that the matter is
£ Haw. State Aft. Kip. Sta. Bull. 402, 1891.
346 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. T.
thoroughly decomposed. Fresh sand is said to be the best for small
seedlings.
Soil in which plants have once been diseased should be discarded
if it cannot be Bterilized by steam heat for several hours. Fresh
soil free from vegetable matter should be introduced.
Water the soil thoroughly bnt not to saturation and do not water
oftener than actually needed.
Keep the houses well lighted, well supplied with fresh air. Do
not have high temperatures, keep as even a temperature as possible.
When the disease first sets in stir the soil about the plants and do
everything possible to dry the soil without killing the plants or
raising the temperature, keep the temperature as low as the plants
will bear. If this does not save them change the soil and clean the
beds by whitewashing them.
When cuttings become seriously diseased change them to fresh
soil, resetting only the perfectly healthy ones.
GEO. F. ATKINSON.
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BULLETIN 95— June, 1895.
Cornell University— Agricultural Experiment Station.
HORTICULTURAL DIVISION.
WINTER MUSKMELONS.
By L. H. BilLEV.
)ijiio,aWGoosIe
ORGANIZATION.
Board of Control-The Trustees of the University.
STATION COUNCIL.
Preeident, JACOB GOULD 8CHUEMAN.
HON. A. D. WHITE Trneletof (he Univereity.
Professor I. P. ROBERTS President Stale Agricultural Society.
Professor I. P. ROBERTS Agriculture.
Professor G. C. CALDWELL Chemistry.
Professor JAMES LAW Veterinary Science.
Professor A. N. PRENTISS Botany.
Professor J. H. COMBTOCK Entomology.
PROPRBBOR L. H. BAILEY Horticulture.
Professor H. H.WING Dairy E**ia*dry.
ProfebsobO. F.ATKINSON Cryptogaatio Botany.
Dmani or the station.
I. P.ROBERTS Director.
E. L. WILLIAMS.. Treaturer.
H. W. SMITH Clerh.
ASSISTANTS.
M. V. 8LINGERLAND Entomology.
OEO. C. WATSON Agriculture.
G. W. CAVANAUOH Chemistry.
E. G. LODEMAN KortUniUur*.
MICHAEL BARKER Horticulture.
Offloe of the director, 20 Morrill Hill,
Those desiring this Bulletin sent to friends Will plesse send tu the Dames of
the parties.
Bulletins of 1895.
87. The Dwarf Lima Beans.
88. Early Lamb Raising.
89. Feeding Pigs.
90. The China Asters.
91. Recent Chrysanthemums.
93. Feeding Fat to Cows.
93. The Cigar-Case-Bearer.
94. Dam pine-off.
96. Winter Mnakmelone.
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CoHHBLL UKIVEB8ITY, 1
Ithaca, N. T., June 15, 1895. j
The Honorable Commiteioner of Agriculture, Albany:
8m. — The following account of winter muskmellonB is submitted
as a bulletin in pursuance of Chapter 230 of the Laws of 1895.
The growing of winter crops of vegetables and flowers under glass
is an important industry in New York State and one that is rapidly
enlarging. It is the most intensive and one of the most highly
specialized of all the branches of agriculture, and it must play an
increasingly important part in the industrial development of the
future. This Station has already entered this interesting field, par-
ticularly with contributions upon the cultivation of tomatoes, frame
cucumbers, beane, cauliflowers, and the heating of forcing-houses
and the influence of the electric arc light upon plants under glass.
We are now glad tro add this paper upon the melon, which is admit-
tedly the most difficult vegetable crop to mature in the winter
montbe, but which can no doubt often be added with profit to those
houses which are fitted for the growing of frame cucumbers or
tomatoes.
L. H. BAILEY.
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Winter Muskmelons.
I. THE FORCING OF MELONS.
The forcing of melons for delivery in midwinter is practically
unknown. The fruit is often grown as an early winter crop, ripen-
ing in October and early November, and the seeds are often sown in
January and the melons matured in May and Jane. Gardeners
now and then ripen a few melons in midwinter, but the fruits are
almost invariably very poor or even disagreeable in quality. The
writer has long been convinced that it is possible to secure good
melons in December, January and February, and to grow them nearly
as cheaply as the English or frame cucumbers. The attempt was
first made in the winter of 1889-90, and it has been repeated more
or less persistently until the present time. It was only until last
winter when, profiting by all the pitfalls of our past experience and
assisted by the services of our gardener, Michael Barker, we finally
had a winter crop of good melons. In order to satisfy the reader's
cariosity at the outset, I will say that the essentials for growing
midwinter melons, as I understand them, are these: High temper-
ature from the start (80° to 85° at mid-day, and 70° at night); the
plants must never be checked, even from the moment the seeds germ-
inate, either by insects, fungi, low temperature, or delay in "hand-
ling ; dryness at time of ripening; a soil containing plenty of
mineral elements, particularly, of course, potash and phosphoric
acid ; poUmiferous varieties ; the selection of varieties adapted
for the purpose. All these requirements seem to be easy enough
of attainment as one reads them, bat it has taken ub six years to
learn them. Others would, no doubt, have been more expeditious ;
bat it should be said that no one of these conditions will insure
success, but all of them must be put together.
The Mouse. — A house which is adapted to the growing of
English cucumbers or tomatoes, should grow melons. The first
requisite is heat. The capacity of the heating system must be sufficient
to maintain a high temperature in the coldest weather. The house
362 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
should be free of draught* and large leaks. Our melon house opens
into sheds at both ends, so that no outside air ever blows into it ;
yet even here, we look np the honse from the time the melons begin
to form, to prevent persons from passing through it. We like to
keep the room close. It should be capable of being kept dry. There
should be ample room over the benches for training the vines 5 to $
ttom hes
feet. "We use benches, for melons must have strong bottom heat.
~ Dole
WlNTBB MUSKMBLOKH. 353
Fig. 56 is a view in our melon bouse when the plants had been four
weeks transplanted. For myself, particularly where snch high tem-
peratures are wanted, I prefer steam heat. A melon house should
receive direct Bunlight through an unshaded roof. In this respect
melons differ from frame cucumbers, which generally thrive best
under a shaded roof. The burning of the foilage by the sun is
avoided by the use of glass which does not possess waves or varying
thicknesses in the panes. The bubbles, flaws and " tear drops " in
glass are not the cause of burning. Fig. 57 Bhows a cross-section of
the house in which we have grown melons. We have used benches
A, B and C. The lower bench, D, has too little head room and,
being the lowest, it is too cold for melons.
The soil should be very fertile. "We have had good success with
clay sod, which had not been manured, pulverized and mixed
thoroughly with about half the bulk of well-rotted stable manure.
Such a mixture contains enough quickly available nitrogen to start
the plants off strongly, whilst the mechanical condition of it is so
friable that all the mineral elements are easily obtained by the
plants. An occasional light application of potash and phosphoric
acid worked into the soil will be found to be useful. Very much
of the ultimate behavior of the plants will depend upon the proper
selection and mixing of the soil, and one who has had no experience
in forcing-house work will rarely obtain the best results for the first
year or two in preparing the earth. The mechanical condition of
this soil is really more important than its fertility, for plant food
may be added from time to time, but the soil itself cannot be re-
newed whilst the crop iB growing ; and, moreover, the plant food is
of tittle avail unless the soil is well drained and aerated, not too
loose nor too hard. It is impossible to describe this ideal soil in
such manner that the beginner can know it. Like many other sub-
jects of handicraft, it can be known only by experience. It may
help the novice, if I say that soil which will grow good melons in
the field may not be equally good in the house. Under glass, with
the fierce heats in full sunshine and the strong bottom heat, heavy
watering, as compared with normal rainfall, is essential, whilst the
rapid drainage and the evaporation from both the top and the bot-
tom of the bed, impose conditions which are much unlike those of
the field, But the ideal condition of the soil to be maintained in
the house, may be likened to the warm, mellow, rich and moist seed
bed in which every farmer likes to sow his garden seeds in Bpring.
364 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaoa, N. Y.
There is no sub-soil indoors to catch the drainage, and a mellow
field soil is often so loose and porous that the water tods through
the benches and carries away the plant food. The house soil must
therefore be retentive, bat then there is danger that it will become
puddled or sodden, or arrive in that condition which a gardener
knows as a "sour" soil. This condition may be avoided by the ose
of the stable manure to add fiber to the soil, by the very frequent
stirring of the immediate surface with a hand weeder, and particu-
larly by great care in watering. As the fruits begin to mature,
water the house very sparingly. " The less water given, the higher
will be the flavor of the fruit."* Inasmuch as old or fruiting plants
require a dry house and young plants thrive best in a moister at-
mosphere, it is not advisable to attempt to grow successive plantings
of melons simultaneously in the same house.
The bench should not be above 7 inches deep, and perhaps
8 inches is better. If the soil is too deep, the plants grow too
much and are late in coming into bearing. If the bench is 4
feet wide, two rows of plants, two and a half feet apart in the rows,
may be grown ; but if the bench is an outside one it may be handier
in training if there is but a single row, with the plants about
18 inches apart. It should always be borne in mind, however,
that at least twice the number of plants should be set in the beds
which are ultimately to grow in them for there will almost certainly
be accidents and black aphis, and mildew and damping off. When
the plants have stood in the benches two or three weeks, the weak
ones may bo pulled out. It is a good practice, when bnt a single
row is planted, to set the plants nearer one side than the other, and
then leave the wider side of the bench empty, and add the soil to
it as the plants need it. In this way fresh forage is obtained for
the roots in soil which has not been leached of its plant food nor
impaired in its mechanical condition ; and the plants will make a
steady growth from start to finish, rather than an over-vigorous one
at first. If there is too much soil, the roots spread through it quickly
and the plants ran at once to vine.
Sowing and Transplanting. — The seeds should be sown in pots.
We like to place a single seed in a 2-inch pot, and in about three
weeks — if in summer or fall — to transplant the seedling into a
4-inch pot. In two or three weeks more, the plant may be set per-
* George Mills, A Treatise on tbe Cucumber anil Melon, 73.
13,0 ivGoo^Ic
I
it
1
ji
i
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Winter Mubkmelons. 367
manently n the bench. The record of one of our cr-.ps is as fol-
lows : Seeds sown August 4th ; repotted August 30th ; transplanted
to bench Septeiulwr lUth ; first fruit picked December 6th ; crop all
harvested for Christmas.* Fig. 58 shows the size of a good melon
it quartan. About U actual
plant as it leaves a 4-ineh pot for the bench. It is very important
that the plants should not become pot bound, nor stunted in any
other way. It is only strong, pushing plants which give satisfac-
tory results.
Training. — The plants are "Btopped" — the tip of the leader
taken off — as soon as they become established in the bench, or
" It should be said that tbe forcing season at Ithaca is unusually cloud;, and
that, consequently, theae dates of maturity are somewhat later thnn they may
be in sunnier regions.
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358 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. T.
sometimes even when they are transplanted. This pinching-in is
practiced for the purpose of setting the plant at once into fruit-
bearing, and to make it branch into three or four main shoots. All
the weak or " fine " shoots are removed as fast as they appear, so
that the plant does not expend its energy in the making of useless
growth. The three or four main vines or arms are trained diverg-
ently npon a wire trellis, and as soon as a shoot reaches the top of
the trellis — four or five feet — it is stopped. This trellis is made
simply of light wire strung both horizontally and vertically, with the
strands about a foot apart in each direction. To these wires, the
vines and frnite are tied with raffia, or other soft cord. It must be
remembered that the fruit is borne along the main branches, and
that all small or " blind " growths Bhonld be nipped out as soon as
they start. The fruits should hang free from the vine, never touch-
ing the ground. It will generally be necessary to hang them to a
female flower of melon. Natural ei
wire, as shown on the title-page, by making a sling of raffia. They
will then not hang too heavily on the vine, nor break off — as they
sometimes do if unsupported.
Pollinating. — The flowers must be pollinated by hand. Melons
are moncecious — that is, the sexes are borne in separate flowers
on the same plant. The first flowers to open are always males or
staminate, and it may be two weeks after these first blossom
appear that the females or pi&tillates begin to form. There is
nearly always a much larger number of males than females, evens
i: liizeooyGoOQle
Winter Mcskmblons. 359
when the plant is in fall bearing. Fig. 59 is a female, or pistillate
flower, natural Bize. It is at once distinguished by the little
melon, or ovary, which is borne below the colored portion of the
flower. The male or staminate flower is seen in Fig. 60. It has no
m flower. Natural >iie.
enlargement or melon below, and the flower perishes within a day
or so after it opens. Pollination is performed in the middle of
the day, preferably when the house is dry and the sun bright,
so that the pollen is easily detached from the male flower. A
male flower is picked off, the petal or leaves stripped back, and the
central or pollen-bearing column is then inserted into a pistillate
flower and there allowed to remain. That is, one male flower is
used to pollinate one female flower, unless there should happen to be
a dearth of male flowers, in which case two or three female flowers
may be dusted with one male. If the house is too cool and too
moist, the pollen will not form readily, and there are some varieties
which are poor in pollen when grown nnder glass. Every pistillate
or female flower, except the first two or three which appear, should
be pollinated, although not more than four or five on each plant
should be allowed to perfect fruit. It is very rare that even half of
the female flowers show a disposition to set fruit. It is best to
ignore the very first flowers which appear, for if one strong fruit is
set much in advance of the appearing of other pistillate flowers, it
will usurp the energies of the plant and the later fruits will be likely
to fail.
Varieties. — The general varieties of field melons do not succeed
well in the house. We have tried various common melons for
forcing, but the only one which was adapted to the purpose is
Emerald Gem. We have had the best success with the English
360 AOBICDLTUHAL EXPBBIMBNT STATION, ITHACA, N. T.
melons are email (winter specimens weighing from 1£ to l£ lbs.),
with thin netted rinds and a red or white flesh of high quality.
Blenheim Orange (Fig. 62) is a red-fleshed melon of medium to
medium large size, with a very irregularly and variously barred
rind, Bcareely ribbed, short-oval in shape, highly perfumed and of
63. — Miiiterplece melon. Nttarel site.
the very highest quality. This has been our favorite winter melon.
Iu midwinter we have had it with all the characteristic flavor and
aroma of autumn fully developed. It is also an early melon, in
season coming in just after Emerald Gem.
Hero of Loctinge (Fig. 61, the cat melon on top). This ripenB
just after Blenheim Orange. It is a firm melon of medium size,
with white flesh, dark in color, with few very prominent irregu-
lar bars, not ribbed, globular, the flesh tender and excellent but
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Winter Moskmelons. 361
less aromatic than Blenheim. This is one of the beBt of the frame
Lord Beaoonsfield follows Lockinge, bnt it has not been valuable
with ns. It is a dull green globular-conical misshapen melon with-
out ribs or netted markings, and a soft green flesh which is poor.
Masterpiece (Fig. 63). A very attractive melon with distinct
ribs or segments and a closely and prominently reticulated rind ;
globular-oval, of medium size, becoming yellow, with a thick and
very rich red flesh. One of the very beat, ripening ten days or two
weeks after Blenheim Orange.
Empress melon. Nearly natural Hi
Empress (Fig. 64). A globular melon of rather small size, rib-
less, bnt marked with very coarse angular bare ; flesh pale orange,
of good quality.
362 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaoa, N. T.
ripening with Masterpiece. Lees desirable than Blenheim or
Masterpiece.
Monarch (Fig. 61, front row, left). A good sized melon, with
sparse markings, except about the blossom end, dull yellow in color,
not ribbed; flesh thick and solid, red, of excellent flavor. Ripens
with Masterpiece. Our stock of this melon appears to have been
mixed, and we have also grown a cross with Lockinge. Because of
its variable character and somewhat unattractive appearance, we
prize it less than some other varieties ; but it is probable that a pure
stock wonld have given more satisfactory results.
The varieties, then, which we chiefly recommend for forcing, are
Blenheim Orange, Hero of Lockinge, and Masterpiece, with, per-
haps, Emerald Gem for early. A good crop of melons in the
winter months is an average of three fruits to the plant. This
means that some plants must bear four or five melons, for there
will almost certainly be some plants upon which no fruit can be
made to set. The larger the fruits, the fewer each plant can
mature. Four to Ave pounds of fruit to the vine is all that can
reasonably be expected after November. The fruits will continue
to ripen for a week after they are picked. Ordinarily, if seeds of
Emerald Gem, Blenheim Orange, Hero of Lockinge, or other early
varieties are sown August first, fruits may be expected early in
November. If the fruits are desired in January, there should
be two to three weeks' delay in sowing. All plants grow slowly
in the short, dark days of midwinter. The novice should not at-
tempt to secure fruits later than Christmas time, for the growing
of melons should be undertaken cautiously at first.
Insects and diseases. — There hnve been three serious insect en-
emies to our winter melons — black aphis, mites {Tetranychus
bimaeidalus) and mealy-bug. The best method of dealing with
these pests is to keep them oil. It is a poor gardener who is
always looking for some easy means of killing insects. If the
plants are carefully watched and every difficulty met at its begin-
ning, there will be no occasion for worrying about bugs. A fumi-
gation with tobacco smoke twice a week will keep away the aphis ;
but if the fumigation is delayed until after the lice have curled up
the leaves, the gardener will likely have a serious task in over-
coming the pests, and the plants may be irreparably injured in the
meantime.
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Winter Mobkmelons. 363
For mites, keep the honee and plants as moist ae possible. At
all events, do not allow the plants to become so dry that they wilt,
for this neglect will sap the vitality out of any plant, and it falls an
easy prey to insects. Whf-n the mites first appear upon the foliage, —
if the gardener should be bo unfortunate ae to have them, — knock
the pests off with a hard stream of water from the hose, or pick the
affected leaves and burn them. If the plants become seriously
involved, bo that all the leaves are speckled-grey from the work of
the minute pests on the under side, then, destroy the plants.
Melon plants which have become seriously checked from the attacks
of insects or fungi are of no further use, and they may aa well be
destroyed first as last.
Mealy-bugs are easily kept off by directing a fine hard stream
against them, when watering the house. When these bugs first
appear, they usually congregate in the axils of the leaves, and a
strong Btream of water greatly upsets their domestic arrangements.
In one of our melon experiments, when the mealy-bug got a foot-
bold, we picked them off with pincers. We went over the vines
three $imes, at intervals, and eradicated the peBts ; and the labor
of it — the vines were small — was much less than one would
suppose.
There are two troublesome fungous disorders of frame melons.
One is the mildew (Eryaipke Cichoracearum), which appears as
whitish mold-like patches on the upper surface of the leaves. It
also attacks cucumbers. It may be kept in check by evaporating
sulphur in the house, as described in Bulletin 96. It is imperative
that the sulphur do not take fire, for burning sulphur is fatal to
plants.
The second fungus is canker or damping-off.* ThiB usually
attacks the plantB after they have attained some size in the benches,
sometimes even when they are in frnit. The vine stops growing,
turns yellow, and finally begins to wilt. If the plant is examined
at the surface of the ground and just beneath the soil, the stem
will be found to be brown and perhaps somewhat decayed, the
bark sloughs off, and sometimes deep ulcers are eaten into the tissue.
In this stage of the disease nothing can be done to save the plant.
The treatment must be a preventive one. Keep the soil dry about
the stem. Do not apply water directly at the root. In order to
* For a discussion of this fungus by the botanist, see Ball. 91, p. i
Soogle
364 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
keep the soil dry, it is an excellent plan to bill up the plant slightly.
If a little sulphur is mixed with the soil about the plant, the spread
of the fungus will be checked. Some persons sprinkle lime about
the plant to check the fungus.
II. Winteb Melons fob Field CuLTTVATioir.
There is an interesting class* of melons little known in this
country, which gives fruits of long-keeping qualities. These are
known as the winter or scentless melons. They are mostly of an
St. — Winter Climbing Nutmeg Melon.
oblong shape, with green or grayish hard rinds and commonly a
white or green flesh which often lacks almost entirely the character-
istic aroma of the muskmelon. The leaves are generally longer and
greener than those of the common melons. The fruits are picked
just before frost, when they Appear to he as inedible as squashes,
and are stored in a frnit-room to ripen. The trne winter melons
require a long season. We have planted them upon good soil on
the first day of June, and they have barely come to maturity before
p.*
jO0g
WlNTBB MUSKMBLONB. 365
frost. There is little difficulty in keeping some of toe varieties
until Christmas, if they do not get too ripe in the field, if the fruits
are not allowed to become frost-bitten, and if the room is cool and
rather dry.
There are two general types amongst the winter melons which we
have grown. One type has a solid interior, like a cucumber, and
the seeds are imbedded firmly in the structure of the fruit. The
other class has a soft interior and the loose seeds of ordinary
melons. To the first class belongs the Winter Pineapple, a var-
iety which seems to me to be indistinguishable from the Green
fleshed Maltese melon {Melon de Malie d? Hiver & chair verte) of
the French. It is variable in shape and size but is commonly
pyriform and clear yellowish green, with a green inodorous flesh of
fair quality for its class.
There are a number of good varieties in the second, or loose-
seeded class. The one which we have liked best is the French
Winter Climbing Nutmeg {Melon Brode verte grimpant), shown
Google
366 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. T.
in Fig. 65. This photograph (Fig. 65) was taken id November,
when the fruits had become somewhat shriveled. It has a sweet
and good green nesh. The seeds are very small. The fruit is
small, ribbed, and very dark green with yellow fnrrows. It keeps
well until December. Another good melon is the White Antibes
of the French {Melon Brode d1 Antibes blane cP Himer a chair
verte). It is an egg-shaped melon of good size, bright green nntil
full maturity, and hard-Bhelled. It is a very long keeper. The
Red-fleshed Maltese melon excels other melons of this class in
quality, the flesh being aromatic and rich, but it is not so good a.
keeper as the green-fleshed sorts.
The White Japan melon (Fig. 66), whilst not a winter variety,
is nevertheless a good keeper if the fruits are not fully ripened
when picked. We have kept it easily until well into November.
It is a small globular lemon-yellow melon, of variable character as
regards surface markings, a soft and stringy but good and aromatic
flesh, and many small seeds. The blossom scar is usually very
large, as seen in the specimen at the right in Fig. 6,!.
In general, I should say that these winter melons are worth grow-
ing for home use. The quality is not so good as that of the summer
melons, but this defect is overbalanced by their long-keeping quali-
ties. From my present knowledge of them, I should grow chiefly
the Winter Climbing Nutmeg, the White Antibes and perhaps the
Winter Pineapple. These melons are also useful for the making
of conserves.
SKETCH.
1. Muskmelons for winter use may be obtained in two ways — by
forcing them under glass, and by growing the long-keeping varieties
in the field.
2. Melons under glass are .usually harvested in late fall or in
spring in this country. It is difficult to bring them to a good size
and high flavor in the winter months, although this can be done if
the proper conditions are secured.
3. The requisites for ripening melons nnder glass, particularly in
winter, are these : A temperature of 80° to 85° at midday in the
shade, and 10° to 12° lower at night; a continuous and steady
growth from the time the seeds germinate ; U soil rich in mineral
elements and without much stimulating nitrogen ; dryness at time
of ripening ; great care in preventing the attacks of insects and
Google
Winter Muskmmlons. 367
fungi ; hand pollination ; the selection of varieties adapted for the
purpose.
4. The melon house should have all the direct sunlight which is
obtainable, and it should be capable of being easily heated. There
should be a space of five or six feet above the benches, to allow of
training, bnt all height beyond this is of little avail. Melons demand
unshaded roofs.
5. Musk melons should be grown in benches, with strong bottom
heat, such as is supplied to frame cucumbers and tomatoes. The
soil should be live or six inches deep, and each plant should have
about four square feet of ground room. Bnt it must always be
remembered that, because so many accidents are likely to overtake
the plants, two or three times the number of plants should be trans-
planted into the benches which it is designed shall ultimately stand
there.
6. A soil made of pulverized strong clay sod mixed with half its
bulk of old manure, is fit for melons. Raw, fresh manure gives too
much stimulating growth. Subsequent fertilization may be effected
by applications of liquid manure or mineral fertilizers.
7. Young and rapidly growing melon plants demand free water-
ing, and a moist atmosphere always keeps down the mite and red
spider; hut when the fruit begins to ripen, and when the flowers
are being pollinated, the house must be dry. It should be borne in
mind, however, that a moist atmosphere at any time encourages
mildew and canker.
8. The honse should be ventilated cautiously, and all draughts
and sudden changes in temperature should be avoided.
9. Early varieties matnre fruits in three months from the seed,
except in midwinter, when considerably more time must be allowed.
The seed are sown in thumb-pots or 2-inch pots, repotted into 4-inch
pots, and thence transplanted to the benches. The plants must
never be allowed to become pot boand.
10. The plants are " stopped " before they show a tendency to
run, and three or four strong shoots are trained upwards on a wire
trellis. All weak secondary growths should be removed as soon as
they start. These main shoots are stopped when they reach a height
of about fonr feet.
11. Melon flowers must be hand-pollinated. This operation is
best done in a sunny day, when the houra is dry.
,v Google
368 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, ItHAOA, N. Y.
12. Good varieties for house use, in order of ripening, are Emerald
Gem, Blenheim Orange, Hero of Lockinge and Masterpiece. The
best single one in this list is probably Blenheim Orange.
18. From November until spring, a good melon should weigh
from 20 to 24 ounces, and an average of three melons to the plants
is all that can be expected. Before November a heavier yield may
be obtained.
14. The insects which have seriously troubled muskmelonB in oar
houses are the black aphis, two spotted mite and mealy bug. Fumi-
gating with tobacco twice a week will keep the aphis oat A moist
atmosphere holds the mite in check. Knock off the mealy-bug with
a hard stream from the hose.
15. Two fungi attack winter melons. The mildew, appearing as
frosty patches upon the leaves, is destroyed by sulphur fumes. The
canker or damping off is best prevented by keeping the soil dry
about the plants and by mixing sulphur in the soil.
16. Winter melons for field cultivation require a long season, and
they are picked just before the frost and before they have become
edible. They ripen Blowly in a cool fruit room, often keeping until
Christmas. Some of the leading varieties are Winter Climbing
Nutmeg, White Antibes and perhaps Winter Pineapple. These
melons are mostly lacking in aroma and they do not have the high
quality of other melons.
L. H. BAILEY.
,v Google
BULLETIN 96 -June, 1895.
Cornell University— Agricultural Eiperiment Station.
HORTICULTURAL DIVISION.
Forcing-House Miscellanies.
Bv L. H. Bailey and E. G. Lodkman,
Malta* byGoOgle
ORGANIZATION.
Board of Control— The Trustees of the University.
STATION COUNCIL.
PrttWmt, JACOB GOULD SCHUBMAN.
Hon. A. D.WHITE TrvnUe of the University.
Professor I. P. ROBERTS President State Agricultural Society.
Professor I. P. EOBERTS Agriculture.
Professor G. C.CALDWELL CkemiMry.
Professor JAMES LAW Veterinary Science.
Professor A. N. PEENTI8S Botany.
Professor J. H. COMSTOCK Entomology.
Professor L. H. BAILEY Horticulture.
PROFEBSOS H. H. WING Dairy Husbandry.
Professor G. P. ATKINSON Cryptogantio Botany.
OFITCEBS OF THE STATION.
I. P. ROBERT8 Director.
E. L. WILLIAMS Treorarer.
H. W. SMITH Clerk.
ASSISTANTS.
M. V. SLINGERLAND Entomology.
GEO. C. WATSON Agrioultm.
G. W. CAVANAUGH Chomittry.
E. G. LODEMAN Hortio%Um.
MICHAEL BARKER SortuntlUtre.
Office of the Director, 20 Morrill Hall.
Those desiring this Bulletin seot to friends will please send u
the parties.
Bulletins of 1895.
a Western New York.
87. The Dwarf Lima Beans.
SB. Early Lamb Raising,
89. Feeding Pigs.
90. The China Asters.
91. Recent Chrysanthemums.
92. On the Effect of Feeding Fat to Cons.
93. The Cigar-Case- Bearer.
94. Damping-OIF.
95. Winter Mnskmelons.
96. Forcing-House Miscellanies.
,v Google
Cornell Usivebsitt, )
Ithaca, N. Y-, June 26, 1895. f
The Honorable Commissioner of Agriculture, Albany :
Sib. — The prolific requests of correspondents and the suggestions
which come of experiment station investigation, are bound to result
in the accumulation of many pieces of work which are more or less
fragmentary and which are of insufficient length or importance for
separate publication. Some of the more valuable of Bueh investi-
gations relating to the forcing-house industry, which have recently
accumulated, are here gathered and sorted into convenient form for
preservation ; and I take the liberty to suggest the publication of
them as a bulletin under chapter 230, of the Laws of 1895.
L. H. BAILEY.
,v Google
CONTENTS.
Remarks upon the Heating of Forcing- Houses. L. H. Bailey.
Advises steam in preference to water for heating all large forcing estab-
lishments which are frequently modified or extended and where the runs ate
devious and crooked, particularly if a high temperature is required. Finds
a high expansion tank to be more useful than a low one, in beating with
water in dosed circuits. Reports satisfactory results with illuminating gas
as a fuel.
Lettuce. L. H. Bailey.
The requisites for growing lettuce under glass are a low temperature, solid
beds or at least no bottom beat, a soil free of silt and clay but liberally sup-
plied with sand, acd careful attention to watering. Rot and lesf-bnm are
prevented by a proper soil and temperature, and care in watering and
ventilating.
Celery under Glass. L. H. Bailey,
Describes tbe growing of celery for delivery in May and June, when the
supply of stored celery is exhausted.
Cress in Winter. L. H. Bailey.
Forcing Egg-plants. E. G. Lodeman.
Egg-jiUntB can be successfully grown under glass, but tbey require a very
long season, a bigb temperature and full sunlight. Insects are troublesome,
particularly the two-spot tod mite, which is best bandied by not allowing it
to gain a foothold. Early Dwarf Purple is tbe best variety for forcing.
Winter Peas. E. G. Lodeman.
The tall or half-dwarf peas force readily in a cool house. The very dwarf
varieties yield too little to pay for growing.
Bees in Greenhouses. E. G. Lodeman.
Details a vain attempt to utilize bees in pollinating tomatoes.
Methods of controlling Greenhouse Pests by Fumigation. E. G.
Lodeman.
BugB do no harm when absent. We shonld therefore treat tbe greenhouse
rather than the bugs, that we may not have tbem. Instructions are given
for the use of tobacco smudge, bisulphide of carbon, hydrocyanic gas and
Treatment of Carnation Rust. E. G. Lodeman.
Copper fungicides are efficient.
Digitized by C00gle
Forcing-House Miscellanies.
REMARKS UPON THE HEATING OF FORCING-HOUSES.
The only system of heating now in use in large forcing-houses in
this country is that of the closed circuit, in which the warming
medium is conducted through small wrought-iron pipes, which may
he laid either above or below the benches. The warming medium
is either steam or water, and there are strong partisans of each. We
had never taken sides in the controversy over the comparative
merits of the two, for we have believed that each has superlative
merits for particular purposes. Various tests which we have made,
however, show that in large, unshaded forcing-houses, where the
runs are various and crooked, and especially where high tempera-
tures are wanted — as in forcing tomatoes, melons and cucumbers —
steam has distinct advantages over water. Our first experiment
was made in the winter of 1891-2, and the results were published
in Bulletin 41. The general practical results of this test — which
was an extended one — were these :
1. The temperatures of steam pipes average higher than those of
hot water pipes, under common conditions.
2. When the risers or flow pipes are overhead, the steam spends
relatively more of its heat in the returns, as bottom heat, than the
water does.
S. The heat from steam distributes itself over a great length of
pipe more readily than that from hot water ; and steam, therefore,
has a distinct advantage fdr heating long runs.
4. Steam is preferable to hot water for long and crooked circuits.
5. Unfavorable conditions can be more readily overcome with
steam than with water.
In this first experiment the steam system was more economical of
coal than the water system, although we were then convinced that
there was no necessary important difference between steam and
water in economy of fuel. Objections were made to our conclusions
by partisans of water heating, largely upon the score that our water
374 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
heater was not a good apparatus. This objection had little merit,
however, because onr conclusions were drawn from observations
made upon the heat^carrving power and mechanical movements of
the two media, and these fundamental results mast have been
approximately the same in whatever style of heater was used.
However, we repeated the test the following winter (Bulletin 55)
under conditions particularly favorable to the water system. In
this ease, a portable water heater was used alternately for water and
steam heating, the piping and other conditions being constructed
for water and remaining the same for both media. The essential
results of the first test were reaffirmed, except that the coal con-
sumption was practically the same in the two systems.
Id this second test, we took up a few points for more particular
study. One of these was the effect of crooks and angles upon the
movements of steam and water. Our conclusion was that
6. The addition of crooks and angles in pipes is decidedly dis-
advantageous to the circulation of hot water, and of steam without
pressure ; but the effect is scarcely perceptible with steam under low
pressure,
Figures show this admirably. A straight ran of riser or flow 21
feet long, had a piece some over 2 feet long cut out of it, and a
set-off or crook put in its place by running the pipe out sidewise, at
right angles, about four feet, letting the set-off re-enter the riser at
the expiration of the two feet. That is, instead of a continuous
piece of pipe, we had a pipe with four angles or elbows in it. The
temperatures of the inside of the pipes were taken at the boiler and
at the far end of the riser, both with steam and water and with and
without the Bet-off. A part of the records were as follows :
A. Water Circulation. —
1. Straight run. Dec. 22 — Jan. 16
Average temperature at boiler 189°
Average temperature at far end of riser 145°
2. With setoff. Feb. 10-25
Average temperature at boiler 178°
Average temperature at far end of riser. 131°
B. Steam Circulation, no preemptible pressure on the guage. —
1. Straight run. Jan. 16-31
Average temperature at boiler 204°
Average temperature at far end ^. . . 184°
'Gobble
* Forcing-House Miscellanies. 375
2. Wich set-off. Jan. 31-Feb. 10
Average temperature at boiler 193°
Average temperature at far end 123°
C Steam Cw-culation, lib. or more pressure. —
1. Straight run. Jan. 16-31
Average temperature at boiler 211°
Average temperature at far end 212°
2. With set-off. Jan. 31-Feb. 10
Average temperature at boiler 211°
Average temperature at far end 212°
It is thus shown (A) that whilst the readings at the two ende of
the run, with water, were very nearly the same in the straight pipe,
they were widely different when the crook or set-off was inserted.
Not only was the temperature at the farther end less with the
crooked run than with the straight one, but the temperature at the
boiler was much higher, showing that the impediment had increased
the pressure and consequently the temperature in the fore part of
the ran. This explains why it is that water pipes are often so hot
near the boiler but so cold at the further end of the house : some
impediment, like crooks, dips, elbows or partially filled pipes, is
probably in the circuit. With steam under low pressure, however
■{€'), there was no difference in the temperatures at the two ends
between the straight and crooked runs.
Another point receiving attention in the second experiment was
the time required to heat up steam and water systems. It is said by
many persons that inasmuch as water begins to move before steam
forms, therefore hot water will warm up a house sooner than steam.
It is true that water moves off first but it travels slower ; it is booh
overtaken by the steam. Our tests showed that
7. In starting a new fire with cold water, circulation begins with
hot water sooner than with steam, but it requires a much longer
time for the water to reach a point where the temperature of the
house is materially affected than for the steam to do bo.
We also found that
8 The length of pipe to be traversed is a much more important
consideration with water than with steam, for the friction of the
water upon the pipe is much greater than the friction of steam, and
a long run warms slowly with water.
Diaiti2eat>yG00Qle
376 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
9. It is necessary to exercise greater care in grading pipes for
water heating than for steam heating. With steam, a satisfactory
fall towards the boiler is much more important than the manner of
laying the pipes.
In the winter of 1893-4 'a third series of tests was made. There
were two objects in view : to again compare water and steam, and
to determine the effect of different pressures upon the water system,
by using high and low expansion tanks. The house and heater
were the same as those used in the second test (Bulletin 55), — a
ffl
B7.- - Experiment Hi Hexting Apparatus.
lean-to lettuce house 16x27 ft., and a Novelty Hot Water Circulator
furnished by the Model Heating Co., Philadelphia. Fig. 67 Bhows
the apparatus set np. Three 1± incn risers or flow pipes ran just
under the roof, all uniting into one return. A delicate thermome-
ter was let into each riser at the farther end (Nos. 2, 3, 4), and one
into the return (No. 5) near the heater. Another was inserted in
the riser (No. 1) just above the heater. These recorded the inside
ForcinO'Housb Miscellanies. 377
temperature of the runs, foi the caked bulbs were let into the very
centers of the pipes. Two expansion tanks were provided one (A)
ten feet above the top of the heater, and another (B) twenty feet
above it. Either one or both of these conld be shot off by means
of a valve. The heater is designed for water and the pipes were
laid for water, being higher at the farther end. When the apparatus
was nsed for steam, the water was simply lowered in the heater
reservoir so as to make room for evaporation, and the piece of 4-inch
pipe which led out of the top of the heater served for a steam dome.
Of coarse the expansion tanks were shnt off when steam was run-
ning. The advantages, therefore, were again in favor of the water
system, but all our former conclusions respecting the superiority of
steam over water, for the conditions given, were reaffirmed.
The following tables- give the detaled results of the various tests:
,v Google
378 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
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384 Aghicultukal Exfbrihbmt Station, Ithaca, N. T.
It will be seen from table A that three distinct tests, of various
duration, were made with the low tank or low pressure, and from
B that three short tests were made with high pressure. In drawing
conclusions from all the tables, the temperatures of the house should
be discarded, and the efficiency of the different trials should be
deducted from the temperatures of the pipes as shown by ther-
mometers 1, 2, 8, 4 and 5. This is because the temperature of the
house was kept as uniform as possible by ventilation, so that as the
heat rose in the pipes, when steam or water under greater pressure
was used, the ventilators were opened wider.
By making a general total average of the various pipe tempera-
tores in the three systems, A, B, and C, we have the following;
figures:
D.
SuMMAEY OF THE AvEBAGE TeMPEBATURES IN THE VARIOUS
T H ERMOMETE R 8 .
1
S
»
4
a
Water, Low Tank.
190
185
189
199
159
166
152
170
157
163
150
176
146
162
163
173
191°
162°
161°
111°
Water, High Tanb.
194
197
SO?
176
175
172
186
174
182
180
176
188
.
199°
174°
174°
181°
Average
213°
194°
105°
1990
174°
It is seen at once that the lowest average efficiency is in the lower
pressure water system, the next best is with the high tank, while
the highest is with steam. That is, the higher the expansion tank
above the heater, within reasonable limits, the hotter the water
becomes because it is under greater pressure. This increase of heat
was observed in all parts of the system, as shown by the uniformly
higher averages in the five several thermometers. The system waa
also more easy to run, the circulation was more uniform in all the
pipes, and its general efficiency was seen to be greater by the work-
men who had charge of it. With the greater elasticity and less
,Coogle
Fobcing- House Miscellanies. 386
friction of steam, however, the efficiency is still greater, aa shown
in the summary figures (D). From these considerations we include
that
lU. In heating by water in closed circuits, a high expansion
tank may increase the efficiency by allowing the water to become
hotter throughout the system, and giving a better circulation.
If we were to compare the fluctuations, or up and down tempera-
tures, in the various systems, by a study of the average ther-
mometer readings in all the pipes — as shown in the last column in
the tables — we should find the following :
F. Extreme Avkrage Fluctuations
Water, low tank 123° 201°
Water, high tank 162" 201°
Steam 122° 221°
The steadiest temperature was maintained in the water under the
greater pressure, whilst the greatest fluctuations were with steam.
This poor showing of the steam, however, is mostly the result of the
nnadaptability of the apparatus to steam heating. In our first tests,
the fluctuations were greater with water, whilst in the second, when
this small heater was used, they were about the same with steam and
water.
Now, the total warming power of the different systems is deter-
mined by the average temperatures of the pipes and the amount of
fuel consumed. In this test we used 100 lbs. of hard coal daily in
each of the three series of tests ; and inasmuch as this fuel gave
more heat when applied to steam than when applied to water in the
same apparatus, we must conclude that under these conditions, now
repeated for two winters and with the initial advantage in favor of
water, steam was the more efficient and economical. If, however,
more piping had been added when water was need, the final results
might have been in favor of water, particularly of the greater
pressure.
Illuminating gas as fuel. — Common illuminating gas is much
used for fuel in small stoves, water heaters, and the like. It seemed
that it might be used to advantage in heating small conservatories
attached to dwellings, because it is difficult to secure a very small
circulator which has a fire-pot big enough to hold a bright fire all
night. I accordingly put a Perfection Water Heater (made by the
Milwaukee Gas Stove Co.) in my cellar to heat a small conservatory
;Ie
886 Agricultural Exphjumhnt Station, Ithaca, N. T.
which is 10x17 and 12 feet high. This was connected with the city
gas system. Including the connections in the cellar (40 ft.), thi«
little heater was expected to heat 220 linear feet of inch pipe with
hot water. A steam heater is not practicable for snch a small
area.
The gas was first lighted one December day when the pipes were
cold. An hour was required to thoroughly warm np the system.
In ordinary snug winter weather (thermometer ontside 10° to 15°),
the apparatus consumed one-half cubic foot of gas per minute to
keep the house at a proper temperature for conservatory plants.
The system worked perfectly. Not one thing more could be de-
sired— except cheaper gas. A very slight increase in the amount of
gas — supplied by simply turning a valve — was sufficient to make a
very rapid change in the temperatures of the pipes, so perfectly
was the system under the control of the heater. So long as the
weather was running nearly uniform, the heater demanded no
thought or attention. It is the perfection of a lazy man's machine
The readiness with which the system responded to more or less gas
may be indicated by the following test. When the experiment
began the apparatus was consuming one cubic foot of gas every 2|
minutes. Thermometer No. 1, on the outside of the riser at its
highest point 58 feet from the heater, registered 94° and ther-
mometer No. 2 on a return 70 feet from the heater, registered 68°.
Gas was turned on until a cubic foot was consumed every 1 \ min-
utes. The temperatures went up as follows :
Thermometer 1,
decree
Tbemometer t.
95
98
100
101
103
105
106
108
110
111
119
113
74
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FOBOING-HOUSI MlBOKLLANISS. 387
The average gas consumption for the few days of the test, as
charged by the gas company, was 660 cubic feet per day. At the
price we paid for gas, the expense of running the heater was pro-
hibitive, and it was given ap with much reluctance.
LETTUCE.
Lettuce is the most popular and the most uniformity profitable
of all vegetable crops grown nnder glass in this country. It grows
rapidly, so that three crops can be taken from a house between
September and April, and the demand for a choice product is always
good. Lettnce is generally considered to be an easy crop to grow
under glass, and yet it is a fact that few gardeners are entirely suc-
cessful with the crop, year by year, particularly if the heading
varieties are grown.
Lettuce varies greatly in quality, and this variation is due in very
great measure to the immediate conditions under which it is grown.
If the plant is very rank and has dark green thick leaves, the
quality is low. A good lettuce plant is yellowish green in color
upon delivery, and the leaves are thin and brittle. The product
should be wholly free from lice, or green-fly, and the tips of the
leaves should show no tendency to wither or to turn brown. If
heading lettuce is grown, the leaves should roll inward like cabbage
leaves, the heads should be compact and nearly globular and yellow-
ish white toward the core.
It is not my purpose to enter into a fall account of lettnce forcing
at this time ; I. desire only to suggest a few of the most important
points in the cultivation of the crop, as they have presented them-
selves to me daring the past few years.
In the first place, lettnce must have a low temperature. The
sight temperature should not rise above 45°, while it may go as low
as 40° or even lower. The day temperature, in the shade, should
be 65° to 66°. Lettuce which is kept too warm grows too tall, and
the leaves are thin and flabby ; and there is generally more danger
of injury from aphis, rot and leaf-burn.
Whilst a lettuce house must have an abundance of light, the
plants do not suffer if they are some distance from the glass and even
if they receive little direct sunlight The house should have an
exposure toward the sun and the framework ought to be as light
js possible, if the beet results are to be obtained ; bnt diffused light
388 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
is quite as good as the direct burning rays of the nun. It should be
said, however, that good lettuce may often be grown in hear; rather
dark houses, but more care is required, the results are less certain,
and there is special difficulty in growing the heading varieties to
perfection.
Our own experience has fully demonstrated the superiority of
solid earth beds over benches, for lettuce. We have had good crops
m benches, but they have required special attention to beating and
watering, and even then the results are generally precarious. If,
however, the benches have no bottom heat — that is, if there are
no heating pipes close under them and if the Bides are open — very
good results, particularly with the non-heading sorts, may be had
from year to year. Fig. 68 shows an earth bed, about nine inches
deep, in which we have had excellent success with lettuce.
DigltbadbyCoOgle
Forcing-House Miscellanies. 389
When pressed for room, we sometimes prick off the plants into
8-inch or 4-inch pots and set these pots in unoccupied places amongst
other plants. Very good lettuce can be grown in this way, although
it is scarcely practicable in commercial houses.
Probably no forced vegetable ifi so much influenced by soil as
the lettuce, and no doubt more failures are to be ascribed to- uncon-
genial soil than to any other single cause. Fortunately this matter
has been made the subject of a most admirable study by Galloway,*
who finds that the famous heading lettuce of the Boston gardeners
can be grown to perfection only in soils which contain much sand
and very little clay and silt. These soils allow the water to settle
deeply into it and yet holds it without percolation ; the surface is
dry, preventing the occurrence of rot ; the roots forage far and
wide, and the plant food is quickly available. The full characters
of the soil nsed by the Boston growers are set forth ss follows by
Galloway : " Loose at all times, regardless of treatment, it being
possible to push the arm into it to a depth of 20 inches or more.
Never • puddles ' when worked, no matter how wet. Clods or lumps
never form. A 4-inch dressing of fresh manure when spaded in to
a depth of 15 to 20 inches will be completely disintegrated in six
or eight weeks. Sufficient water may be added the first of Sep-
tember, when the first crop is started, to carry through two crops
and a part of a third without additional applications, except very
light ones merely to keep the leaves moist and to induce a move-
ment of the moisture at the bottom of the bed toward the top,
where it will come in contact with most of the roots. The surface
to the depth of an inch dries out qnickly, and this has an important
bearing on the prevention of wet rot of the lower leaves. The active
working roots of the plants are found in abundance throughout the
entire depth of soil, even if thiB exceeds 80 inches."
Galloway was able to prepare soil which " gave practically the
same results " as that which he imported from Boston. The soil
was made as follows : " Mixture of two parts of drift sand and one
part of greenhouse soil. The sand was obtained from the valley of
a stream near by, which frequently overflowed its banks, flooding
the spot where the material was found. The greenhouse soil was a
mixture consisting of one part of the ordinary clay, gneiss Boil of
• B. T. Galloway, Tbe Growth of Letlnce ft* Affected by the Physical Proper-
ties of the Soil," Agric. Science, vlii. 302 (1894).
i;qlt.-cc::vG00glC
390 Agricultural Expbeimbnt Station, Ithaca, N. T.
the region, and two parts of well-rotted manure. Such noil will
grow 30 bnehels of wheat to the acre without fertilization."
It is always essential to the best lettuce growing to avoid
"heavy" soils. These soils usually lose their water quickly,
necessitating frequent watering which keeps the surface wet and
increases danger from damping off and rot. These soilssoon become
hard, compact and " dead," and the plants grow slowly, with thick
tough leaves.
If the lettuce crop is to be taken off in early November, from
seven to ten weeks should be counted from the sowing of the seeds
to the delivery of the product. A midwinter crop may require two
to four weeks longer. The time may he sbortened.ten days to two
weeks hy the use of the electric arc light hung directly above the
house. A single ordinary street lamp of 2,000 normal candle powe1-,
will he sufficient for a house twenty feet or more wide and seventy-
five feet long, if it is so hung that the house is uniformly lighted
throughout. Our experiments with the electric light, now extended
over a period of five years, have uniformly and unequivocally
given these beneficial results with lettuce.*
The first sowing for house lettuce is usually made about the
first of September and the crop should be off in November. We
sow the seeds in flats or shallow boxes, preferably prick off the
young plants about four inches apart into other flats when they
are about two weeks old, and transplant them into the beds, about
eight to ten inches apart each way, when they are about five weeks-
from the seed. We often omit the pricking off into other flats
simply thinning ont the plants where they stand and transferring
them from the original fiat directly to the bed ; but better and
quicker results are usually secured if the extra handling is given.
Four or six weeks after the first seed is sown another sowing is
made in fiats for the purpose of taking the place of the first crop.
Following are some actual sample dates of good and bad lettuce
growing in our houses, in a climate which is unusually cloudy and
" Blow " in winter : Landreth Forcing lettuce sown in fiats Feb-
ruary 24th ; transplated to beds, March 17th ; first heads marketed
under normal conditions, May 10th ; first heads marketed from a
compartment receiving electric light at night (a total of 81 hours),
■See our bulletin* 30, 43 and 55.
MgltizedbyGoOgle
Foboinq-Hodbd Miscellanies. 391
April 30th, op 44 days from wed. Simpson curled was sown Octo-
berSd. November7th, transplanted to bed. It was desired to hold the
crop back, so that the house
was kept very cold ; and the
variety is not well adapted
to quick forcing, so that it
waa January 30th, before
the entire crop was fit for
market, making 119 days
from seed. Grand Rapids
lettuce sown December
28th; transplanted to bed,
January 16th; began mar-
keting March 21st. This
makes 72 days from seed, ^
in the dark months; and
at least a week conld have j
been gained if we had not J
been obliged to delay trans- |
planting whilst waiting for e-
a crop of chrysanthemums 1
to come off the bed. "
The varieties of forcing let- )[
tnce are many, bat the lead- *
ing ones at present are the
Boston Market or White-
Seeded Tennis Ball, and I
Grand Rapids. The for- 8
mer is the famous heading
lettuce of eastern markets.
It is usually a difficult vari-
ety to grow to perfection
unless the soil and condi-
tions are well adapted to it.
Another excellent lettuce
of this type is Landreth
Forcing, shown two-thirds
grown in Fig. 69. The
Grand Rapids is a looee-
leavedjl lettuce, shown full
,v Google
392 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. T.
grown in Fig. 68. It grows rapidly and ia of very easy cul-
tivation.
The most inveterate pest of the lettuce grower is the green-fly or
aphis. If it once gets thoroughly established, the most strenuous
efforts are needed to dislodge it. The pest is most frequent in
houses that are kept too warm. The plants may be sprinkled with
tobacco dust, or tobacco sterna may be strewn upon the gronnd be-
tween the plants and in the walks, and either treatment may be
expected to keep down the aphis. It can easily be kept out of the
houses by fumigating twice a week with tobacco. (See page 408).
Do not wail until the insect appears. Begin fumigating as
soon as the plants are first pricked off and continue until within two
or three weeks of harvest or longer if necessary.
The rot often ruins crops of lettuce. The outer leaves decay,
often quickly, and fall flat upon the ground, leaving the central core
of the plant standing. Fig. 70 is a fair sample of a whole bench of
70.— Lettuce plant collapsed by the rot (BollryHt mlgarU).
lettuce which we lost a few years ago from the rot. The plants
were about two-thirds grown and in good condition. The house
was rather over-piped for lettuce and we kept it cool by careful
attention to ventilation. It became necessary for the assistant horti-
culturist and myself to be absent three days in mid-winter. Careful
instructions were given a workman concerning the management of
the house, but he kept it too close and too wet and at the end of the
three days the crop was past recovery.
This lettuce rot is due to a funges (BotryHs vulgaris) which
lives upon decaying matter on the soil, but when the house is kept
DqltSMByCOOgle
Forcing-House Miscellanies. 393
too warm and damp, and the lettuce becomes flabby, it invades
the plant and causes irreparable ruin. There is no remedy, but if
the soil is sandy and " sweet " and the Louse properly managed
as to moisture and temperature, and top dressings of manure are
avoided, the disease need not be feared. Galloway speaks of it as
follows, in the article already quoted : " Wet rot of the lower
leaves and rotting of the stems and consequent wilting of the plant
axe seldom troublesome in thiB [Boston or sandy] soil if properly
bandied, because the surface is at all times comparatively dry-
Wet rot is produced by a fungus which may be found at any time
on pieces of sticks and straws scattered through the soil. The
fungus does not have the power of breaking down the uninjured
tissues of the plant, excepting possibly in very rare cases. When
the tissues become water-soaked, however, as tbey do when in
contact with wet soil, the fungus, which is also most active in the
presence of moisture, readily gains entrance and soon develops suf-
ficient energy to become an active parasite."
The mildew (Peronospora gcmgUformii) is the staple lettuce
disease of the books, hut we have never had experience with it
No doubt much of the trouble ascribed to mildew is really the rot.
Leaf-burn is a dying of the tipB of the leaves when the plant is
nearly or quite mature. It is particularly troublesome on the
heading varieties, in which the slightest blemish upon the leaves
detracts greatly from the selling qualities of the lettuce. This
difficulty, according to Galloway, is attributable largely to the soil :
" Top burn, one of the worst troubles of the lettuce grower, does
comparatively little injury on this Boston soil, providing the pro-
per attention is given to ventilation and the management of the
water and heat. Burn is the direct result of the collapse and death
of the cells composing the edges of the leaves. It is most likely
to occur just as the plant begins to head and may be induced by
a number of causes. The trouble is most likely to result on a
bright day following several days of cloudy, wot weather. During
cloudy weather in winter the air in a greenhouse is practically
saturated, and in consequence there is comparatively little trans-
piration on the part of the leaves. The cells, therefore, become
excessively turgid and are probably weakened by the presence of
organic acids. When the sun suddenly appears, as it often does
after a cloudy spell in winter, there is an immediate, rapid rise in
temperature and a diminution of the amount of moisture in the
894 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
air in the greenhouse. Under these conditions the plant readily
gives off water and if the loss is greater than the roots can supply
the tissues first wilt, then collapse and die. The ability of the
roots to snpply the moisture is affected by the temperature of the
soil, the movement of water in the latter, and the presence or
absence of salts in solution. In this soil the temperature rises rapidly
as soon as the air in the greenhouse becomes warm, and the roots in
consequence immediately begin the work of supplying the leaves
with water. The movement of the water in the soil is also rapid,
so that the plant is able to utilize it rapidly."
,v Google
Forcing-House Miscellanies.
CELERY UNDER
GLASS.
JT practically goes out
ie market in April. The
:d crop is then exhausted,
earliest field product
Tilly, celery is not to be
ihould be some means of
> demand in May and
three or four years ago,
■ attention to this prob-
lave been working at it
ent time. We now feel
nparatlvely easy matter to
or late Bpring and early
i seed in late fall or early
ate or seed-pans. The
ijrow very Blowly, and we
t to hasten them. Abont
the seeds are sown, the
ta are pricked out into
r flats, where they are
red to stand three or four
n. winMr groin oeieir a-biMchinff. inches apart each way. A
month or so later, they are transplanted into beds, following lettuce
cauliflower, chrysanthemums or other crops. It will thus he seen
that for two months or more the plants take up little or no room,
for the flats are placed in vacant places here and there throughout
the house ; and they need little other care than watering. They
should be kept cool — in a house used for lettuce, violets, carnations,
and the like — for if one attempts to force them they will likely
run to seed. When the plants are finally transplanted, we like to
put them in solid beds without bottom beat.
Digitized byGOQgle
396 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
In six weeks to two months after the plants are tamed into their
permanent quarters, the; will be ready to bleach, and this operation
has canoed as more trouble than all other difficulties combined.
Our first thought was to set the plants very close together bo that
they would bleach themselves, after the manner of the " New Celery
Culture," bat it would not work. The plants ran too much to
foliage and they tended to damp-off or rot where they were too
close. We next tried darkening the house, bnt without success.
"We then attempted to bleach the plants by partially burying them
in sand in a cellar, but this also failed. Finally, we tried various
methods of tying up or enclosing each midwinter plant as it stood
in the bed. Tiles placed about the plants — which are so snccessf ul
in the field — rotted the plants in the moist air of the forcing-house.
Heavy bibulous paper did the aame. But thick, hard wrapping
paper, with an almost " sized " surface, proved to be an admirable
success. The stalks were brought together and tied, and a width of
paper reaching to within two or three inches of the tips of the
leaves, was rolled tightly about the plant. As the plant grew,
another width of paper was rolled about the first, and again reach-
ing nearly the top of the plant. Two applications of the paper are
sufficient. A month to six weeks is required to bleach the celery by
this process in a cool house in April and May. Fig. 71 shows the
method of bleaching with the paper.
The seeds for our last crop of house celery were sown December
10, 1894 ; picked off January 8th ; planted in beds, February 0th ;
first tied up in paper, April 12th ; second tying, May 9tb ; celery
fit to use, May 21et to June 20th. The Kalamazoo celery is well
adapted to house cultivation. The quality of this house-grown
product is equal to that grown in the field.
CRESS IN WINTER.
Persons who are fond of water-cress should know that no plant
is easier to grow under benches in greenhouses. If there is an
earth floor under the benches of a cool or intermediate house, the
plant will take care of itself when once introduced, provided, of
course, there is sufficient moisture. Fig. 72 shows a mat of water-
cress growing under a bench in a general conservatory house, near
the overflow of a tank. It is not necessary to snpply water in
which tbe plant may grow, but it thrives well, with its characteristic
Fohcing-Housb Miscellanies. 397
flavor, in soil which is simply uniformly moist and cool. The
plants may be gathered from brftoks or other places where it is
established and planted at intervals under either north or south
beaches, and when once colonized it needs no renewing.
The ordinary French or garden cress (varieties of Lepidium
sativum) also thrives well nnder glass. We have grown both the
Tt.— W»ier-cresi under a (treanhoiue bench.
plain and curled-leaved forms upon benches or beds along with let-
tuce and spinage. The seed is sown directly where the plants are
to stand. The plant grows quickly, and the early tender leaves
shonld be nsed before it runs to seed.
FORCING EGG-PLANTS*
The possibility of forcing egg-plants successfully was suggested
by a crop which was grown nnder glass in one of the market gar-
dene near Boston in the spring of 1891. These plants were not
grown with the intention of forcing them ; but as the greenhouse
was vacant at tho time the main crop of egg-plants was set out of
of egg-plants in the field.
Google
398 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
doors, it was filled with plants taken from the same lot as those
set in the open. The beds in which they were planted were solid,
that is, the prepared soil rested upon the natural snrface of the
ground, forming a layer from 13 to 15 inches in depth. Daring
the preceding winter those beds had served for growing lettuce,
and they had consequently been well enriched with stable manure,
a fertilizer which is especially effective in the production of rapid
growth. In July, when the plants grown under glass were com-
pared with those planted in the open ground, an astonishing differ-
ence could be observed. Those set in the house were fnlly twice as
large as the others ; the leaves were larger and the stems thicker
than those generally found in the gardens of this latitude, and the
abundance of healthy foliage was ample proof that the plants were
subjected to conditions extremely favorable to their growth.
Another interesting point was soon noticed. Although the plants
were blossoming quite freely, still comparatively little f rait had set,
and it appeared as if the entire energies of the plants had been
directed towards the production of foliage at the expense of the
fruit. This condition may perhaps be ascribed to two causes.
Extreme activity of the vegetative functions of plants is frequently
carried on at the expense of fruit production ; this fact is commonly
illustrated by young f rnit trees, which blossom sometimes several
years before they set fruit. The growth of the egg-plants mentioned
above was sufficiently luxuriant to suggest the possibility of its
having some effect upon the fruiting powers of the plants. The
second and perhaps most probable cause of this unsatisfactory fruit-
ing may have been imperfect pollination. Insects, and especially
bees, were not working bo freely in the house as outside, and later
experience has shown very clearly that in order to get a satisfactory
crop from egg plants grown under glass thorough pollination must be
practiced. The foliage was so dense that the flowers were for the
most part hidden. In such a position they were necessarily sur-
rounded by a comparatively damp atmosphere, especially when
borne upon branches that were near the surface of the soil, and this
would still further tend to interfere with the free transfer of pollen
by any natural agencies. Under such conditions a profitable yield
could scarcely be expected ; yet when carefully observed the plants
proved to be so full of suggestions regarding the proper methods of
treating them that they should have repaid the time given to their
culture by a plentiful harvest of ideas, if not of fruits.
DqltSMByCOOgle
FOBCING-HOUHE MISCELLANIES. 399
Acting on the above hints several attempts have been made to
grow egg-plants in oar forcing houses, with the object, however, of
fruiting them out of season. The first lot of seed was sown August
80, 1S93. It embraced the following varieties: Black Fekin, New
York Improved, Early Dwarf Purple, Round Purple, and Long
White. The seed was sown about three-eighths of an inch deep in
rich potting soil. The fiats, or shallow boxes, which contained the
seed were placed in a warm house, and the after treatment was very
similar to that commonly followed in the growing of tomatoes.
The seedlings required pricking out about four weeks after the
seed was sown. They were set in 2| inch pots where they remained
until November 14th, when they were shifted into 4-inch pots. On
December 17th, or nearly sixteen weeks from the time of seed sow-
ing, the plants had filled these pots with roots, and they were again
shifted, but this time into benches. They were set 2 feet apart
each way. The soil was about 6 inches deep and different in char-
acter in each of the two benches used. One bench had been filled
with a mixture of equal parts of potting soil and manure from a
spent mushroom bed. This formed a very open and rich soil which
appeared to be capable of producing a strong growth. The second
bench received a rich, sandy loam which had previously been com-
posted with about one-fourth its bnlk of stable manure. The tem-
perature of the house was that usually maintained in growing plants
requiring a considerable amount of heat ; during the night the
mercury fell to 65° or 60° and in the day time it stood at 70°-75°.
In the bright weather the house was still warmer.
Considerable care was exercised in watering the plants, the soil
being kept somewhat dry ; when grown out of doors egg-plants
withstand drought so well that such a course seemed advisable
when growing them under glass. As the plants increased in size
the leaves shaded the soil, and an occasional thorough watering
maintained an excellent condition of moisture in the bed filled with
the loam. In addition, the soil was stirred with a hand weeder
when necessary.
For some time, all the varieties in each bench appeared to be
doing uniformly well, bnt the plants set in the sandy loam made
a stronger growth and appeared to be more vigorous. This was
especially noticeable in the Early Dwarf Purple and the New York
Improved. The first bloom appeared on the former during the
last week in December, and on the 3d of January, 1894, sever
W$e
400 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
plants showed flowers that were well opened. These were band
pollinated and they set fruit freely. On February 15th some of
these fruits were 2J inches long, the plants still growing well and
producing many blossoms. It was at this time that the tirst flowers
of Black Pekin appeared, bat New York Improved had not yet pro-
duced any, although it was making a strong growth. Round Purple
and Long White were making a very slow and weak growth.
73. — Karlr Dwajf Purple Egjr-plant under glass.
Figure 73 represents a plant of Early Dwarf Purple that was
photographed May 20th. It was bearing at this time 21 fruits of
varying sizes and appeared to be strong enough to mature fruits
from buds that were still forming. The larger fruits were folly
i inches in diameter, and nearly 6 inches long. They were not
removed as soon as grown, as should be done in order to get as
large a yield as possible, and for this reason the product of the
plant is the more remarkable. All the fruits did not attain the
size mentioned above for the crop was too heavy for the plant to
mature it properly ; neither were all the plants of this variety
DqltSMByCOOgle
FoBOING-HoOSB MISCELLANIES. 401
equally prolific, although their yield in many eases closely approached
that shown in the illustration. This variety proved to be by far the
most promising of those grown for forcing purposes, and it appears
to be capable of producing crops which rival those grown out of
doors. It is also the earliest variety tested, a point which is of the
greatest importance. This vegetable is slow in coming to maturity
even under the most favorable circumstances. The above photo-
graph was taken nine months from the time of sowing the seed, but
a cutting of fruit might have been made fully six weeks earlier. It
sat fruit more freely than any other variety, and in nearly every
desirable respect was superior to them.
New York Improved was a very strong grower, and produced
large handsome fruits. Unfortunately, but few could be obtained
from a plant, and the total yield was therefore comparatively small,
only four or five maturing on the best plants. It is also consider-
ably later than the Early Dwarf Purple.
Blac'e Pekin, on the whole, closely resembled the preceding,
especially in the manner of its growth. But it set scarcely any
fruit, and that was so late that none were matured before ten months
from the time of seed-sowing.
Long "Wliite proved to be a weak grower of very slender habit.
It was also very late, the fruits being scarcely over two inches in
length May i9th. The plants of this variety were slightly checked
when young, and this may have had a certain influence in delaying
the maturity of the crop, although the effect was probably not very
great. One desirable feature of this variety is its smooth foliage
which appeared U be unfavorable for the development and persist-
ence of some of the insects that attack greenhouse plants. But the
lateness of the variety and the few fruits produced by it will prevent
it from being profitably grown under glass.
Bound Purple proved to be the most unsatisfactory grower. All
the plants showed symptoms of being in unfavorable quarters, and
the test with this variety resulted almost in total failure.
Later attempts to force egg-plants have been made, although no
duplicate of the above experiment has been planned. The crops
were started later in the seison when more sunlight and heat were
present. These trials have thrown light upon some of the doubtful
points of former experiments, and have shown what is probably the
principal reason of the slow maturing of all the varieties tested, and
also the very weak growth of some.
26
402 Agbicoltubal Expbeimbnt Station, Ithaca, N, Y.
One of the results obtained is of especial interest in this connec-
tion. Some Early Dwarf Purple plants were started early in
August and some of the seedlings were grown in houses in which
different degrees of temperatore were maintained. The plants
grown in an intermediate or moderately warm house made but little
growth, and were soon stunted and worthless. This showed con-
clusively that egg-plants require a high temperature for their rapid
and vigorous development Other plants were placed in each of
two warm houses, one of which was shaded by means of a thin coat
of whitewash upon the glass: The plants in the other house wen
exposed to direct sunlight and they were also subjected to a bottom
heat of scarcely five degrees. Although the air temperature of the
two houses was practically identical, the plants receiving the sunlight
grew fully twice as fast as the others and had open blossoms before
those in the shaded house showed any buds. When some of the
latter were removed into the same favored position they very Boon
showed a benefit from the change. In this way the plants them-
selve s emphasized the necessity of plenty of sunshine for their
development in winter quarters ; and a certain amount of bottom
heat, from 4 to 6 degrees, is also very beneficial, the air temperature
at the same time being that of a warm house.
Egg-plants designed for forcing should never be stunted- An
important aid to prevent this condition is a soil which is open and
still rich in available nitrogen. A rich, Bandy loam, in which all the
ingredients are well rotted, is preferable to one having the manure
in an undecayed condition. The latter is too opes, and it is more
difficult to maintain a proper supply of moisture. The soil should
be sufficiently open to afford good drainage, but cot so coarse that it
dries out too rapidly. The bench mentioned bc the beginning of
the article as containing manure from a spenf mushroom bed did
not prove so satisfactory as the one containing the sandy loam,
largely because it was more difficult to manage.
Another point which should not be overlooked in forcing egg-
plants is the pollination of the flowers. This is most satisfactorily
done by hand, the small number of insects found in greenhousea
during the colder months being of very little use in this respect.
The work can be done rapidly by means of a small fiat piece of
metal, such as can be made by flattening the point of a pin with a
hammer and then inserting the other end into a small stick, which
will Berve as a handle. Such a spatula is also very convenient in nearly
13,0 ivGoo^lc
FOBOING-HOBSB MISCELLANIES. 403
all kinds of pollination made by band, as it is bo readily kept clean
of foreign pollen. Figure 74 represents a flower of an egg-plant.
In the center will be Been tbe stigma which projects beyond the
tips of the ring of anthers or pollen-bearing organs which surround
it. If an anther is separated and closely examined it will be seen
that there are too small openings at the tip ; it is through these that
1*.— Flower of Egg plant.
the pollen normally escapes. But this escape does not take place
freely until the flower has matured to such an extent that the tips
of the anthers stand erect and recede from the stigma, leaving the
latter standing unsupported. The pollen can be most rapidly
gathered apon the spatula by inserting the point of the metal into
the side of the anther and opening it by an upward movement of
the instrument. In this manner a large quantity of pollen may be
gathered very rapidly, and it is the work of but an instant to press
it upon the end of tbe stigma. One such treatment, if performed
when the surface of the stigma is adhesive, is sufficient for each
blossom.
Egg-plants are subject to tbe attacks of all the common green-
house pests, but if care is exercised from tbe beginning no serious
damage need be feared. Green-fly is easily overcome by tobacco
smoke, as described on page 408, while mealy bug can be overcome
by well directed streams of water. Tbe foliage of egg-plants is not
easily injured by such applications of water, and the insects may be
dislodged with impunity as often as they appear. Tbe worst pests
'DqltSMByCOOgle
404 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
of egg-plant foliage are the red spider and Ma near relative, the mite.
The Utter is especially difficult to treat, as it is not so much affected
by moisture as is the red spider, and for this reason it can not be so
readily overcome. The rough foliage of the egg-plant is especially
well adapted to the lodgement of these mites, and when they have
once become established their extermination is practically impos-
sible. Too much care, therefore, can not be taken in watching for
the first appearance of these scourges, and in destroying them as
soon as discovered. It is well to apply water freely to the foliage,
even before the insects appear, for the leaveB do not immediately
show their presence and such applications will do no harm. The
Long White does not suffer from these insects so mnch as the other
varieties, since it has comparatively smooth leaves, which do not
afford a very secure retreat. Nevertheless, it will bear watching as
well as the others. The water that is applied should be directed
mainly toward the nnder surface of the leaves, as the insects are
here found in the greateat abundance, and the parts are also most
difficult to reach.
The returns to be derived from egg-plants grown in greenhouses
can not yet be estimated, since to my knowledge no such products
have ever been placed upon the market. The first fruits from the
south command a good price, but whether the home-grown article
will meet with such favor that it will repay the cost of the long
period of growth can not be told. The experiment from a commer-
cial standpoint is well worth trying.
WINTER PEAS.
During the past few years, peas have at various times been grown
in the forcing houses at Cornell with the intention of determining
their value as a commercial crop and also to study their behavior
nnder glass. The forcing of peas has been carried on in northern
Europe for many years, although on a somewhat different plan than
that undertaken at this station. Foreign gardeners generally grow
the winter crop in frames or hot-beds. In the neighborhood of
Paris such protection is unnecessary and successive sowings are
made in the open ground from November to March, one of the
most popular varieties for this purpose being St. Catherine (Poiade
Saints Catherine). This variety is particularly adapted to late fall
and early winter, sowings. In more northern latitudes, either cold
Google
Forcing-House Miscellanies. 405
frames or hot-beds supply the necessary protection for maturing the
crop. Ringleader, Early Dwarf Frame, and Caractacus have been
very popular in England. Tbe second named variety is especially
adapted for growing in hot-beds. It is exceedingly dwarf and
matures very quickly, so that considerable quantities of peas may be
harvested from a small area. Taller varieties are generally bent
over to admit of tbeir proper growth.
Feas thrive in a cool temperature, and the protection afforded by
comparatively little glass or wood is sufficient to carry them through
moderately cold weather. In the northern states artificial heat must
be given if the crop is to be grown daring tbe winter months. As
this can not be done conveniently in frames, larger structures must
be employed, and these may easily be supplied with a proper amount
of heat for growing this vegetable. A night temperature of 40° to
50°, and a day temperature 10° to 20" higher, will be sufficient to
cause rapid growth and fairly prolific plants. Peas snccoed best, as
a rule, if grown in solid beds of rich, sandy soil that is well supplied
with water. If peas grown under glass are subject to the above con-
ditions, their culture presents uo serious difficulties, and it will
scarcely be necessary to mention the details of more than one crop
which we have grown.
Seeds of two varieties of peas were sown January 6th, 1894 ; they
were Extra Early Market, and Rural New Yorker. They were
planted at the same depth as in out-door culture, bnt tbe seed was
sown more thickly, and the rows were as close to each other as the
after culture of the crop would allow. Very dwarf varieties, such
as Tom Thumb and American Wonder, may be planted in rows 3 to
5 inches apart, depending on the richness of the soil and the gen-
eral care given tbe plants. Tall growing varieties, as Champion of
England, may be sown in rows running in pairs, the distance
between the rows of each pair being from 6 to 10 inches, while the
pairs are separated by spaces 15 to 18 inches wide. This will allow
working room among the plants and still admit of heavy planting.
One of the essential points in the successful growing of peas,
whether in a greenhouse or out of doors, is the ubo of fresh Beed.
Garden peas retain their vitality from three to eight years, but the
shorter period may be considered as more nearly correct when
applied to varieties which are to be forced, Bince tbe loss of a week or
two under glass is expensive, and twosowings can not well be afforded .
The seedlings began to appear eight days after Beed sowing and
406 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
they grew vigorously from the start. February 3Sd, Rural New-
Yorker showed the first opened blossoms, Extra Early Market at
the same time having buda which were about to open.
On the 20th of March, or about seventy-three days from sowing
the seed, both varieties had matured sufficiently to supply pods
that were fit for market, but do picking was made until eleven
dayB later when the plants yielded pods at the rate of 6f quarts
for each 80 feet of doable row. There was practically no differ-
ence between the two varieties as regards earlineaa or the amount
of yield obtained. Two weeks later, a second and last picking
was made, the plants yielding only-half as much as before. This
brings the total yield to a little over a peck. This is scarcely a
profitable crop, especially since the varieties grown are quite tall and
required a trellis.
Formerly, the trellises used consisted of branches forced into the
ground so that they would afford support to the vines. But with
the crop here considered, a more satisfactory trellis was made by
using a wire netting having large meshes. This was fastened be-
tween the rows by means of stakes, and thus each strip of netting
served as a support for a doable row. This forms the neatest and
most substantial trellis here used for supporting the vines.
The yields from extremely dwarf varieties, such as Tom Thumb,
have proved unsatisfactory. The plants require no support, bat
they yield only one picking and this is so light that their culture
under glass can not in all cases be advised.*
Peas grown under glass are sensitive to heat, and the warm spring
days, when accompanied by sunshine, check their growth to a
marked degree. The most healthy growth is made during the cold
months of the year, and after April 1st not much should be expected
from the vines unless steps are taken to keep the house as cool as
possible. This may be accomplished by shading, and by a free nse
of water apon the walks of the house.
From a financial standpoint, the growing of peas can scarcely be
advised, but amateurs may derive much satisfaction from their cul-
ture as the plants are easily grown, they require little care, and the
quality of the peas is especially appreciated when no fresh ones are
on the market.
'See Ball. 30. p. St.
MgltbedbyGoOgle
Fobcing-Hoube Miscellanies. 407
BEES IN GREENHOUSES.
Mnoh bus been written regarding the value of bees in greenhouses.
It is said that all hand pollinations may be dispensed with if desired,
as the bees will work among the blossoms and thus cause the frait
to Bet.
During November, 1893, a hive of bees waa received, and on the
23d day of the month they were set free in the brightest of all the
station houses (shown on page 369). The hive was placed at the
south end of the house, and the bees were kept constantly supplied
with proper food. At this time the house waa filled with tomato
plants in fall bloom, and it was hoped the bees would work among
them so that the tedious bat very necessary hand pollination of the
flowers need no longer be practiced. The bees evidently did not
catch the idea, however, for if there was one place in the house
which they did not visit it was the tomato blossom They spent
most of their time in bumping their heads against the glass sides
and roof of the house, and at every opportunity, when the ventila-
tors were raised a little, they took pains to pass through them, even
though the mercury stood far below the freezing point out of doors.
The bees which did not succeed in finding the ventilators continued
to fly against the glass, leaving it only for the purpose of with-
drawing far enough to get a start for a fresh attack. In this way
the busy bee finally wore herself out, and, in the coarse of three
weeks, those less ambitious individuals which did not fly heaven-
ward in the friendless atmosphere of December, were scattered as
corpses along the sides of the honse close to the glass ; and thus
ended the attempt to make these little creatures useful in midwinter.
It may be said that bees do not like tomato flowers, but our specimens
took no pains to find out whether they liked them or not. It is
probable that every bee in the swarm went to his honeyless bourne
without ever having discovered whether the plants were tomatoes or
buckwheat, or, in fact, if there were any plants at all in the house.
METHODS OF CONTROLLING GREENHOUSE PESTS
BY FUMIGATION.
The insects and the fungi which seriously injure greenhouse
plants are comparatively few in number, bat if allowed to develop
-unchecked they are capable of entirely ruining every susceptible
plant in the houses. There are some plants which are almost en-
408 Aqhicoltubal Experiment Station, Ithaoa, N. T.
tirely free from .each attacks, bat they form isolated exception*
to a very general rale. All who have had any experience in
growing plants under glass know that diseases are sure to appear
and that insects will originate apparently from nothing. Indeed, so
certain are these pests to appear that every thorough gardener is at
all times prepared for them, or even takes steps toward their de-
struction before they have been seen. Fortunately, he has at his
command abundant means of protecting his plants, and houses in
which insects and fungi are found in large numbers are silent but
, convincing witnesses of bad management and neglect. When a
greenhouse has once become thoroughly infested, it is almost im-
possible to rid the plants of their parasites, and it requires constant
and prolonged attention to bring about this result; and even when
this has been done, the plants will in many cases have become
so weakened that they will scarcely repay the time and labor em-
ployed in saving them. The care of plants should begin before
they are attacked, and this care should be given uninterruptedly.
By treating apparently uninvested plants many invisible enemies-
may be destroyed, and such treatments are by far the most valuable
ones.
Tobacco. — Several of the most common and often very serious-
organisms may be overcome by vapors with which a house may be
filled, and the best known and the most valuable remedy of this
nature is undoubtedly tobacco. The poisonous alkaloids found in
the tobacco plant are fatal to many insects. The waste parts of the
plants, particularly the " stems," are utilized by florists and others
for pcrposes of fumigation.
These stems, which are almost invariably the dried mid-veins of
the leaves, may be obtained for almost nothing at any cigar factory.
When wanted for fumigating purposes they should not be too dry^
else they will blaze, instead of slowly smouldering and forming a
dense smoke. In case the stems are too dry, they may be moistened
by sprinkling water upon them ; a better way, however, is to store
the stems in a moderately damp place, and then they are always in
good condition for burning. If they blaze while the house is being
fumigated, much of their value is lost, and it ie also said that plants
are positively injured in such cases, although our experience has not
supported this view.
Tobacco stems may be burned in a variety of ways. Some gar-
deners merely pile the required quantity upon a brick or stone
o
FOBOING-HOUSE MISCELLANIES.
floor in the house and set fire to it by means of paper or shavings.
An old ooal scuttle answers the purpose very well. Figure 75
represents- a tobacco-stem burner which we hare designed, and which
is perhaps as simple, serviceable, and easily managed as any in use.
The body of the burner is made of heavy, galvanized sheet-iron. It
closely resembles a stove pipe in form, but is about seven inches in
diameter and two feet in length. The bottom is made of the same
75.— Home-made Tobacco PumlgMor.
material ; it is perforated by abont a dozen holes, each three-eighths
of an inch in diameter. Four legs support the burner and keep
the bottom three inches from the floor. A handle at the top com-
pletes the device. When filled, the stems being packed sufficiently
close to insure their burning, it contains an amount that will answer
for a house of 4,000 to 6,000 cubic feet. Much, of course, depends
upon the tightness of the house, and considerable variation will also
be found in the strength of the stems. Occasionally some will be
had which are much weaker than those last used, and hence larger
quantities must be employed. It has been onr practice to test each
new lot of stems to determine their strength before they were freely
used in all the houses. The quantity must also he varied in accord-
ance with the plants growing in the house. Some plants are much
410 Agbiooltubal Exphkimrnt Station, Ithaca, N. T.
must be insufficient to hart the most tender plants. Lees injury is
apt to result if the houses and plants are dry ; wet foliage is quite
easily scorched by the smoke. Our method of starting a " Bmndge"
is to place a single sheet of newspaper, previously lighted, in the
bottom of the burner, and upon this the stems are immediately
placed. If properly dampened, they will take fire readily and
smoulder without blazing.
The frequency with which a house should be smoked cannot be
definitely stated. Some conservatories will require the operation
scarcely more than two or three times during the winter, while
others may need that many treatments each week. In the latter
case, it is well to have the smudges upon consecutive days, as in this
manner insects receive a second treatment before they have recovered
from the first. The evening is perhaps the best time for fumi-
gating, as most of the disagreeable odor is thus escaped. But it may
be advisable, in badly infested houses, to follow the evening treat-
ment by another the next morning. In such cases, care should be
exercised that the houses do not become overheated by the morning
sun.
Tobacco smoke may be used successfully in the destruction of the
various aphides which are found upon greenhouse plants, and of a
small white fly, a species of aleyrodes. Other insects can not be
practically treated by its use.
Bisulphide qf aarbon has recently assumed a prominent position
as an effective insecticide. It is a clear, transparent liquid, which
evaporates rapidly even at a low temperature. These fumes are
fatal to insect as well as animal life, and it may be nsed to a
limited extent in the greenhouse. The vapor is of greatest value in
destroying a small mite (Tetramych/ut bimaoulaiw) that closely
resembles the red spider. This mite is not as easily overcome by
water as is the red spider, and in certain cases it may be advisable
to resort to the bisulphide of carbon treatment This treatment is
adapted to plants which are growing in pots or to low growing
plants in beds. Whole houses could scarcely be treated in tins
manner, as the vapor is heavy and an uneven distribution would
probably result. But for small, confined spaces, as bell jars, tubs
or barrels, the remedy can be nsed with success. I have bad no
difficulty in destroying mites and red spider by the use of 60 minims
or drops of the liquid to a space containing about 7 cubic feet. The
liquid was poured on cotton batting, which was spread over a small
FOBOINO-HOOSB MlSCHLL ANIBS. 411
rose from a watering can, the stem of the funnel being set in the
soil. The plants remained covered with enamel cloth nearly two
hours, which sufficed to till all the insects, and did not injure the
violets, these being the plants treated.
Hydrocyanic gas — The success which has followed the use of
hydrocyanic gas in the treatment of scale insects infesting the
orange groves of California has suggested the idea of its possible
value in destroying greenhouse pests. The common method of
making the gas is as follows : One fluid ounce of sulphuric acid is
added to 8 ounces of water. To this diluted acid there is then
added 1 ounce of 60 per cent, cyanide of potassium. Efiervesence
immediately takes place, and the gas is freely given off. The
quantities here given are sufficient for a space containing 150 cubic
feet, the plants being exposed to the gas for 1 hour. When trees
are dormant such treatment is not followed by any evil effects.
During the past spring several growing plants were exposed to
the action of the gas when used according to the above directions.
Tomatoes, egg-plants, oranges and roses were used. The day fol-
lowing the treatment showed that all the plants were injured, but to
what extent conld not well be determined. After two weeks had
passed, however, the effect of the treatment was plainly seen. The
tomato plant died ; the egg-plant and the rose lost all their foliage,
but fresh leaves were appearing on the stems ; the orange suffered
the least, since only the young leaves were affected. The mites had
all been killed, so that in this respect at least the experiment was
successful
Other trials were made with the gas, using the same kinds of
plautu, but it was found to be impossible to destroy the mites with,
out injuring at least some of the plants. The use of hydrocyanic
gas for the destruction of greenhouse pests can, therefore, scarcely
be recommended. It should also be remembered that this gas is
very poisonous.
Sulphur is an element which is of the greatest service in green-
house work. It is an invaluable agent for the destruction of mil-
dews, and is also of great assistance in overcoming red spider. As
commonly used, it is mixed with an equal balk of air-slaked lime
or some similar material, and then water, oil, milk or some other
liquid is added until a thick, creamy paste is obtained. This is then
painted upon the heating surfaces in the house, and the sulphur
fumes are given off. The same result can be obtained much n
SWE&Ie
412 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. T.
rapidly and energetically by heating the flowers of sulplrar until it
melts ; the fumes are then given off in great abundance. Our prac-
tice has been to pnt the sulphur in a shallow pan and then set it
over an oil stove, having the flame turned just high enough to keep
the sulphur in a melted condition. Almost continuous watching
was necessary to prevent the material from taking Are, for if this
should occur it would prove almost instantly fatal to all the plants
which might be reached by the gas. The difficulty was in a great
measure overcome by L. C. Corbett, at that time an assistant in this
department, who suggested the use of a sand-bath as a means of
modifying the intensity of the heat. Our present outfit is shown in
Fig. 7C. It consists of two pans placed on an ordinary hand oil"
stove. The lower pan is half filled with clean, coarse sand, and
the upper one contains the sulphur. By its proper use our bouses
have been kept remarkably free from mildew, even under very
adverse circumstances. But there is constant danger that the sul-
phur will become heated to the burning point, and then the entire
stock of plants in the house is lost. This use of sulphur is often
very convenient, but the work should be placed in the hands of a
most trustworthy person. If a house should be thoroughly treated
in this manner every week or two, scarcely any mildew could
develop.
TREATMENT OF CARNATION RUST.
There is probably no disease of carnations which is a greater
menace to their successful culture than the rust. This disease is
caused by a fungus ( Uromyces caryophiUinua). It is of European
i; ,i - Google
Fobging-Hodbb Miscellanies. 413
origin, and woe first reported in this country in 1891. On account
of the rapidity with which the disease has spread, and the serious-
lossee that follow its attacks if allowed to develop unchecked, it has
been ranked among those which are treated with difficulty. It
appears probable that some exaggerated statements have been made
regarding its control, yet carnation growers can not be too careful in
adopting all measures that may prove effective in destroying the
parasite.
The disease has been rapidly introduced into all parts of the
country by means of diseased stock sent ont by propagators. The
first item in growing a healthy lot of carnations is to have the plants
free from disease when they are set in the bench. All rooted cut-
tings received from other growers should be closely examined, and
the affected ones discarded. The same protection should be taken
at the time of setting the plants in the benches. It is only in this
manner that a clean start can be made, and even in spite of such
care, the trouble appears only too frequently.
During 1894, some new varieties of carnations were sent us for
testing, and with the plants came the rust. For obvious reasons
these plants could not be discarded, and the attempt was made to
grow them in a bench which was also set with carnations of standard
varieties, these being entirely free from the disease.
The bench was planted daring September, but no fungicide was
applied until November 17. At this time the rust had spread
among the healthy plants that were growing next to the affected
ones, about a dozen being diseased. Some were bo seriously attacked,
however, that steps were taken to check the spread of the disease.
Two mixtures were applied. The first consisted of the Bordeaux
mixture * to which was added soap. This addition was made in
order to render the mixture more adhesive. Varying quantities of
soap were tried, but the stated amount proved as satisfactory as
any. The foliage of carnations is particularly difficult to wet, and
much trouble was experienced in obtaining a uniform application.
The soap appeared to possess a certain value in preventing the mix-
ture from collecting in drops and rolling from the leaves, yet this
action was not as marked as was desired. It was found, however,
that if an extremely fine spray was made the liquid could be fairly
well distributed.
* Copper pulphatfi 6 pounds, quicklime i pounds, Map 1| pounds, water 45<
gallon*.
Diaiti2eat>yG00Qle
Hi Agbioultohal Exphkimbnt Station, Ithaoa, ST. Y.
The second mixture contained bichloride of copper and air-
slaked lime.* Soap was added to this mixture for the reasons
given above, and the preparation behaved in a manner very similar
to that of the Bordeaux mixture.
As already stated, the first application was made November 17th ;
this was followed by a second on the 24th. The plants were cov-
ered as well as possible, the entire bench receiving treatment No
check plants were left, as the extermination of the disease, so far as
possible, was attempted. The effects of the treatment, however, left
nothing to be desired. Not only was the spread of the disease
stopped, bnt affected plants put ont new growths which remained
healthy. At the time of making the applications, all parts affected
with the rust were removed when possible, and this also tended to
check the trouble. Still, when one considers the enormous number
of spores produced by the fungus, and that these may infest healthy
tissues at any time when the proper conditions of heat and moisture
are present, this sudden check to the spread of the disease is very
encouraging, and makes the successful control of carnation rust by
the use of fungicides very probable. If, in addition to such treat-
ment, care is exercised in selecting only healthy plants for propa-
gating purposes, and all affected parte are removed as soon as dis-
covered, little danger need be feared from this disease.
L. H. BAILEY.
E. G. LODEMAN.
* Copper bichloride 2 ounces, air-slaked lime 2 ounces, soap 10 onncea, water
12 gallons.
,v Google
BULLETIN 97 — July, 1895.
Cornell University— Agricultural Experiment Station.
BOTANICAL AND ENTOMOLOGICAL DIVISIONS.
Studies in Artificial Cultures
ENTOMOGENOUS FUNGI.
By K. H. Pbttit.
Malta* byGoOgle
ORGANIZATION.
Board of Control— Toe Trustees of the Uniyersity.
STATION COUNCIL.
President, JACOB GOULD SCHUBMAN.
Hon. A. IV WHITE Trustee of the Unieertity.
Professor I. P. ROBERTS. President State Agricultural Society.
Professor I. P. ROBERTS Agriculture.
Professor G. C. CALDWELL Chemistry.
Professor JAMES LAW Veterinary ScUnoe.
Professor A. N. PRENTISS Botany.
Professor J. H. COM STOCK Entomology.
Professor L. H. BAILEY Horticulture.
Professor H. H. WING Dairy Huebandry.
Professor G. F. ATKINSON Crrtplogamic Botany.
OFFICERS OF TEE STATION'.
I. P. ROBERTS Director.
E. L.WILLIAMS Treasurer.
H.W.SMITH Clerk,
ASSIST ANTS.
M. V. SLINGERLAND Entomology.
GEO. C.WATSON Agriculture.
O. W. CAVANAUGH Chemistry.
E. G. LODEMAN Horticulture.
MICHAEL BARKER Horticulture.
Office of tbe Director, 20 Mori-ill Hall.
These desiring this Bulletin sent to friends will please send ns the n
the parties.
Bulletins of 1895.
84. Tbe Recent Apple Failures in Western New York.
86. Wbey Biilter.
86. Spray in a of Orchards.
87. The Dwarf Lima Beans.
88. Early Lamb Raising.
89. Feeding Pigs.
90. The China Asters.
91. Recent Chrysanthemums.
93. On the Effect of Feeding Fat to Cows.
93. The Cigar-Case Bearer.
94. Damping OCT.
95. Winter Muekraetons.
96. Forcing-Honse Miscellanies.
97. Eutomogenons Fungi.
On account of the technical nature of this Bulletin, only a email edition it
printed for the uee of Experiment Stationi and Exchangee.
i Google
Studies in Artificial Cultures of Entomogenous
Fungi.
Moat insects are subject to contagions diseases which determine to
some degree the extent of the ravages of injurious species and
which, at times, destroy beneficial ones. The possibility of con-
trolling these diseases, and of introducing epidemics where they are
desirable, has led several investigators to carry on researches in
this direction ; and the results of some of these investigations have
led their authors to believe them of considerable economic im-
portance.
The subject has become one of general interest, and it is desirable
to have as complete a knowledge as possible of the affinities and life
histories of such entomogenous fungi as are capable of artificial cul-
tivation. The object of the present paper is to determine by means
of artificial cultures, the life histories and the relationship of the
forms studied as well as to carry on preliminary studies respecting
the practicability of introducing diseases among insects. Most of
the forms studied are members of the genus Tsarta, and its perfect
form Cordyceps ; the others are species of the genus Sporotrichum.
The material from which the present study was made has been
obtained from specimens collected in the vicinity of Ithaca, N. T.,
or kindly sent by others. The studies in artificial media were
made in the labratory of cryptogainic botany in Cornell University
under the supervision of Professor G. F. Atkinson. The experi-
ments in the infection of insects were carried on in the insectary of
the Cornell Agricultural Experiment Station under the super-
vision of Professor J. H. Comstock.
When a study with artificial cultures is to be made, the first step
is to separate the disease-producing organism from the accompany-
ing bacteria and fungi, and to grow it in pure cultures. To do this,
plate cultures are made with nutrient agar or some like preparation.
In the present work, nutrient agar, the ordinary agar-agar- peptone-
27
DijiliuawtaOOgle
418 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. T.
broth, lias been used, except in one or two cases where the organism
refused to grow and produce spores on this substance. In
these coses potato agar, made from potato and agar only, was
employed.
To separate a fungus a small portion containing spores is
removed usually to a slide and teased apart in a little water.
Meanwhile three tubes of agar hare been placed in the water-hath
and heated until the agar is melted. They are then cooled in water
to 43° Centigrade, and the spores and pieces of fungus on tho slide
are washed into the first tube and well shaken. A. drop or two is
now poured into tube number two and shaken, and the process is
repeated with tubes numbers two and three. It is now probable
that by this repeated dilution only a few organisms have been trans-
ferred to tube number three. In separating spores of fungi this
method of poring a drop from one tube to the next, is preferable to
dipping in a sterilized needle as is usually done in transferring
bacteria, for the spores of fungi are so mnch larger than bacteria that
the number of fungus spores, which would cling to the needle, would
be small in proportion to the number of bacteria which would also be
transferred with them. By pouring ont a drop, the proportion of
fungus spores to the bacteria present remains unchanged. The con-
tents of each tube is now poured into a sterilized Petrie-dish.
The melted agar spreads evenly over the bottom of the dish and
soon hardens into a firm, jelly-like layer, thus fixing in position any
organisms present. Bacteria and spores of fungi grow freely in this
layer, and the plate may be placed at any time under the microscope
and the progress examined. Moreover the organism, being fixed,
is obliged to confine its growth to a relatively small area. Isolated
growths or colonies starting from a single organism or spore may
usually be found in the second plate and often in the first. It is
well to make studies from such isolated growths, for if two run
together it is possible that they will contain more than one species.
A small portion may now be removed on the point of a sterilized
platinum needle and transferred to a stick of sterilized potato or
other suitable medium. A pure culture is thus obtained. It is
also sometimes possible to obtain the pure culture direct from the
insect by touching a sterilized needle to the spore- bearing stroma
and then to a tube of potato.
,v Google
Entohogenods Fungi. 419
CORDYCEPS CLAVULATA (Schw.) Ellis*
One often finds, in moist or shady places, the remains of scale-
insects belonging to the genus Lecanium, on which are growing
the delicate fruiting bodies of a small fungus. These fruiting
bodies are between two and three millimeters long, and terminate
in a more or less conical head abont one millimeter in diameter,
Fig. 97. The color is brown or black. These heads are covered
with small rounded papillate projections which are the openings
of flask-like conceptacles containing the reproductive bodies. The
scale on which the fruiting bodies are borne is often shrunken bo
completely by the fungus and partially or wholly replaced by it that
it appears as a lenticular base belonging to the fungus. On crush-
ing one of these heads, one finds many sacs called asci. Each sac
contains eight slender cylindrical spores which are divided by septa
into about twelve or fifteen segments. This fungus is found on
scales infesting various trees. Schweinitzf found it on black ash,
on Querous palustris, and on Q* cocoinea. Dr. Peck found itf on
Fraanmus aa/mbucifoMa. 1 have found it on Acer pennaylvaniffum,
on wild chery, on butternut, on juniper affected by Lecanvwm
JUtcheri aDd on various species of Queroue. The species was fipst
described by Schweinitz4 Berkeley and Brcome,§ afterward de-
scribed in English form, Cordyoepa pktiMariaeformia, which may
be the same. Dr. Peckf refers the specimens found by himself to
Schweinitz!6 species.
On May 13th, 1895, I found a maple, Acer pennsyhanicum,
badly infested with a scale-insect, Zecanium sp. Many of the
scales appeared abnormally yellow, some approaching bright orange
in color. On teasing one apart in water and examining it with a
microscope, it was found to be teeming with small, oval or ellip-
soidal, hyphal bodies, very closely resembling yeast. Some were
almost fusiform. These bodies often contained one septum and
" Technical description of Cordycept ttage. — Sporopbores slender, from 2 to
3 mm. loDg, bearing a conical liead slightly less than 1 mm. in diameter and
somewhat longer than broad. Perithecirt tab-Immersed and rounded, containing
fusiform, eight-spored naci abont 120 microns long (Fig. 11). Spores ten to
twelve segmented and from 3 to Si microns in diameter (Fig. 12). Tbe color is
fuliginous tinged with yellowish green.
t Synopsis of N. A. Fungi, Ko. 1165.
(28th, Kept. N. T. State Mns., p. 70.
!■..•* ML It*.
420 Agricultubal Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
the interior waB partially or wholly filled with large grannies of an
orange color tinged with green. In some cases constrictions were
to be seen in the larger bodies, and always at the point where the
septum was located (Fig. 1).
A dilation culture was made on May 14th, and in two days one
or more slender germ-tuhee had been put out at one or both ends
of the hyphal body. After five dayB the growth stopped. Piece*
of agar, containing live and growing bodies, were removed and
placed in acidified agar, but no further growth took plac*1. On
May 16th, a red cedar, Ju/rwperus vvrginiana, was found infested
with another scale, Lecwnvwm jletcheri, and as some of these ap-
peared very much like the ones on maple, they were also examined.
Bodies closely resembling those in the first scale were found. They
differed only in being larger and once or twice septate (Fig. 4).*
A dilution culture was made and germination took place as in the
first instance, with, however, a more vigorous growth. Fig. 5 shows
the bodies after one day ; Fig. 7 a portion of the mycelium after
two days. Septa and a few small vacuoles appear about this time.
Branching occurs quite profusely and irregularly. Fig. 6 shows a
portion of the mycellium after five days. Many large and regularly
placed vacuoles are present and the threads are constricted between
the veeuoles. Small pieces of agar containing this growth were
transferred to tubes of acidified agar, and some were also transferred
to tubes containing potato steeped in a strong infusion of Lecani-
ums. Out of a large number of tubes, two. showed a growth of
very fine, white, cottony filaments which in time became quite
dense and somewhat matted. On examination this growth is found
to consist of long, fine filaments bearing, at irregular intervals,
flask-shaped sterigmata placed at right angles to the parent thread,
and which taper to a fine point and bear usually one oval or ovate
conidium from 3 to 4 microns in size. The thread is filled with
hyaline protoplasm containing small grannies (Fig. 9). Sometimes
there is a short side branch from the tip of the eterigma which
bears a second spore (Fig. 9). From these cultures conidia were
transferred to tubes containing sterilized sticks of elm covered with
coccids. A vigorous growth was in this way obtained. About this
'Since that time, specimens identical with these bave been found on maple
and specimens similar to the ones first found were also seen in L. Jhtcluri.
It seems almost certain that the two forms are specifically one, as in Unwinding
forms are present in both cases.
Digitized byGOQgle
Entomoobnodb Fungi. 431
time a ooccid was torn apart and examined. It was seen to be full
of hyphal bodies like those first fonnd, bnt somewhat swollen and
producing nearly straight germ tubes (Fig. 3). A little later coccids
were found having a white fringe around them, and bearing on the
back email white projections like the beginnings of spborophores,
composed of many threads growing together and producing a solid
mass. This is the beginning of the Isaria-stage, On examining the
fringe a condition of affairs similar to that fonnd in the cultures was
observed, the flask-shaped sterigmata and conidia exactly resembling
those seen in the cultures. On keeping these coccids in a moist
chamber for a few days a dense white, cottony growth similar to
that produced in the cultures appeared, covering the scale. Some-
what later a reddish powder was seen borne directly on the coecid.
This proved to be made of bodies similar to the hyphal bodies (Figs.
1 and 4). I was unable to observe the manner in which they were
borne, and have been unable to produce this stage since. The short
sporop ho res mentioned as the beginning of the Isaria-stage continued
to grow, and on examination were seen to be made up, at first, of
loose fibres which unite to form a slender white sporophore bearing
sterigmata and conidia resembling those in the fringe and in the cul-
tures. Fig. 98 shows a number of coccids at this stage.*
The cultures on sterilized scales afterward produced sporophorea
of the true Isaria type, about 3 mm. in length and | mm, in diameter.
They resembled in every way the sporophores found on scales
growing under natural conditions. After nearly 7 months trans-
fers were made from these cultures to sticks of potato and pure
cultures obtained. When growing under natural conditions, the
apex of the iHaria-sporophores becomes enlarged and assumes the
form of a conical head, bearing closely packed rounded peritbecial
which contain many asci about 120 microns in length and 13 in
diameter. They are fusiform and taper to a Blender base. At the
apex the spores do not entirely till out the ascuB, leaving the appear-
• haria-itagc. — The sporophores are simple, slender, terete or cylindrical, and
white ; the; are borne in groups of from 2 tu 10 on the dorsal surface of scale-
insects belonging to tbe genus Lteanitm. The sporophores are 1 to 2 mm. long,
formed by the interlacing threads of mycelium and bearing snb-ovate conidia
2% to 4 microns In sice, on simple or once branched flask -shaped star igmati.,
which are placed at right angles (o the thread. The scale-insect on which these
sporophores are borne is often surrounded by a simple fringe of mycelium (Fig.
08), which also bears conidia. The apices of these Isaria-sporophores become
enlarged inlo tbe asconuores of the perfect stage.
DqltseOByCjOOgle
422 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
ance of a small hyaline cap, formed by the membrane of the ascus.
The aeci contain 8 spores, which are long and slender and fuligi
iiona in color. In the younger stages they are filled with small
vacuoles. Later the vacuoles disappear and the spores become
divided by from 10 to 12 septa. Fig. 11 shows 2 aeci before
maturity and 1 at maturity.
On July 7 a dilution culture was made of the ascopores, using
agar in which was a strong infusion of coccide. After two days,
germination bad commenced. The spores, usually remaining in the
ascns, put out at various intervals slender, sinuous germ-tubes, con-
taining fine granules. In some cases the tubes were closely packed
coming from many of the segments of the spores (Fig. 13). After
three days the ■ threads become full of vacuoles, and constrictions
appear between them. At this stage the plate became so badly
contaminated with bacteria that it was impossible to further observe
the development.
On potato the growth proceeds slowly, forming a dense dirty-
white mat somewhat uneven in surface, and turning the adjacent
potato a deep bluish black color.
The economic value of this fungus is probably small. The fungus
abounds on scales which grow in damp and cool gorges, and refuses
to Sourish in dry situations. The cedar from which many of the
specimens studied were obtained was situated on a dry hillside, and
although the scales were very many of them full of hypbal bodies,
no sporophores were afterward seen. It is possible that these
hyphal bodies play an important part in the spread of the dis-
ease, and, being very inconspicuous, they may grow in this
stage until conditions favorable to the production of the Isaria
— or Cordyceps — stage are brought about. It would be very inter-
esting to try experiments with scale-insects in a region having a
moist climate or season (suitable to the propagation of this disease.
CORDYCEPS HIL1TARIS (Linn.) Link.
On October 14, 1894, Miss Green, a student in the University,
found a specimen of a Cordyceps partially buried in decaying leaves,
in woodland, at Enfield gorge. Unfortunately no search was made
for the insect, but the sporophores were simply pulled np and
brought to the laboratory. Two sporophores were found about 3 cm.
in length (Fig. 92). They were clavate in form and orange in
DqltSMByCOOgle
Entomogbnous Fdnqi. 423
color. The deep reddish perithecia are JmTQersed in the light bafi
stroma. Near the base the perithecia are more prominent. The
perithecia are conical, tipped with a pale yellow ostiolnm, which is
prominently pointed until the spores escape, when it collapses. The
distal half of the sporophore is fertile. The spores are thrown ont
in a loose floceulent mass and remain clinging to the surface. They
are about 1^ microns in diameter, and have segments 8 microns in
length (Fig. 40). Eight spores are borne in a long tapering ascns
(Fig. 39), the base of which is usually broken in preparing mounts,
leaving the spores to protrude in a brush. The ascns is about 3J or
4 microns in diameter.
This specimen was carefully compared with four specimens from
Europe kindly loaned by Mr. J. B. Ellis. They differ slightly in
having perithecia somewhat lees deeply immersed, but the measure-
ments are the same. The variety which is described on page 347
differs in having the perithecia not immersed, and in having the
spores much larger. It also develops into the typical form of
Jsaria farinosa while the form under discussion produces a
conidial stage quite different.
A dilution culture was made in the ordinary way using potato
agar. Many segments of spores were sown. They were taken
from the floceulent mass of spores protruding from the asci. No
other spores were visible except the typical ascospores, but when
germination took place, the growth appeared from rounded spores
much larger than those sown. This was doubtfully explained by
supposing that the large rounded spores were those of the corre-
sponding iBaria-stage, which remained clinging to the sporophore
after the manner of Cordyceps clawlata. It also brought up the
case of the variety of Oordyc&pa militaris whose similar behavior
had l>een partially explained in the same way. This explanation,
however, did not make clear how the majority of the germinating
spores were rounded, while those sown were, so far as seen, small
and cylindrical.
Accordingly another dilution culture was started, and this time an
examination was made soon after sowing. After one hour, numbers
of the true Cordyceps-spores were visible but no rounded ones.
After twenty hours there were visible many connected chains of
rounded bodies, cloBely resembling the conidia of Isaria farinosa.
In several cases large portions of the ascus were visible, with nearly
all the segments of the spores swollen to the rounded form, and just
424 Aqhiodltdral Experiment Station, Ithaoa, N. Y.
enough of them retaining their original form to prove that they
were really from the original ascuB of the Goribycepa.
Germination from these swollen spore-segments takes place by the
production of germ-tubes at one or two points. These soon become
branched. The protoplasm is at first hyaline and homogeneous.
After three days large vacuoles appear irregnlarly placed. The
threads are strongly segmented and the branches are strongly con-
stricted at the base. In some cases a healthy thread becomes sud-
denly constricted and produces an aborted apex of less than half the
diameter of the ordinary thread (Fig. 45). The aborted portion is
usually curled. In some cases the entire growth presents a much
swollen appearance, being about twice the diameter of the ordinary
threads. The segments of these swollen colonies always contain
large vacuoles (Fig. 46). In about four days the growth appears
above the surface of the agar. A strong, white cottony growth
appears forming a colony circular in form. At the end of about six
days the conidia appear. Short sterigmata are borne near the ends
of the long, cottony threads. They are irregularly arranged either
in an opposite or an alternate manner. They are flask-shaped and
slender and sometimes forked. The conidia are nearly spherical
and are borne in short chains of three or four at tbe ends ot the
sterigmata, or at the end of a long thread. The chains are seldom
Been for they almost invariably collapse leaving the conidia in balls
at the ends of the sterigmata. This is probably due to a thin film
of moisture clinging to the surface.
The growth on potato becomes visible after about six days. The
light yellow or white mycelium spreads loosely over the surface of
the potato. After about a month the surface becomes densely
felted, and in another month it becomes buff in color. The mycelium
on the surface of the potato and the potato itself are colored pale
orange or brilliant chrome yellow wherever they touch the glass.
No Isaria-sporophores have been observed. A culture was made in
a half-litre flask of potato, and quite a marked difference in tbe habit
of growth was seen between this and the smaller tubes. The flask
culture showed the beginning of a sporophore, deep reddish-orange
in color, at the end of about three months. This is probably the
beginning of an ascophore, since it appeared after the conidial
growth had ceased, and at the same time that rudimentary peritbe-
cia were produced. The color also agrees with the color of the
original specimen, which is in the perfect stage. At the end of two
Entomoqbnous Fungi. 425
months, many small rounded bodies (Figs. 52 and 53), probably
undeveloped perithecia, were developed in the potato just under the
layer of mycelium. These bodies were usually spherical and meas-
ured from 100 to 240 microns. Sometimes two or three unite into
a compound mass. No asci are visible on crashing them.
CORDYCEPS MTLITARIS var.
The specimen from which this study was made was found by
Professor Atkinson in the fall of 1893, on the lava of some unknown
insect which was buried in rotten wood. The two slender orange
colored Bporophores protruded, bearing heads about 1£ mm. in
diameter and 2 to 3 mm. in length. The entire sporophore is about
1 cm. in length. The heads of this form are apt to be more nearly
globose than the typical form. The perithecia are crowded with
their bases only, immersed. The form is conical, ending in a dark
ostiolum. The asci are long, slender, tapering to a slender base.
They are from 200 to 280 microns in length. The apex is slightly
swollen and empty, giving the appearance of a hyaline cap. The
long, slender spores are divided into segments about 3 micronB in
diameter, and 6 to 9 microns in length (Figs 21 and 22).
On May 31st, a dilution culture was made and from it a pare cul-
ture of a form apparently identical with laaria farwiosa was
obtained. Bat as it was impossible to trace the germination from
the cylindrical segments of the ascospores, a second dilution cul-
ture was made. The material was this time taken from an unripe
portion of the head and no growth resulted. A third time the
sowing was repeated in hopes of tracing the germination from the
ascospores. At the end of two days, however, the spores from
which the growth proceeded did not resemble ascospores but were
oval and larger. The small number of ascospores was noticeable,
for when sown, no spores except ascospores were visible, and after
two days, fully three-fourths of the spores present were of the oval
type. The cylindrical spores remaining refused to germinate. One
more dilution culture was made with no better results, and the
materials having been nearly exhausted, the attempt was abandoned.
From a later study of Cordycepa militaris, I have come to believe
that the largeroval type of spore is merely the inflated state of the
true ascosphore. Although no oval spores were, in this case, seen to
remain in chains, it would seem that the disappearance of the
426 Agricultural Expeeiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
ascospores, and tbe simultaneous appearance of the oval type, which
subsequently developed into the form apparently identical with
Iaaria farinoaa, would prove the identity of the two. Potato
cultures developedexactly as cultures obtained from the typical
Iaaria farinoaa.
Tulasne was the first to remark the connection between Iaaria
farinoaa and what he identified as Cordyaepa militant* He says,
the segments of the spores of Oordyospa miUtaria put oat threads
in germinating which branch after the manner of VerticUlium,
and bear coridia resembling those of Iaaria farinoaa. He also
found what he took to be the conidia of Iaaria farinoaa among
the " roots " of the ascosphores.
De Bary says : f "If the aseosporeB be sown in water or in
nutrient solutions without a living host, they germinate and the
germ-tubes develop hyphea which branch with more or less
copiousness according to the amount of nourishment supplied. In
water only small plants are produced with few or uo branches.
Some of the branches spread in the nutrient solution, and have
the power like the hyphse on the inner surface of the caterpillar's
skin, of adjoining cylindrical gonidia. It is true that this has not
been observed in the species in question."
Since this form differs markedly from the typical Cordyeepa
militaria in the spore characters, it would be interesting to know if
the specimens studied by De Bary aud Tulasne, and thought by
them to be connected with Isoria farinoaa, possessed spore-char-
acters identical with this form, or if the difference in the imperfect
stages is due to variation. This question can only be settled by
making cultures from the ascospores of various specimens.
Iaaria farinoaa (Dicks.) Fr.
The typical form. — The following study was made from material
collected by Professor Atkinson in the fall of 1893, on an Arctiid
cocoon buried in leaves in the woods. The cocoon was covered
with sporophores about 3 or 4 cm. long. These sporophores are
orange colored at the base, the apical two-thirds having a white
farinaceous covering composed of colorless conidia, borne in a
manner resembling that of PeniciUium on loose threads which
* Selects Fnngorum Carpologia.
t Comparative Morphology and Biology of Fungi, Mycetoma nnd Bacteria.
y Google
Entohoqhnous Fungi. 427
spring from' the interwoven threads composing the sporophore.
The conidia are borne in long chains on flask-shaped sterigmata
which are grouped at the ends of short side branches.
A dilution culture was made from this. The growth in agar
plates becomes apparent at the end of about twenty-four hours
after the sowing of the conidia. They become swollen and pat
oat one or two germ-tubes, usually at one or both ends of the
slightly oval conidia. The protoplasm is homogeneous and hyaline.
At the end of two days, the growth becomes apparent to the un-
aided eye. Branching occurs freely, the branches tapering and
slightly constricted at the base. A few vacuoles appear and at the
end of three days a few septa are to be seen, usually just beyond
the point where a branch is attached. After about four days the
threads are thrust up out of the agar, and in two more the colonies
form beautiful, circular, cottony growths very finely radiated. The
conidia now appear, borne on flask-shaped sterigmata which are
placed either singly or in groups of from two to twelve on the main
thread or on the end of a short side branch. The oval or nearly
spherical conidia are borne in chains at the apices of the sterigmata.
A small depauperate form, probably of this species, was found
feeding on a group of insect's eggs (Fig. 93). This specimen pro-
duced two sporophores, recumbent for a short distance, and then
rising in a cylindrical mass of fibres for 6 or 7 mm. and bearing at
the apex a spherical head about 1 mm. in diameter. One of the
sporophores was forked just below the apex and bore two heads
packed with loose chains of creamy white conidia. Plate-cultures
from this specimen developed like those from the typical form, ex-
cept that the threads became somewhat more swollen. A specimen
found on decaying leaves showed a development coinciding exactly
with the typical form.
On potato, the growth spreads rapidly over the entire surface,
forming a dense, white covering of considerable thickness. This
felt spreads evenly over the surface of the liquid and reaches to
the glasB walls of the tube. Isaria-sporopbores are produced which
grow directly away from the potato for a distance, when some of
them reach the sides of the tube and grow directly upward for 2£
cm. or more, clinging to the glass, and flattening out considerably.
Many short, round, rudimentary sporophores are produced all over
the sides of the stick of potato. The bases of the sporophores are
usually buff and the mycelium shows, where it touches the glass, a
428 AORICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, iTHAOA, N. Y.
buff color at first which afterward becomes orange. In old cultures,
long attenuated, the general color becomes buff or even pale orange.
A half-litre Ehrlmeyer- flask containing about 2 cm. in depth of
potato on the bottom, was inoculated with conidia of Isaria fari-
nosa. A very luxuriant, loose and white growth soon appeared,
many sporophores being produced from 9} to 4 cm. in length,
covered with a farinaceous coat of conidia on the distal ball The
flask, which had been previously kept in the dark, was placed in the
light. In a short time a bright orange-color replaced the white to
a great extent. On returning the flask to the dark, the growth be-
came pale and a white, flocculent growth soon overspread the entire
culture. On again bringing it to the light the orange-color
reappeared.
Experiments.
A number of white grubs, the Iarvee of Lachnosterna, were
dusted with conidia both from the original specimen and from
potato culture, and after four months, no trace of the fungus was
visible. Although most of the specimens died, they showed no
trace of the fungus.
Fifteen specimens of Pieris rapae (larvas) were dusted with
conidia from a potato culture. After about twenty days the adnlt
insects emerged.
Seven specimens of our common brown-and-black caterpillar,
Pyrrharctia Isabella, were infected with Isaria farinoaa by stick-
ing the conidia on the ventral and lateral surfaces with the white of
an egg, by means of a brush. After twenty days, all bnt two
showed that they were attacked by the fungus. Of the five attacked
four were dead, curled up and covered more or less densely with a
thick cottony mass of mycelium most prominent on the ventral
side. One was yet alive although the ventral side bore patches of
the mycelial growth. One of the dead larvae was placed in a pot of
sterilized sphagnum moss and placed in a moist chamber. After a
little more than a month it had become completely covered with
long Isaria-sporophores like those found on the original specimen.
The remaining caterpillars and the two which subsequently con-
tracted the disease, did not produce sporophores. They were left
in the original cage which was constructed as follows: an ordinary
flower-pot was placed inside of a large one and the space of about
2 cm. between them was packed with moss. The inner jar was
Digitized byGOQgle
Entomogenods Fdngi. 429
closed by an inverted jar intermediate in size between the two.
The moss packing was moistened daily, thus maintaining a humid
atmosphere suitable for the best growth of the fungus, and approxi-
mating the conditions of the nature! fall and spring home of the
caterpillar.
ISARIA TENUIPES Peck.
The material from which the present study was made was ob-
tained during the snmruer of 1894. Prof. Atkinson collected two
specimens on the pnpse of nnknown Arctiids, buried in leaves.
From seven to ten slender, clavate sporophores arise from 1 to 1£
cm. above the pupa?. The dfetal half is flattened and densely cov-
ered with a farinaceous white powder composed of colorless conidia.
The base is greenish-yellow and sterile. The conidia are oval to
globose, hyaline, and measure from 2} to 3J microns in size.
On plate cultures germination becomes apparent in about twenty-
four hours. The couida become swollen and put out from one to
three slender germ-tubes which grow in a sinuous line from one or
both endsof the conidium. A slight constriction and sometimes a
septum separates the conidium from the base of the germ-tube.
Often one or two vacuoles are present near the base of the largest
germ-tube. The protoplasm is usually hyaline and homogeneous.
After about forty-eight hours the threads appear above the agar in
circular tufts. Many small and irregular vacuoles appear in the
threads. Septa are sparingly and irregularly placed throughout the
entire colony, and the branches are slightly constricted at the base.
At the end of three days, the vacuoles become more thickly and
regularly placed. The colonies by this time all appear above the
surface of the agar, and some conidia are produced. The threads
standing above the agar, bear short branches either in whorls, or
placed in an opposite manner after the type of VerUcilUum, The
conidia are borne either on the ends of these short branches or on
short flask-shaped sterigmata grouped at the apex of a short branch.
Those first produced cling to those next succeeding and so on until
from two to eight conidia are collected forming a small spherical
mass or sometimes an irregular chain. At the end of about four
days, the threads usually spread over the surface of the plate in an
even, floccalent layer, the colonies showing as pointB of denser
growth. In case the conidia are thinly sown in making the dilution
culture, the threads confine themselves to the colonies and do not
spread.
430 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
On potato a dense white and cottony growth appeals, and soon
spreads over the surface. A yellowish buff tinge is noticeable very
early. A bright greenish lemon-yellow is noticeable where the
mycelium comes in contact with the glass. Spirophores soon
appear rising from the sides and upper portions of the potato
slab. In one case a sporophore 5 mm. in diameter grew from the
side of the potato to a height of 4 cm. in a nearly vertical direction
(Figs. 99 and 100). At this distance from the base, it divided into
15 smaller branches, some of them 2} cm. in length and from 1£ to
2? mm. in diameter. All of these branches are covered with a
dense, farinaceous yellowish-white coat composed of colorless
conidia. Sometimes clavate branches are produced from 2 to 3J
mm. in diameter. Usually, however, the branches cling to the glass
quite closely and are simple. A culture in an Ehrlmeyer-flask, having
pieces of potato on the bottom to the depth of half an inch, grew
mnch as in the case of a potato culture in a tube, except that the
sporopbores were in general larger and much more flattened and
clavate, owing to the increased supply of food and air. Some of
them were 2£ cm. long and over 1 cm. broad at the apex. They
were about 4 mm. thick. The bases of the sporophores were tinged
with lemon-yellow.
Several specimens of our common brown and black caterpillar,
Pyrrharctia Isabella, were dusted with conidia of this fungus and
some of the caterpillars died. Two produced many yellowish
sporophores from 2 to 3 mm. in length, in color closely resembling
the original specimens. Unfortunately I have not been able to
obtain a pure culture of any Isaria-like form from the specimens
showing the sporophores. Specimens placed under like conditions, but
not dusted, died, but did not show any signs of the fungus. The cause
of the death of those exhibiting the fnngus is, therefore uncertain.
CORDYCEPS MELOLONTHAE (?) (Tul.) Sacc.
Conidial stage (f). — On October 15, 1895, Mr. Pietere found a
white grub, the larva of Lachnosterna, lying on the surface of the
ground in one of the forcing-houses. It was covered with short,
stout sporophores, both simple and branched, the one near the anus
being fully 5 mm. long. A growth 6 mm. in length, bearing
several short, spindle-shaped branches, issued from near the head.
The grub was placed in damp sphagnum, to allow the development
to proceed still further. After about two weeks the sporophores
ENTOMOGENona Fungi. 431
had attained a length of from 5 to 9 mm. and a diameter of 1 mm.
sometimes expanded to 2 mm. On the sides of the sporophores are
borne shining yellow disks, smooth and either plane or irregularly
concave. These disks are composed of conidia held together by
some viscid substance (Fig- 95). On removing the Isaria-sporo-
phorea, processes which are possibly the rudimentary stromata of
Ctyrdycepa mdolonthae were seen. Several dilation cultures were
made, using the ordinary agar, bnt the fungus refused to grow,
farther than to germinate. Potato agar was need, and the growth
progressed slowly. After three days the conidia appeared swollen,
and germination began by the production of one or two germ pro-
tabes. Vacuoles usually appear in the conidium and often at the
base of the thread. In four days the threads grew to quite an
extent, branching hut little and showing no septa. The threads
sometimes show swellings at their base. At the end of six days
a tew vacuoles and septa appeared. Many threads bear at their ends
round or oral bodies (Figs. 58 and 60). The protoplasm in these is
hyaline and homogeneous. Cylindrical conidia are borne in the
agar after the maimer of most of the Iearias studied. In order to
get a pare culture on potato, a small piece of the agar containing
growing mycelium was transferred to a slab of sterilized potato
The growth on potato either spreads evenly over the surface or
grows in raised patches. The mycelium is dirty yellow in color
where it touches the glass of the tube. Conidia are borne in dense
patches on the surface of the felt. The production of conidia does
not always take place for this species in artificial cultures.
1SARIA ANISOPLIAE (Metch.) Var. AMERICANA, n. v.
During the fall of 1893 about 1300 wireworms were procured
on which to experiment. They were chiefly lame of Agrvotes
mancus. At Christmas time a fungus was seen to be growing on
them. It was provisionally identified as Igaria a/nisopliae, since
the same fungus had previously been found by Mr. Slingerland in
his experiments and sent to Dr. Thaxter, who identified it pro-
visionally as Metarrhisium anis&pliae.* The genus Metarrhisium
has since been included under Isaria. Thaxterf says Entomoph-
thora anis&pliae of Metchnikoff,J which attacks coleopterous larvae,
* ball. Ho. 33 Cornell Exp. Staliou, p. 211 .
t Mem. Boat. 800. Nat. History, Vol. IV., Ho. 6, 1888.
t Zeitscher. d. K. Liindwirtli Gesell, of Neurusslaud, OdesM, 187S, pp. 21 to SO.
432 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
is perhaps an laaria, the spores measuring 4.8 by 1.6 microns. It
is placed by Sorokio as belonging to a genus of Basidiomcetes
which he calls Mettwrhieium"
The larvae first became rigid, and somewhat dull in color. Soon
a white growth of mycelium appeared usually near the head or
between the Bclerites. These small patches spread in a folinaceouB
stroma, which is white and grows out into the surrounding soil for
a distance of 3 mm. or more. Sometimes it spreads very thin and
grows to a distance of 5 or 6 mm., clinging to the bits of vegetable
matter in the soil. This white stroma at length becomes colored a
dull sage green by the production of conidia. The conidia are
from 5 to 7 microns in length and 3 microns in diameter. A dilu-
tion culture was made and germination became apparent in about
twenty-four hours. The conidia become swollen, and the proto-
plasm becomes condensed at both ends of the oblong oonidium.
A slender germ tube is put out at one or both ends of the conidium.
After one day more branching commences and by two days more,
a few vacuoles appear. The branching growth increases steadily.
In about six days the vacuoles become oval and regularly placed
closed together throughout the entire length of the mycelium. The
colonies assume an irregular stellate form. A pure white growth of
branching threads appear above the surface and after about ten days
from the sowing conidia appear, borne in chains on heads of a pexnicil-
late type (Figs. 73, 74, and 75). These heads are borne on short pedicels
situated at short intervals on the main filaments. The production of
conidia is accompanied by the appearance of a decided sage-green color.
On potato, tbe growth shows itself after abont six days, in finely
radiate colonies at the points of inoculation. A greenish center
soon appears and the white growth quickly spreads over the entire
surface of the potato forming a dense felt. This soon turns green
by tbe production of conidia. After a time, the conidia become
densely packed in a layer 1 mm. or more in thickness. Tbe chains
of conidia still preserve their connection, aud a colnmnar structure
is thus produced which extends through the layer perpendicular to
the surface of the potato. When a piece of this crust is broken,
the fracture follows the chains of conidia showing transverse stri-
ations. The mycelium is slightly yellow at first, but later it becomes
tinged with green.
A number of specimens of Agriotes mancus were rolled in con-
idia of Imria anisoplice var. americana and placed in pots of earth
i; linzeooyGoOQle
Entomoqhnous Fohch. 433
in a box of moist moss ; but the specimens in the check cages also
died, both having been infected with the disease before they were
taken from the storage pots. Those artificially infected died in
greater numbers, bnt the appearance of the disease in the check'
cages makes it impossible to draw any positive conclusions. The
wireworms contained in the storage cages all died before spring,
and not a single click-beetle emerged. The spread of the disease
was probably very much facilitated by searching for diseased speci-
mens. In this way the soil, charged in places with conidia, became
thoroughly mixed several times, thas carrying conidia to every
part. The soil used was a sandy loam giving to packing hard. To
prevent this, a small amount of finely broken Sphagnum, was mixed
with it. Wherever this Sphagnum had not been thoroughly
mixed, and remained in small masses, the disease was most preva-
lent. Larvse lying in or near such masses were almost snre to be
attacked, the foliaceons stroma spread over the surface apparently
deriving some nourishment therefrom. This suggests that possibly
a loosening of the soil may be of some advantage where wireworms
are abundant., especially if the disease be present. The cages in
which they were confined were prepared as follows : About three
hundred larva? were placed in an ordinary plant jar filled with soil
prepared as described. Wheat and clover were sown on the sur-
face and a large glass cylinder, such as is used for breeding insects,
was placed over the jar, and its upper end closed with muslin. This
jar was then placed in a second jar and the space of about an inch
between was packed with moss, which was daily moistened. Enough
moisture passed through the inner porous jar to supply the needs of
the enclosed larva?.
ISARIA ANISOPLIAE (Metch.).*
A pare culture of a fungus working on wireworms, Anisoplia,
was received, labeled Itaria destructor (Metch.), from France
communicated by Professor Alfred Giard. A dilution culture was
* KraMilachik says (Ball. Sol. lie Fr. et de la Bel. Jan.— Avr. 1M93— translation
in French) and (Jour. Hveol, Vol. V. 1889, translation in English) : That the
genus Mrtarrhiiium, was established by Professor Sorokin for tbe Green Mqb-
cwdine discovered by Metchnikoff upon the larvfo of Anitoplia awitHaoa and
'first named by him Entomaphthora anitoplia. But Hetehnikoff since gave it tbe
name of Itaria destructor. The name Metarrhiiiun was thus dropped, as tbe
other members of the genua were imperfectly established. Bo if the first specific
name is retained it would be Itaria anitopliai (Metch.)
a8 ,:„„:=, Google
434 Agricultural Ekpbbimbnt Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
made, and germination commenced before the end of one day.
The conidia became swollen and from one to three germ tubes
were put out. Daring the succeeding growth, branching occurs
freely. The diameter of the threads varies considerably, some be-
ing swollen and tapering (Figs. 63 and 64). They contain many
vacuoles and granules. At the end of a week, some of the threads
become inflated as shown in Figs. 65 and 66. The growth by this
time appears above the agar. The growth is very much branched
and closely packed, producing a very dense stellate or coarsely radi-
ate growth. In two days more the colonies become tinged with
green, by the production of conidia. The growth is so dense that
it has been impossible to observe the conidia remaining attached to
their eterigmata. Small pieces of the agar covered with conidia
bearing mycelium, when placed in water under the microscope,
show a fructification closely resembling that of PenidUiwm. The
branched mycelium bears heads which are branched like Pemcilliwn
and which bear long chains of conidia, cylindrical in form and
rounded at the ends. A refringent body is usually seen near each
end. They measure about 3 microns in diameter, and from 6 to 7
microns in length. This mass of conidia forms a dense and compact
covering for the mycelium.
On potato, the growth spreads over the surface of the potato
from the points of inoculation, showing at the end of six days
many elevated white points. A marked green color is visible in
many places where the mycelium touches the glass; and where a
felt is spread over the surface of the liquid, the entire growth
becomes gradually colored a deep bottle-green by the production ot
conidia. Sometimes a narrow white border is left uncolored.
The growth is more compact and the color is darker than in the
case of variety americana. The potato and liquid are tinged with
green as well as the mycelium where it reaches the walls of the
tube. The same columnar structure is seen in the crust of conidia
as in the case of the var. a/mericana.
Two cultures were started on the same day in Ehrlmeyer-nasks,
filled with sterilized potato to the depth of three-fourths of an inch.
One flask was inoculated with conidia of Isaria cwvi&oplim and the
other with the variety americana. The variety americana grew in
a white, elevated, comparatively loose felt all over the surface of
the potato. laaria anisoplia spread comparatively little, growing
less vigorously, and in patches not covering more than one-fonrth
Google
Entomoqbnoub Fungi. 435
of the surface. The felt prodaced is much less elevated. After
about two weeks the dull sage-green color appeared quite perceptibly
in the variety americana. In Isaria anisoplim the dark bottle-
green color appears somewhat earlier. The growth of Isaria
anieoplim subsequently spreads over the entire surface of the
potato. Isaria anisoplim has a very dense, farinaceous appearance,
while the variety has a looser cottony one. The color of Isaria
anieoplim is a deep brownish bottle-green, with the color of the
mycelium distinctly green where it touches the glass. The color
of the variety americana on the other hand U dull sage-green, with
the mycelium buff yellow. These characters have been constant
during a long series of cultures.
KrasBilscbik speaks of the coremi inn -form which sometimes
appears on potato cultures. This is produced as follows: the
branches of the mycelium bear in old cultures a dense crust of
conidia having a columnar structure. Now small isolated patches
of con idia- bearing mycelium often produce a small mass of conidia
which cling together, producing small pieces of crust having this
columnar structure, and sometimes showing the white mycelium
beneath. This method of growth resembles Coremium quite
closely bat differs from the typical coremium method of growth-
Professor Metchnikoff gives a short abstract* of his investigations
on the fungus diseases of insects, during the year 1878, together
with some more recent observations on the practical application of
parasitic fungi for the destruction of injurious species. The original
contribution is in the Russian language, " On the Diseases of the
Larvae of the Grain-beetle " (Odessa, 1878). Professor Metchnikoff
found that the Anisoplia austriaca larva, which lives in the ground,
is subject to several diseases, one of which he calls the " Green Mus-
cardine," being produced by a parasitic fungus Isaria destructor
(anisqpUcB). The same fungus was also found to infest another
beetle, Cleonis puncliventris, which is very injurious to beets.
In the month of August, when the disease had not yet disappeared,
about forty-five per cent, of the progeny of these latter beetles was
destroyed. Of the experiments made to infest the AnisopUa larva
with the spores of Isaria, several were successful, but in some
cases the larvse remained healthy for a long time. The same experi-
• Zuologiaher Anzeiger No. 47, pp. 44-17. (Riley, Am. Ent. Vol. Ill, p.
103, 1880).
Digitized byGOQgle
436 Aghicoltohal. Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. T.
ments made to infest the Oleoma larvse were eminently successful.
Of ninety larvae, whieh for a short time were brought in contact
with the spores, sixty-two died from Mnscardine within twelve
days. On the imago of the Cleonus, the Museardine acts somewhat
more slowly, but just as surely. Of fifty-eight beetles whieh he
infected when fresh from the papa, fifty-two died from Mnscardine
within fifteen days. From these and other experiments, Professor
Metchnikoff concludes that Imria destructor produces an epizootic
disease of the insects mentioned, and believes it possible to produce
the disease by sowing the spores.
ISARIA DENSA (Link.) Fries.
A pare culture of this fungus was obtained from Fribourg and
Hesse, Paris. In describing the appearance of insects killed by the
fungus, Giard says that the fungus appears in nature under very
characteristic forms. In dry places the bodies of white grubs are
hard and covered with a sparse, white down which becomes pnl-
verulent as the age becomes greater. In moist and clay soil the
fungus sends out irregular prolongations from 5 to 6 cm. or even
more in length. These prolongations cement the particles of earth
and roots of vegetation. They often stretch from one mummy to
another. He speaks of these prolongations as sporopbores, com-
paring them to the aerial eporophoree of the other Iearias. Both
are sometimes sterile and sometimes fertile, and both are usually
preceded by an enveloping stage. He ends by saying that the dif-
ference between the Isaria of the Jane bag, and the other Isariag
is of the same nature as the difference between an aerial stem and a
rhizome in the Phanerogamia.
A dilation calture was made from the pure culture obtained from
Paris, and the following characteristics of growth noted. Germina-
tion begins after about two days. The couidia become swollen and
put out two or three germ-tubes (Fig. 28.) Soon the oval vacuoles
become abundant and a few septa appear. After about four days
the threads become full of large vacuoles (Fig. 25). The threads
now become irregular in size. Some are large and inflated, the
small ones are usually tapering and constricted at the base (Fig. 29).
Elongate spores are thrown off in the agar, from the ends of short
branches. The colonies are at this time finely radiated, and about 3
mm. in size. In a week's time many strands are to be seen, formed
D-ait,ze0t>yGoOQle
Entohoqbhods Fungi. 487
by several threads growing together for some distance. The growth
appears above the agar in abont ten days. The colonies continue to
grow and branch until, at the end of about two weeks, they form
even, fluffy, and strongly raised colonies. Soon after this, conidia
are produced on flasked-shaped sterigmata, which are either sessile or
borne on short side branches. These sterigmata and the chains of
conidia become crowded bo as to form heads of some size like those
of Spvrortriehum (Figs. 26, 27, 28, and 30).
On potato the growth starts from the points of inoculation and
grows until, at the end of about a week, it appears as a tabulated
white mass, Btrongly raised from the surface of the potato. Tlie
pare white mycelium contrasts strongly with the potato which is
colored a deep purple by the fungus. After about two weeks the
conidia give the growth a creamy, farinaceous appearance.
Wherever the felty membrane resting on the surface of the liquid
comes in contact with the glass tube, a delicate fringe of very tine
white threads runs up which cling to the glass and preserve per-
fectly parallel courses. Culture in half-litre Ehrlmeyer flasks
showed exactly the same method of growth. Gelatine is colored
a deep vinaceous purple when the fungus is grown in it.
On October 31, 1893, twenty larvse of Lachnoaterna were
infected with Imriademaa in the following manner: Twenty grubs
were placed in an earthen dish containing soil to the depth of
about 1 cm. Half the contents of the tube just received from
Fribourg and Hesse was mixed with half the white of an egg, and
15 cc. of water added. This was beaten and each grub carefully
touched behind the head and along the Bides with the liquid. The
remainder of the liquid was poured over them and the dish and grubs
covered with moist moss, and placed in a room of ordinary temper-
ture. On November 1st, the grubs were placed in two pots, ten in
each, and covered with earth and moss full of conidia. Wheat was
sown over the surface of the soil. On November 14th, tive were
dead ; two had just died and were very much swollen. On Novem-
ber 20th, the swollen ones were pink' One of them was tirm and
apparently full of mycelium ; the other was attacked by bacteria and
became a putrid mass. Several of the grubs were the centers of
nodules of vegetable matter aud soil, but the fungus binding them
together proved to be a harmless Mwor. One grub was seen on
November 29th, which bore a white fungus on the surface. It was,
,v Google
438 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
together with the swollen one mentioned, rubbed on nine healthy
grubs and placed with them in a new pot.
On February 26th, however, no effect was seen and the experiment
was discontinued. The specimens in the check-cages, died at about
the Bame rate, bnt none of them became swollen or pink in color.
It is possible that the two grabs were attacked and killed by Isarut
but it does not seem to act with the same virulence that is reported
from Europe, possibly because of different climatic conditions and
possibly also because of the difference in the host.
Perraud records experiments with Botrytis tenella (Isaria densa)
in closed chambers. They were successful when small chambere
were used, but when larger chambers were used, the experiments
were less successful. He does not speak of its economic use.
Panl Soraner* says that the results of his experiments show that
the insects are rendered susceptible by being placed under unfavor-
able conditions, such as being provided with poor or insufficient
food, or placed in a soil which is too moist. The latter is also
favorable to the development of the fungus.
Or. Jean Dufonr in Lnsanne f finds it very easy to produce the
disease in specimens infected with the conidia, bnt finds it very
difficult to spread the disease. He thinks that it is impossible for
the grubs to spread it themselves to any useful degree. His experi-
ence is corroborated by Frank % who says, that the question is more
difficult than it wonld appear. The difficulty does not consist in
finding a parasite on the grab, but in spreading it.
M. E. Le Coeur|| infected also Anihonomus pomorum and Chei-
matobia brumata with Botrytis tenella. Most of the pupte re-
mained dead in the ground.
My experiments were rendered very unsatisfactory because of
what was apparently a bacterial disease, which broke ont in the
storage cages, as well as out of doors in places where grubs were
abundant The grubs showed small well-defined, irregularly-shaped
patches of black, shiny skin, usually on the thorax at the bases of
the legs, and often on the legs themselves. In such cases the legs
dropped off as the disease advanced. Often the black patches ap-
peared on the dorsal surface, just behind the head, and occasionally
* Zeit. fiir PfUnzenkrankheiten, Vol. IV, p. 267.
t Zeit, fur Pflunzeukrankheiteii, Vol. Ill, p. 143, 1893.
: Deutsche Landwirtscbaftlichi Presse, vom 19, Nor., 1892, p. 961.
| Ball, do la Soo. My col. de la Ft., Vol. VIII, p. 20, 1892.
D-aitoeooyGOOQle
Entomoghnous Fungi. 439
on any part of the body. These patches of blackened skin grew in
size until sometimes the greater part of the insect was covered ; bnt
usually the grab died before the patches covered more than a small
portion and subsequently it became a loose skin filled with a pntrid
mass. The grab became usually inactive soon after the first ap-
pearance of the patches. This disease apparently killed off the
grabs under observation and became a general nuisance. A dilation,
culture from the diseased grubs was made and several species of
bacteria obtained, but none in sufficient quantity to point to it as
the cause of the disease. The fact that the grubs, placed as checks
to the other experiments, were constantly dying rendered it im-
possible to determine by infection experiments, which was the
pathogenic species. It is remarkable that the next seanon, that of
1S94, was noticeable for the absence of June-bugs. Very few were
seen at Ithaca. It is to be hoped that larva showing the appear-
ance of a disease such as described, may be found at some future
time and the matter further investigated.
SPOROTRIOHUM GLOBULIFERUM Speg.
This species usually appears in nature as a loose, white, cottony
growth enveloping its insect host in fine filaments which bear at
irregular bnt short intervals minute heads composed of conidia
closely packed into a nearly spherical form. These heads are sessile
and creamy white in color.
This should probably be regarded as a form species, the real
species being in this stage, indistinguishable. In artifical cul-
tures from the Sporotrichum globuliferum taken from nature, some
of the forms progress to higher stages of development represent-
ing widely different speeies. These forms may some of them grow
differently in nature. Professor Forbes* describes and figures sev-
eral insects on which true Isaria-sporophores were produced by
infecting with a form fonnd on a dead insect larva.
In this sense the form species Sporotrichum globuliferum, is
analagous to the old Oidium erysiphoides, a form species represent-
ing the couidial stage of various genera of the Eryaipheae.
The typical form originally described as Sporotrickum globuli-
ferum was probably identical with the following which was found
on a carabid beetle in October, 1894, by Mr. Pieters. The growth
occurred in patches of conidia-covered mvcelinm from 1 to 11 mm.
.Google
140 Agkiooltdmai, Kxphhimbnt Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
in size. These patches are distributed irregularly over the head and
ventral side of the body. The spherical conidia are borne in spheri-
cal heads on the sides of the long slender mycelial threads. This
species seemw to be the original Sporotriehum gloluliferwm. f which
was first found on Carabidae, and which appeared as in this case in
patches on the surface and not in a dense felt as in the case of sev-
eral other Sporotrichums hitherto identified as gldbvUferwm.
A dilntion culture was made in the usual way, and the following
habit of growth observed : after one day the conidia beoome swollen
and one or more germ-tubes are developed. These germ-tubes are
strongly constricted at the base. The protoplasm is hyaline. In
two days the threads become somewhat branched, with the branches
also constricted at the base. Some vacuoles appear about this time.
In three days cylindrical conidia are thrown off in the agar from the
terminations of slender threads (Fig. 82). In about four days after
sowing, the threads appear above the agar, forming radiate colonies
which continue to enlarge until, at the end of a week, the colonies
are 2 mm. in diameter, and strongly elevated, some being almost
hemispherical. After this an even, loose growth usually spreads
over the entire surface, connecting the colonies. On about the
eighth day the threads become swollen and in many cases the pro-
toplasm becomes concentrated in certain parts, leaving the other
parts empty (Fig. 87 and 88). On about the thirteenth day the
parts containing protoplasm germinate. They put ont long slender
tubes which grow as ordinary germ-tnbes and produce cylindrical
spores in the agar, as in the case of ordinary threads from aerial
conidia. Sometimes a pair of spores will be produced and the parent
thread will lengthen and leave these behind, producing another
pair beyond. The protoplasm in these segments is nearly homo-
geneous, the walls being somewhat thickened. This shows how
segments of mycelium may function as conidia, and suggests how
the hypbal bodies of Gordyceps clavulata may be produced. After
about four days from the sowing, conidia are borne outside of the
agar. The sterigmata are terminal or sessile on the ends of short
branches. The sterigmata are tipped with small spherical conidia
(Figs. 84, 85, 86 and 90). The multiplication of these sterigmata
and conidia results in a more or less compact head, spherical in
form (Fig. 83).
* Bull. No. 38. Ag. Exp. Sis. Univ. of 111., p. 33. Mar. 1885.
t Speg. Fungi. Argent. Pag., II. p. 42.
Digitized byGOQgle
Emtohogbhoub Fungi. 441
A culture was made in an Ehrlmeyer-flask partially filled with
pieces of sterilized potato. The growth quickly spreads over the
entire surface. At the end of about four days, the potato was
tinged purple in the near vicinity of the colonies. This color is
soon obscured by the dense felt of mycelium which covers the sur-
face, and which becomes strongly wrinkled as growth advances. No
sporophores are produced but the surface is covered by a thick
coating of creamy white conidia.
Svobothichum globdliferum on tee Ch inch-Bug.
In the fall of 1893, Chancellor Suow, of Kansas, kindly sent me
a box of chinch-bugs covered with a growth of the so-called Sporo-
t/richvm globuliferum, which has been used to such an extent
against the ravages of these insects. A pure culture was obtained,
but unfortunately the cultures were neglected and died before a care-
ful stndy of its growth on potato and other media could be made
The growth on the bug is in the form of a dense felt, not exactly
such as occurs in the typical form on the carabid beetle, bat indis
tinguiBhable from it as far as microscopic appearance goes. Cul-
tures in large fiaskB may prove it to be the same. A number of
experiments were made attempting to produce the disease arti-
ficially on various insects. About one hundred live aphids, Aphis
hraaaicae, were placed in a cage on a kohlrabbi, and thoroughly
dusted with conidia. After about a month had passed, no effects
were noticeable and the experiment was discontinued. Many
specimens, of wireworm, Agriotes mancua, were rolled in a
Petrie-dish full of conidia and were then placed in moist soil
None of them developed the fungus. Out of four carefully con
ducted experiments with white grubs, Iarvas of Laohnvstema, only
one succeeded. Many grubs were dusted with conidia from potato
cultures, or rolled in Fetrie-dishes containing fruiting threads.
Some were even touched with the infected bugs themselves. All
of the grubs lived and showed no signs of the fungus. One, how
ever, of five grubs dusted with conidia obtained from a sterilized
grub, on which the fungus had been grown, succumbed, and Bhowed
the disease in its characteristic form. From this a pure culture was
obtained by means of a dilution culture. The experiments were 01:
the whole unsuccessful, but as they were carried on with insects net
the natural host of the fungus, they prove nothing as to its efficacy
against the chinch-bug.
442 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
ISARIA VEXANS N. SP.
A larva of Lachnoatema found April 7, 1894, by Mr. M. Y.
Slingerland in a breeding-cage at the insectary, was completely
covered with a felted white coat of Sporotrichum fflobutiferum,
bearing patches of creamy-white conidia. A microscopic examina-
tion showed the fructification to he exactly as in the case of the
typical Sp&rotrichum. globuliferwm. A dilution culture was made,
and germination became apparent at the end of one day. The
development is as follows : The nearly spherical conidia become
swollen and produce a germ-tube which grows in a sinuous line,
branching occasionally and producing many long, cylindrical conidia
in the agar. These are borne at the end of a filament, and each
spore is successively pushed aside by the one next produced, result-
ing usually in a cluster of spores placed side by Bide (Fig. 18).
Branching soon commences and eepta are often present just beyond
the base of the branches. Small vacuoles appear, usually irregularly
placed. At the end of about three days the growth appears above
the agar in loose, cottony filaments, each colony becoming circular
in form and finely radiated. After one wore day the conidia appear
(Fig. 16). Short sterigmata bear one or two conidia on short pedi-
cels. These conidia increase in number and the sterigmata lengthen
and multiply until at the end of a week large heads are formed
(Fig. 20), The threads anastomose freely (Fig. 15). In places
where the colonies have been crowded they assume a smaller stellate
form instead of the ordinary circular form.
On potato the growth spreads over the entire surface in a felted
layer, afterwards becoming densely covered with a farinaceous,
ereamy-wbite layer composed of colorless conidia. Isaria-eporo-
pbores are often produced. In 1 tube are 10, ranging from 2 to 4
mm. in height. They are usually clavate in form, being sometimes
3 mm. in diameter at the apex, tapering to 1 mm. at the base. On
one Bide a long, pointed sporophore springs from a point near the
glass, but free from it. It is slender and measures 8 mm. in length
by about 1$ mm. in diameter at the base. At another point 2
about 1 mm. broad spring from the same base, where the potato
touches the glass, and grow to a length of 1 cm. They are flattened
and cling to the glass of the tube for their entire length. Wherever
the mycelium touches the glass it is seen to have a bright buff color.
Digitized byGOQgle
Entgmogenocs Fungi. 443
A culture was started in a half-liter Ehrlmeyer flask, having
about 4 cm. in depth of potato in small pieces at the bottom. In
about two weeks a growth spread over the entire surface. The
potato was colored a distinct purple, considerably less intense than
in the case of Iaaria densa. After about 30 days the entire surface
became marked with a creamy-white covering composed of conidia.
In many places there appeared crowded radiating growths of
threads, spherical in form, having a creamy-white color and a vel-
vety appearance. The buff color is usually more pronounced at the
base and center of snch spherical growths ; the growth is also more
dense at these places. In five or six days more the velvety pile col-
lapses gradually, and from 3 to 15 cylindrical processes are produced
in its place. These present a color more intensely creamy than
the velvet Italia from which tbey spring. The cylindrical spiro-
phores seem to protrude through the sphere at the same time that
the pile collapses. They develop into long, Blender, erect and usually
clavate sporophores, generally simple though sometimes branched.
They occasionally reach the length of 2$ cm. The color of the
mycelium, where it touches the glass, is orange. These characters
show this form to be an Isaria, and the name Isaria vexans is here
proposed for it.
This method of growing fungi in flasks, allows the fungus to
reach a maturity that is impossible in the smaller tubes, because of
the insufficient supply of moisture and nutriment.
Infection experiments Were made with four species of insectB.
Twenty-four larvae of our common cabbage-butterfly, Pieris rapw,
were dusted with conidia obtained from a potato culture. After
five days, fonr of the larvae were dead, and colored a deep vina-
ceous purple. In places were patches of a white felty growth of
the mycelium. After fire days more, the remainder of the larva*
had pupated, excepting one which soon died. After seven days
more, three out of the original twenty-four emerged, all the rest
having succumbed. In the case of pupa*, the disease invariably
starts from the wing-pads. Its presence is indicated by a deep
purple color which spreads from the wing-pads over the entire
body. This purple color is also noted by Professor Forbes * who
finds cabbage- worms are turned purple when attacked by the
fungus used against the chinch-bug. The death of the insect may
'Ball. No. 38, Ag. Exp. Sta. or the Univ. of III., 1895, p. 33 sad 48-44,
v Google
444 Agsioultueal Exfhbimmnt Station, Ithaca, N. T.
not occur until the disease has become well advanced. The ptipse
sometimes move spasmodically when irritated, even after the color
has spread all over the pads and to some adjacent parts of the
thorax. After the death of the insect, the mycelium appears as a
close felt spreading over the entire surface of the body. All the
specimens in the check cages remained unaffected and well through-
oat, all of them emerging as adults. A dilution culture proved the
fungus to be the same aa that originally used for infection.
On August 18, 1894, about forty Harlequin Milkweed cater-
pillars, Gyenia egk, were dusted with conidia of the fungus. After
five weeks no effects were visible. The caterpillars grew and
eventually pupated. The pupre did not exhibit any traces of the
fungus.
Two large cages of onr common Fall Webb-worm flyphantria
ounea, were dusted with conidia obtained from a potato culture.
After five weeks no results were visible. Eventually they nearly
all pupated, presenting no traces of the fungus.
On August 22, 18:4, thirty caterpillars of the Ked-humped Apple-
worm, Oedemasia concinna, were dusted with conidia obtained
from a potato culture. After about a month, eight caterpillars and
two pupee were found to be dead and completely covered with a
characteristic felt which exhibited the ordinary mode of growth
and fruiting.
A cage containing caterpillars of Melitea phaeton stood near the
cage of infected cabbage-worms, and three of these became acci
dentally infested and died, producing the characteristic growth.
The cages used in the experiments described, were ordinary glass
cylinders closed at the upper end with muslin. The air in them
was slightly, if at all, more humid than that outside.
A culture tube, in which Mr. Pieters was growing a pyrenomy
cetous fungns, was left open for a short time and a number of our
small red ants, troublesome in the laboratory, entered, probably
bringing the conidia of this fungus with them on their bodies.
The cotton plug of tho culture-tube was reinserted and the ants left
to their fate. They died in about a week and in due time, became
covered with a white growth of tho fungus, the conditions being
favorable to its development. The growth was in this case loose
and fluffy. A dilution culture and pure cultures, in flasks of potato,
proved it to be the species in question.
,v Google
Entohogenous Fungi. 445
Spobotbiohdh qlobdlifketjm oh Vetpaep. (Probably
Isaria sp.)
On October 29, 1894, Mr. Pieters found ft specimen of Vespa sp.
almost covered with a thick felted growth of a white fungus. A
microscopic examination failed to reveal any characters which
would differentiate it from Sporotrickum globvMferwn. The
beads of small spherical conidia were borne on threads exactly as in
the case of the typical specimens. A dilution culture was made
and the following habit of growth noted : germination becomeB
apparent after about twenty-four hours. One or two germ-tubes
are put forth which grow in a sinuous line and soon begin to
branch, throwing off a great number of cylindrical spores in the
agar. The protoplasm is hyaline. There are very few vacuoles
at first, but they soon appear, becoming plentiful at the end of
three days. In four days many of the cylindrical spores germ-
inate, putting out slender tubes and growing as in the case of
ordinary conidia. These cylindrical spores may be broadly oval
or long and slender. They are present in greatest numbers iu the
places of crowded growth. The threads emerge from the agar on
about the fifth day. A loose, puffy, strongly elevated growth
appears, which Boon becomes crowded with conidia. The threads
bear many short sterigmata at irregular intervals and irregularly
placed, often whorled. These sterigmata bear from one to six oval,
nearly spherical conidia about 1$ to 2| microns in size. The mul-
tiplication of theBe sterigmata and conidia Boon forms in irregular
or spherical head. The threads anastomose freely. After ten days
the colonies attain the size of 2 cm. in diameter, where they are not
crowded, the central two-thirds being colored white by conidia, the
outer margin being finely radiate in the agar.
On potato, the growth spreads evenly and loosely over the sur-
face. A dense, firm weft is formed over the surface of the liquid.
At the end of six days the mycelium iB creamy yellow where it
touches the glass. Later it turns buffs and sometimes almost red,
at the surface of the liquid. The white aerial mycelium sometimes
bears Isaria-aporophores, formed by the interlacing of threads, 2 cm.
or more in length. Cultures in Ehrlmeyer-flasks grow the same as
in tubes, except that the potato is colored slightly purple in the
near vicinity of the colonies, after about the seventh day. This
color usually fades out Boon. Many strong sporophores are pro>
DqltSMByCOOgle
446 Aghicultueal Experiment Station, Ithaca, N, Y.
duced all over the surface of the potato, some of them measuring
2 to 3 cm. in length and 1 cm. in breadth. They are usually
flattened.
SPOKOTRICHUM MINIMUM Speg.
On December 18, 1894, Mr. Martin, a student in the University,
found a large black ant, Camponotua, under the bark of a decaying
log. The insect was covered with a growth of white mycelium,
hut no conidia were visible. It wsb placed in a moist-chamber for
a few days, when great numbers of small spherical conidia made
their appearance, borne in loose branching heads identical with
those produced in artificial cultures. Nearly the entire insect was
covered with a dense, white, felted growth of mycelium.
On December 26th, a dilution culture was made. After two
days, the conidia become swollen and one or two germ-tubes are put
out which branch freely (Fig. 34). The threads are continuous and
the protoplasm is hyaline. Cylindrical spores, either short and
broad, or elongated, are thrown off in the agar (Figs. 35 and 36).
By the end of three days, the threads begin to emerge from the sur-
face of the agar. Many septa appear now irregularly placed. The
conidia appear on about the eighth day. The threads spread loosely
over the surface of the agar, and the short, lateral or terminal
branches bear flask-sbaped Bterigmata, either singly or in group*.
The microscopic growth on the plate is at first coarsely stellate,
afterward becoming finely radiate and more dense. A small, dense,
conidia-bearing mass of mycelium is usually formed at the center
of the colony, and a looser tangle of threads bearing conidia usually
covers the colony, sometimes spreading over the entire plate. A
good deal of variation is noticeable. The periphery of the colony
is usually fringed with a fine feathery growth in the agar composed
of either curved or straight strands, made up of several filaments.
The sterigmata are flask-Bhaped and bear at the apex a single eonid-
ium or more often three to six conidia collected into a compact ball,
probably held together by some viscid substance which prevents
their forming chains and draws back the ones first produced causing
them to adhere at the sides of the later conidia.
On potato the growth spreads very slowly over the surface funn-
ing a close felt, white, and not strongly raised from the surface of
the potato. The mycelium is yellow where it touches the glass.
No Isaria-sporophores are produced.
i;qlt.-cc::vG00glC
Entomoghnods Fungi. 447
Mr. Walsh* early suggested the use of entomogenous fungi as
insectides. Since that time there have been many experiments,
some of which seem to bIiow the subject to be of considerable
economic importance. Among those who hare done the most
toward testing the value of fungi as insectides, are Professor Giard,
in France, who has carried on many experiments with laaria densa,
and several other species. From the reports of Chancellor Snow,
it wonld seem that Sporotrichum globuliferum might be need
effectively against the chinch-bug. Professor S. A. Forbes has
worked on many forms in Illinois, but has paid especial attention to
Sporotrichum globuliferum and the chinch bug. Professor Roland
Thaxter has carried on careful experiments with the Entomoph-
thoreae although usually obtaining negative results. M. J. Perraud
and M. Paul Soraur as well as Dr. Dufour and M. Le Ooeur have
experimented with Isaria densa but they have usually obtained
negative results.
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EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
Cordyceps dwndata. Plates I and II.
1. Hyphal bodies from Zecanium on Maple.
2. Hyphal bodies in agar after three days.
3. Hjphal bodies germinating in the body of a coccid.
4. Hyphal bodies from Zecanium Jletcheri.
5. Hjphal bodies from Z. Jletcheri in agar after one day.
6. Mycelium from Fig. 5, after five days.
7. Mycelinm from Fig. 5, after two days.
8. Hyphal bodies from Zecanium on Maple after two days.
9. Threads and sterigmata bearing conidia from cultures.
10. Threads and sterigmata bearing conidia from coccid.
11. Asci of perfect form.
12. Spores of perfect form.
13. Germination of ascosporea in agar after two days.
14. Longisection of head of perfect stage.
Zsaria vexans n. sp. Plate III.
15. Threads anastomosing after one week.
16. The first conidia, fonr days.
17. Germination of conidia in agar, one day.
18. Cylindrical spores in the agar, two days.
19. The same as Fig. 16.
20. Heads of conidia after one week.
Cordyceps ■m.Uitaris var. Plate III.
21. Ascos.
22. Single spore and segimente. Plate III.
Zsaria densa.
23. Germination of conidia in agar, two days.
24. Germination of conidia in agar, three days.
25. Threads after fonr days.
26. 27 and 28. Sterigmata and conidia after two weeks.
29. Swollen threads after six days.
30. The same as Fig. 27.
Digitized byGOQgle
Entomogenous Fungi. 463
Isaria farinosa. Plate IT.
81. Germination of coniiiia after one day.
32. Colony after two days.
33. Threads bearing conidia, after six days.
Sporotriehum mminvum. Plate IT.
34. Germination of conidia, after two days.
85. Cylindrical spores borne in the agar, after two days.
36. The some after three days.
37 and 38. Threads bearing conidia after eight days.
Cordyceps militaria. Plate T.
39. Aeci.
40. Segment of spore.
41. Connected segments of spores in agar, twenty hours.
42. 43, and 44. Spore-segments germinating after forty hours.
45 and 43. Colonies after three days.
47-51. Threads bearing conidia, six days after sowing.
52 and 53. Immature perithecia in potato cultures.
Cordyceps mdolonthtB (/) Plate TI.
54. Conidia.
55. Conidia, germinating after three days.
56. 57, 58, 59. Portions of colonies showing oval bodies in the
agar.
60. Oval body detached,
61. Colony after fonr days.
Isoriat anisopUce. Plate TI.
62. Conidia, germanating in agar after one day.
63. Conidia germinating in agar, after two days.
64. Colonies after three days.
65 and 66. Threads after six days.
67 and 68. Conidia-bearing heads and conidia.
Itarta anuoplim americana. Plate VII.
69. Conidia in agar.
70. Conidia germinating in agar, after forty-eight hours.
71. Colony after three days.
72. Colony after seven days.
73. 74, and 75. Heads bearing conidia.
Digitized byGOQgle
454 Aqbiooltubal Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. T.
Isaria tenuipes. Plate VII.
76. Conidia germinating after twenty-four hours.
77. Colony after two days.
78. and 79. Threads bearing conidia after four days.
Sporotrichum globuliferum, from Carabid beetle. Plate VIII.
80. Conidia germinating after one day.
81. Colony after two days.
82. Cylindrical spores in the agar, three days.
83. 84, 85, and 86. Threads bearing conidia.
87, 88, and 89. Segments of threads in agar germinating after
thirteen days.
90. The same as Fig. 84.
Isaria farvnosa. Plate IX.
91. On Arctiid larva, x 2.
Cordyceps militaris. Plate IX.
92. On unknown insect, x 1-J-.
Isaria farinosa. Plate IX.
93. Depauperate form on insect eggs.
Sporotrichum fflobuUferum {Isaria sp. f) Plate IX.
94. On Vespa. x 2.
Cordyceps melononthce, conidia] stage. Plate X.
95. On White grab.
Isaria arch/nophUa. Plato X.
96. On unknown spider.
Cordyceps clavvlata. Plate X.
97. Perfect Btage. x 2.
98. Isaria stage, x 2.
Isaria tenuipes. Plate XI.
99 and 100. Two views of the same culture on potatoes.
Isaria vexans. Plate XI.
101. Culture in flask on potato.
The drawings of the development of the forma figured were
made with a camera-lucida and are, with the exception of Figs. 14,
52,[and 53, magnified thirty-three times more than the scale which is
ruled to one-tenth of a millimeter. Figs. 52 and 53 are magnified
five times more than the scale.
RUFUS HIRAM HATCH.
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BULLETIN 98— July, 1895.
Cornell University— Agricultural Experiment Station.
HORTICULTURAL DIVISION.
CHERRIES.
Louis Phllllppe. Page 477.
By L. H. Bailey and G. H. Powell.
Malta* byGoOgle
ORGANIZATION.
Board of Control— The Trustees of the University.
STATION COUNCIL
President, JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN.
Hox.A. D.WHITE Trwttet of til* Wvtnitg.
PROFESSOR I. P. KOBEBT8 President State Agricultural Sonet).
Professor I. P. ROBERTS Agriculture.
Professor G. C. CALDWELL '. Clumietry.
PROFESSOR JAMES LAW Veterinary Science.
PBOFESSOR A. N. PRENTISS Botany.
Professor J. H. COMSTOCK Entomology.
Professor L. H. BAILEY Hartiouitur*.
ProfkSSORH. H. WING Dairy Buebandry.
Professor G. F. ATKINSON Cryplogamio Botany.
omoxM aw the station.
I. P. ROBERTS Director.
E. L. WILLIAMS Treaemrer.
H. W. SMITH Clerk.
ASSISTANTS.
M.V. SLINGEKLAND Entomology.
GEO. C. WATSON Agriculture.
Q. W. CAVANAUOH Chemuelry
E. G. LODEMAN Horticulture.
MICHAEL BARKER Horticulture.
Office of the Director, 20 Morrill Hall.
Those desiring this Bulletiu sent to friends will please send o
the parties.
Bulletins of 1895.
84. The Recent Apple Failures in Western Sew York.
85. Whpy Butter.
86. Spraying of Orchards.
87. The Dwarf Lima Beans.
88. Early Lamb Raising.
89. Feeding Pigs.
90. The China Asters.
91. Recent Chrysanthemums.
92. On the Effect of Feeding Fat to Cows.
93. The Cigar-CaM- Bearer.
94. DampiDK'Off.
95. Winter Maskmelona.
96. Forcing House Miscellanies.
97. Entomogenons Fungi.
On account of the technical nature of Bulletin 97, only a limited edition 11
printed for the uee of Experiment Station* and Exchangee.
98. Cherries.
:y Google
Cobnell University, >
Ithaca, N. T., July 10, 18%. (
Tke Honorable Commiiiioner of Agriculture, Albany ;
Sir. — The following account of cherry growing, written with particular
reference to western New York conditions, Is submitted for publication under
Chapter 230 of the Laws of 1895. The older cherry plantations of the State
were seldom anything more than scattered settings along lanes and roadsides,
and abont farm buildings. Host of these old trees h are now passed their prime.
In very recent years a new interest in cherry growing has been awakened by the
demand from canning f ae tori ea, and it has no doubt been stimulated, also, by
the abundant sale of California cherries throughout the east. Sweet cherries
sre yet scarcely planted in western New York in orchard blocks, although there
is every reason to believe that there la profit in ihe fruit if planters are oarefnl
to inform themselves concerning it. Sour cherries, however, are now planted to
an important extent, particularly abont Geneva, and the acreage is bound to in-
crease. The pack of canned sweet cherries is still larger tbsn that of soar
cherries in western New York, iu average years. The scattered plantings make
uncertain crops, and canners can not boy as confidently as they could if there
were more continuous plantations. Consequently the pack varies mnch from
year to year. A normal pock for the fifth Judicial Department may be con-
sidered to be nearly 100 tons of sonr cherries and 150 tons of sweet cherries.
Trie literature of the whole subject of cherry growing is so meagre and so un-
satisfactory, that I have taken much pains to ascertain the best methods and
varieties for western New York. The chapter npon sweet cherries is contributed
chiefly by G. H. Powell, Fellow-elect iu Horticulture in Cornell University, who,
with his lather, George T. Powell, has had much experience with sweet cherries,
and who, during last summer and this, has been employed as a special agent
under the Laws designed to extend horticultural knowledge in the Fifth Judicial
Department of the State. The other chapters are contributed by myself.
A full account of tbe native dwarf cherries will be found in our Bulletin 70.
L. H. BAILEY.
All the pictures of cherries in this Bulletin are made from life (except fig.
79) and they show the fruits exactly natural size. To the untrained eye, how-
ever, pictures look smaller than the objects from which they ore made.
,v Google
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Cherries.
L CLASSIFICATION OF THE CHERRIES.
1. The HortiouUwral Groups.
Before proceeding to a discussion of the general subject in hand,
it will be necessary to define the terms and classification which are
used throughout, this paper. The cherry is a perplexingly variable
subject, and classification of the different types is much eonfnsed.
In this account, I have conceived the cultivated tree cherries to be
derived from two ancestrial specieB, the Sonr Cherries (Primus
C'erasus), which are characterized by a diffuse and mostly low
round-headed growth and a habit of suckering from the root, flowers
in small clusters from lateral buds and generally preceding the
leaves, the latter hard and stiff, light or grayish green and rather
abruptly narrowed at the top into a point, the frnit roundish and
always red, the flesh soft and sour ; the Sweet Cherries (Prunes
Avium), with tall-growing, erect habit and bark tending to peel off
in birch-like rings, flowers flimsy, in dense clusters on lateral spurs
and appearing with the leaves, the latter large and more or less limp
and gradually taper-pointed, the fruit variously colored, spherical
or heart-shape, the flesh either soft or hard and generally sweet.
The Sour Cherry class includes two general types :
1. AmareUes, with pale red fruits, which are generally flattened
on the ends, and an nncolored jaice. Here belong the Mont-
morency, Early Richmond and their kin. (The term Amarelle,
from the Latin for hitter, is used by the Germans for these light-
colored and white-juiced cherries, and it is the best term which I
know for adoption in America. In France, however, it appears to
have a less definite application. — See Leroy, J)ietionnabre de Pomo-
hgie, v. 163. If this term is not acceptable, then 1 should choose
Kentish, to designate this group of cherries.)
2. MoreUos or GrioUes, with very dark red fruits, which gen-
erally vary from spherical to heart-shape, and a dark colored juice
includes the various Morellos, Ostheim, LouiB Phillippe, and the
like. (The word Morello is from the Italian, meaning blackish.
472 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. T.
Griotte is a French word, and was originally applied to these fruits
because of their dark red brown color.)
The Sweet Cherry group is represented in thiB country by four
types :
1. Mazzards {Merisier of the French), small fruits of various
shapes and colors, represented by miscellaneous and inferior seed-
lings of the Sweet Cherry species. Mazzard trees are common
along roadsides and in the borders of woods, where the seeds are
scattered by birds. Mazzard seedlings, imported from Europe, are
much used as stocks by nurserymen.
2. Hearts or Geans% with a soft-fleshed heart-shape fruit, repre-
sented by the Governor Wood, Black Eagle, Black Tartarian and
the like. (The word Gean — French guigne — is an old name for
the cherry, ultimately probably of Greek origin.)
3. Bigarreaus, hard-fleshed, or crackling cherries, mostly of light
color and heart-shape, comprising Windsor, Napoleon, Yellow
Spanish, and others. (The word Bigarreau is French, sometimes
anglicized as bigaroon, and it is applied to these fruits probably
because of their mottled or streaked appearance. The typical bigar-
reans are light red upon the sunny side, and whitish or lemon-yellow
on the reverse.)
4. Dukes differ from the heart cherries chiefly in having an acid
or subacid fruit. Here belong the May Duke, Beine Hortense,
Belle de Choisy and a few other sorts. Horticulturists, and even
botanists, persist in classing the Dukes with the trne sonr cherries,
but there is nothing to warrant such association beyond the mere
incidental sourness of the fruit. The habit of tree, characters of
flowers, leaves, and even of the fruits, are clearly those of the sweet
cherry type. Even the sourest of them are sweet as compared with
the true sonr cherries, and there is every gradation from the type
of May Duke to the typical Hearts. (May Duke is a corruption of
Medoc, a district in southern France, whence the variety is said to
have come. In France, the leading Dukes are known under the
name of Hoydles, Jeffrey's Duke being called Royals, and May
Dnke Royale hdtive.)
2. The Botanical Classijication.
There are few plants of which the botanical nomenclature is
more perplexingly and delightfully mixed than the cultivated
cherrieB. They were already widely grown and immensely varia-
Classification of the Cherries. 473
ble when [the science of descriptive botany was bora. Nearly
every botanist who has taken up the study of them has arrived at a
new conclusion respecting the number of the original species from
which they have come. The extreme opinions are represented on
the one hand by Bentham (British Flora), who accepts bnt a single
species, and on the other by II. J. Roomer (Synopsis Monograph-
icee), who makes thirteen species. It is consoling to know that
Bentham's estimate can not be reduced, and it is certain that
Eoeraer's species can not be distinguished. The oldest De Candolle
{Prodromus) refers the cherrieB to four species, bnt he made the
nsaal mistake of classing the Dukes and Morellos together; and it
is also true that some of his species are indistinguishable in the
absence of fruit. If one desires to recognize the most permanent
horticultural differences and if he wishes at the same time to be able
to distinguish the species which he makes, he will accept the divi-
sion into two species, as proposed by Linnaeus. These are P. Cerasus,
the sour cherry type, and Primus Avium, the sweet cherry type.
I believe that these represent true original sources of the garden
cherries.
It woold be unwise to attempt a complete synonymy of the cher-
ries in this place, bat the following arrangement will explain most
of the perplexities with which the student will meet :
I. Prdnhs Cerabos, Linnaeus, Sp. Fl. 474 (1753). Sous Cherrt.
P. aclda Ehrhart, Beitr. v. 162.
Cerasus vulgaris. Miller, Gard. Diet. 8th ed. No. 1.
O. Capromana, DC. Fl. Fr. iv. 482 (Excl. Dukes).
O. acida, Beehst Forstb. 161.
C auatera, Roemer, Syn. Monogr. iii. 75, in part.
O. iridentinay Roemer Syn. Monogr. iii. 76.
C. Ekexii, Van Hontte, Fl. Serr. 2d ser. vii. 159.
Of the nine forms which De Candolle dignifies with Latin varie-
tal names two are important in the present discussion, viz.: Yar.
Montmorencyamty including the Amarelle types (and also, wrongly,
the May Duke), and Var. Oriotta, including the Morellos and
Ostheim. Roemer refers the Amarellea or white-juiced cherries to
Cerasus acida, and the Morellos to 0. Caproniana. His C. austera
compares various sour varieties and the Dukes.
,v Google
471 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaoa, N. Y.
II. Prukus Avium, Linnaeus, Fl. Snec. 2d ed. 474. (1755 Swekt
Cherry.)
Pnmu« Avium itself is held to represent the mazxard type.
Cerasus Avium, Moench Meth. 672.
C. rubicwnda, BechBt. Forstb. 160, 365.
G. pallida, Roemer, Sjn. Monogr. iii. 69.
Var. Juliana. Heart or Gran Cherries.
(brows Juliana, DC. FL Fr. it. 488.
C. Reaiimiana, Boemer, Syn. Monogr. iii. 69.
Yiir. Dukaoina. Bigakheau Cherries.
Cerasus Duracvna, DC. Fl. Fr. iv. 483.
0. Bigardla, Roeraer, Syn. Monogr. iii. 69.
Var. beoalis. Duxes.
Cerasus regalis (jyrcecox and Communis), Poiteau and Tnrpin,
Traite des Arbres F raiders, 123.
II. SOUR CHERRIES IN WESTERN NEW" YORK.
The growing of soar cherries in western New York is largely
confined to two varieties, the Montmorency and English Morello,
and it is not yet folly determined which of the two is the more
profitable in the long ran. The preference has generally been gives
to the English Morello, as it bears yonnger than the other, and its
dark colored and very add flesh have made it popular with the can-
ning factories. Jost now, however, the canners are calling for the
Montmorency in preference, for, whilst not so sonr as the other in
the natural state, it "cooks sour," and the Morello is apt to develop a
bitterish or acid taste in the cans. The Morello is also much subject to
leaf-blight, whilst the Montmorency is almost free from it ; and the
Montmorency is a stronger and more upright grower. The present
drift is decidedly towards the Montmorency. The two varieties
complement each other, however, for the Montmorency is about
gone by the time the other is fit to pick.
This Montmorency of western New York is seen natural size
in Fig. 78, and an orchard of it, seven years from the planting, is
shown in Fig. 77, at the beginning of this bulletin. It is a very
light red, long-stemmed cherry, broad, and flattened on the ends,
,v Google
Sous Chekkies. 475
the flesh nearly colorless and only moderately sour. The tree is an
upright vase-like grower.
This variety is supposed to be the Montmorency ordinaire of the
French, but Leroy, the leading contemporaneous French authority
(Diciionnaure de J'omologie), knows only one variety under this
name, which is sold by " some nurserymen, " and it is the same as
the variety Hative(\. e., Early), which ib very like the cherry known
in this country as the Early Richmond. The real Montmorency
Leroy considers to be indentical with the Early Richmond of
English and American writers, although his description and figure
of it make such association impossible. As nearly as I can deter-
mine, the Montmorency of western New York is the one which
Leroy figures as Montmorency, and not the Montmorency ordinaire.
There is still a third French Montmorency, the Montmorency d gros
fruit (i. e,, the Large-fruited Montmorency), better known as Short-
DigltbadbyCoOgle
476 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
stemmed Montmorency {Montmorency a courte queue), and Groe-
Gobet ; in England and America it is often called Flemish Cherry
or Flemish Montmorency. (See Downing, 480; Leroy, v. 365 ;
Lanche, Deutsche Pomologie, Kirschen, 19.) This variety is
characterized by a very short stem, which at once distinguishes it
from other cherries. Leroy's diagram of the frnit of this Large-
fruited Montmorency is here reproduced (Fig. 79). £ do not know that
this variety now exists in this country. It was early imported, with
80.— Early Richmond.
other sorts, by Ellwanger & Barry. They grew it as Montmorency
d, courte queue, and applied the name Montmorency Large-fruited
to another cherry, which W. C. Barry tells me was superior to the
common Montmorency in quality, but which proved to be unpro-
ductive. So it happens that the Montmorency Large-fruited of
western New York is not the French variety of that name. It
should be remarked, in passing, that the standard and monumental
work of Foiteau (Pomologie Franeaise) contains no such varieties or
synonyms as Montmorency Drdmaire and Montmorency d gros fruit
(large-fruited), but Leroy, whom I have quoted, has recently (1877)
made an elaborate attempt to untangle the synonymy.
Early Richmond (Fig. 80) is the only other Amarelle, or white-
juiced cherry, which is grown to any extent in western New York,
and this is not very valuable. Its flavor and quality are poor, the
fruit is soft and small, and it is so early that it competes with the
DqltSMByCOOgle
Soub Cueeries. 47T
late strawberries. It is considerably need by canners, but the better
cherries are bound to drive it out.
Amongst the Griottea, or red-juiced cherries, three have gained
some notoriety in western New York, — the Oatheim, Lonis
Phillippe, and Morello.
The Ostheim is a very productive variety, ripening about a week
after Early Richmond, but it is too email and too early to be valua-
ble for general cultivation here. Aa compared with Early Rich-
mond, it is darker red, rounder and somewhat smaller, the stem
longer, stouter and etraighter, flesh and juice dark red and less acid.
(Compare Figs. 80 and 81.) Hangs long on the tree.
Louis Phillippe (see page 467) is one of the beat of all the sour
cherries, and it would no doubt be generally grown were it not for
the prevalent opinion that it ie unproductive. C. W. Stuart, of
Newark, who has had a long experience with thie cherry, tells me
that it is a profuse bearer when the tree has attained aome age, and
he thinks that it might be more freely planted with profit. It
seems to be particularly attractive to the curcnlio, and aome growers
regard this as the cause of Hs unproductiveness. The fruit is nearly
spherical, about the size of Montmorency and rather aourer, very
dark red in akin and flesh, of very best quality. Ripens with Mont-
morency. I do not know if the Louis Phillippe of western New
Google
478 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
York is properly named or if there are two varieties of the same
name. Leroy makes the name a synonym of Beine Hortense, a very
different fruit.
The Morrello (Fig. 82), varionsly known as English, Large, Dutch
and Ronald's Morello, is nearly two weekB later than Montmorency,
a bushy and finally a drooping grower, with medium -sized, roundish
or round-cordate fruits which become red-black when fully ripe.
Flesh very dark, much sourer than the Montmorency. In western
New York the Morello harvest begins from the 8th to the middle
of July.
The cherry orchard. — A strong, loamy soil, and one which is
retentive of moisture, is the most suitable for sour cherries. The
f rait contains such a large amount of water that it is necessary to
save the moisture of the soil to the greatest possible extent. Dry
clay knolls produce cherrieB of less size and of inferior quality
than the moister depressions between them. Very early and
thorough cultivation is essential to this conservation of moisture,
and the tillage should be continued at frequent intervale until the
fruit is about ripe. In order to be able to cultivate the soil at the
earliest moment in the spring, the land should be either naturally
or artificially well drained. The crop of even the Morellos is
off the trees in July, so that there is abundant opportunity to
bow a catch crop on the orchard for a winter cover, if the manager
Sous Cherries. 479
bo desires. A variety of plants may be UBed for this cover.
The best is probably crimson clover, particularly if the orchard
needs more nitrogen or growth ; and if American grown seed ie
sown by the middle of August in a well prepared soil, the cover
will probably pass the winter safely. Other plants which may
be used for cover are rye, winter wheat, vetch, field pea, sowed
corn, millet and buckwheat. Of these, only the two first will
live through the winter and grow in the spring. In using cover
crops which survive the winter, it is very important that they be
turned under just as soon as the ground is dry enough m spring.
As soon as the plant begins to grow it evaporates moisture and dries
out the soil ; and it is more important, as a rule, to save this moisture
than it is to secure the extra herbage which would result from delay.
This is especially true with the sour cherry, which matures its
product so early in the season, and which profits bo much by a liberal
and constant supply of soil moisture. Plowing can also be begun
earlier on land which has a sowed crop upon it, because of the
drying action of the crop. The fertilizers which give best results
with other orchard fruits, may be expected to yield equally good
returns with the cherry. (See Bulletin 72.)
It is an almost universal fault to plant cherry trees too close
together. The Montmorency should not be planted closer than 18
feet each way, in orchard blocks, although it is often set as close as
12 feet. The English Morello is a more bushy grower and may,
perhaps, be set as close as 16 feet with success ; but I believe that
«ven this variety should stand 18 feet apart. The sour cherry
orchards in western New York are yet bo young that the evil effects
of close planting have not yet been made apparent. I find, however,
that nearly every shrewd orchardist who has had experience with
these fruits is convinced that the general planting is too close.
Cherries are usually set when two years old from the bud. The
sour varieties are propagated both upon Mazzard and Mahaleb
stocks, chiefly the latter, but the comparative merits of the two are
not determined. The tops are started about three or four feet high,
and the subsequent pruning is very like that given the plum . If
the young trees make a very strong growth and tend to become top-
heavy, heading-in may be practiced ; but this operation is not con-
sidered to be necessary after the trees begin to bear. Cherry trees
require less attention to pruning than apple trees and peach trees do.
Malta* byGoOgle
480 Aqeioultdbal Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
The orchard shown in Fig. 77 ma; be taken as a model, except that
the trees are too close together.
The English Morello will bear a fair crop the third year after
setting, if two-year trees are planted. The Montmorency is a year
or two later in corning into bearing. The Montmorency, partly
because of its larger growth, produces much more fruit than the
other, when it arrives at full bearing. Individual trees of Mont-
morency at six years and upwards may bear from 30 to 75 pounds
of fruit ; but Mr. Scoon considers 8 to 10 tons of marketable fruit
to be an excellent crop on an orchard of 800 Montmorencya eight
years planted—that is, an average of 20 to 25 pounds to the tree.
The Morellos, because of their dark color, usually Bell better than
the Montmorency in the open market, but the reverse is now
generally true if the crop is sold to canning factories. This year the
factories have paid five and six cents a pound for Montmorencya.
It is easy to figure the proceeds of an acre. At 18 x 18 ft an acre
will comprise about 130 trees. If, at eight years, they yield 30
pounds each, the crop would amount to 2,600 pounds, which, at 5
cents, means {130. This is a conservative estimate. Benjamin
Kean, Seneca, has 200 Montmorency trees six years set. He has
had three crops, one of 1,400 pounds, one of 3,000 pounds, and one
3,100 pounds. He sold his entire crop this year for 5 cents,
making a gross income of 9155. His treeB are Bet 10 x 12 ft, which
allows about 360 to the acre. In other words, a crop which sold for
over one hundred and fifty dollars was taken from less than two-
thirds of an acre. The soil, in this case, seems to be unusually well
adapted to this cherry and the crops have, therefore, been excellent;
but on the other hand, part of the crop was destroyed this year by
cnrcnlio. C. H. Perkins, Newark, has 35 trees, 8 and 12 years old,
all Montmorency. " They bear," he writes, " from 2,000 to 3,500
pounds of cherries per year, and the average price we get for them
is 6 cents. They net us from $100 to $175 a year. They are the
most regular and sure cropper of any fruit we have ever tried to
grow, and the fruit always finds a ready market at a good price."'
The Maxwell orchard at Geneva yielded over 11 tons, Montmo-
rency, this year, from 800 trees.
My reader will now want to order enough cherry treeB to plant
his farm. But he should go slow. It may be laid down as a
principle that no crop will bring uniformly great rewards over a
series of years. These results with sour cherries are obtained
SODB
only when all the conditions are present, such as the proper soil,
excellent care and fertilizing, ability to secure pickers, and access
to good markets. One could probably not rely upon the open mar-
ket for the disposal of a very large planting of soar cherries. He
should hare access to one or more canning factories. It U a fact
that more' than half of all the orchards, of whatever kind, which
are conceived in expectation and planted with enthusiasm, turn ont
to be profitless. The fault lies somewhere under the owner's hat.
Persona who fail to grow other fruits with profit, may also expect
to fail with cherries. Yet I know of no fruit which, upon the
testimony of both producers and consumers, offers a greater reward
than sonr cherries. The public seems to hare acquired a taste for
the canned prodact, and there is every indication that this demand
will increase.
The labor of picking cherries, which is a bngbear to so many
who would like to plant the fruit, is really no more onerous than
the picking of raspberries or currants. If one lives where pickers
cannot be had with certainty, and in sufficient Bombers, cherries
should not be planted. Parties who hire pickers by the piece, pay
three-fourths cent or a cent a pound. The trees most be gone over
twice, at intervals, and generally three times, and it is important
that all those fruits which are ripe, and no others, should be secured
at each gathering. It is more difficult to see that this is done on
cherry trees than on berry bushes, and for this reason some growers
prefer to hire pickers by the day. When picking for canners, the
fruit may be allowed to become much riper then when it is to be
sold in the open market, and it is not necessary to exercise so much
care to preserve the sterna upon the fruits. The English Morello
drops easily when ripe, and growers sometimes shake off the
cherries — if designed for canning — onto sheets or, if the trees are
small, into a Johnson curculio catcher. If cherries are carefully
hand-picked tor the general market, the stems being left on, a
pound of fruit measures about a quart and a quarter, but as the
fruit is generally picked for canning, a pound is about a quart.
Insects and diseases are not serious upon the sonr cherries. The
curculio does not often attack the midseason and late varieties —
such as Montmorency and Morrello — seriously, particularly if the
number of trees is somewhat large. In occasional years, however,
this insect becomes a scourge. The grower must watch his fruits
closely after the blossoms fall, and if the curculio injuries become
31 Xoogle
482 Aqbicultdbal Experiment Station, Ithaoa, N. Y.
alarming, he must catch the insects by jarring them onto sheets.
There are those who declare that they attract the cnrcnlio away
from the cherries by planting plum trees in the cherry orchard,
bat I greatly doubt the efficiency of this procedure. A complete
account of the carculio may be expected in a forthcoming bulletin.
The leaf-blight or shot-hole fungus (Oylindrospvrium Padi, or
Septoria cerasina, the same which attacks the plum), is often a
serious enemy, particularly upon the English Morello. The leaves
begin to assume a spotted character, generally before the fruit is
picked, they soon turn yellow, and they fall prematurely.
Thorough spraying with Bordeaux mixture is as efficient in holding
the leaves on the cherry as it is on the plum. The trees should
generally be sprayed twice between the falling of the blossoms and
the coloring of the fruit, if the cherries are more than half grown
when the last Bpray is applied, the ammonical carbonate of copper
may be used in place of the Bordeaux, to avoid discoloring the fruit.
But it is doubtful if the last spray should be delayed until this time.
It may be necessary to spray once after the fruit is off.
A thin grayish powderly mildew (Podosphoera OvyacantJue) fre-
quently attacks the fruits and leaves of the sour cherries, particu-
larly when the trees are overshadowed by larger trees or buildings.
I have never known it to be serious upon the fruit, as it appears
about the time the fruit is ripening, covering the cherries with a
very delicate coat, like dust. In this case a late spraying with
ammonical carbonate of copper would certainly be effective. The
only emphatic injury -which I have ever seen from this fungus
upon cherries occurs after the fruit is off, when it may attack the
ends of the shoots, checking the growth. At this time, if the
injury threatens to be serious, Bordeaux mixture may be used.
The black-knot, which seriously invades sonr cherry trees, is fully
treated in our Bulletin 81.
III. THE SWEET CHERRY INDUSTRY.
Unlike most other fruits, the sweet cherry has never attained a
prominent position as a horticultural industry in western New York.
There is not a single orchard of it west of Albany, so far as I know.
Along the Hudson, however, there are three or four orchards. It
ie from the few trees scattered on every farm throughout the State,
that the cherry crop is mostly harvested. It should not be concluded,
~ oole
>yC.OOQl<
Swekt Cherries. 483
however, that the smallness of the industry follows from a lack of
appreciation on the part of New York people of this most luscious
fruit. It is doe to the fact that the cherry is one of the most dim-
colt crope to handle and market successfully, because of its exceed-
ingly delicate character and its susceptibility to the fungus, which
causes the brown rot. This fungus spreads so rapidly on the
ripening fruit, that a promising crop to-day may be half rotted
to-morrow. The comparative ease of handling and marketing a
grape, an apple or a pear crop have made those fruits universally
popular, while the cherry has lain in obscority.
The cherry is one of the most popular dooryard fruits, and its
hardiness, its vigorous spreading or ascending branches, its upright
form, which often attains the height of forty to fifty feet, and its
luxuriant, soft drooping foliage make it a most desirable tree for
ornamental and fruit-bearing purposes. Amongst the strongest
recommendations of the cherry are its hardiness and the fact that it
bears annually when properly treated. The trees begin to grow
very early in the season, and the fruit of moBt varieties is harvested
by July 1st, thus leaving the tree sufficient time and energy to per-
feet the fruit buds for the coming year, and if the wood ripens
during the fall the mercury can fall -to 20° below zero without
injury to the coming crop. There seems to be a general inquiry
among fruit growers and farmers concerning the care of cherry
orchards, the most desirable varieties, the diseases, and methods of
handling and marketing a crop. As these matters are more folly
understood the cherry industry may be expected to reach a promi-
nent position among the other horticultural industries.
Soil and location. — The cherry tree is a gross feeder and grows
with surprising rapidity, the limbs of young trees sometimes increas-
ing from four to six feet in one season. This characteristic of the
cherry must not be lost sight of in selecting a Bite for the cherry
orchard, for when too rapid growth takes place the trunks and large
limbs split open, the sap exudes abundantly, little or no fruit is borne
and the life of the tree is short The cherry will grow in a variety
of soils, even where other fruit trees will not thrive, but the ideal
soil is a naturally dry, warm, mellow, deep gravelly or sandy loam,
of good quality, containing sufficient humus to retain moisture and
give lightness, bat not enough to make the soil damp and heavy.
If the soil is not naturally dry it most be well drained, for dryness
is essential to success with .the vigorous growing sweet cherries.
484 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. T.
While more orchards are unproductive from a lack of plant food
than from an excess, it is well to remember that the vigorous grow-
ing habit of the cherry lays it open to severe injury and unfruitfol-
ness if the soil is too rich.
The ideal situation for the orchard is a high altitude which in-
sures good atmospheric as well as land drainage and lessens the
dangers from late frosts in the spring and from the rot The cherry
is an early bloomer, and it should be placed where the cold air at
night will settle away from it, as injuries from spring frost fre-
quently occur.
Distance of trees. — Since the cherry attains a large size, the limbs
spreading twenty feet or more and the roots reaching a long dis-
tance, it must be given plenty of room, and I am convinced that 30
feet each way is the proper distance to set sweet cherries. I have
seen trees 22 feet apart with their main branches interlacing, and
the trees were allowed to assume a pyramidal form instead of a
spreading habit. At 30 feet each way an acre contains 50 trees.
Prummg. — The cherry orchard will require little pruning after
the first two or three years, and before that time the tree can be
made to assume any desired form. I believe, however, that in gen-
eral the pruning should be such as to give the tree a low spreading
head with a trunk about four feet high and with the top built oat
on three to five main arms. We have pursued this method on the
Windsor and other varieties and the trees, instead of growing in the
usual spire shape, assume an apple-tree form. After the first two or
three years no pruning is needed, except to remove dead branches
and to keep superfluous branches from intercrossing.
The advantages gained from this form of tree are of great impor-
tance. First the body of the cherry tree is lees likely to be njnred
from the hot snn, which causes it, especially on the side of the pre-
vailing wind, to crack and split, exude sap and finally to die. The
low spreading head shades the trunk and large branches and obvi-
ates this difficulty to a great extent. In western New York this
trouble is not so serious as it is on the black lands farther west A
second advantage, of equal or greater importance, lies in the fact
that, if allowed to grow upright, the limbs reach the height of thirty
to forty feet in twenty-five years, making it very difficult to gather
the fruit and to spray the trees. The bearing branches are always
found towards the extremities of the limbs, and the time which men
,v Google
Sweet Chsbbibs. 485
use in going up and down large ladders is of no small account to the
fruit grower.
CuHiva&ion.—A. young cherry orchard should be given clean
cultivation. Small fruits, like currants, raspberries or gooseberries
or any others that require frequent cultivation, may be set between
the rows for eight or ten years, but the bushes should be removed in
the tree rows and opposite the trees at the end of the third year. No
crop that does not require cultivation should ever be raised in the
orchard. In general, the methods described in Bulletin 72 upon
" The Cultivation of Orchards " should be followed.
At about five years old the trees begin to boar fruit of consequence,
and at 10 years they give paying crops. As the orchard comes into
bearing, the management of the soil will differ according to its
nature, and the trees themselves should be the indicators of their
treatment. Though there have been no experiments in the treat-
ment of bearing cherry orchards, I believe that clean culture should
generally be stopped by Jane 15th, or July 1st, so as to check growth
and give the wood sufficient time to ripen. The advantages of this
treatment are also pointed out in the Bulletin mentioned above.
"Whenever the growth becomes too luxuriant, it can be checked by
seeding a year with clover.
A certain cherry orchard has stood in sod for fifteen years in an
ideal soil and situation. The trees are making little growth and are
filled with dead limbs, and while there was a heavy crop of cherries
this year, the size was small, quality poor and one-half were rotting
on the trees. In striking contrast was a neighboring orchard which
had been ploughed lightly in the early spring and had had a harrow
run over it once a week up to the middle of June, and although
there had been a severe drought, the trees had made a good growth
and were loaded with luscious fruit of large size. The latter
orchardiBt believes that he can produce as large cherries as the
Califomians can, by high cultivation and the conservation of mois-
ture the early part of the season. As a means of holding moisture,
he is putting humus in the soil by cover crops and expects to check
too luxuriant growth by Beeding the orchard whenever it becomes
necessary. While dryness is a universal maxim for the cherry, it is
advantageous to conserve moisture during the development of the
fruit, and the example furnished by this orchard convinces me that
the fruit can he increased one-half in size by thorough light culti-
vation up to the middle of June.
486 Agbicdltdbal Ejcpbbimbnt Station, Ithaca, N. T.
FertfUzere. — The cherry probably requires aa little fertilizers aa
any fruit grown. An occasional crop of crimson clover turned in
will generally furnish sufficient nitrogen and improve the soil in
, other ways. Potash can be furnished in wood ashes or in a high
grade muriate of potash, using 250 pounds per acre of a 50 per cent,
muriate. This should be applied in the spring and harrowed in.
Phosphoric acid may be applied in the same proportions in the form
of bone compounds or in South Carolina or Florida Rock. In good
soil, it is seldom that the cherry orchard needs heavy fertilizing if
clean culture is practiced ; the close observer can tell when to apply
plant food by the action of the trees themselves.
Limits to the profitable age. — The cherry will live to a great age
and bear fruit, there being records of such trees over a hundred
years old. As the cherry industry is so small, and no great number
of trees have been treated as an orchard for a long time, it is diffi-
cult to say just how long an orchard will continue to be profitable.
This will depend largely on the variety. In general, I should say
that thirty years is the limit to the most profitable age. After that
time the trees become so large that the expense of picking the fruit
and caring for the trees increases rapidly.
Handling the crop. — Before one goes into the sweet cherry in-
dustry as a business, it should be clearly understood that the cherry
is a delicate fruit and more susceptible to injury from handling and
from changes in the weather than the strawberry, and the in-
dustry should not be taken up unless plenty of good pickers can
be obtained on short notice and unless desirable markets are
within reach in eight or ten Lours after the fruit is picked.
It is one thing to raise a crop of fruit, but an entirely different
thing to handle and market it successfully. These remarks apply
with particular emphasis to the sweet cherry, because the crop has
to be sold immediately when ripe and the delay of a day may mean
the loss of the entire crop, as the commission men "slaughter" the
Bales when the fruit begins to go down. It is strongly recommended
that the markets be thoroughly looked up and studied before one
goes into the cherry business.
The first essential in handling a crop of cherries is to have the
fruit picked with great care, the stem being left on each cherry,
and only the stem touched with the fingers. The most desirable
method of picking is in 8-lb. baskets, as in a larger package the
bottom fruits are pressed too heavily. I saw delicate Tartarian and
Sweet Chebbies. 487
Governor Wood picked in half bushel baskets this summer mid
then turned into 13-lb. baskets for shipping, and the grower
wondered why his cherries got into market, which was only three
hoars away, in such poor condition 1 The handling of cherries
and walnuts should never be confused ! Unless pickers are closely
watched, a good many fruit spars will be broken off, especially if
the fruit has a tendency to grow in clusters. This should be care-
fully watched, as it destroys the fruit buds for the coming year.
The fruit should be picked a few days before ripe. Pickers earn
$1.60 to $2 per day in a good crop, at 1 cent per pound.
The manner in which fruit is placed on the market, especially
all delicate fruits, has as much to do with selling it as the quality
of fruit itself. The demands of the market should always deter-
mine the method of packing. This can be learned by correspond-
ence with reliable commission men, who would often obtain better
prices for cherries and other fruit, if their advice were asked and
followed. For the general market, there is probably no better
package for the cherry than the 8-lb. climax grape basket, but for
the Uner classes of cherries and the retail trade (which should always
be worked np for the finest cherries) a smaller package is more
desirable. There are several packages which hold from bix to
twenty boxes or baskets, the whole package weighing not more than
40 lbs. when full, which are desirable. A package heavier than
40 lbs. will be roughly handled by transportation companies. In
the small packages the fruit should be made very attractive. All
stemless or bruised cherries should be thrown out, and the top layer
of fruit faced in rows with the stems hidden. This work can be
done rapidly by girls or women, who lay the cherries on the bottom
of the box in rows, fruit side down, then fill the box, nail and turn
it over, mark the faced side and put it in the crate. If baskets are
used in the package instead of boxes, the top of each basket should
be faced. The extra cost of facing the fruit pays in the ready sale
which it brings.
I will recite a bit of onr own experience of the present year :
Black Tartarian and Napoleon Bigarreau cherries were packed in
two styles of packages, the fruit being handsomely faced in both
cases. A spring crate or ease holding 6 boxes of cherries each con-
taining 6 lbs. (36 lbs.), sold for $1.50 by one Boston firm and $1.75
by another, and $1.75 by a New York firm, or 4J- cts. per lb.
Another case holding twenty 2-lb. baskets (40 lbs.), sold by the
Google
488 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
Boston firm for $3.75 and $4, and by the New York firm for $4, or
fty eta. per lb. Both packages cost the same. la another instance,
Black Tartarians were shipped in 5-lb. baskets and sold for 80 eta.,
or 6 cts. per lb., while those shipped in 8-lb. baskets brought 65 eta,
and 70 cts., or 8J cts. per lb.
All these remarks Apply to fmit sold in the general market ; bnt
there is a great demand for sweet cherries from the canning facto-
ries, for which the fruit, while carefully harvested, is less labori-
ously packed.
ProjUs. — The profits from the cherry industry depend mainly
on the efforts of the grower in producing first-class fruit and in
placing it on the market somewhat after the directions given in the
previous topic. In 1888, an acre of cherry trees, 18 years old,
including Black Tartarian, Black Eagle, Napoleon Bigarreau, Elton,
Yellow Spanish and Downer's Late Bed, netted $380, while an acre
of rye netted $8.
The following sample figures are taken from sales from the
orchard this season, trees 25 years old :
Five trees of Robert's Red Heart averaged 280 lbs. per
tree ; the fruit sold for tt cts. per lb. bringing $25 30
The expenses were :
Picking. $2 80
Packages 1 40
Packing 1 25
Express 2 80
Commission 2 52
10 77
Net profit per tree $14 43
One tree of Robert's Bed Heart yielded 416 lbs., which
sold to retail dealers at 10 cts. per lb. at the express
office $41 60
Expenses:
Picking. $4 16
Packages 1 56
Picking 1 75
7 47
Net profit $84 18
DigltbadbyCoOgle
Swhbt Chbbbics. 189
One acre of "Windsors containing 70 trees 8 years old,
yielded 84 lbs. per tree— 6,880 lbs., which sold at 10
eta. per lb $688 00
Expenses:
Picking. $58 80
Assorting and packing 20 00
Packages 30 00
Express and commission 70 0U
Cultivation (plowed once and harrowed six
times) 8 50
Fertilizers (300 lbs. potash, 100 lbs. bone, 15
lbs. crimson clover seed) 4 25
Interest on land at $1.50 per acre 9 00
195 55
Net profit $382 45
All these figures refer to sales in the open market. There is a
good demand for sweet cherries for canning factories. The canners
generally prefer the " white cherries," those with a white juice and
rather lightxsolored skin. The crop of sweet canning cherries in
western New York appears to be growing smaller, and the Cali-
fornia product has driven out much of the home-made goods. One
of the best informed canners in the western part of the State writes
as follows concerning the sweet cherry pack : " Up to six or seven
years ago we handled from fifty to one hundred tons annually. The
cherry crop appears to be growing smaller each year, and to be
deteriorating very much in quality. Our output on cherries used
to be composed largely of the white varieties, and we used to put
up fine grades that were esteemed very highly in New York and
the eastern markets. Some years ago California began to can cher-
ries and subsequently put them on the eastern markets in competition
with the finer grades of eastern cherries. The result was that the
California product drove the eastern canned cherries almost entirely
out of the market, except in some of the cheaper grades. The Cali-
fornia cherry is much finer in appearance, is larger, freer from
worms and imperfections, and also possesses a very fine flavor."
The canners tell ns, in general, that when they can get good
fruit, they have no trouble in making a saleable product. It is
evident that good fruit cannot be obtained year by year, unless the
490 Agricultural Expbbiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
trees are planted in each way that they can be well cared for. The
price paid for sweet cherries for canning factories, rone from three
to fire cents per pound.
Varieties. — Among the most prominent Hearts are Belle d'Or-
leans, Knight's Early Slack, Black JEagle, Black Tartarian, Kirt-
land's Mary, Coe's Transparent, Downer's Late Red, Elton and
Governor Wood. The most prominent Bigarreans are the Yellow
Spanish, Mezel, Napoleon, Rockport, Tradescant's Btaek Heart
(Elkhorn) and Windsor.
For general market purposes, the firm-fleshed varieties of a black
or red color are preferable, as] they ship better, do not show finger
marks from handling, and are not so susceptible to the rot. From
the Hearts, Knight's Early Black, the Black Tartarian, Black
Eagle and Downer's Late Bed might be added.
— Governor Wood.
Governor Wood is probably the cherry most common to western
New York and is shown in Fig. 83. The tree is a vigorous grower
and forms a regular, round head. The fruit is light red or light
yellow with a red cheek, short-cordate, soft, sweet and good. Ped-
uncle of medium length, inserted in a broad cavity ; flesh nearly
colorless. This variety is an excellent one for home use but cannot
be recommended for market, because of its tender, light flesh, and
its great susceptibility to rot Ripens about the middle of June.
.Google
Swbbt Chbbbibs. 491
- Elton. — The Elton in another cherry commonly set. Tree vigor-
ous, upright, leaves with darkened footstalks. Fruit heart-pointed,
distinct in shape, large, yellow, mneh overlaid with cherry red.
Flesh firm, becoming soft, white, juicy when ripe, and luscious.
Heavy, regular bearer, bnt not a desirable market variety, because
of its light color, tender flesh and susceptibility to the rot. Fig. 84.
Black Tartarian. — Tree vigorous and rapid grower, erect when
young, becoming spreading when older, the large limbs losing
side branches giving the lower interior a bare appearance. Fruit
attached by three, short-cordate, not pointed. Flesh dark purple,
soft, bnt finnish; deep, dark red or black. Juice very sweet and
abundant. Stone small. Peduncle 1£ inches long, set in a flatened,
shallow cavity. Regular and heavy bearer, quality excellent. Ripe
the middle of June. The Tartarian is the best black heart for
market and family purposes. It does not rot as badly as the light
hearts, and though not as firm as desirable, its high quality, regu-
larity in bearing, and dark color recommend it strongly. Fig. 85-
Black Eagle. — Tree a rapid grower, erect with roundish head,
top dense, large limbs not bare as in Tartarian. Fruit large, borne
in pairs and threes, in thick clusters on the spurs, obtuse or pointed.
Color same as Tartarian and slightly more acid. Flesh same color.
Quality excellent. Moderate bearer. Does not rot as badly as the
light hearts. One of the best dark hearts for market and family
use. Ripe just after the Tartarian. Fig. 86.
DqltSMByClOOgle
192 Agricultural Expkrimhnt Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
Downer*8 Late Red. — Free, rapid grower, head upright and
roundish. Fruit medium size, roundish, heart-shape. Skin of a
delicate red, mottled with amber where shaded, very tender, melt-
ing, luscious. Fruit hangs for considerable time on tree. A
heavy, regular bearer. Does not rot badly. Ripe about July 8th.
A good, late, tender variety.
SB.— Black Tartkrlu.
There are many other heart cherries that might be described, but
it is the intention of this paper to give only the leading varieties;
some may have been omitted and their descriptions can be found in
the leading horticultural books. The same remarks may also be
applied to the Arm-fleshed kinds, only the leading varieties of which
will be given.
Digitized byGOQgle
Sweet Chebbibs. 493
Napoleon. — Tree medium size, erect with roundish head. Fruit
borne generally in twos; very large, oblong-cordate; light lemon
yellow with red cheek in the son. Flesh very hard, brittle color-
less, reddish at stone. Stem medium length, stout in a moder-
ately deep, even cavity. Good. Excellent bearer. Ripe about
June 20. Rots badly when ripe and splits if left too long.
The Napoleon Bigarrean is probably the most desirable light colored
cherry for market purposes. Its hard flesh and large size make it a
good shipper and an attractive frnit when placed in small packages.
Although it rots badly, if picked as soon as well colored and before
8«.-Bl»ck Eagle.
ripe this difficulty will be largely obviated. It must be watched
closely in humid weather and when the first signs of rotting appear,
the crop must be picked or it will be lost. Fig. 87,
Robert's Red Heart. — The following description applies to a
variety of that name grown in eastern New York. The description
given in Downing is not clear enough to positively establish its
identity, but the history of the plantings seems to establish its name
beyond a doubt. Tree erect, not spreading, roundish, vigorous
grower, dense. Fruit short-cordate, as large and as fine as the
Napoleon, in large clusters; bright dark red, with an under mottling.
Peduncle long, set in a moderately deep, broad depression. Flesh
pinkish ; subacid. Juice nearly colorless. Handsome.
494 AORIOULTCRAL EXPBBIMBMT STATION, ITHACA, N. Y.
fair. Does cot rot as badly as the Napoleon. Very heavy regular
bearer. Ripens with the Napoleon. The fruit should be faced in
fancy packages. One of the best firm-fleshed cherries. (Fig 88).
Mezel {fiiqwreau de Meed). — Tree a vigorous a pright grower,
leaves large, Fruit very large, obtuse, heart shape, flattened on both
sides, uneven. Skin dark red to black. Firm, but heart like, juicy
meaty, very sweet and rich. Stem long, slender and tortuous.
Handsome and excellent. Said to be a prolific bearer, though I
have seen only a few trees in fruit. Ripe about June 20th.
Windsor. — Tree upright, vigorous and rapid grower, leaves large.
Fruit large, roundish oblong, very firm, juicy, mottled red ; flesh
pinkish, sometimes streaked. Peduncle, medium length, stout, set
in a slight broad depression. Quality good. Heavy bearer. Ripe
about July 4th. Attacked freely by curculio. The most desirable
late cherry either in the firm or tender-fleshed varieties. It hangs a
long time and does not rot badly. Fig 89.
The Bakes are chiefly represented in New York by May Duke,
Reine Hortense, and Belle de Choisy. The May Duke (Fig. 90)
is a large very dark red cherry, short-cordate, soft, the flesh colored
and sub-acid, of excellent quality. One of the best family cherries,.
I3,,0 i/CoO^Ic
Sweet Chehies. 4d5
but tittle grown for market because of its softness. A peculiarity
of the May Duko ia its habit of ripening unevenly. It ia not infre-
quent that one branch or one part of the tree matures its fruit
whilst the remainder of the crop is still green. Sometimes the two
sides of the same fruit mature at different times. Heine Hortense
is an oblong cordate, light yellow cherry overlaid with amber and
splashes of light red. Flesh nearly white, very soft, Bub-acid, of
medium to good quality. Rots badly. Belle de Choisy is one of
the best of dessert cherries, bnt ib too unproductive and too soft for
market purposes. It ripens just after the May Bake. Fruit
roundish, the skin thin and amber with mottled red.
Varieties subject to rot. — In general, it may be said that the
tender-fleshed varieties of cherries rot worse than those having
firmer flesh among those which are the most susceptible to it are
Governor Wood, Elton, Coe's Transparent, Belle d' Orleans, Belle
Magnifique, Rockport Bigarreau, Cleveland Bigarreau, and Napo-
leon Bigarrean. Among those that are least susceptible are Black
Tartarian, Black Eagle, Knight's Early Black, in the Hearts, and
Robert's Red Heart, Mezel, Tradescant's Black Heart and Windsor
in the firm-fleshed varieties.
Family sorts. — For the family varieties the hearts are among the
best on account of their tender, luscious flesh, though in point of
excellence, some of the Bigarreaos are close competitors. I would
recommend the following varieties for family use :
DqltSMByCOOgle
496 Agbicoltoral Expbbimbnt Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
Hearts. — Black Tartarian, Governor Wood, Ooe's Transparent,
Belle d' Orleans, Downer's Late Red, Black Eagle, Knight's Early-
Black.
Bigwreaus. — Napoleon, Rockport, Robert's Red Heart, Yellow
Spanish and Windsor.
Dukes. — May Duke, Belle de Ohoisy.
There are other varieties which are probably equally as good, bnt
these can be recommended from long acquaintance.
Diseases. — The cherry is attacked by the same diseases that are
common with plums, the principal one of importance affecting it
being the fruit rot. The symptoms are familiar to all. The frnit
tarns brown and ash-colored tufts appear on it, which are the spore-
bearing threads, and later the frnit falls, or becomes mummified and
persists for a long time without decaying.
The twigs, leaves and flowers may also be attacked by the disease,
causing the flowers to decay and die and the leaves to become dis-
DqltSMByCOOgle
Swket Chbbbtbs. 497
colored. The fungus passes the winter in the mummified fruits and
begins to propagate in the spring, with the advent of warm weather.
It attacks the fruit mainly just at the ripening period, principally
dnrinc lint., mticro-v wpnthnr fnl_
prevent the spread of the disease, as it destroys the means by
which the fungus passes the winter. This method is not practi-
cable, because not more than a part of the frnit will be gathered,
and because of the labor attached to it.
It has been shown that spraying with Bordeaux mixture will con-
trol the difficulty and also prolong the ripening season.
The directions given by Craig* are that the trees should be care-
fully sprayed with Bordeaux mixture after the blossoms fall and
that two or three applications should be made, the last being with
ammouiacal copper carbonate a few days before picking. The appli-
cation should probably be made every two weeks. I should substitute
the ammouiacal carbonate of copper for the Bordeaux after May 1st,
as traces of Bordeaux will remain on the trees for a month or more.
I am not convinced, however, that spraying is necessary to pre-
vent the browa rot in New York State. The losses from this dis-
3 Central Exp. Farm, Ontario.
:y Google
498 Agricultural Expkbimjont Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
ease which have come under my observation are invariably the
result of letting the fruit hang on the trees till ripe and then the
rot is very active; but cherries should be picked a few days before
ripe, before they soften, and then the rot does not seriously afEect
them. An illustration of this point, which is a most important one,
was brought to my notice the present season. The last week of
Jane, in eastern New York, was very hot and close with showers
every day or two. The cherries were then ripening and the condi-
tions were favorable for the rot to spread. In one orchard from
which several tons of cherries were shipped that week, there was
not more than 150 ponndB destroyed by the rot, while in another
orchard a few miles distant at least 10 tons of the same varieties
were ruined on the trees. In the first orchard the fruit was picked
before it had ripened, and all that was fit was taken ofE as soon at
the trees dried off after a shower / in the other orchard it was left
till nearly ripe and one-half to two- thirds of the crop was lost before
the fruit could be picked. So rapid ia the work of this fungus at
this period, that the owner of the orchard told me that he lost three
tons of one variety in one night. It might be added that the
orchard first mentioned was a much stronger one, as it was in culti-
vation, while the last had been in sod for years, and the general
debility and neglect of the trees made them good subjects for the
attacks of rot or any other disease.
The most serious insect pests are the black aphis and cnrculio.
The aphis often attacks young trees and sometimes the bearing
ones. They appear early in the season and multiply very fast
This aphis is fonnd in great numbers on the young shoots and the
under sides of leaves and on stems of the fruit, excreting a sticky
substance which covers the pests ; and the leaves curl np. It may
appear as late as September but seldom in sufficient numbers to do
injury. The aphis is a sucking insect and has to be treated with
kerosene emulsion or whale oil soap, of which one or two thorough
sprayings is generally sufficient to clear the trees. The spray must
be applied as soon as the aphis appears, or the attacked leaves curl
with the insect inside and it is impossible to reach them, and the
full grown insect is very hard to kill. In such cases it is advised to
pick the affected leaves and destroy them if possible and then spray
so as to kill the remaining ones on the twigs and fruit.
The full treatment of the curculio is to be made the subject of a
separate bulletin.
Digitized byGOQgle
Sweet Ohskkiis. 499
Enron,
Cherry growing is one of the neglected industries of western
New York. There are practically no bearing orchards of sweet
cherries, and very few of soar cherries.
The product is sold both in the open market and to canneries.
In general, the factories afford the better market, although well
grown and nicely packed fruits, particularly of the sweet kinds, find
a ready sale in the general market.
Cherries like a loamy soil which is rich in mineral food. They
should generally be given clean and frequent cultivation until the
fruit is ripe, and after that the land may be pnt to rest with some
cover crop. Stimulating or nitrogenous manures should be used
cautiously.
Sour cherries should be planted eighteen to twenty feet apart each
way, and aweet cherries about 10 feet farther.
Cherries are pruned after the manner of pruning plums and pears
Sweet cherries should be pruned to tjhree to five main arms, and
not to a central leader. (Page 184.)
The cnrcutio is the worst enemy to sweet cherries, and it 1b some-
times serious upon the sonr kinds. Jarring the trees is the most
reliable procedure.
The rot, due to fungus, is particularly bad upon the early and
soft-fleshed sweet cherries. Spray for it twice before the fruit 1b
half grown, with Bordeaux mixture. Plant varieties least suscep-
tible to the disease (Bee pages 490-496). Be expeditious in handling
the crop.
Cherries for the general market should be carefully hand-picked,
with the stems on, and they should be neatly packed in small pack-
ages. Cherries for the general market, particularly the sweet kinds,
should be handled with as much care as strawberries are. The
smallest packages are the most profitable for the best cherries.
{Page 486.)
The most deserving sonr cherries for western New York are
Montmorency, English Morello and Louis Phillippe. The last is
best in quality, but apparently 1b least productive.
Malta* byGoOgle
600 AOEICOLTOBAL EXPMHIMHNT STATION, ITHAOA, N. Y.
Of sweet cherries, the following are recommended for market :
Windsor, Napoleon, Black Tartarian, Black Eagle, Mezel, Robert's
Red Heart, Downer's Late Red. For home use, Black Tartarian,
Governor Wood, Coe's Transparent, Belle d'Orleans, Downer's Late
Red, Black Eagle, Knight's Early Black, Napoleon, Rockport,
Robert's Red Heart, Yellow Spanish, Windsor, May Duke, Belle
de Cnoiay.
L. H. BAILEY,
G. H. POWELL.
,v Google
BULLETIN 99— August, 1895.
Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station.
HORTICULTURAL DIVISION.
BLACKBERRIES.
By L. H. Bailet.
)ijiio,aWGoosIe
ORGANIZATION.
Board of Control— The Trustees of tne University.
STATION COUNCIL.
Preside**. JACOB GOULD 8CHURMAK.
Hoir. A. D. WHITE Trustee of tie UutoertUu.
Professor I. P. HOMKKT8 rrnrUUnt State Agricultural Society.
Pbokkkbor I. P. KOHEKTH Agriculture.
Professor G. C. CALDWELL Chemistry.
Professor JAMES LAW Veterinary Sdonce.
Professor a. N. PRENTISS itoteny.
Professor J. H. COM8TOCK Entomology.
Processor L. II. BAILEY Hortitmitmru,
Professor H. II. WINO Dairy Husbandry.
PnorESSOB G. F. ATKINSON Cryptogam* llotemy.
pmsni or tub station.
I. P. ROBERTS Director.
E. L. WILLIAMB Treasurer.
H. W. SMITH Clerk.
M. V. 8LINQERLAND Entomology,
GEO. C. WATSON Agriculture.
G.W. CAVANAnOH Chemistry.
E. G. LODEMAN Horticulture
MICHAEL BARKER Horticulture.
Office of the Director, 30 Morrill Hall.
Those desiring this Balletiii sent to friends will please send as tbe names of
the parties.
Bulletins of 1895.
The Resent Apple Failures in Western Now York.
Whey Butter.
Spraying of Orchards.
The Dwarf Lima Beans.
88. Early Lamb Raising.
89. Feeding Pigs.
Recent Cta ry nan them nmi.
82. On the Effect of Feeding Fat to Cons.
93. The Cigar-Case- Bearer.
94. Dam ping-Off.
95. Winter Musk me Ions.
96. Fovcing-HoiiBB Miscellanies.
97. Entomogenons Fungi.
On aa»*nt of the technical nature of Bulletin 97, only a United edition teat
printed for the use of Experiment Stations and Ezehanqe*.
98 Cherries.
89. Blackberries.
,v Google
Cornell UNiTBBsrrr, ,
Ithaoa, N. T., Augutt 20, 1896. f
The Honorable Commisiioner of AgriouUwe, Albany ;
Sib. — This account of the blackberry is submitted for publica-
tion and distribution under Chapter 330, of the Laws of 1895.
L. H. BAILEY.
,v Google
SI.— Menereau Blaokbarrr, four-flfthi natural tlie. EMMription M pag* M.
)igltbadbyC00gIe
Blackberries.
The blackberry is a neglected f rait in western New York. There
are few persons who make any special attempt to grow it at its best
upon a commercial scale. Tet, there is no bush fruit which is
capable of yielding greater profit. It is the last of the email fruits, .
and when it is well grown it affords a luscious addition to the dessert
of midsummer. Some of my readers will at once take issue with
me respecting the lnBciousness of the blackberry, and we may as
well argue the subject to a finish whilst we are in the mood. In
justification of my position, I shall say that those persons who do
not like the garden blackberry have probably never eaten a ripe one.
Those red and juiceless objects which one finds frying in the sun
and patronized by flies in front of grocery stores are not the fruits
about which I am writing. They might have been green berries
or red berries, bat they were never ripe blackberries. There is no
fruit grown in this State which so soon deteriorates after picking, and
none which is necessarily picked in such unfit condition. The
blackberry is not ripe simply because it is black ; it must be soft,
and' it mnst drop into the hand when the cluster is shaken. In this
condition it is full of the sweetness and aroma of midsummer. It
is onr most delicious bush frnit. Of coarse, such berries as these
never find their way to the market, and hence it comes that my
reader who has never grown the frnit is still wincing in memory of
the unbearable acid of the blackberry. Then there are those who
declare that the tame berry is intolerably soorer than the wild one.
It is true that it is more juicy when well grown, and this juice is
very soar until the berry is Boft to the core. Bat the flavor of the
wild berry is usually quite as much a compound of pleasant mem-
ories of youthful associations and stimulating adventures, as it is of
sweetness and flavor; and then, when one picks wild berries he
always selects the ripest and the best, and these become the standard
with which he compares the untimely fruits which he bays of the
groceryman. I also held tenaciously to the opinion that the tame
berry is inferior to the wild one until, a few years ago, I visited the
606 AOBIOULTUHAL EXPERIMENT STATION, ITHAOA, N. Y.
wild patch in which grew those incomparable berries of my boy-
hood. Bat I foand the berries scant and seedy, many of them inex-
cusably soar, and the briers were intolerable. I came back to my
Agawams with relish, and they are to this day my ideal of Bnmmer
fruits.
There seem to be three important difficulties in the raising of
blackberries in this State : one is the slow price which sometimes
prevails when there is a heavy competing crop of early peaches ;
another is the winter-killing of the plants ; and the third is the
effect of droughts. Respecting the first difficulty, I can only Bay
that it is rarely serious if the fruit is well grown and attractively
handled. Prices are generally good for worthy blackberries. With
ourselves, they sell the best of any small frnit. The winter-killing
is avoided by planting the hardiest varieties and by taking care not
to keep the plants growing too late, and by heading the canes early
so that the laterals become well matured. The effects of dry
weather are often serious because the blackberry 1b largely water,
and it ripens in the hottest part of the year. Bat the difficulty can
be almost wholly avoided in New York by care in selecting land
which does not quickly suffer from drought, and especially by early,
frequent and timely cultivation.
Lcmd. — The best blackberry land is a deep, mellow, clay loam ;
that is, a soil of which the body is clay, — and which, originally,
might have been very hard, — but which contains considerable
humus and crumbles rather than bakes in the furrow. Loose,
gravelly lands are too deficient in water for the blackberry. It is
very important to plow all hard lands deep and to fit them with
much care before setting the plants, for, if the plants are to escape
the effects of droughts, the roots must grow deep and there must be
a liberal reservoir for water upon the foundation or hard-pan. Flat
lands with high subsoil should always be tile-drained before black-
berries are set upon them, else the bushes will generally suffer in
winter, and the fruit is also more liable to injury from mid-summer
droughts. It is generally best to set blackberries in the spring, and
strong yearling plants are commonly used. One may use the
suckers which spring up about blackberry bushes for setting, or he
may grow them from root cuttings. The suckers are almost wholly
need by commercial berry growers. These may sometimes be
transplanted with success even after they have started to grow in
8PnDg' DigltbadbyCoOgle
Blaokbdbbibb. 607
Plantdng.~The plants are usually set in a fnrrow six or seven
inches deep, and if the land is thin, stable manure may be scattered
in the fnrrow. For all the ordinary large-growing varieties, eight
feet between the rows is enough. This allows of easy cultivation.
For myself I like them far enongh apart to admit two horses in cul-
tivating, as shown in the picture in our plantation, on the title-page.
Two horses and a spring-tooth cultivator are the most efficient means
which I have yet found of keeping a blackberry plantation in condi-
tion. In large plantations it is well to leave out a row occasionally, to
allow of a roadway. In the row the plants are set from two to three
feet apart. They will soon spread and fill the row. There are some
growers who prefer to Bet the plants six or seven feet apart in the
row in order to cultivate both wayB, but this is profitable only where
it is possible to give extra attention to tillage and pruning for the
purpose of producing fine dessert fruit.
The year the plants are set potatoes or other crops may be grown
between the rows, and the yield should be sufficient to pay for the
use of the land. Some growers plant strawberries, not only between
the rows but sometimes in the row between the plants ; and it is
possible, by good cultivation, to obtaiu two good crops of straw-
berries before the blackberries smother them.
Three or four canes may be allowed to grow the first year if tbe
plants put ont vigorously, and these will bear some fruit the follow-
ing year. As Boon as the canes have reached a height of two or
three feet they should be headed back.
Training. — The subsequent training of the blackberry is simple,
and it ie essentially like that demanded by the raspberry. The
operator must know, of course, that the shoots or canes which spring
from the root one year will bear fruit the next year and that their
usefulness is then ended. Every year, therefore, the canes which
have borne fruit are cut out, and others are allowed to grow from
the root to take their places. It is generally preferable to remove
these canes as.soon as the fruit ip off, that if, in late August or early
September ; but the operation is usually delayed until a less busy
season. They should always be removed before growth begins the
following spring. These old canes are simply cut off close to the
surface of the ground with long-handled shears, a spud or a cutting
hook. Whilst the canes are bearing, others are growing from the
root to take their place. A strong root may send up from ten to
DqltSMByCOOgle
508 Agriooltubal Expbbimbnt Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
twenty shoots, but only a few of them should be allowed to remain
How many shall be left most depend entirely upon the vigor of the
plant, closeness of planting, strength of soil and like eircnmstanoes
Usually tire or six canes from each root are sufficient, and if very
excellent fruit is desired the number may be reduced. The strong-
est canes shonld be left and the others pulled ont when they are still
only fonr or five inches high. It will be necessary to go over the
patch fonr or five times early in the season to remove these super-
fluous shoots. It is true that many growers entirely neglect this
K.— Eu-ly Harveit Blackberry pitch 111 Augiut. (Kolaud MorrilL, Benton Harbor, Mco.)
thinning of the young shoots, but it is a question if better results
would not alwayB follow their removal.
These growing canes should be headed-in, — two to fonr inches
of the tips cut off, — when they are from two and a half to three
feet high. It will be necessary to go over the plantation three or
four times for this purpose, as the different canes reach the desired
height at different times. Laterals will now push out vigorously,
but these are allowed to grow their full length. Early the follow-
ing spring, these laterals are shortened. There is no rule respect-
ing the proper length to leave these laterals. Sometimes they are
injured by the winter and must be cut in short. And there is
,v Google
Blagkbhbbibb. 509
great difference in varieties in the way in which they bear their
fruit ; some kinds, like Wilson Early, bear the fruit close to the
cane, whilst others, like Snyder and Early Harvest, should be cut
longer. Some varieties are variable in their habit of bearing fruit,
and oo such kinds some growers prefer to delay the pinning of
laterals until the blossoms appear. From twelve to twenty inches
88.— BUckberrlN oo trellis.
is the length at which the laterals are generally left. It must be
remembered that these laterals are to bear most of the fruit ; hence
it is important that they make a good growth, become well matured,
and that the grower familiarize himself with the habits of different
varieties. It is generally important that the heading-in of the
main cane be done early, so that the laterals ma; make an early and
hard growth, and that they may start rather low down on the cane
and thereby prevent the cane from tipping over with its load of fruit.
.Google
610 AonrcuLTUEAL Exphbimhnt Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
Blackberry bushes which are managed as I hare outlined above
will stand alone, without stakes or trellises. Snch boshes are shown
on the title page (Early Cluster) and a smaller-growing variety
(Early Harvest) in Fig. 92. The bashes are sometimes kept from
lopping by stretching a single wire along either side of the row,
securing it to stakes which Btand two or three feet high.
In some places, particularly along the Hudson, blackberries are
trained on wires, after the manner of grapes. A blackberry trellis
is shown in Fig. 93. The two-wire trellis is generally preferred.
The young canes are headed-in just above the upper wire, and they
are gathered in bnnches in the hand and tied to the upper wire,
where they will least interfere with the ripening fruit. These canes
may remain on the wires all winter, or they may be laid down for
protection. Early the following spring, they are tied securely to
both wires. This makes, therefore, one summer tying for the
yonng canes, and one spring tying for the bearing canes. Black-
berries may also be tied to single stakes, although the practice is
scarcely advisable because the fruit is apt to become to much massed
in the foliage. Dewberries, however, which make a lees rampant
growth, are trained to stakes to great advantage, and when they axe
well grown, they are capable of becoming a valuable addition to the
berry plantation, because they sell as blackberries and ripen a week
or ten days earlier. Some growers in this State find the Lucretia
dewberrry to be as profitable as the blackberry, and one or two cor-
respondents even prefer it.*
Winter protection — Protection in winter is rarely, if. ever, nec-
essary in western New Tork if the bushes are upon the proper
land, if they have been judiciously cultivated and pruned, and if the
hardier varieties are grown. Blackberries are extensively laid down
in colder climates, however, and it may be well to relate the method
here for the benefit of those who occupy bleak locations. Late in
fall, the bushes are tipped over and covered. Three men are gen-
erally employed to perform this labor. One man goes ahead with a
long-handled, round-pointed shovel and digs the earth away six
inches deep from under the roots. The second man has a six-tined
or four-tined fork which he thrusts against the plant a foot or so
above the ground, and by pushing upon the fork and stamping
•A foil account of the dewberries will be found in our Bulletin M, which,
however, Is now oat of print.
,v Google
Blagkbsbbibb. 611
against the roots with the foot, the plant is laid over in the direction
from which the earth was removed. The third man now coven the
plant with earth or marsh hay. Earth ia generally used, and if the
variety is a tender one, the whole bosh is covered two or three
inches deep. Hardy varieties may be simply held down by throw-
ing a few shovelfuls of earth on the tops of the canes, thus allowing
the snow to fill in amongst the canes. If the grower lives in a
locality where he does not fear late spring frosts, the hashes should
be raised early in the spring; bat if frosts are feared they may be
left under cover until corn-planting time. If the bads become
large and are bleached white undercover, they will Buffer when ex-
posed to the atmosphere ; and one must watch the bushes in spring
and raise them before the bods become soft and white. Tins method
of laying down blackberry plants costs less than $10 per acre, and
the Blight breaking ofkthe roots is no disadvantage. Some growers
dig the earth away on both sides of the row, and still others bend
over the canes without any digging. Whatever method is employed,
the operator must he careful not to crack or split the canes. The
method can be varied with different varieties, for some bear stiffer
canes than others.
Cultivation. — No fruit profits more from careful tillage than the
blackberry. This is largely because the fruit requires so much
water, if it reaches its full capabilities, and the crop matures in the
driest part of the season. The moisture of the soil can be well con-
served only when tillage is began very early in the spring. We
generally plow our patches in the spring, and thereafter keep the
land in line shape by running over it every week with a cultivator.
We generally prefer a Hpring-tooth cultivator, as shown on the title
page. It is especially important to cultivate as soon after a rain as
the soil is in condition, before it bakes. This tillage is continued
until within a day or two of picking time. After the crop is har-
vested, one good cultivation is given to loosen np the ground which
has been tramped down by the pickers and to fit it for winter.
With us, this last cultivation occurs about the middle or last of
August. In the drier summers west of New York, blackberry
growers often mulch with freshly cut clover or manure close about
the plants, leaving the center of the rows open for cultivation ; but
this is rarely, if ever, necessary in this State.
These frequent light cultivations are really cheaper than one or
two, because the weeds never get a chance to grow and little hoeing
Google
512 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
is necessary. If a patch becomes foal with thistles and other weeds,
the best procedure is to mow it off, plow it up thoroughly and crop
it with corn for a season. Suckers will come up in the corn along
the old rows, and the following year the plantation will be com-
pletely renewed.
Stable manure is the most popular fertilizer for blackberries. In
general, it may be Bald that if the tillage is good, nitrogen will
rarely be needed on good lands. Potash and phosphoric acid as
advised for orchards (Bulletin 72) may, no doubt, be applied to
advantage.
Yields and profits. — The year following the planting, there
should be a sufficient yield to pay for the cost of the plantation to
that time. The third year, the crop should be large, and from
that time on, the yields should be nearly uniform, when the sea-
sons are good. I do not know the limit to (he profitable age of a
blackberry plantation. It is certain that it should continue to
bear heavily for twenty years, if it has good care, and 1 am told
by careful growers that a patch will last even longer than this.
As the plants are generally grown, however, they can not be ex-
pected to hold out this long, for the land becomes hard and fool,
and the plants full of dead and diseased wood.
Blackberries are capable of yielding 200 bushels per acre, year by
year, unless very unfavorable seasons intervene. This station once
made an inquiry *atnongst fifty growers in various parts of the
country as to the average yield of blackberries. The lowest return
was 40 bushels, and the highest over 300 bushels, and the average of
the whole fifty was 98 bushels per acre. The prices in this State
range from seven to fifteen cents a quart. J. M. Mersereau, of
Cayuga, one of our best blackberry growers, recently said to me:
" Let me choose the soil, and I will guarantee to clear over $900 per
acre on blackberries." In oar own experience at Ithaca, black-
berries have sold the most readily of any of the bush fruits, at prices
ranging from eight to fifteen cents a quart. Granville Cowing,
Muneie, Indiana, a most successf nl grower of this fruit, makes me
the following statements respecting the profits of it: "The black-
berry is probably the most profitable of the small fruits. Owing to
its firmness it can be kept much longer in good condition than the
"'Raepbarriei and blackberries," by Fred W. Card, Bulletin 57. (Now onto)
Digitized byGoOgle
BLAOKBBBKiaS. 513
strawberry or raspberry, and often brings better prices. The beat
varieties are enormously productive, their cultivation comparatively
easy, and a well kept plantation of them should last a life time."
Whilst all these figures and statements are tempting, it mast never-
theless be said that the blackberry, like all other fruita, yields the
golden harvest only to those who work for it, and who think whilst
they work.
Accidents and diseases. — The only seriona accident which 1b
known to injure the blackberry crop in this State is frost ; and in
most cases the injury is unavoidable, even though the grower has
warning of its appreach. In the six crops which we have grown
in our patches here, only this year have we suffered from frost, and
even this year, when the cold wave was unusually late and severe,
only the lowest places suffered seriously. Drawings of blackberry
flowers were made upon the spot, two or three days after the frost,
and they are here reproduced, natural size. A normal, uninjured
flower is shown in Fig. 94. Inside the five white petals or leaves,
M.— Blackberry flower. Foil site. 95.— Blackberry flower Injured bj- froet.
are seen the numerous sprawling stamens or so-called male organs,
each one bearing an enlargement or anther on the end, inside
which the pollen is borne. In the center of the flower is the head
or cluster of pistils or so-called female organs, each of which ripens
into one of the little grains which go to make up the blackberry.
The frost killed these organs, so that the center of the flower bore
only a small black column of dead pistils. (Fig. 95). Now and
then, one or more of these pistils in the head escaped and developed
into a fruit-grain, so that the berry became a "nubbin." Fig. 96
shows the dead and aborted fruits at picking time. At the top of
the picture are some fruits in which one or two grains or drupes are
fall grown, whilst all the rest of the berry did not develop.
33 *°°Slc
514 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
There are f oar diseases of the blackberry which may be mentioned
here, — the red rust oryellows,'root>gall, antliracnose, and cane-knot.
Except the last, these diseases will be more folly described in
Bulletin 100, and they need not be discussed here. It may be said,
however, that all these troubles" can be kept at bay by keeping the
patch tidy, — catting ont all suspicions canes and boshes, and by
96.— Cut by trtM.
clean and careful culture, The yellows {Ceeoma nitons) or red or
orange rust of the leaves, is incurable, and the affected bosh should
be pulled ont and burned as soon as discovered. With this treatment
there ia no difficulty in keeping a patch clean of the disorder. The
same remarks apply to the root-gall. Antliracnose, or pitting of the
canes, is less serious in blackberries than in black raspberries. It
can no doubt be kept in check by careful spraying with Bordeaux
mixture, as described in Bulletin 100 ; bnt I believe the most efficient
treatment is to cut out and burn the old canes just as soon as the
fruit is off, and to examine the bushes frequently for the disease and
to cot oat the diseased shoots. If a patch became very seriously
involved, I should want to mow the bushes, off close to the ground
in fall or early spring, clean oat the crowns and spray them, and
i;git;eo:-yGoO^IC
Blaokbbbbibb. 6716
start a wholly new top. ThiB would sacrifice one year's crop, but
the results would no doubt pay. The|cane-knot (Fig. 97) is a disease
of which the cause is unknown. In fact, I do not know that it
has been described. The figure is an excellent picture of it. The
knot reminds one strongly of the plnm-knot, but there are numerous
small whitish eruptions of the disease surrounding the parent knot.
It may be of fungous origin, although we have not been able to
discover constant deep-seated fungi on the knots which have been
sent us. It probably attacks the growing shoots, although it is not
apparent until the following year, when the grower, noticing that
the leaves are yellow and the fruit not filling, examines the canes
and finds these knots upon them. We have never had the disease
in our own patches, and therefore can not give advice for its treat-
ment, although I should advise the same sanitary treatment as I
have for anthracnose. It is apparently not common, but it must be
widespread, for I have had specimens from as far west as Wisconsin.
Mr. D. F. Harris, Adams, New York, gives me this experience with
the knot: "I came into possession of my patch
three years ago. Variety said to be Snyder.
The first year, a few canes were diseased ;
second year, about half of them were dis-
eased ; third year, nearly all diseased. I
think that the disease begins to show in
early spring on the old canes. I have never
found it on the present year's canes. It pro-
gresses rapidly, as the fruit grows, and when
the fruit is about two-thirds grown the leaves
begin to wither, the cane dries up and the berries
ripen. On very badly diseased canes, the berries
wither and dry up."
Types and varieties. — What a silent evolution
the blackberry has undergone! It is not yet
fifty years since the first named blackberry, the
Dorchester," was introduced to general notice.
In 1857, the New Eochelle, or Lawtou, was
exhibited before the Massachusetts Horticultural
Society, and thereupon blackberry culture began "'
to attract wide attention in the country. The Lawton held undis-
puted sway until it was superseded by the Kittatinny some ten or
fifteen years later. The Kittatinny, in turn, gave way to the
516 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y,
Snyder in about ten or fifteen years, and this latter variety
is now the leading commercial blackberry. In tbe meantime,
however, a host of varieties had appeared, very many of them
wildings or chance bashes found in fence rows and copses, bat
so quietly have they come in that no one has been sufficiently
tW.-The tall, wild bUekberry. Life rt».
attracted by them to inquire minutely into their genesis or to
attempt to classify them into botanical groups. Consequently, the
botanical features of the cultivated blackberries are little understood,
which indicates that the crop has received little scientific attention.
The garden blackberries, as I understand them, fall into five
categories:
Digitized byGOQgle
Blackbhrribs, 517
L Zong-chttter "blackberries (JSiibue viUosus). Best represented
by Taylor (Fig. 104), although Early Cluster (Fig. 103), and
Ancient Briton are evidently to be referred to the group. It rep-
resents the commonest large-fruited form of the wild blackberry,
99. -Clinter or Early Hiu-feM.
which growB in moist shady copses or in woods. Thia wild berry
is Been natural size in Fig. 98. This form is distinguished by a
long, loose, open and leafless cluster of long-stemmed, elongated
fruits, very tall growth, leaflets mostly long-stalked, rather thin,
evenly and rather finely serrate, and taper-pointed. Typical fruits
518 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
of this class are cylindrical -thimble-shaped, the drupelets rather
small and uniform.
II. Short-cluster blackberries {Rubus viUosus, var. sativus,
Bailey, Amer. Gard. 1890, 7191. — This iB the commonest form of
cultivated blackberry, and includes such varieties as New Kochelle,
Kittatinny (Fig. 101), Snyder (Fig. 100), Agawam (Fig. 102), Erie,
Minnewaski, and Mersereau (Fig. 91). A typical cluster of this
group is Bbown in Fig. 91. It is comparatively few-fruited, leafy,
100. -Snyder. Pullaln.
the stems oblique rather than spreading, the topmost fruits more or
less aggregated. The fruits are rounder than in group L, the
drupelets larger and mostly softer and less uniform in arrangement.
The leaflets are broader, more abrnptly pointed, and generally very
coarsely and unevenly serrate or even jagged. In its wild form,
this blackberry is common in open and dryish places, where it forms
a bnsh generally only two or three feet high, bearing a short cluster
of small roundish mostly loose-grained fruits. The varieties of this
Blackbbrribb. CM
type have a strong tend ency to prod ace a lew later fruits on the tips
of the new growth. These late fruits often ripen as late as the first
week in September.
III. Leafy-chtater blackberries {Rubw viUosus, var. frondosut,
Torr). — These are dwarf, Btrict bashes, generally growing on dryish
101.— Kiltatlonj. Natural alia.
soils, bearing the flowers in short leafy clusters (Fig. 99), the leaflets
small and firm, more or less wrinkled, light-colored, persisting long
in the fall, smooth or nearly so when full grown, narrow, coarsely-
toothed. Fruit early, roundish, medium to small, the grains large
and rather loose. This is a very leafy plant, and is no doubt a dis-
tinct species from the common blackberry. In cultivation, it is
known in the Early Harvest and Brunton's Early.
DqltSMByCOOgle
620 AOBICULTOBAL ExrKBIMB.Nl' STATION, ITHACA, N. Y.
IV. Zooae-cluaier Mocleberriea (Jiubua villoatte X H. Cana-
densis).— A mongrel class, comprising Wilson Early, "Wilson Junior,
Sterling Thornless, Rathbun, and probably Thompson's Early
Mammoth. The class is characterized by a low and often diffuse
10S — Agtuam. Naturnl alze.
growth, broad, jagged and notched leaves, mostly loose-grained,
roundish or round ish-oblong fruits, which are sometime very large,
and particularly by the few flowers scattered on long stems towards
the end of the canes. Sometimes, as in the Rathbun and others, the
canes have a distinct tendency to root at the tip, after the manner of
the dewberry. These blackberries are hybrids of the common black-
berry and the dewberry. All of the cultivated sorts, so far as I
Blaokbbkbibb. 55S1
know are natural hybrids, or, like the Wilson Junior and Sterling,
offsprings of a natural hybrid (Wilson Early). Natural hybrids are
common along roadsides in central New York.
V. Sand Uaekberry (Untrue euneifoUus). — The Tree Blackberry
of Childs, and the Topsy, are forms of this viciously thorny species,
which grows wild in sandy lands from southern New York south-
wards. It is a low plant (2 to 3 feet high), the cultivated forms
suggesting the Early Harvest type. In wild specimens the under
surfaces of the thickish, wedge-obovate leaflets are white, with a thick
hairy covering, but much of this disappears under cultivation. The
fruit is borne in loose, leafy clusters, and is globular, loose-grained,
very black, often sweet and of excellent quality. I do not know of
any cultivated forms which are valuable.
The varieties of blackberries which are much esteemed in New
York are few. I append brief descriptions of a few of them. The
various recent kinds are not yet sufficiently tested to warrant a de-
scription of them in a paper of character.
Snyder (Fig. 100). — By far the most popular blackberry in this
State. Early, hardy, very productive. Berries of medium size,
nearly globular, of fair quality when well ripened. The one serious
defect of the Snyder is the tendency of the fruit to turn red when
placed upon the market, particularly if it is picked before fully ripe.
This difficulty may be obviated somewhat by keeping the berries
covered after they are picked, to exclude the light. This, in fact,
should be done with all blackberries. Found wild over forty years
ago in northern Indiana.
Minnewaeki. — Much like the Snyder, and popular along the
Hudson. Comes in just after Snyder and averages larger, but,
under all conditions, it does not seem to be so uniformly productive
and it is not so hardy. As commonly consumed, it is very sour,
but its quality is excellent when it is allowed to ripen on the bush.
ElUatvnny (Fig. 101). — One of the oldest and best known black-
berries, of most excellent quality and the fruit long and large, but
now little grown in New York because of its tenderness and suscep-
tibility to red rust. In somewhat protected localities and on well
drained soils, it generally passes the winter safely if cultivated
judiciously, but it is not generally reliable in this State.
Ancient Briton. — One of the most popular varieties in Wisconsin)
where it first became known, and one which we have grown for a
Malta* byGoOgle
522 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. T.
Dumber of years and which we find to be very valuable. It is one
of the hardiest varieties, very productive, about the season of Snyder
or a trifle later, the berries large, long, of firetrate quality. The
bush is a steady grower, and if headed back early in the season it
stands very stocky and erect. There is much conflict of opinion in
New York respecting this variety, and I suspect that much of the
stock is spurious. It was " brought to this country from Great
Britain about forty years ago by a Mr. Guy, for the late Robert H*s-
sell, of Alderly, Wisconsin, who gave it the name." *
Agwwwm. {Fig. 102). — A large berry of most excellent quality,
generally ripening with Ancient Briton. Fruit oblong, in rather
*A. Clark Tattle, Amor. Gardening, xiv. 305.
MgKizedbyGoOgle
Blackberries. 523
heavy clusters. Productive and hardy with us, and we consider it
one jof the best, particularly in quality.
Erie. — Tender in western New York; therefore, little known
hero.
Early Cluster (Fig. 103). — This has been the most uniformly
productive of any variety which we have grown, and we have
fruited about 200 plants of it for five years. It is as hardy as Sny-
der, and is fully a week earlier. A moderate, erect grower, with
medium-sized f raits in long and open clusters. There seems to be
much misconception respecting this variety. Some growers report
it to be tender and worthless. We procured our stock of Ell-
wanger & Barry, and I have sent the fruit to John S. Collins,
the introducer, who pronounces it to be " Early Cluster, without
doubt." Original plant found about 1 872 amongst Missouri
Mammoth, on farm of Charles W. Starn, New Jersey. Introduced
in 1883.
Taylor (Fig. 104). — Very hardy, as productive as Snyder, the
long, thimble like fruit borne in immense clusters and of the very
best quality. It is about two weeks later than Snyder, ripening with
the old Lawton, and generally closes the blackberry season in this
State. One of the very best.
Mersereau (Fig. 91, page 604). — A variety strongly resembling
the Snyder, and derived from it, but not yet generally disseminated.
Its advantages over Snyder are its larger size, less tendency to turn
red after being picked, better quality, and a stronger habit of
perfecting some of its fruits as late as the first of September. Its
ordinary season is that of the Snyder. This variety originated with
J. M. Mersereau, Cayuga, New York, for whom I am glad to name
it.* Some three or four years ago, Mr. Mersereau noticed an extra
good bush amongst his Snyders, and began to propagate from it.
He is now gradually changing his whole plantation over to this new
variety, which differs from Snyders, in addition to the points
mentioned above, by the much lighter cast of its foliage. It is one
of the most promising varieties which I know.
Early Harvest and Wilson Early are little grown in this State.
It is commonly supposed that both of them are very tender, but
Early Harvest stands our winters fairly well. Wilson, however,
•It w»i described, briefly, as " Mersorean's Seedling " in Bull. 81, new aeries.
New York State Experiment Station (Geneva), December, 1894.
DuNartByGoOgle
104. -Tar lor. Three -fourth) lifeilip.
)igltbadbyC00gIe
Blaokbhkbiks. 626
needs protection ; and both varieties are easily laid down, because of
their dwarf habit. Their particular merit is earliness, although
Wilson is aleo very large. These varieties are exclusively grown by
Roland Morrill, Benton Harbor, Michigan, who is president of the
Michigan Horticultural Society, and one of the most successful fruit
growers in the state (see Fig. 92.) "Wilson Early is an old variety,
having been planted extensively in New Jersey thirty years ago.
The Wilson Junior, which is practically indistinguishable from it,
was grown from seeds of it, supposed to have been crossed with
Dorchester, which were selected in 1875, by William Parry.*
Blackberries deserve greater attention from western New York
fruit-growers.
The tame berries are, as a rule, superior to the wild ones if they
are allowed to hang on the bushes nntil fully ripe.
No bush fruit deteriorates so rapidly after being picked.
Winter-killing of the plants, which is a serious menace to black-
berry growing, is avoided by selecting hardy varieties, planting upon
thoroughly well drained land, and stopping cultivation as soon as
the fruit is off. Or the bushes may be laid down, as described on
pages 510, 511.
Drought often cuts the crop short. This difficulty is to be avoided
by selecting lands which are not droughty, by thin planting, and by
beginning tillage early in the spring and continning it at frequent
intervals until the fruit is nearly ripe. The method of cultivation
which this bulletin advises is found on pages 511, 512.
Blackberries are generally planted in the spring. Eight or nine
feet should be allowed between the rows, and two to three feet
between the plants in the row. Potatoes or other crops may be
grown between the rows the first year.
Training and pruning are described on pages 507 to 510.
Blackberries yield all the way from nothing to 300 bushels per
acre. The variations in the yields measure the alertness and intelli-
gence of the grower. One hundred bushels to the acre may be con-
sidered to be a good average yield. A fair crop should be obtained
a year after the plants are set, and a good one the second year. A
blackberry plantation may continue to be profitable for twenty years
or more.
'William Parry, " Fifty Years among Blackberries," 4. LiOOglC
526 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
The way in which spring frost injures blackberries is shown by
pictures 94, 95, and 96 ; and an account of it may be found on
pages 513, 514.
There are various diseases which thrive in half-kept blackberry
plantations, but which may be headed off if the owner is alert and
diligent. See pages 514 and 515.
No one can tell the intending blackberry grower what varieties
he ought to plant. The grower must find that out for himself.
But if be lives in western New York, he will be likely to succeed
with Snyder, Taylor, Early Cluster, Ancient Briton, Agawam and
Minnewaski ; and he should try all others. Very early varieties are
Early Harvest, Wilson Early, Wilson Junior, and Early Cluster;
Snyder is medium early ; Taylor is very late.
One who is curious to know about the botanical features of onr
cultivated blackberries, may read pages 517-525.
L. H. BAILEY.
,v Google
BULLETIN lOO— September, 1895.
Cornell University— Agricultural Experiment Station.
HORTICULTURAL DIVISION.
By L. H. Bailey.
Malta* byGoOgle
ORGANIZATION.
Board of Control— The Trustees of the University.
STATION COUNCIL.
J'rwWenf, JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN.
Hon. A. D. WHITE TrutMoftkt VriterMg.
Professor I. P. ROBERTS 1'raiidfmt Stat* Agricultural Society.
Professor I. P. ROBERTS Ayricxltwrt.
Professor O. C. CALDWELL Chemistry.
PROFESSOR JAMES LAW Veterinary Sdetce.
Professor A. N. PKEKTIS8 Botany.
Professor J. H. COMSTOCK Entomology.
Professor L. H. BAILEY Horticulture.
Professor H. H. WING Dairy Hutbmdry.
Professor G. F. ATKINSON Cryptogam*:; Batamy.
OFFICERS OP THE STATION.
LP. ROBERTS Dinette.
E. L. WILLIAMS Irtantrw.
H. W.SMITH Clerk.
M. V. SLINOERLAND
GEO. C.WATSON Agritmluift.
G. W. CAVANAUGH Ckemittry.
E. G. LODBMAN Horticulture.
MICHAKL BARKER Horticulture.
Office of the Director, 20 Morrill Hall.
Those desiring this Bulletin sent to friends will please send ns the e
the parties.
Bulletins of 1895.
84. Tbe Recent Apple Failures in Western New York.
85. Whey Butter.
86. Spraying of Orchards.
87. The Dwarf Lima Beans.
88. Early Lamb Raising.
89. Feeding Pigs.
90. The China Asters.
91. Recent Chrysanthemum s.
92. On the Effect of Feeding Fat to Cows.
93. The Cigar-Case Bearer.
94. Damping Off.
95. Winter Mnskmelons.
96. Forcing-House Miscellanies.
97. E n torn ogen ous Fungi.
Cherries.
Blackberries.
Evaporated Raspberries In Western New York.
i;qlt;eo> C.OOglC
Cornell Untveksity, i
Ithaca, N. Y., Aug. 31, 1895. f
The Honorable Commissioner of Agriculture, Albany;
Sib. — This paper, designed to be published under the auspices of
the Nixon bill (chapter 230, Laws of 1895) deals with the second
most, important product of evaporators in western New York. The
first place most be given to evaporated apples. Besides these arti-
cles, the following products are evaporated in the east : peaches,
pears, quinces, plums, cherries, currants, potatoes, peas, corn, pump-
kins. There is no important account of the evaporating industry
known to' me, and I have therefore taken some pains to describe the
mechanical part of the business, an account which I hope later to be
able to extend. I am so fully convinced of the value of the evapo-
rator to all persons who grow fruit, that I have extended this narra-
tive somewhat beyond the requirements of the subject immediately
in hand.
L. H. BALLET.
34
,v Google
* i
SI
106.— Evaporator Mack of W. H. Buah, with Culver-Caaidd)> fitting*. Diagram A look]
back (O T B) and loalde or (be front (T E w Y) or the rtac-k. B ihowi troet-Ttev c
C la Che head-block (LHOOln diagram A). D la crosa-aectionol head-block. Fulled*
ontwgeaSMtoMl.
:y Google
Evaporated Raspberries.
I. THE EVAPORATOR
INVNew York leads the
i the production of dried
nettling like 1,500 tons
1 product are marketed
each year. Of this about 1,000 tons are produced in Wayne
county, in which the towns of Williamson and Sodus, which pro-
dace nearly or quite half of the amount, are the most important
centers. Marion, in Wayne county, is alBO a heavy producer of
dried berries. Outside of Wayne county, the region tributary to
Dundee, Yates county, is the most important center of the dried
raspberry industry. The product sold at Dundee is probably
upwards of 150 tons each year. Many berries are also dried south
and east of Dundee, in Schuyler comity, round about Watkins. In
Niagara county the industry has become established at Somerset,
where about 20 tons are produced each year. There are also many
persons who dry raspberries in other parts of the fruit regions of
western New York, and the industry is gradually enlarging as peo-
ple come to learn that it affords a means of making the grower inde-
pendent of the open market.
Yet the visitor might inquire in vain for dried raspberries in
many of the stores in this western New York country. In other
words, the product is not largely consumed in this State. It is used
mostly west and northwest of Chicago. Probably four-fifths of the
product is consumed in lumber and mining camps, and on the
plains, where fresh fruit is Bcarce. None of it, so far as I know, is
Voglc
632 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. T.
exported, and there is very little, if any, commercial dried product
in Europe. 0. H. Perkins & Co., Newark, N. Y., " tried the experi-
ment of exporting some of these goods to France several years ago,
bat shipped only two or three cases of them. The goods are still
on hand in France, with no disposition to take them at any price."
Raspberries are dried to an important extent in southern Illinois
and in Michigan, and lately also in Arkansas. These dried rasp-
berries have as much merit in cookery as the fresh berries, and they
are used in the same manner in sauces and pies.
Wayne county is the home of commercial fruit evaporation. In
the apple growing communities nearly every farm has an evaporator
of one kind or another. It is said that there are 2,200* evapo-
rators in the county, and this estimate is probably none too high.
All this industry is the product of the last twenty-five years.
The beginning of the industry seems to have been the introduction
of a little machine from Ohio (probably the D. Lippy fruit drier. —
Sept. Com. Patents, 1865, Hi, 378), by A. D. Shepley and George
Edwards in 1867. The right to use this evaporator was purchased
by Mason L. Rogers, near Williamson, and the following year, 1868,
he planted five acres of black raspberries, with the expectation of
evaporating the fruit — or drying it, as the operation was then called
— and this began the evaporated raspberry industry. Mr. Rogers
made some improvements on the machine, and about 1875 H. Top-
ping, of Marion, took up its manufacture, making alterations from
time to time. The direct descendant of this old machine is the
Topping portable evaporator of the present day (Fig. 106), which is
deservedly popular with beginners and for family use. The origi-
nal machine, as sold by Shepley and Edwards, was made in two
sizes, the smaller capable of drying three bushels of apples in eight
to ten hours, and the larger with a capacity of five bushels 1 This
small beginning seems incredible when one compares it with the
great establishments of this time, in which scores of hands are
employed and thousands of bushels are consumed annually.
The beginning of the modern industry, however, and the intro-
duction of the word "evaporated " to designate the product, dates
from 1870, when Charles Alden, of Newburgh, New York, patented
his tower evaporator. The decade from 1870 to 1880 was prolific
in tlie invention of capacious evaporators and accessories, some of
* Statement of Charles Mills, Country Gentleman, April 18, 1895, p. 306.
Google
Evaporated Baspbbrbibb. 533
which determined the course of the evaporating industry. The
■Williams evaporator, invented by John Williams, Sooth Haven,
Michigan, was patented in 1873. This was soon followed by the
Cnlver machine, which was patented after the death of its inventor
(Stephen Cnlver, Newark, N. T.,) in 1882, by his administrator,
Harlan F. Van Dnsen, also of Newark. (Filed September 20, 1880 ;
patented October 3, 1882.— See U. S. Gazette of Patents, xxii.
1171.) As early as 1876, Mason L. Rogers "built and equipped a
108.— Topping Portable Evaporator.
Cnlver evaporator," as his son writes me. John W. Caseidy
patented his device for lifting trays in 1876. Cassidy was a resident
of Newark, New York, but moved to Petalnma, California, where
he resided when he took ont his patents. His device, combined with
Culvert, is the leading lifting arrangement now in nse in western
New York. Cassidy took out another patent in 1880 for a device
to dry f rnit by exposing it alternately to a vacuum or partial vacuum,
and an inrush of dehydrated air, bnt this system is probably unknown
in this State. It now needed only the advent of a bleaching device
and improved machines for paring and ringing the fruit, to establish
the evaporating business upon an enduring basis; but as these
devices are not used in the making of evaporated raspberries, they
need not be farther discussed in this paper.
Google
534 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
I. The kiln drier.
The evaporators which are used in western New York may be
arranged in live categories, — the kilns, horizontal evaporators, towers,
steam tray evaporators, and air- blast- evaporators. The kiln is nothing
more than a slatted floor, underneath which hot air or smoke pipes
or steam pipes are conducted. The slats are hard wood, sawed
about seven-eighths inch wide on top and a half-inch wide ou the
bottom, and they are laid so that a crack one- fourth inch wide is
left on the floor. As the crack is wider below, it does not clog and
fill up. The kiln is used for curing hope, for drying the skins and
cores of apples, and occasionally for drying raspberries and even
for the making of " white stock," that is, the commercial grade of
sliced evaporated apples. Fig. 107 is a kiln (Mrs. S. C. Perrigo,
1(7. — Ktlu evaporator, with raapbenfaa mirring.
Somerset) in which raspberries are drying. The smokestack from
the furnace runs through the room, and beneath the floor, but not
shown in the picture, is one circuit of a stove pipe carrying hot air.
In this particular floor the slats are close enough together to allow
raspberries to be spread upon it ; but floors which are built for hops
or apples are generally covered with muslin when raspberries are to
be dried. Kilns are generally less efficient in the production of i
Malta* byGoOgle
Bvapobatbd Raspberries. 5SB
first quality of dried fruit than the other styles of evaporators,
because the fruit is not bo completely under the control of the
operator. The fruit must be shovelled over from time to time to
insure a uniform product. This handling is itself a menace to good
fruit, and when there is any quantity of fruit on the floor it can not
all be dried equally. That which is dried enough is generally
obliged to wait until the least dried portion is perfected. Yet there
are instances in which the operator exercises sufficient care to turn
out a product which is indistinguishable from the tower-dried fruit.
The particular merit of the kilu evaporator is its cheapness.
2. The horizontal drier.
The horizontal evaporators in which the pans or trays of fruit
are moved horizontally or obliquely across the heating surface, are
little used in western New York, and are therefore not discussed in
this paper.
3. The tower drier.
The tower or stack evaporators, in various forms, far out-number
other appliances in this State. The stack is a chimney like structure,
of wood or brick, resting in the basement of the building and ex-
tending np through the building and projecting above the roof.
A coal or wood furnace — preferably the former — is placed in its
base, and air which is drawn in from the basement passes over the
heated surfaces and ascends through the shaft, drying the fruit as it
rises and carrying the vapors into the atmosphere. The fruit is
placed in the stack on the first floor, that is, the floor above the
basement. It is spread on trays, and as new trays are put in, those
which were first inserted are elevated in the tower. The trays
finally reach the second story, by which time the fruit should be
finished, and the trays are removed and emptied and taken back to
the first floor, to be used again. This, in brief, is the principle
upon which the tower evaporators work, but there are endless varia-
tions in the details, to some of which we must now direct our
attention.
The first stacks were built of wood. In 1881, L. R. Rogers, son
of Mason L. Rogers, to whom I have already introduced the
reader, built stacks of brick from the basement to the top of the
drying chamber in the second story. This was on the old home-
stead near Williamson, and the building erected the year previous
Digitized byGOQgle
686 Agbiculttfraii Expbbihbnt Station, Ithaca, N. T.
and now standing is shown in Fig. 108. The tops of the stacks
are dimly shown projecting from the roof of the main building at
the rear. A year or two after this, "W. H. Bush, of Marion, built
brick stacks from cellar to cupola, and such stacks are now frequently
106, -Elvaporator on the Rostra honieitcad at Willlanmou.
seen. The advantages of the brick stacks are durability and
safety from fire. The greatest danger of fire is inside the stack,
and the wooden fittings and trays of these brick towers eonid
burn out without setting fire to the building. It is the common
practice to bnild the stack inside the building, chiefly because it
is a prevailing opinion that the wind interferes with the draft if
the stack is built against the building and exposed on three sides.
This opinion is held in respect to brick stacks, in particular, for it
is thought that the air will draw through the brick walls, and that
they will also become damp in Btormy weather, if exposed. This
notion appears to be unfounded, however, for W. H. Bush, of whom
I have spoken, has recently erected a most successful establishment
at his new home at Walworth, with three outside brick stacks, with
four-inch walls. Mr. Bnsh has had much experience in the eva-
porating business, and as I consider his new outfit to be a model in
its way, I shall have much to say about it later on. (See Figs. 105,
109,110,111,112).
The interior of one of these stacks must now be seen. "Wo will
first turn our attention to the basement or foundation of Mr. Bosh's
three stacks (Fig. 111). It will be seen that there are three fur-
Diglt&edbyGoOgle
Evaporated Raspberries, KJ7
nacea, one under each tower or stack. There are two long openings
into each, to admit the air. The smoke pipes from these furnaces
run off across the cellar and discharge into the chimney, which is
plainly shown in Fig. 109. Going np stairs, we find the aspect of
the stack on the first floor to be that shown in Fig. 112. This is
the door through which the trays are placed into the stack. If we
raise this door, F W, and look down to the furnace, we see a coil of
stove-pipe, P in Fig. 105, over which the air passes on its way up
the tower. But before we proceed to an examination of the inside
of this tower, let as look more carefully to the arrangements in Fig.
10».— Evaporator of W. H. Bath, Walworth, Wayne Co.
1 19. The tray is laid upon the frames A A (one of these is shown
at A in Fig. 105), the little door, F, is raised, and the tray is shoved
into the stack. T is a hand-hole, inside of which a thermometer
may be hung. W is a large door, fastened by a button at X, to be
used whenever the stack is cleaned or repaired. The opening is
large enough to admit a man.
We are now ready to go inside the stack, and we will take Fig.
105 as our guide. The stack is 38 feet high, over all, the wall four
inches thick with one coat of plaster on the inside, and the shaft is
large enough to admit the regulation size of tray, which is forty-
nine inches square. A stack of this size holds twenty-five trays.
The back wall of the stack is the blank space bounded by the letters
O Y S in the diagram A. A side wall is shown in diagonal section
638 Agricultural Expbrimbnt Station, Ithaoa, N. T.
at the left, bounded by the letters T E W T. The door through
which the trays are inserted, on the first floor, is at W, and one of
the frames ou which the trays are rested when they'are shoved in,'is
at A. (See the same letters in Fig. 112.) The warming pipes are
at P (see Fig. 111). The stack passes into the second story at F,
and the upper door, from which the trays are removed, is at E.
Above this point, the stack serves as draft- chimney, and as a resting
place for the lifting device. The diagram B in Fig. 105 shows a
direct front view of a cross-section of the stack.
110.— Same ae Fig. 100, rear view. Coal abed on the left.
The chief essential in the interior arrangement of a tower is some
apparatus for lifting the trays, to allow of a tray of fresh fruit to be
placed in at the bottom of the stack. Some of these apparatus work
by means of an endless chain run on a shaft and moved by a crank,
whilst others work directly by means of a lever. Various lifting
devices, some of them controlled by patents (as mentioned in the
descriptions of them), are in UBe in western New York. Some of
the most prominent types are mentioned for the purpose, not of
recommending any one of them, but to acquaint the reader with the
leading principles in the manual operation of an evaporating estab-
lishment.
The lifting device by means of which the trays are elevated in
the Bush stack (Figs. 105, 109, 110) may be called the Culver-
.Google
540 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, ITHACA, N. Y.
Cassidy or Rogers apparatus. The Culver lifting device consisted
of a head-block which was raised by a lever, and it connected with
two columns or runs of notched strips on either side of the stack.
These vertical strips or bars, with the stationary notches, alternately
recede into the recesses of the wall, to allow of the lifting of the
trays by one bar and the engaging or holding of them in place by
the other. The Culver head-block, which is shown at H C O, and
the lever at L in Fig. 105, was at the top of the stack. Now, the
Cassidy lifter worked from the bottom, raising the trays by meant
lis— Fending door of ataok.
of a chain winding on an iron bar which was turned by a crank out-
side the stack. But instead of resting the trays on stationary eogi
or notches, as the Culver device did, the Cassidy apparatus employed
movable dogs. In 1881, L. It. Rogers obtained the consent of the
interested parties, as he informs me, and combined the two machines,
using the head-block of the Culver and the movable dogs of the
CaBsidy. This type of lifting device is the most popular apparatus
now in use in Wayne county and adjoining regions, largely became
it is readily adapted to any size or height of tower, and is ample
and direct in operation.
,v Google
Evaporated Raspberries.
541
The lifting apparatus in Fig. 105, therefore, consists of two
double runs or columns of dogs 011 each side of the etack, and a
head-block above. The runs of dogs are shown at iTand at Y ; also
at S. One line of dogs in each column is stationary and holds the
tray, and the other line is movable and lifts the tray. One of these
dogs is seen in Fig. 113. The dog SEia a piece of cast-iron, hung
on a pivot D. There are two of these dogs, side by side The side
of the tray rests on the projecting portion, above S. One line of
the dogs is raised by the head-block and the tray is lifted with it,
the side of the tray, as it rises forcing in the dog above it. As the
tray passes the dog, the latter fails out by its
own weight and the tray rests upon it, whilst
the head-block is let go, and the movable line
of dogs falls back to its place. This is not the
form of catch or dog which was used in the
original Cassidy apparatus, for in that
the catches evidently worked by spring*
and not by gravity. The brief of the \ S
original specification c 1 ed for " the
combination of stationary posts pro-
vided with spring catches, with vertic-
ally-movable posts carrying drying frames and
provided with similar spring-catches, and with
mechanism for operating the same." (See U.
S. Gazette of Patents, ix. 168, 166.)
The movable or lifting line of dogs is raised
by the head-block, shown at H O in Fig. 105.
Thie device is secured to a timber, Gt let into
the brick-work, and through which the head, II,
plays. The apparatus is moved upwards by
means of the lever, L, which works on a chain
fastened just below C. A rope, R (see also R
in Fig. 112), drops from the end of the lever to
the operator's hand on the first floor. The oper-
ator, therefore, pulls down on the rope, moving
all the trayB np one notch, thus leaving the lowest
notch free for the insertion of another tray. Looked at from beneath,
the head-block presents the outline shown in diagram G, Fig. 105.
The attachment of the block to the lifting-rods is shown in diagram
D (showing a cross section), and also in T in diagram A.
DqltSMByGOOgle
111.— DOS, or tnj roit.
)ijiio,aWGoosIe
Evaporated Easpbeheibs. 543
While this Cnlver-Cassidy lifting device is the most common one
in western New York, there are Btill many other styles. The old
Alden evaporator, which is now little used, lifted the trays by means
of an endless sprocket chain working on a shaft at the bottom and
top of the stack, and bearing fixed dogs at intervals to hold the
trays. A crank on the lower shaft served to move the column of
trays, and the chain returned on the ontside of the Btaek.
The "Williams evaporator works endless chains wholly inside the
stack, and the trays are permanently fastened to the chain and are
brought back to the feeding door, where the fruit is removed. This
saves running up and down stairs with the trays, which is a draw-
back in the towers already described, and it allows the operator to
inspect any tray of fruit at will by turning the crank and bringing
it back to the door. The chief disadvantage in the Williams is the
fact that the fruit is " finished up " or removed in the hottest part
of the Btack, instead of being taken out at the top, which is the
coolest part of the stack ; but this difficulty is reduced to a minimum
by filling the stack as full as possible to begin with and then letting
the fire go down as the fruit becomes dry.
A tower dryer constructed upon a different principle is the Auto-
matic, made in Philadelphia, and a view of it is seen in Fig. 114.
In this machine, the trays themselves fit upon one another and form
the stack. The entire pile or stack of trays is lifted by a crank and
chain, and a new tray is inserted at the bottom. The illustration
shows a tray (five feet square in this case), resting upon the rack
and ready to insert at the bottom of the stack of trays.
There are other styles of tower driers which have no lifting
devices. The trays slide into slots or rest upon cleats, and they may
be taken out and replaced higher up, or the evaporating may he
controlled wholly by attention to the heat and to ventilating by
opening the doors. Most small evaporators designed for preparing
fruit for family use are of this description. Any person who is
handy with tools should he able, from all the foregoing account, to
make a machine which will evaporate from two to ten bushels of
berries or apples a day, and thus be able to save most of the fruit
about a email plantation which ordinarily goes to waste. A drier
containing ten to twelve trays three feet square should handle ten
bushels of apples a day with ease. A small stove may be used for
heater, or a brick furnace may be built. Of small cheap driers in
,v Google
541 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
the market, the Topping made at Marion, If. Y., and shown in Fig.
106, is much used in Wayne county. This can be had in four sizes,
with capacities ranging from five to twenty bushels of apples a daj.
Steam tray-driers.
Steam is occasionally used in kiln driers, as we have seen (page
446), but it is most efficient when applied in closed stacks or boxes,
underneath trays. For a very large output, steam is probably the
most efficient and economical heat, particularly where light power is
also wanted for running parers, cider presses, carriers, and the like ;
116. — Front rlovr of a steam box |L. H. Roger*, Albion).
and it also has the advantage of being easily carried to all parts
of the establishment for warming purposes. Coils of steam pipe
are laid in horizontal tiers, the space between each two tiers being
just sufficient to allow of the easy insertion of one or two trays.
Each tray is therefore independent of all others above or below it,
and it may be allowed to remain in its original position until the
fruit is finished, A narrow horizontal door is provided for each
space. These tiers of Bteam pipes may reach a total height of five
to eight feet, and several stands of them are usually placed along
side, and the whole is usually boxed in with lumber. Fig. 116
is a front view of a portion of two stands of a steam tray-drier.
Six doors are shown in each stand, some of them open and dia-
Digitized by GoOgle
EVAPOKATED RASPBERRIES.
■ing the piping, and on the bottom at the left two trays are
wd, partly drawn ont. An end view of one of these boxes ib
i in Fig. 117, in which two complete tiers or runB of pipes are
117.— End Ttov of the right-hand Hand of Fig. 118.
□ and also the lower tier, or run, of another double coil. The
r will be interested to know that this description of a steam
is taken from the establishment of L. 11. Rogers, whom I
already introduced in connection with the history of the evo-
of the evaporator, bat who is now a resident of Albion,
: he has one of the most complete establishments in the State.
■. Rogers' experience, 4,000 feet of 1-inch pipe gives a capa-
f 300 bushels of apples per day.
use of steam is capable of almost endless modifications to
■ dividual circumstances, and it is bo completely within the
1 of the operator, that it must increase in popularity as com-
n and co-operation increase.
Air-ilaai driers.
drying of fruit by means of drafts of heated air has received
attention recently in western New York, particularly in
35
546 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaua, N. Y.
the Blanchard establishment at Albion, but as its use is adapted
rather more to large establishments than to the individual grower,
I shall oot discuss it here.
Methods and results.
As in all other industries, there are all grades of prodncts tamed
oat of the evaporators, the differences being largely attributable
to the care and attention which the operator gives to his business.
In raspberries, however, with which this paper is concerned, there
are fewer differences in grades than iu other evaporated fruits,
because the fruits themselves do not need any preparation previous
to evaporation, and because even a large number of inferior fruits
may be lost in the mass.
If one contemplates making a large quantity of evaporated pro-
dncts from year to year, he should give particular attention to the
plan of his building as well as of the evaporator itself. A basement
is handy for coal and storage, and it contains the heating apparatus.
The first floor is the receiving room for the frtiit, the office, and
either this room or a wing contains the paring machines, bleaching
boxes, and other accessories. The second floor affords storage for
the finished fiuit This is stored in piles on the floor, and the latter
should therefore be made of a good quality of dressed and matched
lumber. Nothing is more essential to an evaporating establishment
than scrupulous cleanliness, for the refuse of the fruit soon sours
and decays and makes the place a most forbidding one, while a well
kept evaporating establishment has a most attractive, fruity odor.
I am sorry to say that there is opportunity for great improvement
in matters of simple cleanliness in very many of the evaporating
establishments of this State.
Many of the evaporator buildings are remodelled from old
dwelling houses, shops, or other buildings, but they are rarely as
handy and efficient as those which are built for the purpose. It
should be borne in mind, when building, that the stacks themselves
should occupy a comparatively small part of the establishment ; that
is, the room needed for storage and working mnch exceeds that
needed for the drying towers. This remark is well enforced by the
building shown in Fig. 108. The main building, containing three
towers in the rear, is seen at the right. It has a capacity of 5,000
quarts ot berries a day. The wing partly shown on the left is •
storehouse. This outfit can be built for less than $8,000. The
D,aitoe0DyGoOQle
Evaporated Raspberries. 547
Bosh establishment, shown in Figs. 105, 109, 110, 111, is 24x36
ft., with 16 ft poets, three solid brick stacks 38 ft. high, and stone
basement, well finished throughout, and cost $1,400. This estab-
lishment has a capacity of about one thousand bushels of apples a
week.
The tray most commonly used in Wayne county is a frame 4 ft.
1 in. square, covered with wire screen which has a mesh about one-
fifth or one-fourth inch wide. Such a tray receives about sixteen
quarts of berries at each filling. A stack of the capacity of Mr.
Bush's holds 25 trays, so that the stack has from twelve to thirteen
bushels of berries, measured when fresh, when it is full. Mr. Hair
(Fig. 114) spreads from twenty-four to thirty quarts of berries upon
his 5x5 ft. trays. Under ordinary conditions, with heat about
200° F. at the bottom tray, these trays may be moved up — that is,
fresh berries inserted — every 10 minutes. A twenty-five-tray stack,
therefore, would be discharged in about four to five hours. The ope-
rator will soon find, however, that the time required to finish the froit
varies with many conditions and with the variety of berry. In
moist weather and with the first pickings more time is required be-
cause the fruit is plump and juicy. For the later pickings and in
dry times the evaporation may be completed in half the time re-
quired for the plump berries. The Ohio raspberry also dries
quicker than most other common varieties. It is, therefore, often
necessary to "strip" the trays; that is, to take out five or six or
more trays at once, rather than to wait for each one to come out in
its appointed turn. A test made by myself in one of the best evapo-
rators of the State finished Gregg raspberries in four hours. The
trays were filled with 24 quarts at 11 a. m., with bottom heat 175°
and top heat (at upper trays) 100°, the outside temperature being
74°. The fruit came out at 3 p. m., and measured 10 quarts to
the tray.
The berries are ''finished " when they are dry enough to rattle a
little on the trays. The trays are then removed and " scraped "
with a wooden paddle into a bin or pile on the floor. As they come
from the tray the berries are still moist and soft, and will stick to
the paint if squeezed in the hand. That is, they are not yet dry
enough to keep. They must now be cured, by allowing them to
rest in piles six to eighteen inches deep in the warm, airy chamber,
and by shoveling them over several times in the course of a few
weeks. It will generally be necessary to turn them over from six to
548 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
twelve times. This curing of the berries is more often slighted
than the drying of them, in my observation, and buyers often com-
plain of the softness of the prodnct. When the berries come from
the trays they are commonly very unequal in size, some having
dried out more completely than others, but as they lie in the bins
the small berries absorb some of the moisture from the plump ones,
the latter thereby becoming smaller, and the product finally comes
to be very uniform in size, as shown in the sample, which is a good
one, in Fig. 118. At this stage, when the product goes to market,
118.— Evaporated ruptttrrlei lit (or market.
the berries should not adhere to the palm when they are pressed in
the hand. The product is run through a fanning mill and 1b then
packed in barrels for shipment. A barrel holds about 125 pounds
of dried berries.
The amount of fresh berries required for a pound of the cured
product is a variable quantity. In the test just cited a4 quarts gave
10 quarts, but these were fresh from the trays, and further shrink-
age took place before they were fully cured. Ou an average, a
little over three quarts (about four pounds) of fresh blackcaps are
required to make a pound of marketable product. In a moist season
four quarts are usually required. At the end of the season, when
the berries are small and dry, two quarts may make a pound. Of
red berries, from four to five quarts are required for a pound of
evaporated fruit.
The staple variety of blackcaps for evaporating is the Ohio, al-
though the Gregg is crowding it out — and properly so, I think
Google
Evaporated Raspberries, 549
— in man; of the best berry sections. There are no clcse competi-
tors of these two varieties for evaporating purposes. The red
varieties are seldom evaporated, because there is little demand for
the product, they consume much time on the tray, and too many
berries are required to make a pound. Shaffer is more frequently
dried, although it has no conspicuous place in the industry. A
fuller account of these varieties will be found in Part II.
When evaporated raspberries were first put upon the market they
brought prices which would fairly intoxicate the sober berry growers
of these days. Thirty to forty cents a pound were common prices,
bnt these were clearly in excess of the value of the goods, and prices
fell and production increased. For the last three or four years the
price has probably averaged about sixteen or seventeen cents a
pound. The demand is brisk. There is profit in dried berries at
this figure if the grower secures a good crop ; but there are patches
enough in which twice this price would not leave sufficient margin
to be worth the counting. With the figures which I have given and
allowing 1^-cent per ponnd for the drying of the blacks and 2 cents
for the reds, the grower can figure out the yield which he ought to
have to secure him the profit which lie wants.
II. THE FIELD.
The farmer must grow his berries before he dries them, and he
oftener fails in the former than in the latter operation. It will not
be necessary to enter into many details of the cultivation of the
raspberry, for its treatment is simple, only requiring close attention.
Land known as good wheat or corn land is always suitable for the
raspberry. The remarks in Bulletin 99 respecting land for the
blackberry, as well as methods of training and pruning, will apply
almost equally well to the raspberry ; and the same may be said of
the directions for winter protection, although it is rarely, if ever,
necessary to protect the bushes in western New York. Black rasp-
berries are usually headed back when from 1£ to 2 feet high. It is
important that this heading-in be done about as soon as the canes
reach the desired height, rather than to leave them until consid-
erably higher and then to cut them off to the required point, for the
laterals then start low and the bush becomes stout and self -supporting.
It is a very general mistake to head back raspberries too late or too
high, causing the laterals to start nearer the top of the cane aud
D,git.-edbyG00^Ic
560 AQHIGOLTUBAL EXPERIMENT STATION, ITHAOA, N. T.
thereby making it top-heavy. Fig. 119 is a good cane of Cuthbctt,
and Fig. 120 shows several undesirable canes of the aaroe variety.
The laterals are cut back the following spring to a length of 18 to
11».— A good cane or Cuthbeit, with low lateral*
18 inches, the same as blackberries are. This treatment also applies
to the purple-cane varieties, like Shaffer, but not to the reds, for
these are rarely headed-in at all.
The red raspberries are very seldom evaporated, and only tba
Cuthbert is used for that purpose, so far as I know. The red ber-
ries generally pay better when given to the open market Of the
purple berries, only the Shaffer is dried in western New York, and
it is doubtful if it is profitable when tbus handled, for it loses too
much in drying and the market for dried red and purple berries is
very small. The new Columbian raspberry impresses us very fa™1
13,0 ivGoo^Ic
Evaporated Raspberries.
It, and if it behaves in other places as it does on oar own grounds
mnat crowd out the Shaffer. It is rather more vigorous in growth
in the Shaffer, has a longer season, and^the berry is more conical
1 firmer, with more uniform drupelets.
IS*— Poor canes of Uutbbert, with high laterals.
i are really only two important varieties in the evaporating
in western New York, the Ohio and the Gregg. The
valuable because it is easily grown and the berries are firm
edy " and therefore dry easily. It is still the dominant
northern Wayne county, but it is gradually losing ground
uthern part of the county and in YateB county. It seems
ning out, largely, perhaps, because the stock is coming to
id with the yellows or red rust ; and it is possible that land
y a rotation even amongst varieties of the same species.
552 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
It looks to me as if some other berry, of better quality and larger
size, is bouud to drive it to the wall. The only other strong com-
petitor at the present time, as I have said, is Gregg. The Gregg is
exceedingly valuable because it demands rather better land and better
culture than that under which the Ohio will thrive. It therefore
1SL Ohio tjpo of nmplwrry. Life site.
has a salutary effect upon the grower. Given this good care, it is
an abundant and sure cropper, producing berries like those in
Fig. 122. *
How long is it profitable to crop a raspberry patch I Karely
more than three or four crops. Growers are all the time making
the mistake of letting the patch stand "just one year longer,"
thereby encouraging poor cultivation and inviting the spread of
yellows, anthracnose, and other wandering guests. The plants or
tips are set, say, in the spring of 1893. The small canes which
spring from the crown that year will bear some berries in 189-1,
when they are called "creepers," because they lop over on the
ground whilst the strong canes of 1894 stand erect. In 1895, the
l3,voo:yGoO^IC
EvAPOBATKD RASPBERRIES. 583
-op borne on the canes of 1694, should be heavy. In 1896,
le crop is generally lees, and after it is off, the brushes may be
ailed oat and the land fitted for other crops. Berries ought not
e set upon this laud again in less than three or four years. There
nany instances in which the plantation can be left for the fourth
fth crop with profit, but they are patches which have not become
with grass, thistles and diseases, and which have had good
ition throughout. The good culture it is necessary to give the
:g may prolong the life of the patch a year or two beyond this
late. In extensive travels in western New York, I have been
ng for the model commercial black raspberry plantation. My
e is shown in Fig. 123, which shows a patch of Gregg bearing
rst full crop, and owned by T. G. Yeomans & Sous, Walworth,
ne county.
>w much will an acre of raspberries produce, taking the average
ree crops? Opinions differ widely. "We could begin with
>n the one hand, and rise to 6,000 quarts. In an inquiry made, .
' 4 ,,, Xoogle
654 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. T.
herein 1893,* the average
of 58 replies of berry grow-
ers was 2.493 quarts. One
gave his yield (which must
have been on a small patch
and amply multiplied) as
9,900 quarts, whilst another
■7 confessed to but 576 quarts,
g A good yield for the second
■a crop is 3,000 quarts, or 90
to 10» bushels per acre.
1 Willis P. Rogers tells me
. that hie largest fi eld crop of
| Ohio, the third year after
3 planting, was 16,000 quarts
6 on four acres, and a half acre
& of this land was not up to
k the standard. From ezten-
& sive inquiries of evaporator
| men, however, I find it to
8 be a general opinion that
0 the average crops of the
J country, one year with
a another, will not exceed
| 1,200 quarts per acre, or 300
~ pounds of dried product.
1 The harvesting of the
-> crop costs too much. The
a price paid by evaporating
men this year for Ohios and
Greggs was 4J- and 5 cents
a quart, yet the grower gen-
erally had to pay 2 cents a
quart for picking. Here is
an advantage of the Gregg,
for pickers can generally
do as well in picking it for If cents as in picking the Ohio for 3
cents. To lessen the cost of harvesting and to overcome the diffi-
culty of securing pickers in remote places, the berry harvester has
* Bulletin 57, " Raspberries ami Blackberries," by Fred W. Card.
DqltSMByCOOgle
Evaporated Raspberries. 555
come into nee.* This is a canvas tray, made by stretching the
cloth over a light wooden frame about three feet wide and four or
124.— Buttinjt the berriM.
five feet long. At the bottom, the frame projects upwards at right
angles to the body .of the frame to a distance of five or six inches,
»to catch the berries as they fall upon the canvas. A wooden
shoe or runner is placed on the bottom of the apparatus to
allow the operator to slide it along from bush to bush, as
shown in Fig. 124. A long wire hook (Fig. 125) is used to
pall the bashes over the tray or to lift np the fallen canes,
whilst with the other hand the operator deftly caffs off the
berries with a paddle of wood or of wire covered with canvas
and about the size of a batter ladle.
The harvester is used only for the gathering of berries
which are to be evaporated. The berries are allowed to
become fully ripe, so that they fall easily, and the patch is
gone over about three times. Much litter falls with the
berries, but this is readily removed by running the dried
fruit through a fanning mill. There are few
* growers who use this harvester exclusively. It
is often brought into requisition for the last
picking, and it also has a most stimulating
effect upon a lot of disaffected berry pickers. The device was first
'Pally described in our Bulletin 57, 1693.
DqltaeaByCjOOgle
556 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. T.
perfected by Mr. Benedict, of Dundee, although the idea seems to
nave originated with Uriah Hair, of the eame place.
There are various methods of keeping accounts with berry pickers.
Perhaps the commonest mode in large patches is a simple ticket,
like Fig. 126, which is given to the picker in exchange for the
berries which are delivered. There are
tickets of various denominations, the
figures representing quarts, so that any
nnraber of quarts can be represented by
combinations of tickets. These tickets
are so often lost that they may soon come
to be a nuisance. Several growers,
therefore, have designed tickets which
can be tied to the person by a string,
which bear the picker's name, and in which the numbers are
cancelled by a punch- Two good styles are shown, full size, in Figs.
127 and 128. In the latter are two styles of punch marks, repre-
senting different foremen. Other growers abolish all ticket systems
outright, and keep a book account with each picker. The Yeo-
manses, at Walworth, do this, and what is better they pay by the
pound. A small Hat-topped grocers' scale is taken to the shed in
the berry field. Each picker is numbered, and he picks in an eight-
pound Climax grape basket. As he conies to the shed, he slips his
number into the basket on a bit of card or splint, and lie Bees the
basket weighed and the credit given ; or, if the picker has no
suspicions, the foreman may gather the baskets from the field.
They pay 2 cents a quart, or 1,6 cent a pound (since a quart weighs
1^ pounds), but the price can be dropped to 1 cent a pound inGreggs.
A word may be said, in passing, about berry stands. The beat
one which I know is the Dundee stand, shown in Fig. 129. This
holds six quart boxes. It is strong, and of handy shape ; but its
chief merit is the ease with which the stands can he stacked with-
out injuring the fruit. See the stack of them at the right in
Fig. 114. A commoner style is a six-baaket stand on four legs, one
being shown in front of the man in Fig. 123.
After all is said and done, how much of his crop shall the grower
evaporate? Mr. Hair says that when the price of berries goes
below eight cents a quart, the berries go into the evaporator. Mr.
Yeomans puts them in the evaporator when they fail to net seven
cents a quart. Au efficient evaporator upon any place, even though
COOQ Ic
Evaporated Rabpbbbbibs. 557
it be a very small one, has a good effect both upon the market and
upon the grower. It keeps a surplus of green fruit off the market,
and it informs the buyer that he must keep his price above water
level or he can not get the fruit. On the grower's part, it makes
him in a measure independent of the market; but more than that,
it leads him to save much of what is generally « waste product,
6 ' Google
558 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
each as windfall apples, surplus berries, and the like. It is unques-
tionable that much of the prosperity of "Wayne county and adjoin-
118.— Picker's tag.
ing regions is attributable to the garnering evaporators which are
the property of so many farms.
Diseaeea.
The grower will want to hear something about diseases of rasp-
berries before I am done, by way of dessert. Then, I will first
observe that I am glad that they exist. All education and progress
come of difficulties. The perplexities drive the weak and incom-
petent persons out of any business, and make students of the remain-
der. The bugs and fungi are good teachers, for they make us learn
tootle
Evaporated Raspberries. 559
whether we will or 110. Then I am pleased to report three vig-
orous diseases which are invading the raspberry plantations of
western New York, but all of which can be kept in check by
digging ont the bashes or by cutting them off and burning the
brush. This may seem to be heroic treatment, but one who begins
it with the very first symptom wiD generally suffer very little Iobs ;
and the practice in keeping his eyes open will make him a better
berry-grower all around.
Yellow, red rust or orange rust, is the disease best known to
growers. This disease is generally known by the very thick orange-
!».— Dundee berry stand.
red covering of spores on the under surfaces of the leaves in
early summer. These leaves curl when badly affected (Fig. 130),
and make the diseased plant conspicuous at a considerable distance.
This stage of the disease is often seen on wild bushes of raspberries,
blackberries and dewberries. The sharp berry-grower, however,
does not need to wait until this discoloration appears for the young
canes on affected plants are slender, cylindrical, and usually wholly
destitute of prickles. The botanist is able to detect the disease
upon the first unfolding leaves. This malady permeates the entire
plant, and is therefore incurable when once established. The
orange-discolored leaves fall in early summer, and the plant may
appear to recover later in the season, but the following year the
plant will be found to be weaker and probably wholly worthless,
and the orange coating will return. It is now known that another
disorder which makes spots on the under surface of raspberry and
blackberry leaves (and known as Puccinia Peckiana*), is really a
*Iti some unaccountable manner, probably through an error in "make up,"
the statement is made in the third edition of my Borticuttmitft Rule- Hook (page
TO), that this 1 nnena is a form of the anthTncnose.
i;git.-eo:;yCOO^IC
560 Aqhicoltokal Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. T.
form of this red rust fungus. The spores of this form mature in the
fall, and these, falling on the ground, are probably the means of
inoculating the plant with the ruet through young underground
shoots. The red rust form of the fungus is known as Caom
nitens.
It).-L»TM dliwnd bj r«Uow».
It is evidently useless to endeavor to cure or to treat this yello**
or red rust. The first moment the disease is detected, the affected
plant should be pulled out, root and branch, and burned. If one is
alert, it is generally an easy matter to keep a patch free of the dis-
ease. I know of no disease of fruit plants the presence of which is
such an infallible indication of neglect as this.
i:rjl 0 :yL.OO^IC
Evaporated Raspberries. 561
Anthrocmoae or ome-ruat is much more to be feared than the
yellows. It ib less apparent on the plant, and it may Bpread into all
portions of the patch before it is detected. The form of the disease
which "the grower needs to be able to recognize is ehowu in Fig.
131. There are various pita or scars on the young cane, each one
181.— AuthrmcnDH on rupberr; cine.
probably a distinct infection of the disease. These discolored pits
interfere seriously with the health of the plant, causing the leaves to
torn yellow and the canes to die if the trouble is extensive. Much
of the drying np of berries on the bushes is due to attacks of
anthracDOse on the canes or near the clusters, and some of the
death of plants commonly ascribed to winter-killing is attributable
to the same cause. The disease is particularly bad upon the black-
caps and the Shaffer. It first appears very early in the season upon
the newly starting shoots, and it generally continues to attack the
shoots as they increase in height. The first indication of the attack
which the grower will notice is the presence of small purplish
discolorations on the canes. The disease also attacks the leaves.
leaves.
GooqI
c
562 Aghiooltubal Exfbhimbnt Station, Ithaoa, N. T.
It would seem as if the disease could be prevented toy keeping
the growing canes covered with Bordeaux mixture. If this it tried,
the fungicide should be applied whilst the shoots are less than six
inches high, and the application most be repeated ever; week or
ten days until the caue has grown to a height at which the disease
will not injure it. Green has been able to keep plants free from
the disease with both Bordeaux mixture and ammonical carbonate
of copper.* He advises for sprayings, one of them before growth
begins, and the last just before blossoming time. Beech has had
similar results-f The bushes were sprayed six times. Late in
November,- an examination showed that " the canes in the treated
rows were nearly free from disease, while those that were not sprayed
are still very badly affected."
Mr. L. T. Yeomans, Walworth, made a similar test this year
under our suggestions, upon Gregg. He sprayed with Bordeaux
mixture as follows : May 16 ; May 20 (repeated this early because
the first spraying seemed to have hit the leaves more than the
canes) ; May 29 ; June 7th. On newly set plants, these application*
were made, and also the following additional ones : Jnne 18th ;
June 17th; June 26th; July 9th. These applications were made
carefully and thoroughly, but neither Mr. Yeomans nor myself
could detect any immunity from disease on the sprayed plants. It
should be said, however, that the disease was slight upon all the
plants.
My associate, Mr. Lodeman, made a similar experiment this year
in the University gardens, and his account follows: " Two varieties
of raspberries were selected, Schafier and Ada, one part of the rows
being repeatedly sprayed with Bordeaux mixture. The first appli-
cation was made May 18th ; this was followed by others on Jnne
18th, June 26th and July 11th. The plants and canes were each
time deluged with the mixture to such an extent that they lost their
normal green color and appeared as blue as the mixture could make
them. It was found that the canes could not be nearly so well
protected as the leaves, as the liquid refused to adhere to the
glaucous surface ; it collected, however, upon the ends of the thorns,
giving them a marked blue tip.
" Some plants of both varieties received only the two applications
made in June, while certain Shaffer plants remained untreated.
• Ball. 6, Vol. it. Ohio Exp. Stft. 119 (1891).
t BdI. 81, New York State (Geneva) Exit. Sta. 093 (1831). ,--
;, .0 O'yLlOO^IC
EVAPORATED RaSPBBEEIBS. 563
Notes taken August 2d and 28th, show that the fungicide had been
of some value in checking the anthracnose, bnt the effects were not
so marked as was desired. The canes of the unsprayed Shaffer
were very much pitted, the older and larger ones being considerably
swollen and bent in places. The smaller canes as well as the leaves
also showed an abundance of infected places. The portion of the
rows which received the two treatments in June were not in mncb
better condition than the untreated plants.
The lower portion of the canes were
severely attacked, and although the num-
ber of pits did not appear to be so abund-
ant, still all parte of the plants were more
or less affected. The boshes receiving the
greatest number of treatments were the
most healthy, bnt the benefits derived
from the fungicide were not sufficiently
marked upon either variety to encourage
a grower to repeat the same line of treat-
ment. Some protection was undoubtedly
afforded and the plants were plainly in
better condition than their untreated
neighbors, yet the use of the Bordeaux
mixture during the growing season can
not be recommended as being of mnch
practical benefit. If the bushes are to be
sprayed, the first application should be
made as soon as the new canes appear, and
these should be kept covered as well as
possible. If some more adhesive material
than the Bordeaux mixture were employed,
better results would probably follow."
These various results are conflicting. For
myself, I do not believe that spraying alone
is sufficient to keep down the anthracnose.
The very first requisite to clean patches is
a Bhort rotation. Bemove the plants just
as soon as they become weakened, either
from anthracnose or age. Next, thin ont the young canes and
exercise care to remove and burn those which are most diseased.
Third, cut out and burn the old canes just as soon as the fruit is
off. These three operations are essential to the best raspberry
664 Agricultural Exfbbihbnt Station, Ithaca, N. T.
culture anyway, and if the anthracnose succeeds in enforcing them
npon the attention of growers, its mission will have been fulfilled.
If, therefore, a patch became very badly diseased, I should pull it
ont ; or if that were too violent, then I should mow off the bushes
in fall, burn all the brash, and the following year, soak the new
shoots with Bordeaux mixture as they grow. By sacrificing a year
it might be possible to eradicate the disease. But I am sure that it
can be kept in check by attention to the three operations which I
have mentioned.
Root-geUU (Fig. 132), are often found on raspberries. They have
not been carefully studied and the origin of them is not understood.
The commonest form is apparently not the work of insects, but is
likely of similar nature to the galls which infect the roots of the
peach,* pear, and other fruits in New York State. The first indica-
tion of their presence is a general enfeebling or yellowing of the
bush. If there are no visible injuries of insects or fungi above
ground, pull up a bush and examine the roots. If galls are found,
make another patch at once on new land.
There are various other diseases and a number of insect pests of
the raspberry, but there are few of them which should give serious
trouble to the person who has carefully followed the teachings of
the experiment stations.
' See oar Bulletin 76, page 38U, Fig. 12.
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CONTENTS.
I. The Evaporator. 631
Eilen t of the dried raspberry industry 631
Markets for the product 633
History of the modern evaporator 533, 633
The kiln drier 54*
(The nee of this style of evaporators for raspberries is not encouraged.)
The tower drier 635
(We recommend brick stacks with wire screen trays, which are ele-
vated by some handy lifter.)
Description of a stack or tower 535, 536
(These tower driers make a first quality product, and are in all ways
the moat satisfactory evaporators for general use.)
Steam tray-driers 644
(Steam is capable of most efficient use in rather large establishments.)
Air-blast driers 646
Methods and results of evaporating 546
The evaporator building 546
Thelray 547
When are the berries dry t 617
Hon- much do they shrink 1 548
Varieties 648
Prices 549
n. The Field 549
General remarks, pruning 650
Varieties 661
Profitable age of be-iy patch 552
Yields 654
Harvesting, the batter 656
Accounts with pickers. 556
Berry stands 556
Profits of the evaporator 667
Yellow or red rust 559
(Poll oat all diseased plants as soon as they are discovered, nnd burn
them. The grower can keep bis patch clean if he and bis neighbors
are diligent.)
Digitized byGoOgle
566 Aqricultuhal Expbbimbnt Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
AnthracnoBe or cane ruat 561
(Practice abort, rotations, thin out the young canes, choosing those
which are diseased, and cut out and burn the old canes as soon as the
frail is off. In addition to this, frequent spraying with Bordeaux mix-
ture ma; help matters.)
Boot-galls 564
(The boshes become feeble and yellow and do not bear. Destroy them,
and plant on laud which has not had a recent stand of blackberries or
raspberries.)
L. H. BAILEY.
.Google
LLETIN lOl — September, 1895.
U University— Agricultural Experiment Station.
HORTICULTURAL DIVISION.
NOTIONS ABOUT
IE SPRAYING OF TREES,
WITH BBMARKB (
THE CANKER-WORM.
By L. H. Bailey.
Malta* byGoOgle
ORGANIZATION.
Board of Control— The Trustees of the University.
STATION COUNCIL.
President, JACOB GOULD SCHUBMAN.
HON. A. D. wniTE Tnutteof lite University.
Professor I. F. ROBERTS 1'reeirient State Agricultural Sooiety.
Professor I. P. ROBERTS Agriculture.
Professor G. C. CALDWELL Chemistry.
Professor JAMES LAW Veterinary Sciouo*.
Professor A. N. PRENTI88 Botany.
Professor J. H. COM8TOOK Entomology.
Professor L. H. BAILEY Horticulture.
Professor H. H. WING Dairy Hutoaudry.
Professor G. V. ATKINSON CryptogamiolBota-ny.
OFFICERS OP THE STATION.
I. P. ROBERTS
E. L. WILLIAMS _
H. W. SMITH Cter*.
ASSISTANTS.
M. V. SLINGERLAND Entomology.
GEO. C. WATSON Agriculture.
Q. W. CAVANAriGH CkewUtry.
E. G. LODEMAN BorHoulture.
MICHAEL BARKER Horticulture.
Office of the Director, 20 Morrill Hell.
Those desiring this Bailetlu Rent to friends will please send u
tbe parties.
Bulletins of 1895.
a Western New York.
88. Early Lamb Raising.
89. Feeding Pigs.
90. The China Asters.
91. Recent Chrysanthemums.
92. Oh the Effeot of Feeding Fat to Cows,
93. The Cigar Case- Bearer.
94. Dampine-OfT.
95. Winter Husk melons.
96. Forcing-House Miscellanies.
97. Entomogenons Fungi.
On account of the technical nature of Bulletin 97, only a limited edition it
printed/or the use of Experiment Station* and Exchange*.
18. Cherries.
99. Blackberries.
100. Evaporated Raspberries In Western New York.
101. Tbe Spraying of Trees ; with remarks on Tbe Canker- Worm.
,v Google
Coknkll University, ,
Ithaca, September 30, 1895. \
Honorable Commissioner of Agricvltwre, Albany:
Sib. — I submit this essay for publication under Chapter 230 of
the Laws of 1895. It is no part of its purpose to present any con-
secutive discussion of the subject of spraying, but it seeks to answer
die commonest types of questions which the fruit-raisers of the
State hare asked me during the past season. The results of various
experiments upon spraying will be published later by my associate,
Mr. Lodeman.
L. H. BAILEY.
,v Google
THE CANKER-WORM AND SPRAYING A HUNDRED
YEARS AGO.
This worm is produced from the eggs of an earth -coloured bug, which having
continued under ground during winter, passes op on the bodies of apple tree*
early in the spring. They are hatched as early as the end of May, and are so
voracious, that in a few weeks tbey destroy all of the leaves of a tree, prevent
its bearing for tbat year, and the next, and give it the appearance of its having
been burnt. As the perspiration of trees is stopped by the loss of their leaves,
tbey sicken and die in a few years.
The worms let themselves down by threads In qnest of prey, like spiders ; by
means of which, the wind blows them from tree to tree ; so tbat in a close
orohard, not one tree will escape them. Bnt trees which stand singly are sel-
domer infested with these insects. As tbey are the most pernicious kind of
insects with which Sewenglaud is now infested, if any person could Invent some
easy, cheap, and effectual method of snbdning them, he would merit the thanks
of the pnblick, and more especially of every owner of an orchard.
Several methods bave been tried, with some degree of sncceas: 1. Tarring.
A strip of canvas, or linen, 1b put round the body of a tree, before the ground is
open in the spring, and well smeared with tar. The females, in attempting; to
pass over it, stick fast and perish. Bnt unless the tarring be renewed every day,
it will become bard, and permit tbe insects to pass safely over it. And renewing
the tar In season is too apt to be neglected, through hurry of business and for-
getfulness. If birdlime were to be bad, it might answer the purpose better, aa
its tenacity will continue for some time. 2. Some tie straw round the bodies of
the trees. This serves to entangle and retard the insects, and prevents the ascent
of many of them. Bot they are so amazingly prolifick, that if ever so few of
tbem get up, a tree is greatly damaged, at least for an ensuing season or two.
Tbe pasturing of swine in an orchard, when it can conveniently be done, I
suppose to be an excellent method. With tbeir snouts aud their feet, they will
destroy many of the insests, before they come ont of the gronnd, or while they
are coming ont. And I have never known any orohard, constantly used as a bog
pasture, wholly destroyed, or even made wholly unfruitful by these worms. But
this method cannot always be taken ; and if it could, I do not suppose it would
be quite effectual. When the trees are young, the swine will be apt to injure
them by tearing the bark.
There are several experiments I could wish to have tried, for subduing these
insects: Snob as burning brimstone under the trees in a calm time ; — or piling
dry ashes, or dry loose sand, round the roots of trees in tbe spring; — or throwing
powdered quicklime, or soot, over the trees when they are wet; — or sprinkling
tbem, about the beginning of June, with eea water, or water in which worm-
wood, or walnut leaves, have been boiled ; — or with an infusion of elder, from
which I should entertain some hope of success. The liquid may be safely applied
to all the parts of a tree by a large wooden syringe, or squirt.
I should suppose that the best time for making trial of these methods would
be soon after the worms are batched : For at tbat stage of their existence they
are tender, and the more easily killed. Sometimes a frost happening at this
season destroyed them. This I am told was the case in some places in tbe year
1704.— Samuel Deane, D. D. ( Fioe-Prttident of Bowdoin Collet/'), T*« AereMflMsT
Farmer, or Georgical Dictionary, Second Edition, 1797.
I :■ git. -co oy VjOOQIL
i. The Spraying of Trees.
s~~~\ PRAYING- has now come to be an established part of the
I work of fruit-growing. With all that has been written
Ny npon the subject, the fruit-grower should now be compe-
/\ tent to perform the ordinary spraying of his trees without
/ I further advice. It is not my purpose, therefore, to enter
\_/ into any detail respecting the general methods of spraying,
bat rather to set down some disconnected hints and obser-
vations which have suggested themselves to me in a somewhat
extensive inquiry into the conditions of fruit-growing in western
New York, and which appear to have received only incidental or
minor attention from writers npon spraying.
1. Spraying is only one of ike requisites to success in fruit'
rawing. — Spraying has come into use so quickly, and bo much of
the attention of teachers and experiments has been given to it, that
many people have come to look npon it as the means of salvation of
onr orchards. If spraying is to have the effect of obscuring or
depreciating the importance of good fertilizing, then it might better
never have come into being. Trees most grow before they can
bear, and this growth depends npon food and proper conditions of
soil, more than it does upon the accident of immunity from insects
and fungi. There are four fundamental operations npon which all
permanent success in most kinds of orchard culture depend, and I
think that their importance lies in the order in which I name them,
— tillage, fertilizing, pruning, spraying. Spraying is the last to be
understood, but this fact should not obscure the importance of the
other three.
2. Spraying is an insurance, — There are always elements of risk
in the growing of fruit. The chief of these is frost, a difficulty
which will never be completely under our control. The second
great element of risk is the injury wrought by insects and fungi,
and the greater part of this injury can be averted by the sprays.
Now, it is impossible to foretell by any considerable length of time,
if any or all of the difficulties which are liable to harass the fruit-
L.oo^lc
672 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
raiser will actually appear. One does not know if his buildings will
bum, yet lie insures them. We know that in four years out of five
some aerions injury of insects or fungi may be confidently expected,
and it is the part of wisdom to insure against it. Last year, 1894,
was a season of remarkable invasion of apple-scab fungus, and those
persona who sprayed their orchards thoroughly had phenomenal
results. These experiences, aided by many publications upon the
subject, so advertised the value of the sprays that much more spray-
ing was done in the State this year than ever before. But it has eo
happened, probably because of the dry spring, that comparatively
few invasions of enemies have occurred this year; and the sprays
have, generally, given small results. There has now arisen, there-
fore, considerable indifference, or even opposition, to spraying, and
I expect to see much less of it next spring than I saw this spring.
If, then, next year should be prolific in insects and diseases, there
will be a few orchards here and there which will reward the fore-
thought of the owner, and very many others which will be monu-
ments of the results of neglect. It is a common fault with farmers
that they draw their conclusions from the behavior or experiences of
each recurring season, and do not consider the aggregate results of s
series of years. Every operation should rest upon some fundamental
reason or philosophy, rather than upon any single half understood
experience.
A fruitgrower wrote me as follows last July :
" Yon are always advising people to spray their orchards. All my
neighbors spent much time and money last spring in spraying, but I
did not spray and my fruit is just as good as theirs."
" I do not doubt your experience," I replied ; " this has been a
dry year, and there has been little scab fungus. But you should
have insured your orchard against probable loss by spraying it.*'
A few days later, the same correspondent wrote again : " We
have had a heavy rain, but it seemed to be poisonous to my potatoes
and they are all blackened and wilted. What shall I do % "
I hope that there was no feeling of sarcasm in my reply :
" I am sorry to hear of your loss, but it is now too late to avert
the calamity. Your potatoes were not insured."
8. Spraying is of some value every year, wpon apples, pears,
plums and quinces. — Even this year, nearly all the Bprayed orchards
are carrying a better foliage than those which are untreated, and
where codlin,-moth, bud-moth, case-bearer, and other insects are
Thb Sfbatinq op Trees. 573
plenty, it has been of decided benefit. So, wholly aside from the
idea of insuring against risk, it is advisable to spray for those insects
which are more or less abundant every year. Some insects and
diseases appear late in the season, so that in a year lite the present
the spray may be needed at some epoch in the season. We had
marked success in spraying quinces last year (Bulletin 80), bnt we
have had better results this year. Bnt I am not urging people to
spray their orchards. Those persons who will not spare the trees
this much of their attention will not he likely to do mnch in the
way of tilling and fertilizing. One must grasp the entire body of
principles of orchard management before he can hope for permanent
rewards.
4. Spray thoroughly, or not at ail. — I should say that fully half
the spraying which I have seen in western New York in the last
two or three years is a waste of time and material. Squirting a few
IM.— Pprsjitig rig of T. O. Yeomani & Sodi.
quarts of water at a tree as you hurry past it, is not spraying. A
tree is thoroughly and honestly sprayed when it is wet all over, on
all the branches and on both Bides of all the leaves. An insect or a
fungus is not killed until the poison is placed where the pest is.
, Google
574 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
Buga do not search for the poison, in order that they may accom-
modate the orchardiBt by committing suicide. The one spot which
is not sprayed may be the very place where a bud-moth is getting
bis dinner. On the other hand, there are many fruit-growers who
spray with the greatest thoroughness and accuracy, and they are the
ones who, in the long run, will get the fruit.
5. Prepare for neat year's ioork during the winter. — Secure
nozzle and pumps, and fix up the wagons. It is especially import-
ant that the wagons be handy. In very low orchards, a low track
may be needed, and in some cases a stone-boat is best ; bat most
orchards will need some kind of a high rig to enable the operator to
reach the tops of the trees. Fig. 133 is a rig used by T. G. Yeomans
& Sons, "Walworth, N. Y. The tank holds 800 gallons. The pump
Thb Spraying of Tehhs. 575
1b placed on the front of the rig (in the Beat-rack), and one man
drives and pomps. The horses are stopped at every tree. Two
leads of hose are used, and two men stand on the rear platform and
direct the nozzle. These men have ample space, and the railing
gives them security. Until this year a boy has been employed to
agitate the liquid with a large hoe. These three men and the boy
cost $5.50 per day, and they can spray thoroughly about five acres
of fall-grown apple trees in a day. This year, an automatic agitator
has been employed in place of the boy, with good results.
Another good rig is that shown in Fig. 134, used by A. H. Dut-
ton, Yonngstown, N. Y. Many other efficient spraying outfits are
in use in this State, bat these two will serve to illustrate the kind of
work which is needed to be done. The greater number of fruit-
growers use an ordinary wagon, with box or rack, and a single 50-
gallon barrel ; bat if one has much spraying to do, it is generally
economy to ose a larger tank, especially if water has to be hauled
some distance ; and more thorough work can be done in old
orchards if the operator is elevated above the barrel. The use of
long pieces of half-inch gas-pipe with the nozzle attached to the
end is advisable when one is working in the tops of the trees, bnt
they are apt to be a nuisance if one works from the ground. They
are awkward if more than ten feet long. We generally prefer to
use a bamboo fishing pole, and secure the hose to it near its upper
end, letting the lower part of the pole remain free. Most operators
have insufficient hose. For work in old orchards, the ran should
be at least 15 feet long,
6. Prepare stock solutions for the Bordeaux mixture, rather
than to make each batch in the quantities caUedfor by the formula.
— The sulphate of copper may be put into eolation and kept in
this condition indefinitely, ready for use. A simple method is to
dissolve 40 or 50 pounds of the sulphate in as many gallons of
water, pulverizing the material and hanging it in a coffee-sack in
the top of the barrel. A gallon of water, therefore, means a pound
of sulphate. The lime may also be slaked and kept in readiness for
nse. Slake it into the creamy condition familiar to masons, cover
lightly with water, and then close the box or vessel to prevent the
water from evaporating, When making the Bordeaux mixture,
pour the requisite quantity of the stock solution of sulphate of
copper into the barrel, and then dilute with four or five times the
Malta* byGoOgle
676 AORICULTUKAL EXPERIMENT STATION, ITHACA, N. T.
quantity of water. Now add the lime, and then add enough water
to satisfy the formula. If the ferrocyanide teat is need, place a
spoonful of the mixture, in a saucer or plate, and add a drop of the
test solution. If a red color appears, the mixture needs more lime.
If the test solution is added directly to a tank or barrel of the mix-
ture, the color reaction is apt to be loat in the mass. An excess of
lime ensures the safety of the mixture.
7. The farmer should know -what he wants to kiU before he begin*
to spray. — It is common to find a man who is going at spraying
with enthusiasm, but who can not explain a single definite object
which he haa in view. He simply knows upon general principles
that spraying is useful. To such a man, spraying is spraying,
whether he nses Paris green or Bordeaux or both or neither one ;
and his results are about equal to bis knowledge. There is no-
longer excuse for such ignorance, for all the leading insects and
fnngi have received more or less exact treatment in the publica-
tions of the experiment stations. The state of knowledge is far in
advance of the state of practice.
I find many fruit-growers who need such elementary instruction
as this:
The arsenites (Paris green and London purple) are nsed to kill
all larva) or worms, and all those insects which chew the leaves or
shoots ; such as the codlin-moth, bud-moth, canker-worm, potato-
beetle, tent-caterpillar, and the like. Kerosene emulsion ia used
for scale-insects and plant-lice. Bordeaux mixture and ammon-
ical carbonate of copper, are naed to prevent the attacks of fungous
parasites ; as apple-scab, leaf-blight of the pear, quince and plum,
potato-blight, and such like.
The times and seasons of spraying depend entirely upon the
enemies which it is desired to reach, and upon the weather.
S. When to spray. — The grower himself must decide when and
how often to spray, because he should know what enemies he desires
to reach. If he has the bud-moth, he should spray with the first
swelling of the buds, and if be has the plum-scale he should spray
in the winter. But leaviog the special insects aside, it is safe to say
that for the two staple enemies — the apple-scab and the codlin-
moth — at least two sprayings should be given. I am not yet con-
vinced that spraying when the tree is dormant has any appreciable
effect in destroying the apple-scab fungus. As a general statement
9$
Thb Spraying, of Trees. 677
fniit buds break open, bat before the flowers expand (see illustration
on page 567), and again just as the last blossoms fall. In both cases
I should use a combination of Bordeaux mixture and Paris green.
The first spraying is for the scab fungus in particular, and for this
the Bordeaux is used ; but the Paris green will most likely be of
service in destroying various leaf-eating insects. The second spray-
ing is for the codlin-moth in particular, and for this the Paris green
is used ; but the Bordeaux mixture will still be needed for the apple
scab and other fungi. Whether or not it is necessary to spray again
will depend largely upon the season. The operator must watch
matters closely, and spray when he needs to do so or when he is in
doubt. Two sprayings are sufficient for the codlin-moth, and three
are generally sufficient for the apple-scab. These two sprayings
which I have recommended constitute the insurance which has
already been mentioned ; thereafter, the grower will be able to see
more definitely just what is needed. At any time when the tree is
in growth, Paris green or London purple should be used with lime,
or, batter, with Bordeaux mixture, to prevent injury to the foliage.
One pound of Paris green to 2i)0 gallons of water is the most ser-
viceable general formula for that material ; and to this a pound or
two of lime may be added.
9. How can one tell if soluble arsenic is present m Paris green t
It is the soluble arsenic which bums the foliage. This is always
present in London purple, but good Paris green should have little of
it. Farmers are always asking how they can determine if Paris
green contains soluble arsenic. This may be determined by the nse
of the sulphur test. This test consists in adding sulphuret of
hydrogen to a solution of the poison, when, if arsenic is present, a
yellow precipitate will be thrown down.
In a bottle holding five or six ounces, place a quarter of a tea-
spoonful of Paris green. Add water until the bottle is nearly full,
shake well, and then allow the material to settle. The clear liquid
which remains on top will contain what soluble arsenic may be pres-
ent. Carefully tum off this clear liquid into a long slender bottle or
test tube, add two or three drops of muriatic or sulphuric acid, then
add a tablespoonfut or more of the solution of sulphuret of hydrogen.
If any arsenic is present in the clear liquid, a yellow discoloration
will at once appear, and if the liquid is allowed to stand for a few
minutes, patches or grains of a sand-like material will settle to the
bottom. This yellow precipitate is sulphide of arsenic. If very
37
678 Ageiodltdbai, Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. T.
little soluble arsenic is present, the sulplinret solution ahonld be
warm when used, for the reaction is then more delicate. The sul-
phuret is easily made by anyone who has had even an elementary
instruction in chemistry, by adding sulphuric acid to iron pyrites.
This sulphuretted hydrogen is not a commercial preparation, but
it is present in all sulphur mineral water, and the water may give
the test that I hare described. One can always make sure of the
presence of this material, for its odor is strong and offensive. It is
the odor of spoiled eggs. If mineral water is used, it ahonld be
strong and fresh and about equal in quantity to the arsenic solution ;
and even then only a faint amber discoloration may appear, because
of the small amount of sulphur in the water.
This test of arsenic determines only the fact that soluble arsenic
is or is not present. It does not determine how much soluble arsenic
there may be ; although the greater or less amount of the yellow color
on precipitation will afford a comparative idea of the amount present
in any two or more samples.
I have already advised the use of lime with Paris green or Lon-
don purple for the purpose of taking up the soluble arsenic, by the
formation of arsenite of lime. If this is done, or if the Bordeaux
mixture is used with the arsenit.es, it will not matter if the poison
contain soluble arsenic.
10. How earn, one determine if Paris green is pure t — It some-
times happens that material which is obtained as Paris green con-
tains no arsenic. We once procured such a sample, which proved
to be chrome green. If the material is pure Paris green it will
quickly and completely dissolve in common strong ammonia, giving
a beautiful, rich, dark blue, clear liquid, whilst any of the com-
pounds which would ordinarily be substituted for Paris green on
account of their color and texture, will not behave in this manner
in ammonia. Any insoluble residue is impurity. Chrome green
will not dissolve in ammonia.
11. What becomes of the arsenie when it folk vpon the soil t —
With the action of the rain and the falling of the leaves most of the
arsenic which is applied to trees finally reaches the soil. What
then becomes of it? If lime has been used with the spray the
arsenic will be insoluble when it falls upon the soil. It is possible
that the organic acids in the soil, and also carbonic acid, may dis-
solve some of the arsenic, but it would be almost surely made im-
mediately insoluble again by combination with lime or other soil
GooqIc
Ths Spraying of Tebbs. 579
constituents. If soluble arsenic is placed on the soil it probably
almost immediately goes into insoluble combinations, and remains
where it was placed unless slightly washed down by mere mechani-
cal means. Now some plants appear to have the power to take up
every minute quantities of arsenic and still thrive — probably so
minute that the nicest chemical test can scarcely discover it* — bnt
any appreciable quantity of soluble arsenic in the soil quickly de-
stroys the roots. If, therefore, the grass and other plants under
sprayed trees continue to live, there need be no fear that the arsenic
will injure the soil.
We have made some study of the movement of arsenic in the soil
during the past summer, and the results are here given. The
chemical work was done by G. W. Cavanangh, assistant chemist to
the Experiment Station, the determination of arsenic being made
by Marsh's test, which is known to chemists as one of the most
delicate means of detecting the poison.
Experiment I.
May 26th, 1895. Two ounces Paris green and four ounces lime
were mixed in one quart of water, and the liquid was poured into
a little hollow as large as a saucer in the bottom of a shallow furrow
in firm but rather sterile moist, sandy land. A sample of the same
Paris green was taken to the chemist and found to be of normal
strength, and to contain a little arsenic soluble in cold creek water.
On the night of the 26th nearly an inch (.87 in.) of rain fell, and
on the night of the 28th I poured a quart of creek water on the
area, covering it three inches deep. Samples of the underlying
soil were taken for analysis as follows :
A, May 30th. Sample taken two inches below the surface of the
soil (that is, two inches underneath the stratum of poison). Three
most careful analyses were made and not a trace of arsenic was
found.
B. June 6th. Sample taken two inches down, as before. In the
meantime a slight rain had fallen (.09 in.) and the weather was very
hot. Not a trace of arsenic was found.
On October 7th, 1895, the soil was examined again. It had now
received a total rainfall of about twelve and a half inches (12.35 in.).
"The itadent should consult Jager1* " Uber die ITtfttrnjeti det Artmikt <mf
MgltbedbyGoOgle
680 AOBIOOLTDBAL EXPERIMENT STATION, ITHACA, N. Y.
The soil was very firmly compacted, and was light reddish yellow,
denoting the absence of vegetable matter. Plants were growing
profusely ail about the spot, sending their roots close about the
poisoned area. Upon making a section of the soil various holes
were found, left by the decay of roots, and in these channels the
Paris green could be plainly seen at a depth of two or three inches.
Aside from this, there was no visible evidence of the Paris green in
the soil, but the entire original application still lay intact just under
the surface, having been slightly covered with soil by the rains of
summer.
0. Sample taken October 7th, 3 in. down, and found to contain
the merest trace of arsenic, not enough to make a quantitative esti-
mate possible.
D. Another sample at 3 in., which also showed the merest trace
of arsenic.
E. Sample at 5 in. showed considerable arsenic, more than at
3 in. (0). On searching for the cause of this the sample was
found to have the remains of a rootlet about the size of a knitting
needle running down through it. It was evident that the arsenic
had passed down this channel. Consequently another sample was
taken:
F. Five in. deep, in solid soil. Xo trace of arsenic under the
most searching test
G. Seven in. deep. Xo arsenic.
Experiment II.
On the 5th of June, 1895, 2 oz. of Paris green (from the same
stock as that used in Exp. I.), without lime, was placed on an area
as large as the two palms, on a low, black, moist soil which had been
deeply spaded the fall before. The soil was loosened up an inch
deep with the trowel and then lightly compressed with the hand ;
and on this surface the poison was placed, and then covered with a
half inch of earth. This land was moist all summer long, and when
the first examination was made, Oct. 5, the area had received eleven
and a half (11.30) inches of rain. As in the first experiment, plants
sprung up close about the spot and grew lustily. The examination
in October showed that the under soil tended to run together in
blocks, so that it was brittle and seamy ; and angle-worms bad
worked in it. The basis of the soil was clay, which had become
dark-colored by the accumulation of humus.
DqltSMByCOOgle
The Spraying of Trees. 581
'lien the following samples were taken, Oct. 5, the old appli-
■n of Parte green was still intact just under the surface, appar-
,* as abundant as when first applied, bat none of it could be
id in the soil by the eye.
. Soil taken at one-half in. below the layer of poison. Much
lie present.
. Sample 1 in. down. ' .Much arsenic present.
Two in. down. Some arsenic found.
. Five in. A very little arsenic was present.
Seven in. down. A trace of arsenic found, yet the poison was
here more abundant than it was at 3 in. in the sand(C in Exp. I.)
Eight in. down. No arsenic
le questions now occur how the arsenic went down in the soil,
why it went deeper in the clay loam than in the sand. We
: first determine if the arsenic went into solution and was
ed down by the natural drainage. It will be remembered that
in. under the surface in the loose clay loam (A, Exp. II.),
ty of arsenic was found. A sample of this soil was thoroughly
ited in hot water, and the water carefully tested for arsenic, but
i trace of it was found. This shows that the arsenic was in an
uble condition, and that it was probably carried into the soil
■ly by the mechanical action of the rain. There are various
r considerations which also support this view. We have seen
it evidently followed the remains of the root in one instance
!\ Exp. I.). It went down farther in the clay loam because that
was seamy and burrowed by worms. The sand is a better
Again, if the arsenic had been dissolved in the soil water, it
d have gone much farther down, tor the eleven inches of rain-
on the moist soil of plot II. (there was no surface drainage
.hie) must have gone many more inches into the soil, for there
some heavy rains ; and a similar remark will apply to plot I.
n, if the arsenic were in solution in the soil, it would paaa
ally, as well as downwards, with the movement of soil water,
the plants which grew on the very edges of the plots w)ald
suffered.
le gist of the whole matter then, if we may generalize from
i tests, is that the arsenites do not leach from the soil. They
in where they fall, the same as sand does, and are carried
i only when there are crevices or other openings in the soil,
they then go down as insoluble compounds, and to a slight
682 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
extent, by the mere mechanical action of the water. It is really
remarkable that the sand, in Exp. I., was such a perfect filter as to
hold the great quantity of arsenic above a depth of three inches for
over f onr months. If the soil in either experiment had been a homo-
geneous subsoil, where the sun could not hare cracked or checked
it, it is fair to conclude that no arsenic could hare penetrated it.
II. THE CANKEB^WORM.
The canker-worm is one of the most dreaded scourges in west-
ern New York. It is an old offender, and yet its appearance in
an orchard or on shade trees still awakens as much terror as would
the introduction of some strange and omnivorous pest from another
country. The reason why the canker-worm always commands
this wholesome respect is because it ia a voracious feeder. It
multiplies with astonishing rapidity when it has once established
itself upon a plantation. Its work is bo apparent that the most
careless person is arrested by it. The presence of the canker-worm
is an evidence of neglect, and it is at the same time a most efficient
reminder of that fact to the owner of the plantation. It ia a leaf-
eating insect and should, therefore, be dispatched with Paris green.
In fact, it is the very insect upon which the first efficient experi-
ments were made with that insecticide and from which the recent
development of the spraying of trees has come. An insect which
has done so much good as to have demonstrated the means of its
own destruction and to have given the hint for the annihilation of
all its allies, should be held in pleasant remembrance.
Yet, the orchardists complain that they cannot kill the canker-
worm with poisons. Some persons even declare that its keenest
delight is to feed on Paris green. It is well known, however, that
the insect is as susceptible to poisons as other leaf-feeding worms,
and there are experiments enough on record to show that spraying
is capable of wiping out the pest. It is evident, therefore, that the
reason why so many people fail to kill it by spraying is because
they do not perform the work thoroughly and in season ; and then,
it is a fact that the worm very often becomes thoroughly established
and settled in an orchard before the orchardist ever notices it, or, at
least, before he decides to do anything about it. It is probably im-
possible to rid an orchard of the worm in a single season if the pest
is so numerous as to devour all the leaves. It should hare been
destroyed two or three years before such a state of affairs is possible.
The Spraying of Tbbhjs. 683
On the 4th of last May, the Farmers' and Fruit Growers' Associa-
tion of Orleans County, asked us to make a test, and the society set
apart the orchard of F. D. Scott, near Medina, for the purpose. I
had visited this orchard on the 25th of Jnne, 1894, just after the
worms bad left it, and fonnd many of the trees wholly bare of
leaves. It is a full grown orchard of various varieties, on rather low
ground, and comprising 240 trees set about 30 feet apart each way.
It is a neglected orchard, and the worms have no doubt been work-
ing in it for some years, although they were not observed until the
serious outbreak of last year advertised their presence. On the 4th
of May, last spring, when the plantation was put in our hands for
experiment, there were no indications of worms in the orchard. On
the 9th of May, I visited the orchard again and found myriads of
worms ranging from an eighth-inch to a fourth-inch in length. They
had already done considerable damage to the little leaves, and it was
apparent that we were already too late to save the orchard from
serious injury. The flower buds had mostly broken open, but the
flowers had not yet expanded. The condition of the buds 'at this
time was a little more forward than the cluster shown in the illus-
tration on page 567. The leaves were about an inch long.
On the 10th of May the spraying was begun. Since the day be-
fore, the insects seemed to have increased with amazing rapidity,
and when the limbs were rapped or jarred several excited worms
would spin down from every leaf. It looked like a hopeless task to
conquer them. The most infested part of the orchard was divided
into Bis plots, and these were treated as follows :
I. One pound Paris green and 2 pounds of lime to 200 gallons of
water.
II. One pound Paris green, 2 pounds lime, 144 gallons water.
III. One-half pound Paris green, £ pound London purple, 2
pounds lime, 225 gallons water.
IV. One pound London purple, 2 pounds lime, 96 gallons water.
Y. One pound acetate of lead, 5-j- ounces arsenate of soda, 200
gallons water. (The arsenate of lead mixture used successfully
against the gipsy moth in Massachusetts.)
VI. One pound acetate of lead, 5-J- ounces arsenate of soda, 100
gallons water.
The spraying began at 9 o'clock in the morning. "We used Ver-
morel nozzles on a Y, and the liquid was applied until the trees were
thoroughly wet and began to drip. My diary says that at 2 o'clock
that afternoon "about one worm in every six is dead in Plot I."
684 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
Saturday, May 11. "Discouraged; even in Plot I. nine-tenths
of the worms are in good health."
Monday, May 13. " Feeling better. Nine-tenths of the worms
on Plots I. and II. are dead. Plot III. gives fairly good remits,
over half the worms being dead. Plot IV. about half the worms
dead. Plots V. and VI. show few
dead worms, although the results
are passably good on the limbs
which wore very heavily sprayed."
On the 13th, most of the flowers
were open, and the largest worms *
had reached the length of an inch.
At this time, every green thing on
the untreated trees, and on many of the treated one6, was
alive with the industrious worms, which made great pre-
tense of being offended whenever their feeding-places were
in the least manner disturbed. The unwary vifitor who
jarred a limb would instantly find a web of the squirming
and grotesque creatures swimming about his head, as the
larvse dropped on their gossamer threads. Some of the less
active individuals would remain upon the leaf, but would
assume every manner of pose of which the insect nature is
capable. Some of the worms would project themselves
rigidly into the air whilst hanging on with one extremity,
like so many shingle-nails driven into the leaves.
Others hunch np their backs into a loop, and still others
lie motionless upon the leaf. The greater number of the
worms let go, however, when they are suddenly disturbed
and drop instantly from one to three feet, letting out a
thread as they go, at the end of which they hang motion-
less for a time, as if enjoying the utmost serenity of mind.
Sometimes an individual lets go again from the end of his
thread and drops another notch ; and this operation may be
repeated two or three times. If the disturbance passes, in *
a few minutes the worm ascends the rope. Figs. 135 and |
136 are characteristic illustrations of specimens secured in
Scott's orchard. las—ik*
Although the Paris green was plainly killing the worms, <*•>**'-
it was soon apparent tbat more than ordinary measures
t
THB Spraying of1 Tbhks. 686
must be taken to dispatch the scourge. Accordingly, we secured an
outfit of McGowan nozzles, which would do double the work of the
VermorelB, and Bent our beet man, Peter C. Toner, into the orchard
to remain until he killed the worms. lie began work on the morn-
ing of May 13th. It was evident at this time that the beet results
had been obtained from the Paris green, and the dilute mixture (1
to 200, in Plot I.) had been as efficient as the stronger|one. Accord-
ingly, we gave up all experimenting with mixtures,' and gave our
attention wholly to the worms, using 1 pound of Parisjgreen to 200
IBS.— A full crop. Natural size (Larvte about *J grown).
gallons of water, adding a little lime to prevent injury to the foliage.
Fig. 137 shows a portion of Mr. Scott's orchard. This second spray-
ing was done with great thoroughness, and I append diaries of it in
order that the reader may calculate the cost of the treatment, if ho
desires. The gang consisted of our man Toner, and a helper, with
a one-horse wagon carrying a 50-gallon barret. It was necessary to
go from ten to forty rods for water.
May 13. Began work at 10 o'clock ; used 5 barrels of mixture ;
quit at 5:30. Hauled water about 40 rods.
May 14. Rain and snow.
Digitized byGOOgle
686 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, H. Y.
May 15. Began'work at 10 o'clock ; used 10 barrels of mixtcre.
From dow on, the water was procured near the orchard. "Went over
the trees sprayed on the 13th, because of the rain.
Ma; 16. Used 9 barrels ; pump had to be repaired, causing some
loss of time.
Thb Spraying of Tbhes. 687
May 17. Finished the orchard, using 11 barrels of mixture ; quit
at 6 o'clock.
Certain Roxbnry Russet trees were the worst affected. In fact,
the wornis were so numerous that it seemed well nigh an impossi-
bility to annihilate them. These trees, therefore, received par-
ticular attention. Toner's diary is as follows :
Ma; 13. " Sprayed 'Bassets in the afternoon, and they were
alive with worms."
May 15. "Examined the Russet trees and fonnd the worms
lively and in good health, but think the failure of the spray was due
to the rain of yesterday and the night before. Sprayed them again
this morning. At S o'clock in the afternoon the worms were as
lively as ever."
May 16. " Fonnd worms dying on the Russet trees. One of
the trees which was the worst on yesterday morning had scarcely a
worm on this evening. Believe they can be killed out with the
Paris green if the spraying is well done."
May 17. Found a few worms on the Russet trees. Sprayed
them again in the morning. At night there were scarcely any
left."
Not counting the first day's work, there were used 1,500 gallons
of mixture. The orchard has 240 trees, making a trifle over 6 gal-
lons of liquid to the tree.
1 visited the orchard on the 18th and found the worms nearly all
dead, and I was much pleased with the result. Great damage had
been done to the foliage, however, and it was evident that the
injury in a badly infested orchard can not be averted in a single
year. On the 22d I was in the orchard again, and my diary reads
as follows : " Rarely a worm to be found in good health. Most
trees seem to be entirely free, the Russets almost completely so ; now
and then a limb has a few worms, but they are mostly small and evi-
dently hatched ont since the spraying was done. Tet these Russets
look brown and scorched from the work of the worms." The pho-
tograph on page 584 was taken at this time.
On Jnne 1st my associate, Mr. Lodeman, visited the orchard and
reported a good many worms, although they were not in serious
numbers. Subsequently the worms became more numerous,
although they never did noticeable damage to the orchard after we
left it. These later worms had evidently hatched out late in the
season, but it is probable that most of them were killed by the
688 Agbicoi.tuhal Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
poison still remaining on the trees. "We had demonstrated that a
thorough treatment with Paris green is capable of destroying the
canker-worm, and the subsequent care of the orchard was left to the
owner. The orchard should have been Bprayed again. I expect
that if the orchard now receives two thorough sprayings each
spring, as advised for the cod 1 in -moth, the canker-worms wiil dis-
appear, but if the orchard is neglected the worms will likely be as
bad ae ever in a year or two. I visited the orchard again on the
first of August, and found that many of the trees which had been
most seriously involved were making a fairly good growth, with
large and strong leaves, although the ragged, early foliage was still
upon the trees. Last year many of the trees lost their foliage com-
pletely and most of them made no growth.
There are two species of canker-worms, the fall and the spring
species. The one which is now common in western New York
seems to be the spring canker-worm (Paleacrita vernata, formerly
known as Anwoptevyx vernata). The woitob feed greedily for
three or four weeks and then go into the ground where they enter
the pupa state and remain until the following spring. Occasion-
ally the moths appear in late fall or during warm spelts in winter,
but they usually emerge in early spring, when the
buds begin to swell. The thin-winged, white
male moth is shown full size in Fig. 138, which
figure is made from nature with great care. The
female moth (Fig. 139) is wingless, and crawls up
the tree, laying her eggs under shreds of bark or
j. in the expanding buds. The eggs hatch unevenly
ker-worm. Fuiisiie. or else the period of egg-laying is long, for the
worms continued_to appear in Mr, Scott's orchard this year for a period
of two weeks or more. The reader is familiar with the k ^
bandages of tar, printer's ink, cotton, and other materials
placed about the trees to prevent the female moth from
climbing op. These deviceB are very serviceable for large
shade trees, but if the fruit grower keeps his orchard in JJ
cultivation andjsprays honestly once or twice each year for * *""
codlin-moth and other insects, he need not fear the canker-
,v Google
Thhj Spraying or Trbhs.
1. Spraying is only one of several means or operations which the
poraologist mast master if he aspires to the greatest and most
uniform success. Other fundamentally important requisites are till-
ing, fertilizing and pruning.
2. Spraying is not necessary to successful results every year, but
inasmuch as the farmer cannot foretell the need of the operation, he
should spray as a matter of i:
3. Spraying is almost sure to be of some benefit every year, par-
ticularly upon apple, pear, plum and quince trees.
4. Spraying is of little consequence unless carefully and honestly
done. The spray must actually reach every point which it is in-
tended to protect.
5. Prepare for the year's campaign during the previous winter,
by reading the latest teachings, and by completing pumps and
appliances. Give particular attention to a convenient wagon outfit
(Figs. 133, 134).
6. The Bordeaux mixture need not be made up at each using in
the exact numbers of the formula. The copper sulphate may be
permanently dissolved in water and the lime may be slaked.
When the mixture is prepared, the stock solution of vitriol is
diluted, the lime added, and the tank filled to the required amount.
7. Spraying is well nigh futile unless the operator understands
precisely what he sprays for.
8. The time to spray is when the operation is needed to protect
the plant. This will vary, therefore, with every season and every
different pest. In general, we advise spraying apples and pears
twice, first, when the fruit-buds open, but before the flowers expand,
and again when the blossoms fall.
9. The presence of soluble arsenic in Paris green may be deter-
mined by a test with sulphnret of hydrogen.
10. Pure Paris green dissolves completely in ammonia, giving a
rich deep blue liquid.
Digitized byGOQgle
690 A.ORICULTIJEAL EXPERIMENT STATION, ITHACA, N. Y.
11. The arsenic which falls upon the Boil seems to become or to
remain in an insoluble condition, and puses downwards, if at all, to
a very little distance and then only by the mechanical action of
water in carrying it through spaces in the soil.
19. The canker-worm can he killed by honest spraying with Paris
green, 1 part to 200 gallons of water.
L. H. BAILEY.
,v Google
BULLEXIN 102— October, 1895.
Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station.
HORTICULTURAL DIVISION.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS
BRSPEOTINQ THE
CARE OF FRUIT TREES,
WITH SOME REFLECTIONS UPON WEEDS.
The father of humankind himself ordains
The husbandman should tread no path of flowers,
Bat waken the sleeping land hy sleepless pains. —
So pcieketh he these indolent hearts of oars.
Lest hie realms he in hopeless torpor held.
And all these things he did,
That man himself, by pondering, might divine
All mysteries, sod, in due time, conceive
The varying arts whereby we bare leave to live.
— Wrgil.
By L. II. Bailkv.
,v Google
ORGANIZATION.
Board of /.Control— The Trustees of the University.
STATION COUNCIL.
President, JACOB GOULD SCHUHMAM.
HON. A. D. WHITE TrMitttof tk* Vntoertitf.
Professor I. P. ROBERTS PretirttAt State Agricultural Soatttf.
Proff.bbor I. P. ROBERTS AgrUultort.
Professor G. C. CAI.DWtXI Cktmittty-
Professor JAMES I, aw Veterinary Sdeme*.
Professor A. N. PRENTISS HoUinj.
Professor J. H. COMSTOOK Entomology.
Professor L. H. HAH I'.V Horticulture.
ProfessorH. H. WING /i-tiry ll%»bondrj.
Professor G. F. ATKINSON Cryptogomie Baton*
OJTICSKS OT TEB ST ATIOH.
I.; P. ROBERTS Director.
E. L. WILLIAMS Ire—rer.
H. W. SMITH Clerk.
ASSISTANTS.
M. V. SLINGERLAND Entomologf.
GEO. C. WATSON Agriciltor*.
G. W. CAVANAUGH CkemUtry.
E. G. LODEMAN Borthmltmr*.
MICHAEL BARKER Horticulture.
1 Offioe of the Director, 20 Morrill Hall.
Those desiring this Bulletin stent to friend* will please send u
Bulletins of 1895.
84. The Recent Apple Failures in Western New York.
85. Whey Butter.
86. Spraying; of Orchards.
67. The Dwarf Lima Beans.
88. Enrly Lamb Raising.
89. Feeding Pigs.
90 The Ciiimi Asters
91. Recent Chrysanthemums.
92. On the Effect of Feeding Fat to Cows.
93. The Cigar-Case- Bearer.
94. Damping Off.
95. Winter Muakmelons.
96. Forcing-Honse Miscellanies.
97. Entomogenons Fungi .
98. Cherries.
99. Black berries.
100, Evaporated Raspberries in Western New York.
The Spraying of Trees: witb remarks on The Canker- Worm.
General Observations Respecting the Care of Fruit Trees j Weed*.
, CoBHELL UnTVEBSITY, 1
Ithaca, October 12, 1895. j
The Honorable Commissioner of Agricultwe, Albany :
Sib ; The one subject which is uppermost in the minds of the
fruit-growers of western New York 1b the cause of the failures of
the apple orchards to bear. There are two methods of investigating
the subject. One method aims to collect data from the orchards
themselves, from every condition and location in which they are
grown, and to reflect upon the mass of observation and experience
which is thns acquired. This method is essentially one of general-
ization, and it is safe only when the student brings to his aid an
extended series of facts, and when he considers them with judicial
deliberation. Its chief fanlt is the danger that the student may
overlook certain minor facts, and that his generalizations may be
applied to too many diverse conditions. Yet, in most subjects
touching the general economy of agriculture, such as the manage-
ment of land and crops and business, it is a most promising method
of research.
The other method consists of a minute examination of a few facts
or a Bmall field, and the drawing of such conclusions from them as
seem to apply to broader areas. It is essentially a specialization,
and it is safe only when the facts under observation are positively
understood, and when applications are made by the student with
the greatest caution. Its fundamental details are so exact, and it
presents such an array of figures and facts, that it at once enlists the
sympathies of the reader and convinces him j therefore, it is gen-
erally considered to be the proper type of scientific inquiry. Its chief
fault is the danger that conclusions which are undoubtedly true for
a narrow field may be held to be equally true for a wide one.
"When the Nixon bill was passed a year and a half ago, and we
were asked to study the horticulture of western New York, it was
conceived that an inquiry into the lessening productiveness of
orchards was more needed than any other single investigation.
From that time until now the subject has been constantly under
consideration, and two bulletins (72 and 84) have already been
devoted to Borne aspects of it. The question has been divided into
38
691 Aqhicdltueal Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
two parts — one, a study of the general conditions of oar orcharding,
the summary conclusions of which are presented in this paper; and
the other, a study of the exact behavior of individual trees, a subject
which was taken np by Professor Roberts and the summary of
which is given in Bulletin 103. These two bulletins complement
each other, therefore, and they represent the latest and best knowl-
edge which we have been able to apply to the perplexed subject of
orchard management, particularly to that part of the subject which
is associated with the declining productiveness in recent years. In
the preparation of the present bulletin, the writer has had before
him the results of observations made in many hundred orchards in
western New York during two seasons ; and in Professor Roberta'
account there is published a more complete chemical history of fruit
trees than has ever before been made in this country, and hie bul-
letin presents the strongest arguments yet advanced for the better
feeding and care of orchard trees.
The two investigations have reached essentially the same conclu-
sions— that orchards need more thorough tilling and fertilizing than
they commonly receive. A most gratifying feature of the inquiries
is the fact that both have arrived independently, and from very dif-
ferent points of view, at exactly the same conclusion respecting the
causes of the singular circumstance that land which is cropped
with nursery trees is generally incapable of soon raising another
crop of such trees. This is not due to the depletion of the elements
of plant food in the soil, but to the modification of the texture of
the soil consequent upon methods of handling the crop and upon
the fact that both roots and tops of the plants are removed bodily,
leaving practically no vegetable matter to enliven the land. A num-
ber of experiments are now in hand in nursery lands which may be
expected to throw additional light upon some of these problems.
These two bulletins are submitted to be published and distributed
under Chapter 230 of the Laws of 1895.
L, H. BAILEY.
,v Google
OPINIONS OF LEADING WRITERS TOUCHING THE
CULTIVATION OF ORCHARDS.
The looser the ground is kept for the first, and indeed for several
succeeding years, the more certain and more vigorous will be the
growth of the orchard — in the luxuriance and colour of the foliage
of contiguous plantations, I have found every stage of cultivation
strongly marked : those orchards which have been two years under
cultivation, exhibit a striking superiority over those which have been
bat one year under the plough ; while these, in turn, surpass the
fields in clover or in grain, both ib the quantity and size of the
fruit. — William Coxe, A View of the Cultivation of Fruit trees,
181? , (The first American fruitJxwk.)
We next proceed to cultivate the soil beneath, and between the
trees, until they arrive at their complete size, as the quality, excel-
lence and maturity of the fruit will, in a great measure, depend
upon its proper culture. * * * In fact, it has been ascertained
by experience and observation, that apples, pears, peaches, etc.,
attain to their highest perfection only when the soil abont the roots
is kept open, and frequently manured. — James Thacher, The Amer-
ican Orehardist, 1st Edition, 1822.
Fallow crops are the best for orchards, — potatoes, vines, buck-
wheat, roots, Indian corn, and the like. * * * If we desire our
trees to continue in a healthy bearing state, we should, therefore,
manure them as regularly as any other crop, and they will amply
repay the expense. — A. J. Downing, The Fruits and Fruit Trees
of America, 1st Edition, 1845.
Among the hoed crops which are best suited to young trees, are
potatoes, rata bagas, beets, carrots, beans, and all low hoed crops. —
* * * All sown crops are to be avoided, and grass is still worse.
Meadows are ruinous. — John J, Thomas, The Fruit Oulturist,
Fourth Edition, 1847.
Grain crops should never be planted among trees, as they deprive
them of air to a very injurious extent. If no root crops are culti-
vated, the ground should be kept clean and mellow with the one
horse plough and cultivator. * * Every third or fourth year
the trees should receive a dressing of well-decomposed manure or
13,0 ivGoo^Ic
596 AOBIODLTDEAL BXPBBIMBNT STATION ITHACA, N. T.
<!ompost. — Patrick Barry, The FruU Garden, 1st Edition,
1860.
If the ground, which has been appropriated to the orchard, be
also occupied as farming land, as is usually done for a few yean
after planting, while the trees are small, it should be exclusively
devoted to hoed crops ; by which is meant those that require con-
stant cultivation and stirring of the soil. — John A. Warder,
Applet, 1867.
The entire soil where an orchard is growing should be either
mulched, or cultivated, or hoed over bo frequently during the grow-
ing season, that all vegetation will be completely subdued. — S. K
Todd, The Apple Cullurist, 1871.
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I. Observations on the Care of Fruit-Trees.
In considering the subject of the proper care to be given to fruit-
trees, one is struck with the fact that all kinds of fruits are suffi-
ciently productive in western New York, save only the apple ; and
a moment's reflection brings to mind the fact that the apple, alone,
is the froit which is commonly raised in sod and which everywhere
receives the least attention. The presumption is at once raised,
therefore, that this sod and neglect are in some vital way associated
with the declining productiveness of apple-trees. In order to put
ourselves right upon the question we must first of all ascertain, if
we can, why the apple is of all fruits the most neglected.
My older readers will recall the fact that nntil recent years the
effort of the farmer has been directed to the growing of hay, grain
and stock. Previous to this generation the growing of fruit has
been a matter of secondary or even incidental importance. A bit
of rocky or waste land, or an odd corner about the buildings, was
generally given over to the apple orchard, and if the trees received
any attention whatever it waB after all other demands of the farm
had been satisfied. All this was particularly true of the farming
previous to the second third of this century, and the apple and
standard pear orchards of the country still record the old method.
It has required at least a generation of men in which to thoroughly
establish any new agricultural system, and the time is not yet folly
arrived for the passing out of the old orchards and the coming in
of the new. In other fruits than apples and standard pears the
generations of trees are comparatively short lived and those fruits
sooner feel the effects of new agricultural teachings. Orchards of
plums, dwarf pears, apricots, cherries and quinces have mostly come
into existence along with the transition movement from the old to
the new farming, and they have been planted seriously, with the
expectation of profit, the same as the grain crops have. Peaches
had passed out in most parts of the east, and they are now coming
in again, with the new agriculture. At the present time men buy
farms for the sole purpose of raising fruit, a venture which would
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698 AOHIODLTDBAL EXPERIMENT STATION, IlMAUA, N. Y.
have been a novelty fifty years ago ; bat the habit of imitation is so
strong that the apple planter patterns after the old orchards which
were grown under another and now a declining system of agricul-
ture, and many of which are still standing on the old farms of New
York State.
Bat there is still another reason for the neglect of the apple
orchard. Until fifty or sixty years ago the chief end of the apple
was the cider barrel. All the old writings enforce this idea. John
Taylor's famous " Amor," printed in Virginia early in this century,
declares that " the apple will furnish some food for hogs, a luxury
for his family in winter, and a healthy liquor for himself and his
laborers all the year." He says that "good cider would be a
national saving of wealth, by expelling foreign liquor, and of life,
by expelling the use of ardent spiritB." Coxe's "Cultivation of
Fruit Trees," in 1817, devotes nine chapters to cider and its pro-
ducts. The whole temper of the country was to make cider of the
apple. There is a record that one settlement near Boston, of about
forty families, made nearly three thousand barrels of cider in 1721 ;
and another New England town of 200 families made " near ten
thousand barrels." Now, any apple will make cider ; and the
presence of worms and apple-scab, and all the other accessories, may
be supposed to add to the merits of the product. It was not neces-
sary to care for orchards which were to grow cider, and the habit of
neglecting them has become so indelibly impressed upon the public
mind that all the teachings of the last generation have not been
able to erase it. The sod orchard is a survival.
Now, I am not urging that the farmer shall pat hie apple or-
chard under clean tillage. I am simply trying to press home the
fact that apple trees mast receive thought and care if the owner
is to expect much return from them. If tillage and timely effort
are good for corn, and peach trees, and blackberries, they ought
also to be good for apple trees. I asked a farmer not long ago
what his apple orchard is worth. " It is worth a good deal. A
crop of apples is a clean gift." He said more than he knew,
and his thought is uppermost in many farmers' minds in this State.
If a thing is " a clean gift," no effort has been expended to secure
it. It is no merit of the average farmer if now and then be goes
into his orchard and finds a crop of apples there ; and he should not
complain if half the apples are scabby and all of them are wormy.
It is a generous soil which gives a crop of hay or grain year after
Oabi of Fecit Trbbs. 599
year nuder s most neglectful treatment, and then occasionally throws
in a crop of apples to boot.
My reader may agree with these general remarks, bnt he insists
that we tell him just how to make his apple orchard bear. He
wants methods. And this is just what no one can give him.
Every farmer should know his own farm better than any one else
knows it. He knows the soils, the exposures, his own limitations of
help and capital, and all the many interacting factors which make a
piece of land a farm. Some one may be able to instruct him in
principles, hnt he must apply them for himself. A principal may
need a different application on every farm. Every farmer knowB
this fact, when he comes to think of it ; for there are no two good
farmers who perform the same operation in the same way. If a
person once knows the underlying reasons for plowing in the fall or
in the spring, or deep or shallow, he can soon think* it all out for
himself just how he ought to plow on his own place.
What will make my orchard bear ? Nobody knows. Ask the
trees. Study the conditions. Think about the orchard. Try one
method here* and another there. Try to Bnd out why it does not
l>ear. Perhaps the varieties are not productive ones. Perhaps the
flowers do not fertilize. Perhaps the soil is too low or too poor.
The orchard may need spraying, or, possibly, even manuring or
plowing np, or pruning. Or, oftener, perhaps it needs cutting down
and a new one started all over again, with the matter done right
from the beginning. It is hard work to break a colt when he is ten
years old, and then he never makes a good horse.
It is certain that there is no one cause for the failure of all apple
orchards to bear. There are many, perhaps very many causes. The
experimenter should be able to discover these causes and to explain
them ; but just which one is at the bottom of the failure in any
particular orchard the owner hiniBelf must find out, if he can.
And he cannot expect to find oat in one day or perhaps in one year.
He must revolve the matter in his mind, as he goes and comes, day
by day, in rain and shine, and he will finally come to an opinion,
unless, unfortunately, he has an opinion before he begins to revolve
the matter.
It may help the farmer if I enumerate the chief causes which
seem to us to be responsible for most of the failures of orchards.
These suggestions are meant to apply with particular force to the
Malta* byGoOgle
600 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. T.
apple, although they are true in varying degrees of all other
fruits.
1. The farmer wants to get his fruit without earning it. — The
farmer's frame of mind is likely to be something like this, " How
can I seen re that crop with the least expenditure of effort V A
more rational attitude is one which asks, * flow much labor can I
put upon that crop with profit ? " In orchard-growing, particularly
if the orchard is of apples, there ib still much of the old feeling that
trees can wait until all other crops of the farm are served. As the
orchard is conceived in the mind of the planter, so will the harvest
most likely be. A plantation poorly planned, or not planned at all,
carries its faults throughout its life. For this reason, I think it
impossible to make many of the orchards of the State profitable,
even if now given Ihe best of care.
2, There are frequent mistakes in the choice of land and sites
for an orchard. — There is, in general, accurate practice in western
New York in the selection of tho proper soil for trees — clay for
pears, clay loams for plums and quinces, sands for peaches, and
loose loams for apples — but there seems to be less attention given
to the choice of the aspect and the " lay of, the land." A person
who has nearly one hundred acres of unprofitable apple orchard
asked me to inspect his place for the purpose of discovering the
cause of the no productiveness of the trees. It required but a glance
at the plantation to see that the land was wholly unsnited to apples.
It was flat land, with a tenacious and impervious subsoil lying only
a foot or two below the surface. In order to carry off the water,
the owner had left the dead-furrows open and had plowed a series
of open ditches about the borders of the plantation. He supposed
that if he carried off the surface water, all the requirements would
be satisfied ; but the hard subsoil remained intact, and the roots of
the trees lay near the surface, so that when I visited the place, in
mid-summer, the trees were suffering from drought. The trees had
no doubt soon robbed the surface soil of most of its richness and,
unable to penetrate the lower levels freely, they were now stunted
and unthrifty. The owner had various expedients in mind for the
renovation of the orchard, but the very first requisite — a thorough
system of tile drains — had not occurred to him. AH other treat-
ment will probably be well-nigh useless until these drains are
supplied; and even then I doubt if the orchard can ever be made
profitable, for such sites are never good orchard lands and the habit
i Google
Care of Fruit Trees. 601
of the trees is now probably too thoroughly established to be easily
overcome.
Tbia instance is a type of very many orchards in western New
York. There are other apple and pear and plum orchards which
stand upon dry and leachy hillsides. Good drainage, thorough
tillage and fertilizing are capable of correcting some of these fun-
damental difficulties of site and soil, but these treatments, to be
most effective, must be begun early in the life of the orchard.
3. Neglect of tillage is the commonest fault of the orchards of
western New York. — Apples and some other fruits, yield so well
under neglect that it has come to be a common notion that they
do not need tillage. There are many orchards in sod which are
profitable, and these have been held to be proof that orchards
thrive best in sod. But by far the greater number of orchards in
grass, the country over, are unprofitable, and it seems to be a safer
generalization to say that these are proofs that fruit trees do not
give profitable return in sod. Every orchard is profoundly in
financed by the particular soil and other conditions in which it
grows, and it is generally impossible to ascribe its behavior directly
either to soddiness or BodleBsness. But if one contrasts for a moment
the known effects of tillage and neglect npon the soil, he will see
at once that good judicious cultivation must give the better results
in orchards ; and there is ample proof of it in all annual crops, and
even in most fruits, particularly in grapes, berries, peaches and
plnms. The latter plants are always thought of as cultivable crops,
yet they do not differ from apple trees in any fundamental method
of living.
Let us recall some of the effects of tillage upon the soil :
It set? free plant food ;
promotes nitrification ;
supplies air to the soil and roots ;
makes all the soil available, by fining it ;
breaks up the hard-pan ;
makes a reservoir for water ;
warmB and dries the soil ;
saves the rain, by taking it into the Boil ;
prevents evaporation, or conserves moisture;
sends the roots of trees downwards, and makes the moisture
and fertility of the subsoil available.
DqltSMByClOOgle
602 Aqbiodltdbai. Experiment Station, Ithaoa, N. Y.
All these benefits most be as useful to the apple tree as they are
to strawberries or currants. Yet, tillage may be a positive damage-
to the orchard, if injudiciously done. Just what is judieiona tillage
must be determined for every farm and every season ; in fact, jaat
here is the point where the greatest skill is required in farming. A
man most know the underlying principles of the operation before
he can practice it successfully. Yet two or three points of advice
may be noted in passing :
a. Tillage should be begun early in the season, in orchards. —
Trees complete most of their growth by the first of July. Early
tillage saves the moisture which has accumulated during the winter
and the spring ; it is capable of patting the soil in fine mechanical
condition, and this condition is more important than fertility; it
warms up the soil and sets the plants quickly to work ; it turns.
under the herbage when that herbage is soft and moist and when
there is moisture in the soil, so that the herbage soon breaks down
and decays. All catch crops on the orchard should be plowed under
just as soon as the ground is dry enough in the spring, for these
crops soon pump the water from the soil and cause it to bake and
cement together, and the longer they remain the more difficult it i»
to cause them to rot when turned under. Hard and woody herbage
plowed nuder late in the season, may remain as a foreign body in
the soil all summer, breaking the connection between the upper and
the lower soil and thereby preventing the upward movement of the
water and causing the top soil to completely dry out. The chief
value of crimson clover, rye, or other catch crop in the orchard,
lies in its fall growth, and its protection of the aoU in winter, not in
its growth in spring.
b. Tillage should generally be stopped in late summer or very
early fall. — The tree has completed its growth. It must now ripen
and prepare for winter. It can spare some of the moisture which
comes with the fall rains. We may, therefore, sow some catch or
cover crop. This crop will, if properly plowed under, greatly
improve the mechanical condition of the soil; its roots will catch
some of the leaching nitrates, of which the roots of the trees are
now in little need; it will catch the rains and snows of fall and
winter and hold them until they gradually percolate into the earth;
it will prevent the puddling and cementing of the soil daring
winter ; it will dry out the soil quickly in spring, if the plant is one
flitroo^GoO^IC
.Google
Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaoa, N. Y.
which survives the winter and starts earl;
into growth, thereby making very early tillage
possible. What this cover crop shall be must
be determined by local conditions. It is prob-
able that better results will be attained if
different crops are used in different years, in
a rough sort of rotation. Crimson clover is
certainly one of the best. This is an annual.
If sown too early, it becomes too mature in
the fall and kills out; if sown too late, it
secures insufficient root-hold and is killed by
the winter. We now think that about the
middle of July or the first of August is the
safest time to sow it, under normal conditions,
in this latitude. Fig. 140 is a view in a crim-
son clover patch on the Cornell plantation
taken last spring, and for which the seed was
sown the middle of July, 1894. Other good
cover crops are peas, vetch, and posBibly, now
and then a year's crop of field clover. Oats,
sowed corn, rape, spurry, buckwheat, rye, may
be used occasionally.
o. Begin to till when\tke orchard is planted,
and till the entire surface. — If trees are prop-
erly set and if cultivation is begun the first
year, the roots will go deep enough to escape
r-*i
+i
the plow. The roots of trees spread much farther than the tops.
I will give some examples from trees of which we have carefully
i;.git.-ec:;yG00^Ic
Cars or Fhtjjt Tkees.
605
measured the topa and roots. Fig. 141 shows a standard Howell
pear tree set in 1889. It grows on a hard clay knoll. The full
spread of the top is seven
feet Two roots were
laid bare, and they ran off
in one direction to a dis-
tance of SI feet. Assum-
ing that they ran an equal
distance in the other direc-
tion, the spread of roots
was 42 feet, or just six
times that of the top.
And yet it is commonly
said that the spread of
roots and tops is about
equal ! Now, these roots
were long and whip-like.
The soil was bo poor that
they were obliged to search
far and wide for pasture.
Compare Fig. 142. This
is a Fall Orange apple,
Bet in 1889, in rich well!
MS.- Boot* of:
tilled soil. Here the roots are in good pasture and they remain
at home ; yet their spread is twice that of the top. The top
of this tree had a diameter of 8 feet, and we were able to follow
the roots 8 feet upon the side in which we dug. These object
lessons enforce the importance of tilling all the land between the
trees.
But these figures teach another lesson. Even at their highest
point the roots of Fig. 141 are 8 inches below the surface.
They escape the plow. A like remark applies to Fig. 142. Now,
DqltSMByCOOgle
406 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaoa, N. T.
look'at Fig. 143. This tree is the same age us tbe others, bat has
always stood in sod. The roots ran 10 feet in one direction and
the total spread of the top was 6 feet, bnt the roots lie jnst under-
neath the surface. This land could not be plowed without great
injury to the tree. Let us consider the relation of this tree to
moisture ; the roots are in tbe driest part of the soil ; the grass is
pumping out the water and locking it up in its own tissues, and
sending it into the atmosphere with great rapidity; the soil is
baked and pulls up the water by capillary attraction and dis-
charges it into the air ; there is no tillage to atop this waste by
spreading a mulch of loose and dry soil over the earth. If one
were to sink a well under this tree and were to erect a windmill
and pump he could not so completely deprive the tree of moisture I
And the less moisture the less food 1
d. Cultivate in such manner that the land will be in -uniform
fine tilth. — Every good farmer knows that the value of his crop
depends more upon the tilth of the soil than upon the richness of it.
Fertility is largely locked up in poorly tilled lands. Orchards
which axe plowed late in spring are usually in bad condition all tbe
season, especially if the soil is clay. Fall plowing upon stiff and
bare lands is apt to result in the puddling of the soil by the rain and
snow; if there is sod on the land this injury is less likely to follow.
In general it is best to let orchard lands pass the winter under a
catch crop.
i. Lack of available plant food is unquestionably the cause of
much of the failure of orchards. — This fact is strongly emphasized
in Bulletin 103, which shows that apple trees on a single acre may
use, in the course of the twenty most productive years, over (100
worth of nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus ; and if the owner
wants large crops, the trees must have a still larger amount of food.
The soil itself is a great storehouse of plant food, and this treasure
is unlocked by the judicious tillage which I have recommended, but
plant food must be added also to the soil if the best results are desired.
It should be said, however, that no amount of fertilizer can atone
for neglect of cultivation, for unless the soil is in congenial mechani-
cal condition the plant is incapable of utilizing the food which may
be applied. The better the tillage, the greater the benefit which
comes from the use of fertilizers.
There is much yet to be learned respecting the fertilizing of
orchard lands. In general, nitrogen can be supplied in sufficient
Oarb of Fbdit Tekbs.
■quantity by thorough tillage and the use of occasional
crops of crimson clover, peas or vetch. In fact, it see
be easy to apply too much nitrogen
on some lands, causing the trees to
make a too heavy growth. Young
trees make light drafts of potash and
phosphoric acid, and it is probable
that apples and pears do not need
much fertilizing on good aoi Is for the
first three or fonr years, if they are
given good cultivation, unless other
crops are grown with them. But j
as soon as the trees show an incli
tion to hear, judicious applications
the mineral fertilizers may be ma
If this fertilizing is begun thus ea
in the life of the orchard, and if ■
tillage is good, the applications ni
not be very heavy, but they shoi
be applied every year. Two or th
hundred pounds of high-grade mi
ate of potash, and an equal weij
of some high-grade phosphate
Florida or South Carolina rock
fossil bone) may be considered to
good dressings. Stable manures :
excellent, but they are so sold
.N>*^<ftj*;flliiMJ(i'
MS.— Boots or mi apple tree In «ocL
to be had in sufficient quantity that they are practically
beyond reach. A leading virtue of the Btable manures is the
vegetable matter which they contain and which pots the soil
into good mechanical condition ; but this fiber can also be had by
the use of cover crops.
In nursery lands, the soil is injured in its mechanical texture by
the methods of cultivation and treatment. The best nursery lands
,v Google
608 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
are the " strong " lands, or those which contain a basis of clay, and
these are the ones which soonest sailer under nowise treatments.
The nursery land is kept under clean culture and it is therefore
deeply pulverized. There ie practically no herbage on the soil to
protect it during the winter. When the crop ie removed, even the
roots are taken out of the soil. For four or fire years, the land
receives practically no herbage which can rot and pass into humus.
And then, the trees are dug in the fall, often when the soil is in
unfit condition, and this fall digging amounts to a fall plowing.
The soil, deeply broken and robbed of its humus, runs together and
cements itself before the following summer ; and it then requires
three or four years of "rest" in clover or other herbage crop to
bring it back into its rightful condition. This resting period allows
nature — if man grants her the privilege — to replace the fiber in the
soil and to make it once more so open and warm and kindly that
plants can find a congenial root-hold in it.
5. AU remedial treatments are generally begun, too late in the
life of the orchard. — It is probable that plants become fixed in their
habits by living long in uniform conditions, and that this habit is
not readily broken. At all events, every observing horticulturist
knows that it is often a difficult matter to induce in plants a habit
of life which is directly contrary to the accustomed one. Apple
trees should bear well when they are ten years planted. If they
have not established a bearing habit by the time they are twenty
years old, it may be a difficult matter to impress a new character
upon them then. Whilst we advise the plowing up and pruning of
all neglected and profitless orchards, we can not hope that this treat-
ment will always rescue the most confirmed cases of unproductive-
ness. By the time an apple orchard is eight or ten years old, the
owner should begin to see indications of its probable future behavior,
and he should then begin his endeavors towards any change which
he desireB to bring about.
If an old or mature orchard still refuses to bear, it is likely that
some radical change in the method of treating it may be useful.
Many orchards develop a habit of redundant wood-bearing, and
these are often thrown into fruiting by some check to the trees, as
severe pruning, girdling and the like. Probably every orchardist
has observed that the attacks of borers sometimes cause trees to
bear. It is an old maxim that checking growth induces fruitful-
ne6s. This is the explanation of the tact that driving nails into
i;3,V00:jGOO^IC
I
)ijiio,aWGoosIe
610 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, "N. Y.
New York than in the others which I have mentioned. Horticul-
turists have been well taught, by books, periodicals and nursery-
men's catalogues, how to train and shape the plant, but there ia very
little good advice respecting the proper treatments of the orchard
soil. Yet the apple orchard, which is the least productive of all
oar fruit plantations, is at the same time the very one which re-
ceives least attention in pruning. It ia fair to asaume that some of
the failure is due to this inattention ; and there is also sufficient
direct experience to prove that careful and thorough pruning is
essential to best results in fruit-raising.
8. Much of the unprofitableness of fruit plantations is due to
the incursions of insects and fungi. — This is the subject which has
latterly received the major part of the attention of persons who are
engaged in studying the difficulties of fruit growing, and it is not
strange that there has arisen a general belief that these enemies are
the one chief cause of the failures of orchards. I am convinced
that the experimenters have not overstated the destructiveness of
the insects and fungi, but there is danger that the silence upon other
and more fundamental matters in orchard economy, may tend to
magnify the enemieB beyond their comparative importance. I
should not emphasize spraying less, but should emphasize tillage
and other good care more.
The literature of spraying is now voluminous, and the farmer
should be able to instruct himself upon all matters of immediate
practical importance ; but whilst he is spraying he should also not
forget to look for borers, and to clean up old rubbish piles and
waste places about the plantation.
9. Profit and loss is often a question of varieties. — Many or-
chards contain snch an ill-assorted lot of varieties that even when
the crop is good it is worth little. What varieties to plant is a local
qnestion. It can never be answered by experiment stations. It is
one of those judgments which the farmer most make for himself
and upon which very much of his success will depend.
The fruit grower should know by the time his apple orchard ia
twelve or fifteen years old if his varieties are likely to be satis-
factory. He can generally find it out before this time. A man
who does not find it out until his orchard is twenty or more yean
old has neglected his opportunities. If one discovers an error in
choice of varieties before his trees have reached full maturity —
whether the trees are apple, pear, cherry or plum — be should forth-
■Care of Fruit Trees. 611
with top-graft them. This top-grafting is sometimes profitable even
in old trees, although it is usually unsatisfactory at that time.
In late years it has been observed that some varieties are com*
manly infertile with themselves ; that is, the pollen of one variety
ia more or less impotent upon flowers of the same variety. The
subject is little understood and it is not yet safe to generalize upon
it ; bat it is a good practice to plant varieties in alternate rows or
only two rows together, to insure free fertilization. Some of the
varieties of apples and pears which have been studied in this respect
(by Waite and Faircbild) are as follows :
Apples.
Varieties more or less self-sterile. — Bellflenr, Chenango, Graven-
stein, King, Spy, Norton Melon, Primate, Rambo, Red Astrachan,
Roxbnry Russet, Spitzenburgh, Talman Sweet.
Varieties generally self-fertile. — Baldwin, Oodlin, Greening.
Peaks.
Varieties more or less self-sterile. — Anjou, Bartlett, Boussock,
Clairgeau, Olapp, Columbia, Easter, Gray, Doyenne, Howell,
Jones, Lawrence, Louise Bonnie, Mount Vernan, Sheldon, Souve-
nir du Congress, Superfln, Colonel Wilder, Winter Nelis,
Varieties mostly self-fertile. — Angouleme, Bosc, Buffum, Diel,
Flemish Beanty, Kieffer, Le Conte, Manning Elizabeth, Seckel,
Tyson, White Doyenne.
10. It is probable that many trees fail to hear because propagated
from ■wnprodttc&we trees. — Wo know that no two trees in any
orchard are alike, either in the amount of fruit which they bear or
in their vigor and habit of growth. Some are uniformly productive,
and some are uniformly unproductive. We know, too, that scions or
buds tend to reproduce the -characters of the tree from which they
are taken. A gardener would never think of taking cuttings from
a rose bush or chrysanthemum or a carnation which does not bear
flowers. Why should a fruit-grower take scions from a tree which
be knows to be unprofitable ?
The indiscriminate catting of scions is too clumsy and inexact a
practice for these days, when we are trying to introduce scientific
methods into oar farming. 1 am convinced that some trees can
not be made to bear by any amount, of treatment They are not
612 AGRIOULTtJBAL EXPERIMENT STATION, ITHACA, N. T.
the bearing kind.* It is not every mare which will breed or every
hen which will lay a hatfull of eggs.
In my own practice, I am buying the best nursery grown stock of
apples (mostly Spy), and am top-grafting them with scions from
trees which please me and which I know to hare been productive
daring many years. Time will discover if the effort is worth the
while, but unless all analogies fail the outcome most be to my profit
II. SOME REFLECTIONS UPON WEEDS.
The one deplorable fact in the minds of most farmers is the
existence of weeds. From the time the boy is old enough to vent
his energy in the smothered carrot bed, he is everywhere and al-
ways impressed with the fact that he must hoe to kill weeds.
From youth to old age the burden is upon his mind and back.
Writers of agricultural literature have taken op the wail, and have
drawn it ont to disproportionate lengths by specifying long lists of
plants which are often weedy intruders, and by describing their
habits and migrations in vivid detail. The truth is that weeds
always have been and still are the closest friends and helpmates of
the farmer. It was they which first taught the lesson, of tillage of the
soil, and it ie they which never allow the lesson, now that it has
been partly learned, to be forgotten. The one only and sovereign
remedy for them is the very tillage which they have introduced.
When their mission is finally matured, therefore, they will disap-
pear because there will be no place in which they can grow. It
would be a great calamity if they were now to disappear from the
earth, for the greater number of farmers still need the discipline
which they enforce. Probably not one farmer in ten wonld till his
lands well if it were not for these painstaking schoolmasters, and
many of them would not till at all. Until farmers till for tillage
sake, and not to kill the weeds, it is necessary that the weeds shall
exist ; but when farmers do till for tillage sake, then weeds will
disappear with no effort of ours. Catalogues of all the many
iniquities of weeds with the details given in mathematical exactness,
and all the botanical names added, are of no avail. If one is to talk
about weeds be should confine himself to methods of improving the
farming. The weeds can take care of themselves.
* Thin subject wns presented by the writer to the American Aasoaatton of
Narserjmen at the meeting in Itidintiapolia Isst June.
DqltseOByCjOOgle
Care of Fruit Trees. 613
The presence of weeds is only one of the many illustrations of the
effects of the desperate straggle for life which is forced upon every
plant and animal when left to shift for itself. Every plant pro-
duces more seeds than it can ever expect to rear into plants. There
is room for more only as other plants die. So when the farmer
breaks up the earth he kills the plants which inhabited the land and
thereby opens opportunities for the myriad host which stands wait-
ing over the border for a chance to spread itself. These plants are
bound to make the attempt to till the breach. The farmer may
keep them ont either by killing them or preventing their establish-
ment by means of tillage, or by covering the ground with other
plants so that the weeds can find no chance to live. Now, these two
things — tillage and cropping — comprise the whole science and
practice of agriculture ; and it follows that better farming is the
only method of permanently keeping down the weeds. This fact is
admirably illustrated by the common observation that those persons
who are called " good farmers" complain least of weeds. It is often
asked that the government lend its aid in directly fighting serious
invasions of weeds ; but the government can not take men's farms
in charge and do their farming for them, and unless it does this it
can only temporize with the invader.
Nature is a kindly and solicitous mother. She knows that bare
land becomes unproductive land. Its elements must be unlocked
and worked over and digested by the roots of plants. The surface
must be covered to catch the rains and to hold the snows, to retain
the moisture and to prevent the baking and cementing of the soil.
The plant tissues add fibre and richness to the land and make it
amenable to all the revivifying influences of sun and rain and air
and warmth. The plant is co-partner with the weather in the build-
ing of the primal soils. The lichen spreads its thin substance over
the rock, sending its fibres into the crevices and filling the chinks,
as they enlarge, with the decay of its own structure ; and finally the
rock is fit for the moss or fern or creeping vine, each newcomer
leaving its impress by which some later newcomer may profit.
Finally the rock is disintegrated and comminuted, and is ready to
be still further elaborated by corn and ragweed. So nature intends
to leave no vacant or bare surfaces. She providently covers the
railway embankment with quack grass or willows, and she scatters
daisies in the old meadows where the land has grown sick and tired
of grass. So, if I pull up a weed, I must quickly fill the hole with
614 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. T.
some other plant or nature will tack another weed into it. Man
is yet too ignorant or too negligent to care for the land, and nature
most still stand at bie back and supplement the work which he bo
shabbily performs. She knows no plants as weeds. They are all
equally useful to her. It is only when we come to covet some plant
that all those which attempt to crowd it oat become weeds to us. If,
therefore, we are competent to make a choice of plants in the first
place, we should also be able to maintain the choice against intrud-
ers. It is only a question of which plants we desire to cultivate.
We must keep the land at work, for it grows richer and better
for the exercise. A good crop on the land, aided by good tillage,
will keep down all weeds. The weeds do not "run out" the sod,
but the sod has grown weak through some fault of our own and
thus the dandelions and plantains find a chance to live. So the best
treatment for a weedy lawn is more grass. Loosen up the poor
places with an iron garden rake, scatter a little fertilizer and then
sow heavily of grass seed. Do not plow up the lawn, for then you
undo all that has been accomplished ; you kill all the grass and leave
all the ground open for a free fight with every ambitious weed in
the neighborhood. If the farmer occupies only half the surface of
his field with oats, the other half is bound to be occupied with
mustard or wild carrot or pigweeds ; but if bis land is all taken
with oats, few other plants can thrive. So, a weedy farm is a poorly
farmed farm. But if it does get foul and weedy, then what!
Then use a short, quick, sharp rotation. Keep the ground moving
or keep it covered. No Russian thistle or live-for-ever or Jimson-
weed can ever keep pace with a lively and resourceful fanner.
Some two years ago I saw the much-described Russian thistle
along the railroad track in western New York. " There," I Biid,
" is your schoolmaster. It comes with all the energy and freshness of
the west. It will bring new ideas. Presently it will invade our old
orchards, and how it will shake them up 1 Then fanning will mean
cultivation or thistles. And now and then the farmer will debate
if the old orchard is worth the trouble, and he will make wood of
the trees and a potato-patch of the land, and everyone will be the
gainer. If all that they say of it is true, this Russian thistle will
beat the canker-worm and the apple-scab and the codlin-moth as a
reformer. I am afraid that we need the Russian thistle."
And yet, I do not look for such a furious spread of this Russian
thistle as it has enjoyed in the west ; for even in the east we grow
DqltSMByCOOgle
Oabb or Fbuit Trees. 615
more wheat per acre than they do in Dakota. Six to ten bushels of
wheat means that lots of land is left for the thistle; and to this
most be added raw prairie, and waste land upon farms which are
too big to be farmed ; and still to these encouragements to the plant
most be added the fault of wheat after wheat year by year. The
reports say that 25,000 square miles of land are threatened to be
made profitless for wheat by the Russian thistle. Then, upon so
much area the advent of a mixed and self-sustaining husbandry will
be hastened, and the Russian thistle should have all the honor of
the achievement. The oncoming of the Canada thistle was pro-
claimed over a half century ago with the same forebodings of
disaster. One New York agitator warned the people that it would
" establish its fatal empire over the whole of North America," and
perhaps result in the depopulation of the country 1 Bat whilst the
Canada thistle has spread, it has met its Waterloo whenever it has
made an onslaught against a good farmer. It is no longer dreaded
by the farmers of this State. The land is now too precious to be
given over to thistles. Now and then one sees a place like Solomon
saw when he " went by the field of the slothful, and by the vine-
yard of the man void of understanding ; and lo, it was all grown
over with thorns, and nettles had covered the face thereof, and the
stone wall thereof was broken down."
REVIEW.
I. Care of Fruit trees. —
A. Sod-treatment of an orchard is a revival of the time when
orchards were mere incidental accessories to the farm, and
when the destiny of the apple was the cider barrel.
B. No one cause can be assigned for all the failures of orchards
to bear. The cause may be different for each orchard, and
its determination, therefore, is a local question in each
instance. The experimenter can discover the various agencies
which may make orchards to be unproductive, but he may
not be able to ascertain which one, or which combination of
them, may affect any given orchard.
C. The orchardist is to discover the cause of hU failures, first, by
acquiring a knowledge of the fundamental requirements of
fruit-trees, and, second, by carefully watching and studying
and experimenting with his own plantation.
,v Google
616 Agricultural Espbeimbnt Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
D. Some of the leading agencies or errors which lie at the bottom
of the unproductiveness of orchards are as follows :
a. The plantation lacks plan and forethought.
i. The land is often unsuited to the purpose, particular)/
in respect to its aspect, drainage, and general physical make-up.
c. Neglect of tillage or cultivation is probably the most
universal fault.
This tillage should begin early in the season ;
It should be stopped in late summer or early fall ;
It should begin when the orchard is planted and should be
applied to the entire surface ; and
It should be performed in such manner as to keep the land
in fine and uniform tilth.
d . Lack of plant food is probably a common canse f or failnre.
e. Good treatment may be began too late, after the habit
of the trees has become too thoroughly established to be
readily broken.
f. It is a common effort to raise annual crops in bearing
orchards, and to allow the trees only the skim milk.
y. Pruning is often neglected.
A. Insects and fungi may hold a mortgage on the crop.
i. Poor or ill-sorted varieties render many orchards no-
profitable.
j. Trees may be expected to be unproductive if they are
propagated from unproductive trees.
II. Weeds.—
Weeds are feared by those farmers who have made some
mistake in the management of their fields, by virtue of which
the weeds have found a chance to prosper.
Weeds, therefore, may be said to have a mission — first to
educate the farmer, and second, to ameliorate the soil.
Good and judicious tillage and croping are the only effective
means of keeping down weeds. A foul place can be cleaned by
inaugurating, for a time, a short and vigorous rotation of crops.
The Kussian thistle, which is now so much dreaded, may
be depended upon to still further improve the practice of
farming. If it spreads seriously, it will be because our
scheme of farming allows it to spread by not keeping the land
in full use ; it must therefore be checked by more intensive and
careful farming, and this will he a distinct reform.
L. H. BAILEY.
BULLETIN 103— October, 1895.
Cornell University-Agricultural Experiment Station.
AGRICULTURAL DIVISION.
SOIL DEPLETION
IN REBPKCT TO THE
CARE OF FRUIT TREES.
By I. P. Bobebts.
Malta* byGoOgle
ORGANIZATION.
Board of Control— The Trustees of the University.
STATION COUNCIL.
Pmidutt, JACOB GODLD SCHURMAN.
HON. A. 1). WHITE TYtulaeoflhe Untrertttf.
Professor I. P. ROBERTS Ittstdent 8tat» JgnctUttral Sortttf.
Professor I. P. ROBERTS Jgneultmr*.
Professor G. 0. CALDWELL r**i ■■<■>■
PROFESSOR JAMES LAW ytUrinary Stimt*.
Professor A. N PRENTISS BoHrnj.
Professor J. H. COMSTOCK Entomology.
Professor L. II. ha:i.i:y HorUaUbm.
Professor H. H WINO flairy Haobondry.
Professor G. P. ATKINSON Cryptogenic BoUmf.
OFFIORBS OV THE STATXOH.
I. P.BOBEBT8 Director.
E.L. WILLIAMS IWcnnr.
H.W.SMITH Oar*.
M. V. SLINGERI.ANI) P.ntowu-U^.
GEO. C.WATSON .tpnlm
G. W. CAVANAUOH ChtmUtrf.
E. G. LODEMAJT Horticulture.
Bulletins of 1895.
SI. Tbe Recent Apple Failures in Western New York.
86. Whey Butter.
86. SprayiuK of Orchards.
87. Th« Dwarf Lima Btaus.
88. Early Lamb Raising.
89. Feeding Pigs.
90. Tbe Cbina Asters.
91. Recent Chrysanthemums.
93. On tbe Effect of Feeding Fat to Cows.
93. The Cigar-Case Bearer.
94. Damping Off.
95. Winter Mnstmelous.
96- Forcing-House Miscellanies.
97. Entomogenons Fungi.
98 Cherries.
99. Blnokbenies.
,y Google
Ithaoa, N. T., October 15, 1895.
To the Honorable Commissioner of Agriculture, Albany, N. Y. :
Sir. — In recent years man; apple orchards of the State, espec-
ially those in western New York, have not produced satisfactorily.
Various reasons have been given to account for the many failures,
such as an unusual number of fungouB enemies, late froBts, dry
seasons, and cold wet weather at blooming time, and the like.
It is only recently that frnit-growers have come to mistrust that
partial soil exhaustion of these old orchards, which have not only
borne frnit for a quarter of a century or more but abo grain and
grass, is really a primary cause of the trouble.
The question is also frequently asked, why nursery trees may not
be successfully raised continuously under good culture for a consid-
erable number of years on the same land. It has long been known
that a crop of nursery trees does not remove large amounts of plant
food, and investigations appear to prove that the roots of nursery
stock do not in any sense poison or injure the land ; so that some
other explanation than soil exhaustion must be found to explain the
reason for nursery trees failing to give good results when preceded
by nursery trees.
The following investigations have been undertaken in the hope
that some light may be thrown upon the question of the depletion
of the soil by fruit trees, a subject which is now attracting wide
attention.
Very respectfully yours,
I. P. ROBERTS.
:y Google
1*4. Tho Wimnor n^ple U
)igltbadbyC00gIe
Care of Fruit Trees.
L SOIL DEPLETION BY ORCHARDS.
The following experiments have been made in order to deter-
mine bo far as possible the amount of plant food which is taken
from the land by old and young apple trees and their fruit. It can
be well understood how difficult the problem is. Few experi-
menters hare gleaned in this field. The condition nnder which
each investigations must be conducted are Bach that entire accuracy
can not be secured, bnt it is believed that the results of these experi-
ments may throw valuable light upon the exhaustion of orchard and
nursery lands ; or they may partially explain the failure of orchards
to produce continuously, and the cause of the unsatisfactory resnlts
which are reached by the continuous cultivation of nursery stock on
the same land.
On October 1, 1894, a healthy, normal-sized Wagner apple tree,
thirteen years from planting, abont 18 to 20 feet high, having a trunk
7J inches in diameter (2 feet from the ground), was selected for an
analysis of the leaves. A cut of it is shown in Fig. 144. The tree
was grown in uncultivated laud, although the grass had not formed
a thick turf about it. The ground was naturally well drained. The
land near the tree was somewhat depressed and at times received
the wash from the land above. In former years a stone underdrain
had been placed in the draw and served to carry off the water
which issued from a small spring a few rods beyond the tree. It is
probable that the roots of this tree had access to an abundance of
moisture. The tree had been moderately pruned in past years, but
had borne few apples. At the time the leaves were picked, a few
sprouts had started from the larger limbs. They were all of the
present year's growth.
The picture (Fig. 144) shows the general upright form of the tree.
At the present writing, October, 1895, the tree has more of a spread-
ing form, as it has produced five bushels of apples during the
present season. It bore a few apples in 1893 but none in 1894.
The leaves were green and fully mature when picked. The details
of the sapling and caring for the leaves until they reached the
622 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, ITHACA, N. Y.
chemical laboratory are unnecessary. Suffice it to say, that every
precaution was taken to prevent any change from evaporation or other
causes between the time of picking and the time when they were
handed over to the chemist,* October 1st, for analysis.
Table I.
Leaves from a Wagner apple tree 13 years old, 18 to 80 feet high.
Total weight of leaves 33.18
Composition of Original Substance.
Aih. Nitrogen. Phot add. Fotwh.
Water, 47.98%
Dry substance, 52.02% °-63% 1.85% .488% 1.76%
The above table shows from the small per cent, of water, that the
leaves had performed their fall functions and that no more changes
in the ash content were likely to take place.
The Handbook of Experiment Station work gives the composition
of apple leaves collected at various times as follows :
Table II.
Watflr. Ash. Nitrogen. Phos. acid. Potash.
InMay 72.86% 2.33% .74% .25% .35%
In September 60.71 3.46 .89 .19 .39
If the leaves of the tree experimented with had been collected in
May and had contained as much water as is shown in the last table,
there would have been 50 pounds instead of 33.18 pounds. It is
probable that the first table shows more nearly than the second the
percentages of fertilizing constituents taken from the soil by the leaves.
The following gives the total weight and content of the leaves of
the single apple tree and also the amount of plant food contained in
an acre of like character, assuming that the trees were set 35 feet
apart, which would give 35 trees per acre :
Table III.
lbs KT*0*
Total weight leaves 33.16 1161.3
Total weight water 15.92 657.2
Total welghtdry matter 17.26 604.1
Total weight nitrogen 29 10.15
Total weight phosphoric acid 08 2.80
Total weight potash .28 9.80
* The analytical work of this Bulletin was performed by Mr. G. W. Cavanaogn
under the direction of Professor G. C. Caldwell.
Dqltseo By C00gle
Cabh of Fruit Trhbs. G'J/3
Assuming that 35 trees would bear, in five years from the time
they were 13 years of age, 25 bushels of apples per ttee or live
bushels to the tree per year, and assuming that the composition of
the apples were as given below, the results reached are :
Table IV.
Average Composition of Applet.
Water, Nitrogen. Phosphoric sold. Potash,
85.3% .18% .01% .19%
Tablb T.
Amount and value of fertilising material used by the leaves and
fruit m frst period of Jwe years.
Apples. Lmtm.
lba. Ilia. Talus.
Nitrogen 65.4 60.75 (15 92
Phosphoric acid. 4.25 14. 1 28
P*taeb 80.95 49. 5 85
Total valoe $23 06
Assuming that in the next five years, the trees would bear 10
bushels per year, or 50 bushels per tree in all, and that the leaves
had increased in the same ratio as the apples, the following results
are reached for the second rive years :
Table VI.
Apples. LeiTee.
It>3. lb*. Value.
Nitrogen 110.8 101.50 931 85
Phosphoric acid 8.50 28. 2 56
Potash 161.90 98. 11 69
Total value MS 10
Assuming that the trees have reached fair maturity at twenty-
three years from setting, and that they produce on an average 15
bushels of apples per tree per year for the next ten years, and that
the leaves have increased correspondingly, the following results
are reached for the third period of ten years :
,v Google
824 AOKIGULTDHAL EXPERIMENT STATION, ITHAOA, N. T.
Table TIL
Applea. Loins.
1&. lb*. Tata*.
Nitrogen 333.40 304.50 806 H
Phosphoric acid 26.60 84. 7 87
Fotwh 486.TO 284. 36 00
Total valua 1138 30
The following table gives the total plant food in leaves and fruit
and its value for a single acre (nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash
being computed in all cases at 15, 1 and 4.6 cents per pound respect-
ively) for the whole bearing period of twenty years, from the time
the tree was 13 years old from setting until it was 33 years old :
Table VIII.
IE*. lba. Valna.
Hitro«n 498.60 466.75 8143 30
Phosphoric acid 38.25 126. 11 50
Potash 728.66 441. 53 63
Total value 8207 46
While the above results are reached by assuming a given amount
of apples and leaves per year in a bearing orchard, and while the
facta in any given case at any given time may vary widely, yet it is
believed that they are valuable as they furnish a means of measur-
ing in any given case, with a great degree of accuracy, the amount
of soil exhaustion.
Table V. shows that 5 bushels of apples remove in round num-
bers 11 pounds of nitrogen, nearly 1 pound of phosphoric acid and
16 pounds of potash, and that the leaves of a tree large enough to
produce the apples would contain 10 pounds of nitrogen, nearly 3
pounds of phosphoric acid and 10 pounds of potash, or a total of
SI pounds nitrogen, 3 pounds phosphoric acid, 26 pounds potash.
It will be seen how easily the other tables can be used to deter-
mine approximately the amount "and kind of plant food used by
apple trees in any given esse.
In a given year, a mature tree might produce as many apples as
the amount assumed and in another year fail to produce any, yet a
computation could be made from the data given which would throw
much light on the vexed question of orchard soil exhaustion.
, Google
Oabb of Fbdit Tbbbb. 625
No attempt has been made to estimate the amount or value of the
leaves which are blown into the fence corners or onto adjoining
fields, nor those which remain on the land. The good judgment of
the orchardist can make these estimates according to exposure and
local conditions with a good degree of accuracy. In the investiga-
tion of soil exhaustion by naraery stock, which follows, no account
has been taken of the leaves, as the wind has but little effect where
the trees are so low-headed, and so numerous as they are in the
nursery row.
Aa a clearer comprehension is had by comparing unfamiliar things
with familiar things, a table follows which gives in brief the soil
exhaustion which is likely to occur from a continuous twenty-year
wheat production. Here, again, an average yield has been assumed
which, while approximately correct for' New York, may be wide of
the mark in some States where the average yield of wheat falls to 8
or 10 bushels per acre.
The following tables show the amounts and value of the fertiliz-
ing ingredients removed by wheat (grain and straw) in twenty years
continuous cropping, assuming an average yield of 15 bushels per
acre and 1 pounds of straw to 3 bushels of grain :
Table IX.
Composition of Wheat and Straw.
WMer. Nitrogen. Phosphoric add. Potash.
Grain 14.75% 2.36% .89% .61%
Straw 12.66 .55* .12 .61
Table X.
Amounts and value of plant food removed in one year and in
twenty years.
Nitrogen. Phosphoric add. Potash. Total
Ibi. lb* lbs. value.
Grain, 1 year 21.24 8.01 5.19 $9 99
Grain, 20 years 424.80 160.20 109.80 79 86
Straw, 1 year 11.74 2.52 10.71 2 42
Straw, 20 years 234.78 50.40 214.20 (8 37
Total valoe in wheat, grain and straw for 30 years $128 23
Total valne in apple, fruit and leaves for 20 years 207 45
The above table shows that the orchard requires, if fruitful, plant
food equal in value to $87 more than the wheat. No one would
40
626 Agricultural Expbhimbnt Station, Ithaca, N. T.
think for a moment of trying to raise, even on our best New York
land, wheat for twenty consecutive years, even though the soil was
fitted in the best possible manner yearly.
The following investigations show the amount of patent food
demanded or used by old orchard trees. The old apple orchard on
the University farm, largely body-grafted, set at the beginning of
the centnry, situated on gravelly soil, with stone and sand subsoil at
the depth of from three to six feet, was seeded in 1876 to perma-
nent pasture. Only about one-third of the trees of the original
orchard still remained, and they bore little merchantable fruit.
Some of the varieties were worthless, the trees were overloaded
with brush, and looked like many trees one Bees in passing through
the country. The orchard, since seeding, has been pruned from
time to time, and top-dressed with farm manures some three or
four times. The field has never been grazed closely, and nearly
every fall cattle have been fed coarse, supplementary food upon it.
Most of the trees Boon showed increased rigor and fruitfulnen.
A Seek-no-further tree, nearly destitute of apples, in a fairly thrifty
condition, but below the normal size of trees of its age (see illustra-
tion on page 617) was selected for the following investigations :
(1) Amount and composition of leaves.
(2) Amount and composition of wood, 1894.
(3) Amount and composition of wood, 1895.
(4) Amount and composition of limbs and trunk.
(5) Amount and composition of roots.
The work of picking leaves began July 1, 1895, and the final
sampling of trunk and roots was completed July 12. The limbs,
trunk and roots were sampled by sawing numerous pieces several
times crosswise, thereby securing uniform samples of sawdust for
analyses.
Table XI.
Leaves.
Lt*
ToUl weight 333.08
Total weight water 139.51
Total weight dry matter 92.51
Total weight nitrogen 96
Total weight phosphoric acid . .37
Total weight potaeh l.S
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Gars of Fbiiit Trees. 627
Tablb XII.
Twiga.
(1B9B p-owth.)
Urn.
Total weight 171-7
Total weight water 88.08
Total weight dry matter 83.63
Total weight nitrogen 86
Total weight phosphoric acid 31
Total weight potash 67
Table XIII.
Twigs.
(ISM growth.)
Total weight 266.7
Total weight water 130.70
Total weight dry matter 136.
Total weight nitrogen 1.16
Total weight phosphoric acid .86
Total weight potash 80
Tablb XIV.
Limbs and Trunk.
Lbs.
Total weight 3872.6
Total weight water 1666.63
Total weight dry matter 2315.97
Total weight nitrogen 5.16
Total weight phosphoric acid 1.98
Total weight potash 5.16
Tablb XV.
Hoots.
Lbs.
Total weight 840.6
Total weight water 424.87
Total weight dry matter 416.63
Total weight nitrogen 92
Total weight phosphoric acid 42
Total weight potash 92
One large root was found to be entirely decayed, hence it ia prob-
able that the per cent, of roots as compared to tops is less than the
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628 AoaiauLTURAL Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. T.
TaBLB XVI.
Amount and value of leaves from an acre of trees.
Us.
Totmi weight (one year) 8130.7
Total weight nitrogen 83.6
Total weight phoapboriu aoid 18.96
Total weight potash 46. S
The total value of the respective ingredients in the tree, including
leaves is as follows :
•47 60
8 «
14 00
SUMMABY.
Tablk xvm.
Total weight of wood from an acre of tree* 6,361.4 lb*.
Value in planted food (nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash) .... (61.97
Total weight of leaves from an acre of tree* 8,130.7 lbs.
Value 68.08
Total value $70.00
Computing from Table XVI, the leaves of 85 mature trees
(an acre) would require the following amounts of plant food in
twenty years :
Table XIX.
(Leaves.)
Lbs. Vato*.
Nitrogen 673 6100 80
Phosphoric acid 356 18 IS
Potash 934 41 68
Total for twenty yeara 6160 61
If the amount of plant food required to grow the apples for
twenty years be added to this, as shown in Table Til, which repre-
sents ten years, the following results are reached :
flitroo^GoO^IC
Oabb of Fruit Tbbus.
Table XX.
Nitrogen 664-R #99 72
Phosphoric &etil 81. S 67
Potash 1 971.4 43 71
Total for twenty yearn fl47 TO
Total for twenty yean (leaves) 160 61
Total for life of tree (wood) 70 00
Grand total #377 61
The value of nitrogen, etc., in any given case is so indefinite and
variable that stress should not be laid on values as given above, but
on the total amounts of plant food need by the orchard.
The total amount of nitrogen, exclusive of that used in the
growth of the trees, is 1336.8 lbs., of phosphoric acid 310 lbs., and
of potash 1895.4 lbs. To restore the potash alone, as above and
that used by the growth of the tree, it would require 21.69 tons
of high grade ashes containing 5 per cent, of potash. To restore
the nitrogen as above, would require 16.19 tons per acre of a com-
mercial fertilizer containing 5 per cent, nitrogen.
How macb of this plant food is usually furnished to the orchard
by leguminous plants and by feeding supplementary foods
to animals which graze upon it and how much by the fallen leaves
and apples which are not blown or carried off, can not be told.
While some of the computations and conclusions are based on
estimates, yet it is believed that the tables represent average condi-
tions and need only the good judgment of the observant reader to
make them apply to his individual case with such degree of accu-
racy as to give valuable aid in the care and feeding of orchards.
Many old orchards have not only been making theBe large demands
od the soil for the last twenty years, bnt in many instances the land
has been used for the production of hay or grain, or more frequently
forthe growing of lambs and pigs with little or no supplementary
food. The grazing of orchards, especially with growing animals
without extra food, is as certain to deplete the land as grain raising,
though the soil robbery is not so rapid.
These investigations, when considered in all their bearings, lead
one to wonder not why old orchards are failing, but why they have
not ceased to produce merchantable fruit lone since.
, eo:;vC.OOglC
630 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, I'fHACA, N. T.
II. SOIL DEPLETION BY THE GROWTH OF NURSERY
TREES.
The object of this investigation wae to determine the amount of
fertility removed from the soil by the growth of various kinds of
nursery stock. As both tops and roots are removed when the trees
are Bold they are both included in the investigation, although the
proportion of tope and roots is given separately.
In October, 1894, twenty-four apple, pear, peach and plum trees,
six of each kind (Fig. 145) were received from the firm of Smiths &
Powell, Syracuse, N. Y. They were thrifty and straight, had been
dng with care and were in every way suitable for planting in the
orchard. The kinds were as follows:
Apple.
Pear
Peach
Phim.
Pound Sweet,
Flemish
Beauty,
Foster,
German Prune
Nonesuch,
Seckel,
Wonderful,
Bradshaw,
Strawberry,
Sheldon,
Crawford Late,
Yellow Egg,
Fall Pippin,
Lawmm,
Crawford Early,
Moore's Arctic,
Alexander,
Anjon,
Smock,
Washington,
Grimes' Golden.
Bartlett,
E. Beatrice.
Gnli.
The roots were washed and dried, the trees weighed and photo-
graphed.
The six trees of the various groups weighed as follows :
Table XXI.
Peschw. Plains.
6.6 lbs. 6.04 lbs.
The tops were severed from the roots at the point corresponding
with the surface of the ground, as the trees had originally stood in
the nursery row. The tope and roots were measured, weighed and
prepared for the chemist by first running them through a strong
fodder-cutter and then by grinding them in Mann's green bone-
cutter.
Table XXII.
JYur8ery Trees.
Weight of lop*. WSffat of roots.
Lbs. Los,
Apple 4.44 3.16
Pear 5.67 3.51
Peach 4.10 *.«
Plan 3.83 3.M
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Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
Table XXIII.
Pour, nix varieties
Plum, six varieties
Average height of b
■bore ground.
6 " 2 "
4 " 6 "
4 " 11 "
pe
Average length of rooti
below ratface of grand.
1 foot 10 inches.
1 " 11 "
1 " 7 «
1 " 8 "
Table XXIV.
Composition.
{6 trees).
Ti:
Pe»r.
Lb*
7.28
3.85
Peach.
Lb*.
6.34
3.33
Lb*."
3.91
3.M
SUMMARY.
Table XXT.
Total nitroiren 0318 .0*8 .0289 .0237
Total phosphoric aoid 0076 .0004 .0096 .0055
Total potash 0148 .016 .0141 .0138
The following quotation is taken from Smiths & Powell Co's.
letter dated October 20, 1894 :
" In regard to the number of trees per acre, I may say that the
blocks vary, but an average yield per acre one year with another
would be, pears, cherries and plums, 5,000 ; apples, 8,000."
The following table is made from these estimates and the tables
above:
Table XXVI.
Amounts and value of fertilizing constituents removed from an
acre of nursery trees. (They occupy the ground for about &
years.)
Apple*. Pea— " — ■■— ™
Lbs. Value. Lbs.
Nitrogen 29.07 $4 36 24.83
Phosphoric add.. 10.13 71 7.83 at o.«z 3B *.** si
Potash 19.73 89 13.33 60 11.75 63 11.60 69
SB 96 $4 87 H 27 S3 7»
The above results show conclusively that bat a small amount
of plant food is removed from the soil by the growth of nursery
stock. They also show that more phosphoric acid is removed by
the apples and pears than by the peaches and plume; bat any
D,aitoe0DyGoOQle
Cabb of Fbdit Tehes. 633
ordinary soil, cultivated as nursery lands are, should easily furnish
in three years ten times the plant food need by the trees. In
order to compare the drafts made by nnrsery stock and some of
the common crops raised in mixed husbandry, the following table
is submitted :
Table XXVII.
Tbe amount of green corn necessary to remove an equal amount of fertilizing
ingredients per acre, taking the average of the value of the nitrogen, phosphoric
Mild and potash (94.87) removed by an acre of the trees (three rears' growth)
would be 4,779 pounds.
Composition of Green Corn.
Water. Nitrogen. Phosphoric add. Potash.
Corn 78.61% .41% .15% .83%
Ensilage com raised in drills usually yields from 12 to 20 tons per
acre and yet does not make drafts on the land which precludes
duplicating the yield the following season ; hence some other cause
than soil exhaustion must be fonnd if the failure to grow a second
crop of nnrsery trees without intermediate crops is explained.
If the plowing of clayey corn ground a few days before the land
is dry enough to be at its best frequently causes a loss of half the
normal crop, may not the digging of the trees or working the land
when too wet result in equal injury to the second crop of trees if
planted before the land has returned to its normal condition i The
exacting demands made on the soil by nurserymen, and the locking
up of available plant food by untimely culture and by digging the
trees when the land is wet, may be held accountable for the failures
until some better reasons can be fonnd.
Nurserymen seldom follow nnrsery trees with nursery trees, as it
is said that they never do well unless one or more crops of clover or
grasses intervene. Since land which 1b intended for nursery trees
is usually highly fertilized, summer fallowed and cultivated an
entire season before the trees are set, and since it is well known that
much of the fertility added to tbe land and made available by
manuring and plowing is still in the soil after the first crop of trees
has been removed, the question arises why do not nursery trees
follow nursery trees kindly?
Jethro Tu.ll, many years since, succeeded in raising wheat after
wheat continuously without serious diminution of yield for twelve
consecutive years. Lawes & Gilbert, of England, have also experi-
*)d^le
634 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
mented largely in raising wheat continuously on the same ground.
Like experiments have aleo been conducted at Cornell University.
Six crops of wheat have been taken consecutively and seven of corn
without an intervening crop. In the first instance, no grass or
fertilizers of any kind were used. In the second, the field was
treated to five tons of farm manures yearly. In all of these cases,
there were no indications that the plants had exuded anything from
their roots which was deleterious to subsequent plants of the same
species, neither were there any indications that under superior
culture, with or without fertilizers, reasonable success might not be
secured without rotation. Of course it is well understood by the
thoughtful investigator that there is usually great economy in rota-
tion for various reasons which it is not necessary to state here.
Two reasons hare been assigned for the failure to successfully
raise nursery stock continuously on the same land. The first is,
that the plants have exhausted all the readily available plant food,
and since nursery stock, to be at its best, must have an early and
rapid growth, it is impossible without weathering the land and
allowing some of the plant food in the subsoil to rise to the surface
to secure satisfactory results. It should be kept in mind in this
connection, that under proper culture and conditions in dry weather,
plant food rises from the subsoil to near the surface, while in very
wet weather it may pass from the surface downward. Nursery
trees get a large percentage of their nourishment from the subsoil,
and during the two to five years that the ground is occupied by
them, a portion of the available plant food in the subsoil is used.
This would explain in part the difficulty of using land continuously
for growing young trees.
Another reason has been assigned for the fact : nursery lands in
trees are not always cultivated when the soil is in the best condition.
So much is always to be done in the spring of the year, that the
intervals between the rows are often plowed when the land is too
wet or too dry. Again, the digging of the trees is usually performed
late in the fall or early in the spring when the soil is little better
than a mortar bed. The digging and trampling, especially on clay
soils, when the land is in this condition, puddles it, and the larger
part of the available plant food is locked up, and it requires one or
two years of culture and even manuring to bring the land back to
its normal condition. But all these explanations do not fully account
for the imperfect growth of the second crop of trees, for after
DqltSMByGOOgle
Oasb or Fbuit Tbbbb. 635
having removed the trees from the land, if it he thoroughly plowed
and cultivated, there appears to be no difficnlty in raising a good
crop of wheat or grass.
In the haste to get the trees off at as early a period as possible the
grower is not satisfied unless they are making a rapid continuous
growth ; that is, he asks more of the land in his method of farming
than does the wheat or corn grower, and, therefore, as soon as the
land hesitates in the least when planted to a second crop of trees he
puts it down as a partial failure.
This explanation is emphasized by the fact that many orchardiste
have come to believe that nursery trees under present management
are forced so rapidly and make such soft growth of wood that they
are injured thereby. These trees which have been forced to unusual
growth, when set in the orchards under less favorable conditions
than were present in the nursery row, start slowly and frequently
are unable to make a satisfactory growth of good wood for two or
three years.
The following letters from careful nurserymen will throw addi-
tional light upon the perplexed question of management of nursery
lauds :
For the production of apples in the nursery I prefer a good
strong loam. If a little gravel is mixed with it there is no objec-
tion. For plums, soil considerably heavier, even to a pretty strong
clay, is more desirable. The same may be said to apply to pears.
For peaches a soil more nearly to that which I would advise for
apples ib best.
The preparation of the ground is a matter of considerable im-
portance, and I would always advise very deep plowing ; or even
snbsoiling after ordinary plowing would be better. As for fer-
tilizers, have never used any in the production of trees. I prefer
new, strong land that 1b supplied with the proper amount of plant
food instead of using anything in the way of stimulants. In my
own experience I have found that I can with safety take off one
crop of seed fruits, such as apples or pears, and if the soil is strong,
follow with cherries or peaches, but this is keeping the soil under
the plow for a period of from five to six years, and most soils lose
more or less of their life and are inclined to become hard after
plowing if they have no rest. In order that yon may understand
the matter better, we make our trees by thorough and continued
cultivation, and I undertake to say the best of trees can be grown
iu no other way. Our blocks are plowed and cultivated probably
not less than six or eight times during the season of growth. Yon
can easily understand what this means. To us it means to get out
everything in the soil that is reachable for the purpose of aiding the
Digitized byCOQgle
636 Agricultural Experiment Station, Itua.ua, N. T.
growth of the trees. The reason, in my opinion, that the land will
not produce a second lot of good trees is that we manage to get the
most of the tree-growing properties oat of the soil in the first crop.
S. D. WILLARD.
For the culture of pear and plum trees we prefer a strong clay
loam, thoroughly underdrained and fertilized sufficiently to grow a
first-class crop of wheat or corn.
For apples we prefer a more loamy soil, prepared in a similar
manner to above.
Peach and cherry will thrive on a much lighter soil.
We do not approve of planting one crop of nursery trees imme-
diately after another, for the reason that the crop exhausts the soil
of those elements- that are peculiarly requisite for the growth of that
particular kind of plant. We, however, frequently follow a plant-
ing with that of some other kind of plant and with good success we
think ; for example, we plant cherries after pears and peaches after
apples.
BMITHfl & POWELL CO.
In reply to yonr inquiry as to best land for growing nursery stock
we will be brief as possible.
(a) Apples. — (1) Upland clay loams, that is as high up as you find
clay. (2) Heavy sand loam. (3) Gravelly soils that contain more
soil than stones.
(b) Plums. — Clay loam very rich for years with barnyard ma-
nures,' character of soil not so important as richness and thorough
drainage.
(c) Pears. — The best standard pears are produced on soih mostly
clay with clay subsoil, thoroughly underdrained.
(d) Peaches. — A natural soil for a block of peaches 1b a chestnut
upland, i. e.f a soil where the American sweet chestnut is indige-
nous; high, sandy soils, if rich from a farmer's standpoint, will
do well
For a, b and o we select lands that can be easily drained, a natural
slope, good fall, ditch 2J feet deep, 2 rods apart ; plow in August or
September; rot all sods; then plow before cold weather, prior to
spring planting, 12 inches deep.
Suitable land, treated thus and followed up with thorough culti-
vation will give satisfactory growth to trees, always excepting such
risks as hail, winter killing, aphides, fungi, etc.
The above contemplates ordinarily good land without fertilizing,
but we should use stable manures for plums and apples, and depend
on our good' subsoil and thorough cultivation for a growth of pears.
We have blocks of apples raised as a second and a third crop by
using 25 to 30 bushels of wood ashes and lime (air slacked, the waste
from lime kilns). Apple wood always improves with wood ashes
and lime, even on limestone lands.
Diaiti2eat>yG00Qle
Oabd of Fhuit
Clay lands will produce more than o
without fertilizing, if not " tilled " by
long time to recover soil spoiled in t
way to reinstate it is to grow clover,
It is well to plow under clover, rye or i
We like the following rotation of cr
Apples after Flume or Cherries o
Plums after Apples or Pears.
Peaches after Apples or Pears.
Cherries after Apples or Pears.
"We never grow a poor crop of whes
"We have never seen good results a;
cial fertilizers.
"We like stable manure, but it is ver;
E reduce results, hence we try to get I.
afore.
Wood ashes and lime never fails us.
Our opinion is that lands that do
trees are not adapted to trees at all,
trampled out of it while wet and that :
as proper mechanical reconstruction.
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.Google
BULLETIN 104— November, 1S95.
Cornell University— Agricultural Experiment Station.
ENTOMOLOGICAL DIVISION.
CLIMBING CUTWORMS
IN WESTERN NEW YORK.
By M. V. Slinqeklaxd.
)ijiio,aWGoosIe
ORGANIZATION.
Board of Control— The Trustees of the University.
STATION COUNCIL.
Prttident, JACOB OOULD SCHURMAN.
Hon. A. D.WHITE Tnutotof lie Unirtrntf.
Professor I. P. ROBERTS Pretidtnt SiaU Agricultural Society.
Professor I. P. ROBEK'l.- Agriculture.
Profebbor G.C. CALDWELL Ckamtutru.
Professor JAMES LAW Veterinary Soieuee.
Professor A. N. PRENTISS Bottm*.
Profrbsor J. H. COMSTOCK Bubmoloty.
Professor L. H. BAILKV Hcrticulluru.
PROFESSOR H. H. WINO Dairy Husbandry.
Profrbsor G. F. ATKINSON Oryfte&mic BoUtmy.
OJTJMUKBB OF THB STATION.
I. P. ROBERTS DtrwtUr.
B. I* WILLIAMS lreawwr.
H. W. SMITH Cto*.
M. V. 8LINGERLAND
G. W. CAVANAUGH CkemUtry.
E. Q. LODEMAN Hortieultur*.
E. J. DUBAHD Botcmf.
Bulletins of 1895.
e Dwarf Lima Beam.
88. Early Lamb Raising.
89. Feeding Pigs.
90. The China Asters.
91. Recent Chrysanthemums.
92. On the Effect of Feeding Fat to Co wh.
93. The Cigar-Caae Bearer.
94. Damping Off.
96. Winter MnskmeJoDa.
96. Forcing House Miscellanies.
97. Eritoraogeiions FuDgi.
98. Cherries.
99. Blaokberriee.
100. Evaporated Ra
101. Tbe Spraying < ._..._. _
103. General Observations Respecting the Care of Fruit Treea; Weeda.
103. Soil Depletion in Reepect to the Care of Fruit Treea.
104. Climbing Cutworms in Western New York.
DuNaeasyCjOOgle
Cor
Ithaca, N.
Honorable CommiimonerB of Agrictdi ■
Sib.— Altlioagh cutworms are an:
insects, their habits are yet little kno ■
particularly true of those species whic"
ami eat out the buds. These climbing
mischief in parts of western New Yoi ■
Mr. Slingerland has taken up the stuc ■
of the Experiment Station Extension
researches in the field and laboratory
tinder that law (Chapter 230, Laws ■
investigation is the greater because i
most unseasonable hours of the nig I
escape the observation of the frnit-g i
them with especial apprehension frou:
havoc which they make, they seem b
plauts trees in the daytime, he must s
tunately, such exacting reqnirements
assured at the outset that the later pan
cient directions for circumventing the
the histories and habits of these inter*
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CONTENTS.
I. Cutworms in Genbbal. Pages 643-647.
What are they % Habits of cutworms. Appearance and
habits of the moths. Appearance of cutworms. Food-
plants. Destnictivenese and abundance. Their life history.
Natural enemies.
II. Climbing Cutworms. Pages 648-651.
General discussion of their history ; favorable conditions
for climbing cutworms ; their food-plants ; cutworms known
to have climbing habits. General notes on their depredations
in western New York.
Detailed discussion of the five species of climbing cut-
worms studied. The species are —
1. The white cutworm {Cwrneadsa Scandena). Page 654.
2. The spotted- legged cutworm {Porosogrotie vetuata).
Page 666.
3. The well-marked cutworm {Nociua clamdestinri). Page
658.
4. The dingy cutworm {Fdtia subgothica). Page 660.
5. The variegated cutworm (Peridroma muddy Page
665.
The discussion of each species includes an account of its
history and distribution, its appearance, its habits and food-
plants, its name and its life history. A full-page plate show-
ing the different stages of the insects illustrates the discussion
of each species.
III. How to Combat Cotwoems. Pages 670-671.
Trapping the moths. Page 671.
Cutworms that climb. Pages 672.
Clean cultivation.
Attractive crops.
How to prevent them from getting to the buds. Illus-
trated.
How to kill climbing catwormB.
In gardens. Pages 680-683.
Preventive measures.
Destructive measures.
In grass lands and field crops. Pages 683-684.
In cornfields.
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Climbing Cutworms.
I. CUTWORMS IN GENERAL.
Although this bulletin treats primarily of climbing cutworms,
it seems advisable to devote a few pages to a discussion of cutworms
in general.
What abb They?
Cutworms are the caterpillars of certain moths belonging to a
great family of iusects known as NoctuidB or owlet-moths. Most
of the moths or " millers " that fly into onr houses at night,
attracted by the lights, are members of thiB family. Several dif-
ferent kinds of cutworms are represented, abont twice natural
size, on the plates in this bulletin.
Habits of Cdtwobmb.
Many different kinds of grubs and caterpillars have a peculiar
habit of often cutting off their food-plants near the surface of the
soil ; these were all commonly known as " cutworms " to the earlier
writers 02 insects.* About seventy-five years ago, writers began
to restrict the name to the caterpillars of owlet-moths only;
and all of these had the peculiar habit of concealing themselves
during the day, either beneath some object on the ground or
buried just beneath the surface, and of coming forth to feed only
at night. More recently, several Noctnid caterpillars with noc-
•When Bad by whom the name "cutworm" was first used, we have been
unable- tu discover. It first appeared in a dictionary in 1808 us u Scottish word
designating " a small white grub, which destroys cnleworts and other vegetables
of this kind, by outting through the stem near the roots " (Jamiesou'e Dictionary
of the Scottish Language) ; it is doubtful if this definition refers to a Noctnid
caterpillar. As the term was quite commonly nsed in communications read
before the Philadelphia Society for the promotion of Agriculture in 1810 and 1817,
it is probable that it has been in use in this country for a century or more. The
name may still lie In use in Scotland, bat it seems to have never come into use in
England or in any other conntry except America. For the past seventy-five
years it seems to have appeared only in American literature. In England, the
term "surface caterpillars " is nsed, and the Germans call them "erdranpen'' or
"rata.™,™,.''
644 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, K. T.
turnal, but not with cutting, habits have been claused as cutworms;
they usually feed at nigbt upon the leaves of low plants in the
same manner asthe day-feeding caterpillars.* All cutworms usually
curl up when disturbed. Several species cut off the plants at the
surface, others an inch or so above, while one cutworm (Hadena
devastatrix) rarely appears above the surface, but works on the roots
and stems just beneath. Sometimes cutworms draw the several
plants or leaves as far as possible into their day retreats where they
can continue their feast at leisure.
Under certain conditions, however, cutworms may change their
usual habits. In several instances, true cutworms {Feltia herilit
and Nuctua fennica\ have appeared in enormous numbers and
have then assumed the army-worm habit of traveling in hordes
and feeding by day. Many of the species also know how to get
to the tender buds of fruit-trees or grape-vines when there is a
scarcity of their favorite food-plants to cut off. But little is
definitely known of the habits of young (lees than half grown)
cutworms ; they are said to work in a similar manner as when nearly
full-grown but owing to their small 6ize, do little damage to the
mass of vegetation. f
There are known to occur in our state at least thirty different
kinds of cutworms, and as many more Noetuid moths whose cater-
pillars may have cutworm-habits; nothing is yet kuown about the
habits of many owlet-moth caterpillars.
Appearance and Habits of thb Moths.
The moths — the parents of the cutworms — are also nocturnal
iu habit. They rest during the day in sheltered spots on trees,
fences, and other suitable localities ; often their coloring so closely
mimics their surroundings that they are practically invisible to the
untrained eye. They feed upon the nectar of flowers and other
sweet exudations of plants, and are readily attracted to lights. As
"According to Miss Murtfeldt (U. S Bull. 13, p. 60) and Dr. Limner (Eot.
Conlrib., IV, 93) two species (Rhynchagtatis alternata ,\n<i Homohadena badiilriga)
of cutworm* bide do the trunk ami branches of their food-),] an Is during the daj.
tin some species, nt least, the young cutwurins, befinelliej-shed their ik in the
first time, lire semi -lookers, that is, one or two pairs of pro-legs have not yet
appeared and they " loop " themsrlvcH along llhn measuring. worms. Doring
tbis stage they prolinldy feed on tha pliot on which the eggs were laid, bat after
the first moult the; have the uor.unl number of legs, sixteen, and assume regular
cut norm habits.
DijiiuawGoosle
a rule, they are of a somber grey
obscurely marked. The size and
the species are well represented ii
bulletin. Their nocturnal habits,
obscurity their eyes shine very bi
name, owlet-moths.
Appearance o
Cutworms are sleek, fat-looking
grown, from an inch to nearly two
yellowish, whitish, greenish, or gr
clouded, or variously marked with
deep black or distinct white mar;
from darkish, regularly arranged B]
have six true legs and ten fleshy p
a horny shield on the back of the
Several of these characteristic feati
of the different cutworms on the p
Food-Pi
Cutworms are not at all fastidio
the succulent crops of the garden,
toes, onions, beans, etc. They alB(
grans, wheat, barley, turnips, stra\
and many kinds of flowers. In
attacked the weeds in a grain-tiel
great liking to the open buds on p
Dbbtbuotiveness and Ai
From the earliest times, both in
have ranked among the most deal
principally due to their unfortunai
plants and thus destroying much
are justly a terror to the agricnlt
depredations and the extreme diili
year hundreds of acres of corn ha
,v Google
646 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, ITHAOA, N. Y.
worms destroyed nearly every green shoot of clover (second crop)
that appeared over an area of about eight acres here on the Uni-
versity farm. Daring the past five years, hundreds of young peach
trees have been killed by cutworms in the counties of Wayne and
Monroe, X. T. Many other equally as striking instances might be
given of the destructivenese of these pests.
As is the case with other insects, cutworms have their years of
unusual abundance. In several instances species, that have never
before been known as injurious, have appeared in phenomenal
numbers in certain parts of the country.
During the attack upon onions in Orange county, mentioned
above, it was " common for a family to pick 10 or 12 quarts by day
and the game number at night by the light of lamps." Sixty cut-
worms have been taken from a single hill of com ; and from fifty
to a hundred are frequently found the same day on or around a
single two or three-year old peach tree in western New York.
Their. Life Histobt.
As our knowledge of cutworms increases, the more difficult it is
to record their life history in a general statement. There is found
to be a great diversity in the life periods of the different stages, in
the method of wintering, and in egg-laying habits, bo that each
species should be discussed separately.
The parent moths of many of the species appear during June,
July and August.
But little is definitely known of the egg-laying habits of the
moths. The eggs of some species have been fonnd on the leaves
of fruit and forest trees ; one species has been reared on currant
from eggs found on one of the leaves, while one common species
lays its eggs on the trunk or twigs of fruit trees. Professor J. B.
Smith says that they are also " laid on grasses, thrust close to the
stalk under one of the sheath-leaves, and occasionally on stones.
A single moth will usually lay from two hundred to rive hundred
eggs." * It is supposed that the young cutworms which hatch
from eggs laid on the leaves or bark of trees feed on the leaves of
the tree for only a short time, if at all, and Boon drop or crawl to
the grasses or other low vegetation below.
•A female of RhyHchagrotia crenulata laiJ 1,027 eggs, as recorded io Bull. 32,
TJ. 8. Div. of Enl., p. 89.
Digitized byGOQgle
Climbing Cutworms. 647
In some cases the eggs are laid in midsummer, aud the cutworms
hatching therefrom become about half-grown before winter and
hibernate in that stage in sheltered places or in the soil. One
species {ca/rneadee ochrogaster) may hibernate in the egg stage
while others lay their eggs in the spring.
When full-grown, cutworms bury themselves in the soil and by
twisting the body about they form an oval, smooth cell within
which they change to dark brown conical pnpse. From these pnpse
the moths emerge later.
Probably most of the species of cutworms pass the winter as half,
grown caterpillars. Some species winter as pnpse, and others in the
egg stage ; while in one case {Agrotie ypsilon), the indications are
that the moth may hibernate, and egg-laying take place early in the
spring. Some of the species pass through two generations in the
course of a year, but in mopt cases there is only one generation.
Natural Enemies.
Cutworms hare many enemies, both predaceous and parasitic,
which often do good service as natural checks to their increase.
Predaceous. — Several birds, as chickens, the robin, the cat-bird,
the red-winged black-bird and the purple grackle often include cut
worms in their daily menu. Toads should be given free range in
gardens, for, from the stomach of one of them, thirty-three cut-
worms have been taken. Spiders and mites are known to prey
upon cutworms. They also have many enemies among their own-
kind — the insects. Several of the ground-beetles (Carabidce), in
both their adult and larval stages, wage incessant war upon them.*
Wasps and ants sometimes help in this warfare ; and the spined
soldier-bug often stabs them with its formidable beak and sucks out
their juices.
Parasitic. — Cutworms have many parasitic foes among the in-
sects. Probably the most efficient of these are the tachina-flies ;
these are allied to and resemble the common house-fly. They dex-
terously fasten their white eggs to the skin of their helpless victims,
usually on the back near the head. Grubs soon hatch from these
eggs and bore their way into the host, where they live upon the
juices and fatty tissues, carefully avoiding the vital organs, until
•Dr. Fitch gives a graphic account of a ground -beetle " murdering a out-
worm " in hie Ninth Rupert on the Inaecta of New York, p. 817.
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648 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
f ally grown ; they then leave their dead op dying victim and bnrrow
into the soil, where they transform into the flies. At least 90 per
cent, of the cutworms that ravaged the clover-field, mentioned
above, were killed by one of these tachina-flies. It was difficult to find
a cutworm that did not bear its quota of eggs, in fact, not enough
could be found to enable us to breed the moth. Although most of
the damage had been done for the season before the worms began
to die from the work of the parasites, yet by their final death the
next year's crop of cutworms was nearly annihilated over that area.
Other similar instances of the efficiency of these tachina-flies in
checking these pests have been recorded.
Cutworms also have several other smaller parasitic foes among
the ichneumon-flies.
Methods OF Combating Cutworms.
In order to include the methods adapted to all conditions the dis-
cussion of this topic is deferred until after the following account of
some cutworms with climbing habits.
II. CLIMBING CUTWORMS.
Climbing cutworms are cutworms that, under certain conditions,
assume climbing habits which enable them to feed upon the buds
and leaves of shrubs, grape-vines, tall flowering-plants, etc.
Thkie Hibtobt.
The European literature of the past sixty-five years contains
several accounts of cutworms climbing grape-vines and doing much
damage to the buds and leaves; a few species are recorded as climb-
ing shrubs, but none seem to have been noticed on trees.
Apparently the earliest reference to climbing cutworms in Amer-
ica is found in the Massachusetts 1'loughman for June 28, 1851 ;
naked caterpillars came oat of the ground in the night, and crawling
up the the trunks of the fruit-trees, devoured the leaves, and
returned to conceal themselves in the ground before morning. In
1852, Dr. Harris found the yellow-headed cutworm cutting off the
tender shoots of roses, currant-bushes and other shrubs, and even
young trees. In 1866, Dr. Riley gave a detailed account of the
operations of three different species on the buds of fruit-trees,
grape-vines, etc., in Illinois. The same year a climbing cutworm
Malta* byGoOgle
Climbing Cutworms. 649
also injured grape-vines in California. The pests were especially
destructive during the next two or three years in Illinois, Missouri,
Indiana, Wisconsin and Michigan. Almost every year since, their
depredations have been noticed in various widely separated locali-
ties and on a great variety of plants.
During the last few years they have appeared in unusual numbers
in the peach orchards in the sandy regions of Michigan and New
York. In 1894, one Michigan fruit-grower killed 1500 cutwormB
on some of his trees ; one tree yielded 412 one night, 114 the next
night, and 141 the next. His orchard produced only about half ft
crop of fruit.
Favobable Conditions fob Climbing Cutworms.
Probably no cutworms assume the climbing habit when there are
plenty of low-growing grasses and weeds at hand. Trees in grass or
clover are rarely attacked by them, while those in fields kept free
from other vegetation by cultivation always suffer the most, as the
worms have to either climb or starve. It is found that if grain or
some other cultivated crop be grown between the trees, the cut-
worms usually turn their attention to the trees only after the crop
haB been removed.
AH cutworms prefer light, loose soils ; climbing cutworms have
done the most damage on plants growing in such soils. The light,
warm, sandy soils in which are set many of the peach orchards of
Michigan and New i ork are ideal places for these pests, and here
their most destructive work is now being done.
Thus light, loose soils and a scarcity of low-growing succulent
vegetation are conditions that may easily induce cutworms to assume
the climbing habit.
Their Food-Plants.
Where clean cultivation is thoroughly practiced, thus leaving no
alternative but to climb or starve, cutworms will climb almost any
plant, even to the tops of high trees. The young cotton-wood, box-
elder, maple, birch, and ash trees on the tree plantations in the
weBt are often attacked. In Missouri in 188l>, the grass under oaks,
elms, and other shade trees was often thickly strewn with leaves
and buds Bevered by cutworms; fruit-trees, as the apple, pear, and
cherry, and a variety of vines and shrubs suffered in a similar man-
ner. They have also attacked willow, catalpa, black- walnut, horse-
v Google
660 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
chestnut, and negundo trees. Among fruit-trees the peach has
suffered the most, as it is grown most extensively on the sandy soils
where cutworms nourish best ; standard varieties of fruit-trees are
often injured as much as the dwarfs. Blackberry, raspberry, rose,
and currant bashes must also be included in the list of food-plants.
The buds and leaves of grape-vines, whether in California, New
York, or Europe, seem to be favorite delicacies for cutworms.
Florists also have occasion to complain of these nocturnal maraud-
ers. Sometimes the buds, leaves, or flowers of out-door flowering
plants are found strewn about on the ground in the morning;
or a much admired blossom may have been eaten into and ruined
during the night. The culprits, lying snugly hidden in the soil
near by, are entirely unconcerned over the florist's discomfiture,
and, unless their day-dreams are seriously interrupted, the destructive
work is continued at night-fall. Often the young cutworms are
unwittingly brought into the greenhouse with potted plants or in
new Boil in the fall. The worms may feed for a time unnoticed on
the lower leaves or young shoots. A little later, or about the time
the choicest blossoms or the smilax are at their best, or the tomato-
vines that are being forced promise a good crop, then the nearly
full-grown cutworms often do much damage. Many choice chrys-
anthemum and carnation blossoms have been mysteriously ruined in
a single night. One chrysanthemum grower, not suspecting it was
the work of cutworms, vainly tried to catch the culprits with
mouse-traps !
Cutworms Kmowk to Havk Climbing Habits.
Under the favorable conditions, discussed above, doubtless any
species of cutworm would assume the climbing habit. A search
through the American literature shows that at least ten different
species have had occasion to climb for their food ; our observations
increase the number to an even dozen. In the list which follows is
given the common name of the cutworm, the scientific name of each
species, and the references to the first accounts of their climbing
habits.
1852. Harris, Injurions Insects, p. 349.
The yellow-headed cutworm {Xylophasia arctica Bdv.).
1866. Kiley, Prairie Farmer, Jnne 2.
1869. Riley, First Missouri Reportj p. 69-79.
The variegated cutworm (Peridroma saucia Hon.).
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Climbing Cdtwobmb. 651
The dark-sided cutworm {Cameadea messoria Harr.).
The white cutworm (Gar-neades acandena Riley).
The well-marked cntworm {Noctua do/ndestVMt, Harr.).
1884. Cook, Rept. Mich. Bd. Agr., 422.
The black-lined cutworm {Noctua fewnica Tausch.).
1887. Murtfeldt, Bull. 13, U. S. Ent. Div., p. 60.
The mottled-grey cntworm (Bhynehagrotis altcrnata Grt.).
The white-Bpotted cutworm (Sbmohadena badiatriga Grt.).
1894. Davis, An. Kept. Michigan Expt. Station, p. 89.
The speckled cutworm {Mamestra avbjuncta Grt. & Kob.).
1895. Davie, Paper before Abb. Ec. Ent., Aug. 28.
The red cntworm {Rhynchagrotie plaoida Grt.).
Our observations in western New York, as detailed in this bulle-
tin, add two more species to this list :
The dingy cutworm {Feltia subgothica Haw.).
The spotted-legged cutworm (Porosagrotis.vetusta Wlk.).
All of the species are widely distributed in Canada and the
northern half of the United States ; and doubtless all occur in our
State. The species that have usually been the most numerous
' during outbreaks of climbing cutworms are the variegated cut-
worm, the dark-Bided cutworm, the white cntworm, and the speckled
cntworm. The two latter have done the most damage in the peach
orchards of Michigan and New York during the past two years ; in
Michigan, while G. soandena is present, nine-tenths of the cutworms
are M. aubjuncta, while in New York, 90 per cent, are G. acandena
and M. aubjuncta seemB not to occur.
General Notes on their Depredations ds Western New York.
During the past few years, thousands of peach trees have been
set in the strips of warm sandy soils that abound along the shore of
Lake Ontario. In 1893, complaints reached us from two localities
(Rose, Wayne county, and Forest Lawn, Monroe county) that hun-
dreds of these young trees, and grape-vines also, were being killed
by something that ate into and destroyed the growing buds in the
spring. Specimens of the culprits were soon obtained and they
proved to be cutworms. Their appearance in this role was of
unusual interest, for they were doing much damage, and there were
no records of our New York cutworms having heretofore troubled
the fruit growers by assuming the climbing habit.
Digitized byGOQgle
<;52 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
However, it was then too late to institute experiments against the
pests, as most of the damage had been done for the season and the;
were preparing to undergo their transformations to the adult stage —
the moth. But many of them were gathered for us by correspond-
ents and were turned loose in cages here at the insectary to breed.
We were thus enabled in 1893 to learn considerable about their
habits and life-periods that proved of value in the work the next
year.
In the lalter part of April, in 1894, soon after the cutworms
had begun operations, we visited Forest Lawn for the purpose of
making additional observations, to gain farther information in re-
gard to what had been done to prevent their depredations, and to
teBt some new methods which seemed practicable. Much interest-
ing and valuable information was thus obtained. Forest Lawn was
reached about 8:15 p. St., or just in time to watch the pests as they
began operations for the night. By the aid of a lantern, many were
seen crawling out of the sand around the base of the trees and
making their way up the trunk and out onto the branches where
they soon begau their destructive work on the opening buds ; the
frontispiece illustrates this point. Most of them are at work by
10 p. m., and many continue to work until nearly daylight. Proba-
bly most of them leave the trees by dropping to the ground instead
of crawling back the way they came. Upon reaching the ground
they bury themselves in the sand about an inch below the surface
and usually within a radius of a foot from the base of the tree.
No distinction seems to be made between fruit and leaf buds.
Fifty have been found at one time on a tree set the preceding
year, and 120 on two or three-year old trees.
For several years, previous to 1893, many peach growers in the
neighborhood had noticed that the buds did not start on some of
their young trees, and often many of these trees soon died, as they
supposed, from the effects of frost or other unknown causes. One
extensive grower told us the curious way in which he at last dis-
covered the real culprits. He happened to be passing through his
recently-set orchard on a still night, and heard a distinct nipping
sound which seemed to proceed from the trees. Investigation
showed that the noise was caused by the coming together of hon-
dreds of the minute homy jaws of cutworms on the peach buds.
One cutworm doubtless destroys several buds in a night and
thus a few worms soon kill young trees, or by eating the buds from
DqltSMByCOOgle
Climbing Cotworms. 653
a few main branches so distort and stunt their growth as to render
the tree very unsym metrical and often of little value. Last spring
one fruit grower at Forest Lawn, N. T., had nearly all of his
recen tly-set peach trees killed in one night by the cutworms.
When there are not buds enough to go around, some of the worms
gnaw off the bark on the branches, often girdling them ; in one
orchard where they were prevented from getting to the buds, they
ate off large patches of the bark on the trunks of the trees. They
usually begin operations in the spring soon after the buds begin to
swell. Those fonnd at work on April 27th, were of different sizes,
ranging from half grown to nearly full-grown. Their most
destructive work was done on the opening buds of yonng trees in
April and May ; some of the worms continued to feed upon the
foliage during June. In June, one grower, "found green peach
leaves sticking into the sand and on digging found the cutworm at
the lower end." Peach trees of all sizes, ages, and varieties were
attacked indiscriminately, but the cntworms were not so numerous
as to produce noticeable injury on large bearing trees in but few in-
stances. Trees more than three years from the bud were rarely
killed, but younger trees were often set back from one to two years'
growth. Grape-vines, berry-buBhes, and all kinds of crops grown on
the sandy soils also suffered much iujnry from the same Bpecies of
cutworms.
It was especially noticeable that the cntworms did the most
damage on trees and other plants set in the sandy soils. Orchards
a few rods away on heavier soils suffered comparatively little. So
loose is the sandy soil in many of these peach orchards that it is
often drifted by the winds ; these are ideal places for peach trees
and unfortunately for cutworms also. Such soils are easily kept
free from weeds and grass and the cutworms are thus driven to the
trees for food. One grower noted that the trees he set in a meadow
were not disturbed, and those in cultivated ground next to a meadow
were but slightly damaged.
In 1894, we saw in operation several methods for combating the
pests, and we tested others. The different methods are discussed in
detail on page 670.
Our observations and breeding experiments show that there are
at leaBt four different kinds of cutworms engaged in climbing
peach trees in Wayne and Monroe counties. A detailed, illus-
trated account of the lives of each of these species will now be
654 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. T.
given ; it seems best to also include in thia discussion a fifth
climbing epecies, which we have investigated as a greenhouse pest.
1. The "White Cutworm.
Carneades seandens Riley.
This species constituted over 90 per cent, of the cutworms that
climbed peach trees in western New York in 1893 and 1894 ; this
statement is based on the examination of nearly 700 specimens
taken from the trees in Wayne and Monroe counties.
Its history and distribution. — This cutworm was first described
from Illinois in 1866 by Dr. Riley (Prairie Farmer for Jane 2) ;
three years later he described the adult insect — the moth — as a new
species (First Missouri Report, p. 78). During these three years
the cutworm had done much damage to the buds of fruit trees and
grape-vines in Wisconsin, Illinois, Missouri, Indiana and Michigan.
It was, apparently, the most numerous of the climbing species in
these localities. The insect seems not to have again attracted
notice as an injurious species until 1886. Miss Murtfeldt then
recognized it as one of the species at work on the buds of shade and
fruit trees in Missouri. In 188S it was abundant, and injurious to
apple buds in Canada; the moth had been known in Canada for
several years. In 1894 it was identified as one of the cutworms so
destructive in Michigan peach orchards.
The first record we have of the insect in our State is in 1873,
when Dr. Lintuer collected the moth at Schenectady ; it was taken
in Erie county in 1875, and at Fentou, Lewis county, in 1877.
The specieB is now known to occur in Colorado and most of the
northern States east of the Rocky mountains, and in Canada. It is
thus an American insect and has a wide range. It is one of the
most common and injurious of the cutworms with climbing habits.
Its appearance. — The full-grown cutworm measures about one
and three- fourths inches in length; it is Bhown about natural size
in the frontispiece, and twice natural size at I on plate 1. Its
general color is a very light yellowish-gray, with irregular whitish
areas on the dorsal and lateral aspects of the body ; these merge into
quite a distinct white stripe just below the spiracles. The head and
the horny thoracic and anal shields vary considerably in color in
different specimens, but are usually light brown, mottled or dotted
with black ; in young caterpillars the bead is sometimes almost
Climbing Cutworms. 66S
black. The spiracles are black, and thus contrast very sharply with
the whitish body color, as shown in the figures. Short, brownish
hairs arise from small blackish-green spots regularly arranged on the
body ; the dorsal spots are darker. Its general whitish color and indis-
tinct markings render it easily distinguished from most cutworms.
The adult insect is shown natural size at a, plate 1, and twice
natural size at b. Its front wings vary considerably in their
ground color; they are ash-grey, suffused with either yellowish,
brownish or reddish. The hind wings are whitish, with a double
dusky shade on the outer edge, and a dark discal spot. The
indistinct markings on the front wings are well shown in the figures.
Its habits. — This cutworm has always been reported as a climber;
but several of our correspondents were very sure that they recog-
nized it among the culprits that cut off their cabbage and other
garden plants grown in sandy soils in the neighborhood of the
injured peach trees. Its climbing habits have been described in
detail on a preceding page in the general notes on their depreda-
tions in western New York.
The moths, doubtless, feed on the nectar of flowers as do other
Noctuids. They are attracted to lights and to sugar baits.
Its name. — Usually the adult and caterpillar stages of the insects
known as "cutworms" are given different popular names. The
cutworm under discussion was named by Dr. Riley "the climbing
cutworm." He named the moth " the climbing rustic," and by
these names the insect has since been known. As the scientific
name of the insect, saandens, means to climb, it may be well to not
change the popular name of the moth. But there are now several
other cutworms equally as common, and in which the climbing pro-
pensity seems equally as well developed whenever occasion requires ;
it thus seems inappropriate to designate this cutworm as the climb-
ing cutworm. As cutworms are usually named from some
peculiarity of their coloration, and as this one is nearly white in
color and all its markings are white, we propose the more appropri-
ate name of " white cutworm " for it.
Its life-history. — Practically nothing has been added to our
knowledge of the life-history of this insect since Dr. Riley's
account in 1869. He found different sizes of the cutworms appear-
ing on the buds during the last week of April in Illinois. In con-
finement they were fed on apple and grape leaves, and began
entering the ground for pupation May 20th. Nine days later the
Google
656 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. T.
moths began to appear in his cages, and the last one issued Jnne
29th. We found different sized, from one-half to nearly fnllgrown,
cutworms at work on the trees in western .New York on April 27th,
but did not Bncceed in rearing the moths before Jnne 27th ; some
did not emerge until July 21st. They did not breed readily in our
cages, containing yonng peach shoots, as only eigbt moths were
obtained from over a hundred cutworms. Onr observations indicate
that the cutworm form an oval cell about two inches below the
surface of the soil and in about a week changes to a brown pnpa ;
it seems to remain in the pupa state at least a week.
Br. Lintner has collected the moths in this State on July 8th and
August 30th. In 1>86, Mr. H. S. Saunders collected nearly every
night at electric lights in London, Canada, from May 22d to Novem-
ber 2d, and found this moth common on Jnne 1 5th, and 19th. It is
thus probable that most of them emerge from June 15th to July 15th in
our State. There seems to be but one brood in the coarse of a year.
Nothing is definitely known of the life of this insect from the
time the moth emerges until the next spring. It is probable that
the eggs are mostly laid in July, and quite possibly on the leaves
or bark of the trees. They must hatch in time to allow the young
cutworms to attain half or two-thirds their growth before winter
sets in. As the moths emerge over so long a period, some eggs
are laid quite late in summer and thus the eutworms must vary
considerably in size when they go into winter quarters buried in
the soil. They appear above ground as soon as growth begins in
the spring with their appetites whetted by the long winter's fast.
2. The Spottkd- Legged Cutwoem.
Porosagrotis vetusta Walker.*
Less than 2 per cent, of the climbing cutworms received from
western New York in 1893 and 1894 belonged to this t
Mytkimsa vetvsta. 1S56. Walker, Cat. Brit. Mob., ii, 78.
Agrotit murafnula. 1868. (3 rote mid Robinson, Trans. Am. Ent. Soc, i, 353,
Poro$agrotis vrtiuta. 1893. Smith, Ball. 44, U. 8. Nat. Muh.. p. 85.
Mr. Groto and Prof. Smith, both recognized authorities in onr systematic
knowledge of the North American Noc tnids, are not agreed as to the name of
tbie insect. Mr. Groto has criticised (Can. Ent., x»vi, p. 81) Prof. Smith's
relegation of maraenula into the eyuonomyo! Walker's vetuatu. Oar reasons for
adopting Prof. Smith's views are given in detail in the Canadian K*lomeloftii
for November, 1896.
Digitized by GOOgle
Climbing Cutworms. 657
The insect is of especial interest, however, for the caterpillar or
cutworm has never before been identified, although the moth has
been known for nearly forty years.
Its history and distribution. — It is an American insect, but the
moth was first described in England from specimens taken in Nova
Scotia. It is now known to occur in Canada and in the United States
west of Colorado and south of Georgia. In 1875, it was captured
In Erie and Lewis counties in our State. The cutworm has never
appeared in sufficient numbers to do noticeable injury.
Its appearance. — The cutworm, shown twice natural size at I,
Plate 2, is about one and a half inches in length, with its whole
dorsal surface above the spiracles of a dull, dark greyish-brown
color ; it is considerably lighter on the venter. The greenish-black
piliferous spots are very distinct all over the body ; the lateral
ones are considerably larger, as shown in the figure. The spiracles
are black. The bead and the thoracic and anal shields are brown
with black mo tilings. The caudal aspect of the base of the true
legs and the cephalic aspect of the pro-legs are of a dark greenish-
black color ; these dark spots render this cutworm easily distin-
guishable from the white cutworm.
The moth is shown natural size at m on Plate 2, and twice natural
size at mm. The front wings and dorsum of the thorax are of
an ecru-drab or ash-grey color and marked with small triangular
black and white Bpots as shown in the figures. The hind wings are
nearly clear white.
Its habits. — This cutworm was found feeding at night, in com-
pany with the white cutworm, on peach buds in western New York.
Further than this nothing is yet known of its habits.
The moth is attracted to lights and to sugar baits. Prof. J. B.
Smith says he has "taken it on goldenrod in September during the
day."
Its name. — No popular name has yet been proposed for this
Noctuid. The characteristic spots on the legs of the caterpillar
suggested to us the name, " spotted-legged cutworm," with which
we have christened it.
Its life-history. — Nearly full-grown cntwormB were received from
Monroe county early in May. One of them changed to a pupa July
23d on the surface of the soil in our cage. The moth did not
emerge until August 17th. The moths have been captured in
Massachusetts in August and September, and in New York in July
658 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
and on August 21st and 25th. No tiling further is known of its
life-history ; it probably differs bnt little from that of the white cut-
worm jost discussed, that is, there is doubtless but one brood during
a year and it winters as a half or two-thirds-grown cutworm.
3. The Well-Mabkrd Cutworm.
Noctua dandestina Harris.
Nearly 0 per cent, of the cutworms taken on peach trees at
Forest Lawn and sent ua in 1894 were this well-marked cutworm;
it was not present among the specimens received in 1893.
Its history and distribution. — This very common Noetaid was
described and named by Dr. Harris in 1841 from specimens bred by
himself and from one sent him by Dr. Melsheimer, who had bred it
in Pennsylvania from a cutworm working in com. The cutworm
was not definitely described until 1869 (First Missouri Report, p.
79) when its climbing habits were first recorded by Dr. Riley. The
species is frequently mentioned in accounts of cutworm depreda-
tions, bnt has rarely appeared in any locality in large numbers; it
was unusually common in Illinois in 1887.
It has a wide distribution. Dr. Fitch recorded it as very common
in our State in 1856. In 1875 it was reported from California and
Nevada. It is now known to occur all over the United States,
except in the Southern States, and in Canada, including Manitoba.
Its appewcmce. — The two figures of the cutworm, twice natural
size, on plate 3 well show its characteristic markings. It is of a
greenish-ash color mottled with dusky, and distinctly marked with
four rows of conspicuous, more or less triangular, black spots
arranged as shown in the figures ; the spiracles are situated in the
spots of the lateral rows, and are bordered below by yellowish
patches. The narrow light stripeB Been in the figures are yellow.
The head is yellowish, recticulated with brown and marked with a
wide brown band on each side of the middle.
The moth is shown natural size at a, and twice natural size at b on
plate 3 ; the figures represent nearly its natural coloring. Its front
wings are of a dark smoky brown color with rather indistinct mark-
ings. The female has a curious and apparently unique structure on
each side of the venter of the next to the last abdominal segment;
it is a deep smooth depression whose object is not known.
,v Google
Climbing Cutworms. 869
Its habits and food-plants. — Jlr. Gillette says (Iowa Exp. Sta.
Bull. 12, p. 541) this cutworm is the typical climbing species in
Iowa, and he has taken them in large numbers from the trunks of
box-elder, and in less numbers from apple and soft maple. How-
ever, the species is usually among the culprits that cut off corn and
other garden crops. It frequently drags its food into its day-retreat
where it continues to feed npon it. Dr. Riley has recorded it as
quite often found climbing low bushes like currants, and as occurring
" abundantly on a species of wild endive under the broad leaves of
which it frequently nestled during the day, withont entering the
ground." It is common in grass lands and in grain f elds.
When at rest the moth folds its wings so closely and flatly over
its back that it is enabled to get into very narrow crevices. Hence
it usually lies hidden during the day " under the bark of trees, in
the chinks of fences, and even under loose clapboards of buildings.
When the blinds of our houses are opened in the morning, a little
swarm of these insects which had crept behind them for conceal-
ment is sometimes exposed and suddenly aroused from their daily
slumber (Harris)." They fly freely to lights and sugar baits at
night from June until September.
Its name. — On account of its noticeable habit of concealing itself
during the day in all Borts of unsuspected places Dr. Harris very
appropriately named the moth clandeslina — the clandestine owlet-
moth. The caterpillar or cutworm was named the a w-marked cut-
worm " by Dr. Riley, who thought he saw a resemblance to a series
of the letter w in the arrangement of the black spots as he looked
along the dorsum toward the head. In all of the specimens we have
seen, it requires too great a stretch of imagination to see this
w-mark ; Prof. Forbes also failed to find it in making his excellent
description of this cutworm (Fifth Report, p. 55). Therefore, in
spite of the fact that this name — w-marked cutworm — has been in
current nse for a quarter of a century, we believe it best to change
the name slightly and call it the " well-marked cutworm ;" this only
adds three letters to the old name, and makes it better express a con-
spicuous characteristic of the cutworm.
Its Hfe-history. — We can add but little to the original account of
the life of this cutworm by Dr. Melsheimer in a letter to Dr. Harris
in 1841. He said : " When first disclosed from the eggs they sub-
sist on the various grasses. They descend in the ground on the
approach of froBts, and reappear in the spring about half-grown,
660 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaoi, N. Y.
Their transformation to pupa; occurs at different periods, sometimes
earlier, sometimes later, according to the forwardness of the season,
but usually not much later than the middle of July." Dr. Harris
added that the moths are very abundant in New England from June
15th till the end of August.
There are many records of the capture of the moths at lights or
at sugar baits. In Canada the dates of capture range from June
19th till October; in New York the dates are between June 15th
and September 23d. In a series of six trap-lanterns kept lighted
every night during the spring, summer, and fall of 1889, we cap-
tured in all 21 of the moths on the following dates: 1 on June
10th, 2 on June 15th, 2 on June 21st, 6 on June U5th, 6 on June
28th, 6 on July 2d, 1 on August 28th, and 1 on September 26th.
Although the night of the moths extends over so long a period there
seems to be but one brood of the insect in the course of a year in
this latitude.
The eggs are doubtless mostly laid in June and July and the cut
worms hatching therefrom attain about half their growth before
going into winter quarters. Prof. Forbes says most of the cutworms
finish their growth in Illinois in April and early May. In 1871,
Mr. Saunders found the half-grown cutworms under chips and logs
in open fields in Canada early in May ; these became full-grown by
May 25th and one pupated the uext day. From nearly full-grown
specimens taken on peach trees April 29th we bred the moth on
Jnne 11th and 12th.
Thus there is yet much to be learned of the life-history of this
well-marked cutworm.
4. The Dingy Cutwokm.
Fdtia wbgothica Haworth.*
This is one of the most common cutworms in our State, and yet
only 3 per cent, of the specimens found on peach trees in Monroe
" The scientific name of this insect bas been the source of much discussion in
recent years. Much of the confusion has resulted from the fact that it nu first
described in England from supposed English specimens. We have made a criti-
cal historical investigation of the systematic literature of the specie*, and bsve
embodied the results in detail in an illustrated article in the Canadian Entomolo-
gist for November, 1896. At present, we believe, the evidence warrants the nae
of tbe above name for the insect; the generic name ma; hare to be changed to
Agro-no-ma in accordance with the latest revision of the old and nnwidely genus
Agroti*.
Digitized bydOOgle
Climbinq Cutworms. 661
county in 1894 were this dingy cutworm, This indicates that it
does not often assume the climbing habit, and so far as we can find,
it has never before been recorded as a climber.
Its history and distribution. — The moth was first named and
described in England in 1810 from three or four American speci-
mens that had become mixed with English insects; it was not until
1847 that the facts regarding the origin of most of these specimens
was pointed out, and the name was soon dropped from British lists.
A few English entomologists, however, still believe that the single
specimen belonging to Haworth, the describer, was a variety of a
common English species, but there is little evidence to support such
a view. In 1852, it was again described (as jacvlifera) in France
from several moths taken in America. It was first mentioned in
American literature by Dr. Fitch in 1856; he said it was then much
the most common Noctuid in our State. The same year it was again
described in England (as dueens) from New York and west Canadian
specimens.
The entwonn was first described and figured by Dr. Riley in
1869 from Illinois, where it was very destructive in gardens. It,
doubtless, is one of the culprits in most of the reported outbreaks
of cutworms, and yet it has been definitely identified as doing
noticeable injury only a few times. In 1886 it was found destroying
many ripening strawberries in Indiaua, and in 1887 and 1888 it was
very abundant and destructive in meadows and clover fields in
Illinois. Canadian field and garden crops were ravaged by cutworms
in 1888 and 1889, and the dingy cutworm was recognized as one
of the most numerous and destructive species. In 1&90 beans,
squashes and cucumbers suffered severely from it in Michigan.
It is, thus, one of our most common owlet-moths, and is known
to occur throughout the United States and in all of the Canadian
provinces from the Atlantic to the Pacific coast. It is an American
insect, and has thus far never spread beyond its own country.
Its appearance. — The excellent figures of the cutworm, twice
natural size, on plate 4, well illustrate its characteristics. It has a
very wide, bnffy-grey dorsal stripe, and the sides are of a dusky,
dingy grey ; the venter is lighter. The head and the thoracic and
anal shields are dark brown or dusky. The dark greentBh-black
piliferous spots just behind the spiracles are large and prominent.
The spiracles are black; the anterior ones are situated in a large
coriaceous brown spot.
Digitized byGOOgle
662 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. T.
Both sexes of the moth are Bhown natural size (at m and f), and
twice natural size (at mm and ff) on plate 4. It is one of the most
distinctly marked of the owlet-moths. The males are easily distin-
guished by their tufted abdomens and serrated antennae. The
ground color of the front wings is a smoky gray. The markings
are well shown in nearly their natural colors in the figures ; the
reniform spot is yellowish.
Its habits and food plants. — TbiB cutworm rarely assumes the
climbing habit, and usually confines its depredations to cutting off
garden plante or to working in grass or grain fields. Ripening
strawberries, corn, wheat, sweet potatoes and beans are agreeable
food for it. Prof. Cook says that during the outbreak in Michigan
in 1890 he often saw some of them crawling on the top of the
ground, even in the hot sunshine.
The moths usually lie concealed during the day in sheltered
places, but they have been recorded as abundant on the flowers of
thistle (Oirsium arvense) and on the nnexpanded flowers of Verbas-
eum thapsus. They are readily attracted to lights ; in 1889 more
specimens of this moth were taken in onr trap-lantern experiment
than of any other species of insect. Sugar baits also attract them in
large numbers.*
Its name. — When the moth was first described in 1810 as sub.
gothica, it was also given the popular name of "gothic dart;" the
owlet-moths are often called the dart-moths in England, from the
dart or spear-like streak which many of them have near the base
of their front wings.
The cutworm was well designated as the " dingy cutworm " by
Dr. Riley.
Its life-history. — Although this insect is so very common, and
often very destructive, in many parts of the country, but little is
known about its life. It winters as a jonng cutworm ; in Illinois
Prof. Forbes found specimens less than half an inch long on Janu-
ary 24th. By April 25th most of the cutworms he collected were
from three-fourths to full grown. Preparations for pupation began
May 18th, while a few continued to feed until June 9th, and others
* Dr. Packard onee beheaded one of the moths' " at 40 minings past 9 in the
evening. It whs lively at the night of Ihe fourth day, flying about wheu dis-
turbed ; but nt 7 in the rooming of the fifth day it was found nvarl y dead, alight
movement* of its feet and abdomen being perceptible (Psyche, ii. 18).''
,v Google
Climbing Cdtwobhs. 663
were found underground as late as July 19th. Thus, some of the
cutworms work during a period of over two months in the spring.
This naturally varies the time of pupation and causes the emergence
of the moths to take place over quite a long period. When full
grown the cutworms bury themselves in the soil from one to two
inches, and in a few days change to pupse in earthen cells. The
pupae stage seems to last for a longer period than nsnal among these
insects. Cutworms received by Dr. Riley on Jnne 27th changed to
pupae by July 7th, but the moths did not emerge until September
2d. In Prof. Forbes' experiments many bad, doubtless, become
piipra by June 1st, and the moths emerged from August 19th to
30th. From nearly full-grown cutworms which we put in our cages
from April 29th until May 15th, no moths were bred until August
18th. Thus, at least a month and a half of the summer seems to be
passed as a pupa.
The insect is very abundant here at Ithaca, N. Y., as is shown by
the following table (p. 664), giving the number of specimens caught
each night in our trap-lantern experiment during 1889 and 1892;
other recorded captures are also included in the table. In 18&9 we
kept six lanterns lighted every night from May 1st till October
15th; in 1892 only one lantern was kept lighted for a similar
period.
It will be seen that in 1889 the moth flew from July 12th till
September 18th, and in 1892 from Jane 21st till September 30th,
and yet there is nothing to indicate more than one brood. They
appeared in the greatest numbers in 1889 from August 14th to
September 6th, over 97 per cent, of them being taken during these
three weeks. In 1892 the period was about the same, but began a
little earlier. This agrees very well with the dates given among
the other recorded captures. As the tables show, a great majority
of the moths captured in the lanterns were males ; this fact is of
much practical importance, as will be seen when we come to discuss
the trap-lantern method of fighting these insects.
Doubtless most of the eggs of this species are laid before Septem-
ber. Mr. Gillette found that many of the females had their abdo-
mens filled with- eggs on August 15th. In the latter part of
August, 1891, we captured several females at lights and confined
them in bottles with clover and plantain leaveB. All but one of
them died in a few days without laying eggs. By September 3d
Malta* byGoOgle
664 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, ITHACA, N. Y.
one Lad laid ten eggs on the clover leaves.* These eggs hatched
on September 8th and 9th. The young cutworms were of & light
drab color, with the brown pilif erous spots quite distinct ; the head
and thoracic shield were brown. They were placet' in stages con-
taining clover, but we failed to rear them.
nas.
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"Tlit! following description or the egg vm made at the time: Nearly
gplii-riciit ; height, .45 ram.; diameter, .57 mm. Color a dirty white, with brown
mottling!). The surf are is raised iuto numerous wavy ridges, nhinri converge
about a sniiill roughened nr^a, the micropyle, on the iipex. The furrows
between the rielgea sre crossed by numerous fine line-like ridges, which give the
whole egg a reticulated appearuuce especially toward the apex.
,v Google
Climbing Cutworms. 665
The evidence Beems to support the following brief summary of
the life-history of this dingy cutworm so far as we now know it.
It hibernates as a half-grown cutworm which feeds during April
and May, usually becoming full-grown about July lBt when it
changes to a papa in the soil. Apparently about a month and a
half is spent in the papa state, and most of the moths emerge from
August 10th to September 6th. The eggs soon hatch, and the
yonng cutworms attain about half their growth before they go into
winter quarters. There is but one generation during the course of
a year in this latitude. ■
5. The Variegated Cutworm.
Peridroma saucia Hubner.
This cutworm seems not to have been among those engaged in
the destructive work on the peach bnds in western New York, but
several times we have been called upon to investigate it as a climb-
ing cutworm in greenhouses ; it may thus be appropriately discussed
iu this bulletin.
Its history and distribution. — It is probably an European insect.
The moth was described and figured in 1790 in France* but was
not given a scientific name until 1816 in Germany. Eleven years
later the cutworm was first known, and it is now not uncommon
throughout Europe. In 1852, the moth was recorded from South
America, and in 1859 the cutworm ravaged the tobacco plantations
of Algiers in northern Africa. The insect also occurs in Asia and
in the Canary and Madeira Islands.
Its history in this country began in 1841 when Dr. Harris bred
the moth from some cutworms found in his garden. It is now
widely distributed throughout the United States and the Canadian
provinces, and is regarded as one of the most common and de-
structive cutworms we have. Almost every year during the past
fifteen yean it has been reported as doing serious damage in grass
or grain fields, in gardens, in greenhouses, or by climbing grape-
vines and fruit or shade trees.
It is nearly a cosmopolitan insect, but is apparently most
numerous and destructive in the United States and Canada; it is
rarely mentioned in European economic literature.
nl. vii., p. 65, pi. 878, fig. 453.
Malta* byGoOgle
666 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaoa, N. T.
Its appearance. — The full-grown cntworm, shown about twice
natural eize on plate 5, is of a sooty-brown color finely mottled with
gray, slightly darker on the back ; there is a email yellow spot on
the middle of each of several central segments, and a dark patch
on the segment before the last. A conspicuous yellow stripe, mot-
tled with red on ita upper edges, extends along each aide just below
the spiracles. Dark, sooty, longitudinal marks occur along the
subdorsal region, and also along the body near the spiracles. The
head is reddish-yellow, reticulated with rufous. On Segment ten
the sooty dorsal spots form an indistinct w. .
As is shown at c, natural size, and at d, twice natnral size, the
moth is very indistinctly marked ; the markings are often only ob-
scure shadings. The front wings are of a yellowish or purplish
brown, more or less suffused with black and gray. The hind wings
are shown in nearly their natnral colors in the figures.
Its habits and food plants. In Europe, this cutworm is recorded
as feeding on common chickweed, plantain, and Rumea acutus.
In this country it usually feeds on low-growing plants, but has
several times assumed climbing habits. In confinement it has been
fed upon knot grass, corn, grass, tips of grape-vines, apples, willow,
eupatorium, white mulberry, plantain, the leaves of soft maple, box-
elder, elm, apple, cherry, strawberry, currant, peach, raspberry, rose,
and purslane, etc. It attacks almost any field crop, and weeds even
are eaten with evident relish when no more succulent food is at
hand.
It seems to occur more frequently in cold-frames and greenhouses
than other cutworms. In 1869, Dr. Riley found it doing con-
siderable damage to a lot of young grape-vines in a cold-frame;
it haB also been quite destructive to lettuce grown in similar
situations. In 1880, they were found climbing smilax in a green-
house at Lowell, Mass., and were again reported destroying
smilax in 1882 from Germantown, Pa, In 1893, a correspondent
in Kalamazoo, Mich., sent us specimens of this cntworm which
he said had nearly destroyed his smilax ; they climbed up the
strings to the top and ate all the leaves. Thns, smilax seems to be
a favorite food for them in greenhouses. Several instances have
been recorded of carnations being attacked in greenhouses by
this cutworm. They climb up and eat into the buds ; in one
instance nearly 500 buds were thus destroyed in lees than a month.
The source of infection in one case "was clearly traced to earth
Malta* byGoOgle
Climbing Cutworms. 667
taken in the fall from beneath the sod in a pasture field which was
badly infected with cutworms ; " doubtless, in most cases, this is the
way the young cutworms are introduced into greenhouses. In 1893,
a correspondent in Bolivar, TS. Y,, wrote us that nearly 100 fruits
on his tomato plants in his greenhouse had been badly damaged by
cutworms ; they preferred the frnit to the leaves. From specimens
sent we bred the moth of this variegated cutworm.
In November, 1890, something began eating the chrysanthemum
blossoms here in the University conservatory. The florist thought (
it the work of mice, and traps were accordingly set. After two or
three nights spent in fruitless attempts to check the depredations
of the culprits in this way, it was discovered that it was the work of
this cutworm. It would climb up the flower stalks in the evening
and, upon reaching the blossom, would firmly grasp the stalk just
below with its pro-legs, and then reach out as far as possible onto
the petals and eat them down to the base ; the outer portion of the
petals, which they could not reach, usually dropped to the ground,
often to be eaten by cutworms just coming from their day-retreats.
One cutworm would thus quickly damage these beautf ul blossoms,
and frequently two or three of them would completely destroy a
whole blossom in a single night. It was found they had been feed-
ing on the young shoots before the blossoms opened.
In one instance this cutworm climbed cabbage stalks and bored
in various directions through the forming beads, and were found
coiled up in the moist places they had eaten out for themselves.
In 1886, it assumed the climbing habit in Missouri with very
serious results to the buds of fruit aud shade-trees. In 1888, it
damaged grafts and ate off the tips of frnit trees in British Colum-
bia, and it also committed serious depredations the same year in
Arkansas by devouring the foliage of potato vines. In California
it has twice appeared in very destructive numbers on the grape
vine, once in the spring of 1893 and again in 1895 ; in some cases
the vines were entirely defoliated and the young shoots cut off.
The above accounts of the depredations of this variegated cut-
worm show that its varied habitB render it a very serious pest, as it
may cut off tield and garden crops, or it may appear as a climber
on the choicest greenhonse plants or out of doors on fruit-trees and
especially in vineyards.
The moth, like all owlet-moths, is nocturnal in habit and is readily
attracted to lights. They feign death when disturbed and can thus
13,0 ivGoo^Ic
668 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
be readily captured. When alarmed they first seek flight by run-
ning, rather than by flying.
Its name. — Although this owlet-moth was named '" the rubicund "
in 1790, its scientific name — saueia — dates from 1816. It seems to
have no popular name in Europe except in England where it has
been called the " pearly underwing." In this country it is known
as the " unarmed rustic" moth, a name given it by Dr. Harris in
1841, because it lacked the common knee-shaped spot on the fore
wings.
In 1&69, Dr. Riley named the caterpillar "the variegated cut-
worm." It seems to have no common name in other countries.
Its life-history. — More is known of the life of this cutworm than
of most others, and yet our knowledge is far from complete. In
Europe, but little has been added to Schmidt's account of its life as
published by Freyer about 1830. The cutworms were found late
in the fall under plantain and Rumex acuius, and changed to pnpte
in the earth before winter ; the moths emerged early in the spring,
and there was doubltess a second generation, for Mr. Schmidt found
some eggs in March on a dry plantain leaf and bred the moths from
them. In England in 1867 (Ent. Month. Mag. iv. 119, 184) eggs
were obtained from females taken in September and October ; these
hatched in from three to five days, and pupre were formed in Decem-
ber. From cutworms taken in July or August, the moths were
bred in September and October. The conclusions were that the
insect hibernated in the pupa state and was two brooded, one brood
being on the wing in May and June and the other in August, Sep-
tember and October.
In this country considerable more has been learned of its life.
The eggs, shown natural size at 5 and enlarged at a on plate 5,
have been found in April and May in regularly arranged elongate
patches of about 500 each. They are round and of a pink color
with about forty prominent longitudinal ridges connected somewhat
irregularly with numerous transverse lines; jnst before hatching
they change to a lavender color. These patches of eggs have been
found on the bark of the twigs, trunks, and branches of young
apple, pear, and peach trees, on the trunk of plum and mulberry
trees, on the twigs of bur-oak, on grape-vines, and on the leaves of
mulberry. They were first identified by Dr. Riley in 1869.
The eggs are probably laid in the Bpring, but the duration of this
stage is not known. Some have hatched as early as April 9th, and
.Google
Climbing Cutworms. 669
others not until May 24th. The newly-hatched cutworms are of a
dirty yellowish-green color with a black head and very distinct
piliferous epots. Their first food consists of the delicate pink egg-
shells from which they have just emerged. For a while they live,
for the most part, in company on the leaves of the plant bearing the
eggs, and they do not bide during the day. In this stage they move
about with a looping gait like the well-known measuring-worms.*
After the first sheddiog of their skin, which takes place in about a
week, the characteristic markings of the variegated cutworm begin
to appear, and they drop from the trees and assume the normal
cutworm habits.
They shed their skins three times more at intervals of three or
four days ; each stage has been carefully described by Dr. Liutner
(Fifth Report, 202—203). In his experiments, the cutworms were
from 23 to 28 days in attaining their full growth ; this agrees very
closely with Dr. Riley's observations. The mature cutworm goes
into the soil a short distance and there twists about and forms an
earthen cell in which it changes to a pupa in two or three days.
Dr. Lint nor' s specimens began changing to pupte June 5th, and
Dr. Riley's on June 17th. Moths from the former pupte emerged
about June 25th, and from the latter on June 28tb to July 5ih.
This, and other records, indicate that the pupa state lasts from 11
to 2') days in June. All the breeding experiments (thus far recorded)
show that in the spring it requires from 35 to 62 days for the insect
to undergo its transformations from the hatching of the egg to the
emergence of the moth ; most of the records are about 47 days.
Prof. Forbes states that the spring brood of cutworms may feed
in Illinois " until the first of June, sometimes pupating, however,
by the middle of May, and sometimes not entering the earth until
the middle of June." The moths began to emerge in his breeding
cages June 14th, but they were not abundant abroad until about
"Dr. Lintner and Dr. Eilay differ in their statements regarding the number
of pro-legs which these newly-hatched cutworms have. Dr. Riley said first that
(Am. Eut-, i, 188) " they hove the full complement or 16 legs, bnt the two binder-
most pair of abdominal pro-legs are uracil longer than the two foremost pairs ; "
od p, 298 of volume iii, he says: " The young worms have the first p.'iir of pro-
legs reduced in size." Dr. Lintner definitely states (Fifth Report, 202) that in
the first stage " they had bnt three pairs of pro legs." At the first moult they
acquired an additional pair, making four pairs of pro-tecs ; and after the second
moult thty bad llie normal number of five pairs of pro-legs. This is an interest-
ing point and could be easily settled by referring to authentic specimens. ,->
670 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. T.
June 27th. As all of our observations were made under the
unnatural conditions existing in greenhouses, they will not aid in
determining the normal life-periods.
Thus, breeding experiments indicate that a brood of moths
emerge in June, but most of the recorded captures at lights, etc,
are later than July 7th and extend into November; Mr. Gillette
found them most abundant in Iowa in October. It seems probable
that the moths taken in September and October are members of a
second brood, and the relatively rapid and early development of
the insect in the spring would also indicate this. Yet there are
no records of the finding of the early stages of the insect later than
July in this country. Dr. Riley believed there were at least two
and possibly three broods in the latitude of St. Louis.
How is the winter spent? The occurrence of the egg so early
in the spring, and the fact that Mr. Gillette found that females
taken as late as November 6th contained no fully developed eggs
would indicate that the insect winters as a pupa or a moth, the
eggs being laid in the spring. Yet the winter is sometimes passed
as a cutworm, for Prof. Forbes found a mature specimen in Janu-
ary in Illinois. Mr. French captured a fresh specimen of the moth
as early as April 6th, indicating that the pupa hibernated.
On the whole, our knowledge of the life of this insect after July
1st is very indefinite
111. HOW TO COMBAT CUTWORMS.
Their unfortunate habit of cutting off much more food than
they eat or need, their frequent occurrence in great numbers, and
their nocturnal feeding habit render cutworms especially destructive
insects and make them especially difficult to combat. They are
destructive only during the cutworm stage, and usually noticeably
so only after they have attained about two-thirds of their growth.
Furthermore, our most common species are destructive for only
about a month, often less in corn fields, during the year; they are
usually the most injurious in May and June. This short period of
destructivenees is a very important consideration in connection with
the problem of combating these pests, for whatever is done must be
done quickly and its success or failure often rests within a very
narrow margin. There is no doubt that many of the so-called
" successful remedies" for cutworms were a "success" because they
Coogle
Climbing Cdtwobms. 671
were applied at about the time the worms were maturing and disap-
pearing into the ground for pupation ; the "remedy" was applied
and the cutworm disappeared, hence it was a success, and the fact
that they may have disappeared in obedience to nature's laws is not
taken into account.
These facts, and doubtless a difference in surroundings also, must
account for much of the conflicting testimony regarding the efficacy
of a majority of the scores of "remedies" with which our agricul-
tural literature abounds. It is beyond the scope of this bulletin to
enter into the history of all of these " remedies " that have been
proposed. Only those methods will be discussed which seem
practicable, whose efficiency has been thoroughly tested, and which
are adapted to the special conditions under which the pests may
have to be combated. The efficiency of any method will depend
largely upon the time when it is applied and the person who applies it.
Most of the methods thus far suggested are to be employed against
cutworms when in their most destructive stage; most of the other
recommendations for combating them at any other time or in other
stage are principally guess-work. We do not yet know enough
about the habits and life periods of the different stages of the insects
to enable us to make such recommendations with definiteness and
much hopefulness.
Before beginning the discussion of the methods adapted to special
crops or conditions, we may properly discuss one method that is in
no way connected with these. It is directed against the adult
insect — the moth.
Trapping the moths. — Lights and sweets have great attractions
for the owlet-moths at night, and some have suggested that they be
made to serve as traps. Many different kinds of trap-lanterns have
been patented (see Oomstock's Report on Cotton Insects, pp.
262-275). There are two records of Bome of the results obtained
by a continuous use of traps during the whole period of flight of
most insects.
In 1891, Dr. Fernald kept eight of Barnard'B Moth Traps* in
operation day and night from April 21st to September 15th. The
captures were examined each day, and in all over 17,000 Noctuid
* "These trupaire Rln»» j.'iro, wilh a tin arrangement on top with holes aruuud
,v Google
672 AaiuaoLTOHAL Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. T.
moths were taken ; but the " number of parasitic flies (beneficial
insects) captured during the same time was much larger than the
entire number of injurious insects taken during the same period ; "
perhaps if the traps had been closed during the day, not so man;
of the parasitic insects would have been killed.
In 18S9, six trap-lanterns* were set at considerable distances
apart on the University farm for the purpose of determining their
value as an insecticide. They were kept lighted every night from
May 1st till October 15th, and all insects taken were removed every
morning. A majority of the specimens taken were Noctuid moths,
one species being especially numerous as shown by the table on
page ti64. In 1892. one similar trap lantern was run from May 20th
till no more insects were attracted, with similar results. A striking
fact shown by the table is the great preponderance of the males
over the females ; in 188!), less than 7 per cent, were females, and
in 1892, about 30 per cent. This fact has also been noticed in every
other species of the traplantern insects that have been studies!.
Many benificial insects were also taken in our trap-lanterns.
The maintaining of these trap lanterns and baited traps involves
more labor and expense than their doubtful results can repay, and
besides they may be a positive detriment by destroying certain
beneficial insects.
Cutworms that Climb.
Clean cultivation. — If the peach orchards and vineyards that
suffer from climbing cutworms could be kept entirely free from all
other vegetation, weeds included, for two or three months after July
15th, we believe there would be much fewer cutworms there the
following spring. It is during this period, undoubtedly, that most
of the eggs are laid and the young cutworms are getting one half or
two-thirds of their growth on the weeds and grasses, preparatory to
going into winter quarters. If none of this food is allowed to grow
about the trees or vines at this time, the moths will be apt to go
elsewhere to oviposit, and what cutworms did hatch would soon
starve.
It may be possible to afterward start a crop of wheat or rye to be
plowed under as green manure in the spring, but this can not be
*Tbi*y connieled niinply of a common lantern stt in a pan of water wbnae
snrfiice h.id a I bin film of kerosene u|>on it to facilitate the destruction of the
inflects caught.
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Climbing Cutworms. 673
advised here until we know more about the egg-lacing habits and
fall life of the insects.
The effectiveness of this method of clean cultivation will depend
entirely npon the thoroughness with which all weeds and grasses are
kept oat. Even then it may prove of no avail if the field is sur-
rounded by old grass or clover fields from which a stock of cutworms
might migrate in the spring.
Attractive -crops. — Doubtless few cntworms will assume the climb-
ing habit except when forced to do bo by the absence of low-growing
plants. Wherever trees are set in grass, or other garden or field
crops are grown between them, it is noticeable tbat the cntworms
usually trouble the trees bnt little. One correspondent found that
when the potatoes he planted between his peach trees got large
enough, the cutworms left the trees and began cutting off the potato
stalks. Another correspondent fonnd that when he sowed rye in
his vineyard, his vines were not injured. Thus attractive crops are
sometimes a success as far as keeping the worms off the trees is
concerned.
Possibly the following suggestions regarding attractive-crops may
be of value when Betting a peach orchard or vineyard in the sandy
soils of western New York. Whether the stock is set in the fall or
spring, keep the field free of all vegetation after the preceding 15th
of July until the latest date at which rye or wheat can be sown and
obtain a good stand. Sow the field and either plow the crop under
in the spring for green manure, or let it continue to grow as a grain
crop if desired. If it is plowed under, it should be done as early
as possible before the buds on the trees or vines start, and some
quick growing crop be gotten in at once to trap the worms; or do
not plow it under until after the leaves appear, as the worms then
would not injure the trees so much. Whatever crop follows the rye
or wheat should be one that can be gotten out of the way before
August 1st, and the ground be kept entirely free from any vegeta-
tion until time to put in another rye or wheat crop late in the fall.
Such a rotation is practicable and could be profitably carried out for
the first two or three years without interfering much with the
growth of the orchard or vineyard. After that the trees or vines
need all the fertility in the soil, and they are then sometimes large
enough to withstand an ordinary attack of cutworms; if not, then
some of the following remedial measures must be resorted to :
DigltbadbyCoOgle
674 AOEIGDLTTIEAL EXPEEIMENT STATION, ITHACA, N. T.
How to prevent them from getting to the buds. — ThiB can be
accomplished in several different ways.
Some have used coal-tar for this purpose, painting a band of it
around the trunks of the trees ; it has killed some yonng trees and
is not effectual unless renewed every few days.
Another sticky substance, known as Caterpillar Lime ("Kao-
penleim," a German product), is now coming into use in this
country and was tested on Michigan peach trees last spring. Mr.
G. C. Davis, the experimenter, reported that "it worked nicely
except on very cool nights, when it was apt to become a little too
stiff and then the cutworms would scramble over." It is a black
paste with a strong tar-like odor ; a good thick band of it on the
trunk of a tree will remain sticky for weeks, and rainB do not affect
it. It can be obtained of Messrs. Win. Menzel & Son, 64 Broad
street, New York City, for $3.75 per keg of 25 pounds; a pound
will cover the whole trunk of a tree four or tire inches in diam-
eter. A much cheaper, and nearly as effective, substance has
recently been compounded by Prof. F. L. Kason, New Brunswick,
N. J. It is known as * Dendrolene," and can be obtained of the
maker for 6 cents per pound in lots of 25 to 50 pounds. Either
substance gives promise of being a very cheap and effective means
of preventing cutworms from getting at the buds of trees or grape-
vines.
A mechanical device which is oftenest recommended is a tube of
tin fitted around the tree in some such way as is shown in Fig. 146.
In earlier accounts this is termed "an effectual estopper to further
proceedings." We have not tried it nor seen it in use, bnt Mr.
Davis experimented with it in Michigan last spring, and he reports
"the tin collar is but little better than nothing. The cutworm,
when it comes to the collar, will travel around until it comes to
the lap, or where the two ends meet, and then it climbs up almost
as readily as on the bark. It is more difficult to fit to the tree
than a band, and is more expensive." This method should thus
receive no farther attention, as its efficiency is very doubtful, and
here are, also, other simpler, cheaper and more effective devices.
A stiff, smooth paper, several inches wide, wound around a tree,
tied tightly at the top and pulled out slightly at the bottom to give
it a funnel shape, has been found quite successful. We devised a
tarred-paper protector on the same plan as Mr. (Jeffs pads for the
,v Google
Climbing Cutworms. 675
cabbage maggot. These could be quite readily applied to the trees,
and formed a good funnel ; bat correspondents reported that the
cntworms crawled over them without any difficulty. Any similar
funnel-shaped arrangement will be more expensive, more difficult
to apply, and not more effectual than the following simple device :
In 1885, several Michigan peach-growers used a collar of cotton
batting, tied around their trees and vines, with success against the
cutworms. When we investigated the pests at Forest Lawn in
1894, we found several peach orchards in which every tree had a
collar of this batting around it. One man had thus protected 800
yonng trees, using only eight rolls of batting ; thus, the principal
part of the expense was in applying the bands. The very ingen-
ious manner in which it had been applied is illustrated in Fig. 147.
Digitized byGOQgle
676 AORIODLTDBAI, EXPBBIMHNT STATION, ITUACA, N. T.
Thin sheets of the batting were unrolled and cut or torn into
strips about four or five inches wide and long enough to wrap
around the tree and overlap an inch or more. After being wrapped
about the tree, it is tied at the bottom,, as illustrated at a on
the tree in Fig. 147. After tying, the operator takes hold of
the top of the band and carefully roils it down over the bot-
tom edge, thus forming a cotton-batting funnel, as represented
at b in Fig. 147. Mr. Glaaser, who placed the cotton bands
on in this ingenious way, had found that ordinary white twine
was the best cord to use, for larger, stronger cord (like binder's
twine) would not stretch enough to allow for the growth of young
trees; some of his trees were so nearly cut through with
this large twine that they were broken off by the winds
during the winter. This method of applying the batting not
only makes it a more effective barrier against the cutworms,
but it is also not easily matted down by rains. We found that a
few hours of sunshine would make it as fluffy and effective as ever.
"When properly pnt on, a cutworm very rarely got over them. In
Mr. Davis' experiments in Michigan last spring he found a cotton
batting band to be the best and cheapest device as long as it re-
mained dry, but its liability to mat down led him to recommend
that wool be used instead.
In 1894, we took some wool to Forest Lawn to be used in this
way, but our observations convinced as that Mr. Glasser's ingenuous
method of applying the cotton rendered it unnecessary to use the
more expensive wool, except possibly in seasons of continuous rain-
fall. The wool bands will prove equally as effective, and so far as
preventing the cutworms from getting to the buds of either grape-
vines or peach trees is concerned, nothing more simple or effective
need be asked for. They should be applied early in the spring, as
soon as the buds begin to swell or the cutworms appear.
As preventive methods against climbing cutworms, we wonld
therefore advise the use of the cotton or wool bands, or possibly the
caterpillar lime, and also, as a part of the regular farm practice,
the growth of snch attractive crops among the trees or vines as will
allow for a period of clean cultivation in late summer and early fall.
How to kill the dimbmq cutworms. — One should not be satisfied
with simply preserving the buds from the greedy creatures. They
should not be allowed to remain a constant menace to the trees and
other near-by crops, but a war of extermination should be in-
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Climbing Cutworms. 677
augurated at once. This fact was emphasized in one orchard at
Forest Lawn in 1894. The owner had effectively protected the
bads with the cotton bands, but we found him taking them off,
although there were then many cutworms in the soil at the base of
the trees. When questioned, he showed us several trees where the
bark had been eaten off in large patches on the trunks just below
the bands, sometimes nearly girdling small trees. The bands had
even then better have been left on the trees, but the instance served
as an illustration of the necessity of killing the pests to prevent
their further depredations and their future multiplication for an-
other crop of cutworms to harass the fruit-grower the next season.
They can be easily killed in several ways with a very little extra
labor.
While at work at night, they can be readily jarred onto sheets
(perhaps a curculio- catcher might be used in some cases) and then
killed or fed to poultry. The best time would be about nine or ten
o'clock, and it must be continued every night for about two weeks,
beginning as soon as the buds begin to swell in the spring. In most
cases this will prove a more laborious process than some others to
Hand-picking always carries with it the suggestion of too much
work, and yet no one can doubt its effectiveness, and it is a very
practicable and profitable method in many cases. It was the
method employed by the Indians in this country centuries ago to
protect their corn from cutworms,* It can be profitably applied in
the case of climbing cutworms, either in connection with the cotton
protectors or separately.
At Forest Lawn, one fruit-grower had his boy go out every night
with a lantern and pick off and kill all the worms found on the
•In the account, of his voyage to New England, printed in London in 1672, Job-
selyn gives the following quaint description of this method as he saw it prac-
ticed: "There is also a dark, dnnnish Worm or Bag of the bigness of auOaten-
straw, and an inch long, tliat in the Spring lye at the root of Corn and Garden
plants all day, and in the night creep ont and devour them ; these in some years
destroy abundance of Indian Corn and Garden plants, and they have but one w*y
to be rid of them, which the EnglUh have learned of the Indians; and because it
is somewhat strange, I shall tell yon bow it is, they go out into a field or garden
with a Birchen-dish, and spudding the earth about the roota, for they lye not
deep, they gather (heir dish full which may contain a quurt or three pints, then
they carrie the dish to the Sea-side when it is ebbing -water and set it a swim-
ming, the water earrieth the dish into the Sea, and within a day or two yon go
Into your field yon may look yonr eyes out sooner than nnd any of them."
, Google
678 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
trunks of his trees below the cotton protectors. A Michigan
grower does not stop to pick them off, but with an old leather
mitten on hte right hand, he crushes those that hare gathered on
the trunks below the bands. He also places some pieces of rough
boards around the base of his trees, and many cutworms gather
under them to hide during the day. He collects these every morn-
ing and feeds them to his poultry. These are all valuable sugges-
tions.
One extensive peach grower at Forest Lawn has practically
exterminated the pests in his young orchard by a systematic dig-
ging of them out during the day. He found that a majority of
them buried themselves to a depth of not over an inch in the Band
around the trees for a distance of from one to two feet from their
base. Soon after the first indications of their work in the spring
two men and himself went from tree to tree and dug out the worms ;
the three men could thus go over 500 of the yonng trees in half a
day. By keeping this up for several days the depredations of the
pests were ended for the year, and he findB them much less trouble-
some the next year. In this case hand-picking was profitable, prac-
ticable and effective and no protective method had to be resorted
to. It is not au exceptional case, but can be duplicated in many
infested orchards and vineyards ; in greenhouses, also, the pests can
soon be exterminated by hand-picking them at night by lantern
light, or by digging them out of the soil around the base of the
plants during the day. If practiced in connection with clean culti-
vation, recommended above, it will prove in many cases the cheapest
and most lasting method of fighting climbing cutworms.
Climbing cutworms can also be poisoned. The spraying of the
bods in the spring with Paris green has been tried several times,
but with little success, for the cutworms are not killed quickly
enough to save the trees.
In 1875 poisoned baits were used by Dr. Riley in Missouri, and
since then they have come into quite general use and have been
strongly recommended by Beveral writers on cutworms. Until
recently these baits consisted of large leaves or bunches of weeds,
grass or clover freshly cut and dipped in a strong Paris green mix-
ture (i pound to 50 or 100 gallons of water). These are placed in
the infested fields at nightfall, and the cutworms are often attracted
to them in preference to their usual food. The next morning many
of the cutworms will often be found dead or dying beneath the
Climbing Cutwobms. 679
baits, and they will have been their own sextons and have attended
to their own burial in many cases. Snch poisoned baits seem not
to have been used against climbing cutworms, but a single trial on
a small scale here at the insectary leads us to believe that they
would prove quite effective in connection with cotton bands. Place
two or three of the poisoned bunches close to the base of the tree or
vine at nightfall.
One correspondent wrote us that when he uses the cotton bands
he often finds the cutworms feeding on the little twigs that have
been cut from the trees. Why not poison these twigs ? A Michi-
gan fruit-grower dips small freshly-cut branches into a strong
arsenical solution and sticks them into the ground around the trees
close to the trunk. He says the cutworms take to the limbs in
preference to the taller trees and are killed by the poison.
In 1894 we found several persons near Forest Lawn who had
used with considerable success a poison bait made by mixing enongh
Paris green with rye flour to give it a distinct greenish tinge. This
was scattered around the base of the infested plants; it was greedily
eaten by the wormB and with deadly effect. We tried it on a small
scale and found it quite effective. Of course, all poultry and other
domestic animals must be kept away from the places where this bait
and the one to be discussed next are being used.
While experimenting on grasshoppers with the poisoned bran
mash, which has been used with some success against these pests in
the West, it occurred to us to try it on the climbing cutworms.* A
few preliminary experiments in 1894 convinced us that it would
prove a very effective bate for the cutworms, as they ate it greedily
when placed about peach trees, and it killed very quickly. We
applied it at nightfall, and the next morning found several dead
and dying cutworms, with the contents of their alimentary canal so
green that it showed plainly through their skin ; a chemical exami-
nation of the green portion showed very strong indications of
* It is made by thoroughly mixing sufficient Paris green of London purple with
dry wheat bran to give it a distinct greenish or purplish tinge (a pound to 26
pounds of bran, or (wo or three pounds of the cheaper white arsenic may be
used), then add enough water to form a mash sufficiently soft to be dipped out
with apoon without dripping. Sugar, molasses or glycerine may be added to i he
water to make the mash more sticky or to prevent its drying out so quickly, but
Mr, Davis found that the sweeting did not add to the attractiveness of the mix-
ture for the e
,v Google
680 Agricultoral Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
arsenic, proving that the poison in the mash had done its deadly
work.
One of our correspondents tried this mash, and he reported that
on the second day after it was applied he found the ground beneath
his peach trees " covered with dead worms. As long as we can
get the cotton binds and this poisoned bran mash, I do not think
we need worry about the cutworms." Last spring, Mr. Davis
tested the mash in Michigan. He reports : " It was dropped in
little bunches around the base of each tree. The cutworms ate it
readily both as they passed it in starting up the tree and as they
came back hungry from their vain effort to get beyond the band.
The next morning more than half of the cutworms would be found
hanging to the bark, limp and dead, or in the same condition on
the ground. In some cases 90 per cent, were killed."
In 1894, a man in California completely destroyed the wormB in
a vineyard of thirty acres before any damage was done : he used
three pounds of Paris green to a sack of rye bran. A handful or bo
of the mixture was thrown about the trunk of each vine. The evi-
dence thus far indicates that this poisoned bran mash is the moat
effective and practicable method of killing climbing cutworms with
poisons ; where the cutworms are very numerous the cotton pro-
tectors will, douhtlesB, have to be used in connection with it. It
will, doubtless, prove equally as effective when used in greenhouses
to combat these pests.
There are, thus, several methods by which the destructive work
of climbing cutworms can be prevented ; and, also, several other
methods that may be used in connection with or separate from
these by which they can be killed. At least, some of these method.!
can be made efficient, practicable and profitable under any of the
varying conditions which may exist in infested orchards or vine-
yards. It is true that each one involves some labor on the part of
the fruit-grower, but he must expect this if he hopes to compete
with his more energetic neighbor.
In Gardens.
Preventive measures. — Gardens planted on newly-plowed mead-
ows, pastures or grain stnbble are more liable to attacks from
cutworms, for such fields are the natural breeding places of the
pests. However, they often appear in garden crops that have Iteen
grown in the aame location for many years ; a striking instance of
Malta* byGoOgle
Climbing Cutworms. 681
thifl was the sadden appearance of a cntworm in excessive numbers
in the onion fields of Orange eounty, N. T., in 1885. Usually, the
sod is plowed nnder only a short time before the garden is planted,
and the hungry worms eagerly await the appearance of the crops ;
if all stubble and rubbish could be burned off juBt before ploughing
it might destroy some of them, and possibly the eggs of some
species. If such lands were ploughed the preceding July or
August, and clean cultivation practiced, as described for climbing
cutworms, we believe the garden crops planted the next spring
would be much less liable to suffer from cutworms.
Cabbages, tomatoes and similar plants that are set out in gardens,
and which are very liable to be cut off by cutworms, may often be
protected by Bimply wrapping a piece of smooth, stiff paper around
the stem when the plant is set; we have seen the tinfoil from
tobacco pails or packages used for this purpose with much success.
Cylinders of tin (old tomato cans with the ends removed will often
answer) have been placed around such plants, and in many cases
they served as perfect protectors.
Cutworms often appear first in destructive numbers in certain
portions of the garden- Their spread to other portions may often
be prevented by ploughing a deep furrow around the infested por-
tion, turning it toward this portion, and leaving as smooth and
perpendicular a wall as possible on the side of the furrow bordering
the uninfested region ; the worms can not readily scale this smooth
wall. The furrow can be made much more effective by digging
deep post-holes in it a rod or two apart, into which the worms will
soon crawl in their wanderings; bushels of army worms have been
trapped in these holes. This method should be resorted to when-
ever the worms appear in excessive numbers and ordinary measures
prove fruitless. By thus confining them to a limited area, some of
the destructive measures advised can be used with more deadly
effect than if the worms are allowed to spread over a large area.
It is doubtful if any bad-smelling substances placed on the soil
around the plants will keep away cutworms. They will, also, burrow
in dry salt, lime and ashes, as readily as in dirt.
Destructive measures. — Usually none of the preventive measures
just discussed will afford complete protection from cutworms, and
destructive measures have to be resorted to.
We do not believe that commercial fertilizers, gas-lime, lime,
salt, or any similar dressings applied at any time to the soil in
682 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
practicable quantities will have any destructive effects on cutworms.
Id some cases they may stimulate the plants to such an extent as
to enable them to quickly get beyond or ontgrow cutworm injuries.
Applications of any kind to the plant are not always successful ;
if the worms confine their work to the leaves, they may be reached
by thorough work with a Paris green Bpray. During the outbreak
in the onion' fields mentioned, it was found that they were very
susceptible to kerosene and many were killed by spraying the plants
at night with it. As the undiluted kerosene injures many plants,
the kerosene emulsion has been advised instead, and it may prove a
valuable destructive agent where the worms appear in excessive
numbers. It should be applied at night when the wormB are at
work, and the strength at which it can be used will have to be
determined for each crop, as plants differ much in their susceptibility
to injury from it.
Probably the method most often practiced in gardens, and which
can not fail to be effective when faithfully carried out, is hand-
picking with lanterns at night or digging them out from around
the base of the infested plants during the day. Bushels of cutworms
have been gathered in this way and with profit. When from some
cause success does not attend the use of the poisoned baits, discussed
next, hand-picking is the only other method yet recommended which
can be relied upon to check cutworm depredations.
By far the beet methods yet devised for killing cutworms in any
situation are the poisoned baits ; hand picking is usually unnecessary
where they are thoroughly used. What has been said in regard to
their use against climbing cutworms has equal force here. Poisoned
bunches of clover or weeds have been thoroughly tested, even by
the wagon-load over large areas, and nearly all (Mr. GofPs experi-
ment at the Wisconsin Station is the most notable exception reported)
have reported them very effective; lambs-quarters, pepper-grass,
and mullein are among the weeds especially attractive to cutworms.
On small areas the making of the baits is done by hand, bnt they
have been prepared on a large scale by spraying the plants in the
field, cutting them with a scythe or machine, and pitching them
from wagons in small bunches wherever desired. Distributed a
few feet apart between rows of garden plants at nightfall, they hare
atttacted and killed enough cutworms to often save a large pro-
portion of the crop ; if the bunches can be covered with a shingle,
they will keep fresher much longer. The fresher the baits, aod the
Climbing Cutworms. 683
more thoroughly the baiting is done, the more cutworms one can
destroy.
However, it may sometimes happen that a sufficient quantity of
such green succulent plants can not he obtained early enough in the
season in soine localities. In this case, and we are not sure but in
all cases, the poisoned bran mash can be used to the best advantage.
It is easily made and applied at any time, is not expensive, and thus
far the results show that it is a very attractive and effective bait.
A tablespoonful can be quickly dropped around the base of each
cabbage or tomato plant, small amounts easily scattered along the
rows of onions, turnips, etc., or a little dropped on a hill of corn,
cucumbers, etc. It was used on sweet potato hillB in New Jersey
last year and "served as a complete protection, the cutworms pre-
ferring the bran ; " it is well to apply it on the evening of the day
the plants are set out.
The best time to apply these poisoned baits is two or three days
before any plants have come up or been set out in the garden. If
the ground has been properly prepared, the worms will have had
but little to eat for several days and they will thus seize the first
opportunity to appease their hunger upon the baits, and wholesale
destruction will result. The baits should always be applied at this
time wherever cutworms are expected. But it is not too late usually
to save most of a crop after the pests have made their presence
known by cutting ofi some of the plants. Act promptly and use
the baits freely.
In Grabs-Lands and Field Crops.
Unplowed fields are the natural feeding grounds of cutworms,
and where the sod is not disturbed for several years, they are liable
to accumulate in such numbers as to sometimes greatly reduce a
crop of clover or timothy and often ruin any crop like corn or
wheat that may follow. The fact that timothy meadows usually
remain unplowed for several years, thus allowing the cutworms to
accumulate, doubtless explains why corn and other crops planted
ou such land are so often badly injured by these pests. There is
no practical method of checking cutworms in pastures, meadows,
and clover or grain fields without involving the destruction of the
plants also. On grain and hay farms then, the best method that
can be advised to prevent cutworm depredations is to practice a
short rotation of crops. Never let any field lie in sod for more than
Google
684 Agricultur&l Experiment Station, Ithaca, K. T.
two years in succession. Those who practice this are rarely
troubled with cutworms, even in cornfields. What crops shall con-
stitute the rotation most be determined by the individual for bis
locality and soils.
In corn jidds. — From the earliest times, cutworms have done
more damage to corn than to any other crop. Almost every year
thousands of acres have to be replanted in this country. This is
largely to be explained by the fact that corn is the crop moat often
planted on newly-plowed lands that have usually lain in sod for
several years and are thus often full of the pests. If the prepara-
tion of corn ground were begun the preceding summer, as described
at the beginning of the discussion of the measures adapted to gar-
den crops, we believe much less corn would have to be replanted
on account of cutworms. It is doubtful if either early or late fall,
or early or late spring plowing, each of which has its advocates, will
in itself have much effect on the crop of cutworms that may appear
in the spring; the soil must be more than simply plowed.
Many recommendations have been made to prevent the attacks
of cutworms on corn, and two of these have especially commended
themselves to some eminent writers on these insects. These are
first, the application of salt, either by soaking the seed in strong-
brine or by sprinkling a tablespoonful on the hill immediately after
planting; and second, the soaking of the seed in a solution of
copperaB, Each recommendation is backed by seemingly strong
testimony from farmers They theorize that in each case some of
the salt or copperas finds it way into the tissues of the young plant
and renders it distasteful to the worms. Possibly an exceedingly
small amount of the minerals might thus get into the plant, but it
is very improbable that enough would to render it unpalatable to
hungry cutworms which can eat onion-tops, tobacco-stalks and all
kinds of weeds with relish.
We now know that the mere soaking of seeds in water brings tot
a very important factor which may influence the whole after-life of
the plant. All know that soaked seeds sprout quicker, and it has
been shown by careful experiments (with hot water) that from such
seeds a much more vigorous and productive plant will grow. In
the evidence submitted in support of the methods of soaking the
corn in brine or a copperas solution, it is clear from the context
that the seed in the comparison or check fields was not soaked in
mportaat
Climbing Cotwormb. 685
factor jnst described. We believe that if the soaking of the corn
in the solutions mentioned had any preventive effect on the cut-
worms, it resulted from the fact that the plants from snch seed got
a better and more vigorous start;* the cutworms would natuiallv
prefer the smaller and more succulent stalks. Ordinary water
would have doubtless answered the same purpose. We should
have more careful, scientific experiments in this line before we advise
fanners to soak their corn in any solution with the hope that they
may thereby render the stalkB distateful to cutworms. Soaking in
water will doubtless do just as moch good, and it is not impossible
that in some cases this may materially help in our warfare against
these insects in com fields.
Where a short rotation of crops is practiced, cutworms rarely do
serious damage in the corn field. The methods we can suggest by
which they can be killed in such locations are digging them out by
hand, and by the use of the poisoned baits of clover, weeds, are the
bran mash. A spoonful of the poisoned mash on each hill would
doubtless soon furnish a deadly meal for most of the worms in or
near the hill. Hand-picking has been practiced in corn fields of
many acres with success and profit. It is not such a tremendous
job as it seems if one only goes at it systematically.
Where the presence of cutworms is suspected, it is wise to pat in
plenty of seed ; follow the old distich :
" One far the black -bird and one for the crow,
Two for the cutworm and three to grow."
MARK. VERNON SLINGERLAND.
* Dr. Harris held a similar opinion as early as 1841. He Bays: " Snoh stimnlu
ting applications ma; be of some benefit, by promoting a more rapid and vigor-
ous growth of the grain, by which means the sprouts will the sooner become so
strong add rank as to resist or escape the attacks of the young cutworms."
,v Google
NOTICE TO CORRESPONDENTS.
Inquiries about insects should always be accompanied by speci-
mens of the insects, and of their work, also, if possible. Without
specimens, our answers must often be indefinite and unsatisfactory.
Send as full an account as possible of the habits of the insect about
which information is wanted. Living insects can be safely sent by
mail if enclosed in small, tight tin or wooden boxes ; no air holes
are necessary. Do not OBe pasteboard boxes nor enclose the speci-
mens in ao envelope with the letter of inquiry ; such specimens, if
they reach as at all, are usually crushed beyond recognition. Speci-
mens can he Rent in tightly corked glass bottles inserted in holes
bored in blocks of wood or placed in wooden mailing cases made
for this purpose. The space not occupied by the insects should be
filled with some of their food. The postage on such packages iB one
cent per ounce. The name of the sender should he placed on the
package.
Address all communications ab»nt insects, with the accompany-
ing specimens, to
M. Y. SLINGERLAND,
Ithaca, N. T.
,v Google
BULLETIN 105— December, 1895.
Cornell University— Agricultural Experiment Station.
AGRICULTURAL DIVISION.
Tests of Cream Separators.
By Hemsy H. Wmo.
)ijiio,aWGoosIe
ORGANIZATION.
Board of Control— The Trustees of tae University.
STATION COUNCIL.
PrtMent, JACOB OOULD SCHURMAN.
Hon. A. D. WHITE 7W»l«o/l*» InUenity.
Professor I. P. KOHEKTd lYetident StaU AgtieutOtrat Sooiety.
Professor I. P. ROBERTS Agrumtturn.
Professor O. C. CALDWELL Cktmittry.
Professor JAMES LAW Veterinary Soienea.
Professor A. N. PKKNTIrtS Botany.
Professor J H. COM&TOCK Entomology.
Professor L. H. BAILICV Hortxcultart.
Professor H. H. WING Dairy Ilmbandry.
Professor G. F. ATKINSON Oryptoaamie Botany.
OmOHU 07 THH STATION.
I. P. ROBERTS Diraotor.
E. L. WILLIAM8 Tnaomnr.
H. W. SMITH Clerk.
M. V. SLINGERLAND Entomology.
G. W. CAVANAUGH ChemUtry.
E. G. LODEMAN HorHatUara.
E. J. DURAND Botany.
Bulletins of 1895.
64. The Recent Apple Failure* in Western Hew York.
85. Whey Baiter.
86. Spra;
87. The :
rhc Dwarf Lima Beans.
88. Early Lamb Raising.
89. Feeding Piss.
90. The China Asters.
91. Recent Chrysanthemums.
92. On the Effect of Feeding Fat to Cows.
93. The Cigar -Case Bearer.
94. Damping Off.
96. Winter Musk melons.
96. Forcing-HoDse Miscellanies.
97. Entomoganous Fungi.
100. Teats of Cream Separators
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Tests of Cream Separators.
One of the most important points in the economy of butter manu-
facture is the efficiency with which the cream is separated from the
milk. The introduction of the centrifugal separator marked a
great advance in thia direction and the rapid development and
improvement of these machines, by the business competition of the
various manufacturers, renders the question of the most efficient
kind of separator an important one for the creamery operator or
private dairyman.
During the session of our Shoit Dairy Course for 1894, a series
of tests of various styles and sizes of separators was made and
published in Bulletin 66 of this Station. Previous to this, and at
die same time, teats of separators were made at several other
Stations, notably in Vermont and Pennsylvania and to these
reference will be made later on.
The edition of Bulletin 66 having been exhausted and inquiries
as to the matters contained therein still continuing, another series
of tests was made during the Short Dairy course of 1895. The
machines used were the same, with one or two exceptions, and were
as follows :
The Butter Accumulator manufactured by the Swedish Cream
and Batter Separator Co., Bain bridge, N. Y. This machine was
run in our tests only as a separator.
The DeLaval, Acme Alpha size, manufactured by the DeLaval
Separator Co., 74 Cortlandt St., New York, N. Y.
The DeLaval, Baby No. 3 size, manufactured by the DeLaval
Separator Co., 74 Cortlandt St., New York, N. Y.
Reid's Improved Danish, manufactured by A. II. Reid, 30th and
Market Streets, Philadelphia, Pa.
The United States, No. 3 size, manufactured by the United States
Butter Extractor Co., Newark, N. J. The Vermont Farm Machine
Co., Bellows Falls, Vt., sole agents.
44
Malta* byGoOgle
690 Agricultural Experiment Station, Tthaca, N. T.
The Victoria, 75 gallon size, manufactured by Watson, Laidlaw &
Co., Glasgow, Scotland. The Dairymen's Supply Co., 1937 Market
St., Philadelphia, Pa., agents in the United States.
All of these with the exception of the Reid's Improved Danish
and the De Laval Alpha Acme, were the same machines that were
used in 1894. The Butter Accumulator, the DeLaval Acme Alpha
and the Reid's Improved Danish were loaned for the purposes of
the school by the respective manufacturers.
These machines were operated by the students in the Dairy course
under the direct supervision of Mr. Jared VanWagenen, Jr.,
instructor in butter making, each student' working in turn upon
each separator. None of the tests recorded were made until after
the class had been at work for nearly a month and the students
had had a considerable amount of practice in handling the various
machines. The milk used was, in all caseB, the mixed milk
brought to the dairy building by farmers nearby. The milk of
the morning and'the previous evening was delivered at the building
at about 10 a. m. and worked up the same day. It was ordinarily
received in good condition but a considerable portion was the milk
of "stripper" cows and may be considered difficult milk to separate.
As the runs were short, it was not attempted to make the test of
capacity by weighing the milk and taking the time of the whole
run. After the machine was started and the milk had been running
at full head for some little time, a capacity test was made by catching
and weighing the skim milk and cream for a certain short definite
time.
Owing to the pressure of work upon the Station chemist, it was
not fonnd possible to determine the fat in the skim milk by the
gravimetric method as heretofore, and the determinations were
therefore made in all cases in skim milk Babcock bottles and by
the same person, Mr. J. M. Trneman, an advanced student in the
College of Agriculture. The samples in all cases, were taken from
the mixed skim milk of the entire run and not caught directly from
the flkim milk outlet of the machine at any period of the run. The
skim milk was caught in 40-quart cans and a portion taken from
each can with the Scovell Aliquot Sampler. These portions mixed
together formed the sample for analysis. The details of the working
of the various machines are shown in Tables I to VI below.
In general, the mechanical operations of the machines were
very satisfactory. They were mounted on solid stone piers ami
DqltseOByCoOgle
ran smoothly and evenly. Very little diffienlty was found in uni-
formly maintaining the required speed, and only a few points ^n
regard to the general work of the various separators need special
mention. Beid's Improved Danish was the most difficult to keep
up to the required speed. Because of the large diameter and heavy
weight of the bowl, it was difficult to keep the belt sufficiently
tight to prevent more or less loss of sp°ed through slipping. Other-
wise than this, this machine presents some peculiar features which
are of advantage, notably the ease with which the thickness of the
cream may be regulated at will while the bowl is in motion and the
thickness and uniformity with which the cream is delivered.
In regard to the DeLaval machines it is proper to notice the
comparatively large capacity in proportion to size of the bowl and
the low speed at which the machines can be run and still secure
practically perfect separation. The smoothness and uniformity of
the cream is also a valuable feature of these machines.
The only machine that gave any trouble by delivering thick or
lump cream was the Victoria. It was found that considerable care
was necessary in order to prevent this.
TABLE I.— BUTTER ACCUMULATOR (USED AS A SEPARATOR).
Rated Capacity, 400 Pounds Per Hour.
HATE.
Pounds
of milk
UMd
TiF
Revolution!
per minute
PouuilS
per hour.
Percent.
dimmed
milk.
312
67
85
86
85
7,250
7,000
7,500
7,500
8,0P0
428
394
486
426
496
172
172
204
215
ISO
38
20
8
811 1 7.500 1 400
10
.Google
602 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
TABLE IL— DbLAVAL, ACME ALPHA.
• Rated Capacity, 1,300 Pounds Per Houb.
DATE.
or milk
TW
Be mill lions
Of bawl
per minute
Pounds
per hoar.
Percent,
of f MID
skimmed
milk.
2,318
944
748
m
1,002
t,3U
1,236
663
1,308
86
81
80
87
86
86
80
90
81
6,600
6,600
6,500
6,000
6,000
6,000
6,150
6,000
6,000
6,000
1,111
1,129
1,116
1,101
1,097
1,061
1,067
1,068
1,082
1,014
1,099
1,097
38
.03
13
.01
236
Average
85
6,186
1,088
TABLE IIL— DeLAVAL, BABY No. 3.
Rated Capacity, 600 Pounds Per Houb.
DATS.
of milk
"sr
Revolution!
of bowl
par minute..
pel hour.
Percent,
of fat la
266
384
603
24S
162
122
510
624
2tt
368
262
85
86
89
85
90
91
88
85
it
6,720
6,775
5,830
5,500
5,665
5,880
5,775
6,610
6,720
""6,"775
"'i',m
661
661
570
661
649
616
566
680
672
658
571
568
Moh. 1
.05
19
.06
A'"»P>
87
5,720
660
.06
.Google
TABLE IV—1
Sated Cafac:
_.
Foui
of m
TABLE V.
Bated Cap.
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694 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
TABLE VI.— VICTOBIA, 75-GALLON.
Rated Capacity, 75 Gallons Per Hour.
DATE.
Pound I
of milk
Trnnppi*-
mim.
Revolutions
of bowl
per minute
Pound*
Percent
of IM in
flkimmed
773
677
739
1,467
1,558
603
1,070
413
966
1,047
319
85
89
90
84
85
84
90
86
86
86
86
6,650
6,650
6,650
6,650
6,650
5,985
7,315
6,783
6,650
6,650
6,916
790
831
812
804
769
773
732
779
746
825
831
86
6,686
790
It will be seen in general that the machines were rnn at very
nearly their fall capacity and that all of them were remarkably
efficient as measured by the percentageof fat left in the skim milk.
It will be noticed too, that in all the machines that were in use both
in 1894 and 1895, uniformly better results were secured in '95 than
in '94.
Some allowance should be made in comparing the results of these
two years, due to the fact that in 1894 gravimetric determinations
were made, and in 1895 the Babcock test was need, but making due
allowance for thiB, there was considerably less fat in the skimmed
milk in 1895 than in 1894 as shown by the following table :
Per Cent, of Fat in the Skimmed Milk.
IBM. IBB.
Butter Accumulator 13 .10
DeLml, BaUy No. 3 17 .06
United States, No. 3 13 .06
Victoria 19 .00
TESTS AT FACTORIES.
Our experience, and the experience of others, in the efficiency
of cream separation has led ns to believe that there is a considerable
amount of variation in the work done by different separators
of the same make, due to causes other than the skill of the openv
- D.ait,ze0t>yGoOQle
Tests or Cream Separators. 695
tor, although this undoubtedly is usually the most important
factor.
Hayward, in some testa made in factories in Pennsylvania,*
found a very wide variation in the efficiency of separators, and tests
reported from different experiment stations have also shown large
variations in the efficiency of separators of the same make. An
effort was, therefore, made to determine so far as possible what
these variations are in actual creamery practice, both in regard to
the machines themselves and the skill of the persons operating
them.
Accordingly, during the summer, occasion has been taken to visit
a considerable number of factories in the State located within con-
venient distances of Ithaca. In all, 22 factories and three private
dairies have been visited and 30 machines of four different makes
and nine different sizes and styles have been tested.
These tests were made on various dates between the middle of
July and early in October, at a time when the flow of milk had
largely shrnnken and when the cows were harassed by flies and
insects in bare pastures ; an unfavorable season of the year for pro-
ducing milk of easy separation. The results of these tests are shown
in Tables VII to X, inclusive.
The different machines represented were the Alexandra Jumbo,
DeLaval, Sharpies and United States. No factories using the
Danish Weston or Said's Improved Danish were found in the terri-
tory visited, and it was not found possible in the limited time at our
disposal to visit the localities in the State where these machines are
used, but it is hoped that we may be able to do so at some future time.
In these tables we have included not only the average speed of
bowl and average temperature of milk but the range of both, as it
has been noticed that uniformity, particularly of speed, is an im-
portant factor in clean separation. In all the tests the machines
were entirely in the hands of the factory operators and were run by
them in their ordinary manner.
Equal portions of the skim milk were taken from the skim milk
outlet at intervals of 10 or 15 minutes, according to the amount of
milk separated, and from these mixed together a sample was drawn
for analysis. The determinations of fat in the skim milk were
made in skim milk Babcock bottles in all tests that were made pre-
vious to September 14th. In the tests made on and after that date
* Report of the Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station, 1891, p. 33.
Google
606 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. T.
the determinations were made with the new B. & W. double-
necked bottle for testing skim milk and buttermilk. "We have
found this bottle mnch more convenient and more accurate for
testing skim milk than the ordinary skim milk Babcock bottles,
because of the ease with which it is possible to measure
slight differences in percentages of fat. We have found, too,
in comparison with the skim milk Babcock bottle, that the B.
& W. bottle will give a slightly larger reading of fat. At each
time a sample of milk was taken the temperature of the milk
running into the bowl and the speed of the bowl were also taken.
The capacity was found by timing the whole length of the run and
reckoning the capacity per hour from the whole amount of milk
separated in all cases where only one machine was used. In cases
where there was more than one machine in the factory and both
were fed from a common vat, the capacity was found by catching
and weighing the skim milk and cream delivered for a certain
definite time during the run.
TABLE VII. ALEXANDRA JUMBO.
Rated Capacity, 2,000 Founds Per Hour.
DATE.
1
a
a .
11
£
s£
|
■4
JSE,
of ipowL
!1
|
1
■<
I
£
Ang.19....
7
3,809
70
66-76
7,200
7,000-7,400
1,344
.25
H
7U
6,800-7,200
1,170
.15
K
70
68-72
6,585
6,300-6,900
1,611
.20
9
5,928
76
6,900
6,600-7,100
1,883
11
4,052
84
6,600
6,200-7,400
1,814
Average .
74
6,854
1,564
.23
In Table VII are shown the tests of live different machines of
the Alexandra Jumbo manufacture. The most remarkable tiling
in regard to them, it will be seen, is that most of them were run at
a capacity quite a little below that rated by the manufacturer, in
nearly every instance the operator taking rather thin cream.
,v Google
TABLE V1IL— 1
Rated Capacit
DATE.
§
S
a
1
■
I
Joy 17....
»
2,519
80
Aug. 18....
t\
3,626
74
Sept. 16....
17
1,187
72
31....
at
6,376
78
Oct. 4....
VA
5,588
82
4....
25
1,803
86
Aw.ge.
79
Baby, Rated Capacity, >
Maj 31..- 1
Sept. U.... 14
18.... 19
Standard, Ratbd ( i
t.19.... 21
19.... 21
19.... I 21
In Table VIII are Been I
«ot machines of the Dt
machines were Alpha N< .
factories Nob. 3 and 25, w i
belt power. All were of I
9,500 lbs., and it will be i
results up to the full capar i
The next three raaehint
No. S ; in the others, No. !
one in factory No. 19 that :
not ran steadily.
:y Google
688 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. T.
The last three machines were of the old standard hollow-bow
type.
TABLE IX.— SHABPLE8 BUBSIAN.
Sated Capacity, Standard, 1,100 Pounds; Imperial, 2,000 Podkdb
Per Hour.
DATE.
I
j
a
n
£
-5
1,
I
38
lis
hi
m
L
ai
11
si
r-
July 16....
2
84
83-87
7,775
7,700-7,900
2,100
.40
July 16....
M
88
87-t«
7,183
7,000-7,500
2,130
Aug. 17....
ft
1,718
80
78-82
7,800
7,700-7,900
1,874
.10
Ang. 24....
Vi
4,028
81
80-82
7,700
7,100-8,300
Sept. 14....
w
2,509
85
84-86
7,433
6,800-7,600
1,158
13
Sept. 17....
w
3,582
87
82-95
7,558
7,200-7,900
1,752
.46
Oct. 6....
18
2,716
90
87-81
7,676
7,400-7,900
1,873
.38
Average..
85
7,689
1,703
In Table IX are shown the results obtained in five factories
using either the Standard or Imperial Russian machines. It will
be noticed, in factory No. 2 the operator crowded the capacity of
both of hie machines mnch above that rated by the manufacturer.
ThiB is, undoubtedly, the cause of the very large amount of fat in
the skimmed milk from the machines in that factory. In factory
No. 5 the capacity was also crowded ; bnt, in this instance, the skim
milk showed a very low percentage of fat.
In regard to factory No. 18, the only factory using the Imperial
Russian machine, it was found in the first trial that the percentage
of fat in the skim milk was quite large, and at the same time that
the capacity was rather small. Upon the morning when the test
was made the operator had considerable difficulty in maintaining a
uniform pressure on his boiler, and the speed of the machine was
quite variable. At the solicitation of the operator, a second visit
was made to the factory and the machine tested again when the
circumstances were more favorable, with the result that a somewhat
lower percentage of fat was found in the skim milk.
,v Google
Tksts of Cbeam Separators.
TABLE X.— UNITED STATES.
Rated Capacity, 2,000 Pounds Pkk Hour.
DATE.
1
|
a
%
f
a
t
1
s
i
it
III
A
1
h
a
I
3
i
July 18....
Aug. 22....
Sept. 16....
15....
18....
4
10
15
16
20
3,962
1,870
3,850
2,902
83
81
94
88
78
82-84
79-91
90-98
80-100
77-80
7,120
7'fl00
6,075
6,586
7,000-7,200
6,800-7,300
7,200-8,000
6,600-6,600
6,400-6,800
2,220
1,964
1,403
1,650
2,176
.18
.25
.08
.38
.60
Average .
85
6,881
1,883
In Table X are shown the teste of five machines of the United
States manufacture ; three of them — factories 4, 10 and 16, of the
new style, or style "B" with the cups in the howl, and two facto-
ries— 15 and 20, of the old hollow-bowl type. In regard to these,
it should be noticed that in factory No. 16 the operator was very
careless, both as to uniformity of speed and uniformity of tempera-
ture. The machine was set upon an ordinary floor and did not run
steadily. It should be said, also, in regard to the machine in factory
No. 20, that this, too, although sitting upon a stone foundation, ran
quite unsteadily. A perceptible jar, to which the operator called
attention, was noticeable throughout the whole run.
In regard to the tests as a whole, it will be seen that the percent-
ages of fat are considerably higher than those found in the machines
used at the Station ; and it will be seen, also, that in most of the
different kinds of machines there is quite a large variation between
the highest and lowest percentage of fat — in every ease amounting
to 100 per cent., and in most cases to considerably more.
It will be further noticed that in the case of all of the various
makes, except the Jumbo, at least one of the machines tested did
what is called " practically clean skimming ; " that is, the percentage
of fat io the skim milk was one-tenth of one per cent, or less. In
the case of the machines where a greater percentage was left in the
skim milk, in many cases it was evidently dne to carelessness of the
operator ; but, in other cases it seemed to be some inherent quality
of the machine. This was notice&Mj the case in factory No. 10
,v Google
700 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, ITBACA, N. Y.
United States ; factory No. 18, Sharpies ; and factories No. 1 and
11, Jumbo. It would seem, therefore, that since it is possible that
machines of the various makes that will do perfect work can be
made, that it is due the operator to demand from the manufacturer
a guarantee of such perfect work.
RESULTS OF TESTS AT VARIOUS STATIONS.
As has been already noticed, several Experiment Stations have
made similar tests of various separators.* In the table below we
have grouped together the results of theBe tests, including both
those made at the Stations and those made at outside factories.
This table represents work done by five different Stations extending
over a period of four years, and including Borne hundreds of different
trials. It would seem that the average would indicate the efficiency
of separation that it should be possible to attain with an ordinary
amount of care and skill.
KINO, SIZE AND STYLE
OF MACHINE.
arjr
1
1
1
I
%1
!
I
S
el
1-
II
f
1
Vermont
1895
1894
10
9
66
7,438
7,200
Average
1 .12
Alexandra Jumbo (utfac-
1895
1894
1894
1893
3
4
32
&
83
84
74
6,480
6,925
7,456
1,625 1 .21
1,620 .21
.23
*""■•
.23
* Venaout, Annual Report for 1692, p. 138. Annual Report for 1893, p. 94.
Avinuul Report for 1894, p. 153. Bulletin 27.
Pennsylvania, Annual Report for 1892, p. 78. Annual Report for 1894, p. 33.
Wisconsin, Annual Report for 1891, p. 79.
Iowa, Bulletin 26.
,v Google
Tbstb op
tabl:
Danish Whs too
Danish Weston
Hold's Improved Danish
Reid's Improved Danish
Reid's Improved Danish
Average
Do Laval Alpha No. 1
De Laval Alpha No. 1.
De Laval Alpha No. 1
De Laval Alpha No. 1
De Laval Alpha No. 1.
De Laval Alpha No. 1.
De Laval Alpha No. 1.
De Laval Alpha No. 1 (at
factories)
De Laval Alpha No. 1 (at
factories)
De Laval, Alpha Acme . .
De Laval, Alpbn Acme .-
De Laval, Alpha Acme ..
De Laval, Alpha Acme .-
De Laval, Alpha Acme ..
De Laval, Alpha Acme ..
De Laval, Bal>y No. 3...
De Laval, Baby No. 3...
De Laval, Bali; No. 9, ..
De Laval, Baby No. 3. ..
De Laval, Babj No. 2...
De Laval, Baby No 2...
De Laval, Baby No. 2. ..
De Laval, Baby No. 2. ..
De Laval, Baby No. 2...
De Laval, Baby i,at fac-
De Laval, Standard (at
factories)
De Laval, Standard (at
foe lories
Average..
Verm.
Verm
Cotin
Peun
Venr
Vera
Vera
Vem
Vem
Vem
Vem
Ven
Con
Wis.
On
:y Google
702 Agricultural Expbbimbnt Station, Ithaca, N. Y.
TABLE XI-
-( Coalinasi)
KIND, SIZE AND STYLE
OF MACHINE.
Where tests
I
1
,1
e
I
I
1
S
1
l
b
si
1
it
SB
Sharpies Standard Rus-
Pennsylvania
Vermont
Cornell
Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania
Vermont
Vermont
Cornell
Cornell
Pennsylvania
Vermont
Vermont
Pennsylvania
Vermont
Cornell
Pennsylvania
Cornell
Cornell
Vermont
Pennsylvania
1394
1891
IBM
1691
1893
1891
1894
1895
1894
1S94
20
54
4
2
5
2
6
7
2
1
83
87
82
88
81
93
84
7,150
7,461
7,476
7,066
7,200
7,300
7,460
7,589
7,500
8,000
1,113
983
1,315
840
1,000
1,900
1,703
1,143
1,100
Sharples Standard Bns-
Sharples Standard Hub-
Sharpies Standard Rub
Sharpies Standard Rue
Sharpies Standard Bus-
S harpies Impsrial Rns-
Sharples Standard Rus-
sian (at f no tones)
Sharpies Standard Rus-
sian (at factories)
Sharpies Belt (at fac-
.31
.30
Average
.27
United States No. 1, B...
United States No. 1
United States Nor 1
United States No. 3.
United States No. 3
United States No. 3.
United States No. 3
United States No. 5
United States No. 1 (at
1895
1894
1891
189S
1894
1894
1895
1894
1892
1892
1895
1894
4
8
2
19
10
6
2
3
6
6
S
3
85
87
87
83
sa
87
85
SO
7,230
7,023
6,960
7,578
8,389
6,983
8,000
7,330
8,260
8,300
6,881
6,950
3,143
1,911
1,867
563
658
583
590
600
386
308
1,883
3,015
.08
.17
.14
.05
.13
.09
.07
.08
.18
.09
United States No. 1 (at
Average
.18
Victoria, 75-Gallon
Victoria, 75-Gallon
Victoria, 30-Gallon
1895
1894
1894
1892
11
13
1
11
86
88
6,686
6,235
6,000
44
790
737
366
337
.09
.19
.38
.19
Average
.21
The averages may be made up in two ways. In the above table
we have averaged the series of tests at Stations with the single
DqltseOByCoOgle
Tbsts of Cbbah Sefaratoks.
trials at factories, thus placing each machine tested on an equality
and giving equal weight to each series of teste whether it was com-
posed of few or many trials. In making the average in this way a
single trial of one machine has as much value in determining the
average as fifty trials of another machine although the latter prob-
ably indicates more accurately the true efficiency of the machine.
The other method is to average the individual tests having no
regard to the number of machines nsed. In this case the influence
of each machine upon determining the average is in proportion to
the number of times it was used. If then a poor machine is tested
many times and a good one but once or twice, or vice versa, the
result may be misleading. In Table XII the average computed in
both ways is given together with the maximum and minimum
amounts of fat found in the skimmed milk in each group of
machines in any single trial. This brings out more forcibly what
has been said, that some machines of each style of manufacture do
efficient work.
TABLE XII,
Pie CnR. or Fat m Sxikiud Miiji
KINO OP MACHINE.
„^,.
*—
Of all
trials.
Minimum.
Maximum.
A cumnlator
.12
.23
.09
.10
.IS
.27
.18
.21
.01
.16
.05
.01
.01
.OS
.01
.06
22
12
08
09
16
13
SUMMARY.
The results of all these trials show that it is possible to separate
the cream from milk with a loss of not more than one-tenth of one
per cent, of fat in the skimmed milk.
That in all probability there is nearly as much difference in effi-
ciency of separation between different machines of the same make
as there is between the different makes themselves.
HENRY H. WING.
Digitized byGOQgle
.Google
GENERAL INDEX.
Agriculturist, Report of 18
Ammontacal copper carbonate 91
formula for. 81
Anthracnose, cane-rust Ml
of bean 87
of blackberry 88
of dewberry 88
of raspberry 88
Aphis on cabbage, spray for 87
cherry 87-498
spray for 80
winter melons 862
Apple failures, recent, In Western New York (Bulletin 84) 49, 82
causes of:
apple scab 04
cod! In moth worm. 64
food supply deficient 63
moisture deficient 68
neglect 68
foliage, rust on Ill
orchards, cigar-case bearer In 286
culture of. 66
mulch In 60
notes ou spraying of 106
Apple-scab fungus .' 68, 69, 67
Spray for 87
when to treat 115
Apples, self -fertile varieties 617
self-sterile varieties 617
trees, composition of 626-628
setting of. 65
Apricot rot, spray for 88
mildew, spray for. ". 88
Arsenic, experiments with 678
Artotrogns debaryanus 804
45
Gmnekai, Index.
Aster, an autumn flower 232
china, best of annual garden flowers 216
bulletin on. 209
clear white variety 218
comet type 218
evolution of 216
German 217
classification of. 224-232
do not force well 232
bow to grow early 232
Insect enemies .of 232
Qneen of the Market 219
Heine des Halles variety 218
rnst on 232
single blue variety 21T
Atkinson, Geo. P. Report of 13, 15
Auditor's Report. 10
Black spot, spray for 90
Bleaching celery under glass 398
Blenheim orange melon for winter 360
Blight, spray for 90
Bichloride of copper for carnation rust 414
Bl-sulpblde of carbon as an insecticide 410
Bordeaux mixture, applications necessary 113
effect on foliage of plums 132
excess of lime In 121
for carnation rust 413
for cherry disease 497
formula for 91, 675
Injnry to apples by 60
on raspberries 562
rust caused by. 120
use of 68
with Paris green 122
Bailey, L. H., Report of 19, 20
Bartelde's bush lima bean 147
description of. 155
Beal, Dr. W. J., experiments of, in apple orchard 80
Beans, anthracnose of, spray for 87
dwarf Lima (Bulletin 87) 135
history of 139
review of. 158
Bees In greenbouse 372-407
Blackberries, accident and disease 513
anthracnose, spray for 80
i;„ .ivGoO^Ic
General Index. 707
Blackberries — ( Continued). Page.
bulletin on W>1
cultivation of 611
difficulties In raising of 506
tend best adapted to 506
planting of 507
protection in winter 510
training of 507
type and varieties 515-526
yield and profit.... 612
Botanist, Cryptogam le, Report of 18, 15
Botanist, Report of 12
Botrytis vulgaris, lettuce-rot 892
Bradley, G. H., & Son, statement from 74
Brown, H. L., statement from 72
Bud-moth, Injury caused to apples by 63, 64
spray for 87
Bulletins, titles of, for year 7, 8
value of 6
Burpee bush lima, description of 158
dwarf lima bean, origin of 140
Batter accumulator used as a separator 691
wbey (Bulletin 85) 93
Cabbage worms, spray for 87
aphis, spray for 87
Cteooma nltens on raspberries 360
Caldwell, G. 0., report of 11
Canker worm, description of 582
Carnation rust, treatment 372-412
rust and other fungous diseases 87
Carneades scandens, the white cut-worm 054
Carolina bean, origin of 145
Cavanaugh, G. C, Asistant Chemist 11
Celery, bleaching of 396
under glass 372-395
Cheese, amount made In New York in 1893 98
Chemist, Report of 11
Cherries, bulletin on 467
classification of 471
curcullo on 498
diseases of 496
handling the crop 486
Insects and diseases 481
leaf -blight or shot-hole fungus 482
raising, profits In ; 488
,v Google
708 Obnbbal Index.
CherriM — ( ConHtiuerf) . Pb^.
rot, spray for 87
sing, spray for. 87
soar, In New York 474
types of 471
sweet, the industry 402
types of 472
varieties recommended. 50O
the Montmorency. 474
tree, limit to age 498
trees, soil and location for 483
varieties most prominent 490-498
Cherry orchard, cultivation of 485
distance apart of trees 484
fertilizers 488
Ideal situation for 484
pruning of. 481
dhlnch-bug, sporotrichum globullfornm 441
Chrysanthemum, American Society of 2V>
ants not Injurious to 260
a recent bud trouble 262
black aphis on 260
caterpillars on 260
chrysopa on 260
culture In beds 259
culture In benches 258
demand for 209
development of 240
exhibition, the first 239
green fly on 260
imported from Japan 240
Insect friends and enemies 200
key to classification 238
Lady birds on 261
methods of cultivation 258
Mrs. Alpheus Hardy, sold for $1,600 23»
mites on 261
notes on recent varieties 244
pot culture of 258
recent varieties 242
red spider on 282
tarnished plant bug on 262
thrlps on 282
under glass. 258
Cigar case bearer, appearance of 287
bulletin on 281
,v Google
Obnubax. Index. 709
Cigar-case bearer — ( Continued). Fwca.
caterpillar of 288
construction of case 292
destroys young fruit 290
egg-laying 290
egg of ' 296-297
enemies of 298
habits In spring. 292
habits of 295
history of 286
how It feeds 295
how to combat 298
Indications of presence 289
Injury to foliage by 290
life history of 291
migration of 297
mining habits of young 297
moth of 288
moth, emergence of 296
origin of name. 290
pupation of 296
winter case of 297
Clret bean, origin of name 145
Cladosporium carpophilum 14
Clinton, L. A.., Report of 18
Clover bay, value of, in early lamb raising 182
Codlln-moth, apples Injured by 118
spray for 87
Conservatories, heating by gas 386-887
Copper sulphate solution, formula for 91
Cordyceps clavulata. 419
melolontbae 430
militarts 422
-Cornfields, cut-worms in 684
green, composition of 638
meal as food for pigs 202
■Cows, feeding fat to, bulletin on 265
does not effect quality of milk 278
Cream from whey, churning of 97
separators, lists of, bulletin on 687
Cress In winter 372-896
Curcullo, apples Injured by 64
on cherry. 498
Currant mildew. 88
worms , 88
Cut-worms, climbing, bulletin on "'•"GoWtMc
710 < Gbnbeal Index.
Cut-worms, climbing ■ -(Continued). P^s.
history of <HS
Low to kill '. 67ft
description of 643
food plants of frltv
how to combat'. 670
life history of. c-Jft
natural enemies of 647
Dairy division, bulletins published by 2t
husbandry, report of Assistant Professor of 21
Damping off, bulletin on 301
by a sterile fungus 339-
by various fungi 343
cause of 303
conditions favorable for. 303
treatment for. 344
Danish- Weston separator, work of ST
Director, Report of. 5-8
Dorset grades, record of growth for 1883 174
lambs, record of growth 177
record of growth of, for 1893 171
sheep found best for early lambs 1«>
Dreer bush lima bean 152
Dryers, air-blast 545
for fruit:
horizontal 534
the kiln 535
tower 63*
steam tray 544
Durand, Dr. B. J IS
Dwarf lima beans 135
value of 150
Egg plant, Black Pekin 401
Early Dwarf Purple 400
forcing of 372-397
Long White 401
New York Improved 401
Round Purple 401
under glass, pests of 403
pollination of. 393-402
require high temperature. 402
soil for. 390
varlties best 399
Electric light In growing lettuce 390
Empress melon for winter 361
Ensilage compared wltb mangels for sheep-feeding 178-179
table showing gain of lambs on ISO
Genbbal Index. 711
nth
Entomogenoua fungi, bulletin on 415
Entomologist, Report of 18, 17
Entomosporluin maculatum In quince 125
Eryslphe cleboracearum 868
Evaporated raspberries 681
methods and results 646
Evaporator, the. 581
Expenditures of Experiment Station 28, 48
Feeding cows, bulletin on 265
Feltla subgothfca, tbe dingy cut-worm 660
Ferrocyantde of potassium teat 110
Fertilizers, trade values of Ingredients for 188446 >.. 279
Field Force Pump Company, trial of pnmp 107
Flea beetle on grape 88
Flower beds, remarks upon 218
border, an artist's Idea 215
Flowers, mistakes In growing of 218
nature's way of growing. 218
Forcing houses, heating of 872, 873
miscellaneous 869
Foreign exchange, extent of 6
Formulas for Bordeaux mixture 91
Fumigation In greenhouse 872-407
Fnngl entomogenous, bulletin on 415
Fungicides, amonnts to apply 116
London purple as 117
Fungus, a potting bed, new to America 823
apple-scab 58
new cutting bed 832
the potting bed 304
Gardens, cut-worms In 680
Gas, Illuminating, for fuel 385
Gooseberry mildew. 88
Grape, flea beetle on 88
fungous diseases, spray for 88
Grass-lands, cut-worms in 683
Grelner, T., description of dwarf ltmas 156
Greenhouses, bees In 407
Insecticides for use In 407-411
pests, fumigation for 407
Hall, W. W., Instructor in cheese-making 95
Heat for forcing houses S7S
Heating forcing houses, comparative test of steam and hot water 377
Henderson's bush lima bean, description of 161
dwarf lima bean, origin of 140
MgltbsdbyGoOgle
712 General Index.
Hellebore, formala for use 02
Horticulturist, Report of 19, 20
Hydrocyanic gas as aa Insecticide 411
Insecticides for the greenhouse 407-411
Isarla amsopleae 434
densa 436
farlnosa 426
tennlpee 429
vexans 442
Jackson busb lima bean, description of 151
Kalamazoo celery under glass 390
Kerosene emulsion, bow made 92-290
Lambs, early, best sbeep to breed for 164
care In dressing of 188
dlrecitons for wrapping 191
dorse ib, record of growtb 177
dorsct sbeop f onnd best for 169
feeding of 166
feeding of Bbeep for 165
bow to dress 191-192
market tbe best for 189
precautions In dressing of 191
record of growtb wbere fed ensilage 184
record of growtb wbero fed roots 183
record of slaughtering and price 186, 187
should be well cooled before shipping 191
sold by the head 189
summary on raising of 192
table showing dates of sale and price 189
table showing growth of Sbrop. and Dorset 167
time to ship to New York 190
Lecanlum Betcherl 420
Lepidlum sativum 397
Lettuce, electric-light hastens growth 390
for forcing, best varieties 391
in forcing bouse 372-387
insect enemies of 392
leaf burns of 393
mildew on 393
proper soils for 389
rot 392
solid cartb beds best for 388
top burn of 393
Lima beans, dwarf 135
origin of word " Lima " 146
,v Google
G-bnbraii Index.
London purple as a fungicide 117
formula for use 92
Machinery for spraying 106
Manda, W. A., purchased chrysanthemum variety for $1,500 239
Mangels compared with ensilage for sheep 178
table showing gain of lambs on 179
Mann, W. T., statement from 70
Masterpiece melon for winter 361
McGowen nozzle, nse of 108
Mildew on currants -. 88
gooseberry 88
Michigan apple orchard, renovation of 79
Mealy bug ou winter melons 363
Melons In winter, diseases of 362
essentials for growing 861
forcing of 361
French winter climbing 368
f ungons disorders of 368
Insect enemies of 362
house adapted for 361
pollination of.. 338
preferred varieties. 366
Bed-fleshed Maltese. 366
soil adapted for 368
sowing and transplanting 364
steam heat preferred 363
training of 367
types of 366
White Anllbes 366
White Japan 866
varieties of 369
Milk, quality of, depends on cow 267
secretion, effect of food on 268
Miller, Philip, a botanist of Chelsea, Bng 216
Mites on winter melons, treatment for 3C2-363
Moisture In orchards 66
Muskmelons, winter, bulletin on 347
Nectarine, mildew, spray for 88
rot, spray for 88
Nixon BUI, bulletins published under 19, 20
Nursery stock, spray for fungous diseases 88
trees, soil depletion by growth of 630
Orchards, cultivation of. 596
location of site for 000
old, fertilizers for 68
i;.git.-eo:;yGoO^Ic
714 Gbnbral Index.
Orchards, old — ( Continued) . Psgoi
renovation of. ST
swine Id 58
low crop In 57
sod In 57
grain In , 57
sheep or hogs In 67
Paleacrlta vernata, canker-worm 688
Paris green, formula for nee 91
how to teat 577
In Bordeaux mixture 66
value of, In spraying 139
Peach nursery stock, " dying back or blighting," cause of 16
rot, spray for 88
mildew, spray for S3
Pear, codlln-motb, spray for 89
leaf blight, spray for SB
psylla, spray for SB-
scab, spray for SB-
Injured by spraying 61
self-fertile rarities 812
self -sterile varieties 617
Peas In winter...: 372-404
distance apart of rows 405
dwarf varieties unsatisfactory 406
fresh seed necessary 405
trellis for 406-
varieties best for growing '. 405
Peredroma sancla, the variegated cut-worm 665
Peronospora ganglaformls 393
Peruvian tombs, seeds found In 145
Pig feeding, bulletin on 193
wheat for 195
Pigs, dressed, weight of different parte 198, 199
Plum curcnlio, spray for 89
fungous diseases, spray for 88
notes on spraying of 128
Podosphaera oxyacanthoe 482
Pork, cost per pound on gluten-meal and corn 200
on wheat 200
Porosagrotis vetusta, spotted-legged cut-worm ISO
Potassium, ferrocynnlde of, test 110
Potato beetle, spray for 89
blight, spray for 89
scab, spray for 89
Prentiss, A. N., Report of 12
Dqltssa sy CoOgle
Gbnebal Index. 715-
Paga.
Prothallla, damping of 816-
Pucclnia Peeklana on raspberry 65ft
Quinces, leaf and fruit-spots, spray for 80
spraying for leaf -spot and cracking 125
Balnf all as affecting spraying 10ft
Raspberry antbracnoae on, spray for 8ft
cultivation of 04ft
evaporated In Western New York 627
methods and results. 546
harvesting, the Colter C55
varieties for evaporating 551
Receipts of Experiment Station 22-
Bed spider, spray for 90
Roberts, I. P., Report of 6, 8
Root-galls on raspberries 664
treatment for. 64
Rose, mildew, spray for 90
Rust on apple-trees Ill
apples, cause of lift
carnation, treatment 412
Scab fungus, Bordeaux for 66
Separator, Danish- Wee ton, work of 97
cream, tests of, bulletin on 687
results of tests at various stations 700
tested:
Alexander Jumbo 696
De Laval Alpha No. 1 697
Sharpie's Russian 698
United States 699
Septoria cerasina, leaf -blight 482
Sheep, dorsets, found best for early lambs 169
grades, record of grades for 189S 174
record of growth for 1888 171
feeding, silage for 176
merino grades for early lamb-raising 163
development of 16S
for wool 164
Sheep, Shropsblres and Horded Dorsets, for early lamb-raising 163
Shropshire grade, record of growth 170-176
Sleva bean, bow distinguished from lima 146
Silage as a ration for ewes 176
Sllngerland, M. V., Report of 16, 17
Soil depletion in respect to care of fruit-trees 617
for lettuce-growing
BW
.Google
G-enkea). Index.
Sostegni, experiments with Bordeaux mixture 121
Spider, red, on egg-plants 40*
Sporotriehum globuilferum 438
on vespa 446
mlnlmnm 449
Spray calendar 80
demand for. 7
Spraying as affecting the bearing of orchards 119
affected by rainfall 109
Importance of doing well 315
machinery 106
of orchards (Bulletin 86) 101
of trees, bulletin ou 567
Steam-beat, advantages of, for forcing houses 373
tray dryers S44
Strawberry rust, spray for 90
Sulphur, use of. In greenhouse 411
Tallow, feeding of, to cows 269
Tetrany chus blmaeulatus, how to exterminate 410
Thorburu Dwarf lima bean, description of 152
Thorpe,. John, grower of chrysanthemums 239
Tillage, effects upon soil 601
for conserving moisture 66
Tracy, W. W., remarks on origin of varieties 139
Tobacco as Insecticide 392
for fumigating greenhouses 408
smoke for apbls 362
Tomato rot, spray for 90
Treasurer, Eeport of 9
TJromyees caryoph Minus. 412
Van Dresser, Mr. Henry, Report of, on feeding fat to cows 268
Van Slyke, Dr. L, L., analyses made by 98
Van Wagenen, Jr., Jared, Instructor In butter-making 96
Varieties, testing of, by Cornell Experiment Station 264
Vegetable gardening, publications on, by Cornell University 159
Violet, blight, spray for 90
Walcott, Dr. H. P., grower of chrysanthemums 239
Watson, Q. 0., resignation of 18
Weeds, essay upon 612
Wheat as food for pigs 190
Wheat, necessity for raising in New York 196
Whey butter (Bulletin 85) 98
Wing, H. H., Report of 21
Winter muskmelons, bulletin on 547
Wood, Albert, statement from 74
:y Google
INDEX OF CUTS.
Anthracnose on raspberry cane 561
Apple flowers, normal failure of 59-
Injured by Bordeaux mixture 60
lopsided, due to Imperfect pollination , 50
that pay 65
tree, frontispiece to bulletin 617
roots of, In good tilled soil 620-
In sod 607
Wagner, chosen for experiment 620-
Artotrogus debaryanus 317
Intermedins 317
Aster, Ohlna, the earliest type, Queen of the Market 219
Chrysanthemum-flowered 234
Comet 234
Comet, Inferior type 227
Crowen 225-226
Dwarf Bouquet 228
German Quilled 223
Queen of the Market 234
Truffant's Peony-flowered 234
Tmffant's Peony-flowered 220-221
Ye Olde Tyme Sorte 234
Bean, Bartelde's Bush Lima 165, 156
fibrous pins, annual root of 148
fleshy or perennial root of 147
germination of 149
Burpee Bush Lima 1M, 155
common bush, germination of 148
Dwarf Limaa, natural size:
Barteldes 151
Burpee 151
Dreer , 151
Henderson 151
Jackson 151
Sleva 151
Thorburn 151
: Henderson Bush Lima (open pod, nearly natural size) 152
Jackson Dwarf Lima
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718 Index of Cotb.
Beau — (Continual). Fmt«.
root of common 146
structure of lima and multlflorus 150
Thorburn or Kumerle's Dwarf Lima 138
Berry stand, Dundee 658
Blackberry, Agawam 620
cane-knot 515
cluster of Early Harvest. 617
cut by frost KM
Early Cluster 522
flower 61S
flower Injured by frost 613
frontispiece 501
Klttatlnny 619
Mersereau 604
on trellis 600
patch. Early Harvest In August 608
Snyder 518
tall, wild. KW
Taylor 524
Blighted foliage of Pall Pippin 62
Bordeaux mixture, apple injured by SO
pear killed by 105
Canker-worm, a full crop 586
female moth of 688
male moth of 688
orchard which was sprayed for 586
the worm 584
Carneades scandens (Riley) between 654 and 655
Celery, winter-grown, bleaching 385
Centaurea candldlselma 340
Cherries, Black Eagle 493
Black Tartarian 492
Early Richmond 476
Elton 491
English Morello 478
Governor Wood 480
large-fruited or short-stemmed Montmorency 476
Louis Phlllippe 467
May Duke. 487
Napolean 484
Montmorency 475
Montmorency, at nine years 470
Ostheim 477
Roberts, red-heart 496
Windsor 496
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<IhrynftD them ums, a recent bad trouble
Clinton Chalf ant
Eugene Darlledonxe
Major Bonnaffon
Mre. L. Gordon Dexter
Nlvens
Completoria compleus Lohde
Cordyceps Clavulata
Melolonthe
MUltarlsvar
CreHB, water, nnder a greenhouse bench ....
Crimson Glover, stand of, at Cornell
Cat-worm, cotton -batting as a protector fror
frontispiece
spotted-legged
tbe dingy
the variegated
tin -cylinder as a protector from
well marked
Cigar-case bearer, adult. Insect of
attached to a young pear
caterpillar at work.
egg greatly magnified
frontispiece
leaves need by caterpillars In making ca
the small curved cases
winter cases with spring addition
working on summer salt
work of
work of caterpillars on leaves
work of, on apple foliage
Cut-worm moth, natural size
Damping off, frontispiece
Egg-plant, early dwarf, nnder glass
flower of
Evaporator, automatic
dog or tray rest
end view of right-band stand
feeding door of stack
front view of steam-box ,
kiln, with raspberries dj— mg
of W. H. Bush,
basement I)
tootle
720 Index of Cuts.
Evaporator, of W. H. Bnali — (Continued). aKe.
rear view 538
on the Rogers homestead 636
stack 530
topping portable 533
Peltla subgothlca between 658 and 659
Flower border, an artist's 212
Foliage blighted, of Fall Pippin 82
Forcing house, heating apparatus for 376
miscellanies, frontispiece 369
Fnmigator, home-made tobacco. 409
Isarla anisophllae 460-461
arachuphlla 464
densa 457
fartnosa 468-463
tennipes 461. 465
vexans 457-465
Lettuce, Grand Rapids, a ground bed of 388
Landreth's forcing-bouse 391
plant collapsed by rot 392
Melon, Blenbeim Orange 356
fit for transplanting 357
honse, cross-section of 352
bouse, when plants were four weeks old 350
Masterpiece 360
pistillate, or female flower of 358
staminate, or male flower 350
White Japan 365
Winter Climbing Nutmeg 364
winter, picked December 21, 1894 355
Musk melons, winter, frontispiece 347
Noctua Clandestine, (Harris) between 65S and 659
Nursery trees which were analyzed 631
Orchard, a renovated 52
overloaded with Kings 52
Pear tree, the roots of, in hard-tilled land 604, 605
Peridroma saucla (Hubner) between 662 and 663
Pigs, feeding 193
fed wheat, corn meal and gluten, corn meal, corn meal and meat
scrap 201
section of, between fourth and fifth ribs 206
section of, between kidney and bam 206
Plum leaf injured by fungus 104
Plums, rotting of 104
Porosagotls velusta (Walker) between 654 and 655
DqltaedbyGoOgle
Prune, German, not sprayed
aprayed
Quince Angers, not aprayed
aprayed
Raspberries, evaporated, fit for market
Batter's nook
cane anthracnose on
Cuthbert, good canes of
poor canes of
pickers' tag
plate of, frontispiece
root-galls on
Raspberry, Gregg.
a model plantation of
harvesting, batting tbe berries
leaves diseased by yellows
Ohio, type of
Boot-gall on raspberry
Boots of apple-tree In good tilled soil
In sod
pear-tree In hard-tilled land
Sporotrichum globtillferum
minimum
Spray ontat for light work
Spraying device for Bordeaux mixture, the fin
outfit of A. H. Button
rig of T. O. Yeomans ft Sons
saved by
Sulphur, apparatus for evaporating
Tillage, feeding and spraying, reward of
Volntella lencotrlcha (Atkinson).
16
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